m" & ':■■:£&"■• ■to ■:■$, "-:;F*fi J ''■^'iiM . ••& ". :i m ■■%H%H»w»prA.w-. .:'.'!;.;;!!: NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Washington Founded 1836 U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Public Health Serrice * 1 > \ ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. /K&T A POPULAR DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND BIOGRAPHY, BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME; INCLUDING A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES IN AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY; ON THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION OF THE GERMAN CONVERSATIONS-IEXICON. EDITED BY FRANCIS LIEBER, ASSISTED BY E. WIGGLESWORTH. Vol. IV. iJijtlaticIpDta: CAREY AND LEA. SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART—IN NEW YORK BY G. 4 ma ENCYCLOPAEDIA AMERICANA. CyRANTARA (Gaelic, crean tarigh); the cross of shame, because, says sir Walter Scott, in his note on the passage of the_ Lady of the Lake (canto 3), in which he has made such a fine use of it, disobedi- ence to what the symbol implied, infer- red infamy. The Highlanders of Scot- land appear to have borrowed it from the ancient Scandinavians, of the use of it among whom, for rousing the people to arms, Olaus Magnus gives a particular account. As late as the insurrection in 1745, the crantara, or fiery cross, was cir- culated in Scotland, and, on one occasion, it passed through the district of Breadal- bane, a tract of 32 miles, in three hours. After Charles Edward had marched into England, two of the king's frigates threat- ened the coast with a descent. The cran- tara was sent through the district of Ap- pine by Alexander Stuart of Invemahyle (who related the circumstance to sir Wal- ter Scott), and, in a few hours, a sufficient force was collected to render the attempt of the English hopeless. Crape; a light, transparent stuff, like gauze, made of raw silk, gummed and twisted on the mill, woven without cross- ing, and much used in mourning. Crapes are either craped (i. e., crisped) or smooth. The silk destined for the first is more twisted than that for the second, it being the greater or less degree of twisting, especially of the warp, which produces the crisping given to it, when taken out of the loom, steeped in clear water, and rub- bed with a piece of wax for the purpose. Crapes are all dyed raw. This stuff came originally from Bologna; but, till of late years, Lyons is said to have had the chief manufacture of it. It is now manufactur- ed in various parts of Great Britain. The crape brought from China is of a more substantial fabric. Crapelet ; father and son; two printers. The father, Charles, born at Bourmont, Nov. 13, 1762, established his printing- office in 1789, and died Oct. 19,1809. He might be called the French Baskerville. Like this printer, he endeavored to unite the greatest simplicity with elegance, to deliver the art of printing from the hetero- geneous ornaments with which it was so overloaded, particularly in France, and from which even Didot could not entirely free himself; but he surpassed his model in the form of his types and the regularity of his work. His editions are no less cor- rect than neat and beautiful. He has also been successful in printing on parchment, and has shown his skill by producing an impression in gold (13 copies of Aude- bert's Oiseaux doris, Paris, 1802, 2 vols., folio).—A. G. Crapelet has extended his father's business, and has even excelled him in elegance. His Lafontaine (1814), Montesquieu (1816), Rousseau and Vol- taire (both 1819), are monuments of his taste; and the large vellum-paper copies are truly splendid works. The words " De Vimprimerie de Crapelet^ are a great recommendation. Renouard has had all the editions published at his expense printed by Crapelet, who, in 1800, em- ployed 22 presses. Crassus. Two Romans of this name are here to be mentioned. 1. Lucius Li- cinius Crassus, who was made consul A. U. C. 658 (B. C. 96), and passed for the greatest orator of his time. He was dis- tinguished for talent, presence of mind and integrity. 2. M. Licinius Crassus, sur- named Dives (the rich), so called, like ma- ny of his family, on account of his vast 4 CRASSUS—CRAVAT. riches. He possessed a fortune equal to $5,000,000. He once gave an entertain- ment to the whole people, in which 10,000 tables were set, and, besides this, distrib- uted corn enough to last each family three months. In the years of Rome 683 and 698, he was a colleague of Pompey, in the consulship, and, in 688, censor. As he was one of the most influential men in Rome, and very ambitious, his friendship was sought by Caesar, who formed, with him and Pompey, the famous triumvirate. He perished, with a great part of his army, in an expedition against the Parthians, undertaken from motives of avarice and ambition, B. C. 53. Crater. (See Volcano.) Cravat ; an unhealthy, uncomfortable, unbecoming article of European and American dress. The ancients were un- acquainted with this ridiculous and injuri- ous style of bundling up the neck. They left unconfined that important region of the body, through which so many vessels pass, and in which are situated so many organs, which will endure no constraint with impunity. In some cases, indeed, they defended themselves from the cold by a woollen, cotton or silk band, called, in Latin, focale, from fauces, throat. But no one could venture to use this contrivance publicly, unless he was sick; in which case he might cover his head, and the upper part of the shoulders, and even wear breeches (q. v.), without disgrace. " Palliolum, sicut fascias et focalia," says Quinctilian, usolaexcusarepotestvaletudoy It was allowable, indeed, to cover the neck with the toga in bad weather, or to hold the hand over it, for the preservation or restoration of the natural temperature. The Poles never wear any thing round the neck, notwithstanding the severity of their winters. The same custom prevails among the Orientals, by whom a white, round neck is compared to the beauty of an ivory tower. The bare neck gradually became unfashionable in Europe. It was at first surrounded, but not constrained, by a starched band of fine linen, on the upper edge of the shirt, falling back natural- ly upon the bust, where it was fastened by a small cord. This was the origin of all the different species of collars since used—the innocent parent of those thick, hot folds, in which the neck was destined to be afterwards muffled. Ruffs, stiffened or plaited, single or in many rows,—an inconvenient, indeed, but not a dangerous ornament,—had their turn, and lasted as long as short hair was in fashion. They were abandoned, when Louis XIII allow- ed his hair to grow: then standing collars, embroidered and pinked, the plaited col- larettes, the neck-band, plain or laced and pointed, encompassed the neck chin-deep; and, when Louis XIV adopted those enor- mous periwigs, which hardly left the throat visible, all these splendid envelopes gave way to ribands, tied in brilliant bows. Next came the epoch of the dangerous subjection of the neck to constriction and compression, from which it had hitherto been exempt. In 1660, a foreign regiment arrived in France, composed of Croats, in whose singular costume one thing was generally admired and imitated. It was a bandage about the neck, consisting of common stuff for the soldiers, and of muslin or silk for the officers. The ends were disposed in a bow, or garnished with a tuft or a tassel, and hung not un- gracefully over the breast. This, new article of dress was at first called a croate, and afterwards, by corruption, a cravat. The military and the rich, at that time, wore very fine cravats, with the border embroidered, or edged with broad lace. Those of the soldiers consisted of a scrap of cloth, of cotton, or, at the best, of black, plaited taffeta, bound round the neck by two small cords. Afterwards, the place of these cords was supplied by clasps or a buckle, and then cravats took the name of stocks. Under Louis XVI, the stocks yielded to the cravats a la chanediere. The last flourished but for a moment: the revolution came, and with it disappeared cravats, and even tight breeches. Soon after this epoch (1796), the cravat recov- ered its popularity, and increased to an incredible degree of extravagance. Some persons enveloped the neck with whole pieces of muslin ; others, with a padded cushion, on which were wrapped numer- ous folds. In this way, the neck was puffed out so as to be larger than the head, with which it was imperceptibly con- founded. The shirt-collar arose above the ears, and the upper edge of the cra- vat buried up the chin and the mouth nose-deep; so that the visage, bristling on either side with a grove of bushy whis- kers, and its upper regions ensconced to the eyes by the hair flattened down over the brows, absolutely showed nothing except the nose, projecting in all its plenitude. The exquisites thus cravatted resembled any thing rather than men, and afforded excellent subjects for caricatures. If they wished to look any way except straight forward, they were obliged to turn the whole trunk, with which the neck and head formed but one piece. It was im- CRAVAT—CRAWFISH. 5 possible to incline the head in any direc- tion. Most fashions have been invented to hide an infirmity or a deformity: large cravats were probably first used to conceal some disagreeable scars, or some unlucky malformation. A singer or a public speak- er cannot use his voice to advantage dur- ing the time when his cravat is tied too tight. The habit of wearing large cravats renders the neck very liable to be affected by exposure. By uncovering the neck imprudently when heated, severe and dangerous diseases have often been con- tracted. A young man or young lady, on leaving a party in a warm apartment, should be careful to protect the neck and breast from cold. Craven, Elizabeth, lady; margravine of Anspach, youngest daughter of the earl of Berkeley ; born in 1750, and married in 1767, to William, last earl of Craven, by whom she had seven children. But, after a connexion of 14 years, in consequence of his ill-treatment, a separation was agreed upon in 1781. Lady Craven, after this, lived successively at the courts of Versailles, Madrid, Lisbon, Vienna, Berlin, Constantinople, Warsaw, St. Petersburg, Rome, Florence and Naples; then in An- spach, where she became acquainted with the margrave Christian Frederic Charles Alexander, a nephew of Frederic the Great. On this tour, in 1787, she was persuaded by the count Choiseul-Gouffier, French ambassador to Constantinople, to descend into the grotto of Antiparos, which no woman had ever before visited. After the death of lord Craven, at Lisbon, in 1791, the margrave married her, sur- rendered his estates to the king of Prussia for a yearly pension, and went, with his consort, to England, where he purchased an estate (Brandenburg), not far from Hammersmith, and died in 1806. From that time, lady Craven has lived partly in England, partly in Naples. The account of her travels through the Crimea to Con- stantinople, in a series of letters, was first published in 1789. A new enlarged edi- tion appeared in 1814. Besides these, she has written poems, plays and roman- ces; also her own memoirs (Memoirs of the Margravine of Anspach, formerly Lady Craven, &c, London, 1825). These are interesting on account of her intercourse with Catharine II, Joseph II, and other princes. Crawfish (astacus, Fab.}; a crustaceous genus, belonging to the family decapoda rnacroura (ten legged, long tailed), charac- terized by having the anterior part of the elongated semi-cylindric superior shell produced to form a rostrum or beak; the abdomen large, slightly attenuated poste- riorly, composed of six joints, forming a tail quite as long, when extended, as the body, and terminating in five broad-fring- ed, swimming appendages, which fold laterally upon each other. In both sexes, the under part of the abdomen is generally provided with five pairs of false claws, each terminated by two plates or pla- ments. The exterior jaw-feet are mostly narrow, elongated, and do not entirely cover, the other parts of the mouth. The gills are pyramidal, brush-shaped, or plume-like, separated from each other by tendinous slips, and situated beneath the sides of the great superior shell, over the external base of the feet. Of the latter, the second and third pairs are elongated, slender, and furnished at the last joint, which is movable, with small pincers; the fourth and fifth pairs have the last joints simply pointed or hooked. The sexual organs are placed, in both sexes, in the basal joint of the last pair of feet. The species belonging to this genus, as at present restricted, do not exceed six. Some of these kinds are peculiar to salt and others to fresh water. Of the former, the most celebrated is the lobster (astacus gammarus), so prominent among the lux- uries of New York, and our other eastern maritime cities. In their modes of living, the crawfish generally resemble the aquat- ic crabs (see Crab), feeding on putrefying animal matter, spending their time on the sandy or rocky bottom of deep waters, and only approaching the shallows when impelled by the necessity of undergoing their change of shell, or when under the sexual influence. The common lobster is the largest species, and grows to a size which may well appear wonderful to per- sons accustomed to see none but small ones. They are brought to the New York market more than two feet in length, and weighing 20 pounds and upwards. Such individuals, however, are not preferred for the table, as their size is a good indication of their age, and their period of life is stated to extend to 20 years and more. The smaller, or half-sized lobsters, are consid- ered the best. The quite small, or young ones, which are commonly sold in New Haven (Connecticut), as too small for the New York market, are, in our opinion, far superior to either.—The fresh-water craw- fish, of which one species (astacus badnoii) is very common in most of the fresh- water streams and brooks from Pennsyl- vania southward, affords us the best op- portunity for observing their habits. We 6 CRAWFISH—CREAM OF TARTAR. find them inhabiting excavations of con- siderable depth along the borders, or a short distance within the current of the stream, at the bottom of which they lie hid. In the spring of the year, by cau- tiously approaching, and remaining quietly on the margin of such a stream, we may see the crawfish industriously bringing from the lower part of their caves the dirt accumulated there; and this enables us to comprehend the manner in which they originally made their retreats. Upon the two great claws, folded towards each oth- er, and thus forming, with the front of the body, a sort of shelf, the dirt is carefully brought to the surface, and thrown down just where the cmrent will sweep it away. As the substances thus brought up are very light, it requires a very gentle move- ment of the animal to avoid spilling, or rather washing off his lading; and he therefore rises in the gentlest and most circumspect manner. We can testify to the patience with which tliis labor is con- tinued, as, with the view of observing the operation, we have often quietly pushed in the earth from the edge of the water, which they as often have toiled on to remove. It is upon these fresh-water species that the observations have been made, relative to the re-production of limbs or claws violently broken off. But a short time elapses before a growth or vegetation occurs at the stump or broken part, and a new limb, similar to the origi- nal, though sometimes rather smaller, is soon formed. This facility of re-produc- tion is found to extend throughout the crustaceous class. Fresh-water crawfish are regarded by many as furnishing a del- icate dish for the table, though their small size, and the trouble of collecting a suffi- cient number of them, are great obstacles to their being extensively employed in this way. They are preyed upon by various animals, especially by certain birds, whose long bills are adapted to picking them out from the bottom of their dens. Crater, Gaspar, a Dutch painter, born in 1582, at Antwerp, was a pupil of Raph- ael Coxie, and became, by the study of nature, one of the greatest historical and portrait painters. At the Spanish court in Brussels, he painted the portrait of the cardinal Ferdinand, brother of the king, and received a pension. He established himself in Ghent, where he constantly executed works for the court. He labored with industry and perseverance till his 86th year. When Rubens saw his finest painting in the refectory of the abbey of Affleghem, he cried out, "Crayer, Crayer, nobody will ever surpass thee!" The city of Ghent alone had 21 altar-pieces by him. In Flanders and Brabant are many of his works, and some of his pictures are in the public collections at Vienna and Munich. His paintings are praised for fidelity to nature, excellent drawing, and a coloring approaching the manner of Van- dyke. The latter was his friend, and took his likeness. Crayer died in 1669. Crayons ; a general name for all color- ed stones, earths, or other minerals and substances used in designing or painting in pastel, whether they have been beaten, and reduced to a paste, or are used in their primitive consistence, after being sawn or cut into long, narrow slips. The sticks of diy colors which go under this name, and which are cemented into a friable mass, by means of gum or size, and sometimes of clay, afford a veiy simple means of apply- ing colore, being merely rubbed upon pa- per, after which the shades are blended or softened by means of a stump or small roll of leather or paper. The drawings require to be protected by a glass covering, to save them from being defaced, unless some means have been adopted to fix them, so that they may not be liable to be rubbed off. This may be done by brush- ing the back of the paper with a strong solution of isinglass, or by passing the drawing through a powerful press, in con- tact with a moist paper. Cream of Tartar (potassm supertar- tras; cremor tartari). This salt exists in grapes and in tamarinds. The dregs of wine also contain a considerable quantity of it. Cream of tartar contains a very considerable proportion of super-tartrate of potassa, about seven or eight hundredths of tartrate of lime, and a small quantity of silica, albumen, iron, &c. It is insoluble in alcohol, but may be dissolved in 15 parts of boiling and 60 of cold water. It may be rendered much more soluble by mixing with it a certain quantity of bo- racic acid or borate of soda, which ren- ders the cream of tartar soluble in its own weight of cold water, and in the half only of this menstruum when boiling. This preparation is known by the name of solu- ble cream of tartar. Its aqueous solution is soon decomposed by the contact of the air. It is obtained by dissolving in boil- ing water the common tartar—a white or reddish crystalline matter, which forms on the internal sides of the vessels in which wine has been kept—mixing with it some clay, which precipitates the coloring mat- ter, and then permitting the liquor to crystallize. The action of this substance CREAM OF TARTAR—CREBILLON. 7 varies according to the dose in which it is administered. In small doses, it is ab- sorbed, and acts as a temperant; and, in this quality, it is employed in jaundice, foulness of the stomach and intestines, &c. In larger doses, it principally spends its action on the mucous intestinal membrane, and induces alvine evacuations, especially when given in powder. Its taste being rather less unpleasant than that of some other neutral salts used in medicine, and its operation being of a very gentle nature, it is very frequently administered. In France, the soluble cream of tartar is gen- erally preferred. Crebillon, Prosper Jolyot de, the elder, a writer of tragedy, who is com- pared, by his countrymen, even to ^Eschy- lus, born at Dijon, Feb. 15, 1674, early manifested talent at the school of the Jesu- its in his native town, but, at the same time, a boisterous and heedless temper. Being designed for the profession of law, he wa< placed with an attorney named Prieur at Paris ; but they were both lov- ers of the theatre, so that the youth made little progress in his studies. The attor- ney perceived, too, that his pupil was dis- qualified for the profession by his passion- ate temperament, but showed penetration and judgment in his criticisms on dra- matic performances: he therefore advised him, though he had, as yet, written noth- ing but some trifling songs and scraps of verse, to apply himself to dramatic com- position. Crebillon did so ; but his first piece, La Mod des Enfans de Brutus, was rejected by the players. He burnt the manuscript, and resolved to have no more to do with the drama; but, subsequently, at the persuasion of Prieur, he wrote Idome- nie, which, in 1705, was brought upon the stage. The faults of the play were over- looked in consideration of the youth of the author, and the promising talent which it displayed; and the promptness with which the author in five days wrote anew the last act, which had displeased at the first representation, drew the attention of the public to the young poet, whose talents, after the appearance of his Atrie, in 1707, were loudly applauded. Prieur, though sick, requested to be carried to the theatre, and said to the young tragedian, *' I die content; I have made you a poet, and leave in you a man who belongs to the nation." A strange taste for unnatural declamation had been excited by the Rho- dogune, and this manner was carried to excess by Crebillon, in the Atrie. In 1709 appeared his Electre, which is as declam- atory and as intricate as his earlier plays i yet it suited the taste of the age. His chef d'auvre, at least according to La Harpe, is his Rhadamiste (1711). But Boi- leau, on his death-bed, hearing the first scenes of this tragedy read to him by Le- verrier, could not help exclaiming to his friends, " Heavens! do you wish to hasten my death ? Why, the Boyers and Pradons were suns to this author! I shall be more willing to leave the world, since our age is becoming inundated with silly trash." Most persons of the present day would probably agree with Boileau. In eight days, the Rliadamiste passed through two editions, and Paris and Versailles vied with each other in admiring it. Crebillon had been told that his talent lay in the terrible, and thought, therefore, that he could not exert himself too much in scenes of horror, and hence was called the terri- ble. Xerxes (1714) exceeded, in this re- spect, all that he had before written, but soon disappeared from the stage. Semir- amis (1717), the mother enamoured of her son, and not cured of her passion by the discovery of his relationship, was severely censured. It was not till nine years after this that his Pyrrhus appeared (172tj), and met with a good reception, contrary to the expectation of the author, who, in this work, had abstained from the frightful and shocking. Domestic distress and poverty seem, from this time, to have crippled the powers of his genius. His small patrimony was absorbed by debts and law expenses. A father and a beloved wife were taken from him within a short time. Amidst the embarrassments in which he was involved, he refused, with characteristic inflexibility, all the offers of assistance which were made him. When madame de Pompadour wished to humble Voltaire, Crebillon was thought of as a fit instrument for her purpose. The king gave him the office of censor of the police, a yearly pension of 1000 francs, and an appointment in the library. Thus freed from anxiety, he finished his Catiline, which was represented, at the king's ex- pense, in 1749, with all the pomp that the court theatre could display. This piece, overrated by the party opposed to Vol- taire, is undervalued by La Harpe. To make some atonement to the character of Cicero, which was thought to have been wronged in his Catiline, he wrote, at 76, the Triumvirate, or the Death of Cicero, which was brought upon the stage in his 81st year. The defects of the piece were overlooked, from respect to the age of the author. Thus much for his dramatic compositions, In general, Crebillon shows 8 CREBILLON—CREDIT. none of the true elevation of the tragic art, but only an imitation, sometimes a happy one, of the manner struck out by Corneille. He was a man of a proud and independent character, disdained to flatter the great, and passed much of his life in a condition bordering on poverty. More fortunate circumstances might have given more amenity to his spirit; but, neglected, as he imagined, by mankind, he sought consolation in the company of dogs and cats, which he picked up in the streets (the poorest and most sickly were those which he preferred), and found a species of enjoyment in an irregular manner of living. In 1731, he became a member of the academy. Crebillon died June 17, 1762, at the age of 88. Louis XV erected a magnificent monument to him in the church of St. Gervais, which, however, was never entirely completed till it was removed to the museum of French monu- ments (aux petits Augustins). Besides the splendid edition of Crebil Ion's works pub- lished by the order of Louis XV, for the benefit of the author, after the successful performance of Catiline (CEuvres de Cre- billon, imprimerie R. du Louvre, 1750, 2 vols. 4to.), there is another published by Didot the elder, 1812, 3 vols., in both of which, however, six verses are omitted in Catiline, which had been left out in the representation, as applicable to madame de Pompadour. Crebillon, Claude Prosper Jolyot de, the younger, son of the preceding, born at Paris in 1707, succeeded as an author in an age of licentiousness. By the exhi- bition of gross ideas, covered only with a thin veil, and by the subtleties with which he excuses licentious principles, Crebillon contributed to diffuse a general corruption of manners, before confined to the higher circles of Parisian society. In later times, the French taste has been so much chang- ed, especially by the revolution, that such indelicacies as are found in his works would not be tolerated at the present day. His own morals, however, appear to have been the opposite of those which he por- trayed. We are told of his cheerfulness, his rectitude of principle, and his blame- less life. In the circle of the Dominicaux (a Sunday society), he was a favorite, and the caveau where Piron, Gallet, Colle, wrote their songs and uttered their jests, was made respectable by his company. Of his works, the best are—Lettres de la Marquise * * * au Comte de*** (1732, 2 vols., 12mo.); Tanzai et JS/eadarne (less licentious, but full of now unintelligible allusions); Les Egaremens du Caur d de Vtsprit (Hague, 1736,3 vols.), perhnps the most successful, but unfinished. One of his most voluptuous pieces is Le Sopha (1745, 2 vols.). In the same licentious strain are most of his other writings com- posed. It is still a disputed point whether he was the author of the LdtreS de la Mar- quise de Pompadour. They are not in- cluded in the edition of 1779, 7 vols., 12mo. Crebillon held a small office in the censorship of the press. He died at Paris, April 12, 1777. Crecy or Cressy en Ponthietj ; a town in France, in Somme ; 10 miles N. of Abbeville, and 100 N. of Paris ; popu- lation, 1650. It is celebrated on account of a battle fought here Aug. 26, 1346, be- tween the English and French. Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, were both engaged, and the French were de- feated with great slaughtfcr, 30,000 foot and 1200 horse being left dead in the field ; among whom were the king of Bo- hemia, the count of Alencon, Louis count of Flanders, with many others of the French nobility. Credit, in economy, is the postpone- ment agreed on by the parties of the pay- ment of a debt to a future day. It im- plies confidence of the creditor in the debtor; and a " credit system" is one of gen- eral confidence of people in each other's honesty, solvency and resources. Credit is not confined to civilized countries; Mr. Park mentions instances of it among the Africans; but it will not prevail exten- sively where the laws do not protect prop- erty, and enforce the fulfilment of prom- ises. Public credit is founded upon a confidence in the resources, good faith and stability of the government; and it does not always flourish or decline at the same time and rate as private credit; for the people may have either greater or less confidence in the government than in each other: still there is some sympathy and correspondence between the two; for a general individual confidence can rarely, if ever, take place in the midst of distrust of the government; and, vice versa, a firm reliance upon the government promotes a corresponding individual confidence among the citizens. The history of every industrious and commercial community, under a stable government, will present successive alternate periods of credit and distrust, following each other with a good deal of regularity. A general feeling of prosperity produces extension and facili- ties of credit. The mere opinion or im- agination of a prevailing success has, of its own force, a most powerful influence CREDIT—CREED. 9 in exciting the enterprise, and quickening the industry, of a community. The first requisite to industry is a stock of instru- ments, and of materials on which to em- ploy them: a very busy and productive community requires a great stock of both. Now if this stock, being ever so great, were hoarded up; if the possessors would neither use, let, nor sell it, as long as it should be so withdrawn from circu- lation, it would have no effect upon the general activity and productiveness. This is partially the case when a general dis- trust and impression of decay and decline cause the possessors of the stock and ma- terials to be scrupulous about putting them out of their hands, by sale or otherwise, to be used by others; and others, again, having no confidence in the markets, and seeing no prospect of profits, hesitate to purchase materials, or to buy or hire the implements, mills, ships, &c, of others, or to use their own in the processes of pro- duction and transportation. This state of surplusage and distrust is sure to be fol- lowed by a reduction of money prices; and every one who has a stock on hand, and whose possessions are estimated in money, is considered to be growing poorer and poorer every day. But when prices have reached their lowest point, and begin regularly to rise, eveiy body begins to esteem himself and others as being pros- perous, and the opinion contributes pow- erfully to verify itself. Credit begins to expand ; all the stores of the commu- nity are unlocked, and the whole of its resources is thrown open to enterprise. Every one is able readily to command a sufficiency of means for the employment of his industry; capital is easily procured, and services are readily rendered, each one relying upon the success of the others, and their readiness to meet their engage- ments ; and the acceleration of industry, and the extension of credit, go on until a surplus and stagnation are again produced. The affairs of every industrious and ac- tive community are always revolving in this circle, in traversing which, general credit passes through its periodical ebbs and flows. This facility and extension of credit constitutes what is commonly called fictitious capital. The fiction consists in many individuals being supposed to be possessed of a greater amount of clear capital than they are actually worth. The most striking instance of this fictitious- ness of capital, or, in other words, excess of credit, appears in the immense amounts of negotiable paper, that some individuals and companies spread in the community, or of paper currency, where the issuing of notes for supplying currency by com- panies or individuals is permitted. Indi- viduals or companies thus draw into their hands an immense capital, and it is by no means a fictitious capital when it comes into their possession, but actual money, goods, lands, &c.; but, if they are in a bad, losing business, the capital, as soon as they are intrusted with it, becomes fic- titious in respect to those who trusted them with it, since they will not again realize it. Extensive credits, both in sales and the issuing of paper, in new and growing communities, which have a small stock and great industry, grow out of their necessities, and thus become habitual and customary, of which the U. States hith- erto have given a striking example. Creech, Thomas, a scholar of some eminence for his classical translations, was born in 1659. He took the degree of M. A. at Oxford in 1683, having the pre- ceding year established his reputation as a scholar, by printing his translation of Lu- cretius. He also translated several other of the ancient poets, wholly or in part, comprising selections from Homer and Virgil, nearly the whole of Horace, the thirteenth Satire of Juvenal, the Idyls of Theocritus, and several of Plutarch's Lives. He likewise published an edition of Lucretius in the original, with interpre- tations and annotations. He put an end to his life at Oxford, in 1700. Various causes are assigned for this rash act, but they are purely conjectural. He owes his fame almost exclusively to his translation of Lucretius, the poetical merit of which is very small,although, in the versification of the argumentative and mechanical parts, some skill is exhibited. As an editor of Lucretius, he is chiefly valuable for his explanation of the Epicurean philosophy, for which, however, he was largely in- debted to Gassendi. Creed ; a summary of belief; from the Latin credo (I believe), with which the Apostles' Creed begins. In the Eastern church, a summary of this sort was called iidOrnta (the lesson), because it was learn- ed by the catechumens ; ypdepv (the writ- ing), or K&veav (the rule). But the most com- mon name in the Greek church was erijxjio\ov (the symbol, q. v.), which has also passed into the Western church. Numer- ous ancient formularies of faith are pre- served in the writings of the early fathers, Irenaeus, Origen, Tertullian, &c, which agree in substance, though with some di- versity of expression. The history of creeds would be the history of the church, 10 CREED. and of its melancholy aberrations from the simple doctrines of Jesus. Into this interesting, but humiliating history we cannot now enter, but must confine our- selves to a rapid view of a few of its most prominent features. Of the earlier creeds, there are three which require par- ticular attention. I. The Apostles9 Creed is so called from its havingbeen formerly con- sidered as the work of the apostles them- selves. This notion is now acknowledged to be without foundation. When and by whom it was drawn up, is not known. It can only be traced to the 4th century. It contains a profession of belief in the Holy Ghost, in the divinity of Jesus, his descent into hell, and his ascension into heaven, in the resurrection of the body, in life everlasting, &c. II. The Nicene Creed, so called because it was adopted at the council of Nice, A. D. 325, held to oppose the Arian heresy. It therefore contains an explanation of the article of the Apostles' Creed—" I believe in Jesus Christ, the only Son," &c, which is as follows: " The only Son of God, begotten by the Father, that is to say, of the sub- stance of the Father, God of God, light of light, very God of very God, begotten and not made, consubstantial with the Father, through whom every thing has been made in heaven and on earth." Maeedonius, bishop of Constantinople, having denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost, it became necessary to settle this point, which was done by the council of Constantinople, A. D. 381, who added the words which follow "I believe in the Holy Ghost;" viz. "the Lord and Giver of life, who proceedeth from the Father (' and the Son' was afterward inserted by the Spanish bishops), who, with the Fa- ther and the Son together, is worshipped and glorified, who spake by the prophets." The insertion of the words " and the Son" was finally sanctioned by the Roman church in 883, but has never been receiv- ed by the Greek church. III. The Atha- nasian Creed is now acknowledged not to have been the work of Athanasius (q. v.), whose name it bears. It was probably written in Latin, in the sixth century. In the 10th century, it was generally received in the Western church, and, at the refor- mation, was adopted by the Protestants. It consists of an introduction and two posi- tions, with their proofs, deductions and con- clusions. The introduction declares, that " whosoever will be saved must hold the Catholic faith." The first position then states, "The Catholic faith is this—that we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity, neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance* For (to give briefly the remainder of this position) there are three persons, but one Godhead. The Father, Son and Holy Ghost are uncreate, incomprehensible, eternal, almighty, God, Lord; yet there are not three Lords, Gods, almighty, eternal, incomprehensible, un- created, but one. The Father is neither made, created nor begotten: the Son is of the Father alone, not made, nor creat- ed, but begotten. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and the Son, neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding; and in this Trinity none is afore or after another; none is greater or less than an- other. He, therefore, that will be saved must thus think of the Trinity. The sec- ond position establishes the doctrine of Christ's incarnation. It is necessary to everlasting salvation, that we believe rightly in the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ. The right faith is, that he is the Son of God, God and man ; perfect God and perfect man; yet not two, but one Christ; one, not by conversion of the Godhead into flesh, but by taking of the manhood into God ; one altogether, not by confusion of substance, but by unity of person. This is the Catholic faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be saved. Besides these creeds, there are numer- ous Confessions of Faith, which have been adopted by different churches, as stand ards to which the ministers in the respec- tive communions are required to conform. I. The Greek church (q. v.) presented the Confession of the true and sincere Faith to Mohammed II, in 1453; but in 1643, the Orthodox Confession of the Catholic and Apostolic Greek Church, composed by Mogila, metropolitan of Kiow, was ap- proved with great solemnity by the pa- triarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and for a long time was the standard of the principles of the Russian Greek church: it has been superseded by the Summary of Christian Divinity, composed in 1765, by the metro- politan of Moscow (translated into Eng- lish, Edinburgh, 1814). II. The church of Rome has always received the Apostles', the Nicene and the Athanasian Creeds; but a public authoritative symbol was first fixed by the council of Trent. A sum- mary of the doctrines contained in the canons of that council is given in the creed published by Pius IV (1564), in the form of a bull. It is introduced by the Nicene Creed, to which it adds twelve articles, containing those doctrines which CREED—CREMNITZ. 11 the church of Rome finally adopted after her controversies with reformers. III. The Lutherans call their standard books of faith and discipline Libri Symbolici Eccle- sice Evangelical. They contain the three creeds above mentioned, the Augsburg Confession (q. v.), the Apology for that confession by Melanctlion, the Articles of Smalcalden, drawn up by Luther, the Catechisms of Luther, and, in many churches, the Form of Concord or Book of Torgau. The best edition is by Tittmann (Leipsic, 1617). The Saxon (composed by Melancthon), Wiirtemberg, Suabian, Pomeranian, Mansfeldtian and Copenha- gen Confessions agree in general with the symbolical books of the Lutherans, but are of authority only in the countries, from which they are respectively called. IV. The confessions of the Calvinistic churches are numerous. The following are the principal: 1. The Helvetic Confes- sions are three—that of Basle (1530); the Summary and Confession of Faith of the Helvetic churches (Basle, 1536); and the Expositio simplex, &c. (1566), attributed to Bullinger. 2. The Tetrapolitan Con- fession (Strasburg, 1531), which derives its name from the four cities of Strasburg, Constance, Memmingen and Lindau, by the deputies of which it was signed, is attributed to Bucer. It differs from the symbolical books of the Lutherans in the doctrine of the sacraments, and especially in its exposition of the eucharist. 3. The Palatine or Heidelberg Confession was framed at Heidelberg by order of the elector palatine, John Casimir (1575). 4. The Confession of the Gallic Churches was accepted at the first synod held by the reformed at Paris, in 1559. In the fol- lowing year, it was presented to Francis II, and, in 1561, it was presented by Beza to Charles IX. 5. The Confession of the Re- formed Churches in Belgium was drawn up in 1559, and approved in 1561. 6. The Confession of Faith of the Kirk of Scot- land. The ecclesiastical discipline and doctrine of the church of Geneva were adopted in Scotland from the beginning of the reformation there. In 1581, the Scotch nation subscribed a General Con- fession, together with a Solemn League and Covenant to defend the Protestant re- ligion and Presbyterian government. The Scotch covenanters afterwards adopted the Westminster Confession, in the com- pilation of which some delegates from their general assembly had assisted. In 1688, that confession was received as the standard of the national faith, which all ministers, and the officers of the Scotch uni. versifies, are required to subscribe. With this are generally connected the catechisms of their assembly. 7. Confession of Faith of the Anglican Church. In the beginning of the reign of queen Elizabeth, she gave her assent to thirty-nine articles agreed up- on in the convocation held at London in 1552. They were drawn up in Latin; but, in 1571, they were revised and subscribed both in Latin and English. They were adopted by the Episcopal church in the U. States in 1801, with some alterations, and the rejection of the Athanasian Creed. The first five contain the doctrines of the Anglican church concerning the Father, Son and Holy Ghost; in the sixth, seventh and eighth, the rule of faith is established; the next 10 relate to Chris- tians as individuals, and the remaining 21 relate to them as members of a religious society. (See Corpus et Syntagma Con- fessionum Fidei, Geneva, 1612 and 1 culture, and raise horses, cattle, fowls and hogs, and cultivate tobacco, rice and com. Crees, or Knistenaux ; Indians in North America, residing about Ion. 105° 12' W.; lat. 55° N. They are of moder- ate stature, well proportioned, active, have keen black eyes and open countenances. Crefeld ; a city in the Prussian prov- ince of Cleves-Berg, with 1543 houses and 16,000 inhabitants, of whom 700 are Men- nonites; above 12,000 are manufactur- ers. The city is built in the Dutch taste. The chief manufactories are of velvet cloth and ribands. The former is made prin- cipally in the city, the latter in the envi- rons. Silk goods of various kinds, flannels, woollen stockings, cotton and linen goods, &c, are also made here. Crefeld likewise contains tanneries, sugar refineries, dis- tilleries, manufactories of soap. Of late, it has exported much to America. Cremnitz, or Kremnitz ; a free royal city in Hungary, in Barsch, situated on the side of a hill; 100 miles E. Vienna; Ion. 19° 12f E.; lat. 48° 4S7 N.; population, 9700; houses, 1200. It is situated amidst 12 CREMNITZ—CREOLE. lofty mountains, and contains one Luther- an, one Calvinist, and one Catholic church, and a Lutheran gymnasium. It is cele- brated for its mines of gold and silver, and is the oldest mining town in Hungary. The situation is elevated, and the air is very cold. The town itself is very small, not containing 50 houses, but the faubourgs are of great extent. The ducats which bear the name of Crenmitz have enjoyed, for a long time, the reputation of very fine gold. They are to be known by the two letters K. B. (Kermecz Banya, Cremnitz mines), between which is the image of the sovereign. Much gold and silver from these mines is coined in Vienna. Cremona ; a city of the Lombardo- Vcnetian kingdom, capital of the province and district, in a beautiful situation. It is about five miles in circumference, and has spacious and regular streets, with sev- eral squares, but the houses are in general ill built. Here are 44 churches and chap- els, 43 convents, and an obscure universi- ty. It is the see of a bishop. The cathe- dral is a massy structure, with a facade of beautiful white and red marble, ornament- ed, in the interior, with various paintings and pictures in fresco. The tower of Cremona, built by Frederic Barbarossa, in the 12th century, is a very curious edifice, consisting of two octagonal obelisks, sur- mounted by a cross, and, in all, 372 feet in height. The silk manufactures of this place are considerable, and it has long been noted for its superior violins. This city is of great antiquity, having been created a Roman colony B. C. 291. The Venetians possessed it a long time; and, under Napoleon, it was, until 1814, capi- tal of the department of Alto Po. Popu- lation, 23,000; 38 miles S. E. Milan; Ion. 10° 2' 12" E.; lat. 45° 7' 43" N. Creole (from the Spanish Criollo) is the name which was originally given to all the descendants of Spaniards born in America and the West Indies. It is also used for the descendants of other Europeans, as French, Danes, in which case we say, French-Creole, Danish-Cre- ole. Since the native Spaniards have been expelled from the former Spanish American colonies, the term Creole is comparatively little used, in speaking of those parts of America, it being sel- dom necessary as a term of distinction; but, in speaking of the French, Danish and Spanish possessions in the West In- dies, the word occurs more frequently. In the U. States, it is often used for the descendants of the French and Spaniards in Louisiana (many of the latter having settled there from Spanish America), in contradistinction to Americans, meaning, by the latter term, people born in the other states, or their descendants. In 1770, Charles HI, king of Spain, declared the Creoles capable of civil, military, and ec- clesiastical offices, from which, till then, they had been excluded. Native Span- iards, however, still continued to have the preference, and the Creoles were treated with the arrogance which too often dis- tinguishes the conduct of the natives of a parent country towards colonists; and the consequence was great exacerbation of feeling on the part of the Creoles. In the West Indies, the Creoles have always en- joyed equal rights with native Europeans. Before the declaration of independence by the colonies of Spanish America, there existed marked lines of distinction between the different classes, founded on difference of birth. The Chapetones were Europeans by birth, and first in rank and power; the Creoles were the second; the Mulattoes and Mestizoes (descendants of white and black, or white and Indian parents) form- ed the third class; JVegroes and Indians, the fourth. At present, they are all en- titled to equal privileges by the constitu- tions. Some of Bolivar's generals are dark Mulattoes, and Paez is a Llanero. The Llaneros are converted Indians. The native Spaniards formerly avoided asso- ciating with the Creoles, and formed the first class. In Venezuela, there existed a kind of Creole nobility, unknown in other parts of South America. They were call- ed Mantuanos, and divided themselves into those of Sangre Azul (blue blood), de- scendants of the first Spanish conquerors, and those of Sangre Mezclada (mixed blood), Creole families of a later origin, who had intermarried with Spaniards or Frenchmen. The Creoles, in general, be- fore the revolution, were very lazy, leav- ing the mechanical arts and husbandry altogether to the Mulattoes, Negroes or Indians; and, even now, the mechanics are mostly colored or blade persons. The ladies are of a sallow complexion, have beautiful teeth, large, dark eyes, and are, like the men, very finely formed.—Creole dialects are those jargons which have originated from the mixture of different languages in the West Indies. They are spoken by the slaves, who have destroyed the fine grammatical construction of the European languages, and have intermixed with them some original African words. According to the European language which prevails in a Creole dialect, it is called French-Creole, Danish-CreoUy &c. CREOLE—CRESCENT. 13 In St Thomas, for instance, the latter is sfioken; in Hayti, French-Creole. Among the numerous corruptions of European words and constructions, we find, very generally, in the Creole dialects, the cor- ruptions of grammar common among children; for instance, me is used instead of /. Often no distinction is made be- tween the possessive pronoun and the personal; e. g., me house for my house, or wi massra for our master. The infinitive is used for the finite tenses, as moi donner for je donne. It is well known that Ho- mer has several deviations from grammar which are now peculiar to children; and the Creole dialects have several peculiari- ties in common with those used by Ho- mer. The mixture of words from differ- ent languages is often considerable in these dialects; but most of them can be under- stood, without a great deal of difficulty, by a man acquainted with English, Da- nish, French and Spanish. We will give an example of the Papimento language— a Creole dialect spoken in St Thomas— from a work extracted from the four Gos- pels, entitled Da Tori va wi Massra en Helpiman Jesus Christus, so leki wifindi datti na inni dem fo Evangdiste: Mat- theus, Marcus, Lucas en Johannes, 1816 (The Story of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, as we find it in the four Evange- lists, &c.) A part of the first chapter of the Gospel of St. John, from the 4th to the 8th verse, is given in this work, as fol- lows :—Libi ben de na inni va hem, Kaba da libi ben de Kandera va somma. Kaba da Kandera de krini na dungru, ma dungru no ben teki da Kandera. Gado ben senni wan somma, dem kali Johannes, dissi ben Komm va takki vo da Kandera, va dem somma Komm bribi na da Kandera. Hem srefi no da Kandera, ma a ben Komm va takki na somma vo da Kandera. This specimen will give an idea of the strange mixture of words, and of the clumsy peri- phrases used to express ideas, e. g., libi ben de na inni va hem; of the poverty, e. g., ben for been, has been, has, was, and had, &c. There are, however, in all languages, heavy periphrases, our familiarity with which prevents us from being sensible of them; e. g., je venais de chez moi, or he is about to sd out on a journey; which, if we had one word for undertakuig a journey, and a tense for expressing the intention, might be expressed in one word. That a careful investigation of the Creole dialects would lead to several interesting discover- ies respecting the origin of some gram- matical formations and modes of expres- sion, is hardly to be doubted. When the vol. iv. 2 allied armies invaded France, and the Russian and German soldiers were often under the necessity of communicating with each other, and with the French, a kind of jargon came into use among them, in which the writer observed that mi—the Low German for me, and pretty nearly resembling the French moi—was used by all parties to express the first person sin- gular. The infinitive was also used in- stead of the finite modes, expressing only the gross idea of action without modifica- tion. Flesh, from the German Fleisch (meat), dobri, from the Russian, for good, were also employed by all parties, as was also the word caput, to signify broken down, spoiled, &c. This last word is still in use among the lower classes of North Germa- ny. Mifiesh caput meant, in this military dialect my meat is spoiled. Several of the modem European languages must have originated in this way, after the irruption of the northern tribes into the Roman empire. Crescendo, or Cres. (Hal.) By the term crescendo, the Italians signify that the notes of the passage over which it is placed are to be gradually swelled. This operation is not of modern invention. The ancient Romans, as we leam from a passage in Cicero, were aware of its beau- ty, and practised it continually.—Crescendo is also the name of a musical instrument, invented in 1778, by the counsellor Bauer, in Berlin, which is played like a piano, and, like this, is furnished with wire strings. Crescent (crescens, Lat); an emblem, representing the moon in her state of increase. This emblem of the Ottomans is of very high antiquity. The Egyptians had their Isis, the Greeks their Diana, and it is easy to conceive that the crescent, which announced the returning light of the moon, soon became an object of wor- ship with such people. Thus Isis, Diana, and the bull Apis, are decorated with this emblem; which is also found on medals of Alexander, and other ancient monu- ments of ait. The citizens of Athens of illustrious birth wore crescent? of ivory and silver upon their buskj>«s; and the same mark of distinction vas granted to the patricians and senators of Rome. They were called lunuUd calcei. The cres- cent was often used by females as an orna- ment for the lies**; an example of which may be seen on a bust of Marciana, in the Villa PamfiJi. On many medals of queens, the bust is supported by a crescent, ex- pressive of the relation they bore to their husbands, who, as kings, were as the sun, while they were as the moon. It is also 14 CRESCENT—CRESCIMBENI. an emblem of the eternity of an empire. The god Lunus bears it upon his shoul- der; and the deiutrii of the Lucretian fam- ily have it accompanied by the Seven Stars of the northern hemisphere. It is also found on medals of many cities, particu- larly of Byzantium, from whence it is sup- posed to have been borrowed by the Otto- mans. Since their establishment in Eu- rope, it has been the universal emblem of their empire. It decorates their minarets, their turbans, their ensigns, their insignia; every thing appertaining to the Mussul- mans is characterized by this sign, and their states are designated as the Empire of the Crescent During the crusades, par- ticularly, the crescent was the distinguish- ing symbol of the Mussulmans, as the cross was of the Christians. Crescenzi, Pietro, or Petrus de, the restorer of the scientific study of agricul- ture in Europe, born at Bologna, in 1230, was an attorney and magistrate, till he was obliged, by civil troubles, to leave his native country. He travelled through Italy, and collected useful observations. It was not till after 30 years of absence, when order was at length restored to his native city, that he was permitted to return; and, at the age of 70, he was made senator. He now carried into execution his princi- ples of agriculture, on an estate near Bo- logna, in the cultivation of which he pass- ed the remainder of his fife. See his essay on agriculture (Ruralium Commo- dorum, 12 books), which he composed at the desire of Charles II. He submitted bis work to the examination of learned men in Bologna, by whom it was correct- ed and improved. It is a remarkable monument of his time, of which it is far in advance. Apostolo Zeno has proved that these 12 books, in the arrangement of which the author seems to have followed Columella, were written originally in Lat- in. There exists an Italian translation (II Libro delta Agricultura di P. Crescen- tio, Florence, 1487 et seq.), which is es- teemed very highly, on account of the purity of the language, and has given rise to the opinion that Crescenzi wrote in his native tongue He understood the an- cients, and madt use of them. His prin- ciples are simple, founded upon experi- ence, and free froro many prejudices, which continued to prevail in Europe for centuries after. His work was no sooner published, than it spread throughout Eu- rope. It was translated into several Eu- ropean languages, particularly for Charles V of France, in a splendid manuscript (1373), which is still extant; and no soon- er was the art of printing invented, than copies of this work were greatly multipli- ed. The oldest known edition, which is now very rare, appeared at Augsburg, in 1471, in folio. The earliest Italian trans- lation, the author of which is supposed to be Lorenzo Benvenuti, of St. Gemimano, and which is accounted among the mod- els of language, is contained in the collec- tion of the Classici Italiani (Milan, 1805). A more exact, but a less esteemed trans- lation, was made by Sansovino. We are indebted for much information concerning Crescenzi and his work to professor Filip- po Re, at Bologna. Crescenzi, D. Juan Baptista, marquis de la Torre, bom at Rome towards the end of the 16th century, studied the art of painting under Pomerancias. Some of his early compositions attracted the attention of the pope, Paul V, who intrust- ed him with the decoration of the Pauline chapel. Cardinal Zapata took him to Spain in 1617, where he obtained the favor of Philip III. Some flower-pieces occasioned his receiving the commission to build the sepulchral monurrient in the Escurial, the splendor and finished ele- gance of which place it among the most remarkable monuments of Europe. (See Santo's History of the Escurial, with cop- perplates.) Tne bronze figures were exe- cuted by Roman artists. Philip IV made him a grandee of Castile, with the title of marquis de la Torre, and conferred upon him other marks of distinction. His house, which contained rich treasures in every branch of art, was ever open to artists. He died in 1660. Crescimbeni, Giovanni Maria, a scholar and poet, was born at Macerata, in the Mark of Ancona, Oct. 9, 1663. When but a child, he displayed an inclination for poetry. Ariosto's verses, in particular, were impressed on his memory by an edi- tion of Orlando Furioso, with copper- plates, in which he used to search for and peruse the passages to which the engrav- ings referred. In the Jesuits' college, at Macerata, he wrote, at 13, a tragedy—Da- rius. At 15, he was a member of an acad- emy, and, at 16, doctor of laws. His father sent him, in 1681, to Rome, to per- fect himself in the knowledge of law; but he applied himself, with still more zeal, to poetry. Some canzoni of Filicaja, in 1687, gave him correct views of the character of the poetry then in vogue. Dissatisfied with all that he had formerly attempted, he felt himself at once constrained to imi- tate only the ancient models, and to rec- ommend their simple and natural manner CRESCIMBENI—CREST. 15 to his contemporaries. Crescimbeni be- longed to all the three academies in Rome, which rivalled each other in wretched verses. Out of these, he selected cer- tain members, whose views harmonized with his own, and formed a new acad- emy, which was sportively called the Arcadia, in allusion to the rural taste of the founder. (See Arcadians.) He was the first custode of this academy, under the name of Alfesibeo Cario, and was re- elected to the office for several succes- sive Olympiads. Crescimbeni, delighted with the success of his plan, was not the least active among his fellow poets. In 1698 appeared his Istoria delta volgar Poe- sia—a work of vast industry, but destitute of method and criticism. He next pub- lished his Trattato della Bellezza della vol- gar Poesia (Rome, 1700, 4to.), which passed, in a short time, through three editions, and, like the earlier work, was first made capable of being understood and enjoyed by the Commentarj hdorno alia Storia della volgar Poesia (Rome, 1702, 5 volumes, 4to.). The favor of Clement XI placed him in an easy situa- tion. In the tranquillity of his canoni- cate, disturbed only by the disputes of the Arcadians, the number of his works rap- idly increased. He made a translation of Nostradamus's Lives of the Provencal Poets, with additions, enlarged his own Commentaries with four valuable vol- umes, and wrote a History of the Arcadia, and Lives of the Arcadian Poets. About this time, also, appeared the two first vol- umes of verses (Rime) of his Arcadia, which were well received. Clement V and Benedict XIII rewarded his labors with ecclesiastical honors; and John V of Portugal presented the Arcadia with some funds. The society erected a thea- tre, still existing, on the Janiculum, aud their first Olympic games were celebrated Sept. 9, 1720, in honor of the king of Portugal. The poems which Crescim- beni read on that occasion were received with lively approbation. Meanwhile his constitution was yielding to a disorder of the breast. After being admitted, at his request, into the order of the Jesuits, in whose garb he wished to die, he expired, March 8, 1728. During his lifetime, he had caused his monument to be erect- ed in the church of Santa Maria Mag- giore, with the inscription—I. M. C. P. ARC. C. (Joannes Marius Cresdmbenius, Pastorum Arcadum Custos), and bearing the Arcadian pipe. He was of a gentle disposition, benevolent affable and mod- erate, Among his numerous works, oc- casional compositions and eulogies, those already mentioned are all that deserve a high rank in the literature of his country. A biography of him is prefixed to his History of Arcadia (Rome, 1712, 12mo.), by the canon Mancurti of Imola. Crespi, Giuseppe Maria, surnamed il Spagnuolo, a painter of the Bolognese school, bom at Bologna, in 1665, studied the masterpieces in the monastery of San Michaele in Bosco, and particularly imi- tated the Caracci, whose works he also copied. He received instruction from Canuti, then from Cignani, afterwards studied in Venice and Parma, and finally came out with his own productions in his native city. His first work was the Com- bat of Hercules with Antaeus. From this time he had continual employment He painted, for cardinal Ottoboni, the Seven Sacraments, now in the Dresden gallery; several pieces for prince Eugene of Savoy, for the elector of* the Palatinate, for the grand-duke of Tuscany, and for cardinal Lambertini, his patron, who afterwards, when pope Benedict XIV, conferred on him the honor of knighthood. Crespi, however, has been frequently censured for the singular ideas which he often intro- duced into his paintings; e. g. he repre- sents Chiron giving his pupil Achilles a kick for some fault that he had committed. Moreover he painted every thing a prima, with strong, bold strokes, in the manner of Caravaggio, and has become a man- nerist from a desire to be constantly new. He had many scholars, among whom were his two sons, Antonio and Luigi Crespi. The latter distinguished himself by his writings on painting. Crespi died in 1747. Cressy. (See Crecy.) Crest (from the Latin crista) is used to signify the rising on the defensive armor of the head, also the ornament frequently affixed to the helmet, such as a plume or tuft of feathers, a bunch of horse-hair, &c. Warriors have al- ways been in the habit of adorning their persons; and the helmet, from its conspicu- ousness, is very naturally chosen as the place of one of the principal ornaments. We learn from Homer (II. iii, 336) that the crests of the earlier Greeks were of horse- hair; afterwards plumes, especially red ones, were adopted. (Virg. JEn. ix, 50, 271, 808.) To gain an enemy's crest was accounted an honorable achievement, as it was reckoned among the spolia. The Greeks called the crest cg rf erime m pr,]S_ of the courts of assize and quarter ses- above-mentioned Gcfiingniss* sion Formstance,m France, under die ^Julius.-In the Nether- head of crimes punished by the correc- knd - ^ wh t])e inhahitants were nonal mbunata, there appear, under-the 6157 286 there were 4400 criminais in the tide vols (thefts) 10,796, of which 4364 ^ ^00 ^ hougeg of correcti ^ were punished by_ imprisonment for a i150 nniitary prisoners. See Verslag von year or more. Distinguishing crimes de HmM^n ^ twttde dgemteJ Vtr. against the person, and those against gaaeiir^valMMderlantis&Genootschap property, the number under the former «, ^ fe wr6rfen- der Gevangen^ head is, in France, of accused, 1907 ; un- XPPj,/)M/7„ni,1-rirlf,n. Amstn-dam den 27 Anril derthelatter 6988: leaving out Corsica the f^^^ former number would be reduced to loyi, \ ,,r ,. r.i tvt .u 1 j l 1" Tmon t t? 1 j • 1 j- second general Meeting of the Netherland- the latter to 6939. In England, including • , 0 v. . - ., ^ . ,. ., , """^ , - . p ' , 6 ish Society for the Improvement of the the same class of crimes, the numbers are, ,-, ,... J/M> • u 11 • a . j , , (^oncution of Prisoners, held in Amsterdam, Against the person,........531 &c.).—Russia presents, from 1823 to 1827, Against property, .......15,616 botn mclusive, But adding to the 6939,10,796, the num- 853 thefts and robberies, bers would be 5j8i7 muniers, For France, against the person,. . 1,821 5,263 suicides, --------------------- property, 17,735 95 cases of exposed children, For England, against the person, . 531 14 087$ wno'e number of criminals, ----■-----------------property, 15,616 ' \ including deserters. Without pretending to any great exact- —In Spain, in 1826, according to official ness on this subject it may be inferred reports, in which, however, no information that the whole quantity of crime is greater, is contained respecting the state of crime in proportion to the population, in Eng- in Arragon, Valencia and the Balearic isl- land than in France ; but that of offences ands, the number of criminals amounted against the person, there are more, both in to 12,937, which, if the population is proportion to die whole number of offen- 11,447,629, would give one crime for 885 ces, and to the population, in France than persons. in England. The general conclusion The following table shows the number from this and other facts seems to be, and offences of the convicts in the Massa- that crowded towns and flourishing man- chusetts Prison from 1820 to 1828 inclusive: Crimes. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1824. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. Stealing, shopufting, &c,......244 207 ... 230 222 199 192 180 186 Counterfeit money,.........16 13 ... 22 26 35 30 23 18 Burglary,...............19 17 ... 15 16 16 17 16 18 Forgery,............... 3 9 ... 8 11 11 8 7 9 Robbery,............... 3 3... 5 4 2 1 1 .1 Arson,................ 5 7... 8 5 6 6 5 4 Assault,............... 2 4 ... 3 ......... 2 3 Attempt to commit rape,..... 4 5 ... 7 7 11 10 10 7 Adultery, &c,............ 3 1 ... 1 ......... 3 3 Attempt to murder,......... 1 6 ... 6 6 9 10 11 io Conspiracy,............. 2 2 ..................... CRIME. 27 Crimes. 1820. 1821. 1822. 1823. 1834. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. Manslaughter,................ 1 1 ......... 3 3 1 4 Bestiality,.................. 1 1 ..................... Fraud,.................... 3 3 .................. 1 Maiming cattle,............... 1 ............... 1 ...... Perjury,...................... 1 ... 1......... ...... Robbing bank,................., ...... 1 1 ... 1 1 1' Common cheat,.............................. 3 2 1 ... Common thief,...................,.......... 8 20 16 20 Assault and battery,.................. .................. 1 Murder committed,............'............... 2 2 2 2 Attempt to rescue convicts,....................... 2 1 1 ... Open and gross lewdness,........................ 2 2 ...... Horse-stealing, r-................................ 1 1 1 Maiming,................................. 2 ....... Receiving stolen goods,......................... 1 4 1 1 Escape from house of correction,....... ............ 1 1 1 ... Conspiracy to defraud,......................... 1 ......... Accessory to thieving,............................. ... 2 ... The four reports, which have been published by the prison discipline society above- mentioned, contain many interesting facts respecting other prisons, but do not enable us to give a general view of the state of crime in the U. States. (See the article Prison.) The following is an abstract of the state of crime in several countries, such as we should wish to be able to give of all civilized countries:— Number of Crimes brought before Courts of Justice. Scotland, 1806—1811," Ireland, 1805—1810, Wales, 1805—1811, England, 1805—1811,, (1805, _____ Crimes against Crimes against Persons. Property. Whole No. PerCt. W.No. PerCt. England, Jg$ 11828, .... C1823—1825, London, ■? 1826, .... (1827, .... France, 'Before courts ( 1825, of assizes, ( 1826, Of correction- ^ 1825, al police, > 1826, Of local po-)1825, lice, } 1826, Total $ 1825> lotai, jlg26) 2066 1907 29 27 5168 5081 71 73 Prussia (the old j 1819_lg26 « 52583 provinces), $ ' ' w is 2" Assizes, 1822—26, « ... Correctional J lg2a_26 „ ..... police, ) Local police, 1822—26, « .... I Total, 1822—26, " ..., 30 132,549 70 23 ..... 27 ... 48 Total. 89 2,644 72 4,777 4,527 16,147) 17,921 < 16,564 Proportion to Population. 1:20,279 185,132 317 7,744 212,374 252,679 3,457? , 3,381$ 7,234 6,988 141,733 159,740 139,944 141,021 288,911 308,749 1,702 8,436 1,988 1,951 763 721 403 380 4,424 4,436 219 194 222 221 107 104 427 6,666 276 51 42 28 CRIME Convicted Criminals. For Crimes For Crimes against Pers. against Prop. Scotland, 1823,............... ............ n810—1826,.......... 2,539 119,349 EnglandJ 1827)'*#' [...............\ ....... (1828,'! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'. London, 1827,.......................... risis, Ireland, France, I 1823,, 11827,. U828,. Assizes, Correctional police, Local police, 1825,, 1826,, 1825,, 1826,, 1825,, 1826,. 1825,. 1826,, Total, Pays de Vaud, 1826,...... C Old provinces, . . . Prussia, < Rhenish provinces, ( The whole country, Sleswic Holstein, in 1820, . . . 1,046 1,459 3,548 3,451 Norwav $ Per ceiitum* in 1821i Norway, ^Totg^ 1814_1826j . 827 110 937 10 Spain, < Total, in 1826, . . . . \ Per centum, in 1826, ----- 37 Sentences of Death. 8,048 3,307 11,355 90 63 Total. 288 121,888 11,095 12,564 11,723 2,300 2,319 7,923 10,207 11,919 4,594 4,910 118,251 134,384 119,091 119,746 241,936 259,040 79 8,875 3,417 12^92 1,089 100 9,740 12,937 100 Proportion to Population. 1:9,649 1: 902 1 :1,082 1 :1,019 Bentenced. Scotland, 1806—1811,................. annual average . . 7£ England and Wales, 1805—1811,____ Ireland, 1805—1810,............ Scotland, 1821—1823, in the whole, . . England, 1810—1826,........... London, 1731—1740,........... C 1810—1826,......... France, < 1825,.............. (1826,.............. I Old provinces, 1818—1827, Prussia, < Rhenish prov., * ( Total,..... « Spain, 1826,................ 375^ 85 49 15,652 531 2,755 176 150 140 70 210 167 (1768—1775, Scotland, 11776—1780, 0827,..... 1826,..... 1827,..... (1731—1740, J 1749—1780, 1 1781—1806, [1827,..... Executions. For Crimes against Pers. 11 2 ; 587 : 2,803 : 820 : 666 : 570 1:6,748 : 6,313 262 231 260 259 128 120 : 2,151 924 543 : 818 1 :6,281 1 :1,403 1: 885 Executed. 3i 56 48 28 1,384 316 350 111 110 77 10 87 England, London, 46 112 61 For Crimes against Prop. 21 7 270 889 726 Total. 32 9 13 57 70 316 1,001 ) 787 < 17 Proportion to Population. 169,271 210,526 182,857 30,000 79,412 . CRIME. 29 For Crimes For Crimes Proportion to against Pen. against Prop. Total. Population. C1815—1819 (annual average), .... .... 303 1: 90,909 France, -> 1825,................... .... m 1 : 279,279 C1826,.................. .... HO 1:281,818 C Old provinces, 1818—1827, .... .... 77 1 :1,240,960 Prussia, < Rhenish prov., " ___ .... 10 1 :2,371,000 (Whole country, « .... .... 87 1:1,354,140 Prisoners. Proportibn to Number. Population. Scotland $ 1825> including debtors,............. 8,378 1 : 262 ccouanu, ^ u without debtorgj.............. 5935 a . 3^ fEngland, April 29, 1826,............ 2,864 1 : 4,187 Debtors iWales' " " " ............' • 73 * :10'411 ueotors, < Scotland> « u u ............. 216 j :10>lg5 (^Ireland, « « " ............. 663 1 :11,011 France, 1821,.......................... 41,307 1 : 778 Southern Netherlands $ isio.............. 1 J'qS 1 ' 5S (civil and milit. prisoners), \ Jg£ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\ Ijgjg \ ! £§ Prussia \ 1798'........................ 2>179 1 : 3>671 r ' I 1826,........................ 5,300 1 : 2,396 Prussian J 1826, standing army, .............. 1,124 1 : 111 army, } " militia,................... 724 1 : 122 Prussia, civil and military,.................. 8,100 1 : 1,550 Sleswic Holstein, 1819,.................... 622 1 : 112 C 1821,........................ 693 1 : 1,399 Norway, 11826,........................ 833 1 : 1,200 r^ 1814—1826,.................... 7,740 1 : 1,371 Sweden, 1824,......................... 1,500 1 : 1,600 Though the number of persons committed I remember, in former days, persons were for trial has progressively increased, in taken and pumped upon, or something of England, for a series of years, it by no that sort; but now they are handed over means follows that the quantity of crime to the police and tried.' Sir Thomas Bar- has increased; and it is perfectly certain, ing, and other witnesses, gave a similar that crimes of the most atrocious charac- testimony. The malicious trespass act, ter have diminished. Thus, though the the act for paying prosecutors their ex-, parliamentary returns of the number of penses in cases of misdemeanor, and other criminal offenders committed for trial in acts not necessary to mention, have tended 1827 be greater, by 1774, dian those of to fill the prisons, without any positive 1826, we should minutely investigate the increase of crime. The magistrates, like- nature of the offences with which these wise, are more ready to commit than they persons are charged, before we affirm used to be." There is a fact, winch is that the morals of the people generally most important to keep in view, namely, were more unsound in 1827 than in 1826. that, in England, and hi every otfier coun- " Offences," say a committee of the house try rapidly advancing in civilization, offen- of commons, in a report onthe criminal ces against the person are diminished pre- commitinents and convictions, " which cisely in the proportion that the means of were formerly either passed over entirely, education are enlarged. The most numer- or were visited with a summary chastise- ous class of offences has been found, not ment on the spot, are now made occasions only in that country, but in France, in the of commitment to jail and regular trial. U. States, and in Switzerland, to be that Mr. Dealtry—a magistrate for the West of the smaller offences against property; Riding of the county of York—says, ' I for example, in London and Middlesex, as think one reason we may give for the stated by Mr. Peel in the house of corn- increase of crime, or the greater exhibition mons, the number of commitments, in of it to public view, is the seizure and de- 1820, was 2773; in 182(5, 3457; increase livery to the police of all those who com- of commitments, 684. In J H'20, of these mit offences, that are styled offences at alL comnutments, the number for larceny was 3* 30 CRIME. 1384; in 1826, 2118; increase of commit- ments for larceny, 734. Thus we see that, whilst, in 1826, there was a large increase of offences against property, there was an actual diminution of crimes against the person. The report of the committee before-mentioned states, that" the numbers of persons convicted of murder, from the year 1821 to 1827 inclusive, adding there- to those convicted of shooting at, stabbing, and administering poison with intent to murder, were respectively, 35, 57, 26, 38; 29, 27, 47. The numbers charged with murder, shooting at, stabbing, and admin- istering poison with intent to murder, were, from 1821 to 1827, 232, 241, 239, 253, 273, 245, 288. The whole number of persons tried for offences against the person, in 1827, including robbery of the jierson, which ought not properly to have lieen included, was under 1000. The criminal calendar of London and Middle- sex exhibits, for the respective periods from 1811 to 1817, and from 1821 to 1827, an average increase of committals in the latter seven years, equal to 48 per cent The convictions, during an average of the same periods, have increased 55 per cent The population of London and Middlesex has been computed to have increased 19 |kt cent; therefore, of the convictions, 36 |kt cent, remains to be accounted for by other causes than the increase of popula- tion. That large increase, afflicting as it is, may be attributed to the large increase of petty offences, of stealing from the house, or the person, 'goods which are easily transported, and may be quickly converted into money,' and to the greater vigilance of the police, which renders prosecutions more certain. Moreover, the number of those sentenced to death has increased only 4 per cent.; but, the pop- ulation having increased 19 per cent., there is thus a positive diminution of 15 per cent, upon the higher offences, subject to the penalty of death generally. For the higher crimes against the person, such as murder, manslaughter, shooting, stabbing and poisoning, the number of convic- tions followed by sentence of death has decreased 50 per cent. For some of the most atrocious offences against property, such as arson and maiming of cattle, the number of convictions followed by sen- tence of death has decreased 50 per cent. For the offences of coining and forgery, uttering base coin, &c, the number of convictions has decreased 22 per cent, and the number of those sentenced to death has decreased 43 per cent. This particular decrease is principally to be attributed to the withdrawal of small notes of the bank of England from circulation. The great increase of convictions has^ therefore, been in the class of frauds, and larcenies of all descriptions. This result for London and Middlesex is also true, as will be seen from the following table, with reference to all England and Wales. Total Yearly Yearly Inc. of Yearly Inc. of Years. Convictions. Convictions Increase of Convictions Convictions not for Larceny. 6,629 Convictions. for Larceny. for Larceny. 1821 8,788 1822 8,209 6,424 .... 1823 8,204 6,452 26 .... 1824 9,425 7,550 i,22i 1,068 123 1825 9,964 8,011 539 461 78 1826 11,095 8,962 1,131 951 180 1827 12,564 9,803 1,469 841 628 Much of the large increase of convictions not for larceny, in 1827, may be distinctly referred to the passing of the act for pay- ing prosecutors their expenses in cases of misdemeanor. The increase, in 1824, 1825 and 1826, is also to be referred to changes in legislation and temporary rauses. Offences against the game laws have greatly multiplied the number of commitments. From 1820 to 1826,12,000 persons were committed to the county prisons on the charge of poaching. ' From the returns for England and Wales, of which we have thus given the results, it appears that, since 1821, the convictions for larceny (that is, for robbery and theft of all descriptions) have increased 50 per cent., while the population has increased, by computation, about 16 per cent. We have thus 34 per cent, of this increase of crimes against property unaccounted for by the increase of population. Some of this increase is real, and some only more apparent.—With reference to the real and apparent increase of the smaller crimes against property, the greater multiplication of property, in a highly-civilized state of society, offers a ready solution why such a growing tendency to theft may exist, notwithstanding the progress of education, CRIME—CRIMINAL LAW. 31 The number of thieves increases from the constant addition to the number of the ob- jects of temptation, from the greater luxu- ries with which every individual is sur- rounded, from the increased rapidity with which goods may be transported to distant parts of the country, and from the more easy communication with the continent Add all these causes, and many others, to a more vigilant administration of justice, which produces committals for the most trifling offences against property, and we shall easily understand how the return of committals may be increased, while the great bulk of the people is becoming more intelligent and more prudent,—M. Lucas, an advocate in the royal court at Paris, has collected, with much accuracy, a body of facts relating to France, Great Britain, the cantons of Geneva and Vaud, and the U. States, all of which tend to confirm the principles we have endeavored to establish—that the higher crimes are lessened as men become more civilized and enlightened; and that, though offences against property may increase, crimes against the person are invariably dimin- ished. With regard to France, this fact has been clearly proved by the calculations of M. Charles Dupin. In the northern departments of that country, where the inhabitants are the best instructed, the higher crimes against the person are rare; in the southern, where the people are very ignorant, the most frightful crimes are twice as numerous. But, again, it is re- markable, that, in the north—the richest and most enlightened portion of France— the crimes against property exceeded, in 1826 and 1827, those in the south by 917. Of those crimes, however, the south ex- hibits the greatest number of atrocious ex- amples, having 207 highway robberies, while the north had only 82. In the can- ton of Vaud, from 1803 to 1826, the total number of offences was 1914. Of these, there were only 52 of the highest crimes against the person. Of the offences against property, only 75 were of the gravest character of crime, such as burglary and highway robbery. In the canton of Ge- neva, from 1815 to 1826, there were 212 criminal processes, of which 27 only were for crimes against the person. The num- ber of offences against property was 185, of which 145 were simple larcenies. In the state of Pennsylvania, from 1787 to 1825, the total number of convictions was 7397, of which 628 were for offences against the person. Of the remaining 6769 offences against property, 5338 were larcenies. In Spain, the catalogue of crimes against the person for one year amounts to 3436, amongst which are the following:— Homicides,............1233 Infanticides,..............13 Poisonings,.............. 5 Anthropophagy,............1 Cutting and maiming,......1773.* We thus see that in Spain, the greater quantity of crime is precisely of an oppo- site character to that which exists in France, Great Britain, Switzerland and Pennsylvania. On the other hand, the crimes against property amount only to 2379. From these data, we may conclude that the greater proportion of offences amongst an ignorant people are those which proceed from the licentious and revengeful passions, unsubdued by the cultivation of the understanding, and the subjection of the will to true morality and pure religion. The greater portion of of- fences among a rich and highly-cultivated people, are of that sort which proceed from the temptations of property, the ac- cumulation of which is the result of capi- tal and intellectual energy. (For further information, see Prison, and School.) Crimea. (See Taurida.) Criminal Law. [This article, to the paragraph on page 34, is from the German Lexicon.] In no department of legal sci- ence do so many different views prevail among jurisconsults, and in none have these views exercised so great an influence upon the theory and practice, as in thia The doctrine of the criminal law is, that the individual committing an unlawful act must not only make amends to the party injured, but also be punished by the su- preme authority of the state. The first question is, whether and how far the state is authorized to inflict punishment. This question cannot be decided by positive rales of law, because the object of the inquiry is to reconcile these rales with natural justice. States have, indeed, at all times, exercised the power of punishment, without waiting for or regarding such the- oretical investigations, because it is obvi- ous that, without the right of punisliing, no state could exist The different sys- tems, which have attempted to establish theoretically the right of punishment, may be brought under the following heads:— I. The system of vengeance. From the * This comparative statement of offences in France, Switzerland, the U. States and Spain, rests upon the authority of an article in the Bulle- tin Universel, for September. The precise year taken for Spain is not mentioned. 32 CRIMINAL LAW. opinion that he who has injured another, cannot complain of injustice, if a similar evil is inflicted upon himself, and the in- jured person, or, in case of murder, his family, would be disgraced, if they did not obtain satisfaction, arises the rude system of retaliation, which we meet with in so many nations ; but, whilst those who take revenge must beware not to exceed the measure of the injury received, lest they become aggressors in their turn, they will be obliged to adhere literally to the rule of " an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth;" and in this state we find the criminal law subsisting among nations for a considerable time, and bloody revenge and retaliation become a common right and duty, (i^ee Michaelis, On the Mosaic Law.) In this state of things, the punish- ment of offences against the law belongs not to the community, but to the individ- ual, and the public authority is active only in putting limits to the continual ex- ercise of revenge, and in providing means for terminating the hostilities among fam- ilies, which threaten the nation itself with destruction. From this arises the system of composition. Offences are estimated at certain rates in money; and not only is the offender forced to pay the sum fixed, but the offended party must also receive it in satisfaction. With this degree of progress is connected the idea of a nation- al peace, which is developed in various forms and relations, as the peace of the king, the peace of the court, &c, involv- ing, at the same time, the acknowledg- ment of a public power, whose duty it is to protect and judge. We find the law of composition among the old Germans, as well as die nations of the Indian archi- pelago, and the tribes of American sava- ges. The next step is the acknowledg- ment of the principle, that the community is bound to prevent crimes. The right of revenge passes into the hands of the state, which does not wait for the com- plaint of the offended party, but takes up- on itself die duty of the accuser. The theory which next succeeds is, II. The system of deterring. By the punishment of the offender, others are to be deterred from similar acts. The pun- ishment is, therefore, inflicted publicly; and the more horrible the crime, the more effort is made to confirm the popu- lar abhorrence of it by severe penalties. ' This system is liable to the most weighty objections. It cannot be allowable to tor- ment or put to death a human being, sim- ply with the view that others may receive from his sufferings such an impression, as to be proof against the temptation to com- mit crime. In point of fact, this end has never been attained, and would require a scale of punishments offensive to sound reason. The mere fear of punishment is of very little weight. Men are kept from crime principally by the natural abhor- rence of wrong, heightened by a good education and good example. If the plan of deterring should be carried through consistently, it would compel us to propor- tion punishment rather to the temptation to commit crimes than to their magnitude. (See Feuerbaeh's Revision der Gnmdsdtze des peinl. Rechts, Erfurt, 1799—Revision of the Principles of Penal Law.) With regard to capital punishments, more par- ticularly, the system of deterring fell by degrees into disrepute, after the marquis Beccaria (On Crimes and Punishments, London, 1770), and a great many other learned men, had declared themselves for, III. The system of prevention, which is ingeniously defended by the Hessian minister Von Grolman (Grundsatze der Criminalrechtswissenschaflen, Giessen, 1798 —Principles of the Science of Criminal Law). Every crime contains, if man is considered as a consistent being, the ex- pression of a principle of conduct, and, accordingly, besides the present transgres- sion of the law, a threat of a repetition of the offence. The community is, therefore, entitled to take measures of prevention against it which, if the injury done is irrep- arable, may extend to the deprivation of life. This system may be said to afford the true reason for punishment in general. It may, however, be objected to it, that this provision against future crimes is not really punishment and that the punish- ment must needs be omitted, if this pre- sumption of the future offences is refuted by the particular circumstances of the case. This principle, moreover, admits of no scale of punishment, because the means of effectual prevention must always be the same—death or imprisonment for life. The direction which the science of natural law had taken, at this period, seeking for the foundation of every right in a contract, led to, IV. The system of compact, which as- serts that by becoming a member of the state, every individual has, by tacit com- pact, bound himself to submit to punish- ment, if the society choose to inflict it. As, however, no one can be bound by a contract to any thing which is not right in itself, the lawfulness of punishment cannot be shown in this maimer. Fichte, there- CRIMINAL LAW. 33 fore, in his original way, modified this theory. He proceeded upon the principle that, by trespassing upon the right of others, the criminal deprived himself of the claim to be treated as a rational being, since the rights of a free agent depend on his respect for those of others. Every crime, therefore, he says, justifies the expulsion of the offender from human society. The compact, by which the punishment is de- termined, is consequently in favor of those who receive a lighter punishment than such expulsion. They acquire a right by suffering some determined evil, to be ad- mitted again into civil society. Much of this theory is true, but the real existence of such a compact seems to be wanting. V. At the same time, the theory of atonement was introduced by Klein and others. The criminal does injury in two ways; 1. to the person who is the imme- diate subject of the wrong, for which he has to make him amends according to the rules of private law; and, 2. by the bad example afforded by the diminished re- spect for the laws of the state, for which he is answerable to the community. This latter injury is compensated by the pun- ishment, which vindicates the authority of the law in the minds of the people. This theory has, in later times, been fur- ther developed, with great ingenuity, by Schultz (Entwickdung derphUosoph. Prin- cipien des biirgerl. und pexnl. Rechts, 1813 —Developement of the philosophical Prin- ciples of Civil and Criminal Law), and by Martin (Lehrbuch des Criminalrechts, 1819—1825—Compendium of Criminal Law). VI. The theory of psychological con- straint, by Feuerbach, is founded upon the system of deterring, with the addition of this position—that the threatening of pun- ishment, in general, is lawful, because it forbids no one to do any thing which he can have a right to do; and this menace renders punishment lawful in case of an offence occurring, because the individual knew beforehand what he had to expect. This theory is exposed to most of the ob- jections against the theory of deterring, and the grounds on which it rests often fail in particular cases. VII. The principle of moral corredion, has been little used as the basis of the right to punish. It has for its end to cor- rect, by punishment, in the criminal him- self, those unlawful propensities which impelled him to crime. It is undeniably correct so far as this, that the punishment ought never to be such as to make the moral correction of the criminal impossi- ble, by the annihilation of his sense of honor, by exposing him to corruption in the society of other criminals, and destroy- ing his ability to support himself in an honest manner. But it is evident, on the other hand, that the sentiments of men, and their moral reformation, cannot be the direct object of legislation, from the very circumstance, that this effect is not of a kind to be ascertained; but to produce an outward habit (for instance, to dispose the idle to labor, the drunkard to sobriety, &c), is practicable. Finally, VIII. The theory of retaliation has been adopted, since the time of Kant by almost all the German philosophers, but at the same time, by very few law- yers. It is founded upon the principles, that the state ought to suffer no wrong within itself; that every unlawful action ought to be annihilated, and is annihilated when made to revert on the author; and that the latter suffers no injustice by being treated in the same way as he has treated others. This retaliation is not, however, a literal one. It inflicts not the same evil on the criminal which he has done to anoth- er ; but it seeks for a generic notion of the offence, and applies, according to this, the principle of the criminal against himself. This affords, at the same time, a measure for punishment, which no other principle of penal law affords, though it still requires that the degree of punishment, in particular cases, should be fixed by positive law. We have thus set forth the theories on the subject of criminal legislation. In no branch of law has legislation been at all times so active as in this. The influence of theory has extended even to the forms of process, and the civili- zation of nations always manifests itself early by the improvement of the criminal law. Criminal law was first treated sci- entifically in Italy, but remained in a very rude state till the middle of the 16th cen- tury. The dreadful abuses in the admin- istration of criminal justice in Germany and France, gave occasion to the two great reforms introduced by the penal code of Charles V, of 1532, and the crim- inal ordinance of Francis I, of 1539. This branch of jurisprudence now assumed a more systematic character. The ordinance of Charles V greatly improved the forms of process, but retained, according to the spirit of the times, cruel punishments, and even torture. Of the points of criminal law, which, in recent times, have given rise to much diversity of opinion, the following are of particular practical impor- tance:—!. The right of punishing flagrant 34 CRIMINAL LAW. crimes without the authority of an express law. Those who acknowledge the au- thority of a natural law, affirm the exist- ence of such a right, and divide criminal actions into those which are bad in them- selves (ddicta juris naturalis), or, as the English law terms them, mala in se, and actions which are of diemselves indiffer- ent but are subjected to a penalty by par- ticular laws (delicto juris positivi), or, as the English law terms them, mala prohib- ita. Crimes of die first class, as murder, theft, &c, must be every where punished, even vritiiout a positive law; but those of the second, as contraband trade, are pun- ishable only when made penal by express enactment. Feuerbach and others, how- ever, acknowledge no right of punishment without an express law. 2. With the pre- ceding is nearly connected the question —how far it is the right or duty of the state to punish crimes, which have been committed in foreign countries. On this point m addition to the difficulties attend- ing the main question, there exists a great difference of opinion as to the laws by which such crimes are to be judged, wheth- er by the laws of the foreign country, or of that to which the individual belongs. 3. What power should be given to the judge to vary the punishment according to the different circumstances attending the offence ? The tendency, in modern times, is to define crimes and their punish- ments so exactly as to leave nothing to the discretion of the judge, and to enable every man to see what he has to expect from a violation of the law. It is doubt- ful whether so much precision is gener- ally advantageous, since it almost necessa- rily produces an unequal distribution of punishment the question whether it shall be light or severe frequently depending on a little difference in the age of the offender, the amount of property stolen, &c.; so diat a penny more or less may make a difference of several years' con- finement in a penitentiary; or the differ- ence of a day, in the age of the culprit, may decide whether he shall be punished with a few stripes, or deprived of his lib- erty for years, or of his life. 4. One of the most difficult points is the just estimation of injuries done to the honor of another, which involves the great question of the liberty of the press. The most important differences of opinion, however, are those which prevail with regard to criminal process. From the representation given above of the principles and the devel- opement of penal law, it is evident that criminal proceedings have always been founded at first upon private accusations, in regard to which almost the same princi- ples prevail as those observed in civil ac- tions. In the course of time, this mode is superseded by a public accusation on the part of the state, appearing by an attorney, to prosecute the offence. Upon this prin- ciple are founded the criminal proceed- ings of the English courts, and of the French courts since the revolution. With this may be united the public trial by jury, which has found so many adherents in modem times. Its fundamental character consists in this, that the party accused remains merely passive, and waits for the charge to be proved. The consequence is, tiiat the sentence must be pronounced from a view of probabilities, and depends, therefore, more on a knowledge of men, and the deductions of a sound judgment, than on technical rules. It has been con- sidered the safest mode of trying offences, in particular, as it prevents the dangers arising from the influence of the higher officers of the state over judges deriving their salaries from the sovereign, by refer- ring the question of guilt or innocence to the verdict of men taken immediately from among the people, i. e. jurors. The Ger- man criminal proceedings are directed principally, it may be said solely, to the end of obtaining from the accused a con- fession of the deed, and of its circum- stances, by inquisitory process. This ad- mits neither of an accuser nor of a public trial, but the judge must inquire of the accused himself, and obtain from him, if possible, by a skilful combination of the circumstances, as well as by awakening the voice of conscience, complete truth. What is in Germany the chief business of the judge, belongs, in France, to the juge instrucleur, and, in England, to justices of the peace, as police officers, whose inves- tigations afford, in common cases, the ma- terials for the final trial. The opponents of the trial by jury allege, as a chief reason for their opposition, that, when the prepar- atory process affords no certain results, the subsequent trial is attended by the same uncertainty. To the preceding article, taken from the German Lexicon, we have to add a few suggestions growing out of the prac- tice of the common law, which constitutes the basis of the institutions of the U. States, as well as of England. The general the- ory of the common law is, that all wrongs are divisible into two species; first, civil or private wrongs; secondly, criminal or public wrongs. The former are to lie redressed by private suits, or remedies iu- CRIMINAL LAW. 35 stituted by the parties injured. The latter are redressed by the state, acting in its sovereign capacity. The general descrip- tion of private wrongs is, that they com- prehend those injuries which affect the rights and property of the individual, and terminate there ; that of public wrongs or offences is, that they comprehend such acts as injure, not merely individuals, but the community at large, by endangering the peace, the comfort, the good order, the policy, and even the existence of socie- ty. The exact boundaries between diese classes are not perhaps, always easy to be discerned, even in theory; for there are few private wrongs which may not and do not exert an influence beyond the individ- ual whom they directly injure. In doubt- ful cases, the legislature usually interferes, and prescribes a positive rule. In clear cases, the right of punishment on the part of the state is assumed as a deduction from natural justice and the duty of the state to protect all its subjects. Hence, in the common law, two classes of offences are distinctly traced out The first em- braces those which rest upon legislative enactments. The second embraces those which, independently of any such enact- ment are deemed, from their very nature, injuries to the pubhc. The offences be- longing to this last class are not, perhaps, capable of a perfect enumeration; and the test by which they are ascertained is left to the judgment of judges, as cases arise, to be fixed, not according to their own discretion, but by analogy and apprecia- tion of the principles and cases already well settled by former adjudications. When, therefore, a non-enumerated wrong arises, which does not fall under any known former rule, the question which is discussed is, how far it falls under the principles already established respecting pubhc crimes. If reasoning furnishes a strong analogy, it is deemed a public of- fence ; if otherwise, it is left for the legis- lature to declare that it shall be such. Treason, murder, setting fire to a dwelling house in a large city, riots disturbing the general peace, poisoning public wells, &c, it will be readily admitted, naturally en- danger the good order and safety of the state, and therefore are properly to be punished by the state. But it is not so easy to trace the same principle in mere secret thefts, or a private fight and yet deny its existence in violent seizures of private property, and private quarrels pro- ducing defamation of character. The common law considers the great object of the pubhc punishment of crimes to be the prevention of offences, by deterring both the offender and others from a repe- tition of the same. Its object is not so much an atonement for, or expiation of, the offences, as a precaution against their recurrence. This naturally includes, not as a primary motive, but as an incident the reformation of the criminal himself; for, so far as that is effected, it prevents offences. That system of punishments is indeed most desirable, which attains its object by such a reformation. But it is obvious, that reformation cannot always be relied upon as a sufficient security for society. Hence arises the necessity or policy of capital punishment, which, by cutting off the offender, not only operates as a terror to others, but secures society against the possible perpetration of the same offence by him. Undoubtedly it ought never to be resorted to except in cases of atrocious guilt, and where less punishments are manifestly inadequate to produce security. Some persons, indeed, doubt the lawfulness of capital punish- ment altogether; but the divine law has certainly sanctioned it Others, who do not question its lawfulness, doubt or deny its policy. It is certain that the frequency of capital punishment has some tendency to abate its terrors; and it is by no means as certain that capital punishments have a tendency to prevent the occurrence of the crime, or to secure a conviction. There is a natural repugnance to punish, with so much severity, slight offences; and judges and juries, as well as the public, under such circumstances, lean against prosecu- tions and in favor of acquittals. Hence the probability of conviction is sometimes in proportion to the moderation of punish- ments. On the other hand, it is found by experience, that the punishment of death is not sufficient to deter men from the commission of offences to which tiiey are sti-ongly tempted by their passions or their wants.* The tendency of modern legis- lation has, therefore, almost uniformly been in favor of relaxing the severity of the penal code. In England, capital pun- ishments are very extensively provided for by statute. There are more than 160 capital offences in her code. (4 Bl. Comm. 18.) In the U. States, there has been a constant effort to diminish the number of capital offences. There are but 9 in the criminal code of the U. States; and the codes of the respective states do not gen- * Indeed, the severity of the punishment some- times induces the offender to become more savage and atrocious. Thus, where robbery is punishable with death, it is often attended with murder. 36 CRIMINAL LAW. erally embrace a larger number. Treason, murder, rape, arson or burning of a dwel- ling house, are generally punishable with death; and sometimes robbery, burglary or breaking into a dwelling house in the night time with intent to steal. The code of the U. States also includes piracy, die slave-trade, fraudulently casting away ships on the sea, robbery of the mail, burning public ships of war, ana1 the res- cue of convicts capitally convicted when the sentence is about to be executed. The punishment of other offences is, for those of great enormity, solitary confinement or hard labor in a penitentiary or prison erected for diat purpose; and for those of a lower degree, fine or imprisonment, or both, according to the natiure and aggra- vation of the offence. In the U. States, no capital punishments are inflicted unless by the injunctions of some positive statute. In England, the same rule prevails to a limited extent A few offences are pun- ished by the common law with death, without any statute to direct it, founded either upon the notion of conformity to the divine law, or upon some positive law whose existence cannot now be traced. Such are murder, rape, robbery, burglary, and certain other felonies at the common law. In respect to other offences, for which no statute has prescribed any pun- ishment the general rule of the common law is, that they are punishable by fine or imprisonment, or by both. Considering the infinite variety of circumstances which may occur to extenuate or aggravate the offence, not only the common law, but the legislature has left much of the degree of punishment to the discretion of the judges who try the case. That discretion must be exercised in public; and experience has proved that it is, on the whole, wiser and safer to leave it to the natural opera- tions of judicial responsibility, than, by any attempts to define and limit the exact de- gree of punishment to run the hazard of introducing other mischiefs by excluding mercy where it might be most desirable. No code of laws could be sufficiently mi- nute to embrace all circumstances; and none could, therefore, provide for a perfect uniformity of punishments, according to the absolute nature of the offence. Anoth- er inquiry is, Who are, in a legal sense, capable of committing crimes, so as to be amenable to punishment? The general rule of die common law is, that all per- sons are punishable for disobedience to, and infractions of the law. The excep- tions are few, and are clearly defined. They are such as presuppose a defect of reason and understanding, or of intention. A defect of understanding exists in the case of injuries committed by persons in a state of infancy, lunacy, idiocy, or intoxi- cation. A defect of intention exists in the case of offences committed by chance, mistake and ignorance, wholly w ithout or against the intention of the party. In respect to want of capacity, idiots, mad- men, and other persons not at the time m possession of reason, such as somnambu- lists, are generally excused, whatever in- juries they may commit. But the com- mon law does not extend this indulgence to crimes committed by persons who are in a state of voluntary intoxication. It con- siders this circumstance rather in the light of an aggravation of the offence. But a distinction is here to be made. If the Earty be, at the time of the offence, drunk y the use of strong liquors, he is punish- able, though he may be thereby reduced, at the time, to a state of insanity. But if drunkenness be only the remote cause of the insanity, and the party be not, at the time, under the influence of intoxicating Uquors, the law treats his case like that of any other insane person. It does not look back to the original and remote cause of the insanity, to ascertain whether it has been produced by criminal indulgence, or neglect of duty, but to the immediate and operating cause, at the time when the crime is committed. The exception, therefore, of the case of insanity by imme- diate intoxication, is carved out of the general exception in favor of insanity, and arises from, or at least is countenanced by, motives of public policy, to prevent the dangerous effects arising from indul- {jence in strong liquors. The common aw is, in this particular, more severe than the civil law. The latter never punished capitally for an offence committed under such circumstances. (4 Bl. Comm. 26.)— As to crimes committed by infants. There are various ages of infancy, in the com- mon law, for different purposes. The general age of majority for all purposes is, in our law, 21 years; in the civil law, 25 years. Children under 7 years of age are deemed without discretion, and are uni- versally exempted, by our law, from pun- ishment Between 7 and 14 years, they are said to be in a dubious stage, in point of discretion. If they, in fact possess it, if they appear to have judgment, and un- derstanding, and a sense of crime, they are liable to punishment; otherwise not Generally, the rule of presumption is in favor of mercy, that an infant under 14 is doli incapax; but this presumption CRIMINAL LAW. 37 may bb removed by facts establishing a clear sense of the difference between good and evil, together with malice and supe- rior cunning. (4 Bl. Comm. 22,23.) -How- ever, it deserves consideration, whether this is a sufficient test of rational discern- ment of the nature of crime and duty; and judges may well lean against convic- tions in such cases, upon principles not merely of humanity, but of philosophical responsibility. After 14, the general pre- sumption is in favor of an infant being doli capax, and therefore he generally stands upon grounds similar to those of adults, until his actual incapacity is proved. —As to crimes committed by lunatics and idiots, the exception on account of want of capacity obviously applies only to oases where it exists at the time of the commission of the offence. Hence it is uo excuse, if a person who has been in- sane commits an offence in a lucid inter- val, or at a time when his reason is clearly restored. So, on the other hand, a per- son may not be an absolute idiot, so as to have no discernment whatsoever, and yet may be excusable from punishment if his capacity be so weak that he does not, though an adult understand clearly the distinctions between right and wrong. Ex- treme old age sometimes reduces persons fo a state almost of fatuity, and exposes them to be imposed upon, and even se- 'iuced to the commission of offences, under circumstances where they would be held no more liable to punishment than infants. Every thing depends upon soundness of mind and real discretion at the time of committing the offence. When a person becomes insane after the commission of an offence, and before trial, he is not, by the common law, ever al- lowed to be brought to trial, until he is restored to his reason. At whatever stage of a public prosecution the insanity occurs, it operates as a suspension of all further proceedings. Thus, if it occurs before arraignment, the party ought not to be arraigned tor the offence; if after arraign- ment he ought not to be required to plead; if after plea, he ought not to be put to trial; if after trial, he ought not to have judgment or sentence pronounced against him ; if after judgment execution of the sentence ought to be stayed. The ground upon which this rule of law is commonly supposed to stand is, that it ought never to be presumed that the party, if sane, might not suggest some defence that, in reason or justice, would entide him to mercy, or to exemption from punishment A reason quite as satisfactory is, that the VOL. iv. 4 punishment of an insane person can pro- duce no good result either to reform the offender or as a public example. It would shock all the feelings of humanity to inflict punishment on those whom the visitation of Providence had already made objects of wretchedness and of compassion. In all cases where it is doubtful whether the party be insane or not, the fact is, by the common law, to be tried by a jury.—In re- spect to injuries committed without the in- tention of die party, as through misfortune or chance. Where an accidental mischief happens in the jierformance of a lawful act, in the doing of which the party uses reasonable care and diligence, he is whol- ly free from guilt and it is deemed his misfortune; but if he does not use rea- sonable care and diligence, he is liable to punishment according to the nature and extent of his negligence. If guilty of gross negligence, he is sometimes punishable in the same manner as if the act were inten- tionally committed; if guilty of slight negligence only, he escapes with a more moderate punishment If the mischief happens in the performance of an unlaw- ful act, and a consequence ensues which was not intended or foreseen, the party is not free from guilt. But the degree of punishment ought to depend upon the nature of the unlawful act itself. A dis- tinction is taken, in the common law, between cases where the original act is wrong and unlawful in itself (malum per se), and where it is merely prohibited by stat- ute (malum prohibitum). In the former case, the party is responsible for all inci- dental consequences of the unlawful act; in the latter, not. An illustration of these principles may be found in cases com- monly put in our treatises on criminal law: If a man lie at work with a hatchet and the head flies off, and kills a stander- by, this is not any offence, for the party was doing a lawful act, without any in- tention of hurt. So a parent may mod- erately correct a child, and if, in so doing, death happens, against his intention, it is mere misadventure. But if he corrects the child immoderately, or uses an instru- ment which is dangerous to life, or is wanting in reasonable caution, he is guilty either of manslaughter or murder, accord- ing to the circumstances and the degree of the punishment If a man, riding a horse with reasonable care, accidentally runs over a child and kills him, he is not guilty of any offence. If he rides him furiously in a street where there may be danger, and the like mischief happens, he is guilty of manslaughter at least. If he rides him 38 CRIMINAL LAW. furiously into a crowd, either from wan- tonness or thoughtlessness, and the like accident happens, it will be murder. If a person in England, duly qualified by law to kill game, accidentally kills another while so doing, he is guilty of no offence. If a person be prohibited by statute from kill- ing game, and the like accident happens by his shooting, he is not answerable in any other maimer than'a person duly qualified. This last case illustrates the distinction as to cases of malum prohibitum. On the other hand, if a jierson, shooting at poultry belonging to another person, by accident kills a man, if his intention was to steal the poultry, it will be murder, by reason of the felonious intent: if his intention was not to steal, but it was an act of mere wantonness, it will be man- slaughter only. In these last cases, the act is malum in se.—In respect to injuries committed through ignorance or mistake. This may arise when a man, intending to do a lawful act, does what is unlawful. An illustration commonly put is that of a man intending to kill a thief or house- breaker, in his own house, who, by mis- take, kills one of his own family. In this case, if he acted under circumstances of reasonable belief that the party killed was the thief or housebreaker, there is no ground to impute criminality to him. His conduct was founded in a mistake of fact, that is, of the person; for it is sometimes lawful, by the common law, to kill a housebreaker found in your house. But a mistake, or ignorance of law will not justify an act of the Uke nature. If a per- son supposes he has a right to kill a tres- passer or outlaw, or excommunicated per- son, and he does so, he is guilty of murder.— In respect to crimes committed by compul- sion Or force. The common law recognises but few cases in which the authority or command of a superior furnishes any ex- cuse for the commission of an offence. In the case of children or servants, the com- mands of the master or parent furnish no excuse. In the case of a wife who com- mits a crime in company with her husband, she is deemed, by the benignity of our law, to act under compulsion, and therefore she is excused in all cases except murder, manslaughter and treason. These excep- tions are founded upon the peculiar dan- ger and atrocity of the offences, and the pubUc poUcy of discouraging every motive to commit them. Where the wife com- mits the offence alone, without the com- pany or compulsion of her husband, she is personally responsible in the same man- ner as if she were unmarried. There are other species of compulsion recognised in the common law, which may excuse the commission of offences. Thus where a person-commits an offence in consequence of tin-eats or menaces, which induce a fear of death or other bodily harm. This is called duress per minas. But the fear which compels a man to do an illegal act must be just and well grounded, such as may intimidate a firm and resolute man, and not merely of such a nature as may operate upon the timid and irresolute, oth- erwise it wiU constitute no excuse. Thus, in time of war or rebellion, a man may be excused for doing treasonable acts, if they are caused by the compulsion of the enemy or rebels. But the compulsion must not be a mere threat to do injury to property, nor even slight injury- to the person, but a just fear either of death or of great bodily injury ; and even in such case, it is the duty of the party to avoid doing such acts as soon as he safely may, by escape or otherwise; for if he does not, he will be liable to punishment as a vol- unteer. But even this excuse is not al- lowed in all cases, but seems principally confined to crimes positively created by society; for no man can justify or excuse himself for murdering an innocent person, under the pretence of fear or necessity, though he certainly may kill another in necessary self-defence. Another case of compulsion or necessity often occurs in the reasoning of speculative writers, whether a person in extreme want of food is excu- sable for stealing to satisfy his hunger. Whatever may be the doctrine of foreign jurists, or the opinion of publicists, it is certain that no such excuse is now admit- ted in the common law. If the offence should be committed under circumstances of extraordinary suffering, the case would rarely be brought before any tribunal of justice ; and if it should be, the power of pardon in the government, and the huirian- ity of the court itself, would either annul or mitigate the punishment. There is another case often put, where two persons at sea are shipwrecked, and get on a single plank, and it cannot support both, but both must be drowned unless one is dis- placed : what is then to be done ? In such a case, the law of self-preservation has been supposed to justify either party in a forcible dispossession of the other. The common law seems to recognise this prin- ciple, and, in such a deplorable calamity, imputes no blame to the survivor.—We now proceed to notice another important distinction, which the common law acts upon in relation to crimes. It is the dis- CRIMINAL LAW. 39 tinction in guilt and punishment which is made between principals and accessories. Persons are called principals in the first degree, who are the actors or perpetrators of the offence. Persons who are present, aiding and abetting the perpetrator, are called principals in the second degree. This presence may be either in fact, as where the parties are immediately standing by, or are within sight and hearing; or con- structive, as when the party, though not within sight or hearing, is on the watch at a convenient distance, ready to assist, and near enough to do so, if required. There are cases, too, in which a person may be the principal in -construction of law, although he is absent, and the fact is done through the instrumentality of anoth- er ; as, in case of murder by poisoning, a man may be the principal felon by pre- paring or laying the poison, with an inten- tion that it should be taken, or by employ- ing an innocent person to administer it, under false pretences, although he is not personally present when it is taken or administered. Many cases of the Uke nature may be easily put. An accessory is he who is not the chief actor in the of- fence, nor present at its perpetration, in the sense above stated, but who is in some manner concerned in it, either before or after the fact is committed. If he pro- cures, counsels, abets or commands the crime, and is absent at its commission, he is deemed an accessoiy before the fact If, without any such participation in it, he knows diat the crime has been committed, and afterwards relieves, assists, comforts or receives the offender, he is deemed an accessory after the fact. Thus, if he aids the offender to escape, or rescues him from arrest or conceals or supports him, he is deemed an accessoiy after the fact; so if he buys or receives stolen goods, know- ing thcin to be stolen. There are certain classes of offences at the common law which admit of no accessories. Thus, in treason, all the parties concerned are deem- ed principals propter odium delicti; and in offences which are under the degree of fel- ony, and in trespasses, all persons con- cerned are deemed principals, for an oppo- site reason, because the law will not con- descend, in petty crimes, to ascertain the different degrees of guilt In all other offences, that is, in all except the highest and the. lowest, there may be, technically speaking, accessories. It follows as a maxim, that, in such cases, the accessory cannot be guilty of a higher offence than his principal. In respect to punishment, the ancient common law did not make any distinction between accessories and princi- pals ; but by statute, many distinctions are now made, and especially regarding ac- cessories after the fact. In the U. States, few of our criminal codes have failed to mark out very strong differences in the punishment. There are, in fact, many reasons which require the distinction be- tween principals and accessories to be con stantly kept in view. In the first place, in many instances, a man cannot be tried as accessory until after the trial and con- viction of the principal. In the next place, if a man be indicted as accessory and acquitted, he may still be indicted as principal. In the third place, as a natural inference from the other considerations, the defence of the accused may, and often must, turn upon very different principles, where he is accused as accessoiy, from what might or could arise if he were accused as principal.—In respect to the mode of presentment and ttial for of- fences. In England, no person can be brought to trial, for any capital offence or felony, except upon the presentment or indictment of a grand jury ; but for infe- rior offences or misdemeanors, an informar tion, in the nature of an indictment, may be filed by the king's attorney-general, or odier proper officer, upon which the party may be put upon trial. Even in such cases, an indictment also lies. In the U. States, informations are rarely resorted to in any of the states in such cases; and the usual, and, in many cases, the only constitutional course is an indictment by a grand jury. All offences, whether charged by indictment or information, are, by the .common law, to be tried by a jury com- posed of 12 men, and their verdict is con- clusive upon the .facts. In the U. States, this privilege of trial by jury is generally secured by the constitutions of the state and national governments. A privilege often quite as valuable to the accused, is that of being assisted by counsel in the management of his defence. It is a cu- rious anomaly in the English jurispru- dence, that counsel are admissible in the argument of facts to the jury only in the highest and lowest offences; in treason, by the express provision of statute, and in mere misdemeanors, by the common law. In all capital cases, except treason, the ac- cused is denied this privilege; and, how- ever important and useful such a privilege may be, the introduction of it has been hitherto successfully resisted in the British pariiament In the U. States, a far differ- ent, and, as we think, wiser and more hu- mane rule prevails. In aU criminal cases, 40 CRDIINAL LAW—CROCODILE. the accused is entitled, as of right, to the assistance of counsel in his defence; and this right, also, is generally secured by the state and national constitutions of govern- ment. This is not the place for a discus- sion of the value of such a right, though to us it seems recommended by principles of policy as weU as of justice and human- ity. The mode of impanneling juries, the right of challenge, and other incidents of criminal trials, belong more appropriately to other heads. (See Crime, Courts, and Jury.) Crisis (from xphuv, to decide), in medi- cine ; a point in a disease, at which a de- cided change for the better or the worse takes place. The crisis is most strongly marked in the case of acute diseases, and with strong patients, particularly if the course of the disease is not checked by energetic treatment. At the approach of a crisis, the disease appears to take a more violent character, and the disturbance of the system reaches the highest point. If the change is for the better, the violent symptoms cease with a copious perspira- tion, or some other discharge from the system. In cases where the discharge may have been too violent, and the nobler organs have been greatly deranged, or where the constitution is too weak to re- sist the disease, the patient's condition becomes worse. In regular fevers, the crisis takes place on regular days, which are called critical days (the 7th, l4th and 21st); sometimes, however, a little sooner or later, according to the climate and the constitution of the patient. A bad turn often produces a crisis somewhat sooner. When the turn is favorable, the crisis fre-. quently occurs a Uttle later. After a salu- tary crisis, the patient feels himself relieved, and the dangerous symptoms cease.—It hardly need be mentioned, that the word ciisis is figuratively used for a decisive point in any important affair or business, for instance, in politics. Crispin ; the name of two legendary saints, whose festival is celebrated on the 25th of October. They are said to have been born at Rome, about 303 A. D., and to have travelled to France to propagate Christianity, where they died as martyrs. During their mission, they maintained diemselves by shoemaking; hence they are the patrons of shoemakers. Critical Philosophy. (See Kant, and Philosophy.) Croatia; a kingdom of the Austrian monarchy, connected with Hungary. It is divided into Civil and MiUtary Croatia. The former contains 3665 square miles, 441,000 inhabitants, 7 cities, 16 market towns, 1827 viUages, and consists of the three counties of Agram, Creutz, and the Hungarian Littorale (of which the princi- pal place is Fiume). It is watered by the Drave, Save, Culpa and Unna, and bound- ed by Hungary, Sclavonia, Bosnia, Dal- matia, Ulvria and Styria. Military Croa- tia (see Military Districts) contains 6100, according to some, 4884, square miles, with 414,800 inhabitants, in 6 cities, 6 market towns, and 1241 villages. The inhabitants are Croats and Rascians, mix- ed with a few Germans and Hungarians. The Croats, a Sclavonic tribe, are Roman CathoUcs, and are known as good sol- diers, but have made little progress in science and the arts; nay, they have not among them even all of the ordinary mechanics. Their language is the Slave- no-Horwatic dialect In Turkish Croatia (on the Unna and near Bihatsch), they are Greek Catholics. Civil Croatia is fertile, and intersected by heights of very moderate elevation, extending down from Styria and Camiola. Military Croatia, however, towards Bosnia and Dalmatia, has mountains rising to the height of 5400 feet; as, for instance, Wellebit, the Plissivicza mountains, and the mountains of Zrin. The cUmate is healthier than that of the neighboring Sclavonia, and mild. The country produces chiefly wine, tobacco, grain of various soils, including maize, fruits, particularly plums, wood, cattle, horses, sheep, swine, game, fish, bees, iron, copper, and sulphur. Crocodile (crocodilus); a genus of saurian, or lizard-like reptile, species of which are found in the old and new world. That inhabiting the Nile and other rivers of Africa has been known for many ages, and celebrated, from the remotest antiquity, for qualities which render it terrible to mankind. As the largest reptile known* and as the most ferocious and destructive of the inhabi- tants of the waters, it could not but com- mand the attention, and excite the fears, of those who were near enough to observe its peculiarities. Few persons have read the sublime book of Job, without being struck with the magnificent and terrible description of the attributes of leviathan to which alone the characters of the crocodile correspond. It is not surprising that the Egyptians, who deified almost * The skeletons of much larger reptiles have been discovered within the last half century ; but from the strata in which they were found, it is certain they had become extinct long before the earth was inhabited by man. CROCODILE. 41 every thing, should place among their gods animals so powerful and destructive, though a better reason is to be found in the defence which they afforded against the incursions of Arabs and other robbers, who were not fond of adventuring across canals and rivers frequented by crocodiles. A regular priesthood and worship were consecrated to this ferocious deity, and in the temple of Memphis a sacred individ- ual of the species was reared with great care, being abundantly fed, adorned with jewels, and lodged in a spacious basin, having offerings and sacrifices made to him. Being thus fed and managed, the terrible reptile became sufficiently mild and tractable to be led about in ceremo- nial processions. When he died, the priests embalmed his body, and buried it in the royal sepulchre! So much for the wisdom of the nation which is commonly regarded as the most enlightened of an- tiquity ! The most ancient description of the crocodile is that given by Herodotus, in his observations on Egypt, hi his first book. This account, though mingled with a considerable share of fable, is gen- erally correct; and some of the errors still in existence concerning this animal, ap- pear to be derived from his statement: such are the stories of the bird which picks the crocodile's teeth, and that the animal moves only the upper jaw. The latter assertion, though utterly incorrect, is repeated, even at this day, by persons who have had opportunities of knowing better from actual observation, had they not been too much blinded by prejudice to profit thereby. The genus is cliarac-. terized by the following peculiarities: The tail is compressed or broadest vertically; the posterior feet are wholly or partly palmated; the tongue attached to the mouth, even to its very edges, without being in the least extensible; a single range of simple pointed teeth; the male organ single. There are five toes on the front, four on the hind feet, only three toes of each foot being provided with claws. The body, above and below, and the entire length of the tail, are covered with square scales or plates, most of those on the back having ridges or spines of various lengths: the flaiiks are only pro- tected by small round scales. Two rang- es of spines, forming a double dentated line, are placed at the base of the tail, which subsequently unite or form a single ridge on the remainder of its length. The ears are externally closed by two fleshy sfips; the nostrils form a long narrow canal, which pnly opens interiorly at the 4* back of the throat. The eyes are provid- ed with three Uds; and under the throat there are two small pouches, which se- crete a strongly musky substance. Cuvier has divided the genus into three sub-gen- era, viz. gavials, having an elongated nar- row beak or snout; caymans, or alUgators, with broad snouts, and having four lower teeth to fit into holes excavated for them in the upper jaw, and crocodiles proper, having the head oblong, twice as long as broad, and the four long lower jaw teeth passing by grooves, and not entering into cavities in the upper jaw. The gavials are most common in, if not peculiar to, the great rivers of India. The alUgators are confined to the new continent, and the crocodile proper, with a single exception, to Africa. These reptiles are truly for- midable, from their great size and strength, and, if they were not rendered unwieldy by die length of the body and tail, might become as dreadful on land as in the water, where they can act to the greatest advantage. Where they abound, it is ex- tremely dangerous to venture into the rivers for the purpose of bathing, or to be carelessly exposed in a smaU boat On shore, their shortness of limb, great length of body, and difficulty of turning, or of advancing otherwise than directly for- ward, enable men and animals readily to escape pursuit For a crocodile of 12, 15, or 18 feet in length, to turn fairly, it must necessarily describe a very large circle. In the water, the vast force it can exert by means of the long oar-like tail, amply compensates for want of flexibiUty, and renders the animal more than a match for any of its enemies. The force with which it darts through the water, in pursuit of prey, resembles the flight of an airow rather than the progression of a huge animal, and, when engaged in rude gambols, or in combating with others of its kind, the waves are lashed into foam, and may be truly said to " boil like a pot" The mouth, when expanded, forms a hor-t rible chasm, extending even to the ears, and armed around its border by strong pointed teeth. This construction, with the absence of lips, and the confined posi- tion of the tongue, show that the action of the mouth is confined simply to seizing and tearing the food. These animals are exclusively carnivorous, feeding on such animals as frequent the waters, on fish, or carcasses thrown into the streams they inhabit They always prefer their food in a certain state of putrefaction, and are found to keep animals killed by them- selves in the mud, until this process has 42 CROCODILE—CROISADE. begun. In regard to the general charac- ter and habits of crocodiles, we might safely refer to the account given in the first volume of this work, under the title Alligator, which has been more carefully observed. They are so similar hi every respect, that what is said of the American species, with very slight modification, will hold good of the African. The crocodile of Egypt is no longer found, except in the upper parts of that country, where the heat is greatest, and the population least numerous. Anciently, the species was common nearly to the outlet of the Nile; and it is stated by PUny, that they used to pass the winter months buried in the mud, in a state of torpidity. They are still common enough in the river Senegal, the Jaire, Joliba, &c. The size to which these creatures grow is very remarkable, and would lead us to believe that they live to a vast age. It is stated by excellent au- thorities, that individuals have been killed in Upper Egypt measuring 30 feet in length, M. Cloquet, who was one of the French institute, engaged in exploring that country, while the armies of the re- public were present, saw a crocodile 25 feet long. A little reflection upon the muscular power of such a reptile will serve to convince us of its ability to com- mit extensive ravages on the lives of other creatures. There are numerous particu- lars connected with the anatomy of these beings, which are very curious and inter- esting. Such are the articulations of the lower jaw with the upper, the joint being so far back as to cause almost every inci- dental observer to believe that the upper, not the lower jaw, is moved in opening the mouth ; the lateral spines on the ver- tebra1, which prevent the turning of the body, except in a large circle ; the curious set of ribs designed exclusively for the protection of the belly, aided by two broad bones standing on the anterior edge of the pelvis, which may be compared with the ossa marsupialia of certain quad- rupeds ; the construction of the external ears ; the apparatus for the protection of the eye, &c- (See the article Ad- CROSS—CROTCH. 53 oration.) Two sorts of crosses are used for the forms of churches, the Greek and the Latin. The Greek cross has its arms at right angles, and all of equal length; whereas the Latin cross has one of its limbs much longer than the other three. Bramante originally designed St Peter's for a Latin cross; Michael Angelo reduced it to the proportions of the Greek cross; but Carlo Maderno again elongated it to the original dimensions of Bramante. The cathedral of St Paul's, London, is a Latin cross, with its base spread by a sort of second transept, which increases the breadth of the western front. Cross, in baptism. In the administra- tion of the ordinance of baptism, the practice of making the sign of the cross on the forehead of the person bap- tized, was adopted at an early period, though not enjoined by any express command, or sanctioned by any known example in scripture. The use of the cross, indeed, was very frequent in the primitive ages of Christianity. Such was the respect paid to it, that it formed, in one mode or another, a distinguishing part of the civil and religious ceremonies of those times. The first Christian writer who mentions it in connexion with bap- tism, is TertuUian, who wrote after the middle of the 2d century. This writer says (De Cov. Mil. c. 2), that "at every setting out, or entry upon business, when- ever we come in or go out from any place, when we dress for a journey, when we go into a bath, when we go to meat, when the candles are brought in, when we lie down or sit down, and whatever business we have, we make on our fore- heads the sign of the cross;" and, speak- ing of baptism, in his treatise De Cam. Resur., he says, "the flesh is signed that the soul may be fortified." Cross-bearer (porte-croix, cruciger), in the Roman Catholic church, the chaplain of an archbishop, or a primate, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions. The pope has the cross bome before him every where; a patriarch any where out of Rome; and primates, metropolitans, and those who. have a right to the pallium, throughout their respective jurisdictions. Gregory XI forbade all patriarchs and prelates to have it borne in the presence of cardinals. A prelate bears a single cross, a patriarch a double cross, and the pope a triple one on his amis. Cross-bar Shot are shots with iron liars crossing through them, sometimes standing out 6 or 8 inches at both sides. They are used at sea for injuring the ene- 5* my's rigging, and in sieges, for destroying the palisades in the covert-way, ditches, &c. Cross-Bow, or Arbalist; formerly a very common weapon for shooting, but not long used in war after the invention of fire-arms. It is a strong wooden or steel bow, fixed to a stock, stretched by the spanner, and shot off by the trigger fixed to the stock. All kinds of weapons, in which the bow was fastened to the stock, were called cross-bows, some of which were attached to carriages, and drawn by horses. There was a small kind, from which were shot Uttle balls. To the larger sort were attached instruments for bending the bow. There are some socie- ties still existing in Germany, who exer- cise with the cross-bow; for instance, in Aix-la-Chapelle. (See Archery.) Cross Examination ; the examination of a witness called by one party, by the opposite party or his counsel. Cross Fire, in the art of war, is when the lines of fire, from two or more parts of a work, cross one another. It is frequently made use of to prevent an enemy's passing through a defile. The flanks, as well as the faces of two adjoin- ing bastions, afford the means of cross fire, as do also the faces of two adjoining redoubts. Crotch, William, in his infancy a mu- sical prodigy, was bom at Norwich, Eng., July 5, 1775. His father, a carpenter, had made a little organ for his amusement, and, one evening, when a friend was play- ing on the instrument, and singing at the same time, the child became so excited, that the parents were anxious to account for the cause: their surprise was extreme, when they remarked the delight with which the child touched the keys, when his mother carried him to the organ. The following morning, his father placed him at the instrument when he repeated several passages from airs which he had heard performed. After this, the boy was permitted to play on the organ, when- ever he was inclined. He learnt different airs with facihty, and often intermixed passages of his own composition, which were always harmonious, as he had a natural aversion to discords. This prodi- gy of two years old was frequently called on to amuse the public by his extraordina- ry talent. In November, 1778, his mother took him to Cambridge, and, in December, to London, where the boy excited universal astonishment by his performance on the organ. In 1779, he played before the court of St. James with great applause, 54 CROTCH—CROUP. his infantine, playful manner prepossess- ingevery one in his favor. Whatever he had ence heard he could repeat and often with variations. In every other respect, Crotch was a perfect child, animated, petulant sometimes obstinate, and of a weak frame. He now received regular instruction, first at Cambridge, then in the college of St. Mary, at Oxford. Here he was chosen organist, in his 18th year, and likewise studied drawing and painting, in which he made rapid progress. After he had been appointed doctor and professor in Oxford, he proceeded to London, where he delivered lectures on music in the Royal and Suny institution, and gave lessons on the piano during 20 years. He now Uves at Fulham, near London, and has not appeared in public for several years. He is a well informed and modest man. His musical pubUcations consist of arrangements of compositions for the pi- ano-forte from the first masters, and an in- teresting collection of characteristic pieces for the different musical styles of compo- sition, entitled Specimens of various Styles of Music (3 vols., foUo). Only one work of his has created a sensation amongst the musical connoisseurs in England—his ora- torio called Palestine. It is evident that Crotch has more capacity for acquiring than inventing. Crotona, also Croto, in ancient ge- ography ; a Greek republic in Magna Gnecia, or South Italy. Livy gives the circumference of the city of Crotona at 12,00Q^Daces. This city was famous for producing the strongest athleta,. Milo, e. g., was bom here. Under the Ro- y mans, Crotona was infamous for luxury 'I* and dissoluteness. The rains of this '* place are still to be seen above Capo deUa Colonna. Croton Oil is expressed from the seeds of an East Indian plant, the croton tiglium, and is one of the most valuable of the late additions to the materia medi- ca. It is so strongly purgative, that one drop is a full dose, and half a drop will sometimes produce a powerful effect. It is also found to produce the same effect when rubbed upon the tongue, or even upon the skin. It is so active, that it should never be used but under the direc- tion of an experienced physician. In the hands of such, it is of great value, as its small bulk and insipid taste render it ser- viceable in cases in Avhich no common medicine can be used, and its great power makes it operate when other medicines fail. It lias been given to the extent of 8 or 10 drops, in a bad case of ileus, which it cured, without producing any bad symp- toms. It should, however, be used with great caution. Croup; a disease that mostly attacks infants, who are suddenly seized with a difficulty of breathing and a croupmg noise; it is an inflammation of the mu- cous membrane of the windpipe, induc- ing the secretion of a very tenacious, coagulable lymph, which lines the air passages and impedes respiration. The croup does not appear to be contagious, whatever some physicians may think to the contrary; but it sometimes prevails epidemically. It seems, however, pecu- Uar to some families; and a child, having once been attacked, is very liable to a return. It is confined to young children, and has never been known to attack a person arrived at the age of puberty. The application of cold seems to be the gen- eral cause which produces this disorder, and therefore it occurs more frequently in the winter and spring than in the other seasons. It has been said, diat it is most prevalent near the sea-coast; but it is frequently met with in inland situations, and particularly those which are marshy. Some days previous to an attack of the disease, the child appears drowsy, inac- tive and fretful; the eyes are somewhat suffused and heavy; and there is a cough, which, from the first, has a peculiarly shrill sound; this, in the course of two days, becomes more violent and trouble- some, and likewise more shrill. Every fit of coughing agitates the patient very much; the face is flushed and swelled, the eyes are protuberant, a general tremor takes place, and there is a kind of convul- sive endeavor to renew respiration at the close of each fit. As the disease ad- vances, a constant difficulty of breathing prevails, and the head is thrown back in the agony of attempting to escape suffo- cation. There is not only an unusual sound produced by die cough (something between the yelping and barking of a dog), but respiration is performed with a hissing noise, as if the windpipe was closed up by some slight, spongy substance. The cough is generally dry; but if any thing is spit up, it has either a purulent appear- ance, or seems to consist of films resem- bling portions of a membrane. Where great nausea and frequent retchings pre- vail, coagulated matter of the same nature is brought up. With these symptoms, there is much thirst and an uneasy sense of heat over the whole body, a continual incUnation to change from place to place, great restlessness, and frequency of the CROUP—CROW. 55 pulse. In an advanced stage of the dis- ease, respiration becomes more stridulus, and is performed with still greater diffi- culty, being repeated at longer periods, and with greater exertions, until, at last, it ceases entirely. The croup frequently Eroves fatal by suffocation, induced either y spasm affecting the glottis, or by a quantity of matter blocking up the air pas- sages ; but when it terminates in health, it is by a resolution of the inflammation, by a ceasing of the spasms, and by a free expectoration of the matter exuding from the trachea, or of the crusts formed there. The disease has, hi a few instances, ter- minated fatally within 24 hours after its attack; but it more usually happens, that where it proves fatal, it runs on to the 4th or 5th day. Where considerable por- tions of the membranous films, formed on the surface of the trachea, are thrown up, Ufe is sometimes protracted for a day or two longer than would otherwise have happened. Dissections of children, who have died of the croup, have mostly shown a preternatural membrane, lining the whole internal surface of the upper pint of the trachea, which may always be easily sep- arated from the proper membrane. There is Ukewise usually found a good deal of mucus, with a mixture of pus, in the wind- pipe and its ramifications. The treat- ment of this disease must be conducted on the strictly antiphlogistic plan. It will commonly be proper, where the patient is not very young, to begin by taking blood from the arm or the jugular vein; several leeches should be applied along the fore part of the neck. It will then be right to give a nauseating emetic, ipecacuanha with tartarized antimony, or with squill, in divided doses; this may be followed up by cathartics, diaphoretics, digitalis, &c. Large blisters ought to be applied near the affected part, and a discharge kept up by savin cerate, or other stimulant dressing. Mercury, carried speedily to salivation, has in several instances arrested the prog- ress of the disease, when it appeared pro- ceeding to a fatal termination. As die inflammation is declining, it is very im- portant that free expectoration should take place. This may be promoted by nauseat- ing medicines, by inhaUng steam, and by stimulating gargles, for which the decoc- tion of seneka is particularly recommend- ed. Where there is much wheezing, an occasional emetic may relieve the patient considerably, and, under symptoms of threatening suffocation, the operation of bronchotomv has sometimes saved life. Should fits* of spasmodic difficulty of breathing occur in the latter periods of the disease, opium, joined with diapho- retics, would be most likely to do good. Napoleon, on the occasion of the death of his nephew, the prince of Holland, of this disease, offered a premium of 12,000 francs for the best treatise on the croup. Of 83 essays, which were presented to the committee of 12 members assembled for the examination at Paris, in 1811, two were acknowledged as the best, one by Iurine, in Geneva, and the other by Albers, of Bremen, between whom the prize was divided. Crousaz, John Peter de, a celebrated mathematician and philosopher, was born at Lausanne, in 1660. He early distin- guished himself by his progress in mathe- matics and philosophy, under able pro- fessors at Geneva and Lausanne, apply- ing himself particularly to the writings of Descartes. In 1682, he went to the uni- versity of Leyden, and thence proceeded to Paris, where he became acquainted with the celebrated father Malebranche, who, with other celebrated men, vainly endeavored to convert him to the Catholie religion. On returning to his native coun- try, he was ordained minister, appointed honoraiy jirofessor, and remained pastor of the church at Lausanne. In 1699, he was made professor of Greek and of phi- losophy in the academy of Lausanne, ap- pointed rector in 1706, and again in 1722. In 1724, he was chosen mathematical and philosophical professor at the univei-sity at Grouingen. In 1732, he was nominated counsellor of embassies to the king of Sweden, and, in 1737, elected professor of philosophy and mathematics at Lau- sanne. His works are distinguished for learning, Uberality and acuteness. The principal are, A System of Reflections that may contribute to the IUustration and Ex- tension of Knowledge, or a new Essay on Logic (in 6 vols., 12mo., 1741); Summa Logica (1724); a Treatise on Education; Examen du Pyrrhonisme ancien et mo- derne; Geometne des Lignes et des Surfaces rectilignes et circulaires; Examen de VEs- sai de M. Pope; Commentaire sur la Tra- duction de VEssai de M. Pope, de VAbU du Resnel; Traiti du Beau; a Treatise on the Human Understanding. Crow (corvus, L.); a genus of birds remarkable for their gregarious and preda- tory habits, distinguished by the foUowing characters: The bill is straight, convex and compressed, being covered at its base by incumbent, bristly feathers; the upper mandible is curved at tip, the lower is a Uttle shorter, carinated on both sides, and 56 CROW. sUghtly ascending at the extremity ; the nostrils are placed on the base of the bill, and are patulous, though covered by the incumbent feathers; the tongue is short, cartilaginous, acute and bifid at tip; the tarsus scarcely exceeds the middle toe in length; the tors are separated almost to the base, and the middle one is the longest; the nails are moderate, pointed, hollow beneath, and sharp-edged, the hind one being generally longest; die wings are subelongated, acute, the first primary short, third or fourth longest; tiie tail consists of twelve feathers. Four species of this genus, as at present restricted, are found in North America—the raven (C. corax); the crow (C. coronc); fish-crow (C. ossi- fragus); and Clark's crow (C. columbia- nus). These and other members of the genus are very extensively spread over the globe, and are almost equally distin- guished for their remarkable sagacity, and the amount of mischief which they occa- sion where they are very numerous. The raven is by no means common in die Mid- dle States of the Union, but is found in considerable numbers, in the vicinity of the northern lakes, and the interior of the Union. This is the largest species of its tribe, very little inferior in size to a com- mon cock, being 26 inches in length, and more than 3 feet from the tip of one wing to that of the other. The plumage is of a very glossy black, with some reflections of bluish purple on the back. The female i* less purely black than the male, and a little; smaller. The raven, when on the ground, marches at a grave and stately pace: his favorite haunts are the vast soli- tudes of rocks and forests, whence he sel- dom emerges except called by hunger, and then never in large flocks, Uke the crows. The ordinary food of the raven, and that which he prefers, is putrefying animal matter, which this bird discovers, by the acuteness of his sense of smelling, at great distances, and flies to the feast with unerring precision. When carrion is not attainable, the raven feeds on various fruits, insects, dead fish, &c. Judging by the habits of the crow and other kindred species, there is no question but the ra- ven, when pressed by hunger, will kill small birds or other animals coining with- in its reach. They have been known to pluck the eyes out of the heads of lambs and sick animals unable to drive them away. Birds so voracious and destruc- tive cannot be regarded otherwise than injurious in a poor country, though in a rich one, their services, as scavengers and destroyers of the lanes of noxious insects, might more than counterbalance their mischief* Like most of their tribe, ra- vens have a considerable talent for imi- tating sounds, and may be taught to pro- nounce words with remarkable distinct- ness. When domesticated, fbey become very bold and impudent, fearless of dogs or cats, and fighting fiercely with them when provoked: sometimes, indeed, their insolence renders them dangerous inmates, as they wiU wound children, and even grown persons, with their powerful bill. They also participate in the disposition common to most of their fraternity, to steal and hide pieces of money, plate, and other shining objects, which cannot be of the slightest use to the purloiner. The raven is a model of conjugal fidelity, hav- ing but one female, to whom he remains attached, most probably, for life. Obser- vations were made on one pair by lord Ross, during 30 years, and there can be but little doubt, that the union was only interrupted by death. Their nests are commonly placed in chinks of rocks, lofty old walls, or the tops of tall, insulated trees, and are made externally of roots and branches of shrubs; a second layer is then formed of animal bones, or other hard materials, and this is covered with a bod of soft grass or moss. About the month of March, the female lays 5 or 6 pale- green and bluish eggs, speckled with very numerous spots and touches of a darker color. The incubation continues for 20 days, and both parents participate in it. The male also defends the nest couragi - ously against the approach of hawks and other birds of prey, and provides for the subsistence of his companion. The young remain with the parents throughout the summer succeeding their hatching, and, when able to provide for themselves, are , sent off to establish new colonies else- where. The flight of the raven is very lofty, and its power of wing great, so that it is able to pass over immense spaces in a short time.—Few birds are more numerous and annoying to the farmers of the Atlan- tic States than the common crow (C. co- rone), which, throughout a considerable part of the year, collects in astonishingly large flocks, and makes destructive descents upon newly-planted maize and other grain. In this species, it seems as if all the evil propensities of the race were united and augmented. Exceedingly cunning in de- * In England, the rook (C. fnigilegiis) is not allowed to be killed, and a large rookery is con- sidered a valuable appendage to an estate. The young are obtained from the nest, and considered very fine for the table. CROW, 57 tecting every contrivance intended for their destruction, they are rarely destroyed to any great extent except in seasons of excessive and long-protracted cold weather. Then (asduring the winter of 1828—9) vast num- bers perish from starvation, since, the earth, brooks, rivers and bays being completely locked up, all their sources of supply are cut off. At such times, their hunger is so distressing as to force them to the most extraordinary exertions, and they devour substances, which nothing but excessive hunger could induce any animal to swal- fow. During the hard winter alluded to, immense flocks were observed passing from the direction of the famous roosting place in the vicinity of Bristol, Pa. (partic- ularly noted by Wilson), towards the shores of the sea and bay, "and returning regularly in the afternoon. Thousands upon thousands, for several hours, moved heavily along in a broad, irregular line; and, from the numbers found dead in the fields, it is most probable that, during the severest weather, but little benefit resulted from their long diurnal pilgrimage. The common crow is voracious at all times, and nearly, if not quite, as omnivorous as the brown rat. Grain of all sorts, but especially Indian corn, insects, carrion, eggs, fish, young birds, the young of vari- ous domestic fowls, and even young pigs, are sought for eagerly, and devoured with avidity. This species, from the peculiar excellence of its sight, smell and hearing, by which it is veiy early warned of ap- proaching danger, is very audacious, fre- quently coming close to the farm-houses in search of prey, and persevering in ef- forts to rob the hens of then- chickens, until successful. The writer has wit- nessed several times, in the state of Ma- ryland, where crows are far too abun- dant, the pertinacity of one of these rob- bers in attempting to seize a young chick- en, notwithstanding the fierce defence made by the hen. His approaches ap- peared to have in view the withdrawal of the hen to a little distance from the brood; then, taking advantage of his wings, he would fly suddenly over her, and seize the chick. The same attempts were fre- quently made upon the goose, with a view to seize her goslins, but the vigilant gan- der, though sorely fatigued by his strug- gles, never failed to defeat a single crow: H was otherwise, however, when two or more united for the purpose of feasting on the young. It is not an uncommon tiling for farmers to be under the necessity of replanting corn several times in the spring, and, when it is just rising above the ground, to be obliged to keep several persons con- tinually on guard in the fields. When the corn has shot up an inch or two above the surface, a host of these black-coated plun- derers invade the fields, and, having posted sentinels in several commanding situa- tions, march regularly along the corn- rows, drawing up the grain, puUing skil- fully by the shoot, and then swallowing the germinating com. Among the most successful experiments made to prevent the crows from doing this mischief is that of coating the seed corn with a mixture of tar, oil, and a small quantity of slacked lime, in powder. The ingredients being mixed in a tub, the seed com is stirred in it until each grain receives a thorough coating of the mixture. This preparation, as it necessarily keeps the grain from being readily affected by moisture, is found to retard the germination about three days~ In the instance we witnessed of the trial of tills preventive, it was fully successful; for, although the field was daily visited by hosts of crows, they were content with pulling up enough com, in various places, to be satisfied that it was, throughout equally unpalatable. During their breed- ing season, which is in the spring months, the flocks spread over a great extent of country, and build their nests of small sticks, fined with grass, in lofty trees, choosing the most remote and difficult of approach. The young, generally, are two in number, and, until fully fledged, are most solicitously protected by their pa- rents. When the young crows first begin to receive lessons in flying, nothing is more remarkable and affecting than the efforts made to preserve them, by the parents, when a gunner approaches the vicinity. Every artifice is employed to call attention away from the young, which seem to comprehend the directions or calls of their parents, and remain perfectly silent and motionless. In the mean while, the father and mother fly towards the gunner, taking care not to remain an in- stant in one place, and, by the most vo- ciferous outcries, deprecate his cruelty. These efforts being continued, their vol- untary exposure, and the eagerness with which they fly about a particular spot, are almost always successful in withdrawing die sportsman from the place where the young actually are. As soon as they have succeeded in leading him to a sufficient distance, they cease their accents of dis- tress, fly a little farther from their young, and from a lofty perch, which enables them to watch all around, utter an occa- sional cry, which one may readily im- 58 CROW—CROWN. agine to lie intended for the direction and encouragement of their offspring. The most successful mode of destroying crows, is that of invading them in their extensive dormitories during the night When they have selected a pine thicketor other dense piece of wood, for a roosting place, they repair thither with great regularity. Every evening, vast flocks come sailing to the retreat, and the trees are literally covered and bowed down. When the state of Maryland received crow scalps in pay- ment of taxes, at three cents each, parties were frequently made to attack the crow roosts. Gunners were stationed at various parts, surrounding the roosts, and all those of one division fired at once; the slaughter was necessarily dreadful, and those re- maining unhurt, bewildered by the dark- ness, the flashing and report of the guns, and the distressing cries of their compan- ions, flew but to a little distance, and set- tled near another party of gunners. As soon as they were fairly at rest, the same tragedy was reacted and repeated, until the approach of day or die fatigue of their destroyers caused a cessation. The wounded were then despatched by knock- ing them on the head or wringing their necks, and the bill, with so much of the skull as passed for a scalp, was cut off and strung for the payment of the tax- gatherer. The poor people, who had no taxes to pay, disposed of their crow scalps to the store-keepers, who purchased them at rather a lower rate. This premium has long been discontinued, and the number of these marauders is, in many parts of that state, quite large enough to require its reestablishinent Crown. In the early ages, when men were fond of expressing all their feelings by outward signs, a wreath of flowers or leaves was naturally one of the first em- blems of honor or of joy. Such was the ornament of the priest in the performance of sacrifice, of the hero on his return from victory, of the bride at her nuptials, and of the guests at a feast. The ancient my- thology, which gave every thing a distinct beginning and a poetical origin, ascribes the invention of wreaths to Prometheus, who imitated, with flowers, the fetters which he had bome for his love to man- kind, whom he had created. According to Pliny, wreaths were first made of ivy, and Bacchus first wore them. In process of time, they were made of very different materials. Those worn by the Greeks at feasts in honor of a divinity, were made of the flowers of the plant consecrated to the god. Wreaths of roses afterwards became very common. In some case?, wreaths were even made of wooL Wreaths of ivy and amethyst were worn, by the Greeks, on the head, neck and breast at entertainments, with a view to prevent drunkenness. Mnesitheus and Callimachus, two Greek physicians, wrote entire books on wreaths, and their medi- cal virtues. Corpses were covered with wreaths and green branches. Lovers adorned with wreaths and flowers the doors of their mistresses, and even cap- tives, who were to be sold as slaves, wore wreaths ; hence the phrase sub corona ve- nire or vendere. The beasts sacrificed to the gods were also crowned. Wreaths, in process of time, were made of metal, in imitation of flowers, or of the fillet which the priest wore round his head when he sacrificed, which was called iidivpa. This attribute of distinction was early adopted by the kings, when they united in their persons the temporal and spiritual power. Among the various crowns and wreaths in use among the Greeks and Romans, were the following: Corona agonothetarum; the reward of the victor in the great gymnastic games. Corona aurea (the golden crown); the reward of remarkable bravery. Corona castrensis; given to him who first entered the camp of the enemy. Corona civica (see Civic Crown); one of the highest miUtary rewards. It was given to him who had saved the Ufe of a citizen. Corona convivalis; the wreath worn at feasts. Corona muralis; given by the general to the soldier who first scaled the enemy's wall. Corona natalitia; a wreath which pa- rents hung up before the door at the birth of a child. It was made of olive-branches if the child was a boy, and of wool if a girl. Corona navalis, the next in rank after the civic crown, was given to him who first boarded and took an enemy's vessel. Corona nuptialis; a crown or wreath worn by brides. The bridegroom, also, and his relations, on the day of the wed- ding, adorned themselves with wreaths. At first, the corona nuptialis was of flow- ers; afterwards, of gold or silver and pre- cious stones. Corona obsidionalis; a reward given to him who deUvered a besieged town, or a blockaded army. It was one of the high- est mUitary honors, and very seldom ob- tained. It was made of grass; if possible, of such as grew on the deUvered place. Corona triumphalis; a wreath of laurel CROWN—CROWN OFFICE. 59 which was given, by the army, to the im- perator. He wore it on his head at the celebration of his triumph. Another crown of gold, the material of which (coronarium aurum) was furnished by the conquered cities, was canned over the head of the general. The wreaths, con- ferred at the great games of Greece, were of different kinds ; at the Olympic games, of wild olive; at the Pythian games, of laurel ; at the Nemean games, first of olive, thru of parsley ; at the Isthmian games, a wreath of pine leaves, afterwards of parsley; subsequently pine leaves were resumed. In the middle ages, crowns became ex- clusively appropriated to the royal and imperial dignity; the coronets of nobles were only borne in their coats of arms. (See Coronet, also Tiara.) From the Jew- ish king being called, in the Scriptures, the anointed of the Lord, a kind of religious mystery and awe became attached to crowned heads, which, in most countries, continues to the present day, though his- tory has shown us abundantly that crowns often cover the heads of very weak or veiy wicked individuals, and that there is no great mystery about their origin; some having been obtained by purchase, some by crime, some by grants from a more powerful prince, some by contract, some by choice, but, on the whole, compara- tively few in an honest way. The iron crown of Lombardy, preserved at Monza, iu the territory of Milan, is a golden crown set with precious stones, with which in former times the Lombard kings were crowned, and, at a later period, the Ro- man-German emperors, when they wished to manifest their claims as kings of Lom- liardy. An iron circle, made, according to the legend, out of a nail of Christ's cross, which is fixed inside, gave rise to the name. Agilulf, king of Lombardy, was the first person crowned with it (in 590). Charlemagne was crowned with it in 774. Napoleon put it on his head in 1805, and established the order of the iron crown. In 1815, when Austria established the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, the empe- ror admitted the order of the iron crown among those of the Austrian empire.— Croicn is used, figuratively, for the royal power, in contradistinction either to the person of the monarch, or to the body of the nation, with its representatives, inte- rests, &c. Thus, in modern times, the word crown is used, on the European con- tinent, to express the rights and preroga- tives of the monarch considered as a part of the state, which includes all powers—the legislative, judicial, &c. Thus the crown domains are distinguished from the state or national domains. In France, a differ- ence is even made between the crown do- mains and the private domains of the king; the former are inahenable, and be- long to the reigning monarch, wliilst the second may be treated like any other pri- vate property. The distinction between crown and state, of course, does not exist in perfectly arbitrary governments.—Crown- officers are certain officers at the courts of European sovereigns. Formerly, when the different branches of government were not accurately defined, they were often, or generally, also state officers, as in the old German empire, and still in Hungary. The offices were generally hereditary; but of late years, they are almost exclusively attached to the court, the title, in a few cases, being connected with military digni- ties, as, for instance, in France, where civil and military grand officers of the crown have always existed. (See Dignitaries.) Crown, in commerce ; a common name for coins of several nations, which are about the value of a doUar. (See Coins, Table of.) Crown, in an ecclesiastical sense, is used for the tonsure, the shaven spot on the head of the Roman CathoUc priests, where they received the ointment of consecra- tion. (See Tonsure.) Crown Glass, the best kind of win- dow-glass, the hardest and most colorless, is made almost entirely of sand and al- kali and a Uttle lime, witiiout lead or any metaUic oxide, except a very small quantity of manganese, and sometimes of cobalt. Crown glass is used, in connex- ion with flint glass, for dioptric instru- ments, in order to destroy the disagreeable effect of the aberration of colors. Both kinds of glass are now made, in the high- est perfection, in Benedictbeurn (q. v.), where Reichenbach's famous manufactory of optical instruments is situated. Crown Office. The court of king's bench is divided into the plea side and the crown side. In the plea side, it takes cog- nizance of civil causes; in the crown side, it takes cognizance of criminal causes, and is thereupon called the crown of- fice. In the crown office are exhibited informations in the name of the king, of which there are two kinds: 1. those which are truly the king's own suits, and filed, ex officio, by his own immediate officer, the attorney-general; 2. those in which, though the king is the nominal prosecutor, yet some private person, as a common informer, is the real one: these 60 CROWN OFFICE—CRUSADES. are filed by the king's coroner and attorney, usually caUed master of the crown office. Crown Point ; a post-town in Essex county, New York, on lake Champlain; 12 miles N. Ticonderoga, 96 N. Albany ; population, in 1820, 1522; lat 44° 3? N.; Ion. 72° 2^ W. This town received its name from a noted fortress, much cele- brated in the history of the American wars. The fortress, which is now in ru- ins, is situated in the north-east part of the township, on a point of land projecting some distance into the lake, elevated 47 feet above the surface, and 15 miles north of fort Ticonderoga. It was an expen- sive and regular fortification, about 1500 yards square, sun-ounded by a deep and broad ditch, cut in rock, with immense labor. The walls were of wood and earth, 22 feet thick and 16 high, and are only partially decayed. Crozat, Joseph Antony, marquis du Chatel, bom in 1696, at Toulouse, a great lover and collector of works of art, in- herited a large fortune from his father (who was a financier during the last years of the reign of Louis XIV), was counsel- lor of the parliament of Toulouse, and subsequently reader to the king. The whole of his life was dedicated to the works of art which he had collected, and to the artists who wished to profit by them. The sketches in his collection ex- ceeded 19,000, and he had expended above 450,000 livres in this particular branch. During the 60 years which he employed in collecting, no cabinet was sold in any part of Europe, of which some part was not purchased by him. Crozat went to Italy, in 1714, for the purpose of increasing his collection. Corn. Vermeulen came yearly from Antwerp to Paris, to bring him the works of the artists of the Netherlands. He was also presented with several valuable collections. His cabinet of antiques and sculpture, particularly of gems, was equal- ly valuable, and contained about 1400 pieces. This treasure became more fa- mous from the description which Mariette gave of it, when in the possession of the duke of Orleans, in 1742. It is at pres- ent at St. Petersburg. On Crozat's death (1740), his collection came into the pos- session of his brother, the marquis du Chatel. Mariette's Description sommaire des Collections de M. Crozat, avec des Re"- fiexums sur la .Maniere de Dessiner des principaux Maitres (Paris, 1741), is the only account we now have of this great museum. Cruisers, in naval affairs; vessels, as the name imports, employed on a cruise. The name ifl commonly given to small men of war, made use of to secure mer- chant ships and vessels from the enemy * small frigates and privateers. They are generally formed for fast sailing, and well manned. Crusades are the wars which were carried on by the Christian nations of the West, from the end of the 11th to the end of the 13th century, for the conquest of Palestine. They were called crusades be- cause all the warriors who followed the holy banner (crusaders), wore the sign of the cross. The Christian and Moham- medan nations had been, during a long period, in a state of war, not only in Asia, but also in Europe, where the Moors, Mohammedans by rehgion, had taken possession of part of the Spanish penin- sula. The nations of the West were grieved that the Holy Land, where Jesus had lived, taught, and died for mankind, where pious pilgrims resorted to pour out their sorrows, and ask for aid from above, at the tomb of their Savior, should be in the power of unbelievers. The pilgrims, on their return, related the dangers they had encountered. The caliph Hakem was particularly described as a second Nero. Being the son of a Christian woman, he shed the blood of Christians without mer- cy, to prevent the suspicion of his being secretly attached to that religion. These representations kindled the religious zeal of Christian Europe into a flame, and a general ardor was awakened to de- liver the sepulchre of Christ from the hands of the infidels. In order to under- stand this general excitement, we must remember that, at this period, the confu- sion and desolation, which had followed the irruption of the barbarians into the south and west of Europe, had ceased, and the dawn of civilization and intellectual cultivation had commenced. In this men- tal twilight, men were just in a state to receive a strong religious excitement The idea of the Virgin, too, harmonized well with the Teutonic reverence for the female sex; and to fight in her cause was gratifying to the spirit of chivalry. The undisciplined minds of men were bent- upon adventure, and their imaginations were easily roused by the reports of the riches of the East. The joys of paradise were the sure reward of all who fell in the holy cause. Thus a crowd of the strongest feelings, chivalrous devotion to the female sex, the hope of adventure, of wealth, of honor and of heaven, stirred up the spirit of Europe, and im- pelled her sons into'tlie East (See Chit- CRUSADES. 61 olry.) The pope considered the invasion of Asia as the means of promoting Chris- tianity amongst the infidels, and of win- ning whole nations to the bosom of the church; monarchs expected victoiy and increase of dominion ; the peasant, who, in the greater part of Europe, was strug- gling with wretchedness in the degrading condition of bondage, was ready to follow to a country which was pictured as a par- adise. The East has always had a poeti- cal charm for the people of the West, which has by no means ceased in our time. The crusades, and the ardor with which whole nations engaged in them, must be attributed to the above causes. Peter of Amiens, or Peter the Hermit, was the immediate cause of the first crusade. In 1093, he had joined other pilgrims on a journey to Jerusalem. On his return, he gave pope Urban II a description of the unhappy situation of Christians in the East a"d presented a petition from the patriarch of Jerusalem, in which he anx- iously entreated the assistance of the Western Christians for their suffering brethren. The pope disclosed to the council which was held at Piacenza, in 1095, in the open air, on account of the number of people assembled, the message which Christ had sent, through Peter the Hermit, caused the ambassadors of the Greek emperor Alexius to describe the condition of Christianity in the East, and induced many to promise their assistance for the relief of their oppressed brethren. The sensation which he produced at the councU assembled at Clermont in 1096, where ambassadors from all nations were present, was still greater; he inspired the whole assembly so completely in favor of his plan, that they unanimously ex- claimed, after he had described the mis- erable condition of the Oriental Christians, and • called upon the West for aid, Deus wit (It is God's will)! In the same year, numberless armies went forth in different divisions. Tliis is considered the first crusade. Many of these armies, being ignorant of mifitaiy discipUne, and unpro- vided with the necessaries for such an ex- pedition, were completely destroyed in the different countries through which they had to pass before reaching Constantino- ple, which had been chosen for their place of meeting. A superficial knowl- edge of these holy wars throws a false glare round the character of the crusading armies. They contained, indeed, some men of elevated character; but the great- tx part consisted of crazy fanatics and wretches bent on plunder. A well con- TOL. IV. 6 ducted, regular army, however, of 80,000 men, was headed by Godfrey of Boulogne, duke of Lower Lorraine, Hugh, brother to Philip king of France, Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, Robert of Flanders, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, Tancred of Apu- lia, and other heroes. With this army, the experienced commanders traversed Germany and Hungary, passed over the strait of Gallipoli, conquered Nice in 1097, Antioch and Edessa in 1098, and, lastly, Jerusalem in 1099. Godfrey of Boulogne was chosen king of Jerusalem, but died in 1100. The news of the conquest of Jeru- salem renewed the zeal of the West. In 1102, an army of 260,000 men left Europe, which, however, perished partly on the march, and partly by the sword of the sul- tan of Iconium. The Genoese, and other commercial nations, undertook several ex- peditions by sea. The second great and regularly conducted crusade was occa- sioned by the loss of Edessa, which the Saracens conquered in 1142. The news of this loss produced great consternation in Europe, and it was apprehended tiiat the other acquisitions, including Jerusa- lem, would faU again into the hands of the infidels. In consequence of these fears, pope Eugene III, assisted by St. Bernard of Clairvaux, exhorted the Ger- man emperor, Conrad HI, and the king of France, Louis VII, to defend the cross. Both these monarchs obeyed the caU in 1147, and led large bodies of forces to the East; but their enterprise was not suc- cessful, and they were compelled to with- draw, leaving the kingdom of Jerusalem in a much weaker condition than they had found it When sultan Saladin, in 1187, took Jerusalem from the Christians, the zeal of the West became still more ardent than at the commencement of the crusades; and the monarchs of the three principal European countries—Frederic I, emperor of Gennany, Philip Augus- tus, king of France, and Richard I, king of England—determined to lead their ar- mies in person against the infidels (1189). This is regarded as the third crusade. Frederic's enterprise was unsuccessful; but the kings of France and England succeeded in gaining possession of Acre, or Ptolemais, which, until the entire ter- mination of the crusades, remained the bulwark of the Christians in the East. The fourth crusade was conducted by the king of Hungary, Andrew II, in 1217, by sea. The emperor Frederic II, compelled by the pope, who wished for his destruc- tion, to fulfil a promise made in early youth, undertook the fifth crusade, and 62 CRUSADES—CRUZADA. succeeded in regaining Jerusalem, al- though he could not secure the perma- nent possession of the country. The list of heroes who conducted the crusades is honorably closed with St. Louis, king of France (who conducted the sixth crusade, commencing in 1248), although fate frus- trated his plan, which was ably conceived and bravely executed. While Louis was still in Egypt (for he proposed conquering the Holy Land by an im-asion of Egypt, the seat, at that time, of the rulers of Palestine), a revolution broke out in that country, which proved decisive with re- gard to the possession of the Holy Land. The house of Saladin was dethroned, and the dominion of the Mamelukes and sultans established. These directed their efforts against the possessions of the Christians in Palestine. Tripoli, Tyre, Berytus, feU into their hands successively, and, on the fall of Acre, or Ptolemais, the last bulwark and the last remains of the Christian empire on the continent of Asia, were overthrown. By means of these joint enterprises, the European na- tions became more connected with each other, the class of citizens increased in influence, partly because the nobility suf- fered by extravagant contributions to the crusades, and partly because a commer- cial intercourse took place throughout Europe, and greatly augmented the wealth of the cities ; the human mind ex- panded, and a number of arts and scien- ces, till then unknown in Europe, were in- troduced there. The present civilization of the European world is, in a great de- gree, the result of these crusades. It be- longs to a history of poetry to describe how much contemporary poetry was af- fected by the crusades, and the extent to which they have given currency to a cer- tain class of ideas that has prevailed ever since. Some of the best works on the crusades are Frederic Wilken's Geschichte der Kreuzziige nock morgenlandischen und abendldndishen Berichten, Leipsic (the three first volumes appeared in 1807—19: vol- ume 4, which treats of the period from 1188 to 1195, appeared in 1826); Histoirc des Croisades, by De Michaud, a member of the French academy, fourth edition, Paris, 1825; Charles Mills's History of the Crusades, London, 1820; Hceren's Versuch einer Entwickdung der Folgen der Kreuzziige fur Europa, Gottingen, 1808. Crusade, and Crusada. (See cruza- da, old and new, in the article Coins, under the division PoHugal. Crusca, Academia sella. (See Acad- emies.) Crustaceocs Animals, in natural his- tory ; those covered with shells, count- ing of several pieces or scales, as crabs, lobsters, &c. Their shells are generally softer than the Bhells of the testaceous kind, which consist of but few pieces or valves, such as those of the oyster, scal- lop, cockle. Cruz, Santa (Spanish; Holy Cross). Among the various places of this name, the most important are, 1. An island in the West Indies, belonging to Denmark, the most southerly of the Virgin isles; lat. 17° 45/ N.; Ion. 64° 35' W. It is about 24 miles in length, with an area of 84 square miles, and contains 33,000 in- habitants, of which 30,000 are slaves. The country is mostly level, the climate unhealthy at certain seasons, the water scarce and bad. The soil is fertile, produc- ing cotton, sugar-cane, some coffee and in- digo, and tropical fruits. About 9,000,000 gallons of rum are annually exported. The best ports are Christianstadt and Frederickstadt The former, situated on the northern coast of the island, is the capital of all the Danish West Ind ics. Af- ter having been successively in the hands of the Dutch, English, French, and Span- iards, Santa Cruz was ceded to Denmark in 1733. In 1807, it was taken by the English, but was restored to the Danes by the peace of Paris, in 1814. 2. A city on the island of Teneriffe; lat. 28° 28' N.; Ion. 16° 307 W. The road is much visited by European vessels, on their way to the Indies and to America, for water and pro- visions. The population is 8400. The principal article of export is Teneriffe wine. (See Teneriffe.) Cruzada (Spanish). A bull called the bull of the crusade, is a source of consider- able revenue to the Spanish crown. Pope Calixtus HI first issued this bull, during the reign of king Henry of Castile, in 1457, granting an absolution for past of- fences to all who would fight against infi- dels, or pay a certain sum (200 maravedis), to aid the crown in earning on war against them ; and, as this bull is granted only for five years, the king has the power of renewing it. It confers also certain immunities, such as the right to eat some kinds of prohibited food in Lent. It has not been customary to renew the grant since 1753. These bulls were formerly sold, in a printed form, by priests and monks, who very often abused their authority, and would not confess people, or give them extreme unction, unless they would buy the bulls. The revenue thus received by the crown was estimated, for Spain and CRUZADA—CRYPTOGRAPHY. 63 Spanish America, at $1,500,000. Portugal also received such a bull in 1591, for the support of her fortifications in Africa. Mendoza, in one chapter of his Vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, describes the abuses by which the bullarios, or sellers of bulls, extorted money from the people. Crypt, in architecture; a hollow place or vault constructed under ground. The tombs of the Christian martyrs also were so caUed, where the early Christians met to perform their devotions, for fear of per- secution. Hence crypt came to signify a church under ground, or the lower story, like that of St Paul's, London, Lastingham priory, and many of the ancient ecclesiastical edifices of England, Germany and France. When crypts are on a large scale, like those of Rome, Na- ples and Paris, they are then called cata- combs. (See Catacombs.) Bartoli and Bellori have pubUshed engravings of paintings found in the crypts of Rome, of which there are several editions. The one of 1738 is in Latin. Crypto ; a prefix from the Greek KponTos (secret), used in several compounds; for instance, cryptography (q. v.), cryp- togamy (q. v.), Crypto-Calvinists (q. v.) When the Jesuits were dissolved by a papal bull, much was said of Crypto-Jes- uits. In France, we hear sometimes of crypto-republicans, &c. Crypto-Calvinists (crypto from the Greek KovrtTos, secret); a name given to the favorers of Calvinism hi Saxony, on account of their secret attachment to the Genevan doctrine and discipline. (See Concord, Form of.) Cryptogamia, in botany; the 24th and last class of the sexual system of Linnajus, including several very numerous families of plants, in which the parts es- sential to their fructification have not been sufficiently ascertained, or are too small to admit of their being accurately de- scribed and referred to any of the other classes. Cryptography (from the Greek KpvnTos, secret, and ypaepuv, to write); the art of transmitting secret information by means of writing, which is intended to be illegi- ble, except by the person for whom it is destined. The ancients sometimes shaved the head of a slave, and wrote upon the skin with some indelible coloring matter, and then sent him, after his hair had grown again, to the place of his destina- tion. This is not however, properly secret writing, but only a concealment of writing. Another sort, which corresponds better with the name, is the foUowing, used by the ancients. They took a small stick, and wound around it bark, or papyrus, upon which they wrote. The bark was then unrolled, and sent to the correspond- ent, who was furnished with a stick of the same size. He wound the bark again round this, and thus was enabled to read what had been written. This mode of concealment is evidently very imperfect Cryptography properly consists in writing with signs, which are legible only to him for whom the writing is intended, or who has a key, or explanation of the signs. The most simple method is to choose for every letter of the alphabet some sign, or only another letter. But this sort of cryp- tography (chiffre) is also easy to be deci- phered without a key. Hence many illu- sions are used. No separation is made between the words, or signs of no meaning are inserted among those of real meaning. Various keys likewise are used, according to rules before agreed upon. By this means, the deciphering of the writing be- comes difficult for a third person, not initiated ; but it is likewise extremely troublesome for the correspondents them- selves ; and a slight mistake often makes it illegible, even by them. Another mode of communicating intelligcace secretly, viz., to agree upon some printed book, and mark the words out, is also troublesome, and not at all safe. The method of con- cealing the words which are to convey the information intended in matter of a very different character, in a long letter, which the correspondent is enabled to read^ by applying a paper to it with holes corre- sponding to the places of the significant words, is attended with many disadvan- tages : the paper may be lost; the repeti- tion of certain words may lead to discov- ery ; and the difficulty of connecting the important with the unimportant matter, so as to give the whole the appearance of an ordinary letter, is considerable. If this is effected, however, this mode has the advan- tage of conceafing the fact that any secrecy is intended. Writing with sympathetic ink, or milk, lemon-juice, &c, is unsafe, be- cause the agents to make the letters visible are too generaUy known. Hence the chiffre quarre", or chiffre indechiffrable, so called, has come veiy much into use, because it is easily appUed, difficult to be deciphered, and the key may be preserved in the memory merely, and easily changed. It consists of a table, in which the letters of the alphabet, or any other signs agreed upon, are arranged under one another, thus:— 64 CRYPTOGRAPHY—CUBA. 7 a b c d e |f_ r" h 11 k 1 m n o P q r s t u V ]W X y a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n 0 P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k I m n o P q r s t u V w X V z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n 0 P q r s t u V w X y z a b d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h l k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e "f g h i k 1 m n 0 P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f 1 g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i "k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k T m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h l k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h l k I m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h 1 k 1 m n o j P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 ni n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P 3. r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n 0 P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s | t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h l k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s % u V w y z a b c d e f g h i k 1 m n o P q r s t u V VV X y z a b c d e f g h l k 1 m n o P q r s t u V w X y V! *i bf cl d| e | f! gi h| i i k I i ml t| p! q| r : s t u V w y! _ZJ Any word is now taken for a key; Paris, for example. This is a short word, and, for the sake of secrecy, it would be well to choose for the key some one or more words less striking. Suppose we wish to write in this cipher, with this key, the phrase " We lost a battle;" we must write Paris over the phrase, repeating it as often as is necessaiy, thus:— P a r t sP a r i sPar We lost a battle. We now take, as a cipher for w, the letter which we find in the square opposite w in the left marginal column, and under p on the top, which is m. Instead of e, we take the letter opposite e and under a, which is/; for I, the letter opposite I and under r, and so on. Proceeding thus, we should obtain the foUowing series of let- mfcxlibtkmimw The person who receives the epistle writes the key over the letters; as, ParisPari s P a r mfcxlibtkmimw He now goes down in the perpendicular line, at the top of which is p, until he meets m, opposite to which, in the left marginal column, he finds w. Next, going in the Une of a down to f he finds on the left e. In the same way, r gives I, i gives o, and so on. Or you may reverse the process; begin with p, in the left marginal column, and look along horizontally till you find m, over which, in the top line, you will find w. It is easily seen, that the same letter is not always designated by the same cipher; thus, e and a occur twice in the phrase selected, and they are designated respectively by the ciphers / andw, b and k. Thus the possibility of finding out the secret writing is almost excluded. The key may be changed from time to time, and a different key may be used with each correspondent. The ut- most accuracy is necessary, because one character, accidentally omitted, changes the whole cipher. The correspondent, however, may ascertain this with consid- erable trouble. (See Deciphering.) Cuba ; the largest and most westerly of the Antilles. Its configuration, extent, geographical position, great number of ports, fertility and climate, contribute to CUBA. 65 render it one of the most interesting countries of America. Its length, from cape St. Antonio to point Maisi, in a direc- tion from W. S. W. to E. N. E., and then from W. N. W. to E. S. E., is 257 leagues, and its greatest width, in the direction north to south, is 38 leagues. The learned geographer don Felipe Bausa calculated, in June, Jt^25, that the surface of Cuba contained 3tJJ5 square marine leagues (20 to a degree). Cuba is situated between Ion. 73° 5& and 85° W. and between lat. 19° 48' 30" and 23° 12' 45" N. It lies 14 leagues west from cape Nicolas, in the island of St Domingo, 34 south from point Morant, in Jamaica, 27 east from cape Catoche, and 37 south from cape Florida. The gulf of Mexico, which is very nearly of a circular form, of more than 250 leagues in circumference, is closed by the island of Cuba, with the exception of" two narrow passages, the one to the south, between cape Catoche and cape St. Antonio, and the other to the north, between Bahia Honda and the Florida shoals. Along the coast of Cuba are many keys and small islands, which are included in die same government with the large island. The navigation of the coast is very unsafe on account of the rocks and shoals which encompass it al- most without interruption, and often ex- tend from 2 to 3 miles into the sea. The broken outline of this vast extent of coast, however, affords more than 50 ports and an- choring places, which are equally safe and easy of access. The most remarkable, in a commercial point of view, are those of Havaiuia, Matanzas, Nuevitas, Jibara and Baracoa, on the north; St. Jago, Manza- nillo, Trinidad, Jagua and Batabano, on the south side of the island. There is another port between Manzanillo and Trinidad, called Santa Cruz, which, in February, 1829, was declared a free port, and which, undoubtedly, wiU be much frequented, furnishing great facilities for trading with Puerto Principe (the second city in Cuba in point of population), being the only good harbor in its vicinity on the south side of the island, and distant from it but 20 leagues. The harbors of Bahia Honda, Nipe, Naranjo and Guantanamo also deserve to be mentioned, as they are very spacious, and have plenty of water for such large vessels as may be in want of a safe port A ridge of mountains traverses the whole of the island, from the east to the west dividing it into two parts. At the foot of these, the country opens into extensive savannas. A consid- erable number of smaU streams from 6* these heights water the island on both sides. These streams abound in fish of different kinds, and are said to bring down considerable quantities of gold. There are likewise many salt ponds, which furnish abundance of fish and game; also several springs of mineral water, which have proved very useful for the cure of many diseases. The most remarkable are those of St. Diego, 40 leagues west of Havan- na; those of Madruga, 14 leagues S. W. of the said city; those of the town of Guanabacoa; and those of Camugiro, 1£ league from Puerto Principe. Those of St. Diego are the only ones which have been analysed. They consist of two wells (Tigre and Templado), and, accord- ing to the analysis of senor Esteves, a pound of the water contains 0.46 grains of sulphureted hydrogen gas, 10.5 of sul- phate of lime, 1.0 of hydrochlorate of magnesia, and one grain of carbonate of magnesia. They are particularly' useful in cases of scrofula, cutaneous diseases, &c. The island is very rich in minerals, particularly in copper, iron and loadstone. In 1813, some persons endeavored to work a mine which they found near the city of Trinidad, and from which they obtained good gold and silver. They were, howeyer, obliged, from want of funds, to desist, though it was highly probable that, with a sufficient capital, it could have been made profitable. For the same reason, together with the want of protection from the government, a very rich mine of coal, which was opened in 1816, near Bacuranao, was abandoned. In 1827, a silver mine was discovered, yielding 7.5 of pure silver to a quintal of ore. Iron seems to be abundant, as it shows itself in parts of the great Cordil- lera of Sierra1 Maestra. Loadstone is found in the mountains of Paragua and on the northern coast Marbles of various kinds, serpentine, chalcedony of exceUent quality, quartz, mineral bitumen, &c, are likewise found in the island. Our knowl- edge of the geological and mineralogical structure of Cuba, however, is compara- tively small, on account of the thickness of the forests and the asperity of the mountains, particularly on the eastern part. Most that we know on this subject is derived from the researches of Alexan- der von Humboldt. The soU of Cuba is so productive that it yields two, and even three crops of corn in a year. The fields, dur- ing the whole year, are covered with aro- matic plants and trees in blossom. Th* climate is dry and warm. In the months of July and August, the thermometer 66 CUBA. ranges from 28° to 29° Reaumur (95° to 97° Fahrenheit), and in those of December and January, which are the coldest, com- monly between 17° and 21° of Reaumur (70° and 79° Fahrenheit) It never freez- es, not even on the highest mountains. The coasts of the island are weU known to be unhealthy; but this is not the case with the mountains. Among the animals indigenous in the island or the surround- ing sea, are the cayman or alUgator (q. v.), the manati or sea cow, the iguana (a species of Uzard), the turtle, &c. Many of the domestic animals of Europe have been introduced. A great number of swine, and also of bees, are raised. Late- ly, the breeding of mules has been carried ou to a considerable extent. Birds are numerous in the forests. Among them are the canary-bud, the Unnet, also a bird resembling the nightingale, the cardinal gross-beak, the bunting, &c. The rivers, though they have but a short course, and are deficient in water, abound, at certain seasons, with exceUent fish. Reptiles are extremely numerous. Among the insects, of which there are very many, are the mosquitoes, verdaderamente una plaga que infesta los cayos, costas y terrenos pantano- sos, to use the words of the Cuadro Estadis- tico mentioned below. They are divided into different species—mosquito proper, co- raci, zancudo, rodador, jaguey and lancetero. In the rainy season, they follow men and beasts into the ulterior of the island. The gregen, which is almost invisible, is ex- ceedingly numerous and very trouble- some. Among the spiders, the pduda is the most disagreeable in appearance, and its bite produces fever, yet without dan- ger to Ufe. There are other kinds partic- ularly troublesome to particular animals. The vegetable kingdom of Cuba is ex- tremely rich. Here are to be found the mahogany-tree, the cedar, lignum-vitse, various kinds of ebony, besides numerous woods suitable for budding houses, ships, &c.; also palm-trees, among which the palma real is remarkable for the utility of every part to man and various ani- mals ; sarsapariUa and many other plants useful in medicine; also the chestnut, the pine-apple, the annona or custard-apple, the medlar, plantain, orange, and various kinds of melons. Among the agricultural plants, maize is the most important; rice, beans, peas, garbanzos are also cultivated. The culture of wheat is abandoned. The true riches of the country consist in its great articles of export—sugar, coffee, to- bacco, wax, cacao, molasses, rum, maize, &c. According to a very recent and complete official publication—Cuadro Es- tadistico de la siemprefiel Isla de Cuba cor- respondiente al aiw de 1827, formado par una Comission de Gefesy Oficiales de orden y bajo de la Direccion del Ercel-">°-Sr- Capitan General D. Fr. Dionisio Vives, Habana, 1829—the export of sugar, in 1827, was 5,878,924* arrobas (an arroba is equal to 25 pounds), or, including tare, &c, 6,300,000 arrobas. The whole amount produced was 8,091,837 arrobas; consumed on the island, 1,791,837. Of coffee, the export, in the same year, was 2,001,583$ arrobas, and the amount con- sumed in the island, 881,944|. Of tobac- co, the amounts have not been so weU ascertained. This article pays a duty of six per cent, to the king (ordinance of Oct 8, 1827). In 1827, there were ex- ported 61,898 cargas, or about 500,000 ar- robas, of which 79,106£ were en rama (in the leaf). Of wax, the export, in 1827, was 22,4021 arrobas; the whole produc- tion, 63,160. Of cotton, the export, in the same year, was 23,414 arrobas; whole quantity raised, 38,142. Of cacao, the export was only 1953 arrobas, while the whole quantity raised was 23,806 arrobas. Indigo began to be cultivated in 1795, but little has as yet been raised—in 1827, only 56 arrobas—and of wheat only 120 arro- bas. The export of molasses, in 1827, was 74,083 bocoyes (hogsheads); of rum (aguardiente de caha), 2457 pipes. Rice is raised in large quantity, but not enough to supply the great home consumption. In 1827, 520,897 arrobas were produced on the island, and 590,820$ arrobas imported. Of maize, 1,617,806 fanegas were raised (a fanega is about 100 pounds), and yet there were imported 70,497 arrobas of the com, and 4,952 barrels of the meal. Of beans (frijolles), there were produced, in 1827, 134,185 arrobas, and imported, 58,418£. Notwithstanding this great pro- duction, it is beUeved that only a seventh part of aU the land suitable for cultivation is actuaUy brought into use. The com- merce of the country has increased lately very much. The island enjoys great privileges in comparison with other coun- tries under the yoke of Spain. The trade of Cuba is carried on chiefly through Havanna, the capital. There have been times when the exports of the island amounted to $12,000,000, and its imports were over $15,000,000. In the year 1827, 17,352,854 dollars' worth of merchan- dise was imported, and 3,561,887 dollars' worth exported, making the consumption CUBA. 67 amount to $13,791,267, which, after the subtraction of articles of food import- ed for the slaves, leaves $12,291,267 for the value of imported articles con- sumed by the 337,126 white and 106,494 colored free persons, which gives $28 as the average consumption of each individ- ual during the year. The total value of the produce of the island was lately esti- mated at $44,634,343. In 1827, the com- merce of Havanna contributed to the royal revenue 84,383,262, whilst, in 1815, it paid only $1,726,963$. The Ulterior adminis- trations furnished to the revenue, in 1827, $2,272,808. The whole revenue of the island has been estimated at £7,500,000, and the expenses of the government at $6,500,000. Accordingto the Balanza Mer- cantil of Havanna, for the year 1829, it ap- pears, that the imports in American vessels from the U. States into Havanna, in 1829, amounted to the sum of . . $4,086,230 69 From the U. States in ) gjQ 70,7 j2 1 vessels, $ ' The tonnage duty paid by ? American vessels was, $ Thus, from the U. States alone (American ton- nage) came One fourth of foreign ton- nage from oth- er countries, Two thirds of tonnage of for- eign vessels from Spain, Total American tonnage, $234,922 67,664 tons. 6,172 20,133 \ 93,9695^1 $234,922 Spanish France, $1,048,965 63 Hanseatic ? m 601 00 cities \ Denmark, 12,962 75 England, 1,548,779 37 Italy, 29,773 12 Netherlands, 289,758 88 Portugal, 56,144 88 $3,899,985 53 Of which imports, one^J fourth, at least, was [ brought in American j bottoms—say J From !*>pain in foreign bottoms,$3,097,590 38, of which two thirds, at least, were under the U. States' flag, Making a total of im- ports, in 1829, under the American flag, in- cluding the imports from the U. States in Spanish vessels, of The whole value of im- J Sorts for 1829, into [avanna, SuppUed by the U.' States and by Amen- ( can vessels, Leaving, for all other ( flags, including the ( Spanish, From the above notes, it seems that the U. States and her ships have supplied more than 50 per cent of the entire imports of Havanna for the last year.—The island is subject to the king of Spain, and, for the purposes of government, is divided into two political divisions. That on the west is under the immediate control of the captain- general residing in Havanna. The other is under a governor appointed by the king, but subject, in many respects, to the cap- tain-general. It is also divided into two ec- clesiastical jurisdictions, the one governed by an archbishop, who resides at St. Jago, the other one by a bishop, who resides at Havanna. These jurisdictions have their limits 20 leagues east of the town of Es- piritu Santo. Since the beginning of 1826, the island has been divided, for the purpose of defence, into three military de- partments ; these again into districts, and the districts into sections. The depart- ments are commanded by a general offi- cer. The eastern department embraces the districts of St. Jago, Baracoa, Holguin, Jibara, Jiguani, Cobre, Tiguabos, Manza- nillo and Bayamo ; the central, those of Puerto Principe, Nuevitas, Trinidad, Espi- ritu Santo, Villa de Santa Clara and St Juan de los Remedios; the western, those of Havanna, St. Antonio de Compostela, St $7,737,084 49 FeUpe, and St. Jago del Bejucal, St. Anto- ----- nio Abad de los Bailos, Guanajay, Guana- bacoa, FUipina, Jaruco, Guines, Matanzas and Guamutas. These same divisions serve as limits for the jurisdictions of the three intendencies which are established for the coUection and administration of the public revenue, and the heads of which reside at Havanna, Puerto Principe and St Jago, the capital cities of the three departments. Education is in a very low state; but, according to Abbot's Letters 7,188,330 01 on Cuba (Boston, 1829), it is improving. ---------- The morals of the people are loose; the 974,996 44 2,065,060 24 14,925,414 50 7,737,084 49 68 CUBA. police is weak or inactive: murders are frequent The laws are very numerous and contradictory, and much bribery and corruption prevail in the administration of justice. In 1821, the importation of slaves was prohibited by law; and, though it is yet carried on, and tolerated by the authorities of Cuba, in spite of the laws against it, there is no doubt that it has diminished a great deal, in consequence of the efforts and vigilance of the English cruisers. The emancipation of Colom- bia, Mexico, and the Spanish part of St. Domingo, has brought to Cuba almost all the Spaniards who were settled in those countries, together with many of the Cre- oles. The number of the aboriginal popu- lation cannot now be ascertained. The European and African population, in 1511, did not include more than 300 persons. Within the last 52 years, the population has more than quadrupled: the colored population has increased faster than the white. According to the census of 1827, given in the Spanish report mentioned above, the population then stood thus : Males. Females. Total. Whites,.....168,653 142,398 311,051 Free Mulattoes, 28,058 29,456 57,514 Free Negroes, . 23,904 250,76 48,980 Mulatto and)183290 103G52 286,942 Negro slaves,) ' ' ---'--- Grand total, 704,487 of which 311,051 are white, and 393,436 are colored. It is generally beUeved, that the inhabi- tants are not desirous of separating from die Spanish government partly because Spain treats them tolerably well, and part- ly because of the distracted condition in which they behold those parts of Span- ish America which have shaken off the Spanish yoke. A conspiracy was discov- ered, however, in 1830, the object of which was the independence of the island. A ridiculous expedition was sent from Cuba, in 1829, against Mexico, under general Barradas, who was forced to ca- pitulate at Tampico, on September 11 of that year. The principal cities of the island are the capital, Havanna (siemprefi- delisima ciudad de S. Cristobal de la Ha- bana), with 237,828 inhabitants, St Jago de Cuba, St. Salvador, St Carlos de Ma- tanzas, St Maria de Puerto Principe, &c. (See these articles.)—For further informa- tion respecting the island, the reader is referred to Humboldt's Personal Narra- tive, and the Cuadro Estadistico already mentioned. Cuba was discovered, in 1492, by Christopher Columbus. In 1511, don Pie). Curves (from the Latin curvus, crooked, bent), in geometry. The simplest objects are the most difficult to be defined, and mathematicians have never succeeded in giving a definition, satisfactory to them- selves, of a line. It is equally difficult to give a satisfactory definition of a curve. Perhaps the simplest explanation of it is, a line which is not a straight line, nor made up of straight lines. This definition, how- ever, is deficient in mathematical precis- ion. Since Descartes' application of al- gebra to geometiy, the theoiy of the curves has received a considerable extension. The study of the curves known to the ancients has become much easier, and new ones have been investigated. Curves form, at present, one of the most interest- ing and most important subjects of ge- ometry. Such as have not all their parts in the same plane, are called curves of a ■ double curvature. The simplest of all curves is the circle. The spiral of Ar- chimedes, the conchoid of Nicomedes, the cissoid of Diodes, the quadratrix of Dinostratus, &c, are celebrated curves. Cusco, or Cuzco ; a city of Peru, capi- tal of an intendency of the same name, the ancient capital of the Peruvian em- pire ; 550 miles E. S. E. Lima; lon. 71° 4' W.; lat. 13° 4^ S.; population stated from 20 to 32,000. It is a bishop's see. It was founded, according to tradition, in 86 CUSCO—CUSTOS ROTULORUM. 1043, by Manco Capac, the first inca of Peru, on a rough and unequal plain, formed by the skirts of various mountains, which are washed by the small river Gua- tanay. The waU was of an extraordinary height, and buflt of stone, with astonishing neatness. The Spaniards, in 1534, found the houses built of stone; among them a temple of the sun, and a great number of magnificent palaces, whose principal ornaments were of gold and silver, which glittered on the waUs. Cusco is, at present a large city: the houses are built of stone, and covered with red tiles ; the apart- ments are weU distributed ; the mould- ings of the doors are gilt, and the furni- ture not less magnificent. The cathedral church is large, built of stone, and of an elegant and noble architecture. About three fourths of the inhabitants are Indians. Cushing, Thomas, was bom at Boston, in 1725, and finished his education at the college of Cambridge (New England), in 1744. Both his grandfather and father had spent a considerable portion of their fives in the pubhc service, the latter hav- ing been, for several years previous to his death, speaker of the house of representa- tives in Massachusetts. He engaged early in poUtical life, and was sent, by the city of Boston, as its representative to the gen- eral court, where he displayed such quali- fications for the despatch of business, that, when governor Bernard, in 1763, nega- tived James Otis, the father, as speaker, he was chosen hi his place, and continued in the station for many consecutive years. Whilst he was in the chair, he had fre- quent opportunities of evincing his patri- otism and aversion to the arbitraiy course of the EngUsh government; and, as his name was signed to all the public docu- ments, in consequence of his office, he acquired great celebrity, and was generally supposed to exert a much greater influ- ence in affairs than he actually did. This circumstance led doctor Johnson, in his pamphlet Taxation no Tyranny, to make this fooUsh remark—" One object of the Americans is said to be, to adom the brows of Mr. Cushing with a diadem." Though decidedly patriotic in his princi- ples, Mr. Cushing was moderate and con- ciliatory in his conduct, by which he was enabled to effect a great deal of good as a mediator between the two contending parties. He was an active and efficient member of the two first continental con- gresses, and, on his return to his state, was chosen a member of the council. He was also appointed judge of the courts of common pleas and of probate in the county of Suffolk, which stations he oc- cupied until the present constitution was adopted, when he was elected lieutenant- governor of the state, and continued so until his death, which took place Feb. 19, 1788, in the 63d year of his age, in conse- quence of gout Custine, Adam Philip, count of, bom at Metz, 1740, served as captain in the seven years' war. (q. v.) Through the in- fluence of the duke of Choiseul, he ob- tained, in 1762, a regiment of dragoons, which was called by his game. In 1780, he exchanged this for Ike regiment of Saintonge, which was on' the point of going to America, to the aid of the North American colonies. On bis return, he was appointed marichal de camp. In 1789, he was deputy of the nobility of Metz, and was one of the first who declared for the popular party. He subsequently en- tered the army of the North, and, in May, 1792, made himself master of the pass of Porentruy. In June, he received the command of the army of the Lower Rhine, and opened the campaign by taking pos- session of Spire, Sept. 29. Meeting with feeble opposition, he took Worms, and, Oct. 21, the fortress of Mentz capitulated. On the 23d, he took possession of Frank- fort on the Maine, on which he laid heavy contributions. Thence, escaping the pur- suit of the Prussians, he threw lumself into Mentz, which he caused to be forti- fied. With the opening of the campaign of 1793, he left Mentz, which the allies were besieging, and retired to Alsace. He Avas now denounced, and, in April, received his dismission; but the conven- tion, in May, invested him with the com- mand of the northern army. But he had hardly time to visit the posts. Marat and Varennes were unceasing in their accu- sations against him, and at last prevailed on the committee of safety to recall him to Paris. The revolutionary tribunal be- gan his trial Aug. 15. He made a spirited defence; but his death was determined upon. He was condemned Aug. 27, and guillotined on the 28th. Customs. (See Revenue.) Custos Rotulorum ; an officer, in England, who has the custody of the roUs and records of the sessions of the peace, and also of the commission of the peace itself. He is usually a nobleman, and al- ways a justice of the peace, of the quorum in the county where he is appointed. He may execute his office by a deputy, and is empowered to appoint the clerk of the peace; but he is proliibited from selling his office under divers penalties. CUSTRIN—CUTLERY. 87 Custrin- (in German, Kiistrin); a for- tress in the province of Brandenburg, Prussia, at the confluence of the Warte and Oder, containing 460 houses and 6000 inhabitants. In 1806, it was disgracefully surrendered to the French, and garrisoned by them until 1814, when it surrendered to the Prussians. Cuticle (from cuticula, the Latin di- minutive of cutis, skin) is a thin, pellucid, insensible membrane, of a white color, that covers and defends the true skin, with which it is connected by the hairs, ex- haling and inhaling vessels, and the rete mucosum. Cutlass ; a short sword used by sea- men. The art of fencing with it is differ- ent from that with the small sword or broad sword. A guard over the hand is an advantage. It is, if well understood, a veiy effectual weapon in close contest: on account of its shortness, it can be handled easily, and yet is long enough to protect a skilful swordsman. Cutler, Timothy, president of Yale college, was the son of major John Cutler, of Cnarlestown, Massachusetts. He was graduated at Harvard college in 1701, and in January, 1709, was ordained minister of Stratford, Conn., where he acquired the reputation of being the most eloquent preacher of the province. After remain- ing hi that situation during ten years, he was elected, in 1719, successor to Mr. Pierson, as president of Yale college. In ■the interval between the death of his predece:0)r and his own accession, the college had been removed to .New Haven. For this station he was eminently qualified by his profound and extensive learning, his dignified appearance, and the high respect which his character was calculated to inspire. In 1722, having renounced the communion of the Congregational churches, the trustees of the coUege passed a resolve dispensing with his services, and requiring of future rectors satisfactory ev- idence of their faith in opposition to Ar- minian and prelatical corruptions. A short time subsequently, he went to Eng- land, where he was ordained priest, and received the degree of doctor of divinity from Oxford. In July, 1763, he returned to Boston, where he soon after became rector of Christ church, and in that sta- tion died, Aug. 17, 1765, in the 82d year of his age. Doctor Cutler was particularly distinguished for his knowledge of the Oriental languages and literature. He also spoke Latin with great fluency, and was well versed in moral philosophy and theology. He published two sermons. Cutlery. Though cutlery, in the gen- eral sense, comprises aU those articles denominated edge tools, it is more partic- ularly confined to the manufacture of knives, forks, scissors, penknives, razors and swords. Damascus was anciently famed for its razors, sabres and swords. The latter are said to possess all the ad- vantages of flexibiUty, elasticity and hard- ness. These united distinctions are said to have been effected by blending alter- nate portions of iron and steel in such a manner, that the softness and tenacity of the former could prevent the breaking of the latter. All those articles of cutlery which do not require a fine polish, and are of low price, are made from bfistered steel. Those articles which require the edge to possess great tenacity, at the same time that superior hardness is not re- quired, are made from sheer steel. The finer kinds of cutlery are made from steel which has been in a state of fusion, and which is termed cast steel, no other kinds being susceptible of a fine polish. (See the article Steel.) Table knives are mostly made of sheer steel; forks are made almost altogether by the aid of the stamp and appropriate dies ; the prongs only are hardened and tempered. Almost all razors are made of cast steel, the qual- ity of which should be very good, the edge of a razor requiring the combined advantages of great hardness and tenacity. After the razor blade is forged, it is hard- ened, by gradually heating it to bright red heat, and plunging it into cold water. It is tempered by heating it afterwards till a brightened part appears of a straw color. Though this is generally performed by placing them upon the open fire, it would be more equally effected by sand, or, what is still better, in hot oil, or fusible mixture, consisting of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead and 3 of tin; a thermometer being placed in the liquid at the time the razors are immersed, for the purpose of indicating the proper temperature, which is about 500° of Fahrenheit. Razors are ground crosswise, upon stones from 4 to 7 inches in diameter, a small stone being necessary to make the sides concave. They are afterwards smoothed and pofished. The handles of high-priced razors are made of ivory and tortoise-shell, but in general they are of polished hom, which is pre- ferred on account of its cheapness and durability. The horn is cut into pieces, and placed between two corresponding dies, having a recess of the shape of the handle. The dies are previously heated to about 500° of Fahrenheit, and placed, 88 CUTLERY—CUVIER. with the hom, in a press of such pow- er, that, allowing a man's strength to be 200 pounds, it wiU be equal to 43,000 pounds. By this process, the hom re- ceives considerable extension. If the hom is not previously black, the handles are dyed black by means of a bath of logwood and green vitriol. The clear horn handles are sometimes stained so as to imitate the tortoise-shell.—The manufacture of pen- knives is divided into three departments: the first is the forging of the blades, the spring and the iron scales; the second, the grinding and poUshing of the blades; and the third, the handling, which consists in fitting up aU the parts, and finishing the knife. The blades are made of the best cast steel, and hardened and tempered to about the same degree with that of razors. In grinding, they are made a Uttle more concave on one side than the other: in other respects, they are treated in a similar way to razors. The handles are covered with hom, ivory, and sometimes wood; but the most durable covering is stag-horn. The most general fault in penknives is that of being too soft. The temper ought to be not higher than a straw color, as it seldom happens that a penknife is so hard as to snap on the edge.—The beauty and elegance of polished steel is nowhere dis- played to more advantage than in the manufacture of the finer kinds of scissors. The steel employed for the more valuable scissors should be cast steel of the choicest qualities: it must possess hardness and uniformity of texture, for the sake of as- suming a fine polish; and great tenacity when hot, for the purpose of' forming the bow or ring of the scissors, which requires to be extended from a sohd piece, having a hole previously punched through it. It ought also to be very tenacious when cold, to aUow that delicacy of form ob- served in those scissors termed ladies' scissors. After the scissors are forged as near to the same size as the eye of the workman can ascertain, they are paired, and the two sides fitted together. The bows and some other parts are filed to their intended form; the blades are also roughly ground, and the two sides prop- erly adjusted to each other, after being bound together with wire, and hardened up to the bows. They are afterwards heated till they become of a purple color, which indicates their proper temper. Al- most all the remaining part of the work is performed at the grinding miU, with the stone, the lap, the poUsher and the brush. The very large scissors are partly of iron and partly of steel, the shanks and bows being of the former. These, as well as those all of steel, which are not hardened all over, cannot be polished: an inferior sort of lustre, however, is given to them by means of a burnish of hardened, pol- ished steel, which is very easily distin- guished from the real polish by the irregu- larity of the surface. (For swords, see Sword.) Cutter; a small vessel, furnished with one mast, and rigged as a sloop. Many of these fast-sailing vessels are used by smugglers, and are also employed for the purpose of apprehending them. In the latter case, they are called revenue cutters. The clippers—a kind of vessels built at Baltimore—are particularly adapted for fast sailing, but require great skill in navigating them, to avoid being upset. (See Boat, Ship.) Cutty-Stool ; a low stool; the stool of repentance ; a small gallery in the Scottish kirks, placed near the roof, and painted black, in which offenders against chastity sit during service, professing re- pentance, and Ustening to the minister's rebukes. Cut-Water; the sharp part of the head of a ship below the beak, so called because it cuts or divides the water before it comes to the bow, that it may not come too sud- denly to the breadth of the ship, which would retard it Cuvier, George Leopold Christian Frederic Dagoberr, baron of; born Aug. 25, 1769, at Montbeliard, then belonging to the duchy of Wiirtemburg. His bril- liant talents very early excited great ex- pectations. His father was an officer. As the son's health was too feeble to allow him to become a soldier, he resolved to be a clergyman. He was obliged to pass an examination for the stipend, by the help of which he expected to study at Tubingen. A malicious examiner rejected him. The affair, however, was marked by so much injustice, that prince Frederic, brother of the duke, and governor of the district, thought it his duty to compensate Cuvier by a place in the Charles academy at Stuttgart. Here he gave up his inten- tion of becoming a clergyman. In Stutt- gart, he studied at first the science of law, though he was particularly fond of natural history. To this period of his life he is indebted for his accurate knowledge of the German language and Uterature. The narrow circumstances of his parents com- peUed him to accept the office of private instructer in the family of count D'Hericy, in Normandy. Here he was at liberty to devote his leisure to natural science. Cu- CUVIER—CUXHAVEN. 89 vier soon perceived that zoology was far from that perfection to which Linnaeus had canied botany, and to which miner- alogy had been carried by the united labors of the philosophers of Germany and France. The first desideratum was a careful observation of all the organs of animals, in order to ascertain their mutual dependence, and their influence on animal life ; then a confutation of the fanciful systems which had obscured rather than illustrated the study. Examinations of the marine productions, with which the neighboring ocean abundantly supplied him, served him as a suitable preparation. A natural classification of the numerous classes of vermes (Linn.) was his first labor, and the clearness with which he gave an account of his observations and ingenious views, procured him an acquaintance with all the naturalists of Paris. Geoffiy St. Hilaire invited him to Paris, opened to him the collections of natural history, over which he presided, took part with him in the publication of several works on the classification of the mammalia, and placed him at the central school in Paris, May, 1795. The institute, being reestablished the same year, received him as a member of the first class. For the use of the cen- tral school, he wrote his Tableau EUmen- taire de VHistoire Naturdle des Animaux (1798), by which he laid the foundation of his future fame. From this time, he was considered one of the first zoologists of Europe. JHe soon after displayed his brilliant talents as professor of comparative anatomy. His profound knowledge was not less remarkable than his elevated views, and the elegance with which he illustrated them before a mixed audience. In the lecture-room of the Lycke, where he lectured several years on natural his- tory, was assembled all the accomplished society of Paris, attracted by the ingenu- ity of his classifications, and by his exten- sive surveys of all the kingdoms of nature. In January, 1800, he justly received the place formerly occupied by D'Aubenton, in the colUge de France. His merits did not escape the sagacity of Napoleon. In the department of public instruction, in which, one after another, he filled the most important offices, he exercised much influence by his useful improvements and indefatigable activity. He delivered a report very honorable to Germany, in 1811, when he returned from a journey in Holland and Germany, as superintendent of instruction. He was accompanied, in this journey, by Noel. In 1813, the emperor appointed him maitre des requites to the 8 * council of state, and committed to his care the most important affairs in Mentz. Louis XVIII confirmed him in his former offices, and raised him to the rank of counsellor. As such, he belonged at first to the committee of legislation, and after- wards to that of the interior. As a poli- tician, he drew upon himself the re- proaches of the liberals. In general, the political course of Cuvier forms such a con- trast with his scientific one, and is, besides, of so Uttle importance, that we are very willing to pass it by in silence. The meas- ures of the abbe Frayssinous, then chan- cellor of the university of Paris, determin- ed him to resign the office of university- counsellor, in December, 1822. Notwith- standing his political engagements, Cuvier devoted himself continually to the study of natural history, which he has extend- ed by his discoveries. We mention only his Recherckes sur les Ossemens Fossiles, 1821—24; 3d edition, 1826, 5 vols., 4to., with plates (the classical introduction to this work is printed separately); Dis- cours sur les Revolutions de la Surface du Globe, et sur les Changemens qu'elles ont produit dans le Regne animal (3d edition, Paris, 1825); also, Le Regne animal (1817, 4 vols.); Lecons d'Anatomie Com- paree, recueillies par Dumeril et Duvernoy (1805,5 vols.); Recherckes anatomiques sur les Reptiles regardes encore comme douteux (1807, 4to.); Memoires pour servir a VHis- toire de VAnatomie des Mollusques (1816, 4to.). As perpetual secretary, &c, of the academy, in the class of physical sciences, he has pronounced doges on the deceased members of the institute. The Recueil d'Eloges Historiques (Paris, 1819, 2 vols.) contains models worthy of imitation. The French academy received him, in conse- quence, among their 40 members. Almost all the learned societies of the world have sent him honorary diplomas. France is indebted to him for the establishment of a cabinet of comparative anatomy, which is the finest osteological coUection in Eu- rope. Cuxhaven ; a village in Riitzebiittel, a baiUwick of Hamburg, at the mouth of the river Elbe. It is important for all navigators going to Bremen or Hamburg, Its lighthouse is 8° 43' 1" E. Ion., and 53° 52> 51" N.lat, 61 miles W.N.W. of Ham- burg. The harbor is large and commodi- ous, one of the safest on the coast and is resorted to in cases of danger. Here ves- sels generally take pilots to go up the river to Hamburg, &c. These pilots are privileged, and, by their statutes, are com- pelled always to keep a yacht out at sea, 90 CUXHAVEN—CYCLE. near the outermost buoy, called the red buoy, with men ready to conduct any vessel which may demand assistance. These pUots very often go as far as the channel, and even through it, to meet vessels. From this village, there is a reg- ular packet Une, maintained by the Eng- Ush government, to Harwich. Here is also a quarantine, where vessels are often subjected to much unnecessary delay ; sent to Norway, for instance, to take an airing, when they are bound to Hamburg. A bathing-house has been established here, with many other improvements, by the sen- ator Abendroth. In the middle ages, a family named Lappen were in the habit of sailing from this place for the commis- sion of piracy. Hamburg conquered it in the 14th century. With this city, it came under the French dominion, and, in 1814, was again declared a province of Ham- burg. The whole bailiwick of Riitzebut- tel is subject to, not a component part of, Hamburg. Cuyaba, or Jesus de Cuyaba ; a town of Brazil, capital of Matto Grosso, on the river Cuyaba, nearly 300 miles above its entrance into the Paraguay; 280 miles W. Villa Rica ; population, 30,000. In the neighborhood of this town are the most western mining stations in Brazil, long celebrated for the quantity of gold they produce. The town is well provided with meat, fruits and vegetables, and the sur- rounding country is fruitful. Cyanogen. (See Prussic Acid.) Cybele was originally a particular god- dess of the Phrygians, like Isis, the sym- bol of the moon, and, what is nearly con- nected with this, of the fruitfulness of the earth; for which reason she is confounded with Rhea, whose worship originated in Crete, and in whom personified nature was revered. When the worship of Cy- bele was introduced among the Greeks, the goddess was already surrounded with a cloud of mythological traditions. Ac- cording to Diodorus, Cybele was the daughter of the Phrygian king Ma?on, and his wife Dindyma. At her birth, her father, vexed that the child was not a boy, exposed her upon mount Cybelus, where she was nursed by lions and panthers, and afterwards found and brought up by the wives of the herdsmen. She invented fifes and drums, with which she cured the diseases of beasts and children, be- came intimate with Marsyas, and fell vio- lently in love with Atys. (See Atys.) She was afterwards recognised and received by her parents. Her father, discovering her lo\ 9 for Atys, had him seized and ex- ecuted, and left his body unburied. The grief of Cybele, on this occasion, deranged her understanding. She wandered about, in search of Atys, with dishevelled hair, escorted, by the*sound of the drums and fifes which she had invented, through various countries, even to the Hyperbore- ans, the most distant inhabitants of the North. During her absence, a famine arose in Phrygia, which did not cease until divine honors were paid to Cybele, by the command of the oracle, and the statue of Atys interred, as his body could not be found. Some traditions say that Atys, in a fit of insanity, emasculated him- self. Other traditions give a different account of the cause of his misfortune. In memory of him, the priests of Cybele were eunuchs. Her worship was cele- brated with a violent noise of instruments, and rambling through fields and woods. In Crete, she was confounded with Rhea. She was also blended with the old Latin goddess Ops. Her original statue was nothing but a dark, quadrangular stone. Afterwards she was represented as a matron, with a mural crown on her head, in reference to the improved condition of men, arising from agriculture, and their union into cities. A common attribute of the goddess is the veil about her head, which refers to the mysterious and incom- prehensible in nature. In her right hand she often holds a staff, as an emblem of her power, and, in her left, a Phrygian drum. Sometimes a few .ears of com stand near her. The sun, also, is some- times represented in her right hand, and the crescent of the moon in her left. We sometimes see her in a chariot, drawn by Uons; or else she sits upon a lion, and, as omnipotent nature, she holds a thunder- bolt ; or a lion lies near her. (See Ata- lanta.) These symbols are all representa- tions of her dominion, and of the intro- duction of civilization, by her means, ia the period of barbarism. Cyclades, in ancient geography; a group of islands in the Archipelago, S. E. of Eubcea and Attica, inhabited mostly by Greeks. Nearly in the middle lies the largest island, Naxos. (q. v.) The most southerly is Melos. (q. v.) Paros (q. v.) also is one of this fertile and charming group. Cycle (Greek <«*Xoj, a circle) is used for every uniformly returning succession of the same events. On such successions or cycles of years rests all chronology, particularly the calendar. Our common solar year, determined by the periodical return of the sun to the same point in tha CYCLE—CYCLOID. 91 ecliptic, every body knows, contains 52 Weeks and 1 day, and leap-year a day more. Consequently, in different years, the same day of the year cannot faU upon the same day of the week; but, as, for ex- ample, the year 1814 began with Saturday, 1815 with Sunday, 1816 with Monday; but 1817, because preceded by a leap- year, began, not with Tuesday, but with Wednesday. If we count only common years, it is manifest that, from seven years to seven years, every year would begin again with the same day of the week as the seventh year before; or, to express the same in other words, after seven years, the dominical letter (q. v.) would return in the same order. But as every fourth year, instead of a common year, is a leap- year, this can only take place after 4x7, or 28 years. Such a period of 28 years is called a solar cycle, and serves to show the day of the week falling on the first day of January in every year. For this pur- pose, it is only requisite to know with what day of the week a particular year began, and then to prepare a table for the first days of the 27 following years. It is the custom now to fix the beginning of the solar cycle at the ninth year B. C, which was a leap-year, and began with Monday. If you wish to know what day of the week the new-year's day of any year of our reckoning is, you have only to add nine to the number of the year, and then, after dividing this sum by 28, the quotient gives, of course, the number of complete cycles, and the remainder shows what year of the solar period the given year is, of which the table above-mention- ed gives the day of the week with which it begins. But this reckoning is only adapted to the Julian calendar. In the Gregorian, it is interrupted by the circum- stance that, in 400 years, the last year of the centuiy is three times a common year. Hence this reckoning will not give the day of the week for the first day of the year; but, from 1582 (the commencement of the Gregorian calendar) to 1700, for the 11th, from 1700 to 1800 for the 12th, in the 19th century for the 13th day of the year, and so on, from which we must then reckon back to the new-year's day. Hence it is far more convenient to prepare a tabic for the beginning of a centuiy (for example, for 1801, which began with Thursday), and divide by 28 the number of vears from that to the given year, and, witli the remainder, seek in the table the day of the week for the first day of the year. Besides this, another cycle is neces- sary for the determination of festival days, by the aid of which the feast of Easter, by which all the movable feasts are regulated, is to lie reckoned. Easter depends on the first foil moon after the vernal equinox. (See Calendar.) The lunar cycle is a pe- riod of 19 years, after which the new moon falls again on the same day of the month. January 2, 1813, there was a new moon; January 2,1832, there will be a new moon again. As the tune from one new moon to another, as astronomy teaches, is about 29^ days, a table of the new moons for 19 years may be very easily prepared. It is only necessary to observe that tins lunar cycle always begins with a year, of which the first new moon falls on the first of January, and that this was the case the first year B. C. Divide by 19 the num- ber of the year plus 1, and the remainder will show what year in the lunar period the given year is. The number of the year is called the golden number. (See Calendar, and Epact.) Besides these two cycles, which are indispensable for the calculations of the calendar, there are some others, several of them laiovvn by the name of periods. (See the accounts given under the heads Calendar and Era.) —The Germans make much use of the word Cyclus in science, meaning by it any series of events, works, observations, &c, which forms a whole in itself, and reminds us of a circle; thus they speak of the Cyclus of works in a certain science, and Cyclus of discoveries by a philosopher, &c, wherever the series forms a vveU-con- nected whole. Cyclic Poets. (See Greek Literature.) Cycloid ; the line described by a mov- ing wheel. Imagine a circle which is rolled perpendicularly along a straight line, till the point first at rest is brought to rest again, after an entire revolution. The curve, thus described by this point, is call- ed a cycloid, because every point in the circumference of a revolving wheel de- scribes a similar curve. The circle is caUed the generating circle; the line on which it is described, the base of the cycloid. The length of the cycloid is always four times the diameter of the generating circle, and its area three times the area of this circle. This Une is very important in the higher branches of mechanics. Imagine a pen- dulum suspended by a thread, in such a way that, in the swinging of the pendulum between two plates, each of which is bent in the form of a cycloid, the thread rolls and unrolls itself. Then the longest vibra- tions will be performed in the same time as the shortest, producing an isochronism, and the cycloid is hence caUed an wo- 92 CYCLOID—CYMBALS. throne or tantoch-one. The name of brachystochrone has also been given to the cycloid, because it is the Une in which a heavy body, falling in a direction oblique to the horizon, would pass in the shortest time between two points. Cyclopedia. (See Encyclopaidia.) Cyclopean Works, in ancient archi- tecture ; masoniy performed with huge blocks of stone, much of which is to be seen in Sicily, said, by the ignorant, to be die works of an ancient and fabulous gigantic race of people; as Stonehenge is said by the country people to have been built by the devil. Some of these works, called Cyclopean, were the walls of Argos and Sicyone. Near to Nauplea, in Argo- lis, there were caverns winch, according to Strabo, wrcre called Cyclopean. As ser- vants of Vulcan, the Cyclops were cele- brated in mythology and fabulous history for their marvellous works. (See Cyclops.) Cyclops ; the name of celebrated giants in the mythology of Greece. They are of two kinds : the former are the sons of Neptune, and the latter the sons of Ura- nus and Gaia (Heaven and Earth). The latter, three in number, Arges, Brontes, Steropcs (Thunder and Lightning), were those powerful giants who forged thun- derbolts for Jupiter, in the workshop of Vulcan, for which Apollo killed them. Wholly different from these are the sons of Neptune, of whom some enumerate 7; others, near 100. The most distinguished of them is Polyphemus. With him is connected the whole nation of the Cyclops, who are described in the Odyssey (ix, 106 et seq.) as wandering savages, uncouth giants, without agriculture or civil union, dwelling in mountain caves, and support- ing themselves by the breeding of cattle. According to Homer, they resided on the west side of Sicily, near the dark Cim- meria. As geographical knowledge in- creased, the region of Cimmerian dark- ness was placed at a greater distance, and this nation was described as dwelling on the Riphaean mountains, rich in beds of metal. The one-eyed people, sometimes called Cyclops, sometimes Arimaspians, dug up the Riph&an ores, and wrought them, though disturbed by the griffins which watched the gold. From this time, the two classes of Cyclops are confounded. A part of these Cyclops forged Jupiter's thunderbolts; another part went on an ad- venture to Greece, where they left several buildings, as monuments of Cyclopean art (O. Miiller understands, by the Cy- clops, whole nations, united under an ec- clesiastical government This waU-huild- ing people might have been humble peas- ants in the Pelasgiau plains of Argos (which is especially called the Cyclopean region), tributary to the Achseans.) When men's acquaintance with the surface of the earth became still more increased, the fabled Riphaean hills were carried stiU farther into the undiscovered night of the North; and here the history of the one- eyed nation is wrapped in confusion. Some authors place them still on the Riphajan hills to the North: most writers, however, treat them as dwelling again in Sicily, engaged in the service of Vulcan, but working under iEtna, or among the flaming crags of the Lipari islands. The mountains emitting fire were their forges; and the roaring within them, the sound of their hammers. How they acquired the character of being one-eyed is unknown, as their name only attributes to them round eyes. Polyphemus, m many fig- ures, is represented with two eyes. Among the Greek pastoral poets, we find the Cyclops exhibited in a rustic and natural character.—Cyclops is likewise a name which zoologists give to a certain minute aquatic animal. Cyder. (See Cider.) Cylinder; the name of a geometrical solid, formed by two parallel circular sur- faces, called the superior base and the in- ferior base, and a convex surface terminat- ed by them. There is a distinction be- tween rectangular cylinders and oblique cylinders. In the first case, the axis, that is, the straight line joining the centre of the two opposite bases, must be perpen- dicular; in the second, the axis must form an angle with the inferior base. The solidity of a cylinder is equal to the pro- duct of the base by the altitude. Archi- medes found that the solidity of a sphere inscribed in an equilateral cylinder, that is, of a sphere whose diameter is equal to the height ana* also to the diameter of the base of the cyUnder, is equal to two thirds of the solidity of the cyUnder. The cylinder is one of those figures which are constantly in use for the most various pur- poses. Cylinder Glass. (See Glass). Cymbals, among the ancients; musical instruments consisting of two hollow ba- sins of brass, which emitted a ringing sound when struck together. The brazen instruments which are now used in mili- tary music, and have been borrowed by Europeans from the East, seem to have taken their rise from these. The inven- tion of them, according to some writers, must be referred to the worship of Cybele,, CYNICS—CYPRIANS. 93 Cynics. After the Greeks had explored, with unparalleled rapidity, all the regions of philosophy, and sects of the most va- rious kinds had formed themselves, it was not unnatural that a school should arise which condemned speculation, and de- voted itself to the moral reformation of society. The Cynics were founded by Antisthenes, a scholar of Socrates, at Athens, about 380 B. C. The character of this philosophy for the most part re- mained true to the Socratic, particularly in making practical morals its chief, or rather its only object, and in despising all speculation. There were some noble fea- tures in the doctrines of the Cynics. They made virtue to consist in self-denial and independence of external circumstances, by which, asthev thought, man assimilates himself to God. This simplicity of life, however, was soon carried so far by the Cynics, that it degenerated into careless- ness, and even neglect of decency. In their attempts at living conformably to nature, they brought themselves down to the level of savages, and even of brutes. No wonder, then, that the Cynics soon became objects of contempt. The most famous of their number were, besides their founder, the ingenious zealot Dioge- nes of Sinope, Crates of Thebes, with his wife Hipparchia, and Menippus, who was the last of them. After him, this philoso- phy merged in the Stoic, a more worthy and honorable sect.—The word cynicism is still used to mark an uncommon con- tempt or neglect of all external things. Cy no sura; a nymph of mount Ida, who educated Jupiter, and was afterwards placed in the constellation of the Little Bear. By this star, the Phoenicians direct- ed their course in their voyages.—Cyno- sure, in a figurative sense, is hence used as synonymous with pole-star, or guide. Cynthius ; a surname of Apollo, from mount Cynthus, on the island of Dclos, at the foot of which he had a temple, and on which he was bom. Diana, his sister, is called Cynthia, from the same mountain, because it was also her birth- place. Cypress. The cypress-tree (cupressus sempervirens) is a dark-colored evergreen, a native of the Levant, the leaves of which are extremely small, and entirely cover the slender branches, lying close upon them, so as to give them a somewhat quadrangular shape. In some of the trees, the branches diminish gradually in length, from the bottom to the top, in such a manner as to form a nearly pyramidal shape. In many of the old gardens in Europe, cypress-trees are still to be found; but their generally sombre and gloomy appearance has caused them, of late years, to be much neglected. They arc, how- ever, very valuable, on account of their wood, which is hard, compact and dura- ble, of a pale or reddish color, with deep veins and a pleasant smell. AVe are in- formed by Pliny, that the doors of the famous temple of Diana, at Ephesus, were of cypress-wood, and, though 400 years old at the time that he wrote, ap- peared to be nearly as fresh as when new. Indeed, this wood was so much esteemed by the ancients, that the image of Jupiter, in the capitol, was made of it The gates of St. Peter's church, at Rome, are stated to have been of cypress, and to have lasted more than 1000 years, from the time of the emperor Constantine until that of pope Eugenius IV, when gates of brass were erected in their stead. As this wood, in addition to its other qualities, takes a fine pofish, and is not Uable to the attacks of insects, it was formerly much esteemed for cabinet furniture. By the Greeks, in the time of Thucydides, it was used for the coffins of eminent warriors; and many of the chests which enclose Egyptian mummies are made of it. The latter afford very decisive proof of its almost incorruptible nature. The name of this tree is derived from the island of Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, where it stiU grows in great luxuriance. Its gloomy hue caused it to be consecrated, by the ancients, to Pluto, and to be used at the funerals of people of eminence. Pliny states that, in his time, it was cus- tomary to place branches of cypress-tree before those houses in which any person lay dead. Its perpetual verdure served the poets as the image of eternity, as its dark and silent leaf, unmoved by gentle breezes, is, perhaps, a proper symbol of melancholy. Large coUections of cypress- es, as they are often seen surrounding Turkish minarets, have a gloomy and in- teresting appearance. In the western parts of the U. States, upon the Mississip- pi and other rivers, the cypress constitutes large forests of a most sombre and pe- culiar character. The dark, dense na- ture of their foliage, the shade, impenetra- ble to the sun, which they form, render them the fit abode of wild beasts and reptiles, and almost inaccessible to man. They cover tracts hundreds of miles in extent, and are visited only by the travel- ler and the wood-cutter. Cyprians ; a term used for courtesans, Uke that of Corinthians (q. v.), because 94 CYPRIANS—ST. CYR. Venus, the Cyprian goddess, was particu- larly worshipped on the island of Cy- prus. Cyprian, St., bom A. D. 200, at Car- tilage, was descended from a respectable family, and was a teacher of rhetoric there. In 246, he was converted to Chris- tianity, distributed his property among the poor, and lived in the greatest abstinence. The church, in Carthage, soon chose him presbyter, and, in 248, he was made bish- op. He was the light of the clergy, and the comfort of the people. During the persecution under the emperor Decius, he fled, but constantly exhorted his church to continue firm in the Christian faith. In 251, he summoned a council, at Car- thage, to decide concerning those who had abandoned their faith during the per- secution, but desired to be readmitted through penance. When the persecution of the Christians was renewed, A. D. 257, he was banished to Curubis, 12 leagues from Cartilage. Sept. 14, 258, he was beheaded, at Carthage, because, in oppo- sition to the orders of the government, he had preached the gospel in his gardens, near Carthage. Lactantius calls him one of the first eloquent Christian authors. His style, however, retained something of the hardness of Ids teacher, TertuUian. We have from him an explanation of the Lord's prayer, and 81 letters, affording valuable illustrations of the ecclesiastical history of his time. Baluze pubUshed his works complete (Paris, 1726, fol.). Cypris (Cypria); a surname of Venus, from the island of Cyprus, where was her first temple. Cyprus ; an island in the Mediterra- nean, between Asia Minor and Syria, fa- mous, in antiquity, for its uncommon fer- tility and its mild climate. It contains 7264 square miles, and 120,000 inhabi- tants, of whom 40,000 are Greeks. Cy- prus is the native place of the cauliflow- er. Wine, oil, honey, wool, &c, are still, as formerly, the principal productions. The country is distinguished by re- markable places and mountains; as Pa- phos, Amathusia, Salamis and Olympus, once adorned with a rich temple of Venus. Venus was particularly venerated here, because, according to tradition, the de- lightful shores of Cyprus received her when she emerged from the foam of the sea. The oldest history of this island is lost in the darkness of antiquity. When Amasis brought it under the Egyptian yoke, 550 B. C, Ionian and Phoenician colonists had formed several small states in the island. It remained an Egyptian province till 58 B. C, when it was con- quered by the Romans. After the division of the Roman territories, Cyprus continu- ed subject to the Eastern empire, and was ruled by its own governors of royal blood, of whom Comnenus I made himself in- dependent, and his family sat upon the throne till 1191, when Richard of England rewarded the family of Lusignan with the sceptre. After the extinction of the legiti- mate male line of Lusignan, James, an ille- gitimate descendant, came to the govern- ment. His wife was a Venetian (Catha- rine Comaro, q. v.), and, as she had no children at his death, the Venetians took advantage of this circumstance to make themselves masters of the island (1473). They enjoyed the undisturbed possession of it till 1571, when Amurath III, not- withstanding the bravest resistance on the part of Marco Antonio Bragadino, who defended Famagusta 11 months, conquer- ed Cyprus, and joined it to the empire of Turkey. Nicosia, the chief city, is the seat of the Turkish governor, a Greek archbishop and an Armenian bishop. The wines of Cyprus are red when they first come from the press; but after five or six years, they grow pale. Only the Muscatel wine is white at first; and even this, as it grows older, becomes redder, till, after a few years, it attains the thick- ness of sirup. It is very sweet. The wines of Cyprus are not equally agreeable at all seasons of the year: they are best in spring and summer. Excessive cold injures them, and destroys their flavor and color. They are put up at first in leather bags covered with pitch, whence they ac- quire a strong pitchy flavor which is sev- eral years in escaping. They are brought to the continent in casks, but cannot be kept unless drawn off after some time into bottles. The best is distinguished by the name of Commandery. (See Venus). Cyr, St.; a French village in the de- partment of the Seine-and-Oise,one league west of Versailles (population, 1000), fa- mous for the seminary which Louis XIV founded here, at the persuasion of mad- ame Maintenon, in 1686. Here 250 noble ladies were educated, free of expense, until their 20th year. Forty females of the order of St. Augustine instructed the scholars. Madame Maintenon gave all her attention to this establishment She is buried at St Cyr. During the revo- lution, this institution was overturned, and a military preparatory school was founded by Napoleon, which survived his fall, and educates 300 pupils. Napoleon estab- Ushed la maison imperiale cTEeeven, an in- ST. CYR—CYRIL. 95 stitution similar to the one at St. Cyr, and placed madame Campan at the head of it. Cyrenaica (originally a Phoenician col- ony), once a powerful Greek state in the north of Africa, west of Egypt, comprising five cities (Pentapolis), among which was Cyrene, a Spartan colony, is at present a vast, but unexplored field of antiquities. The ancient site of Cyrene is now called Grenne or Cayron, in the country of Bar- ca, in the dominion of TripoU. TiU the fifth centuiy, Cyrenaica was the seat of the Gnostics, (q. v.) The antiquities there are described by the physician P. Della Cella, in his work Viaggio da Tri- poli di Barbarie alle Frontieri Occidentali delV Egitto, fatto nel 1817 (Genoa, 1819, 8vo.). J. R. Pacho, who has travelled over Africa since 1819, made many obser- vations, likewise, in Cyrenaica, for which he received the geographical prize of 3000 francs, on his return to Paris, in 1826. (Voyage de M. Pacho dans la Cyrenaique.) Of the famous inscription found among the ruins of Cyrene, and brought to Malta, some account has been given by Gesenius (Halle, 1825,-4to.), and Hamacker, pro- fessor at Leyden (Leyden, 1825, 4to.). At present, the country is called, by the Arabians, Djebd Akhdar, or Green High- land. Surrounded by sterile and dry countries, Cyrenaica itself is veiy fertile and well watered. Its hills are covered with wood, and exhibit many melancholy traces of former cultivation. In ancient times, the inhabitants suffered much from the attacks of the people of the interior and the Carthaginians. The ruins of Cy- rene have given rise among the present inhabitants, to a bcUef in a petrified city. There are at present about 40,000 people in Djebel Akhdar. Cyrenaics ; a philosophical sect, whose founder was Aristippus (q. v.), born in Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates. (See Aris- tippus.) The most distinguished of his foliowers were Hegesias, Anniceris, Theo- dore the Atheist, who, for his denial of the existence of virtue and the Deity, was banished from Athens. Cyrene. (Sec Cyrenaica.) Cyril. Ecclesiastical history mentions three saints of this name:—1. Cyril of Je- rusalem, born there about the year 315, was ordained presbyter in 345, and, after the death of St Maximus, in 350, became patriarch of Jerusalem. Being a zealous Catholic, he engaged in a warm contro- versy with Acacius, the Anan bishop of Csesarea. In addition to their dispute upon doctrinal points, Acacius accused him of having sold some valuable church ornaments, which he had indeed done, but for die laudable purpose of supporting the needy during a famine. A council assembled at Caesarea, by Acacius, in 357, deposed Cyril; but the council of Seleucia, in 359, restored him and deposed his per- secutor. Acacius, by his artifices, suc- ceeded in depriving him again of his dig- nity the next year, and, after the emperor Constantius, on his accession to the throne, had once more recalled him, he was a third time deposed by the emperor Valens, after whose death he finally returned to Jerusalem. In 381, the council of Con- stantinople confirmed him. He died in 386. We have 23 catecheses composed by him, in a clear and simple style, which are esteemed the oldest and best outline of the Christian dogmas (Paris, 1720, folio.) —2. Cyril of Alexandria was educated by lus uncle Theophilus, patriarch of Alex- andria ; spent five years in the monaste- ries of Nitria, where he was instructed by the abbot Serapion. He then went to Alexandria, where his graceful form and pleasing delivery gained him so many adherents, that, after his uncle's death, in 412, he succeeded him in the patriarchal dignity. Full of zeal and ambition, he was not satisfied with ecclesiastical honor alone, but exercised secular dominion also. To punish the Jews, by whom Christian blood had been shed, during an insurrec- tion, he assailed them, at the head of the populace, destroyed their houses and their furniture, and drove them out of the city. Orestes, the prefect of Egypt, who com- plained of such lawless violence, so incon- sistent with the character of a bishop, was soon after attacked in the streets by 500 furious monks, one of whom, having wounded Orestes, was apprehended, con- demned to death, and expired under the blows of the Uctors. Cyril caused his body to be carried in a solemn procession to the cathedral, gave him the name of Tlutumasius, and extolled him as a mar- tyr and a saint. The assassination of Hypatia, the learned daughter of Theon, the mathematician, who had excited the envy of Cyril, by the applause which she had gained by her knowledge of geome- try and philosophy, took place at his insti- gation. In the notorious synod of 403, in concurrence with his uncle, he had plan- ned the condemnation of St. Chrysostom, and it was only after an obstinate resist- ance, that he was persuaded to submit to the decrees of the Catholic church, in respect to that prelate. Still more fierce were his disputes with Nestorius, the sue 96 CYRIL—CYRUS. cessor of Chrysostom, who distinguished between the divine and human nature of Christ acknowledging Mary as the mother of Christ, but refusing to her the appellation of mother of God. Cyril contended long and violently against these doctrines, and appointed pope Celestine umpire, who immediately condemned them. He drew up 12 anathemas, directed against John, patriarch of Antioch, which, in the opin- ion even of theologians, are not wholly free from heresy, and called upon Nesto- rius to subscribe them. To settle the dis- pute between these two prelates, the coun- cil of Ephesus was summoned. Both parties appeared with a great number of adherents and servants, between whom innumerable disputes arose. Cyril opened the council before the arrival of the patri- arch of Antioch; and, although Nestorius refused to recognise his enemies as judges; although 68 bishops were in his favor, and a magistrate, in the name of the emperor, demanded a delay of four days; yet, in a single day, Nestorius was condemned, deposed, and declared to be a second Ju- das. Soon after, the patriarch of Antioch arrived, and held a synod of 50 bishops, who, with equal haste, condemned Cyril as guilty of heresy, and declared hiin a monster born for the ruin of the church. Both parties rushed to arms: the streets of the city, and the cathedral itself, became the theatre of their fury, and were polluted with blood. The emperor Theodosius sent troops to Ephesus, to disperse this pugnacious council. Tliis measure, how- ever, only changed the theatre of the war; for it was continued three years longer, between John of Antioch and Cyril. Soon after, Nestorius, not less violent than Cyril, obtained from the emperor a com- mand for Cyril to appear again before a councU at Ephesus. Both parties appear- ed, with their adherents, in arms. Cyril was maltreated, and even imprisoned. He escaped from his keepers, however, and fled to Alexandria. From that place, he contrived, by distributing bribes, to excite an insurrection in Constantinople, which struck terror into the timid emperor. Ne- gotiations were begun: Cyril was prevail- ed upon to mitigate his anathema, and, against his will, to acknowledge a two- fold nature in Christ. But Nestorius, as he was determined never to renounce his opinions, was compeUed to lay down his offices, and to retire to a monastery. He was afterwards banished to Thebais. In 339 or 340, he died. Cyril closed his restless career in 344. His opinions pre- vaUed both in the Eastern and Western empire, and the church gave him a place among the saints. The best edition of his works, in which there is neither clear- ness nor accuracy of stvle, is that of 1638, in foUo.—3. St. Cyril, a native of Thcssa- lonica, by way of distinction, was called Constanhne, and, at Constantinople, where he studied, received the name of the Phi- losopher. At the recommendation of St. Ignatius, the emperor Michael III sent him to the Chazars—a people of the stock of the Huns. He converted the khan, after whose example the whole nation were baptized. He then preached the gospel, with Methodicus, to the Bulgari- ans, and baptized their king Bojaris, A.D. 860. They had the same success in Mo- ravia and Bohemia. Still later, they went to Rome, where they both died. Accord- ing to Dobrowsky, Cyril died in 868: ac- cording to Xav. Richter, he died in 871 or 872. The two apostles were both declar- ed saints. The Greeks and Russians cele- brate the festival of St. Cyril on Feb. 14. He was the inventor of the Cyrillian Letters (q. v.), which took their name from him, and is probably the author of the Apologies which bear his name. Cyrillian Letters ; characters called, in Sclavonic, Czuraliza; one of the modes of writing the Sclavonic language, of which there are three:—1. Roman or Ger- man letters, used by the people of Poland, Bohemia and Lusatia ; 2. Cyrillian, so caUed from their inventor, Cyrillus. They are much used by the Russians. 3, From these Cyrillian characters, probably through the artifices of calligraphy, a pe- culiar alphabet was formed, which is sometimes used in printed books, but no where in common life. Cyrus ; a celebrated conqueror. The only two original authorities concerning him—Herodotus and Xenophon—differ so greatly, that they cannot be reconciled. According to Herodotus, he was the son of Cambyses, a distinguished Persian, and of Mandane, daughter of the Median king Astyages. He founded the Persian mon- archy. (See Assyria.) A short time be- fore his birth, the soothsayers at the court of Astyages divined from a dream of his, that his future grandson was to dethrone him. Upon this, he gave orders that Cy- rus should be destroyed immediately after his birth. For this purpose, he was deliv- ered to a herdsman, who, moved with compassion, brought him up, and named him Cyrus. His courage and spirit be- trayed bis descent to the king. On one occasion, playing with other boys, being chosen king by Ins companions, he caused CYRUS—CZAR. 97 die son of one of the first men in the na- tion to be beaten. The father of the boy complained to Astyages, who reprimanded young Cyrus. But he appealed to his right as king of his companions, and replied with so much boldness and good sense, that Astyages became interested in him, and instituted inquiries, which led to the discovery of his birth. The magi having succeeded in quieting the uneasi- ness which the discovery occasioned him, he sent Cyrus to Iris parents in Persia, with marks of his favor. But the young man soon drew together a formidable army of Persians, and conquered his grandfather, B. C. 560. A similar fate befell Crcesus, the rich and powerful king of Lydia, and Nabonadius, king of Baby- lon, whose capital he took, after a siege of two years. He also subdued Phoenicia and Palestine, to which he caused the Jews to return from the Babylonish cap- tivity. While Asia, from the Hellespont to the Indies, was under his dominion, he engaged in an unjust war against the IVlas- sagetae—a people of Scythia, north-east of the Caspian sea, beyond the Araxes, then ruled by a queen named Tomyris. In the first battle, he conquered by stratagem; but, in the second, he experienced a total defeat and was himself slain, B. C. 529, after a reign of 29 years. He was suc- ceeded by his son Cambyses. The stories related by Xenophon (q. v.), in the Cyro- padia (Account of the Life and remarkable Traits in the Character of Cyrus), that he received a splendid education at the court of Astyages, inherited his kingdom, and ruled like a genuine philosopher, are either mere romance, deserving not the least historical credit (Xenophou's design being to represent the model of a king, without regard to historical truth, and, in this way, perhaps, to exhibit to his coun- trymen the advantages of a monarchy), or else die two accounts are founded on dif- ferent U-aditions, perhaps of two different persons named Cyrus.—Another Cyrus was the youngest son of Darius Nothus, or Ochus, who lived nearly 150 years later than the former. In the 16th year of his age, he obtained the supreme power over all the provinces of Asia Minor. His am- bition early displayed itself; and when, after his father's death, his eldest brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon, ascended the throne, Cyrus formed a conspiracy against him, which was, however, discovered before it came to maturity. Instead of causing the sentence of death to be executed upon him, his brother kindly released him, aud made him governor of Asia Minor. Here vol. iv. 9 Cyrus assembled a numerous army, to make war upon Artaxerxes, and dethrone him. Among his forces were 13,000 Greek auxiliaries, who were ignorant however, of the object of the expedition. Being informed of his brother's design, Artaxerxes marched against him with a much larger army. In the plains of Cy- naxa, in the province of Babylon, the two armies encountered each other. After a brave resistance, especially on the part of the Greeks, the army of Cyrus was over- come, and he himself slain by the hand of Artaxerxes. Cythera (now Cerigo ; population, 8000), one of the seven Ionian islands, sep- arated by a narrow strait from the south shore of Laconia, was particularly celebrat- ed for the worship of Venus Urania, whose temple in Cythera, the chief city, was the oldest and most splendid of her temples in Greece. The ancient Cythera is now de- molished, and exhibits nothing but a few ruins. On the shore of this island, accord- ing to one tradition, Venus first ascended from the sea, and took possession of the land; i. e., Phoenician navigators here first introduced the worship of Venus into Greece. The island is rocky and unfruit- ful. From this place, Venus has her name Cytherea. Czar, Zar, or Zaar; a title of the au- tocrat of Russia The word is of old Sclavonic origin, and is nearly equivalent to king. The emperor is called, in the same language, kessar. Until the 16th century, the rulers of the several Russian provinces were called grand-princes (we- liki knaes). Thus there were grand- princes of Wladimir, Kiev, Moscow, &.c The grand-prince Wasilie first received, in 1505, the title of samodersheta, which is equivalent to the Greek word autocrat. (q. v.) The son of Wasilie, Ivan H, adopted, in 1579, the title of Czar of Moscow, which his descendants bore for a long time. In 1721, the senate and clergy conferred on Peter I, in the name of the nation, the title of emperor of Russia, for which, in Russia, the Latin word impera- tor is used. Several European powers declined to acknowledge this title, until the middle of the last century. The eld- est son and presumptive heir of the czar was caUed czareviz (czar's son); but, with the unfortunate Alexis, son of Peter I, this title ceased, and aU the princes of the iin- jierial house have been since called grand- princes. The emperor Paul 1 renewed the tide czareviz, or czarewitck, in 1799, for Iris second son, Constantine. (q. v.) The ruler* of Georgia and Imiretta, now under 98 CZAR—DACH. the Russian sceptre, called themselves czars. Czenstochow, or Czenstochowa ; a fortified monastery, belonging to the order of St Paul the Hermit, in Poland, province of KaUsch, near the Wartha and the fron- tiers of Silesia. In this fortification, well provided with artillery, the monks former- ly had their own garrison, and chose com- mandants from their own number. In the diet of 1765, however, it was deter- mined to occupy this place with a secular force. Frequent pilgrimages are made to the miraculous image of the Virgin, in the church of the monastery. At the foot of the mountain lies New Czenstochow, with a population of 1300, and, a few miles distant Old Czenstochow, with a popula- tion of 1700. In 1812, Czenstochow was occupied by a garrison of French soldiers, who were compelled to surrender to the Russians in January, 1813. Czerny George. (See Servia.) Czirknitz. (See Zirknitz.) D. JLf ; the fourth letter in our alphabet, of the order of mutes. (See Consonant.) Ac- cording to M. Champollion's recent dis- coveries, the d, in the hieroglyphic writing of the old Egyptians, corresponding to the dau of the Copts, is a segment of a circle, similar to a Q . The Greek delta was a triangle, A, from which the Roman D has been borrowed. D, as an initial letter on medals, indicates the names of coun- tries, cities and persons, as Decius ; also the words devotus, designatus, divus, domi- nus, &c.; D. M., diis manibus; D. O. M., Deo optimo maximo. The Greek A repre- sented the number four. Among Roman numerals, D signifies 500, but was not used as a numerical designation until 1500 years after Christ The Romans desig- nated a thousand in this way,—CI J. The early printers, it is said, thought it best to express 500 by half the character of 1000, and therefore introduced ID, which soon grew into D. If a fine was marked over it, it signified 5000. In inscriptions and manuscripts, D is veiy often found in the place of B and L; des for bes, dachrumai for lachruma>. In dedications, D., tlirice re- peated, signifies Dot, Donat, Dicat, or Dot, Dicat, Dedicat. As an abbreviation of the jurists, D signifies the pandects (Digesta). D stands for doctor in M. D.; in D. T., dodor of theology; LL. D., doctor of laws, &c. D., on French coins, signifies Lyons ,- on Prussian, Aurich; on Austrian, Gratz. In music, D designates the second note in the natural diatonic scale of C, to which Guido apphed the monosyUable re. Da Capo (Hal.; from the head or begin- ning) ; an expression written at the end of a movement, to acquaint the performer that he is to return to, and end with, the first strain. It is also a call or acclamation to the singer or musician, in theatres or concerts, to repeat a piece which he has just finished—a request very often made mercilessly by the public, without regard to the fatigue caused by a performance. Dacca Jelalpore; an extensive and rich district of Bengal, situated principally between 23° and 24° of N. lat It is intersected by the Ganges and Brahma- pootra, two of the largest rivers in In- dia, which, with their various branches, form a complete inland navigation, extend- ing to every part of the country; so that every town having its river or canal, the general mode of travelling or conveying goods is by water. Dacca ; a large city, capital of the above- named district and, for 80 years, the cap- ital of Bengal. It is situated on the north- ern bank of a deep and broad river, called the Boor Gunga (Old Ganges), at the dis- tance of 100 miles from the sea. In this city, or its vicinity, are manufactured beautiful muslins, which are exported to every part of the civifized world. It has also an extensive manufacture of shell bracelets, much worn by the Hindoo women. The neighborhood of the city abounds with game of all sorts, from the tiger to the quail, and is, on this account, a great resort of Europeans, during the three cold months. 180 mfles from Cal- cutta by land; lon. 90° 17' E; lat 23° 42'N. Dach, Simon, a German poet of the 17th century, bom at Memel, July 29, 1605, Uved in an humble condition, until he was appointed professor of poetry in DACH—DACIER. 99 the university of Konigsberg. He remain- ed in this office until his death, April 15, 1659. His secular songs are lively and natural. His sacred songs are distinguish- ed for deep and quiet feeling. Dacia. The country which anciendy bore this name, according to Ptolemy's description, comprised the present Banat a part of Lower Hungary, as far as the Carpathian mountains on the west Tran- sylvania, Moldavia, Walachia and' Bessa- rabia. Some include Bulgaria and Servia, with Bosnia, or the ancient Upper and Lower Moesia. The inhabitants of this country, called Dad, also Davi, made themselves, for a long time, terrible to the Romans. When Trajan conquered Dacia, in the second century, he divided it into, 1. Dacia Riparia or Ripensis (the present Banat, and a part of Hungary), so called because it was bounded on the west by the Theiss, and on the east by the Danube; 2. Dacia Mediterranea (now Transylvania), so called, because it was situated between die two others; and, 3. Dacia Transalpina (now Walachia, Moldavia and Bessarabia), or that part of Dacia lying beyond the Carpathian mountains. He governed each of these three provinces by a prefect es- tablished colonies in them, and sent colo- nists from other parts of the Roman em- pire, to people them, and supply cultiva- tors of the %oil. When Constimtine the Great divided the Roman empire anew, Dacia became a part of the Illyrian pre- fecture, and was divided into five prov- inces or districts. Upon the faU of the Roman empire, it was graduaUy overrun by the Goths, Huns, Gepidse and Avars. Since that time, the history of this coun- try, which then lost the name of Dacia, is to be sought for in that of the provinces of which it formerly consisted. Dacier, Andre, born at Castres, in Upper Languedoc, 1651, of Protestant parents, studied at Saumur, under Tanne- guy-Lefevre, whose daughter Anna was associated in his studies. After the death of Lefevre, in 1672, he went to Paris. The duke of Montausier, to whom his learning was known, intrusted him with the editing of Pompeius Festus (in usum delphini). The intimacy growing out of their mutual love of literature led to a marriage between him and Anna Lefe- vre, in 1683, and, two years after, they both embraced the Catholic religion. They received from the king considerable pensions. In 1695, Dacier was elected a member of the academy of inscriptions, and of the French academy: of the latter he was afterwards perpetual secretary. The care of the cabinet in the Louvre was intrusted to him. He died in 1722. Da- cier wrote several indifferent translations of the Greek and Latin authors. Besides the edition of Pompeius Festus, and the (Euvres dHorace, en Latin et en Fran- cois, with the Nouveaux Eclaircissemens sur les (Euvres oVHorace, and the Nouvelle Traduction d?Horace, with critical annota- tions, he prepared an edition of Valerius Flaccus, a translation of Marcus Antoni- nus, of Epictetus, of Aristotle's Art of Po- etry, with annotations, of die Lives of Plutarch, of the Oedipus and Electra of Sophocles, of the works of Hippocrates, and of several dialogues of Plato. Dacies, Anna Lefevre; wife of the preceding; bom at Saumur, in 1651. Af- ter the death of her learned father, who had instructed her, and cultivated her tal- ents, she went to Paris, where she dis- played her learning by an edition of Calli- machus (1675), which she inscribed to Huet, the under tutor of the dauphin. The duke of Montausier, in consequence, intrusted her with the care of several edi- tions of the classics (in usum delphini). She first edited Florus (q. v.), with a com- mentary. Her learned works were not interrupted by her marriage. Her feeble translation of Homer attracted a good deal of attention, and led to a dispute between her and Lamotte, in which it appeared that madame Dacier understood much less of logic, than Lamotte of the Greek language. In her Considerations sur les Causes de la Corruption du Gout, she de- fended Homer with the acuteness of a profound commentator, and Lamotte re- plied with a great deal of wit and elegance ; on which account it was said, Lamotte wrote like an ingenious woman, madame Dacier like a learned man. Lamotte introduced her to the notice of queen Christina, who persuaded her to embrace the Catholic religion. In h -r Homere de- feniht, she show "d little mercy tollardouin, who had written a satirical eulogy of this poet. On this occasion, she was said to have uttered more invectives against the reviler of Homer, than the poet himself had placed in the mouths of aU his heroes. She translated Terence, and three pieces of Plautus, in the prologue of which she treats of the origin, the cultivation and changes of dramatic poetry with acuteness. Her translation of the Plutus and the Clouds of Aristophanes, deserves indulgence, as the first translation of the Greek comic poet. Her translation of Anacreon and Sappho, with a defence of the latter, met with success. She also wrote annotations 100 DACIER—DACTYLIOTHECA. on the Bible, but did not publish them. Her Ufe was entirely devoted to literature, and her domestic duties. She died in 1720. Equally estimable for her charac- ter and her talents, she gained as many admirers by her virtue, her constancy and her equanimity, as by her works. She was chosen member of several academies. Dactyle. (See Rhythm.) Dactyliotheca (Greek); a collection of engraved gems. The art of engraving gems was no where carried to greater perfection than in Greece, where they were worn not only in rings (from which the name of 6,iKri\toi, ring), but in seals, and were much used for other ornamental pin-poses. The Romans were far behind die Greeks in this art; but they were the first who made collections of precious stones. Scaurus, the son-in-law of Sylla, introduced the custom (Pliny, Hist. Nat, 37, 5). Pompey the Great transferred the collection of Mithridates to Rome, and placed it in the capitol. A much larger collection was exhibited by Caesar in the temple of Venus Genitrix, and, after- wards, under Augustus, by M. Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus. In modern times, the princes of Italy vied with each other in collecting these treas- ures of art. The family of Gonzaga es- tablished the first dactyliotheca, and was followed by the family of Este at Modena, that of Farnese, and by Lorenzo de' Me- dici in Florence. The gems collected by him are marked with Lor., or Lor. de' M., or with M. alone. His collection was di- vided and scattered, but the Medici estab- lished a new one, the foundation of the present D. Florentina, the most important existing, as it contains about 4000 gems. In Rome, collections of no great value were made under Julius II and Leo X. Maria Piccolomini, a Roman prelate, had the best in that city; and Lucio Odescal- chi, afterwards duke of Bragiani, inherited that of Christina queen of Sweden. Rome afterwards received the collections of the Vatican (formed more at random than on any connected plan), of the Barberini, and of the Strozzi (containing some master- pieces of the art, now in St. Petersburg). The D. Ludovisia, belonging to the prince of Piombino, and that of the cardinal Borgia at Velletri, famous for its Egyptian gems and scarabaii, are still celebrated. Naples has beautiful gems in the cabinet at Por- tici and at Capo di Monte. The prince Piscaii formed a collection at Catanea, in Sicily, consisting entirely of gems found in Sicily. In France, the first collection was begun by Francis I, but was dispersed in the civil war. In the reign of Louis XIV, Louvois laid the foundation of the present fine collection of antiques in the royal Ubrary. The collection of the duke of Orleans, which he inherited from the Palatinate, was celebrated. Besides these, there were several private collections of value. The most celebrated in England are those of the dukes of Devonshire, Bedford and Marlborough, and the earls of Carlisle and Desborough. Germany also has collections. In the palace of Sans Souci, at Potsdam, near Berlin, sev- eral are united, among which is that of Muzel Stosch, rendered famous by the description of Winckelmann. Vienna has a separate cabinet of gems. The collec- tion of Dresden is good. The city library of Leipsic possesses some good gems. The collection at Cassel is extensive, but not very valuable. Munich has some beautiful pieces. There are also many private collections. In the Netherlands, the cabinet of the king is valuable. In the royal palace at Copenhagen, there are some vases inlaid with gems; and Peters- burg has, besides the imperial collection, the foundation of which was that of the engraver Natter, the rich collection of count Poniatowski. To multiply elegant and ingenious or remarkable designs on gems, engravings or casts are taken. Thus* not only single designs, buy all those of the same class, or those of a whole cabi- net are represented by engravings. The impressions of various classes of gems have been collected. Bellori collected the portraits of philosophers and others: Chifflet, abraxas stones (see Abraxas, and Gnosis); Gori, gems engraved with stars: Ficoroni, gems with inscriptions; Stosch, gems bearing the names of the artists. Representations of whole collections have been given ; as, by Gori, of those contained in the Museum Florentinum; by Wicar and Mongez, of those in the gallery of Flor- ence ; by Mariette, of the former French collections; by Leblond and Lachaux, of that of the duke of Orleans; by Eckhel, of that of Vienna. We might also men- tion the copies of the Museum d'Odescal- chi, of the cabinets of Gravelle, Stosch, Bossi, and the duke of Mailborough. But, although some of these impressions are very beautiful, the preference ought to be given to the casts. The collections of such casts are also called dactyliothecai; for instance, die dactyliotheca of Lippert, consisting of 3000 pieces. Tassie, in Lon- don, has executed the largest collection of casts yet known, amounting to 15,000. These are important aids in the study of DACTYLIOTHECA—DAENDELS. 101 the branch of antiquities with which they are connected. Dactyliomancy (from iaKrC^os, a ring, and puirua, divination); the pretended art of divining by means of rings. • Dactylology, or Dactylonomy (from idKTvXa the finger), is the art of numbering with the fingers ; or, in a wider sense, of expressing one's thoughts in general with the fingers. It is usually taught in insti- tutions for the education of the deaf and dumb. Daduchus (Latin; AaSiXOi, Greek) ; Ut- erally a torch-bearer, but applied as an epithet to many of the ancient divinities, who were always represented as bearing a torch or flambeau. Daduchi were also those persons, who, in certain ceremo- nies and reUgious processions, carried the flambeaus or sacred torches. The Dadu- chic deities are Ceres, when represented as searching for her lost daughter Proser- pine ; Diana, Luna, Hecate and Sol, when in their cars, employed in the business of Ughting the earth; Venus, Cupid and Hy- men, when bearing the torch of love; Rhea or Cybele, and Vesta, in the temples where the vestals guarded the sacred fire of those goddesses; Vulcan, in whose honor, conjointly with Prometheus and Pallas as Daduchi, die Athenians instituted a festival, which they called Lampudephoria, AannaSriepopia (see Lampaaeplioria); Bellona, the Furies, Aurora, Hymen, Peace (on a medal of Vespasian); Comus (in an an- cient painting described by Philostratus); Night, Sleep, and Death, or Thanatus, (Qavaroi). D.kdalus (AaiSaXos). The name of Daidali is given to full-length figures or images, with the feet in an advancing pos- ture. But whence diis appellation is de- rived, is a contested point. Winckel- mann, following Pakephatus and Diodorus, says, " Daedalus began to separate the lower part of the Hermes into legs; and the first statues are said to have received from him the name of DaidalV The common opinion is, that Daedalus first separated the legs of the statues in an advancing posture, which explains die saying that his statues moved, since all previous sculptors formed their statues with the arms hanging down, not di- vided from the body, and the legs not separated, like the mummy-shaped figures of the Egyptians. According to 1'ausa- nias, Daedalus received his name from the statues (the name of which is said to have been derived from laida\Uit>, to work with skill). Bottiger (in his Lectures on Ar- chaeology, Dresden, 1806) supposes tiiat Dadalus is not a proper name, but the common appellation of all the first archi- tects, metallurgists and sculptors in Gre- cian antiquity ; also, in general, an artistas datdalic signifies artificial, skilful. In early periods, every art is confined to the family and friends of the inventor, and the disci- ples are called sons. Thus die ancients speak of the Daedalian family of artists, including Talos, Perdix, Diopoenos, Scyllis and others. According to the common opinion, Daedalus Uved three generations before the Trojan war, was distinguished for his talents hi architecture, sculpture and engraving, and the inventor of many in- struments ; for instance, the axe, the saw, the plununet the auger ; also of ;;hie, and masts and yards for ships. As a sculptor, he wrought mostly in wood, and was the first who made the eyes of his statues open. This he did in Athens, which he was compelled to leave on account of the murder of his disciple Talos, of whose skill he was jealous. He built the famous labyrinth in Crete; executed for Ariadne a group of male and female dancers, of white stone, and for Pasiphac the notorious wooden cow. Being imprisoned with his son Icarus, he invented instruments for flying. The wings were composed of linen, or, according to Ovid, of feathers, and fastened with wax, which caused the death of Icarus; whence the Icarian sea is said to have received its name. Daedalus himself reached Sicily, on the southern coast of which a place was called, after him, Dadalium. A festival called Daida- la (image-festival) was celebrated in Boeo- tia, mostly at Plataea. We must not con- found this Daedalus with a later sculp- tor, Daedalus of Sicyon. Many stories of different artists have, probably, been blended to form the character of Daeda- lus. Daendels, Hermann WiUiam, a Dutch general, bom in 1762, at Hattem, in Guel- derland, took an important part in die troubles which began in HoUand, in 1787, on the side of the patriots, and, with many of his countrymen of the same party, was compeUed to take refuge in France, where he engaged in commercial speculations, in Dunkirk. In 1793, he was appointed colonel in the new legion of volunteers, Franc dranger, and was of great service to Dumouriez, hi his expedition against Holland. He rendered still greater services to Pichegru, in the campaign of 1794, which made the French commander mas- ter of all Holland. Daendels now became lieutenant-general in the service of the Batavian repubUc, and took an important 102 DAENDELS—DAISY. part in the change of die government. When Louis Bonaparte ascended the throne, he loaded him with honors, and appointed him governor-general of Bata- via. After the union of Holland with France, Napoleon recalled him. Daen- dels arrived in Europe in the summer of 1812. He employed his leisure time in publishing a Compte rendu of his govern- ment in Java (4 vols., folio), in which he throws much light on the statistics and general condition of that counny. He was afterwards appointed, by the king of the Netherlands, to organize the restored colonies ou the coast of Africa. Here he displayed his usual energy; he promoted peace between the neighboring Negro states, encouraged the establishment of new plantations on the West India plan, and checked the slave-trade, until die time of his death. Daffodil. (See Narcissus.) Dagh ; a Persian word, signifying mountain—Daghistan, land of mountains. Dagobf.rt I (called the Great on ac- count of his military successes), king of the Franks, of the Merovingian race, in 628 succeeded his father, Clothaire II, who had reunited the divided members of the French empire. He waged war with success against the Sclavonians, Saxons, Gascons and Bretons ; but he stained the splendor of his victories by cruelty, vio- lence and licentiousness. After he had conquered the Saxons, it is said that he caused aU those whose stature exceeded the length of his sword to be put to death. He deserves praise for his improvement of die laws of the Franks. He died at Epuiay, 638, at the age of 32 years, and was buried in St. Denis, which he had founded six years before. D'Aguesseau. (See Aguesseau.) JDahl, John Christian, landscape paint- er, since 1820 member of the academy of Dresden, bom Feb. 24, 1788, at Bergen, in Norway, was first destined for theology ; but, having neither the inclination nor the means to pursue that study, he was bound apprentice to a painter in his native town. He soon distinguished himself by his sea-views, and enjoys, at present the reputation of one of the first, if not the first, of living painters in this department. Some of his paintings are truly grand. He Uves at present in Dresden. Dahlia; the name of a genus of plants belonging to the natural order composite, or compound flowers. The D.pinnata, within a few years, has become common in the gardens of the Northern and Middle States, where it is cultivated as an ornament, and is very conspicuous in the latter part of the season. The root is perennial, composed of fascicles of tubers, which are oblong and tapering^it each end, and about 6 inches in length. ^The stem is straight, branch- ing, diick, and reaches the height of 7 feet and upwards. The leaves are oppo- site, connate, and simply or doubly pin- nated. The flowers are solitary, at the extremity of long, simple branches, deep purple, with a yellow centre: by cultiva- tion, however, they have been doubled, and made to assume a variety of colors. The roots are a wholesome article of food, much eaten by the Mexicans, though the taste is not very agreeable. It is repro- duced from the seed, or by the division of the roots, which is the most approved mode. It requires frequent watering. In autumn, the roots should be taken out of the ground, covered widi dry sand, and kept out of the reach of frost during the winter. All the species are natives of Mexico. Dahomey; a kingdom in the interior of Western Africa, behind the Slave Coast. The country is very little known to Euro- peans. The parts which have been visited are very beautiful and fertile, and rise, for about 150 miles, with a gradual slope, but without any great elevation. The soil is a deep, rich clay, yielding maize, millet and Guinea corn in abundance. The inhabitants are warhke and ferocious. The government is an absolute despotism. The ferocity which prevails among this nation almost surpasses belief. Human skulls form the favorite ornament in the construction of the palaces and temples. The king's sleeping-chamber has the floor paved with the skulls, and the roof orna- mented with the jaw-bones, of chiefs whom he has overcome in battle. Daire, or Dairo. (See Japan.) Dairy (from dey, an old English word for milk); a building appropriated to the purpose of preserving and managing milk, skimming cream, making butter, cheese, &c, with sometimes the addition of pleas- ure rooms for partaking the luxuries of the dairy, as syllabubs, cream with fruit, iced creams, &c. Daisy; the name of a plant which is very familiar, and a great favorite in Eu- rope (bellis perennis, L.). It is one of the earliest in spring, and its elegant flowers, appearing at intervals in the green sward, have been compared to pearls. During cloudy weadier, and at night, they close. It continues flowering during the whole season, and is not used for food by any animal. It belongs to the natural order DAISY—DALBERG. 103 composita-. The leaves are aU radical, spathulate, obtuse, more or less dentate, slightly hairy, and spread upon the ground. Its naked stem is a few inches high, and terminated by a white flower, having a tinge of red, and a yellow centre. In the U. States, it is only seen cultivated in gar- dens. One species of bdlis (B. integrifo- Ua, Mx.) inhabits the U. States, but is a rare plant and only found in the South- western States, in Tennessee and Arkan- sas. Dal ; a Swedish word, signifying, Uke the German Thal, valley, as in Dalecarlia. Dalai Lama. (See Lama.) Dalberg, family of the barons of; also Dalburg. ' Is there no Dalberg present ?' the imperial herald was formerly obliged to demand, at every coronation of the Ger- man emperors; and the Dalberg present bent his.knee before the new sovereign, and received the accolade as the first knight of the empire. So illustrious were the ancestors of the present Dalbergs, the ancient chamberlains of Worms! The family obtained the rank of barons of the empire in the 17th century. Many Dal- bergs have distinguished themselves as patrons of German Uterature. Dalberg, Charles Theodore Anthony Maria, of the noble family of Dalberg, barons of the German empire, was cham- berlain of Worms, elector of Mentz, arch- chancellor, and subsequently prince-pri- mate of the confederation of the Rhine, and grand-duke of Frankfort; finally archbish- op of Ratisbon and bishop of Worms and Constance; born Feb. 8,1744, at Herns- heim, near Worms. In 1772, he became privy-counsellor and governor'at Erfurt During many years' residence in that place, he was distinguished for industry, regularity and punctuaUty in the discharge of his duties. An incorruptible love of justice, and inflexible firmness in main- taining what he considered just and pol- itic, animated him. He encouraged sci- ence and the arts by his patronage of learned men and artists, and wrote sever- al learned treatises and ingenious works. In 1802, after the death of the elector of Mentz, he was made elector and arch- chanceUor of the German empire. By the new political changes in Germany in 1803, he came into possession of Ratis- bon, Aschaffenburg and Wetzlar. In 1806, he was made prince-primate of the con- federation of die Rhine. At Ratisbon, he erected die first monument to the famous Kepler. In 1810, he resigned the princi- pahty of Ratisbon to Bavaria, and obtain- ed, as compensation, a considerable part of the principahties of Fulda and Hanau, and was made grand-duke. In 1813, he voluntarily resigned aU his possessions as a sovereign prince, and returned to private life, retaining only his ecclesias- tical dignity of archbishop. He retired to Ratisbon. He was a member of the French national institute. His works are mostly philosophical. Among them are the Reflections on the Universe (5th edi- tion, 1805), the Principles of ^Esthetics (Erlangen, 1791), and Pericles, or the In- fluence of the Liberal Arts on PubUc Hap- piness (Erfurt, 1806). He wrote several of his works in French. He is ateo the author of several legal treatises. Altliough he was fond of theoretical speculations. yet he devoted his attention more particu- larly to practical studies, such as the phi- losophy of the arts, mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, mineralogy, scientific agriculture, &c. Dalberg died Feb. 10, 1817. Dalberg, Emmerich Joseph, duke of; peer of France, nephew of the prince-pri- mate, and son of the well-known author Wolfgang Heribert, baron of Dalberg; bom May 31, 1773, at Mentz. He began his career in public life under the eyes of his uncle, at Erfurt, and was also for a time in the diplomatic service of Bavaria, until he was appointed, in 1803, envoy of the mar- grave of Baden at Paris. He formed an intimacy with the prince of Benevento (see Talleyrand-Perigord), who married him, in 1807, to mUe. de BrignoUes, of a distinguished Genoese family. During the campaign of 1809, he received the port- folio of foreign affairs in Baden, without resigning his office of ambassador in Paris. After the peace, he returned to France, where he became a citizen of France, and was subsequently created duke and coun- sellor of state. After the marriage of Na- poleon with the archduchess Maria Louisa, on which occasion Dalberg is said to have opened the preUminary negotiations with prince Schwarzenberg, he received a do- nation of 4,000,000 francs on the princi- pality of Baireuth, of which France had the disposal by the treaty of Vienna, and die king of Bavaria paid him almost the whole sum. When the prince of Bene- vento fell into disgrace, Dalberg retired with his patron. In April, 1814, Talley- rand, at the head of the provisional gov- ernment, made the duke one of the five members of that government, who pro- moted die restoration of the Bourbons.^ Dalberg was present at the congress of Vienna, as French minister plenipoten- tiary, and signed, 1815, the declaration 104 DALBERG—DALLAS. against his former master and benefac- tor. Napoleon, on this account, includ- ed him, after his return, among the twelve whom he banished, and whose es- tates were confiscated. After the second restoration of the royal government, Dal- berg recovered his property, was appoint- ed minister of state and peer, received an embassy to the court of Turin, and fives now in Paris. Dale, Richard, an American naval com- mander, was born in Virginia, Nov. 6, 1756. At 12 years of age, he was sent to sea, and, in 1775, he took the command of a merchant vessel. In 1776, he enter- ed, as a midshipman, on board of the American brig of war Lexington, com- manded by captain John Barry. In her he cruised on the British coast the follow- ing year, and was taken by a British cut- ter. After a confinement of more than a year in Mill prison, he effected his escape into France, where he joined, in the char- acter of master's mate, the celebrated Paul Jones, then commanding the American ship Bon Homme Richard. Jones soon raised Dale to the rank of his first lieuten- ant, in which character he signalized him- self in the sanguinary and desperate engagement between the Bon Homme Richard and the English frigate Serapis. He was the first man who reached the deck of the latter when she was boarded and taken. In 1781, he returned to Amer- ica, and, in June of that year, was appoint- ed to the Trumbull frigate, commanded by captain James Nicholson, and soon af- terwards captured. From 1790 to 1794, he served as captain in the East India trade. At the end of this period, the gov- ernment of the U. States made him a cap- tain in the navy. In 1801, he took the command of die American squadron of observation, which sailed, in June of that year, from Hampton roads to the Mediter- ranean. His broad pendant was hoisted on board the frigate President. Efficient protection was given by Dale to the American trade and other interests in the Mediterranean. In April, 1802, he reach- ed Hampton roads again. He passed the remainder of his Ufe in Philadelphia, hi the enjoyment of a competent estate, and of the esteem of all his fellow-citizens. He died Feb. 24,1826. Captain Dale was a thorough, brave and intelUgent seaman. He was several times severely wounded in battle. The adventures of his eaiiv years were of the most romantic and perilous cast. No man could lay claim to a more honorable and honest char- acter. Dai.ecarlia ; a province of Sweden. (See Sweden.) Dalin, Olof or Olaus of; the father of modem Swedish literature, in the 18th century. He exerted much influence by his periodical paper, The Swedish Argus (1733—34), and stiU more by bis spirited poems, particularly Satires (1729), an ex- cellent poem on the liberty of Sweden (1742), many songs, epigrams and fables. The best edition of his poetical works ap- peared at Stockholm, 1782—83, in 2 vols. He acquired equal reputation by his able history of Sweden (Stockholm 1777, 3 vols. 4to., translated into German by Ben- zelstiema and Dahnert, Greifswalde, 4 vols., 4to.), on which account he was ap- pointed historiographer of the kingdom (1756). He also participated in the foun- dation of the academy of belles-lettres by Ulrica Eleonora (1753). He was bom in the district of Winberga in Halland (1708), and died chancellor of the court of Swe- den, in 1763. Dallas, Alexander James, was bom, June 1, 1759, in the island of Jamaica. When quite young, he was sent to school at Edinburgh, and afterwards at West- minster. 1 lis father was an eminent and wealthy physician in the island of Jamai- ca. In 1781, after the death of bis father, he left England for Jamaica. It was found that the whole of Mr. Dalla^s pro- perty was left at the disposal of his widow, who married again, and no part of it ever came to the rest of the family. The sub- ject of this article left Jamaica in April, 1783, and arrived at New York June 7, and at Philadelphia a week after. June 17, he took the oath of allegiance to the state of Pennsylvania. In July, 17^5, he was admitted to practise in the su- preme court of Pennsylvania, and, in the course of four or five years, became a practitioner in the courts of the U. States. During this period, his practice not being extensive, he prepared his Reports for the press, and occupied himself in various literary undertakings. He wrote much in the magazines of the day. Of the Co- lumbian Magazine he was at one time ed- itor. His essays will bear a comparison widi those of his contemporaries; and this is no small praise, for Franklin, Rush and Hopkinson were of the number. Jan. 19, 1791, he was appomted secretary of Pennsylvania by governor Mifflin. In December, 1793, his commission was re- newed. Not long after, he Avas appoint- ed paymaster-general of the forces that marched to the west and he accompanied die expedition to Pittsburg. In Decern- DALLAS—DALMATIA. 105 ber, 1796, the office of secretary was again confided to him. While he held this of- fice, he published an edition of the laws of die commonwealth, with notes. Upon the election of Mr. Jefferson, in 1801, he was appointed attorney of the U. States for the eastern district of Pennsylvania, and he continued in this office until his removal to Washington. October 6, he was appointed secretary of the treasury of the U. States. The circumstances un- der which he entered this difficult situa- tion, the boldness with which he assumed its responsibilities, his energy of character, and the general confidence and approba- tion with which his career was accompa- nied, belong to the history of the times. March 13, 1815, he undertook the addi- tional trust of secretary of war, and per- formed with success the delicate task of reducing the army of the U. States. In November, 1816, peace being restored, the finances arranged, the embarrassment of the circulating medium daily diminishing, and soon to disappear under the influence of the national bank, which it had so long been his effort to establish, Mr. Dallas re- signed his honorable station, and returned to the practice of the law in Philadel- phia. His business Avas considerable, and Iris talents as an advocate were employed, not only at home, but from almost every quarter of the Union. In the midst of his brilliant prospects, exposure to cold, and great professional exertions in a very im- portant cause, brought on an attack of the gout in his stomach, at Trenton, of which he died, Jan. 16, 1817. Dallas, Robert Charles, born in Ja- maica, studied law in the Inner Temple. When he came of age, he married, and went to Jamaica, where he had received a lucrative appointment but was obliged to leave the island on account of the ill health of his wife. He Avent to France, dien to America, with a view to settle diere, but, being disappointed, returned, and devoted himself to literature. His productions, including translations, are nu- merous. His novels have been collected and published in 7 volumes, 12mo. Lord Byron, as appears from Moore's Ufe of the poet, Avas in the habit of consulting him, and made him a present of the copyright of Childe Harold and some other of his early works, which afforded him much pecuniary advantage. Dalmatia; an Austrian kingdom, in- cluding four circles—Zara, Spalatro and Macarsca, Ragusa, Cattaro—lying on the Adriatic sea, bounded by Croatia, Bosnia and Albania, and having several Islands belonging to it Since 1814, with the ex- ception of the Turkish part, it has been entirely subject to the emperor of Aus- tria, and contains 5800 square miles, 320,000 inhabitants, in 22 towns, 33 bor- oughs and 914'villages. Dalmatia, for- merly an important kingdom, Avas, after many unsuccessful attempts, subjected by the Romans under Augustus. After the decline of the Western Empire, it was first under the dominion of the Goths, then under that of the Eastern emperors. In the first half of the 7th century, it Avas conquered by the Sclavonians, who erect- ed it into a kingdom, which lasted till 1030, when it was, in part, united with Hungary, under king St Ladislaus; an- other part placed itself under the protec- tion of the then powerful republic of Venice, for security against the attacks of the Turks, who, however, afterwards, took a part from the Venetians. By the peace of Campo-Formio (Oct. 17, 1797), the Venetian part of Dalmatia, as weU as Venice itself, was made over to Austria; but, by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, Austria ceded it to the French emperor, who first united it with the kingdom of Italy, and in 1810, with Illyria, although he caused it to be governed by a general- provveditore.—The causes of the smaU population of this fertile but poorly culti- vated country, are the excessive use of spirituous Uquors, the noxious exlialations of the marshes in various districts, the frequent emigrations, and the habit of private revenge, which extends even to the third and fourth generations. It con- tains impenetrable forests, and regions covered with marshes. The Dalmatians are a handsome race, bold seamen, and good soldiers if they are well commanded. The former military power of Venice rest- ed entirely upon this province. The Dal- matians, in general, are accused, and prob- ably not unjustly, of deceitfulness and ra- pacity : the desire of independence is al- most universal. A pecuUar feature of their character is, that many of them prefer the heroic death (as they term it) by the spear, to a natural and peaceful death in the midst of their family. They speak a Sclavonic dialect. The Morlachians, who dwell in the interior of the country, and among the mountains, and in the Turkish government of Herseck, constitute but a part of the nation. They are excellent soldiers, but have a strong inclination for robbery and drinking; yet they are hos- pitable, benevolent and faithful in their promises. Averse to every kind of re- straint they five in a sort of natural con- 106 DALMATIA—DA M ASCENUS. dition. They have always been a good wall against the attacks of the Turks.— The inhabitants of die islands are princi- pally employed in fishing, and are ser- vants on the continent or sailors in mer- chant-ships. The islands are not very productive. Several have good harbors, and afford much timber for ship-building. The inhabitants of the continent are em- ployed in agriculture and the breeding of cattle. They have some commerce, and devote diemselves chiefly to the sea. As long as their soil produces no more than it does at present their trade and industiy cannot be important, more particularly since the great commons, according to the ancient Dalmatian custom, are not sepa- rated, and die overgroAvn landed estates of individuals are not divided on their decease. The Dalmatians export tallow, hare-skins (which latter are brought from Bosnia), some oil, figs, wine, brandy, Avax, and salt fish, from different ports; and re- ceive, in exchange, linen, cloth, coffee and sugar, but only hi small quantities, so that the money-balance is on their side. There are gold, iron and coal mines in the coun- try, but they remain unwrought Zara, the capital, and the seat of the governor, has 5000, Spalatro 6800, inhabitants. The district of Cattaro, which is under the do- minion of Austria, is sometimes comprised in Dalmatia, but properly belongs to Al- bania, and Ues, in a semicircular form, round die gulf. The 13 famous inlets (Bocche di Cattaro) form the safest harbors on die Adriatic sea, and present sonic fine prospects. The inhabitants of the dis- trict are estimated at 30,000. They are excellent seamen, and were incUned, un- der the lax government of the Venetians, to robbery, particularly by sea. By land, their resolution and boldness render them the most formidable enemies of the Turks in that quarter. The steep, rough and barren heights of Montenegro surround this province in a semicircular form.— The Turkish part of Dalmatia, which ex- tends from Bosnia to Albania, and belongs to Bosnia, contains the province of Herze- govina, with the town of that name, and the towns of Scardona and Trevigno. See the Travels to Dalmatia aiul Ragusa, by E. F. Germar (Leipsic, 1817), which is particularly rich in natural history. The splendid work on Dalmatia by general Dejearo (Paris, 1825) exhibits the ento- mological wealth of Dalmatia. Dalmatica ; a long, white gown, with white sleeves, formerly worn by the Dal- matians, and, since the time of pope Syl- vester I, by the Roman Catholic deacons, over the alba and stola.—Also, a part of the ornamental dress formerly worn by the German emperor at the time of his coronation. It was kept in Nuremberg, and put on in Frankfort Dal segno (Italian) means from the sign. In music, this expression denotes, that the singer or player ought to recommence at the former place, where the same mark is put. Dalziel, Thomas; a Scotch officer, taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, and confined in the Tower, from which he escaped to Russia, where the czar made him a general. At the restoration, he re- turned to England, and Charles it made him commander-in-chief of his forces in Scodand. He was singular in his dres* and appearance. After the death of Charles I, he never shaved his beard, which greAv white and bushy, and de- scended to his middle. He generaUy went to London once or twice a year to kiss the king's hand, and the singularity of his ap- pearance drew crowds of boys after him. He is mentioned by Scott in his descrip- tion of the defeat of the Covenanters in Old Mortality. Dam, Damm ; the end of many Ger- man and Dutch geographical Avords, sig- nifying a dam or sluice; as in Amsterdam, the sluices of the Amstel. Damage-feasant. Beasts are said to be damage-feasant, or doing damage, when those of one person are found upon the land of another without his permission and without his fault; for if the owner of a field or enclosure .adjoining upon another enclosure neglects to repair his fences, and the beasts pass through, he cannot seize them as damage-feasant. But if the beasts break into a close from the highway, where they were wrongfully left to run at large, the owner of the close may take them up, or distrain them as damage- feasant, though the fence of the close on the side next the highway was defective; for the owner is not obliged to make a fence against beasts where they cannot be lawfuUy left at large. The ovvner of land has a right to sue the owner of the beasts in trespass for the damage done by them to his crops, &c, but the law gives him also the means of stopping the damage, for he may distrain and impound the beasts. Damascenus, John ; John of Damas- cus, afterwards called also John Chrysor- rhoas; author of the first system of Chris- tian theology in the Eastern church, or the founder of scientific dogmatics. He first endeavored to give a full system of DAMASCENUS—DAMASKEENING. 107 dogmatics, founded on reason and the Bi- ble, which had hitherto been elaborated in the Greek church only in parts, as eccle- siastical controversies arose. His explana- tion of the orthodox faith, in four volumes, enjoyed, in the Greek church, a great rep- utation. He also wrote Dialectics, a sys- tem of logic on the principles of Aristotle, and prepared a collection of philosophical passages, extracted from ancient works, in alphabetical order, &c. The best edition of his Greek works is that by P. Mich. Lequien (Paris, 1712, 2 vols., fol.). After being in the service of a caliph, he became a monk in the convent of Saba, near Je- rusalem, and died about 760. He must not be confounded with Nicholas of Da- mascus. Damascus ; a city of Syria, the capital of die pachaUc of the same name, situated in a fertile plain amidst extensive gardens, forming a circuit of between 25 and 30 miles. The streets are in general narrow, of regular width, though not in straight lines: they are well paved, and have ele- vated footpaths on each side. Damascus contains above 500 large and magnificent houses, which are entitled to the name of palaces: each house has a canal or foun- tain, fhe mosques and chapels are also numerous, and the grand mosque is of great extent and magnificence. An hos- pital for the indigent sick is attached to the edifice. This mosque is said to have been, originally, a Christian church, and the cathedral of Damascus. The mosques are mostly fronted by a court. One mosque is beautifully adorned with all kinds of fine marble, like mosaic pavement; and the tower or minaret of another is entire- ly cased Avith pantiles. There are several hospitals here, of which the finest is that constructed by the sultan Selim, consisting of a spacious quadrangle, lined by an in- terior colonnade, which is entirely roofed by 40 small domes, covered Avith lead. On the south side of the court is a mosque, with a magnificent portico and two fine minarets, which is surmounted by a spa- cious cupola. There is a Greek, Maron- ite, Syrian and Armenian church. There are eight synagogues of the Jews. The castle, situated towards the south-west part of the city, and about three quarters of a mile in circuit is a fine rustic edifice, Avith three square towers in front and five on each side. This city is the seat of a considerable trade. It was celebrated for the manufacture of sabres, of such pecu- har quaUty as to be perfectiy elastic and very hard. Extensive manufactures are carried on in silk and cotton stuffs. Leath- er is likewise an article of manufacture here, but no linen is made. A great quantity of soap is fabricated, and export- ed to Egypt. Dried fruits and sweet- meats are sent to Turkey. Cotton cloths, handkerchiefs, sUppers, copper kettles, horse-shoe nails, tobacco-pipes, and spice- ries, shawls, and the rich fabrics of Surat are brought through Bagdad; iron, lead, tin, cochineal, broadcloth, sugar, and such other European articles as are required in the city, come through Saida, Bairout and Tripoli. Commerce is carried on chiefly by caravans, of which the principal is that in Avhich the pilgrims annually proceed to Mecca. Three caravans .besides, each ac- companied by above 2500 armed men, go thrice a year to Bagdad, the journey oc- cupying 30 days; those to Aleppo travel twice or thrice a month; besides which, there are many to different parts of Syria- Damascus is a place of great antiquity, and is alluded to in the account of the time of Abraham. The population amounts, according to Burckhardt, in his Travels through Arabia, to 250,000, including ma- ny Catholics and Jews ; die remaining inhabitants are Mohammedans. 136 miles N. Jerusalem. Lon. 36° 3C E.; lat. 38° SO'N. Damask ; an ingeniously manufactured stuff, the ground of wrhich is bright and glossy, with vines, flowers, and figures interwoven. At first, it was made only of silk, but afterwards of linen and woollen, as, for example, damask table-cloth. Ac- cording to the opinion of some, tiiis kind of weaving Avas derived from the Baby- lonians ; according to others, invented at a later period, by the inhabitants of Damas- cus, from which latter place it is thought to have derived its name. The true damasks are of a single color. If they consist of variegated colors, they are called ras de Sicile. The gauze damask also belongs to the silk damask. In mod- em times, die Italians and Dutch first made damask; and Europe was supplied, as late as the 17di century, from Italy alone, chiefly from Genoa. But the French soon imitated it, and now surpass the Italians. Damask is also brought from India and China, Avhich is very Avell imitated by the English. At present, damask is made in great quantities in Germany, of three different kinds, Dutch, French and Italian. Damaskeening, or Damasking, die art of inlaying iron or steel Avith other metals, espeoiaUy gold and silver, is of great an- tiquity. * It is principaUy used at present for SAVord-blades, guards, gripes, cocks of 106 DAMASKEENING—DAMPIER. pistols, &c. Herodotus mentions a saucer so ornamented: so also were the shields of some of the forces of the Samnites which fought against Rome. It was a favorite manufacture with the ancients. We knoAV not at Avhat time it so flourished at Damascus as to haAre derived its name from diis city. Damiens, Robert Francis; notorious for his attempt to assassinate Louis XV; bom in 1715, in the village of Tieulloy, in the former proAince of Artois; the son of a poor farmer. His vicious inclinations early obtained him the name of Robert-le- diable. He twice enlisted as a soldier, and was afterwards a sen-ant (cuistre) in die college of the Jesuits at Paris, but, in 1738, left this service in order to maiiy. He then served in different houses of the capital, poisoned one of his masters, stole 240 louis-d'or from another, and saved himself by flight He then lived five months at St Omer, Dunkirk and Brus- sels, and expressed himself in the most violent manner concerning the dissensions between the king and the parliament. At Poperinguc, a little v illage near Ypres, lie was heard to say, "If I return to France, I shall die; but the first of the land will die also, and you will hear of me." His mind was disordered when he returned to Paris, at the end of 1756. In die beginning of the next year, he went to Versailles, took opium for two or three days, and prepared for the crime, which he attempted January 5. As Louis XV was on the point of getting into his car- riage, to return from Versailles to Tria- non, Damiens stabbed him, although he was surrounded by his train, in the right side, with a knife. The assassin Avas seized. The most cruel tortures he bore with resolution, and could not be induced to confess that he had any accomplices. He asserted that he should not have com- mitted the act had he been bled, as he re- quested, and that he thought it merito- rious. He was condemned to be torn in quarters by horses, and the sentence was executed March 28, 1757, on the Place de Greve at Paris. Damietta, or Damiat ; a large city of LoAver Egypt, first built at the east mouth of the Nile, and called Thamiatis, under the government of the Lower Empire; 85 miles N. N. E. Cairo ; lon. 31° 49' 45" E.; lat 31° 251 N.: population, according to Binos, 30,000; according to Savary, 80,000. Damietta dauy increased as Pelusium de- clined. The chief disadvantage of Da- mietta is the want of a harbor; yet it is the emporium of commerce between Egypt and Syria, situated on die Phat- metic branch of the NUe. The city is without walls, built in the fomi of a cres- cent, on the Avinding bank of the river, six miles from the sea. It is larger and not less agreeable than Rosetta, and has several squares. Bazars filled with mer- chandise, okals, or khans, under die j>or- ticoes of which are Indian stuffs, silks from mount Lebanon, sal ammoniac, and quantities of rice, bespeak it a commer- cial place. The houses, especially near die river, are very high. 31ost of them have pleasant saloons built on the terra- ces; from which charming places, open to every wind, there is a view of the grand lake lying on the other side, and of the Nile, which traverses a rich coun- try between them both. Various grand mosques, with high minarets, ornament the city. The pubUc baths, faced with marble, are similar to those of Cairo. Multitudes of boats and small vessels in- cessantly fill the port of Damietta. Some, named slierm, serve to load and unload the ships that anchor in the road; others are coasting pilot-boats. There is a great trade between this city and Syria, Cyprus and Turkey. Damon and Pythias ; two illustrious Syracusans, celebrated as models of con- stant friendship. Pydiias had been un- justly condemned to death by Dionysius, tyrant of Sicily, but obtained permission to arrange his affairs in a. neighboring place, on condition that his friend should remain as a pledge of his return. Damon surrendered himself at the prison, ready to suffer death instead of Pythias, if he did not return at a fixed time. Unex- pected impediments detained him. Da- mon, stUl fully convinced of the faithful- ness of his friend, is already on the Avay to the place of execution; already the people begin to murmur, and to pity his credulity, when Pythias suddenly rashes through the crowd into the arms of his friend. While they demand each to die for the other, the spectators melt into tears, and Dionysius himself approaches, pardons them, and entreats them to admit him a third in their friendship. Schiller has described this adventure in an excel- lent ballad (Die Burgschafs), and it is the subject of a popular English tragedy. Dampers ; certain movable parts in the internal frame of a piano-forte, which are covered with cloth, and, by means of a pedal, are brought into contact with the wires, in order to deaden the vibration. Dampier, WiUiam, a celebrated Eng- lish naAigator, was bom in 1652. He DAMPIER—DAMPS. 109 was descended from a good family in Somersetshire; but, losing his father when young, he. was sent to sea, and soon distin- guished himself as an able mariner. In 1673, he served in the Dutch war, and was subsequently an overseer to a plantation in Jamaica. He next visited the bay of Campeachy as a logwood-cutter, and, after once more visiting England, engaged in a band of privateers, as they called themselves, although in reality pirates, with whom he roved on the Peruvian Coasts. He next engaged, in Virginia, in an expedition against the Spanish settle- ments in the South seas. They accord- ingly sailed in August, 1683, and, after taking several prizes on die coasts of Pe- ru and Chili, tlie party experienced va- rious fortune, but no veiy signal success. Dampier, wishing to obtain some knowl- edge of the northern coast of Mexico, joined the crew of a captain Swan, who cruised in the hopes of meeting the an- nual royal ManiUa ship, which, however, escaped them. Swan and Dampier were resolved to steer for the East Indies, arid they accordingly sailed to the Piscadores, to Bouton island, to.New Holland and to Nicobar, where Dampier and others were left ashore to recover their health. Their numbers gave diem hopes of being able to navigate a canoe to Achin, in which they succeeded, after encountering . a storm, which Dampier has described with great force and nature. After making several trading voyages with a captain Weldon, he entered, as a gunner, the English factory at Bencoolen. Upon this coast he remained until 1691, when he found means to return home, and, being in 'want of money, sold his property in a curiously painted or tattooed Indian prince, who was shown as a curiosity, and avIio ultimately died of the small- pox at Oxford. He is next heard of as a commander, in the king's service, of a sloop of Avar of 12 guns and 50 men, probably fitted out for a voyage of dis- covery. After experiencing a variety of adventures Avith a discontented crew, this vessel foundered off the Isle of Ascen- sion, his men with difficulty reaching land. They were released from this island by an East India ship, in Avhich Dampier came to England. Here ends his own account of his extraordinary ad- ventures ; but it seems that he afterwards commanded a ship in die South seas, as also diat he accompanied the weU-known expedition of captain Woodes Rogers *as pilot. Dampier's Voyages, in three vol- umes, have been many times reprinted.' vol. iv. 10 They are written by himself in a strongly descriptive style, bearing all the marks of fideUty; and the nautical remarks display much professional and even phUosophical knowledge. His observations on natural objects are also extremely clear and par- ticular ; and he Avrites like a man of good principles, although he kept so much in- different company. Damps are certain deleterious gases which are extricated in mines. They are distinguished by miners under the names of choke-damp and fire-damp. The former is found in the deepest parts of mines. It extinguishes candles, and often proves fatal when it has been suffered to accumu- late in large quantities. It. consists for the most part of carbonic acid gas. The fire- damp, which prevails almost, exclusively in coal mines, is a mixture of light car- bureted hydrogen and atmospheric air, which explodes with tremendous violence whenever it comes in contact with flame. The injuries which formerly occurred so frequently, both to the machinerj' and the fives of miners, arising from the fire-damp, are now almost completely obviated by the fine invention of sir Humphrey Davy, the safety-lamp. It consists of a cyUn- der of wire gauze, aboijt four inches in diameter and a foot in length, having a double top, securely fastened by doubling over to a brass rim, Avhich screws on to the lamp itself below. The whole of the wire gauze is protected, and rendered con- venient for carrying, by a triangular wire frame and a ring at'the top. The wire gauze is made either of iron or copper, the wire being at least one thirtieth of an inch in diameter, and Avoven together so as to leave 625 apertures in a square inch. The body of die lamp is of riveted cop- per, or of massy cast brass or cast iron, the screws fitting so completely as to leave no aperture into the body of the lamp. When the lamp is lighted, it affords the miner all the Ught which he requires, and renders him perfectly secure, even though entirely enveloped with the ex- plosive mixture, which, with an ordinary Ught, would immediately prove fatal. The first effect of the fire-damp atmosphere is to increase the length and size of the flame. When the carbureted hydrogen forms as much as one twelfth of the vol- ume of the ah-, the gauze cyUnder be- comes fiUed with a feeble blue flame, but the flame of the wick appears burning brightly within the blue flame, and the light of die wick augments untd the in- flammable gas increases to one sixth or one fifth, when it is lost in the flame of the no DAMPS—DANCING. fire-damp, which now fills the cylinder with a pretty strong Ught As long as this explosive mixture of gas exists in contact with the lamp, so long it wiU give light; and when it is extinguished, Avhich happens when the foul air consti- tutes as much as one third of the volume of the atmosphere, the air is no longer Eroper for respiration; for though animal fe wiU continue when flame is extin- guished, yet it is always with suffering. A coil of platinum wire being fixed above the wick of the lamp, Avithin the gauze cyUnder, the metal continues to gloAv long after the lamp is extinguished, and affords a sufficient Ught to enable the mi- ner to make his escape. The effect of the safety-lamp is supposed to depend on die cooling agency of the wire gauze, ex- erted on the portion of gas burning widiin the cylinder. Hence a lamp may be se- cure where tiiere is no current of an ex- plosive mixture to occasion its being strongly heated, and yet not safe when the current passes through it Avith-great rapidity. But any atmosphere, however explosive, may be rendered harmless by increasing the cooUng surface, avinch may be done either by diminishing die size of the apertures, or by increasing their depth, both of Avhich are perfectly within die power of die manufacturer of die wire gauze. Dan (perhaps from dominus, like the Spanish don, and the Italian donna, from domino); the old term of honor for men, as we now say master. It is used by Shakspeare, Prior, Spenser. Dan (Hebrew; meaning judgment); one of die 12 patriarchs, the 5th son of Jacob. The Danites were one of the 12 tribes of Israel. Danae ; daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. She was shut up by her father in a brazen tower, because an oracle had declared that a son of his daughter should put lrim to deadi. But Jupiter, inflamed Avith passion for die charming Airgin, transformed himself into a golden shower, and descended through the apertures of the roof into her embraces. When Acri- sius discovered that his daughter had be- come a modier, he exposed her, Avith her child, in a frail boat, to the violence of the waves. But die sea-goddesses, anxious for die preservation of the son of Jove, commanded the biUoAvs to waft the skiff safely to Seriphos, one of the Cyclades. Polydectes, or rather Dictys, the governor of die island, received her, and educated the chUd, which he named Perseus, (q.v.) Danaides ; the 50 daughters of Danaus, who was a son of Belus, and, at first, lived in Libya, with Iris brother ^Egyptus, who had 50 sons. In consequence of a quar- rel Avith his brother, Danaus, Avith his daughters, fled to Argos. The 50 sons of iEgyptus followed him thither, expressed a desire for a reconcihation, and asked the daughters of Danaus in marriage. He was obuged to consent to the proposal; but ^ he put no confidence in his neph- ews, and had, moreover, been informed by an oracle, that one of his sons-in-law should slay him, he bound his daughters, by a solemn oath, to murder then- hus- bands on dieir bridal night. They aU kept their promise except Hypermnestra, who saved the Ufe of her husband Lyn- ceus. As a punishment for their crime, the daughters of Danaus, in the infernal world, were condemned perpetuaUy to draw water in sieves. Of tfiis tradition the ancients' gave the following historical explanation:—The daughters of Danaus were said to have discovered fountains in the dry country of ArgoUs, and constructed cisterns there. Dancing. The disposition to rhydim and measured motion, is deeply implanted in human nature. As soon as man, in a rude state, wishes to express elevated feel- ings, whatever be their cause—joy, devo- tion, patriotism—he makes use of rhythm, or measured language, and the dance, or measured movements. This is the origin of the symbolical dance, which, among all nations, in the first stages of civilization, is used as an expression of excited feeling. The operation of the principle of imita- tion, Avhich led to the invention of the drama, gave birth also to the imitative dance—the pantomime. Dancing, in die course of time, took the character of an art. Grace became one of its chief ob- jects, and it was much cultivated as an elegant amusement in die intercourse of society, and an elegant spectacle in pubhc entertainments. Its ancient character, how- ever, of an expression of reUgious or patri- otic feeling, gradually declined, as the prog- ress of refinement and civifization produc- ed its invariable effect of restraining the full expression of the feelings and emotions. This circumstance, added to the chas- tened and didactic character of the Chris- tian reUgion, probably prevented the dance from being admitted among the rites of the Christian religion; but it has always been cultivated among Christians, as an agree- able amusement and elegant exhibition. As an amusement of social assemblages, the dance has sunk much below the charac- ter of an art The poUte asgembues of the DANCING—DANDOLO. Ill present day are too much crowded to leave room for graceful dancing, and, in England and the U. States, one kind of dance, being kept up during a whole eve- ning, of course tends to produce tedious- ness. But national dances, as those of the Bohemian, Polish, Hungarian, Italian, Spanish peasantry, stiU retain the expres- sion of joyous feeling, and often exhibit much imitative power. There is reason to suppose that the dance had a place among the religious rites of the Jews; to what extent hoAvever, is not known, and some persons deny the fact altogether; but it appears pretty evi- dent that this doubt is unfounded, and its admission may be easily explained by the oriain which Ave have ascribed to dancing in general. Witii the Greeks and Ro- mans, regulated movements, quick or slow, i. e., dancing, were introduced in most religious celebrations. The Greeks, de- veloping the element of the beautiful in every branch of art, Avere also masters in the religious dance. In the exhibitions of the theatre, they united the dance with many other performances, and the dances of the ancients which commemorated the adventures of Achilles, Alexander, the loAres of Venus and Mars, &c, are to be understood as pantomimic performances, the word saltare, with the Romans, hav- ing a very extensive meaning, and &px>')<"s, with the Greeks, including the mimic art in general. From the Romans, the dance was transmitted to the national tiieatre of the Italians. As early as the 16th centu- ry, several Italians (Rhialdo Corso, Fabric. Caroso, &c.) wrote on dancing. They and the French have cultivated the mod- em art of dancing to the degree of perfec- tion in which we find it; so that the ballet of the Parisian opera was long considered the highest perfection of the art of danc- ing, and, in some respects, still is. There exist, at present, tAvo different schools— the Italian and French. That of the lat- ter, who may be called, by way of emi- nence, the graceful nation, is the more perfect. Much is said against the modern French ballet, and, no doubt, it sometimes degenerates to a mere display of skill and agility, at the expense of grace and beauty, w hicii ought always to remain the chief object of dancing; yet we consider the French ballet, as it exists at present, in a very perfect state, and no country has probably ever had a more finished theat- rical dance, the foundation of which Avas laid by Beauchamp, under Louis XIV. This art owes still more to the famous Noverre (q, v.), whose writings on this sub- ject much surpass those of D'Arbeau and Rameau. A general work on danoing, treating the reUgious and secular dances of the different nations, would be interest- ing. As regards the European dances, ancient and modem, and that of the Jews, the foUowing works are some of the best: Bourdelot's Histoire de la Danse sacree et profane, ses Progrks et ses Revolutions de- puis son Origine, &c. (Paris, 1724,12mQ.), and Cahusac's TraiU de la Danse one. et moderne (Paris, 1753, 3 vols., 12mo.). For the dances of the Greeks and Romans, see also Potter's Archceologia Graica; Zeltner De Chords vet. Judaiorum Diss. (Altorf, 172(1, 4to.), and Renz's Avork, De Rdigio- sis Saltationibus vet. Judaiorum (Leipsic, 1738, 4to.); Memoires sur les Danses Chi- noises, in the Varidis litteraires (vol. 1 and 2); Lafiteau's Mceursdes Sauvages (vol. 1). Since Noverre, feAV good treatises have been written, giving instructions on the art of dancing. We mention only the Essai sur la Danse antique et moderne (Paris, 1823, by mad. Elise Voiart), and Baron's Entretiens sur la Danse ancienne, moderne, religieuse, dvile et tteatrale (Paris, 1825). The only Christian sect, that has admitted dancing among its religious ceremonies, are the Shakers, so called. Dancourt, Florent Carton; a French actor and comic poet; born in 1661, at Fontainebleau, of a respectable family. At the age of 23, he became enamored of an actress, and left eArery other employ- ment for the stage. Although he person- ated the first characters in high comedy, he succeeded best, as an author, in low comedy. He displayed much ingenuity and wit in introducing upon the stage amusing subjects of real occurrence in his time. Louis XIV was very fond of hu- morous pieces, and Dancourt often used to read his productions to the king before they Avere played. He left the theatre in 1718, and died in 1726. A good edition of his complete works appeared in 12 volumes, 12mo., 1760. Dandelion. (See Leontodon.) Dandolo, Henry, one of the most il- lustrious of the doges of Venice, Avas chosen to that office, in 1192, at the ad- vanced age of 84. He had a defect of sight, approaching • nearly to blindness; but neither that circumstance nor his age impaired the Aigor of his administration, the events of his government being among the principal causes of the Venetian great- ness. On the formation of the league for the fourth crusade, under BaldAvin, earl of Flanders, Dandolo induced the senate to join in it, and by his poUcy the first hos- 112 DANDOLO—DANIEL. tilities of the armament were directed against Zara, which had revolted from Venice. On the storming of Constantino- ple, the aged doge, standing on die prow of bis galley, widi the great standard of St Mark borne before him, commanded Iris men to ran up to the walls, and was die first avIio leaped on shore. After va- rious changes in the imperial throne, suc- ceeded by a second siege, in which Con- stantinople was stormed and piUaged by the crusaders, the latter proceeded to die election of an emperor, and Dandolo Avas first nominated, although, in consequence cf his age,, and the incompatible character of doge, the choice ultimately fell on BaldAvin. In die sharing of the imperial dominions, Venice obtained a full moiety, and Dandolo was solemnly invested with the title of despot of Romania. He ended his eventful life at Constantinople, in 1205 (if the records are to be trusted), at the advanced age of 97. Dandolo, Andrew, doge of Venice, and one of the earliest Italian historians, was born about 1310, and made doge hi 1343. H* carried on a war against die Turks Avith various success, and greatly extended Vene- tian commerce, by opening a trading con- nexion with Egypt The jealousy enter- tained by the Genoese of this new trade produced a war between the two states, which gave rise to a correspondence be- tween tnedoge and Petrarch, who exhorted him to peace. He died in September, 1354. To Andrew Dandolo is ascribed the compi- lation of the sixth book of Venetian stat- utes ; but he is most distinguished for his Chronicle of Venice, which is written in Latin, and comprehends the history of the repubUc from its commencement to 1342. It is praised for its impartiality, and for its judicious use of authentic documents, and was first published by Muratori in his col- lection of original Italian writers of history. Danegelt (from the Saxon gdt, mon- ey), an ancient annual tax of the Anglo- Saxons, to maintain forces to resist the Danes. Danforth's Speeder, in cotton ma- chinery ; a roving frame, in Avhich die bobbins are not turned by the rotation of their axis, but by friction applied to their surface by small wooden cylinders, winch revolve in contact with them. By this contrivance, the velocity of the surface of the bobbin will always be the same, what- ever may be its growth from the accumu- lation of roving, so that the winding goes on at an equable rate. The speeder re- ceived its name from Mr. Danforth, of Massachusetts, the inventor. Daniel, the prophet a contemporary of Ezekiel, was bom of a distinguished Hebrew family. In his youth, B. C. 600, he was carried captive to Babylon, and educated in the Babylonish court, for die service of king Nebuchadnezzar. After three years, he entered into the service of tiiis monarch, and discharged his employ- ments whh much credit to himself, and without violating his conscience. A de- cree of die king, Avhich he could not con- scientiously obey, occasioned his being thrown into the lions' den. Preserved by a miraculous Providence, he lived after- wards in happiness and honor. He was elevated to die office of governor and prime-minister in die court of the Persian king Darius. Cyrus finally gave him per- mission to return, Avith his people, to Pal- estine. Daniel was a man of high mental cultivation and strict virtue. Being Avell acquainted Avith tlie government and con- dition of aU the great kingdoms then knoAvn in the world, and particularly favored by the Deity, he could foresee coming events with the greatest accuracy, and, for this reason, deservedly received die name of Nabi (prophet), although most of the Jews exclude him from the number of the prophets. His prophecy has come down to posterity, and is included in the He- brew canon. Probably only the second part of it is by him. It is wholly symbol- ical, full of dreams and visions. The hand-writing on the Avail of Belshazzar's palace Avas .interpreted by DanieL Daniel, Gabriel; one of the French historians, born at Rouen, in 1649. At the age of* 18, he entered the Jesuits' college, instructed in several places Avith much suc- cess, and died hi 1728. "He sought," as the German Bouterwek says of him, " in his history of his own country, which has earned him his reputation" (Histoire de France, of which many editions have ap- peared since 1713, particularly that of Paris, 1755—1757, in 17 vols., 4to.; also numerous abridgments, and a German translation, Nuremberg, 1756—65,16 vols., 4to.), "to connect the flattery of the court, the nobility and the clergy with the duties of a historian." We often feel the want of profound research and historical fidelity in his work. -He seems to have been destitute of the art of historical description. His thoughts on the proper mode of writing history, he has given to the world in the somewhat tedious introduction to his prolix narrative. His Histoire de la Milice Pranpaise is still known: less so is his Re- cueil des Ouvrages PhUosophiques, Thio- logiques, Apologdiques, &c. (1724, 4to.), DANIEL—DANNECKER. 113 which contains his Voyage du Monde de Descartes (first pubUshed separately, and translated into English and ItaUan)—a caustic satire on the opinions of this phi- losopher. Daniel, Samuel, an English historian and poet contemporary with Shakspeare, Avas bom 1562. He had an appointment at the court of queen Elizabeth, and also of Anne (wife of James I); but he commonly lived in the country, employed in Uterary pursuits. As a historical poet, he seems to have taken Lucan for his pattern. He employed his briUiant tal- ents in Avriting an epic on die most re- markable occurrences in the history of his country. He bestoAved much labor on the poem Avhich describes, in eight books, the civil Avars between the houses of York and Lancaster (History of the Civil Wars between the Houses of York and Lancas- ter, reprinted with the Rest of the poetical Works of tlris Author, and some Account of his Life, in Anderson's British Poets, vol. 4). The poetical value of this work, as of Lucan's, consists in a beautiful style. Daniel contributed much to the improve- ment of the poetical diction of Eng- land. His stanzas, formed with a careful attention to the Italian octave, have more dignity and euphony than most verses of this sort in EngUsh literature, in die first half of the 17th century. He is not wanting in rhe- torical beauty and force. He Avas also the author of some poetical epistles, pastorals, 57 sonnets, and a few tragedies. The first seem to havre excited much attention. During the reign of queen EUzabeth, he Avrote a sketch of the history of England, till the time of Edward III—a work learn- ed and clear, Avidiout ostentation, and con- taining useful and acute views. Daniel died in 1619. Danish Language, Literature and Art. (See Denmark.) Danishmend; a Turkish ecclesiastic of low rank : also a talisman. Dannei ker, John Henry von ; pro- fessor of sculpture at Stuttgard; one of the most eminent of modem sculptors. He was boru at Stuttgard, Oct. 15,1758, of poor parents: his fatiier was a groom of die duke of Wirtemberg, and the son grew up without any other education than the condition of his parents would allow. He early exhibited a strong incUnation for drawing, which he secretly indulged, and, being destitute of paper, covered the ma- terials of a neighboring stone-cutter with his designs. Providence, however, unex- pectedly afforded this remarkable genius an opportunity for rising from obscurity. On Easter-day, 1771, Dannecker's father came home, and mentioned that the duke would receive the children of his servants into his military school, and added, angri- ly, that he had cast his eyes on the boy. The child declared that he Avould go to the duke that very day; and, to prevent him, his father shut him up in a closet Having collected die boys in the street before the apartment in which he was confined, he jumped out of die window, and, without hesitation, went with them straightway to the castle, where the Eier- lesen—a national feast of the people—had assembled the court. They addressed themselves to the servants with this re- quest—"We should like to be received into the Charles's school." The duke was in- formed of their petition, and came imme- diately forth to examine the little band. He looked at them keenly, and, at length, took one after the other from the crowd, and placed him to the right of himself; finally, there remained only Dannecker Avith tAvo others on the left. The poor boys beUeved themselves rejected, and Dannecker would wiUingly have sunk into the earth. But these three were, in fact, the selected ones, and the others were dismissed. After an examination of his talents, young Dannecker Avas des- tined to be an artist. In his 16th year, he obtained a prize for his Milo of Crotona. The composition of this MUo would not disgrace his ripened ability. In this acad- emy, Dannecker formed an intimate friend- ship with Schiller, then one of the most distinguished scholars at that place, and to whom, in later days, he erected a mon- ument. He left the academy at the same time with him in 1780, and was appointed statuary to the court, by the duke, with a yearly salary of 300 florins. Three years afterwards, he obtained permission to travel to Paris, yet without any further assistance than an increase of 100 florins to his salary during his second year in Paris. With this small provision, Dannecker, in 1783, travelled on foot to Paris. Love for his art enabled the young man to bear with content the severest privations, and the contemplation of splendid works of genius often caused him to forget his hunger. Dannecker found here, in the celebrated and honest Pajou, a valuable master. In 1785, he left Paris, and proceeded on foot to Rome. Here he became acquainted widi Canova (bom in 1757), who, at that time, was beginning to obtain distinc- tion, and Avas employed on GanganeU li's monument. Canova soon conceived an affection for the German artist, was 114 DANNECKER—DANTE serviceable to him in his studies, visited him often in his labors, and improved him by his remarks. Dannecker com- menced his labors in marble at Rome, where he made a Ceres and a Bacchus. These statues procured his admission into the academies of Bologna and Milan. He returned to Iris country in 1790, after an abode of five years in Rome, and duke Charles made him professor of the fine arts in his academy. The first work Avhich he completed for the patron of his youth, was a maiden mourning over a bird. He now labored principally upon sketches and designs for the duke. In 1796, he began again to work in marble, and, among other things, produced a Sap- pho (now in Monrepos); in 1797, two priestesses of plaster (at present in the Fa- vorite, at Louisberg); and many studies. The elector Frederic II (afterwards king) uoav employed him upon a greater work— Weeping Friendship leaning upon a Cof- fin—for the monument of his noble friend, the count Zeppelin. This he finished in marble, in 1804, and it was long the object of admiration, in the mausoleum of the count, in the park at Louisberg. While he Avas modelling this figure, the idea of his Ariadne suggested itself to his mind. He had, in 1797, executed a bust after nature, and as large as Ufe, of his friend Schiller, during his residence in Stuttgard. He now prepared a second, of colossal size, of Carrara marble—an offering of love and grief to his deceased friend. This bust adorns the artist's study, and only casts in plaster have been given to the world, of which one adorns the Ubrary of the univer- sity of Gottingen. After many other works, he at length began, in marble, in 1809, his Ariadne riding upon a panther, as the bride of Bacchus; and, in 1816, this was sent to Mr. de Bethmann, at Frankfort. It is one of die most beautiful works of modem times. In 1812, the artist Avas again employed by king Frederic upon a new work. This Avas a Cupid, the design of Avhich Avas furnished by the monarch. The head of the Uttle god Avas to be in- clined towards the earth, in a meditating embarrassment, Avith an empty quiver and an unstrung boAAr. But the artist threw into the piece a more ideal character. Under his chisel, it became a heavenly Cupid, represented at the moment when Psyche has let fall the heated oil upon his shoulder. General Murray, an Eng- lishman, saw this exquisite specimen of sculpture, finished in marble, in 1814, and wished it to be repeated for himself. In- stead of complying with this wish, Dan- necker offered to complete for him a pen- dant and executed his Psyche, a pure being, intended to represent heav enly in- nocence. But the favorite subject of the artist, which for 8 years occupied bis thoughts, is Iris Christ, for the idea of which he is indebted to an inspiring dream. This colossal statue Avas finished in 1824, and sent to St. Petersburg, to the empress- mother of Russia, who made a present of it to the emperor Alexander. Dannecker wished, in this piece of art, to represent the Mediator between God and man. He was afterwards employed, in 1825, upon a statue of the evangelist John, seven feet in height, for the royal chapel at Rotiien- berg. Dannecker labors, unweariedly, from morning to evening, with the activity of youth. The openness and simplicity of his character have gained him the love of aU Avho know him, and his life has been so undisturbed, that Canova snr- named him il beato. Dante (properly, Durante Alighieii), one of the most distinguished men of Avhom history makes mention, was born in Florence, in 1265. Of the first years of this greatest and earliest of the modern poets of Italy, we know little more than that (as he himself tells us, in his Inferno, xv, 8th) he Avas a scholar of Brunetto La- tini, a Florentine, distinguished as a poet, a scholar, and a politician. His very early love for Beatrice Portinari (who died in 1290) aroused his spirit, and afforded im- ages and figures to Iris poetical mind, as long as it created. He studied philosophy at Florence, Bologna and Padua, and after- wards theology at Paris. He Avas also familiar with Latin literature, and Avrote the language Avell for that. time. Whue he cultivated his mind, he, at the same time, served his country as a soldier and a statesman. In 1289, he fought in the memorable battle at Campaldino against the Ghibelines of. Arezzo, and, in 1290, at Caprona, against the Pisans. He Avent on several embassies from the Florentine republic to Rome, and to the courts of different sovereigns. In 1291, he married Gemma, the daughter of Manetto Donati, by whom he had several children.. This marriage was not happy, and a separation finally ensued. In 1300, Dante was, unfor- tunately for himself, made one of the pri- ors, or superior magistrates, of his native city. Florence was, at that time, divided between two parties—the Bianchi and Neri (the White and Black). The former, being the weaker, sought assistance from pope Boniface VIII; and the pope deter- mined to send Charles of Valois, brother DANTE. 115 of Philip IV of France, who was at that time in Rome, to quiet the troubles in Florence. Dante, as prior of the city, re- sisted this interference, apprehending dan- gerous consequences to the state, -and Avas therefore banished, in 1302, togedier Avith the leaders of the Bianchi, and his prop- erty confiscated, because he was unable to pay a fine of 8000 lire, which was im- posed upon him. His life was now an almost uninterrupted series of misfortunes. He and his companions in adversity, ac- cording to some writers, joined the party of the GhibeUnes, or adherents of die emperor, through Avhose assistance alone they could hope to return to their country. The proofs of this are found in numerous passages in his poems, which contain the bitterest invectives against Boniface, the head of the church, Avhom he places in heU. Dante then lived some time in Arez- zo ; but tfle attempt of the Bianchi, in 1304, to force their Avay back to Florence, having failed, he left Tuscany, and took refuge in Verona, Avith Alboin della Scala, who had gained among his contempora- ries the name of the Great, from the sup- port which talent and merit always found in him. But Dante, constantly in a state of inquietude, and in expectation of his recall, could not, as Petrarch relates, con- ceal his dejection and bitterness from his benefactors; and this seems to be the rea- son why he nowhere found a permanent residence. He speaks in a Arery touching manner, in his Inferno, of the pain of hav- ing to " ascend the stairs of other men," as he describes his state of dependence. On this account, several cities could pre- tend to the honor of having had the Divir na Commedia composed within their Avails. Besides Aisiting many places of Italy, Dante likeAvise went to Paris. He endeavored, at length, to effect his restoration to Flor- ence, oy means of the emperor Henry VII, then in Italy, on which occasion, he wrote a work on monarchy, De Monorchia, about the year 1309 (Basil, 1559; also con- tained in 4 vols., in the Venetian edition of bis Avorks); but this hope was disap- pointed. During the last years of his Ufe, he resided at Ravenna, with Guido Novel- lo da Polenta, the lord of that city, Avho, as a friend of the muses, willingly afforded him protection. His death took place in this city, Sept. 14,1321, and he was buried in die church of the Minorites, where, in 1483, a Venetian nobleman, Bernardo Bembo, father of the celebrated cardinal of that name, erected a splendid monu- ment to his memory. The Florentines, who had banished and persecuted their great countryman, now, like the Athenians after the execution of Socrates, endeavored to expiate their injustice, by paying that honor to his memory which they had de- nied to him during his Ufe. They caused his portrait painted by Giotto, to be hung up in a public place in the city, demand- ed, although in vain, his remains from the inhabitants of Ravenna, and appointed distinguished scholars to lecture on his poem. Boccaccio, in his Vita di Dante, describes him as a man of firm, but yet gentle and engaging character, altogether different from the account of Giovanni Villani. His face, of Avhich many por- traits exist, is characterized by the sharp- ness and extenuation of the features, and the stem melancholy of die expression. Of die six children whom Dante left, his two eldest sons, "Pietro and Jacopo, made themselves known as scholars, and, among other works, Avrote a commentary upon the poem of their father, which hag not, hoAvever, been published. This great poem, since the year 1472, has passed dirough nearly 60 editions, and has had a greater number of commentators than any other work since the revival of letters. Early in the 17th century, an edition was projected, in a hundred volumes, by Cio- nacci, a Florentine noble, Avherein he pur- posed, by appropriating a volume to each canto, to comprise, in chronological or- der, all the commentaries tiien existing, together with a Latin translation in the Strozzi library. Since that period, new editions have repeatedly made their ap- pearance. The last is that of Gabriele Rosetti, to be completed in six volumes, two of which (London, 1826, comprising L'lnferno) are pubUshed. In many re- spects, this last must be considered a sin- gular commentary. The greatness of Dante is very often measured by the im- mense variety of commentators on his work, and their declaration that they-be- lieve Dante yet imperfectly understood. We do not think so, nor conceive that the passages which are most unintelligible shed the greatest lustre on the author. A passage which has been differently under- stood by every interpreter for centuries, and aUows every one to assign a neAv meaning to it, naturally induces a doubt whether the writer himself attached to it any clear idea, or whether the idea Avas not so distorted as not to admit of being traced. Should we consider the SibylUne books as containing profound treasures of wisdom, because their obscure prophecies admitted of any interpretation ? or the Ko- ran, because it has had thousands of com- 116 DANTE mentators ? or do we think diat law in a Code the wisest about the meaning of which there has been most dispute ? The poem of Dante, like so many productions of antiquity, is, on the whole, a grand ex- hibition of genius; and, therefore, commen- tators have felt themselves obliged to seek perseveringly for a meaning to every pas- sage ; and a commentary, once made, was a fruitful source of more, by stimulating men's vanity to discover new interpreta- tions, the human mind, as we all knoAV, being often much more busily employed in displaying its ingenuity than in sin- cerely seeking for truth. Dante describes, in his Hell, the sufferings of the damned with an inexhaustible ingenuity and a tru- ly poetical penetration into human Ufe and character. In the Purgatory, he portrays the state of souls between heaven and hell, and in his Heaven, the state of the happy. The poem, like eveiy great poetic produc- tion, bears a decisive stamp of the most characteristic features of the time when it was composed. It is essentially allegori- cal : it displays an ardent love for the learn- ing of the ancients, and treats the Romans as forefathers, with whom the Italians of the author's age were in views and senti- ments still intimately connected. Hence arises the frequent reference to the ancient mythology, and the constant blending of it with the sacred Avritings. Why he chose Virgil as his guide through hell and purgatory, is easy to explain. It was be- cause he was a Roman, and the greatest epic poet dien known (Homer being com- paratively little read, and it being not then understood how much Virgil copied from Homer), and because Virgil manifests a constant reverence for the emperor—an important point in Dante's view, Avho, as an inveterate Ghibcline, washed all power and splendor to Centre in the emperor, and hated the Guelphs and the pope. Not a single pope or cardinal has been admitted into his heaven, whilst hosts of them are to be found in the hell. Virtue and vice are the basis upon which reward and pun- ishment are distributed in the poem; but the standard by Avhich Dante measures these, the fonns in Avhich he clothes them, the images under which the poet repre- sents his abstract ideas, are taken from the character of his time, or his personal char- acter and theological views. Dante show- ed immense poAver in the composition of an epic on an entirely imaginary subject, and filled with learning, which yet keeps the interest of the reader awake through- out Other great epics are founded on tales or historical facts, preserved in the memory of the poet's countrymen; but, with him, the whole was fiction, at lea« every thing beyond the common dogma of hell, purgatory and heaven. At the same time, it cannot be denied, that his learning sometimes, though seldom, ren- ders him unpoetical; for instance, Avhen he gives long astronomical descriptions. It has often been said, and often denied, that, in his Heaven, the interest diminishes. We must assent to the first opinion, which is founded, indeed, on human nature; for evil and suffering are far more exciting, and, on this account, more interesting than tranquil happiness. Does not every com- edy close as soon as the couple are united, and the tragedy, when the wicked are punished ?—-The name Commedia is deriv- ed from Dante's idea concerning the forms of eloquence, which were, in his opinion, tragic, comic and elegiac, as he relates in his work De vulgdri Eloquentia, which was probably first written in Latin. What he called tragedy was a piece commencing with happy and peaceful scenes, and end- ing with events of a painful and terrible character; and what he caUed comedy .was a piece Avhich, beginning unpleasantly, terminated happily. The qualifying word divina was, however, added by others; but, in the oldest editions, the poet himself was called by the appellations of 11 Divino and II Teologo. The poem of Dante has been considered, by some persons, but, in our opinion, unworthily, to have taken its rise from the author's circumstances. We may also mention the opinion maintained in 1753, by Bottari, that Dante made use of the Vision of Alberico, a monk Avho lived in the first part of the 12th century, in a monastery on Monte Cassino, in Naples. There have been many such visions, from the earUest ages of Chris- tianity ; as, for instance, the vision of an English monk, which Matthew Paris men- tions, in his history of England (in the year 1196), and which resembled Dante's poem much more than the vision of Alberico, pub- lished by Cancellieri, in 1814, at Rome, Avith observations (Osservazioni intorno alia Questione sopra la Originalila della Divina Commedia di Dante); and, moreover, the vision of a gentleman named Tundall, in Ireland, which also falls in the first part of the 12th century. It is, therefore, very pos- sible that Dante here and there may have borrowed a thought or image from those visions; but this is no fault: the recollec- tions of great men are sparks which serve to kindle mighty flames.—There is no poet who bears so distincdy the impress of his age, and yet rises so high above it, as DANTE—DANTON. 117 Dante. The Itahans justly regard him as the creator of their poetical language, and die father of their poetry, Avhich, regulated and controlled by his.genius, at once as- sumed a purer and far nobler form than it had previously worn. The terzina first reached its perfection in the time of Dante, on which account he has been erroneous- ly regarded as the inventor of it.—The best editions of the Divina Commedia are those of Lombardi (Rome, 1791, 3 vols., 4to.), and the edition of MUan (in 1804, in 3 vols.). Of the former, a second and much improved edition appeared in 1815—17, at Rome, published by Romano de' Ro- mani, in Avlrich the Vision of Alberico is also contained. In 1821, Luigi Fantoni published an edition of the Divina Comme- dia, stated to have been printed from a manuscript in the hand-Avriting of Boccac- cio. An Italian professor at Paris, Biagio- U, also published an edition of this poem, from the text of the Crasca edition, in 1818, together with a good commentary, iA 3 volumes. Dante's complete Avorks appeared.in Venice in 1757—58, pubhslied by Zatta (in 5 vols., 4to.). His lyric po- ems, sonnets and canzonets, of Avhich some are beautiful, others dull and heavy, were Avritten at different periods of his Ufe. We have yet to mention his Banquet (II Convito)—a prose work, worthy, says Bouterwek, to stand by the side of the best Avorks of antiquity. It contains the substance of all his knowledge and expe- rience, and thus illustrates his poetry and his life. The marquis Trivulzio edited a new edition of it, iii 1826, in MUan. A work containing much valuable matter to elucidate Dante is Del Veltro Allegorico di Dante (Florence, 1826,8vo., Avith an inter- esting appendix), extracted from a A'ery old Codex Mediceus, helonging, at present, to the Biblioteca Laurenziana, marked No. viii, bench xxix. Among the best modern commentaries on Dante are the treatises of doctor Witte in die Hermes, and also in die Silesian Provinzial-Blattem, in 1825. There is a gbod English translation of the Divina Commedia, by Mr. Carey (London, 1819, 3 vols., 8vo.).—In one respect Darite stands unrivalled by any man, as ha, we might almost say, created die language, which he elevated at once to its highest jierfection. Before him, very little was written in Italian, Latin being the -literary language; but no one attempted to use the lingua volgare for the purposes of dignified composition. The poet, indeed, thought it necessary to excuse himself for having written in Italian, after having attempted to compose his poem in Latin. Thus he is to be regarded as die founder of ItaUan Uterature. One of the strangest produc- tions of Dante is his De Monorchia, already mentioned. He labors, in this work, to prove that the emperor ought to have universal authority, and draw s his argu- ments from the Sacred Scriptures and from profane writers, which, in this book, appear very often with equal authority. The dialectics of the schoolmen are here ex- hibited in a most characteristic way. The De Monorchia is valuable as a source of information respecting the great struggle of the Guelphs and Ghibelines, and its influence upon the Christian world at that time. This, struggle Avas a part of the great convulsion attending the separation of the civil power from the ecclesiastical, with which, in the earfiest ages, it is al- Avays united. On the Avhole, Dante's works are important chiefly in three re- spects—as the productions of. one of the greatest men that ever lived, as one of the keys to the Iristory of his time, and as ex- hibiting the state of learning, theology and poUtics in that age. To understand Dante, it is necessary to be acquainted with the history and spirit of his time, particularly with the struggle of the Guelphs and Ghi- beUnes, the state of die north of Italy, and the excitement caused by the beginning of the study of the ancients; also to have stud- ied the CathoUc theology and the history of the court of Rome, and to keep always iu mind that Dante Avas an exile, deprived of home and happiness. The Germans, at present, pay much attention to Dante. They have some exceUent translations, by Kannegiesser and Streckfuss, and valuable Avorks on the poet by Abeken, in Berlin, and others. Mr. Uhde, a feAV years ago, delivered lectures on Dante in die univer- sity of Berlin, Avhicli showed great study of the poet and his time. Pietro Vincenzio, of the family of Rai- naldi, Avas surnamed Dante, because he endeavored to imitate this great poet. He and his whole family Avere celebrated for their knowledge of mathematical science. —Giovanni Battista Dante, of Perugia, probably belonging to die same family, is Avell known by the surname of Daedalus, Avhich he obtained on account of his me- chanical ingenuity. In the 15th centuiy, he made an attempt to fly, and is said to have succeeded in passiug die lake of Perugia. Danton, George James, an advocate by profession, was bom at Arcis-sur-Aube Oct. 26, 1759, and beheaded April 5, 1704. He played a very important part during die first years of the French revo- 118 DANTON—DANTZIC. lution, of which he Avas an active and zealous promoter. His external appear- ance was striking; his stature was colos- sal ; his frame athletic; his features harsh, large and disagreeable; his voice shook the dome of die chamber of the assembly; his eloquence Avas vehement; and his imagination was as gigantic as his person, which made every one recoU, and "at which," says St. Just, " Freedom herself trembled." These quahties contributed to extend his influence, and he became one of the founders of the club of die Cordeliers, (q. v.-) After the imprison- ment of Louis at Varennes, he took the lead in the meeting of the Champ-de-Mars, which demanded the dethronement of the king. In November, he was appointed assistant to the procurator of the com- mune of Paris. His importance in the capital increased in 1792, where he be- came one of the instigators of the events of June 20th, and a leader on the 10th of August After the fall of Louis XVI, Danton Avas a member of the provisional executive council, was made minister of justice, and usurped die appointment of officers in the army and departments. He dius raised up a great number of creatures entirely devoted to his views. Money flowed from aU sides into the hands of the minister, and Avas as profusely squan- dered on Iris tools and partisans. His violent measures led to the bloody scenes of September. He endeavored, by the terrors of proscription, to annihilate all hope of resistance on the part of the roy- alists. The invasion of Champagne by the Prussians, Sept. 3d, spread consterna- tion through the capital, and among the members of the government. The minis- ters, the most distinguished deputies, and even Robespierre himself, who was, at that time, in fear of Brissot, noAV assem- bled around Danton, who alone preserved his courage, lie assumed the adminis- tration of the state, and prepared measures of defence: he called on all Frenchmen, capable of bearing arms, to march against the enemy, and prevented the removal of the assembly beyond the Loire. Dan- ton showed, on diis occasion, undaunted courage. From this time forward, he was hated by Robespierre, who could never pardon the superiority whieh Danton had shown on that occasion. Being called on to render an account of the secret ex- penditures during his ministry, Danton maintained that the ministers should give in their reports collectively; and this view was adopted. He voted for the capital punishment of all returning emigrants, and undertook the defence of reUgious worship. The contest between the Gi- rondists and the Mountain daily assumed a more serious aspect, and Danton ap- peared to fear the consequences of these dissensions. The 26th of November, on the occasion of the festival of reason, in which the adherents of Hebert acted a conspicuous part, he declared himself anew against the attack on the ministers of religion, and subsequently united with Robespierre to bring Hebert and his parti- sans to the scaffold. But their connexion was not of long duration, and the secret hate which had long existed between them soon became public. Danton wished to overthrow the despotism of Robespierre, and the crafty Robespierre endeavored to undermine him, in order to get rid of a dangerous rival. St. Just denounced him to the committee of safety, and Danton was arrested on the night of March 31, together with those who were called his accomplices. Being thrown into prison in the Luxembourg, he maintained tlie appearance of serenity. When he Avas transferred into the Conciergerie, his coun- tenance became dark, and he appeared mortified at having been the dupe of Robespierre. AU his discourses were a strange mixture of sorrow and pride. At his trial, he answered, with perfect compo- sure, " I am Danton, sufficiently knoAvn in the revolution; I shall soon pass to nothingness, but my name will Uve in the Pantheon of history." April 5, the rev- olutionary tribunal condemned him to death, as an accomplice ih a conspiracy for the restoration of monarchy, and con- fiscated his large property. He mounted the fatal car with courage, and without resistance; his head Avas elevated; his look commanding and full of pride. Be- fore ascending the scaffold, he was, for a moment, softened : " O my wife, my dear wife, shaU I never see you again?" he exclaimed; but checked himself hastily, and, calling out, " Danton, no weakness," ascended the scaffold.—Danton was one of the most remarkable characters of the French revolution—a strange mixture of magnanimity, abifity and courage, with cruelty, avarice and Aveakness. He Avas 35 years old at the time of his death. Dantzic (Danzig); a commercial city and fortress on the west bank of the Vis- tula, about five miles from the Baltic, in the government of the same name, in the Prussian province of West Prussia, and 300 mileB from Berlin. It has a very agreeable situation, in the midst of a beau- tiful country. Exclusive of the suburbs, DANTZIC. 119 it is about 2£ miles in circuit, and is nei- vorable circumstances, the year 1812 drew ther regularly nor handsomely built In- nigh, bringing the heavy burdens of the eluding the suburbs, it contains 5172 Russian war. December 31, the city was houses, and 54,756 inhabitants, of whom declared in a state of blockade. After a 2148 are Jews. Its fine harbor and ad- very obstinate defence of nearly a year's vantageous situation have procured it an continuance, a capitulation was entered extensive commerce by land and sea. It into, Jan. 1,1814. On this day, aU the was an important member of the Hanse- Poles and Germans were dismissed, and, atic league, and was often called the on the 2d, the French marched out, to be granary of the North. As early as the 10th conducted, as prisoners of war, to the in- ccntury, it was caUed Gedance (Gedansk). teiior of Russia. During tiris blockade For a long period, it continued to change and siege, 309 houses and warehouses masters, with the territory in which it were burnt, 1115 buildings damaged, and lies. The Danes, Swedes, Pomeranians 90 men perished by hunger. Feb. 3, and Teutonic knights contended for its 1814, Dantzic fell again under the domin- possession. In 1310, it fell into die hands ion of Prussia, Dec. 6,1815, great dam- of the last. The industry of the inhab- age was done by the explosion of a pow- itants soon restored its importance and der magazine.—There are, in this city, prosperity, which had been diminished important manufactures of gold and silver by tiie frequent wars, and inspired the lace, cloth, Avoollen stuffs and Cordovan citizens Avith such energy, diat, in 1454, leather: the dye-houses, sugar-refineries, Dantzic declared itself independent and brandy and other distiUeries, vitriol, pot- was soon after recognised as such by the ash, &c. manufactories, are likewise con- republic of Poland. The city then struck siderable. An important article of coin- its own coins, with the image of the king merce in Dantzic is corn, which is brought of Poland, maintained a secretary at War- down the Vistula from Poland, and ex- saw, and voted in the diets of the king- ported to England, Holland and the Hanse dom, and at the election of king, by a towns. Other articles of export are tim- deputy. In 1772, the city was almost ber, leather, wool, furs, butter, tallow, wax, sunounded by the Prussian dominions; honey, potash, hemp and flax. The prin- its u-ade, industry and population continu- cipal edifices worthy of mention are, the ally declined, and die last king of Poland high church of St Mark (in which is the declared that he must leave Dantzic to its Judgment Day, by Van Eyck), the syna- fate. May 28, 1793, the Prussians took gogue, the academical gymnasium, die possession of the outworks: the people marine institute, the buildings of the immediately flew to arms, and a short society of natural history, including their struggle ensued, which, after a few days, observatory. This society celebrated its terminated Avith the surrender of the city. 84th anniversary Jan. 2, 1826. It has It soon after regained its former prosperity published memoirs. In 1823, there were under the Prussian government, and con- 747 ships entered, and 758 cleared, at this tinued to flourish till the breaking out of the port On the side of the city between the war between France and Prussia. March Vistula and Nogat is the fertile island of 7, 1807, Dantzic was besieged by marshal Werder, Avhich supports numerous herds Lefevre, and sun-endered on the 24tii of of cattle; and at the mouth of the former May. The marshal Avas afterwards re- lies the fort of Miinde, which defends the warded with the title of duke of Dantzic. roads of Dantzic, called Neufahrwasser. A miUtary contribution of 20,000,000 of April 9,1829, the Vistula, swollen by the francs, to be paid, by instalments, was melting of the snow in die interior, and levied on the city. - By the peace of Tilsit, choked by masses of ice, broke tiirough however, Dantzic was recognised as a the dyke, which extends 25 miles up the free city, with a jurisdiction of 2 leagues river, overwhelming 50 viUages. The in extent, which was afterwards enlarged lower town of Dantzic was inundated, and to 10 mues by Napoleon, under the pro- the houses filled to the roofs. The torrent tection of France, Prussia and Saxony; swept over the city, carrying aAvay many but, being occupied by a French garrison, houses, and Avhatever they contained. On it was not allowed to enjoy its indepen- the 12th, the waters began to abate; but dence. A French governor, general Rapp, as late as the 14th, many sufferers were continued in the garrison. In 1808, the still remaining on the roofs of die houses, Code NapoUon was introduced; and, by unable to obtain reUef, and destitute of the continental system, its most important food. (For an account of the last siege of branch of. support, die commerce with this city, see the Relation de la Difense England, was cut off. Under such unfa- de Dantzic en 1813, Paris, 1820; and also 120 DANTZIC—DAPHNIS. the Military Annals of Austria, 1825, 8th and 9th editions.) Danube (in German, Donau, i. e. deep water); a river, which was called by the Romans, from its sources to Vienna, Da- nubis, and lower down, Ister. It has three sources, the Brege, Brigach, and a/little fountain in the yard of the castle of prince Donaueschingin, in Baden, 2050 feet above the level of the sea (lon. 10° 3W 15" E., lat. 47° 58' N.), near which the united waters receive the name of Danube. After its junction with the lUer, above Ulm, it lie- comes navigable, being from 8 to 12 feet deep, runs through the kingdom of Bava- ria, dien from EngelhartszeU to Orsowa (644 miles), through Austria, and finally through Turkey, until it falls into the Black sea, after a course of 1547 miles, and after having received 30 navigable rivers and 90 other streams. It discharges itself through fiA-e mouths, called Kili, SuKne, Kedrillo, Portessa and Islawa Bo- gasi. The first is the chief and the deep- est outlet, and is hoav within the domin- ions of Russia, since Bessarabia (q. v.) was ceded to this power by the Turks. The fourth and fifth mouths are likeAvise navigable. The Danube discharges so much water into the Black sea, that die addition is perceptible in the latter, even at the distance of 46 miles. Its current embraces the Avaters pf the Schwarzwald (the Black' forest), the Bdhmerwald (the Bohemian forest), the Alps of Tyrol, Sti- ria, Carinthia and Camiola, and the Mor-. lacbian, Carpathian and Bulgarian moun- tains. The whirlpools have been render- ed less dangerous by the labor of man in Germany and Hungary, but the shallows of Orsowa, and the tyrannical restrictions of the Turkish government obstruct the sub- sequent navigation. Many species of fish are taken in the river. The most known is the sturgeon. -From the times of the Romans, through the period of die middle ages, down to the time of Napoleon, the shores of the Danube have been the scene of momentous conflicts. At Ulm, the navigation of this river begins, and is continued to its mouth in five divisions, occasioned by poUtical separations—from Ulm to Ratisbon, thence to Vienna, thence to Pest, thence to Belgrade, thence to Galacz and Kilianova, where the river empties itself. The navigation is almost entirely downwards, without the aid of sails or oars. Such vessels as move against the stream are drawn by horses, five tons being allowed for each horse, if the river is not swollen. As the greater part of the vessels are only calculated to float down, and then to be sold as wood, they are, of course, Uttle better than rafts. The congress of Vienna, in 1815, declared the navigation of all the German rivers free; but this freedom does not as yet ex- ist and the Custom lines of Wurtember^ Bavaria and Austria prevent die naviga- tion of the Danube from attaining the ex- tent which it would easily reach if left free. From France, many goods are sent to Ulm, and from thence to Turkey. At Pest, about 8000 vessels and rafts arrive annually. Austria subjects thq navigation of the river to very oppressive restrictions. Thus the boatmen from Ratisbon are on- ly allowed to go to Vienna; and tiiey are only allowed to take from thence wine. In Vienna, these boatmen arc incorporated. Charlemagne entertained the grand idea of uniting the Rhine and Danube, by a ca- nal betAveen the Altmiihl and the Maine, near Nuremberg. If the navigation were free, the introduction of steam-boats would make it increase with a rapidity equal to that of the Mississippi. (See Devil's Wall.) Daphne ; a daughter of die river-god Peneus, beloved by ApoUo, by whose con- trivance her lover, Leucippus, was slain. The nymph, deaf to the suit of the god, and flying from him, i besought the earth to -swalloAV her up. According to some, ■ she besought her father or Jupiter to pro- tect lier. Her prayer was heard ; for, at the moment when Apollo was about to encircle her in his arrns, her flight Avas suddenly arrested, her feet took root in the earth, her arms became branches, and, in- stead of the nymph, Apollo embraced a laurel, Avhich was thenceforth consecrated to him.—Daphne' was also the name of a daughter of Tiresias. She was priestess in the temple of Delphi.—A grove near Antioch was UkeAvise so called. Daphnin ; the bitter principle of Daph- ne Alpina. From the alcohoUc infusion of the bark of this plant, the resin was separated by partial evaporation, and the remaining tincture, on being diluted- with water and filtered, afforded, on the addi- tion of acetate of lead, a yellow precipi- tate, from which sulphureted hydrogen disunited the lead, and left the daphnin in small transparent crystals. They are hard, of a grayish color, a bitter taste; when heated, evaporate in acrid acid vapors ; and are sparingly soluble in cold, and but moderately so in boiling water. Daphnis ; the son of Mercury by a nymph, educated among the nymphs, and celebrated in the SiciUan traditions as the author of BucoUc poetry, and also as a performer on the shepherd's pipe. He DAPHNIS—DARDANELLES. 121 Pastured his kine upon mount ./Etna. 'he nymph Echenais, who loved the youth, threatened him with blindness if he should love another; but, being intox- icated Avith wine by the daughter of a Si- cilian prince, he forgot her Avarnings, and thus brought upon himself the threatened punishment Some say that he died of grief; others, that the nymph transformed him into a stone. All the nymphs be- wailed his death, and Mercury raised him to the heavens. On the spot where fie died flowed a fountain, at which the Si- cilians afterwards performed yearly sacri- fices. Darcet, John ; an eminent French physician and chemist, bom, in 1725, at Douazit, in Guienne. He preferred the study of medicine to that of the law; in consequence of which, having been dis- carded by his father, he was obliged to teach Latin for his support, while pursu- ing his. studies at Bordeaux. He accom- panied the celebrated Montesquieu to Paris in 17*2, and remained with him tUl his death as a literary assistant. He after- wards devoted himself to chemistry, and went to Germany, in 1757, with the count de Lauraguais, and visited the mines of the Hartz, in Hanover. On the restoration of peace, they applied themselves to tech- nical chemistry, especially to the improve- ment of the manufacture of porcelain. Darcet made many experiments with this view, of which he drew up an account in several memoirs presented to the academy of sciences, in 1766 and 1768. He tried the effect of fire on the various kinds of earths, and demonstrated the combustibil- ity of the diamond ; on which subjects he presented memoirs to the academy in 1770. In 1774, he travelled over the Pyr- enees, to study the geology of tiiose mountains, on which he delivered a dis- course at the college of France, which was published in 1776. On the death of Macquer, he succeeded him as a member of the academy of sciences, and director of the manufactory of SeArres. He was afterwards appointed inspector-general of the assay of coin, and inspector of the Gobelin manufactory. He made several important chemical discoveries, and con- tributed much to the present improved state of the science. During the reign of teiTor, his life was preserved by Fourcroy, who procured the obliteration of his name from a list of persons destined by Robes- pierre to desu-uction. He died in 1801, at which period he was a member of the in- stitute, and of the conservative senate. Darcet, John Peter Joseph, an excel- vol. iv. 11 lent practical chemist, bom at Paris in 1787, has very suocessfoUy applied the discoveries in his science to the promo- tion of French industry. His father, who died in 1801, in the office of director-gen- eral of the porcelain manufactory at Sevres, also distinguished himself as a practi- cal chemist; and his grandfather was the celebrated Rouelle, the restorer of chem- istry in France. Darcet entered early upon his career, after having laid the foundation of his eminence by the study of mathematics and natural philosophy. In his 24th year, he was made assayer of the mint; and, after inttoducing, among other discoveries, a new process for tli-; preparation of powder on a large scale, he made experiments on the addition of sea- salt in the manufacture, and essentially improved the preparation of the hydrate of the protoxide of barytes. These exper- iments led to new discoveries respecting elective affinity; but the decomposition of sea-salt was of the greatest importance, and eventually led to the establishment of the manufacture of artificial natron (soda). Among his other discoveries, we may notice the extraction of alkali from chestnuts, and the preparation of sugar from the same material, and the extraction of jelly from bones by means of an acid. The hospital of Louis at Paris is indebt- ed to him for the excellent footing on which he put its baths and chimneys, and for the process which he introduced for bleaching the linen of the hospitals. He also made another discovery of great im- portance, whereby he obtained the prize of 3000 francs, which Ravrio had provid- ed for the discovery of the means of pro- tection against the fine dust of quicksilver, which had been so unhealthy to the gild- ers. Darcet's discovery completely attain- ed the object, and this branch of French industry has since increased greatly in importance. He has also offered a plan for preserving the health of those con- cerned in the manufacture of Prussian blue. Dardanelles are the four stronir cas- tles built on the European and Asiatic coasts of the Hellespont, opposite to each other, and commanding that strait, which is about 12 leagues long, and called, from them, the strait of the Dardanelles, so that they are looked upon as the key of Con- stantinople. Their name is probably de- rived from the old city of Dardanura. The entrance to the Hellespont is defend- ed by two casdes, which are called the new castles, because they were built (sub- sequently to the two others, called the old 122 DARDANELLES. castles), in the middle of the 17th century, under Mohammed IV, to afford protection to the Turkish fleets against die Vene- tians. The distance of one from die oth- er is about two miles and a quarter. Four hours' sail farther to the north lie the old castles, built by Mohammed II, immedi- ately after the conquest of Constantinople, Avhich are not more than 1500 yards apart Farther on stiU, the channel becomes nar- rower, and, at an hour and a half's sail from the old castles, two promontories ap- pear suddenly, about 750 yards distant one from the other, and form that strait ren- dered famous by Leander's nightly visit to Hero, by Xerxes' bridge, and by Soly- man's passage upon a bare raft. This is not provided Avith fortifications. It leads into the sea of Marmora, at die north- eastern end of which Ues Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman empire, up- on another channel, which connects the Black sea with the sea of Marmora. The late lord Byron, in the month of March, 1810, sAvam from the castle of Sestos, in Europe, to die fort of Abydos, in Asia, in company Avith lieutenant Ekenhead, an English naval officer, and mentions the feat in his works with evident satisfaction. The same feat has been repeatedly performed in modern times. The negligent Turks, confiding in the celebrity of the castles of the Dardanelles, have taken so little care to keep diem in a state of defence, that in 1770 they were completely in ruins, and upon the Asiatic side there was but a sin- gle battery standing, and tiiat half filled with rubbish. On the 20th of July of that year, when the squadron of the Russian admiral Elphinstone, consisting of three ships of the line and four frigates, in pur- suit of two Turkish ships of the line, ap- peared before the first castles, the Turkish batteries, from want of ammunition, were obliged to cease firing, after one general discharge of their ordnance, and Elphin- stone sailed by without receiving more than a single shot But, the other ships not follovA-ing him, he contented himself with continuing his course, not minding the Turkish batteries, and cast anchor m the channel. From hence he returned to his fleet, notwithstanding a contrary wind, with drums and trumpets sounding, as much to conceal his own fear as to deride the weakness of the Ottomans. Warned by diis unexpected circumstance, the Porte accepted the offer of baron De Tott (q. v.) to restore the castles to their former condition; and he rendered them, in a short time, impregnable. But die Turks were too indolent to preserve them long in this condition; for, in 1798, Eton, an Eng- lishman, who was for a considerable time resident in Turkey, in a description of diis empire, declared that, at that time, a fleet might easily pass the Dardanelles. " These castles," he says, " may be beaten down by batteries erected on shore, or by sea, from situations where the great artillery cannot bear on ships. There are, on each side of the water, 14 great guns, which fire granite balls. These guns arc of brass, with chambers, Uke mortars, 22 English feet long, and 28 inches diameter of die bore. A gentleman who has measured them snice I did, says they are only 23 niches in diameter: one of us must have made a mistake. They are Aery near the level of the surface of the water, in arched port-holes or embrasures, Avith iron doors, which are opened only when they are to be fired. The balls cross the water from side to side, as they are a little elevated. These monstrous cannon are not mount- ed, but lie on the paved floor, Avith their breech against a wall. They cannot be pointed, and the gunner must wait tiU the vessel he intends to fire at is opposite the mouth ; and they are at least half an hour m loading one of these guns." That this account is accurate there is no doubt, for it is confirmed by admiral Duckworth, an Englishman, who, on the 19th of Febru- ary, 1807, with eight ships of the line and four frigates, together with fire-ships and gun-boats, effected a passage through the Dardanelles without loss, and appeared, on the next day, before Constantinople, which, till dien, had never seen an ene- my's fleet Their presence was intended to influence the negotiations then in prog- ress, but was of little avail, for the Turks, during the course of the discussions, under the direction of the French ambassador Sebastian!, Avere zealously employed in fortifying Constantinople and repairing the castles of the DardaneUes; so diat Duck- worth, on the 2d of March, could not re- turn without loss, &c, according to his own confession. If he had remained eight days later, his return would have been al- together impossible.—The new castles are much less strong than die old ones, which are generally understood when the Dar- danelles simply are spoken of The latter are caUed Chana Kalissi (said to mean pottery castles, from a pottery near diem), or, more elegantly, Sultanei Kalissi. The new castle on the Asiatic side is called Koum Kali, or castle in the sand, from the character of the shore in that place. In the immediate vicinity of Koum Kale, the ruins of the Troad are, by the common DARDANELLES—DARIEN. 123 opinion of travellers at the present day, supposed to be found. The old castle, on Ae Asiatic side, is the residence of the governor of the four castles, and at tiris place there is an ill-built but considerable Turkish city, called Ckana Kalissi. The environs of this town are beautiful, partic- ularly a fine promenade of plane-trees on the banks of the Rhodius, supposed to be one of the nine Homeric rivers which de- scend from mount Ida. The old castle on the Asiatic side is poorly defended on the land quarter, and might easily be surpris- ed by a small force disembarked above or below. Large quantities of marble balls, made from the ruins of die city of the Troad, are piled up for use in the courts of the fortress. A ponderous shot of this kind, which struck one of the masts of admiral Duckworth's ship, was brought home by that officer, and made the pedes- tal of a table. So firmly persuaded are the Turks that these castles are impregna- ble, that they believed the governor was bribed by admiral Duckworth, and be- headed him accordingly. Commodore Bainbridge,inthe American frigate George Washington, passed the Dardanelles, under cover of the smoke of a Salute, in Februa- ry, 1801. This is the only American ship of war that ever passed this strait. Dardanus, the progenitor of the Tro- jan kings, and the son of Jupiter and Electra, the daughter of Atlas, emigrated from Samothrace (according to others, from Arcadia, Crete, Sec.), and settled in Phrygia, in the country Avhich was after- wards called Troas. Here he built a city, Avhich, from him, was caUed Darda- num or Dardanus. By Bateia, the daugh- ter of Teucer, who had previously emi- grated hither from Attica, he had a son, called Erichthonius. His descendants are caUed, by the poets, Dardanians. It has been lately supposed, that this is the name of an Arcadian tribe, whose history is related in the fable of Dardanus. Darkur, or Darkoor (Country ofFoor); a considerable kingdom of Central Africa, occupying a large portion of the wide inter- val between Abyssinia and Bornou, the most eastern part of Nigritia. It is difficult to fix its limits, as it is known to us almost solely by the journey of Mr. Browne, one of the most enterprising of modern travellers. On the east, it has Kordofan, and the country of the Shillux, which separate it from Sennaar and Abyssinia; on the west, Bergoo, which divides it from Begherme and Bomou; while the regions to the south are occupied by barbarous nations, extending to and inhabiting the Mountains of the Moon. With respect to its climate, productions, die animals it contains, and also the manners of its inhabitants, and its government it nearly resembles other countries in Africa. The people are semi- barbarous ; their government is a despot- ism, and their occupation chiefly agricul- ture. The mechanical arts are at a low ebb, and their houses are rudely con- structed of clay, with a coating of plaster, and with proportionably scanty accommo- dations. Its commerce is extensive. The grand intercourse is with Egypt and is carried on entirely by the African system of caravans. There is no regular caravan, as between Fezzan and Cairo. The mo- tions of that from Fur are extremely un- certain, and two, or even three years sometimes elapse without one. The cara- van going to Egypt consists often of 2000 camels and 1000 men. Among the ex- ports, the most important are slaves, male and female, taken in the Negro countries to the south ; camels, ivory, the horns, teeth and hide of the rhinoceros and hip- popotamus, ostrich feathers, gum, pimen- to, parroquets in ahundance, and a small quantity of white copper. The imports are extremely various, comprising beads of all sorts, toys, glass, arms, light cloths of different kinds, chiefly made in Egypt, with some of French manufacture, red Barbary caps, small carpets, silks, wrought and u'nwrought shoes, and a considerable quantity of writing paper. The Darfoor people submit their daughters to excision. They are Mohammedans, but, in spite of the prophet, much given to intoxicate diemselves with a certain beverage called merissah. Unlimited polygamy is allowed, and the nearest relationship is no obstacle to marriage. Fathers often marry their daughters, and brothers their sisters. The army is calculated at 70,000 men. The soldiers endure thirst and fatigue with un- common patience. Daria, or Deria, signifies river, in the Tartar languages ; as Kizil-Daria, red- river. Darien ; a post-town of Georgia, capi- tal of M'Intosh county, on the north and principal channel of the Alatamaha, near its entrance into St. Simon's sound, 12 miles from the bar, 62 S. S. W. SaA-annah, 185 S. E. Milledgeville; lon. 81° 37' W.; lat. 31° 23' N.; population in 1827, ac- cording to Sherwood, only 500. It stands on a high, sandy bluff, and contains a court-house, a jail, an academy, a Presby- terian meeting-house, a bank and a print- ing-office. It is a place of considerable trade in cotton. At the bar, there are but 12-1 DARIEN—DARILS. 14 feet of water, so that large vessels can- not come up to the town ; but the obstruc- tions to the navigation are expected, before long, to be removed, that Darien may be accessible to large ships, and become die emporium of the fertile country watered by the Oakmulgee and Oconee, branches of the Alatamaha. Darien, Gulf of ; on the coast of the province of Darien ; 26 leagues from N.to S., and 9 from E. to W. Several rivers flow into it, the largest of which is the Atrato. The coast is full of sharp and inaccessible shoals, and only towards the west and south are there fit places for dis- embarking. The Unfits of the gulf are sometimes extended to the sea that washes the shores of the provinces of Panama and Darien. Darien, Isthmus of ; a neck of land, which unites North, and South America, composed of the provinces of Panama and Veragua, which belong to the republio of Colombia. It Ues in die form of a cres- cent, about the great bay of Panama on the south, and having the gulf of Mexico on the north. It is 300 miles long, and generally about 60 wide, but, Avhere nar- rowest, between the ports of Porto Bello and Panama, only 37. This part is some- times called the isthmus of Panama. The country here is made up of sickly valleys and stupendous mountains, which seem to be placed as eternal barriers between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, which can be distinctly seen at the same time from the summits. These mountains here forbid the idea of a canal; but, by go- ing to latitude 12° N., and joining the head of the lake Nicaragua to a small river which runs into the Pacific ocean, and forming a canal 30 miles long, through a low, level country, a communication be- tween the two seas becomes practicable. Darius ; the name of several Persian kings, or, according to some writers, the royal title itself. Among the most distin- guished individuals of this name, are—1. Darius, the fourth king of Persia, the son of 1 lystasj ies, satrap of Persi s. He j o ined the conspiracy against the Pseudo-Smer- dis, who had possessed himself of the Per- si ui throne. After the conspirators had succeeded in getting rid of die usurper, they agreed to meet early the next morn- ing, on horseback, and to appoint him king, Avhose horse should neigh first after stuirise. The groom of Darius, apprized of this project, led his master's horse, in the night, with a mare, to the appointed place, and, in consequence of this strata- gem, the horse of Darius neighed first the next morning. Darius Avas, dierefbre, saluted king, and the nation approved the choice. His reign was marked by many important events. The city of Babylon revolted, partly on account of burdensome impositions of tribute, and partly because the royal residence, under Cyrus, had been transferred from tiience to Snsa. Darius besieged the city nearly two years with- out success, and was on the point of aban- doning the siege, when Zopyrus, one of his generals, by a heroic sacrifice, placed the city in his possession. The mode av as this: he mutilated himself hi the most shocking manner, and fled to the Babylo- nians, pretending to them that he had suffered this cruel treatment from Darius, and that he wished for vengeance. The Babylonians gave him a command ; and, after many successful sallies, by which he gained their confidence, they intrusted to him the charge of the whole city, which he immediately surrendered to Darius. After the subjection of Babylon, Darius undertook an expedition, with an army of 700,000 men, against the Scythians on the Danube (513 B. C), Avho enticed him so far into their inhospitable country, by their pretended flight, that he succeeded with difficulty in extricating himself and his army, after suffering great losses. leav- ing a part of his forces, under the com- mand of Megabyzus, in Thrace, to conquer that country and Macedonia, he returned Avith the remainder to Asia, to recruit at Sardis. He next turned his arms against the Indians, part of whom he subjected (508 B. C). Iu the year 501 B. C, a dis- turbance at Naxos, in Avhich the Persians had taken part, occasioned a revolt of the Ionian cities, Avhich the Athenians en- deavored to promote, but which was sup- pressed by the capture and punishment of Miletus, in 496. To revenge himself upon the Athenians, Darius sent Mardo- nius with an army, by the way of Thrace and Macedonia, against Greece, and pre- pared a fleet to make a descent upon its coasts. But his ships were scattered and destroyed by a storm, in doubling mount Athos, and die army was almost entirely cut to pieces by the Tliracians. Darius, however, collected another army of 500,000 men, and fitted out a second fleet of 600 ships. Naxos was conquered, and Eretria, in Eubcea, sacked. Thence the army, under Datis and Artaphernes, proceeded to Attica, and was led, by Hippias, to the plains of Marathon. The Athenians had, in vain, besought assistance from their neighbors, and were obliged to depend upon their own resources alone. They DARIUS—DARMSTADT. 125 marched forth, 10,000 strong, under the command of Miltiades, to meet the Per- sian army, and, animated by the reflection that they Avere fighting for freedom and their country, obtained a complete victory (B. C. 490). Darius now determined to take the command of a new army in person, but Avas prevented by domestic troubles, and died B. C. 485. This prince did much to improve the internal admin- istration of his kingdom. In the year 508 B. C, he sent his admiral Scylax to explore the river Indus, and he encour- aged commerce and arts by useful institu- tions and laws. His successor was Xerxes. (q. v.)—2. Darius III, sumamed Codom- anus, son of Arsanes and Sysigambis, and great-grandson of Darius II, or Ochus (who reigned from 424 to 404 B. C), was the 12th and last king of Persia. He ascended the throne B. C. 336, when the kingdom had been weakened by luxury, and the tyranny of the satraps under his predecessors, and could not resist the at- tacks of a powerful invader. Such was Al- exander of Macedon; and the army, which was sent against him by Darius, was totally routed, on the banks of the Granicus, in Asia Minor. Darius then advanced, Avith 400,000 soldiers, to the plains of Mesopo- tamia. The Grecian mercenaries advised him to aAvait die enemy here, as the level country would enable him to draw out his forces to advantage ; but Darius hastened forward to meet Alexander in the moun- tainous CiUcia. Curtius describes the splendor of his march. Darius Avas a second time totally routed, near the Issus, B. C. 333. He himself escaped, under cover of the night, to the mountains. His mother, his wife, and three of his children, fell into the hands of the- conqueror, Avho treated them with great generosity. Alex- ander loaded 7000 camels with the spoil taken here and at Damascus. Darius was so far from being discouraged by these de- feats, that he wrote a haughty letter to Al- exander, in which he offered him a ransom for the prisoners, and invited him to a new engagement, or, if he did not choose that, granted him permission to retire into Ma- cedonia. Alexander then laid siege to Tyre, on which Darius wrote him another letter, offering him not only the title of king, which he had before refused to do, but also 10,000 talents ransom, and all the countries of Asia as far as the Euphrates, together with his daughter Statira in mar- riage. These propositions, hoAvever, were unavailing. Alexander subjected Egypt, and Darius found himself once more oblig- ed to collect an army, which most writers estimate at 1,000,000 men. He led his forces from Babylon to Nineveh, whUe Alexander was encamped on the banks of the Tigris. The two armies met between Arbela and Gaugamela, and, after a bloody engagement, Darius was compeUed to seek safety in flight (331 B. C). Alexander took possession of his capital, Susa, cap- tured Persepolis, and reduced aU Persia. Darius meanwhile arrived at Ecbatana, in Media, where he had another army of 30,000 men, among whom were 4000 Greeks, who remained true to the end, besides 4000 slingers and 3000 horse, commanded by Bessus, the governor of Bactria. With these he wished to march against the conqueror, but a conspiracy of Nabazanes and Bessus frustrated his plan. The magnanimous prince would not credit the report of the conspiracy, which reached his ears, and, at the same time, observed that his death could not be premature, if his subjects considered him unworthy of life. The traitors soon after took possession of his person, and carried him, in chains, to Bactiia. Here he refused to accompany them any farther, and they transfixed him with their javehns, and left him to his fate. A Macedonian, named Polystratus, saAv the chariot of Darius, and, as he Avas drinking at a neighboring foun- tain, heard the groans of a dying person. He approached the chariot, and found the king in the agonies of death. Darius beg- ged for some Avater, on receiving which he requested Polystratus to thank Alexan- der, in his name, for the generosity with which he had treated the captive prin- cesses. Scarcely had Darius expired, when Alexander came up. He melted into tears at the sight of the corpse, caused it to be embalmed, and sent it to Sysigam- bis, that it might be deposited by the side of the other Persian monarchs. Darius died (330 B. C.) in the 50th year of his age, with the reputation of a humane, peaceful and just sovereign. Darmstadt, capital and residence of the grand-duke of Hesse-Darmstadt, has 1279 houses (among which are 53 public buildings) and 20,000 inhabitants, mostly Lutherans,' exclusive of the garrison. It is, of course, the seat of the highest autiiori- ties,andof a court of appeal; has a muse- um, library (with 90,000 volumes), drawing- school, gymnasium, an opera-house, the- atre, &c. The house in which the sol- diers are driUed is 319 feet long, 157 feet wide, and 83 feet high; so that a travel- ler remarked that the drilling-house was larger than the duchy. Lat 49° 5& 24" N.; lon. 8° 34' 49" E. 126 DARMSTADT—DARWIN. Darmstadt, or Hesse-Darmstadt. (See Hesse.) Dartmoor; an extensive, ragged, mountainous tract in England, in the Avestern part of Devonshire, usuaUy caUed the forest of Dartmoor, but at present hav- ing no appearance of a forest, except what is afforded by an assemblage of dwarf oaks, intermixed with ash and Avillow; reaching from Brent S., to Oakhampton N., 20 miles, and 5 to 15 wide, and occu- pying 53,644 acres; in all which space is no town, and only 2 villages. Here is a large prison, Avhere many prisoners of Avar are frequently confined. Dartmouth ; a seaport town of Eng- land, county of Devon, situated near the confluence of the river Dart with the Brit- ish channel. It has a good harbor, with deep water, defended by a castle and tAVo platforms of cannon. The chief occupa- tion of the inhabitants consists in the Newfoundland and other fisheries, where- in about 350 vessels are engaged. DarN mouth is a borough, sending two members •o parUament. The entrance to the har- bor is defended by a castle. Population, 4485. 30 miles S. Exeter. Dartmouth College. (See Hanover, N. H.) Daru, Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno, count, a peer of France, and one of the ablest French statesmen of the school of the revolution and Napoleon, was born in the year 1767, at Montpellier. He commenced his military career in his 16th year, after having received an excellent education. At the breaking out of the revolution, he adopted its principles, Uke other young men of talent. He never reUnquished his poetical and literary pursuits, even in the camp, amidst the most uncongenial labors. His reputation as a poet was established by his masterly translation of Horace. The first edition appeared in 1800. About the same time appeared his Cliopidie, or Theory of Literary Reputation—a poem full of elegance and animation. The penetrating eye of Napoleon soon distin- guished him from the multitude, and showed him peculiar favor, while Daru attached himself, with unbounded zeal, to that extraordinary man. He was intrust- ed with' the most important affairs, and executed these trusts Avith fidelity to the interest of France and the emperor, by which he, drew upon himself the hatred of die opposite party. This is particularly evident in his administration as general intendant in 1805. 1806 and 1809, in Austria and Prussia. While in the coun- cil of state, Daru was considered the most diligent and laborious member of that body except die emperor. There were few important posts in the higher departments of the administration which he did not fiU; and the first restoration found him in possession of the port-folio of. die de- partment of war. Bliicher displayed }i»s enmity to him by sequestering bis estate at Meulan; but this measure was iniinc- diatelv reversed by the allied monarchs. In 1818, Dara was called to the chamber of peers by Louis XVIII. In 1805, he was chosen a member of die national in- stitute. Not having been called to any other public post after the restoration, Daru devoted himself particularly to historical studies; and we are indebted to him for two important works—the Life of Sully and the History of Venice. The last of these is one of the most important pro- ductions of modern literature in the de- partment of history. It appeared, in 1819, in seven volumes; second edition, in 1821, in eight volumes, and the third edition in lt-25. As a member of the chamber of peers, Daru was one of the most zealous defenders of the principles introduced by the revolution. He died near the end of 1829. Darwin, Erasmus, a physician and poet, was born at Elton, near Newark, Nottinghamshire, Dec. 12, 1721. He Avas educated at Cambridge, took his doctor's degree at Edinburgh, and commenced his practice as a physician at Litchfield. In 1781, he made himself known as a poet by the pubUcation of his Botanic Garden. This poem consists of two parts, in the first of Avhich the author treats of the economy of vegetables, and in the second of what he calls The Loves of the Plants, being a sort of allegorical exposition of the sexual system of Lin- naeus. The ingenuity and novelty of much of the personification, and still more the brilliant and figurative diction in which it is conveyed, rendered this pro- duction very popular for a time; but its unvarying polish, want of light and shade, and of human interest, rapidly reduced its reputation. To this result, the pleasant ridicule of Mr. Frere's Loves of the Tri- angles, also, in no small degree, contribu- ted. In 1793, doctor Darwin published the first volume of his Zobnomia, or the Laws of Organic Life, 4to., which work excited great expectation from the known origi- nality of the author. It teaches that aU animated nature, as men, beasts, and vegetables, takes its origin from single living filaments, susceptible of irritation, which is the agent that sets them in mo- DARWIN—DATE. 127 tion. This doctrine was refuted by Brown and several other Avriters, and, being found- ed on a mere assumption, rapidly fol- lowed the fate of all such systems. The second volume, which completed the author's plan, was printed in 1796. In 1801, he published his Phytologia, or Phi- losophy of Agriculture and Gardening. Various papers in the Philosophical Trans- actions are likeAvise from the pen of doc- tor Darwin, who died suddenly, April 18, 1802, leaving behind him the character of an able man, of considerable eccenuicity, both in opinion and conduct. The bias of his politics, and the tendency of his the- ories to materialism, excited a powerful feeUng against him, which much exag- gerated his peculiarities. His son, Darwin, Charles, deserves to be noticed for discovering, while studying at Edin- burgh, a test for distinguishing pus from mucus, for which the gold medal was assigned Ihn by the university. This promising young man died during his studies, at Edinburgh, in May, 1778. Daschkofi, Catharine Romanowna, princess of. This celebrated lady, de- scended from the noule family of Woron- zoff, and the early friend and confidant of die empress Catharine, was bom in 1744, and became a widow at 18 years of age. She endeavored to effect the accession o*" Catharine to the throne, but, at the same time, was in favor of a constitutional limitation of the imperial power. In a miUtary dress, and on horseback, she led a body of troops- to the presence of Catharine, who placed herself at their head, and precipitated her husband from the tiirone. The request of the princess Daschkoff to receive the command of the imperial regiment of guards, was refused. She did not long* remain about the person of Catharine. Study became her favorite employment From the Greek and Ro- man authors she had acquired the high spirit of antiquity. After her return from abroad, hi 1782, she was made director of the academy of sciences, and president of the newly estabUshed Russian academy. She wrote much in the Russian language; among other productions, some comedies. She also actively promoted the publica- tion of the dictionary of the Russian academy. Her death took place in 1810, at Moscow. Dataria ; the papal chancery at Rome, from which all bulls (q. v.) are issued. It has its name from the common subscrip- tion, Datum apud Sanctum Petrum, that is in the Vatican. (See Curia, Papal.) Date (Latin, datum, given); that ad- dition to a writing, which specifies the time when it was executed. Under the Roman emperors, diis word was used to signify the day on which the bearers of the imperial despatches to the provinces received them, or that on which they de- livered them. It was also used in docu- ments in the time of the French Mero- vingian kings. Date ; die fruit of the date palm, a tree of die natural order palmai, inhabiting the north of Africa, from Morocco to Egypt, Syria, Persia, the Levant and In- dia, and which is also cultivated in Italy and Spain. Dates form the principal nutriment of the inhabitants of some of the above countries, and are an important article of commerce. This fruit is an oval, soft, fleshy drupe, having a very hard stone, with a longitudinal furrow on one side, and, when fresh, possesses a de- licious perfume and taste. Dates are su- gary, very nourishing, wholesome, and require no preparation ; but when dried, and a little old, as they usually are when imported into Europe and the U. States, they are not much esteemed, and are little used in the countries Avhere they grow. The best fruits have firm flesh of a yellow color. They are varied, however, by cul- ture, in size and shape: some varieties are very large, succulent, and without stones. T)ie inliabitants of Tunis and several other countries, every year, journey in crowds, into BUedulgerid to procure dates. The bunches, Aveighing from 20 to 25 pounds, when of good quality, are sold at from 60 to 80 cents each. Cattle and grain are received in exchange. Almost every part of this valuable tree is convert- ed to some use. The wood is very hard, almost incorruptible, and is used for build- ing. The leaves, after being macerated in water, become supple, and are manu- factured into hats, mats and baskets. The petioles afford fibres from which cordage is made. The nuts, after being burnt, are used by the Chinese, in the composition of India ink. Palm wine is made from the trunk. For this purpose, the leaves are cut off, and a circular incision made a little below the summit of the tree, then a deep vertical fissure, and a vase is placed below to receive the juice, which is pro- tected from evaporation. The date palm is a majestic tree, rising 60 feet and up- wards ; the trunk is sttaigbt, simple, scaly, elegantly divided by rings, and crowned at the summit by a tuft of very long pen- dent leaves. The leaves are 10 or 12 feet long, composed of alternate narrow foli- oles, folded longitudinaUy. The male and 128 DATE—DAUN. female flowers are upon different trees. The fruit is disposed in 10 or 12 very long pendent bunches. The date palm is re- produced from the roots, or from shoots, or by planting the axil of the leaves in the earth, which is the most approved mode, as female plants may be selected, while a few males, scattered here and there, are sufficient Care is taken to water them frequently, and to protect them from the rays of the sun till they have taken root. Plants raised by this method will bear fi-uit in five or six years, while for those raised from the seed, 15 or 20 years are required. When the male plant is in bloom, the pollen is col- lected and scattered OA-er the female flowers. Each female produces 10 or 12 bunches every year, which, when gathered, are hung up in a dry place until so much of their moisture is evaporated as to alloAV of their being packed. Dates, in general, are of a yellowish color; but some are black, some Avhite, and others brown ; some, also, are SAveet and others bitter. The time of planting is early in the spring. Situa- tions abounding in springs are selected, the trees are placed 15 or 20 feet apart, and a Uttle trench is dug at the root of each, which is filled with Avater at pleasure, by means of channels excavated in the sand. The Arabs pretend that they attain the age of 200 or 300 years. This valuable tree would undoubtedly succeed in the southern parts of the U. States. The wood, though of spongy texture, is em- ployed for the beams and rafters of houses, and for implements of husbandry, which are said to be very durable. The pith of the young trees is eaten, as well as the young and tender leaves. A considera- ble traffic is carried on in these leaves, which, under the name of palms, are sent to Italy, to be used in the grand religious ceremonies of Palm Sunday. In Persia, ah ardent spirit is distilled from the fruit; and, in many places, the stones are ground to make oil, and the paste that is left is given as food to cattle and sheep. Datholite; a species in mineralogy found massive and crystallized in the form of obUque rhombic prisms, which are often much modified by secondary planes. It has a shining, resinous lustre ; is of a white, greenish or yellowish-white color, and translucent. Before the blow- pipe, it melts with intumescence. It con- sists, according to Klaproth, of 36.5 of si- lex, 35 of Ume, 24 of boracic acid, and 4 of water; and hence is sometimes denomi- nated a silicious borate of lime. It is found in small quantity in the trap rocks of Patterson, NeAV Jersey; also in Nor- way, Avhere, besides the other varieties, one is found in botryoidal masses, and therefore called botryolite. Daubenton, or D'Aubenton, Louis Jean Marie; a naturalist and physician, bom at Montbar, in 1716; celebrated for his participation in the Natural History of Quadrupeds by his early friend and com pan- ion, Buffon; the anatomical part of which was prepared by Daubenton with great accuracy, clearness and sagacity. He re- fused Iris assistance in the latter part of the work, offended at the publication of an edition of the first part by Buffon, in Avhich the anatomical portion was omit- ted. The cabinet of natural history, in Paris, of which he was made keeper, in 1745, was, by the united exertions of Daubenton and Buffon, rendered one of the most valuable institutions in the capi- tal. In 1744, he was chosen member of the academy of sciences, and enriched its publications by a number of anatomical discoveries, and also by researches con- cerning the species of animals and their varieties, the improvement of wool, and the treatment of the diseases of animals. He threw much light upon mineralogy, botany and agriculture, and proposed a new method for the classification of minerals. He contributed to the depart- ment of natural histoiy in the Encyclope- dic He is, besides, the author of nume- rous works of general utility ; for exam- ple, Instruction pour les Bergers, third edition, 1796 (translated into German by A. Wichmann), Memoire sur les Indigestions (new edition, 1798), and many others. Unseduced by Buffon's hypotheses, he was a most faithful observer of nature. During the reign of terror, when every one Avas required to give some evidence of patriotic spirit, he was represented to his section as employed in introducing the Spanish flocks into France. He af- terwards continued to apply himself quiet- ly to his studies; and, though: his con- stitution was naturally weak, the temper- ance and tranquillity of Iris Ufe enabled him to reach the age of 84 years. Decem- ber 31, 1799, he was present, for the first time, at the sitting of the senate, and fell senseless into the arms of his friends, from a stroke of the apoplexy. Daun, Leopold Joseph Maria, count an Austrian general, Avas bom in 1705, and died in 1766. His grandfather and father had served with distinction in the Austrian army. He gained his first laurels in the Turkish war, 1737 to 1739, in which be was major-general, DAUN—DAVENANT. 129 and distinguished himself also in the war of the Austrian succession. His skilful passage of the Rhine, and his marriage with the countess of Fux, a favorite of Maria Theresa, procured for him the post of master-general of the ordnance, and, in 1757, that of general field-marshal. In tiris capacity, he commanded the Austrian army during the seven years' war. He advanced to KoUn against the king of Prussia, who was at that time besieging Prague (q. v.), and gave him battle, June 18, 1757, compelling the king to raise the siege, and evacuate Bohemia. Although he conducted with the greatest prudence and precaution, he was defeated at Leu- then, Torgau, and several other places. Except the battle of Kolin, his most memorable achievement Avas the surprise at Hochkirchen, on the night of October 14, 1758. Here he would have destroyed the whole Prussian army, had not the prince of Durlach come up too late with his column. At Torgau, Nov. 3, 1760, the victory, which seemed to be witiiin his grasp, was snatched from him in conse- quence of his wounds and the resolution of Ziethen. He compelled the Prussian general Fink to surrender, with 11,000 men, Nov. 21, 1759. Daun's plan of de- lay, and of venturing on decisive steps rarely, and only on great occasions, has been unjustly censured. He could not bet- ter resist a general like Frederic the Great, who was not accountable to a superior, and who, sun-ounded by enemies whom he could oppose successfully only by a rapid succession of victories over the sepa- rate armies, was obliged to adopt the boldest expedients. Frederic himself kneAV what a dangerous antagonist he had in Daun. Daun is more open to the charge of not having sufficiently followed up his advan- tages. Many improvements in the Aus- trian infantry are ascribed to him. Dauphin ; the title of the eldest son of die king of France. In 1349, Humbert II, dauphin of Viennois, being childless, transferred his estate, called the Danphiny, to Philip of Valois, on condition that the eldest .son of the king of France should, in future, be styled the dauphin, and gov- ern this territory. The dauphin, lioAvever, retains only the title, the estates having been united with the crown lands. On the death of the dauphin, his eldest son inherits this title; if he has no son, his eldest brother succeeds him. If the king has no son, then the title of dauphin is not bestowed on any one, as was the case in the reign of Louis XVIII; for it is never bestowed upon the next prince of die blood, and presumptive heir, even if he is the king's brother. The wife of the dauphin is called dauphiness (dauphine). The editions of the classics which were made for the use of the dauphin are entitled in usum delphini. Dauphint ; one of the principal prov- inces of France before the revolution, was divided into Upper and Lower Dauphine. It forms, at present, the departments of the Drome, the High Alps and the Isere. Grenoble was the capital. (See Dauphin, and Department.) Davenant, sir William, an English poet of the 17th century, was the son of an innkeeper at Oxford, Avhere he was born, in 1605. After some previous edu- cation at a grammar school, he became a student at Lincoln college; but he soon left the university, and obtained the office of page to the duchess of Richmond, from whose household he removed into that of Greville, lord Brooke, a nobleman emi- nent for his Uterary attainments. He was employed in preparing several masques for the entertainment of the court; and, on the deadi of Ben Jonson, in 1637, he succeeded to the vacant laurej. On hos- tilities breaking out between Charles I and the parliament Davenant displayed his attachment to the royal cause. Being suspected of a conspiracy against the au- thority of the parliament, in 1641, he was arrested, but, making his escape, went to France. Thence he returned, with mili- tary stores sent by the queen, and was made lieutenant-general of ordnance, un- der the duke of Newcastle—a post for which he does not appear to have been qualified by any previous service. At the siege of Gloucester, in 1643, he was knighted hy the king; and, on the subse- quent decline of the royal cause, he again retired to France, Avhere he became a Ro- man Catholic. In 1646, he was sent to England on a mission from the queen; and, on his return to Paris, he began the composition of his principal work, a heroic poem, entitled Gondibert. An at- tempt Avhich he afterwards made to lead a French colony to Virginia, had nearly proved fatal to him. Theship, in which he had sailed from Normandy, was captured by a cruiser in the service of the English parliament, and canied into the Isle of Wight, where Davenant Avas imprisoned in Cowes castle. In this forlorn captivity, from which he had but Uttle hope of escaping alive, he composed the 3d book of Gondibert. In October, 1650, he was removed to London for trial before the high commission court. His Ufe is said 130 DAVENANT—DAVID. to have been preserved by the interposi- tion of Milton. There is a corresponding tradition, that Davenant repaid the good offices of Milton, by protecting die repub- Ucan poet after the restoration. After two years' imprisonment, sir WiUiam was set at Ulicrty, Avhen, with the connivance of those in power, he set on foot, in the metropolis, a species of dramatic enter- tainments. On the return of Charles II to England, the stage Avas reestabhshed with reneAved splendor, and Davenant be- came patentee of a theatre in Lincoln's- Inn-Fields. He continued to employ his pen and his talents as a theatrical Avriter and manager till his death, Avhich took place April 17, 1668. Gondibert, the principal production of this writer, Avas never finished. It contains some truly poetical passages, but is, upon the Avhole, possessed of too Uttle interest to require any particular notice. David, king of Israel, the youngest son of Jesse, an inhabitant of Bethlehem, of the uibe of Judah, distinguished himself by his pradence, courage and exploits, particularly by his combat with Goliath, the gigantic PhiUstine; so that Samuel, the high priest, anointed and consecrated him as king, during the life of Saul. At home, he tended his father's flocks, and Avas instnicted in the knowledge of that period, and in music. Saul, who regarded him as his enemy, persecuted him; and thus arose a civil war, which continued till the death of Saul. David then ascended the throne of Judah, but the remaining tribes had chosen Saul's son Ishbosheth for their king, after whose death David came into possession of theAvhole kingdom, which he governed from 1055 till 1015 years B. C. His first expedition was against the Jebusites, who dwelt in the centre of Palestine. He con- quered the citadel Zion, and made Jerusa- lem his residence, and the citadel the abode of the Most High. He then re- duced the Philistines, Amalekites, Edom- ites, Moabites, Ammonites, and especially the Syrians. His kingdom noAV extended from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean, and from Phoenicia to the Arabian gulf, and contained more than 5,000,000 inhab- itants. He promoted navigation and com- merce, and endeavored to refine his people by the cultivation of the arts, especially that of architecture. He buUt at Jerusa- lem a palace for himself, and made the worship of God more splendid, by the appointment of sacred poets and singers. The magnificent temple which he had projected was completed by his son and successor. He himself carried lyric po- etry to the highest perfection, which it had ever reached among the Israelites, by his Psalms, (q. v.) He also improved die miUtary, judicial and financial systems. The ardor of his temperament led him, however, to the commission of several cruelties, for which his repentance was not able to atone; and jealousy among his sons by different mothers, at length gave lise to rebelUon in his OAvn family. His son Absalom sought to dethrone him, and made war upon him with this design, but unsuccessfidly. He left the flourishing kingdom of Israel to his son Solomon. The crimes of David the Scriptures do not extenuate, but they represent him as hav- ing endeavored to atone for them by re- pentance. His advice to his son, on his death-bed, seems to leave a dark stain upon his memory, though commentators have endeavored to put a favorable con- struction upon it. David, Jacques Louis, the founder and greatest painter of the modem French scliool, which he brought back to the study of nature. David was bom at Paris in 1750, and went, in 1774, to Rome, where he devoted himself particularly to historical painting. His talents for this species of painting soon displayed them- selves. He visited Rome a second time in 1784, and finished his masterpiece, the Oath of the Horatii, which Louis XVI had commissioned him to design from a scene in the Horaces of Corneille. Connoisseurs declared that this piece was unequalled, and breathed the spirit of a Raphael. In the same year, he painted his Belisarius; in 1787, the Death of Soc- rates; and, in 1788, Paris and Helen. His reputation was now very great in Paris; and, having begun to be distin- guished as a portrait painter also, he might have enjoyed a tranquil and bril- liant career, if he had not taken an active part in the revolution. Seized with an ardent zeal for Uberty, he finished, in 1789, a large painting, representing Brutus condemning his sons to death. He also furnished the designs of the numerous monuments and republican festivals of that time. In 1792, he Avas chosen an elector in Paris; afterwards a deputy in the national convention; and, during the reign of terror, he was one of the most zealous Jacobins, and wholly devoted to Robespierre. He proposed to erect a colossal monument of the nation, on the Pont-Neuf, from the materials of the king's statue. At the trial of Louis XVI, he voted for his death. In January, 1794, he presided in the convention. After the DAVID—DAVIE. 131 fall of Robespierre, he was in great danger, and his reputation as a painter alone preserved him from the guillotine. Among the scenes of the revolution which David strove to immortaUze by his pencil, are the murders of Marat and LepeUetier, and particularly the oath in the tennis- court, and the entrance of Louis into the national assembly, February 4, which, in 1790, he presented to the legislative assembly. In 1799, he executed the Rape of the Sabine Women (the masterpiece of his genius), from the exhibition of which he received, as it is said, 100,000 francs. In 1804, the emperor appointed him his first painter, and directed him to execute four pieces, among Avhich the Coro- nation of Napoleon Avas particularly dis- tinguished. Among his finest works of this period were many representations of the emperor; particularly that in which the first consul was represented on horse- back, on mount Bernard, pointing out to his troops the path to glory. This piece is now in Berlin. In 1814, David painted Leonidas, his last painting in Paris. When Napoleon returned from Elba, he appoint- ed David a commander of the legion of honor. After the second restoration of Louis XVIII, he was included in the decree Avhich banished all regicides from France. He then established himself at Brussels; and, upon the neAV organization of the institute, he was excluded from this body, in April, 1816. In Brassels, he painted Cupid leaAing the arms of Psy- che. The latest of his productions—Ve- nus, Cupid and the Graces disarming Mars—Avhich he finished at Brussels in 1824, Avas much admired at Paris. David died in exile, at Brussels, Dec. 29, 1825. The opinions of die merits of this artist are various; but the praise of conect delineation and happy coloring is univer- sally conceded to him. He found, in the history of his time, in the commotions of which he took an active part, the materi- als of his representations. The engraver Moreau has immortalized the best of his works, by his excellent engravings. The most celebrated of his paintings, as the Oath of the Horatii and the Rape of the Sabine Women, have been purchased by the French government, and placed in the gallery of the Luxembourg. Davidson, Lucretia Maria, a remark- able instance of early genius, Avas born at Plattsburg, on lake Champlain, Sept. 27, 1808. When she was only 4 years old, a number of her Uttle books were found filled Avith rude draAvings, and accompa- nied by a number of verses in explanation of them, written in the characters of the printed alphabet As her parents were in straitened circumstances, she was, from an early age, much employed in domestic services; but every moment of leisure was devoted to reading. A tender heart, a wann sensibility, an ardent and vivid imagination, an eager desire for knowl- edge, characterize her earUer effusions; the later are marked with the melancholy traces of a wasting frame, and a dejected spirit feeling the fatal approaches of death. We know of no uistance of so early, so ardent and so fatal a pursuit of intellectual advancement, except in the cases of Chatterton and Kirke White. In October, 1824, a gentleman, who was informed of her ardent desire for educa- tion, placed her at a female seminary, where her incessant application soon de- stroyed her constitution, already debilitated by previous disease. Her letters at this period exhibit, in a striking manner, the extremes of despondency and hope. Gradually sinking under her malady, she died August 27, 1825, before completing her 17th year. Her person was singularly beautiful; her prevaiUng expression, mel- ancholy. Her poetical writings, which have been collected, amount to 278 pieces, some written at the age of nine years; be- sides which, she destroyed a great number of her pieces. (See Amir Khan and otfier Poems, with a Biographical Sketch, New York, 1829.) Davie, WiUiam Richardson, av ho held a high rank among the revolutionary worthies of South Carolina, Avas born in England, June 20,1756. He was brought to America at the age of six years, received the rudiments of his education in North Carolina, and was graduated at the college of Nassau Hall, New Jersey, in the year 1776. He returned to North CaroUna, and commenced the study of the law; but he soon yielded to the military spirit which Avas excited by the Avar of inde- pendence. He obtained the command of a company attached to count Pulaski's legion, quickly rose in rank, and greatly distinguished himself by his zeal, courage and talents as an officer. During the ar- duous and sanguinary Avar in the South, he was constantly useful and energetic, and a principal favorite of generals Sump- ter and Greene. At the end of the revo- lutionary struggle, he devoted himself, with signal success, to the profession of the law. In 1787, he was chosen, by the legislature of South CaroUna, to represent that state in die convention that met in Plriladelphia to frame a federal constitu- 132 DAVIE—DAVOUST. tion. Sickness in his family required his presence at home before the work Avas completed, and, therefore, his name is not in the list of the signers. In the state convention in North Carolina, assembled to accept or reject the instrument, lie was the ablest and most ardent of its advocates. The establishment of the university of North Carolina is ascribed to his enlight- ened zeal for learning. In the year 1799, he was elected governor of that state, and, soon after, appointed by president Adams envoy to France, along with chief-justice Ellsworth and Mr. Munay. On iris re- turn, he fixed his residence at Tivoli—a beautiful estate on the Catawba river, South Carolina. He died at Camden, in the year 1820. General Davie possessed a commanding figure, a noble, patriotic spirit, masculine, ready eloquence, and rendered a variety of valuable services to his country. Davies, Samuel, president of Nassau hall, was born in Delaware, Nov. 3, 1724, and educated in Pennsylvania for the Presbyterian ministry. He labored for some years as a pastor in Virginia, Avhere Episcopacy was the religion established and supported by law, and the "act of uniformity" was enforced with great rigor. The "act of toleration" had been passed hi England especially for the relief of the Protestant dissenters ; but it was disputed in Virginia, whether it was intended to extend to the colonies. Mr. Davies main- tained that it did, in opposition to the king's attorney-general, Peyton Randolph, afterwards the president of the first conti- nental congress, and in opposition to the general court of the colony. When he went to England, to solicit benefactions for Nassau hall, he obtained a declara- tion, under authority, that the provisions of the act of toleration did extend to the colony of Virginia. Mr. Davies is to be regarded as the founder of the first pres- bytery in Virginia. In 1759, he was ap- pointed president of Nassau hall, but he died Feb. 4, 1762, in the 36th year of his age, after holding the office only 18 months. Doctor Green has Avritten an account of his life. His 3 volumes of posthumous ser- mons have passed through many editions, both in Great Britain and the U. States. Davila, Arrigo Caterino, an Italian statesman and historian, was bom in 1576. He was the son of a Cypriot of distin- guished family. His father, who fled to Venice after the conquest of Cyprus by the Turks, in 1571, introduced him to the French court, where he was made page; he aftenvards entered the French service, in which he highly distinguished himself! At the desire of his father, he returned to Italy, in 1599, entered the Venetian service, gradually rose to the post of gov- ernor of Dalmatia, Friuli, and the island of Candia, and was esteemed at Venice the first man in the republic after the doge. While travelling, in 1631, on pub- lic business, he was shot by a man from whom he demanded carriages to continue his journey. He is principally celebrated for his History of the Civil Wars of France, from 1559 to 1598 (Storia delle Guerre Civili di Franria, Venice, 1630). This has been translated into several languages, and deserves a place near the works of Guicci- ard'ini and Machiavelli. Davis, John ; an EngUsh navigator, born at Sandridge, in Devonshire. He went to sea when young, and, in 1585, was sent with two vessels to discover a north-west passage. He was unable to land on the southerly cape of Greenland, on account of the ice, and, steering a north-west course, discovered a country surrounded with green islands, lat.640157, the inhabitants of Avhich informed him that there Avas a great sea to the north and west. Under lat. 66° 407, he reached a coast entirely free from ice, the most southerly point of which he called cape of GoeVs Mercy. Sailing west, he entered a strait, from 20 to 30 leagues wide, where he expected to find the passage; but, the Aveather being unfavorable, and the wind contrary, after six days of unsuc- cessful effort, he set sail for England. The strait has since received and retained his name. Davis made two more voyages for the same purpose, but was prevented by the ice from attaining his object, in the prosecution of which Baffin after- wards distinguished himself. In 1605, Da- a is was killed by Japanese pirates in the Indian seas. Davis's Straits ; a narrow sea which divides Greenland from New Britain, and unites Baffin's bay with the Atlantic ocean; lat. 63°—70° N. In the narrowest part, between cape Dyer and the island called White-Back, it is 80 leagues wide. (See Davis.) Davit, in a ship; a long beam of tim- ber, used as a crane, whereby to hoist the flukes of the anchor to the top of the bow, without injuring the sides of the A'essel as it ascends—an operation which is called, by mariners, fishing the anchor. Davoust, Louis Nicolas; duke of Auer- stadt and prince of Eckmfihl, marshal and peer of France; born in 1770, at An- noux, in the former province of Burgundy. DAVOUST—DAVY. 133 He was of a noble family, and studied at the same time with Bonaparte, in the military school at Brienne. He distin- guished himself under Dumouriez, in the battles of Jemappe and Neerwinden. When Dumouriez, after the battle of NeerAvinden, treated with Coburg, Da- voust conceived the bold design of seizing the former in the midst of his army, and nearly succeeded in the attempt. In June, 1793, he was made general; but the de- cree, which removed the ex-nobles from the service, deprived him of his command. The 9th Thermidor restored him to the army. He was present at the siege of Luxembourg, and afterwards on the Rhine, under Pichegru. He was taken prisoner in Manheim, but was soon ex- changed, and distinguished himself in 1797, at the passage of the Rhine, by his prudence and courage. In the Italian campaigns, under Bonaparte, he became zealously attached to that general. He accompanied him to Egypt, where he dis- tinguished himself by his intrepidity. It was he Avho, after the battle of Aboukir, attacked and conquered the village. He embarked for France from Alexandria, with Desaix, after the convention of El- Arish. They Avere captured by an Eng- lish frigate, near the Ilieres. Bonaparte afterwards gave him the chief command of the cavalry in the army of Italy. After the battle of Marengo, he was made chief of the grenadiers of the consular guard, which, from this battle, was called the granite columns. When Napoleon ascend- ed the throne (1804), he created Davoust marshal of the empire, grand cross of the legion of honor, and colonel-general of the imperial guard of grenadiers. In the campaign of 1805, he showed himself worthy of his appointment, particularly at the battle of Austerlitz, where he com- manded the right wing of the army. In 1806, he marched at the head of his corps into Saxony, and, at Auerstadt, where he commanded the right wing, contributed so much to the success of the day, by his skilful manoeuvres, that Napoleon created him duke of Auerstadt. After the peace of Tilsit, he was made commander-in- chief of the army of the Rhine. In the war of 1809 against Austria, his marches through the Upper Palatinate, and the en- gagement at Ratisbon, were hazardous enterprises. He had an important share in the victory at Eckmiihl. In the battle of Aspern, only one of his four divisions was engaged, the greatest part of which, with its general, St Hilaire, perished on the left bank of the Danube. In the battle VOL. iv. 12 of Wagram, Davoust commanded the right wing, to the manoeuvres of which the retreat of the Austrians Avas mainly owing. After the peace, Napoleon cre- ated him prince of Eckmiihl, and, in 1811, appointed him governor-general of the Hanseatic departments. In Russia (1812), his division was defeated on the retreat from Moscow. In 1813, he com- manded 50,000 men, French and Danes, in Mecklenburg ; but Avas soon besieged in Hamburg, which suffered, at tiiat time, very severely. Davoust was in a critical situation, and could support his army only at the expense of the citizens. He lost, during the siege, as many as 11,000 men. In 1814, he published, at Paris, a defence of himself from the charge of cruelty towards Hamburg. On die return of Na- poleon to Paris, in March, 1815, he was made minister of war. When the allies advanced to Paris, after the battle of Wa- terloo, Davoust, as commander-in-chief, concluded a military convention with Blucher and Wellington, in compliance with Avhich he led the French army be- yond the Loire. He submitted to Louis XVIII, exhorting the army to follow his example, and, in obedience to an order of the king, surrendered the command to marshal Macdonald. For this service, he was afterwards employed by the court. Davoust died June 1, 1823. Firmness of character, personal bravery, and a military rigor often approaching to cruelty, were his characteristics. Davoust left two daughters, and a son of 30 years of age, who inherited die rank of a peer. Davy, sir Humphrey, bart, one of the most distinguished chemists of the age, Avas born at Penzance (Cornwall), Dec. 17,1779. After having received die rudi- ments of a classical education, he was placed with a surgeon and apothecary, who pronounced him an " idle and incor- rigible boy." He had, however, already distinguished himself at school, and a taste for chemistry, Avhich he displayed in some experiments on the air contained in sea-weed, attracted the attention of Mr. Gilbert (now president of die royal soci- ety), and doctor Beddoes. The latter, who had just established a pneumatical in- stitution at Bristol, offered him the place of assistant in his laboratory. Here Davy dis- covered the respirability and exhilarating effect of the nitrous oxide. He published the results of his experiments, under the title of Chemical and PhUosophical Re- searches, &c (London, 1800). This work immediately obtained him the place of professor of chemistry in the royal institu- 134 DAVY—DAY. tion, at the age of 22. In 1803, he was chosen a member of the royal society. His lectures at die royal institution were attended by croAvded and briUiant audi- ences, attracted by the novelty and variety of his experiments, die eloquence of his manner, and the clearness of his exposi- tion. His discoveries with die galvanic battery, his decomposition of the earths and alkalies, and ascertaining dieir metallic bases, his demonstration of the simple na- ture of the oxymuriatic acid (to which he gave the name of chlorine), &c, obtain- ed him an extensive reputation ; and, in 1810, he received the prize of the French institute. In 1814, he Avas elected a cor- responding member of that body. Hav- ing been elected professor of chemistry to die board of agriculture, he deUvered lec- tures on agiicultural chemistry during 10 successive years, and, in 1813, published his valuable Elements of Agricultural Chemistry. His next discoveiy Avas of no less importance to humanity than his for- mer researches had been valuable to sci- ence. The numerous accidents arising from fire-damp in mines led him to enter upon a series of experiments on the nature of the explosive gas, the result of which was the invention of his safety-lamp. (See Damps.) In 1818 and 1819, he visit- ed Italy, and made some unsuccessful attempts to unrol the Herculanean man- uscripts. In 1820, he succeeded sir J. Banks as president of the royal society. In 1824, he visited Norway for the pur- pose of making some scientific investi- gations. On this voyage, he proved the efficacy of his plan for preserving the copper of ships, by covering it in part with a certain quantity of iron. At the same time, the trigonometrical measurements of Denmark and Hanover were connected, under his direction, by chronometrical ob- servations, Avith die measurements in England. This distinguished plrilosopher died May 29,1829, at Geneva, whither he had gone for the benefit of his health. Be- sides the Avorks already mentioned, the most important are Electro-Chemical Research- es; Elements of Chemical Philosophy (vol. 1,1802); Bakerian Lectures (1807—1811); Researches on die Oxymuriatic Acid (1810); On the Fire-Damp (1816). He also contributed some valuable papers to die Philosophical Transactions, and the journals of Nicholson and Tilloch. Day, properly speaking, is the time of a revolution of the earth round its axis (si- dereal day, see Sidereal Time), or the time between two passages of the centre of the sun through the same meridian (solar day, see Solar Time)—& time a Uttle differing from the one first mentioned. In common parlance, day is opposed to night, and sig- nifies the time between sunrise and sun- set or die time during which the sun remains above the horizon. This is called the natural day. Thus we have three dif- ferent days—the natural, the astronomical (reckoned from one culmination to anoth- er, or from one noon to another), and the civil day (which is reckoned from mid- night to midnight). The 24 hours of* the astronomical day are numbered in succes- sion from 1 to 24, whilst the civU day, in most countries, is divided into tAVO por- tions, of 12 hours each.* The first hour, dierefore, after midnight, which is one o'clock A. M. of the civil day, makes the 13th hour of the astronomical day, and die first hour of the astronomical day is one o'clock, P. M. of the civil day. The abbreviations P. M. and A. M. (the first signifying post meridiem, Latin for after- noon ; the latter, ante meridiem, forenoon) are requisite, in consequence of our division of the day into two periods of 12 hours each. In this respect, the mode of num- bering the hours from 1 to 24 consecutive- ly has an advantage. If we take a day ac- cording to the first definition given of it, its length, of course, is the same throughout the year. According to the second defini- tion, however, the day, in consequence of the different rapidity of the earth in its orbit, is different at different times, and this difference is uniform throughout the earth ; but the time of the natural day is different at the different points of the earth, accord- ing to their distance from the equator. The daily apparent revolution of the sun takes place in circles parallel to the equator. If the equator and ecliptic coincided, the circle bounding light and darkness would always divide, not merely the equator, but all its parallels, into two equal parts, and the days and nights would be equal in all the parallels through the year; but at the poles, there Avould be no night. Owing to the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit (the ecliptic), the parallel of latitude in which the sun appears to move is continually changing; and, there- fore, the equator alone (being a great cir- cle) always remains bisected by the circle * In Italy, the latter division is called the French mode, because the French introduced it into that country during the wars of the revolu- tion ; but the people in the south of Italy still ad- here to the old division of the day into 24 hours, beginning always at sunset; so that one o'clock is one hour after sunset, or, as the bells are tolled at sunset, to summon die people to prayer, one hour after Ave Maria, (q. v.) DAY—DEACON. 135 dividing Ught from darkness; so that the days and nights here are always equal; whUe the paraUels of latitude, not being great circles, are not equally divided by the circle separating Ught from dark- ness, except at the time of the equinox, when the sun is moving in the equa- tor ; and, of course, at this time only are the days and nights equal in those par- allels. As you approach the poles, the inequality between the days and nights becomes continually greater, till, at the poles themselves, a day of six months alternates Avith a night of equal duration. The most distant paraUel circles which the sun describes north and south from the equator are, as is avcII known, only 23£° from it The distance between the polar circles and the poles is the same. Therefore, as a little reflection will show, when the sun is in one of the tropics, all die polar circle in the same hemisphere will be within the illuminated region (be- cause it will be within 90° of the sun) during the whole of a diurnal revolution, while the other polar circle wiU be in the region of darkness. These circles, dierefore, have one day of 24 hours, and one night of the same length, in each year. From the polar circles to the poles, the time of the longest day increases fast, and, in the same measure, the length of the longest night Notwithstanding the inequality of the periods of light and darkness in the different parts of the earth, each portion of the earth's surface has the sun above its horizon, eveiy year, precisely six months, and below it the same length of time. (For information on the common way of computing time, see Solar Time; see also Sidereal Time.) Day, Thomas, an ingenious writer, of a benevolent, independent, but eccentric spirit, Avas born at London, in 1748. His father, who Avas a collector of the cus- toms, died whilst he Avas an infant, leav- ing him a considerable fortune. He was educated at the charter-house and at Ox- ford. In 1765, he was called to the bar. With a view to study mankind, he resid- ed in various parts of the continent, and, having been disappointed in an early af- fection, took under his protection two foundling girls, with a view of educating them on a principle of his own, in order to make one of them his wife. His plan, which was kindred in spirit to some of the reveries of Rousseau, utterly failed, al- though both of the females turned out de- serving women. He gave diem smaU portions, and eligibly united them to re- spectable tradesmen. In 1778, he mar- ried miss Esther Milnes, a lady of a highly cultivated understanding. His principles led him to renounce most of the indul- gences of a man of fortune, that he might bestow his superfluities upon those who wanted necessaries; and he also express- ed a great contempt for forms and artifi- cial restt-aint of all kinds. He wrote sev- eral pieces, in prose and verse, on the straggle Avith America, also other poUtical pamphlets of temporary interest, but final- ly dedicated himself to the composition of books for youth, of which the Avell-knoAvn work entitled Sandford and Merton is an able specimen, although it partakes too much of the theoretical spirit of Rousseau for general application. Mr. Day at length became a victim to his enthusiastic benev- olence, being kiUed by a fall from a young horse, which he would not allow to be trained in die usual manner, Sept. 23, 1789. Days of Grace are days allowed for die payment of a promissory note or bill of exchange after it becomes due. Tho time varies in different countries. (See Bill of Excliangc.) Deacon (diaconus, from the Greek ha- kovos) ; a person who belongs to the infe- rior order of ministers in the Christian church. Seven Avere first instituted by the apostles (Acts, chap, vi), Avhich num- ber was retained a long time in several churches. Then- duty was to serve in the agapce (q. v.), to distribute the bread and wine to the communicants, and to dis- pense alms. The oflice of the deacons, at first, merely concerned tilings temporal. Soon after the apostoUc age, or perhaps sooner, the deacons were admitted to as- sist in die inferior parts of the church service.—Deacon, in the Roman Catholic church, is an inferior ecclesiastic, the sec- ond of the sacred orders. He serves at the altar, in the celebration of the holy mysteries. He is also allowed to. baptize and to preach Avith the permission of die bishop. Fonnerly, deacons Avere allowed to marry, but this Avas prolribited to them very early; and at present the pope dis- penses with this prohibition only for very important reasons. In such cases, they re-enter the condition of laymen. There are 18 cardinal-deacons, so called, in Rome Avho have the charge of die temporal in- terests and the revenues of the church A person, to be consecrated deacon must- be 23 years old.—In the English church deacons are also ecclesiastics, Avho can' perform all the offices of a priest exceot the consecration of the elements of the Lord s supper, and the pronouncing of ab- 136 DEACON—DEAD SEA. solution. In this church, also, no person can be ordained deacon before he is 23 years old, except by dispensation from the archbishop of Canterbury.—The office of deacons, m Presbyterian and Independ- ent churches, is to distribute the bread and wine to communicants. In the latter, they are elected by the members of the church. In Scotland, this name is given to overseers of die poor and masters of in- corporated companies. In German Prot- estant churches, the assistant ministers are generally caUed deacons. If there are tAvo assistant ministers, the first of them is caUed archdeacon. Deaconess. Tliis name was given to women, in the early church, who conse- crated themselves to the service of the church, and rendered those offices to fe- males which could not be decently per- formed by men. They also had the care of the poor, the sick, &c. Dead-Eye, or Dead Man's Eye ; a sort of round, flatfish, wooden block, encircled with a rope, or with an iron band, and pierced with three holes through the flat fiart, in order to receive a rope called the aniard, which, corresponding with three holes in another dead-eye, creates a pur- chase, employed for various uses, but clriefly to extend the shrouds and stays, otherwise called the standing rigging. Dead Reckoning; the judgment or es- timation Avhich is made of the place where a ship is situated, without any ob- servation of* the heavenly bodies. It is obtained by keeping an account of the distance Avhich the ship has ran by the log, and of her course steered by the com- pass, and by rectifying these data by the usual allowances for drift, lee-way, &c, according to the ship's known trim. This reckoning is, however, always to be cor- rected as often as any good observation of the sun can be obtained. Dead Ropes are those which do not run in any block. Dead Sea, or Asphaltites, i. e. .the lake of Bitumen; anciently called, also, the sea of Sodom, Salt sea, and lake Sirbon, and now, by the Arabs, Bahheret-Lut, i. e. the sea of Lot; a lake in Palestine, about 60 or 70 miles long from N. to S., and 10 or 15 AAide ; according to Mariti, 180 miles in circuit; but its dimensions are stated with considerable diversity. It is border- ed on the E. by lofty hills, having ragged and frightful precipices; on the N. by the plain of Jericho, through which it re- ceives the river Jordan. Other streams flow into it; but it has no visible outlet. Copious evaporation, caused by the sub- terraneous heat, supplies die place of one. The water is clear and limpid, uncom- monly salt and even bitter, and of greater specific gravity than any other hitherto discovered. The proportion of the weight of the salts held in solution to die Avhole Aveight of the water varies, according to different experiments by chemical analy- sis, from 25 to nearly 50 per cent. This very great portion of saline matter explains the difficulty of diving in this lake, and the sluggish motion of the waves, comparatively undisturbed by the Avind. From the depths of the lake.rises asphaltum or mineral pitch, or, as the Germans call it, Jew pitch, which is melt- ed by the heat of the bottom of the lake, and again condensed by the Avater, and of which Seetzen tells us that there are pieces large enough for camel loads. Ac- cording to the same traveller, it is porous, and is thrown out only in stormy weather. There is also another kind of pitch, dug on the shore, where it is found mixed with small pieces of salt, pebbles and earth. It is used, purified, for the anti- dote called theriaca. The whole northern shore of die lake appears to be covered with this substance, called anotanon. As- phaltum is used for theriaca, for embalm- ing, calking, sculpture, and the coloring of wool, and therefore is an important ar- ticle of commerce. The limestone im- pregnated with bitumen, and in which the inflammable substance is so concealed, that it can be brought out only by rubbing, can be heated so as to glow like a coal without being consumed, and has been used for amulets since ancient times. A great part of those found in the catacombs at Sakkarah are made of this substance; and large quantities of rosaries are yearly prepared from it in Jerusalem. Accord- ing to the Scriptures, the beautiful valley of Siddim, with Sodom, Gomorrah, and other places, were buried here by a vol- canic eruption. The immediate vicinity is destitute of vegetation, dull, cheerless, and inanimate ; hence, probably, its name of Dead sea. Among the absurd fables formerly circulated respecting this sea, it was affirmed, that the pestiferous vapors hovering over it were fatal to birds at- tempting to fly across. But this is con- tradicted by various recent travellers. Clarke says, " the lake swarms with fishes, shells abound on its sheres, and its exhalations are most insalubrious." Madden, however, who visited it in 1827, says, " the waters appeared to him to contain no fish." He also says, " the sa- line matter in the lake is 19.25 per cent." DEAF AND DUMB—DEATH. 137 Deaf and Dumb. (See Dumb.) Deal. (See Pine.) Dean ; a corruption from decanus, Latin, from decern, ten, because a decanus com- manded ten men, as the centurio did a hundred. This Avord, hoAvever, has ac- quired a much more extended meaning. Dean is, in England, a dignitary in nio^t cathedral and collegiate churches, being usually the president of the chapter. He is called so because supposed to preside over ten canons or prebendaries at least. Dean is also a title given in England to several heads of peculiar churches or chapters, as, the dean of the king's chapel. Deans of colleges are, in English univer- sities, officers appointed to superintend the behavior of the members, and to en- force discipUne.—Rural deans, or urban deans, Avere, in the early ages of the church, ecclesiastics who presided over ten churches or parishes, either in the coun- try or city within Avhich they exercised jurisdiction.—The Frencli corruption of decanus is doyen, and has no ecclesiastical meaning. Doyen d'dge is die eldest of a society. In die chamber of deputies, the doyen d'age presides until the cham- ber is regularly organized. In the acade- my of sciences, there are doyens in the different divisions.—In Germany, the head of each of the faculties of laAv, theology, medicine and philosophy, in the univer- sities, is caUed decanus, and is changed, like die rector of the university, annually. Death, in common language, is oppos- ed to life, and considered as the cessation of it. It is only, however, the organic life of the individual which becomes extinct; for neither the mind nor the matter which constituted tiiat individual can perish. That view of nature which considers the whole as pervaded throughout by the breath of Ufe, admits only of changes from one mode of existence to another. This change, which is called death, does not take place so quickly as is generaUy believed. It. is usually preceded and caused by disease or the natural decay of old age. The state called death takes place suddenly only when the heart or the brain is injured in certain parts. Prob- ably the brain and the heart are the parts from which, properly speaking, death pro- ceeds ; but, as die cessation of their func- tions is not so obvious as the cessation of the breath, which depends on them, the latter event is generally considered as indicating the moment when death takes place. In the organs of sense and mo- tion, the consequences of death first be- come apparent; the muscles become stiff; coldness and paleness spread over the Avhole body ; the eye loses its bright- ness, the flesh its elasticity; yet it is not perfectly safe to conclude, from these cir- cumstances, that death has taken place, in any given case, because experience shows that there may be a state of the body in which all these circumstances may con- cur, Avithout the extinction of life. This state is called asphyxia, (q. v.) The com- mencement of putrefaction, in ordinary cases, affords the first certain evidence of death. This begins in the bowels and genitals, which swell, become soft and loose, and change color; the skin, also, begins to change, and becomes red in various places; bUsters show themselves; the blood becomes more fluid, and dis- charges itself from the mouth, nose, eyes, ears and anus. By degrees, also, the other parts are decomposed, and, last of all, die teeth and bones. In the begin- ning of decomposition, azote and ammo- nia are produced: in the progress of it hydrogen, compounded with carbon, sul- phur and phosphorus, is the prevailing product, which causes an offensive smell, and the Ught which is sometimes ob- served about putrefying bodies. At last only carbonic acid gas is produced, and the putrefying body then smells like earth newly dug. A fat greasy earth remains, and a slimy, soap-like substance, which mixes with the ground, and contributes, with the preceding decompositions, to the fertility of it. Even in these remains of organized existence, organic life is not entirely extinct; and diey contribute to produce new vegetable and animal struc- tures. Putrefaction is much influenced by external circumstances, particularly air, heat, and Avater. When the body is pro- tected from the action of such agents, it changes into adipodre (q. v.); but this process requires a much longer time than common putrefaction. In very dry situa- tions, the body is conA'erted into a mum- my, in which state bodies are found in the arid deserts of Africa, and on the moun- tains in Peru. Some vaults are remark- able for preserving corpses from putrefac- tion. It is well known to every reader, that particular substances counteract pu- trefaction ; for uistance, those used in tan- ning, and in embalming mummies. Death, Agony of, is the state which im- mediately precedes death, and in which Ufe and death are considered as strag- gling Avith each other. This state differs according to the cause producing it. Sometimes it is a complete exhaustion; sometimes a violent struggle, and very ir« 138 DEATH—DEATH, CrVIL. regular activity, which, at last, after a short pause, terminates in death. In some cases, consciousness is extinguished long before death arrives; in other cases, it continues during the whole period, and terminates only with Ufe. The person in this condition has already somewhat the appearance of a corpse ; the face is pale and sallow, the eyes are sunken, the skin of the forehead is tense, the nose pointed and white, the ears are relaxed, and the temples fallen in ; a clammy sweat cov- ers the forehead and the extremities, the alvine discharges and that of the urine take place involuntarily, the respiration becomes rattling, interrupted, and, at length, ceases entirely. At this moment, death is considered to take place. This state is of very different length; some- times continuing for minutes only, some- times for days. When the patient is in this condition, nothing should be attempt- ed but to comfort and soothe him by prayer, by consoling assurances, by direct- ing his attention to his speedy union Avith departed friends, by presenting him the crucifix, if he be a Catholic, or allowing him to put on the gown of a religious or- der, if he thinks it will contribute to his salvation; but a dying fellow creature should not be disturbed in relation to his particular mode of belief, at a moment when he has hardly sufficient strength to collect all the ideas which have been long familiar to him. The writer once saw a dying Mohammedan (an Albanian) suffer- ing from the mistimed zeal of a Greek priest, who was near him, holding a cruci- fix to his mouth, and conjuring him to kiss it. The Mohammedan was evidently tormented, particularly as he Avas unable to resist The writer begged the priest to leave him, and then tried to comfort the dying man, by presenting ideas and con- ceptions with which he Avas fanriUar, and a smile from his pale lips showed that the words were not entirely in vain. Re- markable statements are sometimes made by dying persons, in the intervals of the final struggle, that they have heard heav- enly music, or seen departed friends, and can now die quietly. As long as the dying person is able to swaUow, wine or other cordials may be given from time to time. It is a grateful duty to minister to the sufferings of those Ave love ; and, where there is no hope, these offices have the ad- ditional interest that they are the latest we can pay. We have described how the violent straggle preceding death mani- fests itself, particularly on the human face, that tablet of all expression. After death, however, it not unfrequendy hap- pens that the countenance regains its most natural expression, and the saying is com- mon—" How natural, how like himself!" The mind seems for a moment to have regained its influence over Avhat it has so long informed, and to shed over the countenance its most beautiful light, to cheer the hearts of the friends who have witnessed the distortion of death, and af- ford an earnest of its own immortality. Death, civil, is the entire loss of civil rights. If a person is civilly dead, his maniage is considered dissolved; he can- not inherit nor bequeath ; his testament is opened, and his property distributed among his heirs ; he cannot bear witness, &c. If he is required to do certain legal acts, he must do them through a guardian. Fonnerly, when the German empire was still in existence, a person put under the ban of the empire (Achtserklarung) became civilly dead, and was declared out of the protection of the law (corresponding, in a civil point of view, to Catholic excommu- nication, in regard to a man's religious rights). The ban Avent so far as to de- clare the outlaAv vogelfrei (free as a bird), which meant that any body might even kill him, without notice being taken of it by law. But civil death was not received into the German law in other respects, and therefore, has not existed since the abo- lition of the empire. Most countries allow a person sentenced to death to make a will, except in particular cases, in which confis- cation is part of the punishment In France, however, the institution of civil death still exists (Code Napolion, a. 22 ; Code Penal, a 18), and takes effect in the case of eveiy one who is sentenced to death, to the gal- leys for life (travaux fords), or to deporta- tion, even if the person is convicted in contumacia, that is, in default of appear- ance on a legal summons. In England, a person outlawed (see Outlawry) on an in- dictment for treason or felony, is consid- ered to be civiUy dead (dvilker mortuus), being, in such case, considered to be guilty of the offence with Avhich he is charged, as much as if a verdict had been found against him. Anciently, an out- lawed felon Avas said to have a wolf's head (caput lupinum), and might be knock- ed on the head by any one that should meet him. The outlawry was decreed, in case the accused did not appear, on being summoned with certain fonns, a certain number of times, and in different counties, to appear and answer to the indictment; so that the case is the same as the French laws denominate contumacy. DEATH, CIVIL—DEATH, IN MYTHOLOGY. 139 In such case, under an indictment for crimes of either of these descriptions, he was considered as having renounced all law, and was to be dealt with as in a state of nature, when every one who found him might slay him. But, in modem times, it has been held that no man is entitled to kill him wantonly and wilfully, but in so doing is guilty of murder, unless it be in endeavoring to apprehend him; for any one may arrest him, on a criminal prosecution, " either of his oavh head," or on writ or warrant, in order to bring him to execution. So a person banished the realm or transported for life, as a punish- ment for crime, forfeits all his civil rights as much as if he were dead. His wife may marry again, and his estate will be administered upon as if he were deceased. A will made by such a person, after incur- ling this civil disabiUty, is void ; and so are aU acts done by him in the exercise of any civil right—The statutes of New York provide that a convict sentenced to the state's prison for Ufe shaU be considered as thereby becoming civilly dead. All suits to which he is a party will, accord- ingly, abate, as in case of his natural decease (2 Johns. Ca. 408), and his wife may marry again, his estate be adminis- tered upon, and his heirs will succeed to the inheritance; and, though he may be afterwards pardoned, this will not defeat the proceedings which took place during his civil disabiUty (4 Johnson's Reports, 232). The statutes passed in some of the United States against conspirators and absentees, at the commencement of the revolution, stripped them of all civil rights, and provided that their estates should be confiscated, or partly confiscated, to die state, and in part appUed to the support of dependent relatives, or assigned to the wife as dower. These statutes were of a temporary and occasional character, and their operation has ceased with the occa- sion Avhich gave rise to them. Death, in mythology. The representa- tion of death, among nations in their ear- Uer stages, depends upon the ideas which they form of the state of man after this life, and of the disposition of their gods towards mankind. In this respect, the study of these representations is very in- teresting-. Of later ages the same cannot be said,°because imitations of representa- tions previously adopted are very often the subjects of the plastic arts in such pe- riods. However, these representations do not altogether depend on die causes above mentioned, as the general disposition of a nation (for instance, that of the Greeks, who beautified every object) has also a great influence upon them; and it is re- markable that the Greeks, whose concep- tions of an after-Ufe were so gloomy, rep- resented death as a pleasing, gentle being, a beautiful youth, whilst the Christians, whose religion teaches them to consider death as a release from bondage, a change from misery to happiness, give him the most frightful, and even disgusting shape. One reason of this may be, that the call to repentance is a prominent feature in the Christian religion ; and to ami death with terrors may have been supposed to give weight to the summons. The Greeks had many gods of death, the KTipts and Oavaroi; the former Avere the goddesses of fate, like the Valkyriae in the Northern mythology. Untimely deaths, in particular, were ascribed to them ; the latter, davaroi, represented natural death. According to Homer, Sleep and Death are twins, and Hesiod calls them the sons of Night. They are often portrayed together on cameos, &c. During the most flour- ishing period of the arts, Death was repre- sented on tombs as a friendly genius, with an inverted torch, and holding a wreath in his hand ; or as a sleeping child, winged, with an inverted torch resting on his wreath. Sleep Avas represented in the same manner, except that the torch and the wreath were omitted. According to an idea originating in the East, death in the bloom of youth was attributed to the attachment of some particular deity, who snatched his favorite to a better Avoiid. It was ascribed, for instance, to Jupiter, or to his eagle, if the death was occasioned by Ughtning, as in the case of Ganymede; to the nymphs, if the individual was drowned, as in the case of Ilylas; to' Au- rora, if the death happened in the morn- ing ; to Selene, if at night (Cephalus and Endymion), &c. These representations Avere more adapted to relieve the minds of surviving friends, than the pictures of horror drawn by later poets and artists. (See the classical treatises, of Lessing, Sdmmtl. Schriflen, vol. 10, and Herder's Wie die Alten den Tod gebildet.) Euripides, in his Alcestis, even introduced Death on the stage, in a black robe, with a steel instrument in his hand, to cut off the hair of hisAictims,and thus devote them to the infernal gods. The later Roman poets rep- resent Death under more honible forms, gnashing his teeth, and marking his vic- tims widi bloody nails, a monster over- shadowing whole fields of battle. The Hebrews, likewise, had a fearful angel of death, called Samail, and prince of the 140 DEATH, IN MYTHOLOGY—DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. world, and coinciding with the deAril; but he removes with a kiss those who die in early youth. Enoch Avas taken up to heaven alive. The disgusting representa- tions of Death common among Christians, originated in the 14th centuiy; for the representation of Death as a skeleton merely covered with skin, on the monu- ment at Cuma?, was only an exception to die figure commonly ascribed to him among the ancients. In recent times, Death has again been represented as a beautiful youth—certainly a more Christian image than the skeleton Avith the sithe. The monument made by Canova, which George IV erected in honor of the Stuarts, in St. Peter's church at Rome, represents Death as a beautiful youth. He is some- times portrayed under the figure of a dying lion. Death, Dance of ; an allegorical pic- ture, in whieh are represented the various figures and appearances of death in the different relations of Ufe, as a dance where Death takes the lead. The idea of such a dance appears to be originally Ger- man, and to belong to poetiy. Tn later times, it was used, also, in England and France, by poets and artists. The French have such a daner—La Danse Macabre— derived, it is said, from a poet called Mac- aber, but little known. A dance of Death was painted on the Avails of the church- yard of the Innocents, at Paris, about the middle of the ' 15th centuiy, Avhich the chapter of St Paul's, in London, caused to be copied, to adorn the Avails of its monas- tery. Gabriel Peignot, in the Recherckes sur les Danses des Moils et sur VOrigine des Cades ajouer (Dijon and Paris, 1826), investigated the origin of the dance of Death in France, and thus explained the dancing positions of die skeletons; that, according to the relations of old chronicles, diose avIio were attacked by the plague ran from their houses, making violent efforts to restore their rapidly-declining strength by all kinds of morbid move- ments. Others derivethe origin ofthisrep- resentation from the masquerade. These dances are often found painted on the walls of Catholic burial-places. The most re- markable dance of Death was painted, in fresco, on the AvaUs of the church-yard, in the suburb of St. John, at Basle, which was injured, in early times, by being washed over, and is now entirely de- stroyed. This piece has been ascribed to the celebrated Hans Holbein; but it has long since been proA-ed that it existed 60 years before his birth. It Avas painted at Basle, in the year 1431, by an unknown artist in commemoration of the plague, which prevailed there at that time; the council Avas then sitting, and several of its members were canied off by it It repre- sented Death as summoning to the dance persons of aU ranks, from the pope and the emperor down to the beggar, which Avas explained by edifying rhymes. That piece contained about 60 figures as large as life. Besides being ascribed to Hol- bein, as was before stated, it has also been ascribed to a painter named Glauber, but without foundation. Holbein perhajis conceived, from this picture, the idea of his dance of Death, the original drawings of which are in the cabinet of the empress of Russia, Catharine II. Some say that Holbein himself made the wood-cuts of it The latest engravings of this picture of Holbein are in 33 plates, in the (Euvres de Jean Holbein, par Chr. de Meckel (1st vol- ume, Basil, 1780). Similar representa- tions were painted, in the 15th centuiy, in other cities of Switzerland. (See Midler's Geschichte der Schwdzer—History of Swit- zerland—4 vols.) The dance of Death in St. Maiy's church at Liibeck, was complet- ed in 1463. On the walls of the church- yard of the Neustiidt of Dresden, there is, even at the present time, to be seen a similar dance of Death. It consists of 27 basso-relievo figures, Avorked on sand-stone, and includes persons of both sexes, and of all ranks. The labor of the sculptor lias more merit than the unpoetical rhymes which were aftenvards added. (See Fio- rillo's Geschichte der zeichnenden Kiinste in Deutscldand und den Niederlanden, 4 vol- umes.) Death, Punishment of. The ques- tions most commonly discussed by philos- ophers and jurists under this head are, 1. as to the right of governments to inflict the punishment of death; 2. as to the expediency of such punishment; 3. as to the crimes to which, if any, it may be most properly confined and Umited; 4. as to the manner in Avhich it should be inflicted. A few words wiU be said on each of these points. 1. As to the right of inflicting the pun- ishment of death. This has been doubted by some distinguished persons; and the doubt is often the accompaniment of a highly cultivated mind, inclined to the indulgence of a romantic sensibility, and beUeving in human perfectibility. The right of society to punish offences against its safety and good order wiU scarcely be doubted by any considerate person. In a state of nature, individuals have a right to guard themselves from injury, and to DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. 141 repel all aggressions by a force or precaution adequate to the object. This results from the right of self-preservation. If a person attempts to take away my life, I have, doubtless, a right to protect myself against the attempt by all reasonable means. If I cannot secure myself but by taking the life of the assailant I have a right to take it It Avould otherwise follow, that I must submit to a wrong, and lose my life, rather than preserve it by the means adequate to maintain it It cannot, then, be denied that "i a state of nature, men may repel force by force, and may even justly take away Ufe, if necessaiy to pre- serve their own. When men enter socie- ty, the right to protect themselves from injury and to redress wrongs is transfer- red, generally, from the individuals to the community. We say that it is generally so, because it must be obvious that, in many cases, the natural right of self-de- fence must remain. If a robber attacks one on the highway, or attempts to mur- der him, it is clear that he has a right to repel the assault, and to take the life of the assailant, if necessary for his safety; since society, in such a case, could not afford him any adequate and prompt redress. The necessity of instant refief, and of instant application of force, justifies the act and is recognised in all civilized com- munities. When the right of society is once admitted to punish for offences, it seems difficult to assign any limits to the exercise of that right, short of what the exigencies of society require. If a state have a right to protect itself and its citizens in the enjoyment of its privileges and its peace, it must have a right to apply means adequate to this object The object of human punishments is, or may be, three- fold ; first, to reform the offender; sec- ondly, to deter others from offending; and, lastly, to secure the safety of the com- munity, by depriving the offender of the power of doing mischief. The first consideration rarely enters into human legislation, because of the inadequacy of our means to produce great moral results by the infliction of punishment. The two latter considerations enter largely in- to the theory and practice of legislation. Who is to be the judge, in such cases, what is the adequate punishment for any offence? Certainly, punishments ought not to be inflicted, which are utterly dis- proportionate to the offence, and beyond the exigencies of society. No govern- ment has a right to punish cruelly and wantonly, and from mere revenge; but, still, the discretion must be vested some- where, to say what shall be the degree of punishment to be assigned to a particular offence. That discretion must be, from its nature, jusdy a part of the legislative poAver, and to be exercised according to the actual state of society. It may, nay, it must be differently exercised in different ages, and in different countries; for the same punishment which, in one age or country, may be sufficient to suppress an offence, or render it comparatively harm- less, may, in another age or country, wholly fail of the effect. If mild punish- ments fail of effect more severe must be resorted to, if the offence be of a namre which affects society in its vital principles, or safety, or interests. The very frequen- cy of a crime must often furnish a very strong ground for severe punishment, not only as it furnishes proof that the present punishment is insufficient to deter men from committing it, but from the increas- ed necessity of protecting society against dangerous crimes. But it is often said, that life is the gift of God, and therefore it cannot justly be taken away, either by the party himself, or another. If he can- not take it away, he cannot confer that power on others. But the fallacy of this argument is obvious. Life is no more tho gift of God than other- personal endow- ments or rights. A man has, by the gift of God, a right to personal liberty and locomo- tion, as well as to life; to eat and drink and breathe at large, as well as to exist; yet no one doubts that, by way of punish- ment, he may be confined in a solitary cell; that he may be perpetually impris- oned or deprived of free air, or compelled to live on bread and water. In short, no one doubts that he may be restrained in the exercise of any privileges or natural rights short of taking his Ufe. Yet the reasoning, if worth any thing, extends to all these cases in an equal degree. If, by his crimes, a man may justly forfeit his personal rights, why not his life ? But we have seen that it is not true, even in a state of nature, that a man's Ufe may not be taken away by another, if the necessity of the case requires it. Why, dien, may not society do the same, if its own safety requires it ? Is the safety of one person more important than the safety of the whole community ? Then, again, as to a man's inabiUty to confer on others a right which he does not himself possess. Sup- pose it is so; the consequence Avhich is deduced from this does not m fact> arise. Blackstone, indeed, in his Commentaries (4 Comment. 8), seems to deduce the right of society to punish capital offences, in 142 DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. certain cases (that is, in cases of ■mala pro- hUnta, and not mala in se), from the con- sent of the offenders. The marquis Bec- caria, on the other hand, denies that any such consent can confer the right and therefore objects to its existence. But the notion of consent is, in nearly all cases, a mere theoiy, having no foundation in fact. If a foreigner comes into a country, and commits a crime at his first entrance, it is a very forced construction to say that he consents to be bound by its laws. If a pirate commits piracy, it is almost absurd to say that he consents to the right of all nations to punish him for it The true and rational ground on which the right rests, is not the consent of the offender, but the right of every society to protect its own peace, and interests, and property, and institutions, and the utter Avant of any right in other persons, to disturb, or de- stroy, or subtract them. The right flows, not from consent, but from the legitimate institution of society. If men have a right to form a society for mutual benefit and security, they have a right to punish other persons Avho would overtliroAV it. There are many cases where a state authorizes Ufe to be taken aAvay, the laAvfulness of which is not doubted. No reasonable man doubts the right of a nation, in a just war, especially of self-defence, to repel force by force, and to take away die Uves of its enemies. And this right is not con- fined to repeUing present force, but it extends to precautionary measures, which are necessary for the ultimate safety of the nation. In such a war, a nation may justly insist upon the sacrifice of the Uves of its own citizens, however innocent, for the purpose of ensuring its own safety. Accordingly, we find that aU nations enrol miUtia and employ troops for war, and require them to hazard their lives for the Preservation of the state. In these cases, fe is freely sacrificed by the nation; and the laws enacted for such purposes are deemed just exercises of power. If so, why may not life be taken aAvay by way of punishment if the safety of society requires it? if a nation may authorize, in Avar, the destruction of thousands, why may it not authorize the destruction of a single Ufe, if self-preservation require it ? The mistake, however, is in supposing that Ufe cannot be taken aAvay without the consent of the party. If the foregoing reasoning is correct such consent is neither supposed nor necessary. In truth, the supposition of an original compact between aU the persons who are subject to the regulations of a society, by their own free consent, as the necessary and proper basis on Avhich aU the rights of such society depend, is, at best, a gratu- itous supposition; and it sometimes leads to very incorrect results. It may be added, that the Scriptures most clearly recognize and justify the infliction of capital punish- ments in certain cases. 2. As to the expediency of capital pun- ishment This opens a wide field for discussion. Some able men, who do not doubt the right, do still deny the expedi- ency of inflicting it. It may be admitted, that a wise legislature ought to be slow in affixing such a punishment to any but very enormous and dangerous crimes. The frequency of a crime is not, of itself, a sufficient reason for resorting to such a punishment It should be a crime of great atrocity and danger to society, and which cannot otherwise be effectuaUy guarded against. In affixing punishments to any offence, we should consider Avhat are the objects and ends of punishment It is clear that capital punishment can haAre no effect to reform the offender himself It may haAre, and ordinarily does have, the effect to deter others from committing a like offence ; but, still, human experience shows that even this punishment, Avhen inflicted for small offences, which are easily perpetrated, and to which there is great temptation, does not always operate as an effectual tenor. Men sometimes are hardened by the frequent spectacles of capital punishments, and groAV indiffer- ent to them. Familiarity deprives them of their honor. The bloodiest codes are not those which have most effectually suppressed offences. Besides, public opin- ion has great Aveight in producing the acquittal or condemnation of offenders. If a punishment be grossly disproportion- ate to the offence, if it shock human feelings, there arises, insensibly, a sympa- thy for the A'ictim, and a desire to screen him from punishment; so that, as far as certainty of punishment operates to deter from crimes, the object of the legislature is often thus defeated. It may be added, that a reasonable doubt may fairly be en- tertained, whether any society can laAV- fully exercise the power of punishing, be- yond what the just exigencies of that so- ciety require. On the other hand, a total abolition of capital punishments would, in some cases at least, expose society to the chances of deep and vital injuries. A man who has committed murder deliberately, has proved himself- unfit for society, and regardless of all the duties which belong to it In his case, the lex talionis can DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. 143 hardly be deemed unjust. The safety of society is most effectually guarded by cutting him off from the power of doing further mischief. If his life be not taken away, the only other means left are, con- finement for Ufe, or transportation and exile for life. Neither of these is a perfect security against the commission of other crimes, and may not always be within the power of a nation without great incomre- nience and great expense to itself. It is true that the latter punishments leave open the chance of reform to the offender, which is, indeed, but too often a mere delusion ; but, on the other hand, they greatly diminish the influence of another salutary principle, the deterring of odiers from committing Uke crimes. It seems to us, therefore, that it is difficult to maintain the proposition that capital punishments are, at all times and under all circum- stances, inexpedient It may rather be affirmed that in some cases, they are absolutely indispensable to the safety and good order of society. We should incUne to say that, as a general rule, every nation, in its legislation on this subject, must be governed very much by the manners, customs, habits of thinking, and state of opinion, among the people upon whom it is to operate. In a rude and barbarous state of society, summary and almost vin- dictive punishments seem more necessaiy than in a highly polished and civilized state of society. 3. As to the crimes to which capital punishments may, most properly, be lim- ited. From what has been already said, this must depend upon the particular cir- cumstances of every age and nation; and much must be left to the exercise of a sound discretion on the part of the legisla- ture. As a general rale, humanity forbids such punishments to be applied to any hut crimes of very great enormity, and danger to individuals or the state, if any crimes can be effectually suppressed by moderate means, these ought, certainly, to be first resorted to. The experience, however, of most nations, if we may judge from the nature and extent of their criminal legis- lation, seems to disprove the opinion so often indulged by philanthropists, that moderate punishments are sufficient to suppress crimes, and that capital punish- ments are rarely necessary. The codes of most civilized nations abound with capital punishments. That of Great Brit- ain, a nation in which the public legis- lation has a deep infusion of popular opinion, is thought to be uncommonly sanguinary. Blackstone, in his Commen- taries (vol. iv, 18), admits that, in his ,time, not less than one hundred and sicty crimes were, by the EngUsh law, punishable with death. In the code of the U. States, only nine crimes are so punishable, viz., treason, murder, arson, rape, robbery of the mail, fraudulent casting away ships, rescue of criminals capitaUy convicted during execu- tion, and piracy, one species of which is the African slave-trade. In the codes of the several states of the Union, still fewer crimes are generaUy punishable with death. It remains yet to be proved, whether the general mildness of our penal code has afforded us any greater security against crimes than exists in other na- tions. Hitherto, the temptations to com- mit them have been less here, than in other countries less abundantly and cheap- ly supplied with the necessaries of life. It is still a question, fit to exercise the solicitude and ingenuity of our statesmen and philanthropists, whether we can safely carry on so mild a system in a more cor- rupt and dense state of society. If we can, it must be by a very sparing use of the power of pardoning; so that the cer- tainty of absolute, unmitigated punishment shall foUow upon the offence. Beccaria, with his characteristic humanity and sa- gacity, has strongly urged that the certain- ty of punishment is more important to deter from crimes than the severity of it At present, there is great danger that the pardoning power, in our free fonns of government will, in a great measure, over- throw this salutary principle. Its exer- cise, therefore, ought to be watched with the greatest jealousy and care, lest the abuse of it should lead to die introduction either of absolute impunity for offences, or of more extensive capital punishments. It will probably be found, from the expe- rience of most nations, diat capital punish- ment ought not wholly to be dispensed with. On the other hand, it may be safely affirmed, that there is no positive neces- sity to apply it to a very large number of crimes. Treason, murder, arson, piracy, highway robbery, burglary, rape, and some other offences of great enormity, and of a kindred character, are not uncom- monly punished in this manner; but beyond these, it is extremely questionable whether there is any necessity or expedi- ency of applying so great a severity. Still however, as has been already intimated, much must depend upon the opinion and character of die age, and the prevailing habits of die people, and upon the sound exercise of legislative discretion. What may be deemed uselessly severe in one 144 DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. age or country, may be positively required by the circumstances of another age or country. 4. As to the manner of inflicting the punishment of death. This has been different in different countries, and in dif- ferent stages of civiUzation in the same countries. Barbarous nations are general- ly inclined to severe and Aindictive pun- ishments, and, where they punish Avith death, to aggravate it by prolonging the sufferings of the victim with ingenious deAices in cruelty. And even in civUized countries, in cases of a pofitical nature, or of very great atrocity, the punishment has been sometimes inflicted with many hor- rible accompaniments. Tearing the crim- inal to pieces, piercing his breast with a pointed pole, pinching to death with red- hot pincers, staning him to death, break- ing his lirnbs upon the wheel, pressing him to death in a slow and lingering manner, burning him at the stake, cruci- fixion, sawing him to pieces, quartering him alive, exposing him to be torn to pieces by wild beasts, and other savage punishments, have been sometimes resort- ed to for the purposes of vengeance, or public example, or public tenor. Coni- ared with these, the infliction of death y drowning, by snangling, by poisoning, by bleeding, by beheading, by shooting, by hanging, is a moderate punishment. In modem tiroes, the public opinion is strong- ly disposed to discountenance the pun- ishment of death by any but simple means; and the infliction of torture is almost uni- versally reprobated. Even in govern- ments where it is still countenanced by die laws, it is rarely resorted to ; and the sentence is remitted, by the policy of the prince, beyond die simple infliction of death. In Prussia, Avhere atrocious crim- inals are required, by the penal code, to be broken upon the wheel, the king always issues an order to the executioner to stran- gle the criminal (which is done by a small cord not easily seen) before his Umbs are broken. So, in the same country, AA-here larceny, attended with destruction of life, is punished by burning alive, the fagots are so ananged as to form a kind of cell, in which the criminal is suf- focated by the fumes of sulphur, or other means, before the flame can reach him. In England, in high treason, the criminal is sentenced to be drawn to the gallows, to be hanged by the neck, and cut down aUve, to have his entrails taken out and burned while he is yet aUve, to have his head cut off, and his body divided into four parts, and these to be at the king's disposal. But generally, aU the punish- ment is remitted by the crown, except the hanging and beheading; and when it is not, by connivance of the officers, die criminal is drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution, and is not disembowelled until actuaUy dead. In other cases, the punishment is now simply by hanging, or, in die miUtary and naA-al service, by shoot- ing. In France, formerly, the punishment of death was often inflicted by breaking the criminal on the wheel. (Damiens Avas torn to pieces by horses, after he had been tormented Avith red-hot pincers, and had suffered other honid tortures.) The usual punishment now is beheading by the guillotine. In cases of panicide, the crim- inal is conducted, barefooted, anil cov ered with a black veil, to the place of execu- tion, where his right hand is cut off just before he is beheaded. In Austria, the general mode of punishment is by hang- ing. In Prussia, hanging is rarely inflict- ed ; but the usual punishment is behead- ing Avith a heavy axe, the criminal's head being first tied to a block. In other Ger- man states, the uncertain mode of execu- tion by the SAVord still exists. Sand was executed in this manner. It should be remarked, however, that, in Germany, hanging has always been deemed tlie most infamous sort of punishment; and the sentence has often been commuted for beheading by the sword, as a milder mode of punishment In the U. States of Amer- ica, hanging is the universal mode of capital punishment; and, indeed, the con- stitution of the U. States contains a pro- vision, declaring that " cruel and unusual punishments shall not be inflicted." In China, murderers are cut to pieces; rob- bers, not. In Russia, the punishment of death has been frequently inflicted by the knout. In Turkey, strangling, and sewing the criminal up in a bag, and throwing him into the sea, are common modes of punishment In the Roman code, many severe and cruel punishments were prescribed. During the favored times of the republic, many of these were abolished or mitigated. But again, under the emperors, they were revived with full severity. In the ancient Grecian states, the modes of punishment were also se- vere, and often cruel. But the most gen- eral mode of punishment, in ordinary cases, seems, both in Greece and Rome, to have been by hanging. Whether the ancient Greek mode of capital punish- ment, by taking poison at such hour as the condemned party should choose, has ever been adopted in any modem nation, we DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF—DEBTOR AND CREDITOR. 145 are unable to say. As far as we have and America, the very fact that the verdict been able to leam, it is not in use among and sentence are final, produces great cau- any Christian people; and the idea of tion and deUberation in the administration suicide connected with it would probably of criminal justice, and a strong leaning prevent any such nation from adopting it. towards the prisoner on trial. Capital Whether executions ought to be in pub- punishment cannot be inflicted, by the lie or in private, has been a question much general humanity of the laws of modem discussed, and upon which a great diver- nations, upon persons who are insane or sity of opinion exists among intelligent who are pregnant, until the latter are statesmen. On the one hand, it is said delivered anil the former become sane. that public spectacles of this sort have a It is said that Frederic the Great required tendency to brutalize and harden the peo- aU judgments of his courts, condemning pie, or to make them indifferent to the persons to death, to be Avritten on blue punishment ; and the courage and firm- paper; thus he was constantly reminded ness, with which the criminal often meets of them as they lay on his table among death, have a tendency to awaken feelings other papers, from which tiiey were of sympathy, and even of admiration, and readily distinguished. He usually took a to take away much of the horror of the long time to consider such cases, and thus offence, as weU as of the punishment On set an excellent example to sovereigns of die other hand, it is said tiiat the great their duty. influence of punishment, in deterring Death-watch; a species of termes, so others from the like offence, cannot be called on account of an old superstition obtained in any other way. It is the only that its beating or ticking in a sick room means to bring home to the mass of the is a sure sign of death. people a salutary dread and warning; Debenture. (See Drawback.) and it is a pubUc admonition of the cer- Debt, National. (See National Debt.) tainty of punishment following upon Debtor and Creditor, Laws of. One crimes. It is also added, that all punish- of the first steps, in a communitv, towards incuts ought to be subjected to the public industry and wealth, is the institution of the scrutiny, so that it may be known that aU individual right to property'. The guaran- the law requires, and no more, has been tee of the individual's earnings to himself done. If punishments were inflicted in is the strongest stimulus to his exertions; private, it could never be known Avhether and this measure is so obAious, aud the one they were justly and properly inflicted in Avhich every member of a community has upon the persons condemned; or whether, so evident an interest, that it is of univer- indeed, innocent persons might not be- sal adoption among rude as well as civil- come the victims. ized nations, and even precedes the estab- In England, the court before which the Ushment of a regular gOAemment; for trial is had, declares the sentence, and men wiU sell, and, as far as they are able, directs the execution of it; and its war- enforce their exclusive right to the fruits rant is a sufficient authority to the proper of their own labor, before they are in a officer to-execute it In the courts of die condition to estabUsh general laws. But U. States, there is a like authority ; but though this principle is so obviously just, in the laAvs of many of the states, there is and of so early adoption, its extension a provision that die execution shall not and application to complicated affairs, and take place except by a warrant from the various species of property, and divisions, governor, or other executive authority, and modifications of rights to, and interest In cases of murder and other atrocious in, possessions of all sorts, are among the crimes, the punishment in England is most difficult subjects of legislation. The usually inflicted at a very short interval right of property being once estabUshed, after the sentence. In America, there is the conditions on which the owner will usually aUowed a very considerable inter- part with and transfer it are, as a natural val, varying from one month to six months, and necessary consequence, left to his own In England and America, there Ues no determination, with some few exceptions; appeal from the verdict of a jury and the especially one usually made in favor of sentence of a court, in capital cases. In the government, or, rather, of the whole France, there may be a review of it in the collective community, • who reserve the court of cassation, (q. v.) In Gennany, right of taking individual property for the there is, in criminal as in civil cases, a right pubUc use, without the consent of the pro- of appeal; hence, in that country, few prietor, and upon such terms as the gov- innoceut persons have suffered capitally ernment itself shall prescribe. But even since the 16th centuiy; and in England in this case, a debt or obUgation on the vol. iv. 13 / 146 DEBTOR AND CREDITOR. part of the government or community arises in favor of the proprietor whose property has been taken. So that we may lay it down as a general doctrine, that where one parts with and transfers to another any property, or right, of which, by the laws Of the community, he Avas ex- clusively possessed, this transfer is die basis or meritorious consideration of a promise or obUgation on the part of die person to Avhom the transfer is made, to return some equivalent or what may be agreed on as an equivalent by the parties. Whether this return be stipulated for in money, lands, goods, or personal services, or any thing of which the value can be estimated, is immaterial in respect to the force of the obligation, Avhich will be the same in either case. The validity of the obligation thus arising is recognised by the laws of all civilized states. But, then, the question arises—and it is one Avhich has much perplexed legislators—What degree of force or sacredness shad be assigned to this obligation, and by what sanctions and penalties shall it be guarded ? The per- sonal rights of citizens are, in general, more scrupulously guarded and vindicated by die laws, than those of property, or those the value of which, in money or ex- change, admits of an exact estimate. The lives of men, for instance, are generally 'protected by inflicting the extreme pen- alty of death for the crime of murder. Such a punislunent is only commensurate with the crime, and its justice is univer- sally acknowledged ; but a law Avhich should inflict die same punishment for a mere assault on the person, attended by no serious injury, Avould excite the abhor- rence of all men; for, though men are under an undoubted obligation not to commit an unprovoked assault though not attended by a serious wound, yet such a penalty would be at once pronounced to be out of aU proportion to the force and sacredness of the obligation Avhich it would be designed to protect. The question then occurs—How forcible, hoAv binding, how sacred, is this promise and obligation to pay a sum of money or de- Uver an article of property ? Is it so sa- cred that the debtor ought to be put to deadi, sent to the galleys, put into the pil- lory, or the stocks, or Avhipped, or impris- oned, in case of his faiUng to fulfil it? In one point all communities agree, namely, as far as the property of the debtor goes, it ought to answer to this obligation; for the value he has received has been absorb- ed in that which he possesses, and consti- tutes a part of its amount, or, at least, may be presumed to have contributed to it In short, the property of the debtor may be considered to belong to his creditors, to the extent of their demands. The laws of different countries, accordingly, agree in the principle that the creditor shall have the means of getting possession and dis- posing of the debtor's property to satisfy his demands. The sums prescribed for the exercise of this well estabUshed and universally acknowledged right, vary very considerably in different countries and periods. As long ago as the time of So- lon, the necessaiy implements of husband- ry Avere exempted from this right. The civil law makes an exemption of necessary implements of trade and articles of furni- ture, and this distinction is adopted very generally, if not universally, throughout the civilized world. The right of the creditor, then, according to the laws and practice of the whole civilized world, does not extend to die whole of the property and possessions of the debtor; and the exception affords a rule for measuring the extent and force of diis obligation of debt in the general estimation of nations; since, in enforcing this obligation, aU the laws in this respect stop at the point where indi- vidual suffering commences. Though the laAv adopts the principle, that the goods of the debtor, in effect belong to the cred- itor, yet it makes a compromise, even of this right, between the creditor, and debtor, and the community; for the community may be said to be affected by, and to feel the distresses or good fortune of every one of its members; and, accordingly, the cred- itor is here made to compromise his rights as a creditor, out of regard to his obliga- tions as a member of the community. The law says to him, "Though you strictly have a right to the tools your debtor uses, the clothes he and his family Avear, and the beds they sleep upon—for they may have been procured by the veiy money or goods from which the debt arose ; yet, on the other hand, you owe some obligations to the community, and the community ha"s some obligations to your debtor; you shall not, therefore, turn him and his family naked into the streets, even by reclaiming the very articles you may have sold him. Such is the Umit which the laws have, by general consent, put to die extent of the creditor's right over the debtor's property; and, to diis extent every code ought to give as easy, cheap and expeditious a remedy as can be allowed consistently with a just settlement of the A-alidity and amount of the creditor's claim ; and such a remedy it is the object of legislators DEBTOR AND CREDITOR. 147 generaUy to give. Upon the principle already stated, namely, that the debtor's property belongs to his creditors, to the amount of their claims, it should follow, that when his property is inadequate to the full satisfaction of the debts, all the creditors ought to share it proportionally; and this has been the practical rule under the civil law, and in all the countries where it has been adopted as die common law. Such is the practical rule in Eng- land and the greater part of the U. States; and it is a rule so obviously just, and re- sults so directly from the universally re- ceived principles, in relation to die rights of creditors, that it is surprising that any country, in the least advanced in civil pol- ity, and having made any progress in civ- ilization, should form an exception to such a rule, and permit some one creditor, or some few, no more deserving, and perhaps much less so, than the rest, to seize upon the whole property of the debtor, and en- tirely defeat the claims of the others; yet such a defect does exist in the laAVs of 4 out of the 25 U. States, at the time of writing this article (1830), viz., Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont and Massachu- setts. These states are all eminendy com- mercial, and by no means deficient in general intelUgence and improvement which renders it the more remarkable that they should, in this respect, make an ex- ception to the practice of aU the rest of Christendom. The defect arises partly from a deep-rooted prejudice upon this subject which mistakes a regulation and reformation of this branch of laAV for a weakening of the obligation of contracts, and an impairing of the rights of creditors; but still more from a timid spirit of legis- lation, Avhich fears to undertake an impor- tant improvement of this branch of law, although the justice and great utility of such an improvement, among a trading people especially, are acknowledged by much the greater number. When the laws provide for a proportionate distribu- tion of an insolvent's estate in general, still they reserve some few preferences. Thus, in the cessio bonorum, and the various l.ivvs of insolvency of different states, of which that has been the model, a prefer- ence is usually giA'en to the government as a creditor, which is fully satisfied for its demands before any part of the claims of individual creditors is paid. This prefer- ence is just, where the claim of the gov- ernment can be viewed in the light of a lien on the property; and, where this is the case, the • giving it a priority to those of creditors who have no Uen, is, in fact only putting the government upoft the same footing with other creditors; for any one, having a mortgage or pledge, is always preferred to the extent of his pledge; but, where the claim cannot be considered in that light the preference seems not to be just. Some other claims are preferred, from motives of humanity and general policy, on the same principle on Avhich necessaiy articles of furniture, implements of the debtor's trade, and the Uke, are ex- empted from seizure. Thus some laAvs, notwithstanding the insolvency of the es- tate of a deceased debtor, still alloAv the full payment of the expenses of his last sick- ness and funeral, and also assign some articles, of greater or less amount, to the use of his widow and family. Some codes of laws limit the claims of the cred- itor to the debtor's property for satisfac- tion. Odiers go beyond this point. The ancient laws of Rome permitted the sell- ing of debtors into servitude for the bene- fit of their creditors; and such are the laws of modern times among some of the Afri- can tribes. Solon remarked upon the inconsistency of laws which exempted the implements of trade, and articles of neces- sity of the debtor, from the creditor's de- mand, and yet subjected his body to sale or imprisonment; and, considering the rights of the debtor, as a citizen of Athens, to be paramount to those of his creditor over his person, he provided against the violation of a citizen's liberty on account of his debts. But die imprisonment of the debtor ought to be allowed as a means of compelling him to sunender his property for the benefit of his creditors; and, for this purpose, the civU law, and the laws of England and most of die U. States, permit it, but only until he has made a surrender of all his property, unless he is proved to have acted fraudulently, in which case the imprisonment is continued as a punishment To diis rule, however, the four of the U. States above-mentioned form an exception; for, in those states, the imprisonment may be inflicted by the creditor, although the debtor has no means of satisfying the debt, and although his insolvency may have been occasioned by an unforeseen and inevitable misfortune. It is true, that, in such a case, not many creditors will wantonly avail themselves of such a right to inflict suffering without any motive of interest. But it is equally true, that, if the Avhole population were at Uberty to inflict any kind of suffering upon others Avith impunity, not many persons would avail themselves of the Ucense; but some would, and this is a reason for not 148 DEBTOR AND CREDITOR—DECANDOLLE giving the license. The laws of England and France, and of most of the U. States, now make a distinction between cases of fraud and misfortune, and aim at punish- ment only in the former. This is a dis- tinction not difficult to make, and one which does not require any extraordinary legislative slull and sagacity. Its omission in any code of laws, therefore, indicates a rude and imperfect legislation in this par- ticular.—In the article Bankrupt, the in- terposition of the law to discharge debtors absolutely from all UabiUty to their credit- ors, on their suiTendering all their proper- ty, has been treated of. This interposition has, however, been extended only to cases of insolvent merchants. The insolvent laws, as distinguished from bankrapt laws, apply to debtors who are not merchants, and provide for a ratable distribution of their effects among their creditors, and exempt the person of the debtor from im- prisonment, on the surrender of the whole of his jiroperty, but do not discharge the debt any further than satisfaction is made by payment. A question very naturally arises why diis distinction is made between traders and others. A cultivator or me- chanic, in enterprising communities, is scarcely less liable to die misfortunes and di?appointments which result in insolven- cy than traders, and their future industry and uncmbanassed enterprise is of no less importance to the community. Why should the future earnings of a farmer, or con- ductor of any branch of industry, whose insolvency has been occasioned by a drought, a change in the markets, or the bankruptcy of a merchant Avhom he had trusted, be held for the payment of his debts, to the last farthing, any more than those of the merchant ? Is it true tiiat, in other pursuits than those of trade, insol- vency is more frequently the consequence of fraud, extravagance or imprudence? (See Bankrupt, Capias, Insolvency.) Debure, GuiUaume and Guillaume Francois; two cousins, distinguished bib- liographers. The former prepared the first division of the catalogue of the excellent library of the duke de la ValUere (1783, 3 vols.). The latter, a bookseUer, bom 1731, and died 1782, opened a new path for bibliographers, by reducing to a sys- tem what had before been left merely to tact, in his Bibliograpkie instructive, ou Traite de la Connaissance des Livres rares d singuliers (Paris, 1763—68, 7 vols.). Lemercier and others attacked the work severely; yet it must be considered of much value. (See Ebert's Bibliographi- sches Lexicon, vol. i, p. 452.) Among his other works is to be mentioned SuppU- ment a la Bibliograpkie instructive, ou Cat- alogue des Livres au Cabinet de M. Gaig- nat (Paris, 1769, 2 vols.). To these two works, that of Nee de la Rochelle, Table destinee a facililer la Recherche des Livres anonymes, etc. (1782), forms a 10th volume. The sons of Debure, advantageously known in the world of letters as Debure Frircs, have distinguished themselves as bibliog- raphers by the catalogue of the rich and valuable hbrary of count Mac-Carthy Rcagh (1817). Decade (Lat decas, from the Greek cUn) is sometimes used for the number ten, or for an aggregate of ten, mid decades for an enumeration by tens. The books of Livy are divided into decades. In the French revolution, decades took die place of weeks, in the division of the year. (.See Calendar.) In the French system of weights and measures, the Greek Avord &Ik 11.98 1 69.06 21 64.42 41 52.07 61 33.45 81 10.79 2 69.03 22 63.97 42 51.27 62 32.40 8S \ 9.59 3 68.97 23 63.51 43 50.46 63 31.33 ar 1 8.41 4 68.90 24 63.03 44 49.63 64 30.24 84 \ 7.21 5 68.81 25 62.53 45 48.74 65 29.15 8f i 6.09 6 68.62 26 62.02 46 47.93 66 28.06 8f ; 4.8i 7 68.48 27 61.48 47 47.06 67 26.96 85 3.61 8 68.31 28 60.93 48 46.16 68 25.85 8Z 2.41 9 68.15 29 60.35 49 4^.20 69 24.73 8f 1.21 10 67.95 30 59.75 50 44.35 70 23.60 9C 0.00 11 67.73 31 59.13 51 43.42 71 22.47 ___ 12 67.48 32 58.51 ; 52 43.48 72 21.32 13 67.21 33 57.87 53 41.53 73 20.17 14 66.95 34 57.20 54 40.56 74 19.02 15 66.65 35 56.51 55 39.58 75 17.86 16 66.31 36 55.81 56 38.58 76 16.70 17 65.98 37 55.10 57 37.58 77 15.52 . , 18 65.62 38 54.37 58 36.57 78 14.85 19 65.24 39 53.62 59 35.54 79 13.17 Degrees, Measurement of. After the immortal Newton had taught that the earth, on account of its motion round its axis, must be highest near the equator, and tiiat the diameter of the equator must be longer, by one 230th part, than the diameter from pole to pole, the French wished to investigate the subject farther by actual measurement. Newton gave them warning that the difference between a degree at Bayonne and one at Dunkirk Avas so trifling that it could not be detect- ed at all with the imperfect instruments then in use; and was, in fact, afraid that 14* they might come to a result directly op- posite to what he conceived to be correct, and bring confusion into science. But his warnings were of no avail. The measurement Avas begun, and the fear of the great philosopher was reaUzed; for the result was, that the axis of the poles was longer than a diameter of the equator, and that the earth was, in form, more Uke a lemon than an orange. For 40 years, disputes were maintained on this point, without settling the question ; and, at last, the academy of sciences resolved, on the proposition of Condaniine (q. v.), to 162 DEGREES, MEASUREMENT OF. have a degree measured at the equator (the expedition went to South America in 1735), and one in Lapland (Kittis and Tornea being the extreme stations to which the expedition Avas sent in 1736). It Avas found that the northern degree Avas greater than that under the equator, and that NeAvton's conjecture was right. But the question still remained, How great is the flattening of our planet ? The theory said, one 230th part, if the earth had been in a perfectly Uquid state, when it began its rotation. The calculations, however, always gave different results, varying ac- cording to the different measurements adopted as the basis of diem ; for meas- urements had been made, not only in America and Lapland, but also in France, England, Hungary, and Italy. It was concluded, that the earth Avas not a regu- lar body, but had great local inequaUties. Though this was possible, yet the conclu- sion was too hasty, because these suppos- ed inequalities might be caused by the insufficiency of the instruments, and by the smallness of the arcs measured.. When the French established their new and admirable system of measures and weights upon the basis of the metre, which was to be the ten millionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole (3"nr9i the Avorld by the eternal motion of an infinite number of invisible and indivisible bodies, atoms, which differ from one an- other in form, position and anangement laid are alternately separated and com- bined by their motions in infinite space. In this way die universe was formed, for- tuitously, Avithout the interposition of a First Cause. The eternal existence of atoms (of matter in general) he inferred ti om die consideration, that time could be conceived only as eternal, and without beginning. Their indivisibUity he attempt- ed to prove in the following manner: If bodies are infinitely divisible, it must be allowed that their division must be per- ceptible. After the division has been inade, there remains either something ex- tended, or points without any extent, or nothing. In the first case, division would not be finished ; in the second case, the combination of points without extension could never produce something extended, and if there remained nothing, the material world would also be nothing; consequent- ly, there must exist simple, indivisible bodies (atoms). From his position of the eternal change of the separating and com- bining atoms, follows also the other, that there are numberless worlds continually arising and perishing. In the atoms he distinguished figure, size, gravity, and im- penetrability. All tilings have the same elementary parts, and their difference de- pends only on the different figure, order and situation of the atoms, of Avhich every thing is composed. This difference of the atoms is infinite, like their number: hence the variety of things is infinitely great. Fire consists, according to him, of active globules, and spreads, like a light envelope, round the earth. The air is moved by the continual rising of the atoms from the loAver regions, and becomes a rapid stream, Avhich carries along with it the stars formed in its bosom. The fol- lowing doctrines of his, concerning the soul, deserve to be mentioned : The soul consists, in as far as it is a moving power, of igneous atoms; but, since it is ac- quainted with the other elements, and any tiring can be known only by its equal, it must be composed in part, also, from the other elements. The sense of feeling is the fundamental sense, and the least de- ceitful of all; for that alone can be trae and real in the objects, which belongs to the atoms themselves, and this we leam with the greatest certainty by our feeling. The other senses show more the acci- dental qualities of things, and are conse- quently less to be relied upon. The im- pressions produced on the five senses are effected, partly by the different composi- tion of the atoms in the organs of sense, partly by the different influence exerted by external bodies, which varies Avith the anangement of the atoms of Avhich they consist In the act of vision, images sep- arate from the external body, and enter the eye. The motion of a body (for in- stance, of the lips in speaking) divides the air, and gives it a motion, varying accord- ing to the direction of the moving body. The parts of air thus put in motion anive at the ear, and produce hearing. In a similar Avay arise the sensations of tasting and smelling. The images of the objects received by the eye anive through it to the soul, and produce within us notions. If, dierefore, no notions come to the soul by means of the eye, its activity ceases, as is the case in sleep. The know ledge con- veyed by the senses is obscure and de- ceitful, and represents mere motions of the exterior bodies. What we know by the Avay of reason has a higher degree of DEMOCRITUS—DEMON. 175 certainty, yet it is not beyond doubt The continuation of the soul after death was denied by Democritus, who beUeved it to he composed of atoms. He divided it into two parts ; into the rational part, which has its seat in die breast, and the sensual part, Avhich is diffused through die whole body. Both constitute only one substance. The greatest good, ac- cording to Democritus, is a tranquil mind. He applied his atomical theory, also, to natural philosophy and astronomy. The popular notions of the gods he connected with his system, perhaps merely to ac- commodate himself to the prevailing creed. Even the gods he considered to have arisen from atoms, and to be perishable like the rest of things existing. Democri- tus is said to have written a great deal, of which, however, nothing has come to us. He died 370 B. C, at an advanced age. 11 is school was supplanted by that of Epicurus. Dkmoivre, Abraham ; a mathematician of the last centuiy. He was a native of Vitri, in Champagne, and was driven from his native country by the revocation of dio edict of Nantes. He settled in Lon- don, and gained a livelihood by becoming a teacher of mathematics. He was par- ticularly celebrated for his skill and accu- racy as a calculator, whence he is thus ref'ereed to by Pope:— " Sure as Demoivre, without rule or line." He died in 1754, at the age of eighty-six. If s works are, Miscdlanea Analytica, 4to.; The Doctrine of Chances, or a Method of calculating the Probabilities of Events at Play, 4to.; and a work on annuities; besides papers in the Transactions of the royal society, of which he was a fellow. Demon, Demoniac, Demonology, (Greek and Oriental). Good and evil, wisdom and folly, piety and superstition, have been connected with the belief in spirits. The name demons (SaipSua, cW- liovn, genii), by which those spirits Avhich are said to have some influence upon the destiny of men are generally called, directs us to Greece. We find demons spoken of by Homer. He called his gods demons: they address each other by this title, and deupiii ios is so often synonymous with god- like, that the derivation of the word demon from i\tfiiiuiv, intelligent, wise, is highly probable. Hesiod uses it in a different sense. Plutarch says, that Hesiod admit- ted four classes of rational beings—gods, demons, heroes and men. (Ues. Op. et Dies. 121—126.) A strict classification was not made until the popular beUcf had been introduced into the schools of the philosophers. Aristotle divides die immortals into gods and demons; the mortals into heroes and men. In the Greek philosophy, these demons early played an important part. Thales and Pythagoras, Socrates and Xenophon, Em- pedocles and the Stoics, invented many fictions concerning them, each in his own way. The poetic Plato, however, goes further than any of the others. In the Banquet the character of the demons is thus explained: "Demons are intenne- diate between' God and mortals; their function is to interpret and convey to the gods what comes from men, and to men wiiat comes from the gods; the prayers and offerings of the one, and the com- mands of the others. These demons are the source of all prophecy, and of the art of die priests, in relation to sacrifices, consecrations, conjurations, &c.; for God has no immediate intercourse with men, but all die intercourse and conversation between the gods and mortals is canied on by means of the demons, both in waking and in sleeping. There are many kinds of such demons, or spirits." In other places, he says of them, they are clothed with air, wander over heaven, hover over the stars, and abide on the earth; they behold unveiled the secrets of tlie time to come, and regulate events ac- cording to their pleasure: every mortal receives at birth a particular demon, avIio accompanies him until his end, and con- ducts his soul to the place of purification and punishment. The people generally understood by them the godhead, as fin* as it guides the destinies of men, and divided them, in reference to the effects ascribed to them, into good and bad spirits—Aga- thodemons and Cacodemons. The Ro- mans still further developed the Greek demonology, Avith less, however, of a poet- ical character, and mixed with Etrascan notions. We perceive in all this tlie ori- ginal idea: wherever an inexplicable power operates in nature, there exists some demon. This idea was developed by the philosophers, who endeavored to regulate the popular belief, and to reconcile reason with this belief. In order to represent the idea of deity in its purity, they were com- pelled to displace, liy degrees, the mytho- logical notions of the people; and diis could not be done in a less perceptible and obnoxious Avay, than by the introduction of demons. But, although Greek philos- ophers did this for Greece, we must not believe that these ideas, like the word demon, are of Greek origin: it is much 176 DEMON. more credible, that the whole doctrine of demons was only transplanted into Greece. We ought to look for dieir real origin in the East The Hindoos reckon, besides the highest being, Parama, 33,000 gods, to which they add an infinite number of servants of the gods. The highest rank among these gods was ascribed to the trinity, Brama, Vishnu, and Seeva, who, in eternal change, create, preserve and destroy. When the adorers of the de- stroyer die, he sends his servants to con- vey them to his presence, that he may make them participators in his happiness. The demons there are the Devetas. We find this doctrine systematically set forth in the reUgion of Zoroaster, or the Chtd- daic-Persian magic, or doctrine of the magi, which is to be looked upon as a chief source of demonology. In order to explain the origin of evil, Zoroaster adopted, besides a good principle, a bad one also, and made the two the sources of aU good and evil, explaining his ideas thus: There is a kingdom of light, and a kingdom of darkness. Ormuzd, the author of all good, resides in the first; in the other, Ahriman, the source of all evil, moral as well as physical. Around the throne of Ormuzd stand the seven Amshaspands (archangels), the princes of light The Izeds, the genii of aU that is good, of Avhatever kind, are subordinate to them ; and to these the Ferucrs. In the same way the kingdom of darkness under Ahri- man is ananged. His throne is sunound- ed by the seven superior Dives, the princes of evil, and an innumerable multitude of inferior Dives stand under them, like the Izeds under the Amshaspands. The two kingdoms cany on an everlasting war; but Ahriman AviU eA'entually be conquered, and the kingdom of darkness will be entirely destroyed. Heeren endeavored to show, that these systems are formed according to the constitutions of the Asiatic monar- chies, but all evidently modified according to the place where, and the circumstances of the time at Avhich, the lawgiver and foun- der of religion appeared. Zoroaster canied his general idea of the division between the kingdoms of good and evil into detail. All rational and irrational, Uving and dead beings, he classed under one or the other of these kingdoms; the pure men, ani- mals and plants belonged to Ormuzd's, die impure (poisonous, pernicious), to Ah- riman's kingdom. In this manner demon- ology, in the Parsee system, had attained an extent, and a systematical connexion, such as it had not elsewhere. The opin- ion of Horn (Biblische Gnosis), that die Egyptians borrowed their notion of de- mons from the Parsees, deseires a closer investigation. We find, indeed, with the Egyptians, the moon, Avater, earth and air filled with demons, superintending the elements and bodies. Stones, metals and plants are under their influence, and hu- man souls in their power—surely a very extensive kingdom of demons, but not presenting the striking dualism and par- allelism of the system of Zoroaster. But supposing that the Egyptian and Persico- Chaldeedemonologies are not derived from the same source; they aftenvards combined to form together a new one. Though the doctrine of demons came in different ways through Western Asia into Greece, yet Egypt was the chief source of the higher demonology of the Greeks, among whom it was spread by the Orphic hymns and the mysteries, and was cultivated by the philosophers until the birth of Christ The rationalists, as they are called, avJjo explain every tiring in the Sacred Scrip- tures in a historical or natural Avay, say that Avhile it came in this way to the Greeks, the Hebrews received it in two other Avnys. At the time of the Babylonish captivity, they derived it from the source of the Chaldaic-Persian magic; and, even sup- posing that they Avere previously acquaint- ed Avith the Elohim, or angels (it is re- markable that the latter are first mentioned in the history of the Chaldee Abraham, and that the earlier prophets do not speak at all of them, while Daniel, on the con- trary, mentions them frequently), yet the doctrine of these was first systematically developed during and after the Babylonish captivity. The same dualism, Avhich Ave find in the system of Zoroaster, is here, also, perceived: there are good and had demons: they are classified, and receive proper names. There are also seven good demons, composing the council of Jeho- vah, and standing continually before his throne. (Job xii. 15.) As for the second source of the demonology of the Hebrews, this nation had, during the reigns of the Seleucides and Ptolemies, a more active intercourse with Egypt and the Greeks, chiefly in Alexandria; and to the notions adopted from die system of the magi, or die Parsees, they united Egyjrtico-Greek ones; which connexion is chiefly per- ceivable in the New Testament. It was impossible to prevent the intenningling of Greek speculations. The voice of the prophets was aheady silent under Ezra and Nehemiah. Study and inquiries commenced; the popular beUefand phi- losophy separated, and even the plriloso- DEMON—DEMOSTHENES. 177 phers divided themselves into several sects. Opposed to the ancient Pharisees we perceive the SadduceesandEssens, and no high priest nor sanhedrim could pre- vent the nation (which was already op- posed by the Samaritans) from dividing itself into parties. This was the state of tilings when Christ appeared. Pythago- rean and Platonic notions, intermingled with Oriental doctrines, had already un- folded the germ which produced the Hellenistic philosophy of the Jews, and a cabalism existed (cherished by the finest minds of the nation), in addition to the philosophy of the rabbins.—It may be observed, in reference to the doctrine of spirits, that the expressions of demon and demoniacal are more especially used to indicate bad, tormenting spirits. This is the origin of those ideas of demons as spirits which enter into the bodies of wicked men, and torment them, and of die means to be used against them, for instance, miraculous herbs, by means of which we are able to expel the demons. Thus the demons appear as inferior spirits of a (Persian) Satan, a passionate, mal icious, tormenting spirit. The Christian authors made this bad meaning of demons the ruling one, so that the demons were oppo- site to the angels. By this opposition, the doctrine of spirits Avas transformed into angelology, that is, the doctrine of good angels, and demonology, the doctrine of bad angels; and the Jewish and Greek notions on the subject have been often blended together in Christianity. As Pla- to's mythology was an inexhaustible source of doctrines for the neAV Platonist so demo- nology became an endless source of ingen- ious speculation among many of the early sects.* (See Swedenborg, Angel, Genii, and Gabalis.) Demo.na, Val m; a province of Sicily, occupying the N. E. part of the country, extending from the straits of Messina to Catania; about 112 miles long, and from 60 to 70 broad in its Avidest part; pop- ulation, as lately stated, 521,000. The Liparian islands are considered to belong to this part of the country. Silk is one of the chief productions of this valley, which yields, likewise, hemp, flax, olives, lemons, oranges, figs, currants and pistachio nuts. Sulphur is found in considerable quantity towards mount ^Etna. Messina, the capi- tal of Sicily, is situated in this province. • A book of much interest, as showing the firm belief in demons at a comparatively recent peri- od, is doctor Cotton Mather's Magnnlia Chrisli Americana (London. 1702). Doctor Mather was a minister of Boston, Mass. Tlie other principal towns on the coast are Melazzo, Cefidu and Taormina. Demonstration, in military language; a movement towards any place for the purpose of deceiving the enemy, and con- cealing the true design. Demosthenes, the most famous orator of antiquity, was the son of a sword-cutler at Athens, where he was bom in 381 (ac- cording to some, in 375) B. C. His father left him a considerable fortune, of which his guardians attempted to defraud him: Demosthenes, at the age of 17 years, con- ducted a suit against them himself, and gained his cause. He studied rhetoric and philosophy in the schools of Callistra- tus, Isaeus, Isocrates and Plato. But nature had placed great obstacles in his way, and his first attempts to speak in public were attended with derision. He not only had very weak lungs and a shrill voice, but was unable to pronounce the letter r. These natural defects he endeavored to remedy by the greatest exertions. He succeeded by the advice of the actor Saty- ras, Avho advised him to recite Avith peb- bles in his mouth, on the roughest and steepest places. To strengthen his voice, he exercised himself in speaking aloud on the sea-shore, amidst the noise of the waves. At other times, he shut himself up for months in a subtenanean room, with his head half shaved, that he might not be tempted to go out, and endeavored to acquire dignity of manner by practising before a minor, and transcribed the history of Thucydides eight times, for the purpose of forming his style. After such a labo- rious preparation, he composed and de- livered his masterly speeches, of which his enemies said that they smelt of the lamp, but to Avhich posterity has assigned the first rank among the models of eloquence- speeches in Avhich he openly opposed the foolish wishes of the multitude, censured their faults, and inflamed their courage, their sense of honor, and their patriotism. He thundered against Philip of Macedon, and instilled into his fellow-citizens the hatred which animated his OAvn bosom. The first of those orations, so famous un- der the name of Philippics, Avas delivered when Philip took possession of the pass of Thermopylae. The orator insisted on the necessity of immediately preparing a fleet and an army; urging the Athenians to begin the war themselves; to make Mace- donia the theatre, and to terminate it only by an advantageous treaty or a decisive battle. They admired and approved his plans, but did not execute them. The celebrated Phocion, who knew the weak- 178 DEMOSTHENES—DEMURRAGE. ness of Athens, unceasingly advised peace. Demosthenes went twice to the court of Philip to negotiate, but without success. On his return, he recommended Avar, and endeavored to ami not only Athens, but all Greece. When Philip had finally penetrated into Phocis, through the pass of Thermopylae, and had taken possession of the city of Elatea,to die tenor of Ath- ens, Demosthenes obtained a decree of the people for fitting out a fleet of 200 vessels, marching an army to Eleusis, and sending ambassadors to all the cities of Greece, for the purpose of forming a universal confederacy against Philip. He was himself among the ambassadors, and pre- vailed on the Thebans to receive an Athenian army within their walls. He also exerted himself actively throughout Bceotia, and, by his efforts, a numerous army Avas collected to act against Philip. A battle was fought near Cheronea, and the Greeks Avere vanquished. Demos- thenes was among the first who fled. Nevertheless, he was desirous of deUver- ing a funeral oration over those who had fallen in battle. ^Escbines, his rival, did not fail to attack him on this account. The hostiUty between the tAvo orators was the occasion of the speech pro corona (for the crown), which resulted in the triumph of Demosthenes and the exile of his ad- versary. Philip having been, soon after, assassinated, Demosthenes thought that Athens would be better able to maintain its uberty; but Alexander's dreadful chastise- ment of Thebes filled the Athenians with such tenor that they sued for mercy. It was with difficulty that Alexander could be persuaded to desist from his demand of tlie sunender of Demosthenes and some other orators; for the Macedonians feared Demosthenes more tiian they did the ar- mies of Athens. .. He was afterward fined 50 talents for bribery, and, neglecting the payment of it, Avas thrown into prison, from which he escaped, and fled to yEgina, where he remained till the death of Alex- ander. Then folloAved the Avar with An- tipater. Demosthenes again appeared in public, and endeavored to persuade the small Grecian states to unite against Mace- donia. The Athenians received him with honor; but the war Avas unsuccessful, and Antipater insisted upon his being sunen- dered to him. Demosthenes fled to the temple of Neptune, in the island of Calau- ria, on the coast of Argolis ; but finding himself not secure, he took poison, which be always carried about with him. He died 319 B. C. (according to some, 322 B. C), at the age of 60 or 62 years. His character was not entirely free from vani- ty, ambition and avarice. Cicero pro- nounces him to be die most perfect of aU orators. He always spoke as circum- stances required, and was, by turns, calm, vehement or elevated. He carried the Greek language to a degree of perfection which it never before had reached. In energy and power of persuasion, in pene- tration and power of reasoning, in the adaptation of the parts to the whole, in beauty and vigor of expression, in strong and melodious language, he surpassed all his predecessors. Every tiring in his speeches is natural, vigorous, concise, symmetrical. This alone can explain his great influence over his contemporaries. We have under his name 61 orations, 65 exordiums, and 6 letters, some of which are not genuine. Among the oldest edi- tions of the orations, the best is that of Paris, 1570, in folio, with die commenta- ries of Ulpian. The first edition of his complete works, Greek and Latin, Avas edited by Hieronymus Wolf (Basil, 1549; reprinted 1572; and Frankfort, l604, in folio). His orations are also contained in Reiske's edition of the Greek ora- tors. Demotic or Enchorial Alphabet, from 6rjpos (the people), is the name given by antiquarians to that alphabet which is used by the people, in contradistinction to an alphabet used by a certain class or caste; as, for instance, among the Egyptians. Thus we find on the famous Rosetta stone, which seems to have become, by the exertions of Young, Ackerblad, Zoega, De Sacy and Champollion, the key to all the hieroglyphical documents handed down to us by the Egyptians, a Greek and two Egyptian inscriptions, one of Avhich is Avritten in the hieroglyphical, the other in the demotic alphabet Demoustier, Charles Albert, a French poet, bom at ViUers-Cotterets, in 1760, was, at first, a successful laAvyer. He wrote comedies, operas and poems. They are full of affected wit and false brilUancy. His Letters to Emibe on mythology have made him known in Europe. It may be justly objected to them, that they are superficial, affected, and written in what the French call style de madrigal; yet they are, at the same time, distinguished for spirit, delicacy and ease. Of his plays, Le Conciliateur, Les Femmes and Le ToU- rant have maintained a place on the stage. He died March 2,1801. Demurrage, in law, is the detention of a ship; and is also, and more frequently, used to signify the amount to be paid, DEMURRAGE—ZODIAC OF DENDERAH. 179 by the charterer to the owner of a ship, for voluntary delay beyond a specified time. If the captain chooses to wait a longer time than that agreed upon for a cargo, the owner can claim demunage only un- til the cargo is taken on board and the ship ready to sail, and not for the subse- quent detention from other causes, al- though this Avould not have happened but for die detention for a cargo. Thus when a vessel Avas to be loaded at St. Peters- burg for Leith, by the 1st of September, but the master waited until October 29 for a cargo, when he sailed from Cronstadt, but was soon driven back by unfavorable winds, and the frost setting in, detained him there until the 11th of May foUowing; after much litigation in Scotland, it was decided by the house of lords of Great Britain, that demurrage could be claimed only to October 29. It is to be observed, however, in this case, tiiat the captain was at liberty to sad on the 1st of September, the time limited in the charter-party. The time of delay in port for a cargo, for con- voy, &c, is usually stipulated in the char- ter-party, and also the alloAvance to be made in case of longer delay for those objects; and this time is sometimes speci- fied in working-days or lay-days, as dis- tinguished from holydays, when no cargo can be put on board. When a charter- party, made in England, relates to a delay in the river Thames, for a certain number of days, it will, in pm-suance of a particu- lar custom, be construed to mean working- days. But if the charter-party be made elsewhere, or, if made in England, relating to demunage at any other place, if the intention is that it should allow a certain number of working-days, it ought to be so expressed. Demurrer; a pause or stop put to the proceedings of an action upon a point of difficulty, which must be determined by the court before any further proceedings can be had therein. He that demurs in law confesses the facts to be true, as stated by tlie opposite party, but denies that by the law arising upon those facts, any injury is done to the party, or that he has made out a lawful excuse. Den (Saxon, valley, or woody ground), when added to the names of places, de- notes that they are in a valley, or near Avoods. Denarius ; 1. a Roman silver coin, equal, at first, to 10 asses, whence its name; 2. a weight. The libra, or Roman pound, contained 96, the ounce 8, denarii; and the denarius 3 scruples. In modem gov- ernments, the denarius has also been intro- duced as a weight A French denare con- tained 63 grains.* Denderah,Zodiac or. Near Denderah, a village of the Thebais, sunounded with palms, and lying about a league west of the Nile, the traveller from Cairo to Upper Egypt first acquires a distinct no- tion of an architecture such as no other country can shoAV. Denderah Ues under the 26di degree of north latitude, on the borders of the desert, upon the last table- land of the Lybian mountains, to Avhich the inundation of tlie Nile extends. Its name is derived from the ancient Tentyra or Tentyris, the magnificent remains of which, caUed by the Arabians Berbi (the ruins), are a mile or two distant from it. We are indebted, for our knowledge of them, to the memorable campaign of the French in Egypt, whose enthusiastic de- scriptions and accurate investigations have drawn general attention to them. Through a portal half buried by rubbish, covered with hieroglyphics, and constructed of * The value of the denarius is given incor- rectly by several: modern German writers, as by Schleusner, in his Lexicon of the New Testament; by Rosenmtlller, in his Scholia on the New Tes- tament ; and by Kuinol, in his Commentary on the Historical Books of the New Testament. It is reckoned by them as equal to the eighth part of a reichsthaler (rix dollar) or 3 groschen, that is, about 9 cents, American money. The mistake may be thus accounted for: The writers men- tioned refer to Eisenschmidius, De Ponderibus et Mensuris veterum necnon de Valore Pecunice veteris, published in 1708, reprinted 1737. The author of this work (p. 136) estimates 7£ denarii as equal to an imperial or rix dollar, meaning the old rix dollar of the empire, a coin which, by proclamation of queen Anne, in 1704, was de- clared equal to 4s. 6d. sterling. He thus makes the value of the denarius 13J cents—as near an ap- proximation as, perhaps, was to be expected from his imperfect modes of computation. But the writers above referred to, in following him, have substituted the present rix dollar of account, equal to about 72 cents, for the coin intended, and then reckoning the denarius loosely as the eighth part of a rix dollar, have thus estimated its value at about 9 cents. Winer, in his Biblisches Real- we':rterbuch, and Wahl, in his Lexicon of the New Testament, estimate its value at about 4 groschen. or 12 cents; Jahn, in his Archexologia Biblica, at 24£ creutzers, of which 90 make a rix dollar, consequently at about 19£ cents. For these mistakes it is not easy to account. There being no considerable difference in the estimate -of the average weight of silver in ihe consu- lar denarius, all these different estimates of its value are unfounded. That given in Arbuth- not's Tables, namely, 1\d. sterling, about 144 cents, is sufficiently correct, and commonly adopted by English writers. In Robinson's translation of Wain's Lexicon, the erroneous esti- mate of 9| cents is given, in addition to the cor- rect, or nearly correct one of 14 cents. Both estimates are also given in the valuable Greek Lexicon, of Mr. Pickering. 180 ZODIAC OF DENDERAH. huge blocks of sandstone, you come in sight of a temple, Avhich fonns die back ground of tiris splendid picture. All that you see here, say the Frencli Avriters, from the colossal figures of Isis, which sup- port the entablature of the vestibule, to the smaUest hieroglyphic, appears to have come from fairy land. Neither Greece nor Rome, nor the rest of Europe, has produced any thing similar. So uuiv ersal was this impression, that the meanest sol- diers of the army paused to examine these sacred relics, and declared with one voice, that diis sight alone was enough to indem- nify them tor the fatigues of the campaign. The monuments of Thebes, Avitli which they afterward became acquainted, could not efface diis first impression; and the magnificent temple of Isis still appeared to them the most perfect monument of Egyptian art Of die ancient Tentyrah, which may have existed in the times of Suabo and Theodosius, a Typhceum, similar to that of Edfuh, but larger, is yet standing. It is west of die northern gate, so buried under rubbish that the dif- ferent sides are scarcely to be distin- guished. But the admiration of the French was chiefly excited by the great temple, the whole of which is nearly in the shape of a T. The vieAV is obstructed by ruins only on the eastern side. On account of die figures of Isis, of eveiy size, which it contains, it is thought to have been an Isaium. Without the aid of drawings, any description of its vestibules, halls and cells, which are all covered with hieroglyphics, would be unintelligible. On the ceiling of the portico of this Isai- um, astronomical figures and emblems were found nailed on the soffits: on die two extreme soffits Avere the 12 signs of the zodiac. This representation was repeated on the ceiling of an apartment in the upper story, on the left side of the ves- tibule. Like the others, this room was covered with hieroglyplrics, and the plani- sphere, on the left side as you enter, occu- pied only half of the ceiling. It was first observed by general Desaix, Avho directed the attention of his companions to it This is the planisphere of which so much has been written. Behind this large building, toAA-ards the south, is another temple, which was, perhaps, deiUcated to Isis and Homs. Its exterior reminds us less forcibly than the Isaium, how many generations must have existed, before a nation could flourish possessed of suffi- cient courage, knowledge and elevation of mind for the invention of such works; and how many centuries must have elapsed, before all this could have been forgotten, and men have sunk back to the rudeness of the present Arab inhabitants of these rains. But the figures on the plani- spheres particularly attracted the attention of the learned Europeans, on account of their supposed connexion with the pre- cession of the equinoxes. (See Preces- sion.) In both, it was observed tiiat tlie Uon was represented as the first sign. This order it was supposed must have been adopted by design; for in the larger plani- sphere, on the ceiUng of the portico, die signs are represented on two stripes, one of which runs in a direction toward the interior of the temple, the other tOAvard the exterior; on the smaller (that of the upper apartment, now in Paris), the signs are represented in a spiral line, in the order in which we now place them: Vir- go, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer. Leo appeared, consequendy, to be placed, intentionally, after the point of intersection of the ecUptic and equator. On the situation of those points of inter- section, however, depends the place of the solstice, Avhich must be half way between them. In the planisphere of Denderah, it is drawn in Cancer. If this is the win- ter solstice, as some suppose, the vernal equinox was then in Libra. At present, however, it is in Pisces, and consequently 7 signs, or 210°, farther back. As it is known that 2152 years of uniform motion are necessary for the recession of one sign, it follows that, to recede from Libra to Pisces, 7 times 2152, or about 15,000 years are necessary. This would be, accord- ingly, the minimum of the age of this zodiac, if Ave suppose that it is founded on real astronomical observations, and is not to be considered a mere astronomical problem. (See Rhode, Versuch iiber das Alter des Thierkreises und den Ursprung der Sternbilder, BerUn, 1809, 4to.) Other as- tronomers, in particular Littrow (Wiener Zritschrifl, 1822, No. 53, 54), and, yet ear- Uer, the authors of the great description of Egypt, thought the solstice on the zo- diac of Tentyra to be the summer solstice. The vernal equinox would then fall be- tween Taurus and Aries, consequently 45° farther forward than at present From this it would follow, that the zodiac would be as old as 45 times 711 years, or 3228 years. This last supposition would be justified if the constellation which is the first in the zodiac were that which the sun must enter first after the heliacal rise of Sirius. There are many reasons which induce us to beUeve this. The appear- ZODIAC OF DENDERAH. 181 ance of Sirius foUoAVcd a few days after the summer solstice: it Avas a sign of the rising of the Nile, and of the beginning of the agiicultural year in Egypt. This reference to the beginning of the agricul- tural year adds great force to this suppo- sition. The accompanying hieroglyphics, as the child on the lotus flower near Aries, the rising sun, the point of the vernal equinox, are additional arguments. Con- siderations drawn from astronoiny and the progress of the arts, induced E. G. Vis- conti to believe this planisphere and the whole temple, which undoubtedly Avere executed at the same time, to be of a far more recent origin. He assigned this building to the time when the uncertain Thoth, the commencement of the uncer- tain Egyptian year, coincided with the sign of Leo, Avhich Avas the case from the year 12 to the year 132 of our era. (See Notice sommaire des deux Zodiaques de Tentyra, in the 2d volume of Larcher's Hcrodote, page 567 et 6eq.) To this date, belonging to the first years of the Roman dominion, the authors of the great descrip- tion of Egypt have opposed strong reasons. In case this hypothesis should not be approved, Visconti had another ready. Proceeding on the theory of De la Nauze, who took an Egyptian Normal year as the basis of his calculation, he assigned these monuments to the period of the Ptolemies. A single Greek inscription, in an obscure place in the Isaium, was not a very con- clusive, argument in favor of this hypothe- sis, which, besides, is exposed to strong objections, if we compare the architecture of these buildings with other monuments of that period. They are executed in so pure an Egyptian style, that they exclude every idea of foreign influence hostile to the religion of the country. No one, therefore, can think of ascribing them to the old enemies of the Egyptian worship, the Persians, those destroyers of temples. There is, then, no alternative but to refer their origin to a period Avhcn the country was under its native kings. Putting out of view the astronomical representations, the authors of the description of Egypt are inclined to assign the building of tlie temple, whose execution harmonizes so accurately with the original plan as to be evidently die creation of tlie same time, to that period Avhen the Egyptian art appears to have reached its highest per- fection, the period between Necho and Amasis, when magnificent edifices Avere erected in the Delta, and Memphis was in its splendor. The dispute concerning the antiquity of this monument is not yet fin- voe. iv. 16 ished, and was by no means brought nearer to a decision by mutilating die whole, and carrying a piece of it to Europe. Preconceived opinions have affected the discussion of this subject. Thus an essay of Dupuy on this zodiac Avas suppressed by the police of Paris, as tending to pro- mote infidelity (August, 1822). A young Frenchman, S. Sauluier, whose ambition was excited by the rich spoils carried off" by the English, conceived the idea of pro- curing this zodiac for his native country. As he was prevented from going to Egypt personally, he left the transportation of it to his friend H. Lelorrain, who embarked, in 1820, for Alexandria, provided with the necessaiy instruments. Mohammed Ali showed a deplorable readiness to permit the sacred monuments of Tentyra to be mutilated. Upon the roof of the temple Arabians had, in earlier times, fixed their abodes ; it Avas necessaiy to remove their deserted huts ; and their rubbish, together with that already accumulated, formed a plane upon which the blocks of sand- stone could slide down to the banks of the Nile. A vehicle of the invention of M. Lelonain Avas used for this purpose. Le- lorrain selected the small circular zodiac in the upper apartment. As the Avhole stone on which the zodiac was repre- sented was too large to lie carried off, extending, as it did, the whole width of the ceiling, and resting on the walls on each side, M. Lelonain contented himself with the portion covered by the zodiac, a small part of which, projecting over (he main stone, and contained on a contigu- ous one, he left, not thinking it worth the trouble of removing. The removal was effected by means of chisels, saws and gunpowder. The stone was exceedingly well preserved, only blackened by soot, perhaps of the time when the mysteries and the Avorship of animals were solem- nized in these sanctuaries. This smoke may also have destroyed the colors by which, it is probable, the hieroglyphics were formerly distinguished. The stone is of the same kind of sand-stone of which all the monuments between Phylae and Denderah are composed. Scarcely was this work of destruction finished, Avhen anodier explorer, Mr. Salt, the English consul, laid claims to the booty, assert- ing prior rights to eveiy thing dug up at Tentyra. The bashaAv of Egypt decided for the Frenchman, because the zodiac was taken from the roof. Le- lorrain at length anived safe with his booty at Marseilles. Here a compari- son with die plates in the great work on 182 ZODIAC OF DENDERAH—DEXIXA. Egypt shoAved that every thing was in its right place, but that the drawing had been embellished in a way which AA-as not con- firmed by the monument In January, 1^22, he arrived at Paris, Avhere the pro- prietors caused a drawing to bo taken by Gau, containing all the discernible figures. The French government purchased the planisphere for 150,000 francs. The dis- putes relative to the epoch of its origin were renewed with fresh ardor. St. Mar- tin, in his Notice sur le Zodiaque de Den- derah, etc., maintains that the monument was erected as early as 569, arid not ear- lier than 900 B. C.; but his opinion is not satisfactorily proved; nor is that of Mr. Biot, which Joinard has controverted in the Rev. Encycl. (1822). On the other hand, Letronne, in Iris Critical and Archae- ological Observations on the Signs of the Zodiac (Paris, 1823), maintains that there is no monument among the signs of the F.gyptian, Greek and Roman zodiacs older than the common era. With this opinion agrees also that of the abbe Ilalma, in his Examen et Explication du Zodiaque de Denderah, etc. (3 vols., Paris, 1822, -with copper-plates). Letronne considers the zodiacs of Esne and Denderah as astro- logical curiosities of the times of the Ro- man emperors. The Avciglit of opinion at present is, that these figures arc inscrip- tions of about the same antiquity as the Christian era. Dendrites, or Arborizations ; an ap- pellation given to figures of vegetables observed in fossil substances, and which are of two kinds, the one superficial, the other internal. The first are chiefly found on the surface of stones, and between the strata and the fissures of those of a calca- reous nature. They are mostly broAvn, changing gradually to reddish-yellow. The internal dendrites are of a deep black. The most esteemed sorts are those found in agates, and particularly in the sardo- nyx, cornelian, and other precious stones brought from the East, and Avhich are commonly denominated Moka stones. Dengue Fever. (See Fever.) Den ham, Dixon, lieutenant-colonel, well knoAvn by his expedition into Central Africa, was bom at London, in 1786, and, after finishing his studies at school, Avas placed Avith a solicitor, but, in 1811, en- tered the army as a Aolunteer, and served in the peninsular campaigns. After the general peace, he was reduced to half pay on the peace establishment, and, in 1819, Avas admitted into the senior department of the royal military college at Farnham. In 1623—4, he was engaged, in com- pany with captain Clappcrton and doctor Oudnev, in exploring the central regions of Africa. (For an account of their expe- ditious, see Clapperton.) His coinage, ad- dress, firmness, perseverance and modera- tion, his bold, frank, energetic disposition, and bis conciliating manners, peculiarly fit- ted him for such an undertaking. The nar- rative of the discoveries of the travellers Avas prepared by Deiiham. In 1826, he went to Siena Leone, as superintendent of the liberated Africans, and, in lc^28, Avas appointed lieutenant-governor of the colo- ny ; but, on the 9th of June of the same year, he died of a fever, after an illness of a few days. Denham, sir John, a poet, was born at Dublin, in 1615, the son of sir John Den- ham, chief baron of the exchequer in Ire- land. He Avas educated in London and at Oxford. Although dissipated and ir- regular at the univei-sity, he passed his examination for a bachelor's degree, and then removed to Lincoln's Inn to study law. In 1641, he first became knoAvn by bis tragedy of the Sophy. This piece Avas so much admired, that Waller observed, "Denham had broken out like the Jii.-h rebellion, 60,000 strong, Avium no person suspected it" At the commencement of the civil war, he received a military com- mand ; but, not liking a soldiers life, he gave it up, and attended the court at Oxford, where, in 1643, he published the first edition of his most celebrated poem, called Cooper's Hill, lie was subsequent- ly intrusted with several confidential com- missions by the king's party, one of which was to collect pecuniary aid from the Scottish residents in Poland. He returned to England in 1552; but how he employed himself until the restoration, does not ap- pear. Upon that event, he obtained the oflice of surveyor of the king's buildings, and was created a knight of the Bath, anil a fellow of the newly-formed royal society. A second marriage, at an advanced age, caused him much disquiet, and a tempo- rary derangement; but he recovered, and retained the esteem of the lettered and die courtly until his death, in 1688, when his re- mains were interred in Westminster abbey. Denina, Giacomo Carlo, a historian, born in 1731, at Revel, in Piedmont, stud- ied belles-lettres at Turin, and received the professorship of humanity at the royal school at Pignerol. When the chair of rhetoric at the superior college of Turin was vacant, Denina was made professor in the coUege and university. He now pub- lished the three first volumes of his His- tory of die ItaUuu Revolutions (Turin, DENINA—] ■DENMARK. 183 1769, 3 vols., quarto), containing a general history of Italy, Avhich subjected him to some inconveniences, by exciting the ill will of the defenders of the privileges of the clergy. In 1777, he travelled, on account of his health, to Rome, made a stay at Florence, received an invitation to Prussia, went to Berlin in September, 1782, Avas presented to the king by the marquis Lucchcsini, and appointed a member of the academv, Avith a salary of 1200 Prussian dollars." He had several conversations with Frederic the Great, an account of whoso lifi; and reign he after- wards Avrote. I le also published La Prus- se lilleraire sous Frederic II (3 volumes). In 1791, he made a journey to Piedmont, and published, on his return to Berlin, the Guide lilleraire. As early as 17(30, his Discorso sopra le Vicente ildla Littcratura appeared in Berlin. It is a valuable con- tribution to the history of literature, and has been translated into German and French. Most of his works were written at Berlin; as, for instance, Iris History of Piedmont and of the other Sardinian States; Political and Literary History of Greece; and Letters from Brandenburg. After the battle of Marengo, the council of administration appointed him librarian at the university of Turin. Before he entered upon this oflice, he wrote Iris Clef des Langues, ou Observations, etc., which he dedicated to the first consul. He received, in return, an honorable letter and a gold snuff-box, through Duroc. This favor was followed by the offer of the place of librarian to the emperor, upon which he repaired to Paris. In. 1805 appeared his Historico-siatistical Picture of Upper Italy. He ilied in 1813. Dem s or D enys, St., A n bey of ; a church celebrated in history. The saint (Dionys- ius) to whom it is consecrated, having been sent from Rome into Gaul to preach the gospel, died by the hand of the public execuiioner, about the end of the 3d cen- tury. Catuila, a heathen lady, affected by "the martyr's constancy, obtained his body, which had been thrown into the rVinr, buried it in her garden, became a Chri>tian, and erected a small chapel over his tomb, which was afterwards rebuilt on a more extensive plan, by St. Genevieve, and became, in the 6th century, one of the most flourishing abbeys. This large edi- fice is still standing, a noble structure, the oldest Christian church in France. On the left was the principal entrance, a large door Avith two small doors at the sides, ornamented with statues of the ancient paints and French kings, carved in stone. The interior of the church AA'as enriched with pious offerings and works of art. In the large vaults under the choir reposed the remains of several kings of die first and second races, and all the rulers of the third race, from Hugh Capet to Louis XVI. At present, the heads of all the saints and kings at the entrance are wanting, and the vaults are A-acant, all the bodies having been removed during the revolution. Oct. 16,1793, at the time Avhen the queen Avas beheaded in Paris, the coffin of Louis XV was taken out of the vaults cf St. Denis, and, after a stormy debate, it Avas decided to throw die remains of all the kings, even those of Henry IV and Louis XIV, which were yet, in a good degree, pre- served entire, and recognised with perfect certainty, into a pit, to melt down their leaden coffins on the spot, and to take away and melt into bullets w hatcver lead there was besides in the church (the whole roof, for example). Napoleon's decree of the 20th February, 1806, made St. Denis again the burial-place of the reigning family of France ; the church was repair- ed and ornamented, and marked with the emblems of the new dynasty, particularly the large N. Napoleon had selected a vaulted room for the tomb of himself and his consort. Louis XVIII obliterated from St. Denis all traces of Napoleon's rule, buried whatever bones of hw ancestors could be found, especially the relics of Louis XVI and his family, in the ancient sepulchre of the kings, and instituted canons, whose duty it is to protect tho tombs within. These canons of St. De- nis are the most distinguished in France, and form a convent, the abbot of which is a bishop. Denized. In England, a denizen is an aUen born, avIio has obtained letters patent whereby he is constituted an English sub- ject A denizen is in a middle state be- tween an alien and a natural born or nat- uralized subject, partaking of the nature of both. He may take lands by purchase, or derive a title by descent through his pa- rents or any ancestor, though they be aliei:s. Denmark; the smallest of the northern European kingdoms. The oldest inhab- itants of Denmark Avere Germans, bravo and spirited men, who gained their sup- port from the sea. The Cimbri, Avho derived their origin from them, dwelt in the peninsula of Jutland, the Chersonesus Cimbrica of the Romans. They first struck terror into the Romans by then in- cursion, with the Tcutones, into the rich provinces of Gaul. After this, led by tho mysterious Odin, the Goths broke into 184 DENMARK. ScandinaA-ia, and appointed chiefs from their own nation over Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Skiold is said to have been the first ruler of Denmark. His lristory, however, and that of his posterity, is in- volved in fable. AU Ave knoAV Avidi cer- tainty is, that Denmark Avas divided, at this time, into many small states, that the inhabitants gained their subsistence by piracy, and spread tenor through every sea, and along every coast to which they came. When the power of the Romans began to decline, the Danes and Normans became conspicuous in the South by their incursions upon the shores, Avhich were formerly protected by the guard-ships of the Romans. The Normans (compre- hending the people of Denmark, Sweden and Norway) landed in England A. D. 832, and established there two kingdoms. Under Rollo, in 911, they made a descent on the French coasts in Normandy, occu- pied the Faroe isles, the Orcades, the Shet- land isles, Iceland, and a part, of Ireland, and thence proceeded to Spain, Italy and Sicily. Wherever they came, they spread terror by their valor, ferocity and rapacity. These expeditions made little change in their national govemnient: it still contin- ued a federative system of many clans or tribes, each of Avhich had its own head, and all Avere united under one sovereign. When the German kings of the Carlovin- gian race attempted to interfere with their domestic affairs, the tribes entered into a c!o>cr union, and the Norwegians and Danes formed two separate states. Gorm the Old first subdued Jutland, in 863, and united all the small Danish states under Iris sceptre till 920. II is grandson Sweyn, a warlike prince, subdued a part of Nor- way in 1000, and England in 1014. His son Canute, in 1016, not only completed the conquest of England, but also subdued a part of Scotland, and, in 1030, all Nor- way. Under him the power of Denmark reached its highest pitch. Political mo- tives led him to embrace the Christian religion, and to introduce it into Denmark ; upon Avhich a great change took place in the character of the people. Canute died in 1036, and left a powerful kingdom to his successors, who, in 1042, lost England, and, in 1047, Norway. The Danish king- dom was, after this, very much Aveakened by intestine broils. Sweyn Magnus Es- tritson ascended the throne in 1047, and established a new dynasty; but the feudal system, introduced by the wars of Sweyn and Canute, robbed the kingdom of all its Strength under this dynasty, which fur- nished not a single worthy prince except the great Waldemar, left the princes de- pendent on the choice of the bishops and nobility, plunged the peasants into bond- age, caused the decay of agriculture, and abandoned commerce to the Hanse towns of Germany. With Waldemar III, in 1376, the male line of the family of Estrit- son became extinct His politic daughter Margaret, after the deadi of her son Olave IV, A. D. 1387, took the helm of the Danish govemnient, ascended the throne of Sweden and Norway, and established the union of Calmar (q. v.), in 1397. After the extinction of the princes of the family of Skiold, the Danes elected Christian I, count of Oldenburg, to succeed him, iu 1448. This Christian AA-as the founder of the royal Danish family, which has, ever since, kept possession of the throne, and from Avhich, in modem times, Russia, Sweden and Oldenburg have received their rulers. He connected Norway, SlesAvic and Holstein with the crown of Denmark, but was so fettered by his capit- ulations, that he seemed to be rather the head of the royal council than a sovereign king. His son, king John, was bound by a still more strict capitulation, in Den- mark, 1481. In Norway, too, his power Avas more circumscribed. Holstein and Sleswic he shared with Frederic, his brother. King Christian II (q. v.), son of John, a wicked and cruel, but by no means Aveak, prince, attempted to throw off his dependence on the states; but, in doing it, he lost Sweden, which broke the union of Calmar in 1523 ; and, soon after, he was deprived of both his other crowns. Denmark and Norway eleA'ated his fa- ther's brother, Frederic I, to the throne. Under this prince, the aristocracy gained the entire superiority; bondage was estab- lished by law; the reformation was intro- duced ; and, in 1522, Norway was united with Denmark. Christian III, his eldest son, divided SlesAvic and Holstein with his brothers, John and Adolphus, the latter of Avhom founded the house of Holstehi- Gottorp ; but this division was the ground of long and bitter disputes. He was suc- ceeded, in 1559, by king Frederic II, who conquered the Ditmars, and became in- volved, in a Avar with Sweden respecting the possession of Livonia. This war was concluded by the peace of Stettin, 1570. Christian IV, who succeeded in 15F8, took part in the thirty years' war, and twice engaged in a war with Sweden; the last time with such unhappy consequences, that by die peace of Bromsebro, in 1645, Denmark had to cede to Sweden Jiimpt- land, Herjedalen beyond the mountains, DENMARK. 185 Gothland and Oesel, provinces which it had retained ever since the union ; besides putting Halland in her hands for 30 years. The riiults of the Danish form of govern- ment, and the restraints on the crown, had principally contributed to make the Dan- ish arms unsuccessful. The same misfor- tune attended them also in the nsvv war, begun with Sweden by king Frederic III, in lu.">7. In the peace of Roschild, in 1058, and-that of Copenhagen, in 1660, he lost Schonen, Bleckingen, Bohus and Hal- land. This caused the abolition, in 16(>0, of the constitution of the states: the nation itself granted the king absolute power, and rendered the crown hereditary. Norway did the sains in 1661. The Danish nobili'y, however, retained the most important offices of state, and the result did not answer the expectations which had been entertained of the new arrangement. Christian V and Frederic IV were conquered in the Avar with Charles XII. Denmark, however, after the fall of Charles XII, gained by the peace of 1720, at Frederie.-hurg, the toll on the Sound, and maintained possession of Sleswic. After this, the state enjoyed a long repose; but the avouikIs inflicted by its ill successes and its defective form of government, could not be healed by the peaceful system now adopted. Denmark, having but feAV resources, can prosper only by wis.; moderation and careful manage- ment The political machine, once dis- ordered, requires a long time for restora- tion. In 1726, Denmark united with the crown the county of Ranzau; in 1761, Ilo'stein-Plon; and, in 1773, Holstein-Got- torp. In return for the latter, by a treaty with Russia, it ceded the counties of Ol- denburg and Delmenhorst, which were acquired in 1667. In 1730, Christiau VI succeeded Frederic IV, and loft Iris crown, in 1746, to his son Frederic V. Christian VII (q. v.) received the sceptre in 1766. He governed entirely by his ministers. (See the article Stniensee.) The present king, Frederic VI (q. v.) was declared of age at 16 years, and, in April 14,1784, was appointed regent on account of the insani- ty of his father, whom he succeeded, after his death, A. D. 1808. In consequence of the defensive alliance with Russia, in 1788, a Danish auxiliary corps marched into Sweden without opposition; but, on the representations of England and Prus- sia, an armistice was concluded a fortnight after the commencement of hostilities. Thus ended this fruitless campaign, which imposed on the impoverished finances a burden of 7,000,000 rix doUars, Denmark 16* maintained her neutrality with more suc- cess, in 1792, when the allied povvers wished her to take part in the war against France. But, by her accession to the Northern confederacy, in 1800, she Avas involved in a war with Great Britain, in which the Danish fleet Avas defeated at Copenhagen, April 2,1801. The courage of the Danes, however, obtained for them a truce, upon winch Denmark acceded to the treaty of Russia with England, com- pleted July 20, eAacuated Hamburg an I Liibeck, of which she had possession, and received back her own colonies. At length, in 1807, this state was included in Napoleon's continental policy. A French army stood on the borders of Denmark', Russia had adopted the continental sys- tem at the peace of Tilsit, and England thought it her duty to prevent the acces- sion of Denmark to this alliance. A fleet Of 23 ships of the line was sent up tho Sound, August 3, which demanded cf Denmark a defensive alliance, or the sur- render of her fleet, as a pledge of her neu- trality. Both were denied. Upon this, a British army landed, consisting of 25,C00 men, under lord Cathcart; and, after an unsuccessful resistance on the part, of tho Danes, avIio were unprepared for such an attack, Copenhagen Avas surrounded Au- gust 17. As the goveniment repeatedly refused to yield to the British demands, the capital Avas bombarded for three days, and 400 houses laid in ashes, in the ruins cf which 1300 of the inhabitants perished. September 7, Copenhagen capitulated, and the whole fleet, completely equipped, and including 18 ships of the line, 15 frigates, &c, was delivered up to the British, and carried off* in triumph. The crews, who had fought on those days with distinguished bravery, were made prisoners of" Avar. Great Britain now offered the crown- prince neutrality or an alliance, If he accepted the first, the Danish fleet was to be restored in three years after the gen- eral peace, and the island of Heligoland Avas to be ceded to the British crown, The crown-prince, however, rejected all proposals, declared Avar against Great Britain in October, 1807, and entered into a treaty with Napoleon, at Fontaineblcau, October 31. Upon this, Bernadotte occu- pied the Danish islands with 30,000 men, in order to land in Sweden, against which Denmark had declared Avar in April, 1808. This plan Avas defeated by the Avar with Austria, in 1809, and die hostilities against Sweden in Norway ceased the same year. The demand made by the court of Stock-* holm, in 1813, of a transfer of Norway to 186 DENMARK. Sweden, was followed by a new war with this crown, and a new alliance with Napo- leon, July 10, 1813. On this account after the battle of Leipsic, the northern poAvers, who Avere united against France, occupied Holstein and Sleswic. Gliick- stadt and other fortifications were cap- tured, and the Danish troops driven beyond Flensburg. Denmark now concluded a peace with England and Sweden, Jan. 14, 1814, at Kiel. She also entered into an alliance against France, and contributed a body of troops to the allied forces. She was obliged to cede Heligoland to Great Britain (recehing in exchange the West India islands), and Nonvay to Sweden (for which she was compensated by Swedish Potnerania and Riigen). A peace Avas coucluded with Russia in February, 1814. Jan. 14, 1815, Denmark ceded SAvedish Pomerania and Riigen to Prussia, and received for them Lauenburg and a pecu- niary compensation. June 8, 1815, the king entered into the German confedera- cy Avith Holstein and Lauenburg, and received in it the tenth place, and three votes in the general assembly (the plenum); after which, by the appointment of a de- cemviral commission, preliminary meas- ures Avere taken to introduce a representa- tive government into Holstein. Denmark consists of the islands of Zea- land, Fiihnen, Langeland, Laaland, Fal- si or, Bornholm and Moen, the peninsula of Jutland and the duchy of Sleswic. To the Danish kingdom belong also two states of the German confederacy, the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg; likewise the Faroe islands, Iceland, the western coast of Greenland, some places in Guinea, and the city and territory of Tranquebar, in the East Indies. Denmark Proper and Sles- wic contain only 17,375 square miles; Iceland and the Faroe islands, 30,270; the German states, 3665; and the colonies, 7173. The whole kingdom, with its de- pendencies, contains 58,500 square miles, of which Iceland and die coast of Green- land compose 36,128. Denmark Proper is estimated to contain 1,230,000 inhabitants ; Holstein and Lauenburg, 370,000; Ice- land, in the year 1823, 49,269; the Faroe ihlands, 5300; and the rest of the colonies, 101,000; so that the whole kingdom con- tains 1,750,000, or, according to some ac- i-cunts, 1,864,534 inhabitants. The peo- ple, partly Danes and partly Germans, speak Danish in Denmark Proper, Norse in Iceland and the Faroe islands, and German in the high and low German and Frisian dialects. Bondage no longer pre- vails among the peasants, but they con- tinue to be attached to the soil in Den- mark Proper. The principal island, Zea- land (Dan. Siilland), is separated by the Sound (q. v.) from Sweden, the island Fiih- nen (Dan. Fyen) by the Great Belt, from Zealand, and by the Little Belt from the peninsula of Jutland (Dan. Jylland): these three straits fomi the passage from tho German ocean to the Baltic sea. The country is perfectly level, with the excep- tion ol" a single ridge of moderate eleva- tion, which runs through the duchies. The coasts are low, and, for the most part, protected against the encroachments of the Avaves by flats, and require artificial dykes only on the side of the German ocean. The soil consists partly of marshes and partly of heaths, and the country is mod- erately fruitful. By the improvident ex- tirpation of the woods, which protected the northern and north-western coasts of Jut- land against the sea, vast extents of fruitful territory have become barren and sandy deserts. The church at Skagen, in the most northern parish of Jutland, at present lies almost buried in heaps of sand, driven up by the sea. An attempt has lately been made to check this devastation, by planting firs, birches, &c, also certain herbs that flourish best in sand; by which means a great part of those sandy regions have once more put on a verdant dress. Bo- sides the Elbe, the boundary stream of the kingdom, it has only a few rivers on the coast. There are many lakes in the inte- rior, as the Schall and the Ratzeburger lakes in Lauenburg, Ploiier and Scienter lakes in Holstein; and several bays, the most considerable of Avhich is situated in North Jutland, called the Llmfiord. The Cattegat or Skaggerack,between the coasts of Jutland and Sweden, is considered by some as a bay : it is connected Avith the Baltic by the Sound and the two Belts. The climate, for the most part, is temper- ate, but very wet The staple produc- tions of Denmark are grain, rape-seed, tobacco, &c.: 4,000,000 pounds of the last are raised annually, and sold mostly in foreign countries. Hemp and flax are not raised in sufficient quantities to satisfy the demand of the people: the same is the case with madder (which, however, thrives very Avell), and with hops. Horticulture is neglected in Denmark Proper. Sea-weed is used for stuffing cushions, &c, instead of horse-hair. Forests are rare, and the price of wood high; turf, hoAA-ever, is very abundant The breeding of cattle fur- nishes the only important article of expor- tation : for example, eveiy year Denmark Proper exports 16,000 horses and 7000 DENMARK. 187 oxen. Olofsen fixes the number of homed cattle, not including those raised in the duchies, at 1,484,000 head : the sheep amount to 1,338,000 head, including 20,000 merinos. Swine and poultry, too, are raisi >d in large numbers. The larger kinds of game are very rare. The fisheries sup- ply a part of North Germany Avith herring, oysters, lobsters, &c. Among the miner- als are clay, iron, copper, alum, lime (in Segebcrg), and salt (less than is wanted) from salt-springs. The manufactures are fcAv, and carried on principally in Copen- hagen and Altona : the Danish gloves, which come from Jutland, are esteemed in Germany. Trade, especially to the West Indies, and navigation, have begun to revive. The Holstein canal joins the Baltic sea and the North sea. The char- ter of the Asiatic company was extended, iu 1812, to 30 years after the peace; but die shares have fallen. Denmark hoav contains, without including Iceland and the Faroe islands, 100 cities, 37 boroughs, 2305 parishes and 5500 villages. The government is an absolute monarchy. The crown is hereditary both in the male and female line. The king's oldest son is styled the crown-prince; the other prin- ces of the blood are called princes of Den- mark. Copenhagen is the royal residence. The title of the sovereign, since Jan. 1, 1820, has been, king of Denmark, of the Vandals and the Goths, duke of Sleswic, Holstein, Stormarn, the Ditmarsh, and of Lauenburg and Oldenburg. The orders of knighthood are the order of the elephant and the order of the Danebrog (order of die royal banner). In Denmark Proper there are no estates. The highest council of state is the privy council, to which the administration of domestic affairs has be- longed since 1814. The Lutheran is the prevailing reUgion, but unlimited tolera- tion is extended to every religious sect, not excepting the Jews. There are two universities (at Copenhagen and Kiel). There is also an academy of aits, a royal society of sciences, and many private in- stitutions and societies of learned men, 40 gymnasia, and 13 seminaries of teach- ers. Lancastrian or monitorial schools Avere first estabUshed in Denmark in 1823; but their progress has been rapid beyond example. In 1823, the system Avas intro- duced into 244 schools: in 1824, the num- ber was 605; in 1825, 1143; in 1826, 1543; in 1827, 2003; in 1828, 2302; and in 1829, the additions made would carry it to 2616. The Sound dues now afford a revenue of more than 450,000 dollars. The public debt, it is conjec- tured, amounts in silver to 10 million rix dollars banco of foreign, and 100 millions of domestic debt, including two recent loans in Hamburg and London. The value of bank-bills in circulation, in 1823, a little exceeded 21,325,000 rix dollars banco. Paper money is worth about 40 per cent in comparison with specie; and a bank dollar in silver is Avorth 1| Ham- burg marks banco. The land force con- sisted, in 1823, of 30,838 men, exclusive of the militia. The marine is subject to a board of admiralty, or commissariate. In 1826, the navy consisted of 4 ships of the line, 7 frigates, 4 corvettes, 5 brigs, 1 schooner, and 80 gun-boats. Danish Language, Literature and Arts. The Danish language is a daughter of the Low German and the original Norman, which was, in the 10th centuiy, driven to Iceland. It is believed by many, that the Anglo-Saxon language is, in fact, the Danish, and that it has been retained in its purity by the Irish. The first culti- vators of this language in Denmark, as in Sweden and Norway, were the Scalds, who wrote poems in the pure German dialect, and, follovA'ing their princes and generals, sung in rhymeless verse the deities and exploits of their nation. After the iirtroduction of Christianity (about 1000), historical poems only continued to be composed (till 1265). For the intro- duction of this religion into Denmark, at the same time with the art of writing, the foundation Avas laid by the German mis- sionary, Ansehar. (SeeAnsgar.) Canute tlie Great (1015—1036), inspired by his wife, Emma, with zeal for Christianity, and a Uberal spirit towards die clergy, sent Anglo-Saxon teachers to Denmark, established the bishoprics of Schonen, Zealand, and Fuhnen, and spread Chris- tianity through all the rest of the North. He sought to promote trade and com- merce, coined new money, and established more fixed laws. Immediately after Chris- tianity, chivalry, also, was introduced into Scandinavia, particularly by the French crusades, and found an easy reception among the inhabitants, who were extreme- ly fond of bold adventures. Tournaments were so common at the Danish court, that eveiy stranger Avho visited it was obliged to break a spear Avith some of the cour- tiers. The Danes engaged in the first crusade. This new spirit of chivalry had necessarily a favorable influence on poetiy. The oldest Danish poetiy extant is the epic of the Skyklingians, first published complete by ThorkeUn (De Danorum rd. Gest. Send. Hid IV, Pocma Dan.Dialect. 188 DENMARK. Anglo-Saxon, etc. Copenhagen, 1815,4to.). Of a much later date (16th centuiy) is the collection of the heroic ballads and ro- mances of love (Kjempeviscr and Elskovsri- ser), published by Wedel and Syv, and latest by Abrahamson, Xyerup and Rah- beek, 1812—14, in 5 vols., which has been translated into German by W. L. Grimm, AA'ho has done much for the northern poetiy (Altdunischc Heldenlieder, Balladen, und Miirchen, Heidelburg, 1811). Nyerup and Rahbeck likcAvise published, a short time since, a selection from the manu- script Danish poems of the middle ages, with valuable commentaries. Their poet- ical value, iudeed, is very unequal; but most of them contain genuine poetry, and much national spirit. The latest Danish dramatists haA'e drawn much from these storehouses. Among tho heroic )>ooms, many illustrate the cycle of the old Heldcn- buck. (q. v.) The first Danish historians are Sueno (Svend) Aagcsen (about 1188), and the celebrated Saxo-Granmiaticus, prop- erly Lang, of Schoncn (avIio died in 1204), both of whom, by the suggestion of Absa- lon, archbishop of Lund, wrote, the former a concise history of the Danish kings from 300 to 118!.i (Sucnonis Aggonis Opuscula, cd. Stcpliaii. Sora, 10-12), the latter a com- plete, history of Denmark (Historic, Libb. xvi. ed. Stephanius Horn, 1644 ; Klotziup, 1771, 4to.), to the year 1186, iu 16 vols, in a correct Latin style. The refonnation, introduced in 1527, and still more the ex- tension of trade, had a great influence on the intellectual progress of Denmark. In consequence of the reformation, the Ger- mans obtained an important influence over the church and the literature of Denmark. The Danes studied in Germany. German was the language of the court, and Latin the language of the learned. The at- tempts of authors in their a-, Mr. Bowring was in Copenhagen, collecting materials for an English trans- lation of ancient Danish ballads, and the most celebrated lyrical pieces of modem Danish poets. Denner, Balthaser, a celebrated portrait painter, was born at Hamburg in 1685, and died at Rostock in 1749. He was especially distinguished for the remarka- ble exactness of his execution, or rather die almost microscopic accuracy of his paintings. He learned to draw at Altona, and to paint in oil at Dantzic, and after- Avarris travelled. All the northern princes invited him to their courts to paint their portraits. The emperor Charles v I paid him 4700 florins for the head of an aged woman. It is iioav in the imperial gallery at A'ienna. Denner likew ise painted the head of an old man for the same prince, a pendant of the former, Avhich is also a masterpiece. There arc some beautiful portraits painted by him in Munich. Denner, John Christian, invented tho clarinet. He Avas bom at Leipsic in 1655, and Avent to Nuremberg Avith Iris parents in his eighth year, Avhere he was emplo3red in making wind instruments, especially flutes. He died in 1707. Denneavitz ; a small town in the march of Brandenburg, famous for the battle be- tween the French and Prussians, Sept. 6, 1813, the former commanded by Xey (under Avhom were Oudinot, Bertram!, Regnier and Anighi), the latter by Tau- enzien and Biilow. 40,000 Pnissians maintained their ground for several hours against 80,000 French ; and, on the arrival of the Russian and Swedish battalions, victory declared in favor of the allies, who, after the Russians and Swedes came up, were far superior in numbers. The French were defeated, and fled in disor- der, with their auxiliaries, consisting of Bavarians, Wurtembergians, Saxons and Poles. This battle was a consequence of the battle at Grosbeeren. (q. v.) Denn-ie, Joseph, bom in Boston, Aug. 30, 1768, Avas the son of a respectable merchant. He early evinced a decided fondness for polite literature, and entered Harvard college in 1787. He left this institution in 1790, and entered the office of a lawyer at Charleston, N. II. At tho expiration of three years, he made a suc- cessful debut at the bar. From Charles- ton he soon removed to Walpcle, where he opened an office, but gained very little business, owing to his literary taste and irregular habits. For four months, he officiated as reader of prayers for an Episcopalian congregation at Claremont In the spring of 1795, he endeavored to establish, at Boston, a weekly paper under the title of The Tablet. This, however, survived but a short time. Not long after, he returned to Walpole, to act as oditoi of the Fanner's Museum, a journal in which he published a series of essays, Avith the signature of The Lay Preacher. In 1799, he went to Philadelphia, in con- sequence of being appointed a clerk in the office of the secretary of 6tate, On Ui© DENNIE—DENON. 191 dismissal of his patron, Mr. Pickering, he left the department, and engaged in the conduct of a literary journal, the Port Folio, for Avhich his name and talents acquired considerable patronage and ce- lebrity. His reputation, bis colloquial powers, and amiable disposition, attracted to him a large number of literary disciples and coadjutors. With industry and dis- cretion, he might have gained indepen- dence and permanent happiness; but he was deficient in both qualities, and grad- ually destroyed, by his imprudence, his bodily constitution, as Avell as all hopes of fortune. Jan. 7, 1812, he died—a victim to anxiety and complicated disease. Mr. Deimie possessed a brilUant genius, a del- icate taste, a beautiful style, a ready pen, a rich fund of elegant literature, an excel- lent heart, and a captivating countenance and manner, and, with a proper exercise of industry and judgment, might have acquired a lasting reputation. Dexnis, John; an English dramatist and critic. He Avas the son of a citizen of London, Avhere he Avas bom in 1657. Having completed his studies at Cam- bridge, he made the tour of France and Italy, and, on his return, devoted himself to literary occupations, living upon his fortune, Avhich had been left him by an uncle. In 1697, he produced a comedy, entitled Plot and no Plot, which was fol- lowed by several dramatic pieces and poems of little value. He also became a political writer for the whig party. The irritability of his disposition, heightened, probably, by the unprosperous state of his finances, involved him in perpetual broils, and made him a sort of standing jest with the wits of his time. Having Avritten a tragedy entitled Liberty Asserted, which became popular during the Avar with Louis XIV, in consequence of the abuse of the French with which it abounded, Dennis thought that monarch would never forgive the insult: Avhen, therefore, the treaty of Utrecht Avas about to be concluded, he entreated the duke of Marlborough to save him from being delivered up to the French government, as a state criminal. The duke told hiin that he thought he might make himself easy ; for though he had, he conceived, done as much harm to the French as Mr. Dennis, he had not thought it necessary to seek for personal indemnity. When his Appius and Vir- ginia was performed, he introduced a new in -tbod of imitating thunder, said to be still used at the theatre. The tragedy was soon set aside; but some time after, Dennis, being present at die representation of Mac- beth, perceived that his new invention had been adopted; on Avhich he exclaimed, "S'death! how these rascals use me; ^ they will not let my play run, yet they steal my thunder." He Avrote some scAcre strictures on Addison's Cato and Pope's Rape of the Lock. Pope, in return, gave him a place in the Dunciad, and, in con- junction Avith Swift, produced a sarcastic tract, entitled A Narrative of the deplora- ble Frenzy of Mr. John Dennis. After he had dissipated his fortune, the duke of Marlborough procured him the place of land Avaiter at the custom-house. This he disposed of, reserving only a temporary annuity; and in his old age, his necessities were relieved by a benefit at the Hay- market theatre, to Avhich his former an- tagonist, Pope, contributed a prologue. He died soon after, January 6, 1734. Denon, Dominique Vivant, baron do, was born Feb. 4, 1747, at Chalons-sur- Saone, of a noble family. He Avas des- tined to study laAV at Paris, where he Avas favorably received in society; and his talent and inclination led him to deA-ote himself to the aits. A comedy Avhich he Avrote, called the Good Father, gained him the favor of the ladies. His amiable manners made him a faA'orite of Louis XV, who appointed him gcntilhomme ordinaire about his person. He Avas afterwards attached to nn embassy at St. Petersburg, Avhere Catharine, however, observed him with a jealous eye. Subsequently lie was intrust- ed Avith a diplomatic mission to Switzer- land. On this occasion, he drew Voltaire's likeness (engraved by St. Aubin), and the well known picture Jje Dejeuner de Fer- ney. lie then occupied, during seven years, a place in the French embassy at Naples. His residence in this city, and repeated visits to Sicily and Malta, gave him an opportunity of exercising his talent for drawing and engraving. Denon had the principal direction of the artists en- gaged in preparing the abbe St. Non's Voyage piitoresque de Naples it de Sieil", and the text Avas chiefly taken from his journal. This elegant Avork appeared at Paris, in 1788. The remainder of Denon's journal, relating to Sicily and Malta, ap- peared separately, in 1788. His career at Naples Avas interrupted by the death of the minister Vcrgcnnes, his patron, or, according to some, by the displeasure of the queen, Maria Caroline. But still his love for the study of the great masters de- tained him in Italy. He resided at Venice during several years, Avhere he shone in the circles of the countess Albrizzi, who was distinguished for her amiable and in- 192 DENON—DENSITY OF THE EARTH. telligcnt character, and loved to be sur- rounded by men of talent. Denon was not forgotten in her Rittratti, where she bestows the greatest praise on his charac- ter, Iris passion for the arts, his cheerful- ness and amiable disposition, and excuses the raillery with which he attacked the foibles of others. The observation and restraint to which the reArolution subjected Frenchmen in foreign countries, compelled him to leave Venice. After a short stay in Florence and SAvitzcrland, he Avas obliged to return to France during the reign of terror; but he made himself agreeable to Robespierre, and Avas, in consequence, sub- sequently accused of devotion, at that time, to Jacobin principles. During this period, he exercised himself in engraving. At last, he became acquainted with Bonaparte, and immediately united himself Avith him. He accompanied the general in his cam- Eaigns to Italy and Egypt, and Desaix to pper Egypt. The Avork Avhich Avas the result of this journey, Avas an addition to Denon's fame, particularly the engravings which ornament it (Paris, 1802, 2 vols. fol., and 3 A-ols. 12mo., Avidiout engravings). Denon, in this, has shoAvn himself a very able artist Nature, animate and inani- mate, the monuments of centuries, and the Arabian flying through tlie Desert, are represented with great fidelity. When he returned to Paris Avith Bonaparte, he Avas appointed general director of the muse- ums, and all the Avorks of art executed in honor of the French successes—monu- ments, coins, the erection of the triumphal pillar in the Place de Vendome, &c. He accompanied Napoleon in all his cam- paigns, and employed himself in draw- ing, and in selecting those masterpieces in the conquered countries, which were taken to Paris as trophies. In 1815, he Avas compelled to AA'itness the restoration of the spoils. After the abdication of the emperor, he retained his office, but was deprived of it in 1815, in consequence of having joined Napoleon on his return from Elba. He retained, howeA'er, Iris •lace in the institute. From that time le lived retired, and the preparation of engravings and lithographs of his splendid collection of works of art, formed the occupation of his last years. He died at Paris, April, 28, 1825. His mind was active to the last. Denon much resembled Voltaire in his old age. In 1826 appeared at Paris the Description des Objets d'Art composant le Cabinet de feu M. le Bar. V. Denon, in 3 vols. (Monumens antiques, tableaux et estampes). The cabinet was sold by auction. Density, strictly speaking, denotes vi- cinity or closeness of particles; but in mechanical science, it is used as a term of comparison, expressing the proportion of the number of equal molecvlai, or the quantity of matter in one body to die number of equal molecvlai in the same bulk of another body. Density, therefore, is directly as the quantity of matter, and inversely as the magnitude of the body. Since it may be shown experimentally, that the quantities of matter, or the masses in different bodies, are proportional to their weight; of consequence, the density of any body is directly as its Aveight, and inversely as its magnitude ; or the inverse ratio of the magnitudes of two bodies, having experimentally equal weight (in the same place), constitutes the ratio of their densities. No body is absolutely or perfectly full of matter, so as to have no vacuity or interstices: on die contrary, it is the opinion of Newton, that even the densest bodies, as gold, &c, contain but a small portion of matter, and a great por- tion of A'acuity; or that they contain a great deal more pores or empty space than real substance. Density of the Earth. Thedetenni- nation of the density of the earth, as com- pared Avith that of water, or any other known body, is a subject Avhich has ex- cited considerable interest amongst modem mathematicians ; and nothing can, at first sight, seem more beyond the reach of hu- man science, than the due solution of this problem; yet this has been detennined, and on such principles, that, if it be not correctly true, it is probably an extremely near approximation. The first idea of determining the density of the earth was suggested by M. Bougucr, in consequence of the attraction of Chiniborazo, Avliich affected his plumb-line while engaged with Condaniine in measuring a degree of the meridian, near Quito, in Pem. This led to the experiments on the moun- tain Schehallien, in Scotland, which were carried on under the direction of doctor Maskelyne, and afterwards submitted to calculation by doctor Hutton, who deter- mined the density of the earth to be to that of water as 4£ to 1. But, in consequence of the specific gnrvity of the mountain being assumed rather less duui it ought to have been, the above result is less than the true density, as has since been shoAvn by doctor Hutton and professor Playfair, the former of Avhom makes it in his cor- rected paper, as 99 to 20, or nearly as 5 to 1. The same problem has been attempted on similar principles, but in a totally dif- DENSITY OF THE EARTH—DEODAND. 193 ferent manner, by the late Mr. Cavendish, who found the density of die earth to be to that of water, as 5.48 to 1. Taking a mean of all these, Ave have the density of the earth to that of water, as 5.24 to 1, and which, as we lie fore observed, is probably an extremely near approxi- mation. Dentifrice ; a preparation for clean- ing the teeth, of Avhich there are various kinds: generally, however, they are made of earthy substances mixed with alum. Those formed of acids are very pernicious. Deodand (Deo dandum); a thing to be given or dedicated to God. Persons who have attended trials for homicide will have observed that the indictment, in setting forth the manner of the death, alleges it to have been occasioned by a blow with a certain weapon, &c, " of the value of," &c. This allegation of the value of the tiring which caused the death, arose from the English law of deo- dands. It is provided in the Mosaical law, (Exod. xxi. 28), that " If an ox gore a man, that he die, the ox shall be stoned, and his flesh shall not be eaten." So, by the law of Athens, whatever was the cause of a man's death, by falling upon him, was destroyed, or cast out of the territory of the repubhe. This, says Mr. Christian, in his notes upou Blackstone's Commentaries, was one of Draco's laws; and perhaps we may think the judgment that a statue should be thrown into the sea for having fallen upon a man, less absurd, when we reflect that there is sound poUcy in teach- ing the mind to contemplate with honor the privation of human life, and that familiarity even with an insensible object, which has been the occasion of death, may lessen that sentiment. This reflec- tion, suggested by Mr. Christian in refer- ence to the Athenian law, does not seem to be the motive for the rule of the com- mon law of England, that whatever chattel causes the death of a person, shall be forfeited. It is an ancient doc- trine mentioned by Bracton (Omnia qua, movent ad mortem sunt Deo danda. 1. 3. c 5.), and its origin is attributed to the notion, that where a man was sud- denly cut off in his sins, expiation ought to be made for the benefit of his soul; and, accordingly, the chattel, which occasioned his death, should be for- feited to the king, to be devoted by him to pious uses. The statute of 4 Ed- ward I, st 2, relating to coroners, pro- vides that "horses, boats, carts, mills, &c, whereby any are slain, that properly are called deodands, shall be valued and voi. it 17 delivered unto the towns," Avhich there- upon became answerable to the king for their value ; in whose behalf the sheriff might levy the amount upon the inhabit- ants of the town. Accordingly, in aU indictments for homicide, in England, the grand jury specify the instrument that immediately caused the death, and its value, that the king may claim the deo- dand; for it is no deodand unless it is so found by the jury, and hence the practice of finding the instrument and its value, in indictments in the United States, or at least in some of them, al- though they have no deodands. Though these forfeitures were originally incur- red to the king, yet he might grant them away to the lord of the manor or territory upon which the death happen- ed, as he was accustomed to grant the right of waifs and wrecks. The deo- dands have been generally so granted; and these grants may probably be the reason that this ancient singularity has so long remained a part of the English law; for the right to the forfeiture has thus be- come a subject of private property, and so not Uable to be impaired by the legislature without compensation to die parties inter- ested. The old books contain a good deal of quaint and curious law on this subject It will be observed, that no distinction is made, whether the death is felonious, ex- cusable, justifiable, or purely accidental or whedier the instrument, by which it is occasioned, belongs to the person commit- ting the homicide or to another; for, says the Doctor and Student, if a man kills another with my sword, still the sword is forfeited; but if a person be killed by faUing from a thing standing still, as a cart, it is not forfeited; if, on the contrary, a horse, ox, or other animal kill a person by its own motion, by running over him or otherwise, it is a deodand. It is said, however, that if the instrument of the death is standing still, only the part which immediately occasioned the deadi is for- feited ; as, if one attempts to climb up the wheel of a cart that is standing still, and falls, and is thereby killed, only the wheel is forfeited; but if it be in motion, the entire cart is a deodand. Only chattels are forfeited; any thing attached to the freehold, as the wheel of a miU, or a bell hanging in a steeple, is not so; and no deodand occurs, unless the death happens within a year and a day after the accident A sale of the article does not exempt it from forfeiture ; as if a horse strikes a man, and is afterwards sold, and the man dies within the year and day, the horse 194 DEODAND—D'EON. is forfeited. It is not surprising that so whimsical a law should be very negligently executed; the juries are very apt to miti- gate the forfeitures by finding that only some trivial thing, or only a part of an entire thing, was the occasion of the death; and the court has generally refused to interfere in behalf of the lord of the fran- chise, to assist him in enforcing his claim to die whole article. There are no deo- dands on the high seas, though it has been said, that, if a man fall overboard from a vessel in a fresh water river, and is drowned, the vessel and cargo are strictly a deodand; and the above statute of Ed- ward I, we observe, mentions boats as one species of deodand. But in this case the jury would probably find the death to have been occasioned by the winds or the water, and would have a precedent suffi- ciently analogous; for the books maintain that if a man, riding over a river, is thrown off his horse by the violence of the water, and droAvned, the horse is not a deodand, for die death was occasioned by the cur- rent D'Eon (the chevaUer). Eon de Beau- mont Charles Genevieve Louise Auguste Andre Timothee d', equerry to Louis XV, chevalier, doctor of law, parUamentary advocate, miUtary officer^ royal censor, di- plomatist, &c, knoAvn until 1777 by the name of the chevalier d'Eon, Avas born at Tonnene, in 1728. His brilliant quaUties enabled him to act a conspicuous part in the world. He gained a greater notoriety by the mystery long kept up in regard to his sex. While an advocate, he studied, in his leisure hours, politics and belles- lettres, and wrote an Essai historique sur les differentes Situations de la France, par Rapport aux Finances, followed by two volumes, entitled Considerations politiques sur VAdministration des Peuples andens et modernes. To these works he owed the honor of being proposed, by the prince of Conti, minister of Louis XV, as envoy on a difficult mission to the Russian court Here his insinuating manners gained him the favor of the empress EUzabeth, and for five years he Avas the medium of a secret correspondence between her and the king of France. In consequence of his services at this court, he was made succes- sively Ueutenant and captain of dragoons, and received a pension of 2400 Uatcs. He returned to France in 1758, and sub- sequently distinguished himself in the military service. After the conclusion of peace, he went to London as secretary of legation, under the duke of Nivernois, and obtained possession of some important pa- pers. On the return of the duke, he re- mained as resident, and aftenvards as min- ister plenipotentiary in London. Every thing seemed to favor him, when secret intrigues suddenly disappointed bis fair prospects. France had concluded a dis- advantageous peace with England, and the negotiators of it were fearful of having their conduct exposed. The chevalier Avas the confidant of Louis XV, and might make the dreaded disclosures. This was reason enough for ruining him. He was dismissed from his employment, and Uved 14 years at London, in a kind of banish- ment. Though the king had consented to his disgrace, he assigned him a pen- sion of 1200 Uvres. D'Eon still remained true to his native land, and rejected several offers of the English court. The king heard of his conduct, and wished to re- store him, but the chevaUer insisted on having his innocence pubUcry acknowl- edged, before accepting any favors. In the mean time, Louis XV died. During the residence of D'Eon in England, sus- picions arose as to his sex, which led to several extraordinary wagers. In July, 1777, a curious trial took place before lord chief-justice Mansfield, on an action brought against Mr. Jaques, a broker, who had received several premiums of 15 guineas, to return 100, whenever it should be proved that the chevalier was a woman. M. Louis Legoux and M. de Morande, on the trial, deposed to this as a fact, which was supposed to be so well established, that the defendant's counsel pleaded that the plaintiff", at the time of laying the wager, knew that the court of France, relative to the grant of a pension, had treated with D'Eon as a woman; and thence infened that the Avager was unfair. This objection was not held good, and Hayes, the plaintiff, obtained a A-erdict It was, however, afterwards set aside, on the ground of the iUegaUty of the wager. After the decision of this cause, D'Eon put on female attire, and continued to Avear it till his death. In 1777, he returned to France, and made his appearance at Versailles, where the minister honorably received him, but on condition that he should wear in future the female dress. D'Eon, however, went to Tonnene, with- out observing the command, and did not appear as la chevalihe d'Eon tiU his second return to Paris. His change of dress drew him into a quarrel at the opera, and, for fear of the consequences, he Avas sent to Dijon, where he was treated Avith re- spect In 1783, he went to London. Meanwhde the French revolution broke D'EON—DEPARTMENT. 195 out, and deprived him of his pensions; upon which he returned to France, offered his services to the national assembly in 1792, was rejected, went back to England, and was put as an absentee, on the emi- grant Ust From this time misfortunes crowded upon him. He Uved in great Eoverty, and attempted to support himself y giving lessons in fencing, but was not very successful, and depended in a great measure for subsistence on the aid of his friends. Among these was Elisee, first surgeon of Louis XVIII, who aided him till his death in London, in 1810, and attended the dissection of his body. The account of this witness, Avith other unde- niable evidence, leaves it beyond doubt, tiiat D'Eon was of die male sex. What political reasons could have induced a soldier and a knight of St. Louis to assume female attire, is not known. In 1775 ap- peared the Loisirs du Chevalier D'Eon, in 14 vols. 8vo. L'Espion Chinois, 6 vols. 12mo., has also been ascribed to him. Department ; the distribution of a thing into several parts; thus, in France, Le dipartement des tailles, des quartiers, &c.; that is, a distribution of the public taxes, or an allotment of quarters to the soldiery, &c. Hence it is used, secondly, to denote a dis- tribution of employments, and especiaUy the divisions of the ministry. Finally, it is apphed to territorial divisions. In this sense, it has become important in modern statistics. At the time of the French revo- lution, when the former division of the kingdom into provinces was abolished, and succeeded by a division of it into de- partments, this division was determined partly by the number of inhabitants, partly by extent of territory, and partly by the amount of direct taxes. A decree for this purpose was adopted November 4th, 1789, by the constituent assembly; and the abbe Sieyes drew up the plan, intended to ex- tinguish the old spirit of hatred among the provinces. The whole kingdom was at first divided into 83 departments, which were subsequently increased, by the grad- ual extension of the empire, to 130, and were reduced by the peace of 1814 to 86, (See Prefedurate, and France.) Each department is subdivided into cantons, and these again into communes. This division of tenitory has been adopted in the states of Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Ba- den and others. The representatives in the French chambers are elected by the departments. The foUowing Ust contains the names of all the departments, and the provinces to which they formerly be- longed :— Region du Nord: Ancient Provinces. Flanders..... Artois...... Picardy..... Normandy. . Ile-de-France. . Champagne. Nord...... Pas-de-Calais. Somme..... Lorraine. ' Seine-Inferieure. Eure....... Calvados..... Manche...... ,Orne....... Seine....... Seine-et-Oise. . Seine-et-Marne. Oise........ Aisne....... {Ardennes.. . . . Marne...... Aube....... Haute-Marne. . {Mouse...... Moselle...... Meurthe..... Vosges...... Total Pop. 962,648 642,969 526,282 688,295 421,665 500,956 611,206 434,379 1,013,373 440,871 318,209 385,124 489,560 281,624 325,045 241,762 244,823 306,339 409,155 403,038 379,839 Pop. sq. I. 3,208 1,978 1,697 2,137 1,405 1,776 1,808 1,361 46,062 1,536 1,060 1,266 1,305 Chief Places. Lille. Arras. Amiens. Rouen. Evreux. Caen. Saint-L6. Alencon. Paris. VersaiUes. Melun. Beauvais. Laon. 1,005 766 805 753 Mezieres. Chalons-sur-Marne. Troyes. Chaumont 975 1,410 1,567 1,287 Bar-le-Duc. Metz. Nancy. Epinal. 196 DEPARTMENT. Region du Centre. Ancient Provinces. Orleannais.. . . Touraine. Berry.. . Departments. {Loiret..... Eure-et-Loir.. Loir-et-Cher. . I Indre-et-Loire, Nivemais. . Bourbonnais. Marche... . Limousin. Auvergne. Indre. . Cher. . Nievre. Allier. , Creuse. ( Haute-Vienne. I Coreeze. . . . ( Puy-de-D6me. I Cantal...... Total Pop. 304,228 277,782 230,666 290,160 237,628 248,589 271,777 285,302 252,932 276,351 284,882 566,573 262,013 Pop. sq. I. 869 904 688 892 644 666 730 764 848 976 961 1,333 1,027 ChiefPlaces. Orleans. Chartres. Blois. Tours. Chateauroux. Bourges. Nevers. Moulins. Gueret Limoges. Tulle. Clermont-Fenand. AuriUac. Region »T . S Sarthe......... Majne.......JMayenne....... Anjou.......| Maine-et-Loire. . . TUe-et-Vilaine. . . . Cdtes-du-Nord.. . . Finistere....... Morbihan....... % Loire-Inferieure.. . {Vienne........ Deux Sevres..... Vendee........ Aunis.—Saintonge $ Charente Inferieure. et Angoumois. ( Charente....... Bretagne. de TOuest. 446,519 354,138 458,674 553,453 581,684 502,851 427,453 457,090 267,670 288,260 322,826 424,147 353,653 1,373 1,287 1,197 1,541 1,615 1,389 1,204 1,193 731 900 891 1,158 1,178 Le Mans. Laval. Angers. Rennes. St. Brieuc. Quimper. Vannes. Nantes. Poitiers. Niort Bourbon- Vendee. La Rochelle. Angouleme. Alsace. Haut-Rhin. . Bas-Rhin.. . (Haute-Saone. Doubs. . . . Jura...... Bourgogne ) (Burgundy) $ Lyannais. {Yonne..... Cote-d'Or. . . Saone-et-Loire. Ain....... < Rhone..... I Loire...... Region de VEst. 408,741 535,467 327,641 254,314 310,282 342,116 370,943 515,776 341,628 416,575 369,298 2,043 2,231 1,178 956 1,146 870 799 1,153 1,260 2,833 1,442 Colmar. Strasburg. Vesoul. Besancon. Lons-le-Saulnier. Auxene. Dijon. Macon. Bourg. Lyons. Montbrison. Region du Sud. Languedoc. r Haute-Loire. . . Ardeche..... Lozere...... Gard....... Herault...... Tam....... Aude....... k Haute-Garonne. 285,673 328,419 138,778 347,550 339,560 327,655 265,991 407,016 1,175 1,368 510 1,198 1,041 1,170 828 1,312 Le Puy. Privas. Mende. Nimes. MontpeUier. Alby. Carcassonne. Toulouse. DEPARTMENT—DEPOSITION. 197 Ancient Provinces. Roussillon. . . . Comte-de-Foix. . Guien ne-et- Gas- cony....... Beam....... Dauphiny..... Comtat-Venaissin et Comtat d'A- vignon. .... Provence...... Corsica...... Departments. Pyrenees-Orientales. Ariege........ rDordogne...... Gironde........ Lot-et-Garonne . . Lot.......... Tarne-et-Garonne.. Aveyron....... Landes........ Gers......... k Hautes-Pyrenees. . | Basses-Pyrenees.. . {Isere......... Drome........ Hautes-Alpes. . . . Vauclusc. {Basses-Alpes. . . . Bouches-du-Rhone. Var.......... I Corse........ Dephlogisticated Air. (See Oxygen.) Deploy ; to display, to spread out A column is said to deploy, when the divis- ions open or extend to form Une on any given division. Deportation; a kind of banishment in use even among die Romans (first intro- duced by Augustus); by virtue of which the condemned person was sent to a foreign uninhabited country, usually an island, his estate confiscated, and himself depriv- ed of the rights of a Roman citizen. This Eunishment differs from other kinds of anishment in this, that the person thus punished is not permitted to choose his {ilace of exile. During the French revo- ution, this punishment was reAived in lieu of the guillotine. The merit of its restoration has been at different times as- cribed to Boulay, to the bishop of Autun, and to Talot. For the most part, the con- demned Avere transported to Cayenne or to Port-Marat (Port-Dauphin) on the island of Madagascar. Towards the end of Robespierre's administration, this pun- ishment Avas most frequent. According to the French penal code of 12th Februa- ry, 1810, deportation is even now one of the punishments established bylaw in France; but, nevertheless, it is not easily put in execution. It is ranked as the third degree of infamous punishments (only capital punishment and consignment to labor for life, together with trailing the ball, as it is called, are ranked before it), and {fives rise to civil deadi. The person 17* Total Pop. Pop. sq. 1 ChiifPlaus. 151,372 688 Perpignan. 247,932 1,011 Foix. 464,074 973 Perigueux. 538,151 978 Bordeaux. 336,886 1,161 Agen. 280,515 1,038 Cahors. 241,586 1,220 Montauban. 350,014 755 Rhodez. 265,309 553 Mont-de-Marsan. 307,601 896 Auch. 222,059 902 Tarbes. 412,469 1,018 Pau. 525,984 1,160 Grenoble. 285,791 850 Valence. 125,329 545 Gap. 233,048 1,259 Avignon. 153,063 560 Digne. 326,302 1,226 MarseiUes. 311,095 818 Draguignan. 185,079 1 420 Ajaccio. deported loses the control of his property, is deprived of the power of making con- tracts, and his heirs enter into possession of his estate in the same manner as though he were actuaUy deceased; yet the govern- ment can grant him, in the place of his banishment,which is always assigned with- out the main land of European France, the ordinary civd privileges, or a portion of the same. If a person deported return to France without the leave of the gOA'ern- ment, he is immediately condemned to the before-mentioned punishment of hard labor for Ufe. If he have fled to a foreign country and soil, and ever comes again into the power of the French govern- ment, he is again remitted to the place of his banishment Deportation, or transpor- tation, is also one of the legal punishments in England. (See New South Wales.) (For the number of persons transported to New South Wales, see Crime, the Statistics of, page 24.) Deposition, in law; testimony given in court by a witness upon oath. It is also used to signify the attested written testi- mony of a Avitness by way of answer to interrogatories. These interrogatories are usuaUy put in writing, and must be short and pertinent, and not such as Avill lead the witness to gh'e a turn to his answer favorable to one of the parties. The witnesses are examined before magistrates, having a general audiority given them by statute to take depositions, by commis- sioners appointed by the court Avhich has 198 DEPOSITION—DERFLTNGER. cognizance of the case. If the witnesses are foreigners, residing beyond sea, they are examined upon oath, through skilful sworn interpreters. The deposition of a heathen, who befieves in the Supreme Being, taken by commission according to the forms used in his countiy in giving evidence, is admissible. By the practice of some countries, the commissioners are sworn to secrecy, and the deposition can- not be made pubUc till the papers con- taining it are opened in court. After a witness is fully examined, die examina- tions are read over to him, and he is at liberty to alter or annul any thing; and then the examinations are complete.— Depositions are frequently taken condi- tionally, or de bene esse, as it is called; for instance, Avhen the parties are sick, aged, or going abroad, depositions are taken, to be read in court, incase of their death or departure before the trial comes on. So depositions in perpetuam memoriam rei, or for the purpose of perpetuating testimony, are taken under the direction of a court of chancery, or, in some of the U. States, Avithout any application to chancery, by magistrates authorized by statute. Depping, George Bemhard; a learned German, residing at Paris, bom at Miin- ster, in Westphalia, in 1784. He has written various works, including several for the instruction of youth, and has su- perintended the pubUcation of many oth- ers. His Histoire generate de VEspagne, commenced in 1811, has not been com- pleted. He assists in the Biographie UniverseUe, in the Revue Encyclope'dique, the continuation of the chronological work Art de verifier les Dates, &c. We are also indebted to him for a coUection of the best Spanish Romances; La Suisse (Paris, 1822, 4 vols.); La Grece (Paris, 1823, 4 vols.); Voyage d'un Etu- diant dans les 5 Parties du Monde (Paris, 1822, 2 vols.) Deptford; a town of England, county of Kent, at the confluence of the Ravens- bourne Avith the Thames. It is very ir- regularly built and contains two churches, besides several places of Avorship for dis- senters. There is a royal dock-yard here, with fine wet docks, and numerous build- ings for the manufacture and preservation of naval stores. There are also several priArate docks in the neighborhood, for building and repairing merchantmen. There are two hospitals belonging to the society of the Trinity-house. This so- ciety was founded in the reign of Henry Vlfl, by sir Thomas Spert, for the in- crease and encouragement of navigation, and for the good government of the sea- men, and the better security of merchant ships on the coasts. Population, including Greenwich, 40,574. 4 miles E. London. Deputies, Chamber of. (See Charte ConstitutionneUe.) Derby; a county in the north of Eng- land. Derbyshire is noted for its mineral productions—lead, iron, coal, lime and Derbyshire spar. It has extensive quanies of grit Avhich afford excellent mill-stones. A singular kind of lead ore is found in a vertical position, which, on being probed by a sharp-pointed instrument, emits a crackling noise, and explodes violently in a few minutes. A remarkable substance, called elastic bitumen, is exclusively the product of Derbyshire. Many chasms and spacious caverns are found here. Derby ; a town of England, the capital of Derbyshire, on the Derwent, which is crossed by a stone bridge. The church of All Saints has a tower rising 180 feet, in rich Gothic. Its architecture is greatly and justly admired. Besides the parish churches, there are places of divine Avor- ship for Presbyterians, Independents, Bap- tists, Methodists, Roman Catholics, Qua- kers, Swedenborgians, and Revivalists, or Primitive Methodists. Manufactures to a large extent are carried on in this town, particularly in silk and cotton, porcelain and spar. There are, besides, manufac- tures of iron, lead pipes, lead shot, white and red lead, tin plate, and other commod- ities. It returns two members to parlia- ment. Population, 17,423 ; 120 miles N. W. by N. London; lon. 1° 2S7 W.; lat. 52° 58' N. Derbyshire Spar. (See Fluale of Lime, in article Lime.) Derflinger, George, baron of (origin- ally Dor/ling), a field-marshal of Prussian Brandenburg, and one of the first heroes of the Prussian military state, founded by Frederic WilUam, the great elector, was born in 1606, according to some authors in an Austrian vdlage near the Ens, but according to Pauli, was the son of a Prot- estant peasant in Bohemia. He Avas at first a tailor, and wished to remove to Berlin, on account of the disturbances in Bohemia, to avoid the religious oppression exercised after the battle at the Weisse- berge. But not being able to get ferried across the Elbe, on account of his Avant of money, he threAv his bundle into the stream, and betook himself to the sword. He served a long time as a soldier under general Thum, and, while yet only a dragoon, indulged the hope of becoming a general He then entered the Swedish DERFLINGER—DERVISE. 199 service, under Gustavnis Adolphus, and afterwards served under Bauer (q. v.) and Torstensohn. Having carried queen Chris- tina intelligence of the victory at Leipsic (1642), to which his regiment of horse had greatly couuibuted, he was appointed by her a major-general. After the peace, he Avas dismissed, as a foreigner, from the Swedish army, went to Brandenburg, and entered the service of the elector, Fred- eric WilUam, in 1651, as major-general of the cavalry. He distinguished himself in all die campaigns of the great elector against the Poles, Swedes and French, by his sagacity, activity and valor. He was also employed in embassies; and the emperor Leopold, at the request of his sovereign, raised him, in 1674, to the rank of baron of the empire. He died in 1695. Derschawin, Gabriel Romanowich, born in 1743, at Kasan, belongs, with the lately deceased Clieraskoff and the tragic poet Oseroffj among the most eminent poets of Russia. In 1760, he entered a corps of engineers, as a common soldier, and distinguished himself in the field, par- ticularly in 1774, against the rebel Pugat- scheff. Even at tiris time, his poetic gen- ius began to dawn. Under Catharine, he rose, in 1800, to be treasurer of the empire, and, iu 1802, became minister of justice. But he soon retired from business, and devoted his life to the muses. His Ode to God is much celebrated, and was trans- lated into Latin by Czersky, at Wilna, in 1^19. The emperor of China caused it to be translated into Chinese, and hung up in an apartment of his palace, printed on silk, in letters of gold. His Waterfall has also great merit In other poems, his loftiness sometimes degenerates into bom- bast Some of his poems have been trans- lated into English by Bo wring. (See his Specimens of Rusdan Poetry.) Derscha- win's poems appeared in 1808, in four volumes. He also wrote political and to- pographical works. Derschawin died July 8, 1819. Dervise(Persian; poor); the name of a certain class of reUgious persons in Asia. It denotes die same amongst Mo- hammedans as nwnk with the Christians. The obsen'ance of strict forms, fasting, and acts of piety, give them a character of sanctity amongst the people. They live partly together, in monasteries, partly alone, and from their number the Imans (q. v.) are generally chosen. Throughout Tur- key, they are freely received, even at die tables of persons of the highest rank. Among die Hindoos, dicse monks are called fakirs. There are, throughout Asia, multitudes of these deA'otees, monastic and ascetic, not only among th Mohamme- dans, but also among the followers of Bra- ma. There are thirty-two religious orders now existing in the Turkish empire, many of which are scarcely known beyond its Unfits; but others, such as the Nacshben- dies and Mevlevies, are common in Persia and India. All these communities are properly stationary, though some of them send out a portion of their memliers to collect alms. The regularly itinerant der- vises in Turkey are all foreigners, or out- casts, who, though expelled from their orders for misconduct, find their profes- sion, too agreeable and profitable to be abandoned, and therefore set up for them- selves, and, under color of sanctity, fleece honest people. All these orders, except the Nacshbendies, are considered as liv- ing in seclusion from the world; but that order is entirely composed of persons who, without quitting the world, bind them- selves to a strict observance of certain forms of devotion, and meet once a week to perform them together. Each order has its peculiar statutes, exercises and habits. Most of them impose a novitiate, the length of which depends upon die spiritual state of the candidate, who is sometimes kept for a whole year under this kind of discipline. In the order of the Mevlevies, the, novice perfects his spiritual knowledge hi the kitchen of the coin cut. Dancing, or something Uke it, forms an essential part of the duties of some of the orders. The dances of the greater number are called devr (circle), because they consist in a movement forwards of the right foot, accompanied with violent contortions of the body, all the performers joining hand in hand, and standing in a circle. The longer the dance, and the louder the shout of Ya Hu, or Ya Allah, the greater is the merit: these exercises are therefore often persevered in till a fainting fit or spitting of blood con- cludes the exhibition. The exhibitions of the Rufaries are the longest, and most comprehensive of all. Towards the close of them, the performers are worked up into a sort of frenzy. Previous to this time, two of the dervises put spits, swords, dag- gers, &c, into the fire, that they may be presented red hot to. the sheikh or chie£ when the excitement reaches its highest pitch. The sheikh blows upon them, just touches them witii his mouth, and delivers them to the most eager of the fra- ternity : they are seized, licked, gnawed, and held in the mouth till tlie glow disap- pears. Odiers of the fraternity seize die 200 DERVISE—DESAULT. swords, cutlasses, &c, which are hanging on the AvaUs of the room, and slash their sides, arms and legs unmercifully. The sheikh concludes the whole by going round, examining the Avounds, bloAving upon them, and anointing them with his saliva, which, together with a few prayers, effects a cure in twenty-four hours! The sheikhs of all orders have the credit of possessing miraculous powers. The in- terpretation of dreams, the cure of dis- eases, and the removal of banenness, are the gifts for which the dervises are most in repute. Derwent Water, or the Lake of Kes- wick ; a beautiful lake in the county of Cumberland, England, in the vale of Kes- Avick, lying between the mountain of Skiddaw on the north, and the craggy hills of Bonowdale on the south, whence it derives its chief supplies of water. Desaix de Voygoux, Louis Charles Antoine, a French general, bom in 1768, at St Hilaire d'Ayat of a noble family, entered die regiment of Bretagne, in 1784, as under-lieutenant He contributed, Dec. 1793, to the capture of the Haguenau lines, which the left Aving, where he was sta- tioned, first broke through. He served, in 1794, in the northern army, under Piche- gru, and repeatedly distinguished himself. Attached to the army of the Rhine, under Moreau, 1796, he defended the bridge of Kehl in NoA-ember of that year. In 1797, he accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, con- tributed to his first A'ictory, and Avas thence sent to the conquest of Upper Egypt where Murad Bey, notwithstanding his defeat, incessantly harassed his conqueror. Bonaparte soon returned to Europe, as did Desaix himself, after the treaty of El- Arish, concluded by him with the Turks and English. On his arrival in France, he learned that Bonaparte had departed for Italy, hastened to join him, and took command of die corps of reserve. A third part of the French army was already dis- abled, when Desaix's corps arrived (June 14,1800) on the field of Marengo, (q. v.) He immediately advanced to the charge, but fell, mortally Avounded by a cannon- ball, just as victory declared for the French. His body was carried to Milan, embalmed, and conveyed to the hospitium on the St. Bernard, where a monument is erected to him. (See .Bernard, St.) Another monu- ment, erected to him on the plains of Ma- rengo, where be fell, was destroyed by the Austrians, in 1814. Desaix was as just and disinterested as he was brave. The inhabitants of Cairo gaAe him the title of the just sultan. Desatir is a lately discovered collec- tion of sixteen sacred books, consisting of the fifteen old Persian prophets, togeth* er with a book of Zoroaster. This, at least, is what the book itself pretends to be. The collection is written in a language not spoken at present any where, and equally different from the Zend, the Pelvi and modem Persian. The last of the fifteen prophets, Sasan, who lived at the time of the downfaU of the Sassanides, Avhen the Arabians conquered the coun- try, literally translated the Desatir, and accompanied it with commentaries. This work was afterwards, until the 17th cen- tury, one of the chief sources of the an- cient Persian religious doctrines, inter- woven with astrology and demonology-; and, after having been forgotten for about a century and a half, a learned Parsee discovered it at Ispahan. His son, Molla Firuz, was induced by the marquis of Hastings to publish an edition of the De- satir at Bombay, in 1820, to which Erskine added an English translation. Erskine, however, considers the collection as spu- rious ; and Sylvester de Sacy (Journal des Savants, Feb., 1821) believes that the De- satir is the work of a Parsee in the 4th century of the Hegira, Avho, as he thinks, invented the language, in order to give to the collection, which is itself an assemblage of old traditions and significant mysteries, an air of genuineness. Joseph von Ham- mer, on the contrary, is said to consider it as genuine. At aU events, it is interesting to learn from this Avork, with greater ac- curacy, an old religious system of the East, in which are to be found, Avith pan- dremonism and the metempsychosis, the elements of the worship of" the stars, of astrology, the theurgy, the doctrine of amulets, as Avell as the elements of the Hindoo religion, particularly the system of castes, and many elements of the Chris- tian religion. Yet no trace of any connex- ion Avith the Zcndavesta and the magic of the Parsees has been found in the Desatir. Desault, Peter Joseph; one of the most celebrated surgeons of France; born Feb. 6, 1744, at Magny-Vernais, in the former Franche-Comte. He was de- signed for the church, early studied math- ematics and philosophy, and was led by his inclination to the surgical profession; in consequence of which he entered the military hospital at Befort, where his diU- gence and talent for observation supplied the defects of a suitable instruction ; and his situation was favorable for obtaining a knowledge of the treatment of wounds from fire-arms, in Avhich department he DESAULT-DESCARTES. 201 afterwards rose to great eminence. He went to Paris in 1764, and was one of die •numerous scholars of the celebrated Petit. Tavo years afterwards, he became a lec- turer, and, though his delivery was bad, he soon became celebrated by introducing a new method of teaching anatomy. While lecturing on the parts of the hu- man body, he treated of the diseases inci- dent to each. After having been several years principal surgeon of the hospital de la chariU, where he increased his reputa- tion by introducing new methods of treat- ment or by improving and simplifying diose already in use, he was put at the head of the great Hotd-Dieu in Paris, in 1788. Here he founded a surgical school, in which have been educated many of" die most eminent surgeons of Europe. His principal merits were, that he brought accuracy and method into the study of surgery; improved the treatment of frac- tured bones, by adopting improved ban- dages; first introduced into France the clinical method of instruction in surgery, and infused into his scholars a generous attachment to their profession. He was distinguished for the skill and boldness with which he performed operations. This happy natural talent, this surgical instinct that guided him in the most diffi- cult cases, compensated for his want of professional learning, to Avhich he was so indifferent, that, in his later years, he read very little; and, as he was entirely igno- rant of internal diseases, he was indignant, when, at the foundation of the ecole de saidi, in which he became professor of clinical surgery, the study of medicine and surgery were connected. He died, while attending upon the son of Louis XVI, in the Temple, of a violent fever, June 1, 1795. Desault wrote only two small treatises; but the Journal de Chirur- gie, in which his scholars published his lectures delivered in die Hotd-Dieu, and the (Euvres Chirurgicales, edited by Bichat under Desault's name, contain his whole system. Descartes, Rene (Renatus Cartesius), an original thinker, and reformer of phi- losophy, with whom the modern or new philosophy is often considered as com- mencing, was born in 1596, at La Haye, in Touraine, and died at Stockholm, in 1650. While pursuing his education in die Jesuits' school at La Fleche, where he studied philology, mathematics and astronomy, his superior intellect manifest- ed itself. After having read much, Avith- out coming to any certain conclusions, he travelled. Both his birth and inclination led him to embrace the military profession, and he fought as a volunteer at the siege of RocheUe, and in Holland under prince Maurice. While he served in Holland, a mathematical problem in Dutch, pasted up in the streets of Breda, met his eya Not being acquainted with the language, he asked a man who stood near him to trans- late the problem to him. This man hap- pened to be professor Beecman, principal of the university of Dort, and himself" a mathematician". He smiled at the ques- tion of the young officer, and was greatly surprised, the next morning, to find that he had solved it From hence Descartes went to Germany, and entered the Bava- rian service. His situation, however, &f- fording him little opportunity for pursuing his favorite studies, he left the army in 1621, and visited Moravia, Silesia, Poland, Pomerania, and the shores of the Baltic. In order to see West Friesland with ad- vantage, he purchased a boat, and em- barked Avith a single valet. The sailors, thinking him a foreign merchant, with much money in his baggage, resolved, to kill him. Imagining him ignorant of their language, they conversed of their plan openly. Descartes, seeing his danger, drew his sword, addressed them in their own tongue, and threatened to stab the first man that should offer him violence. The sailors were overaAved, and gave up their design. After a variety of travels, he remained in HoUand, where he com- posed most of his writings, from 1629 to 1649, drew about him many scholars, and was engaged in many learned controver- sies, especially with theologians. His celebrated system abounds in singularities and originalities; but a spirit of indepen- dent thought prevails throughout it and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. It has done much to give to philosophical inquiries a neAv direction, and found many adherents, especially in England, France and Germany. Des- cartes founds his beUef of the existence of a thinking being on die consciousness of thought: " I think, therefore I exist" (cogito, ergo sum). He developed his sys- tem with much ingenuity, in opposition to the empiric philosophy of the English, and the Aristotelian scholastics, and adopt- ed the rigorous, systematic or mathematical method of reasoning. From his system originated the notion among the modems, that the very existence and certainty of philosophy consists in definitions, argu- ments, and a methodical arrangement of thorn. The thinking being, says Des- cartes, or the soul evidently differs from 202 DESCARTES—DESCENT. the body, whose existence consists in space or extension, by its simplicity and immateriality (whence, also, its immortal- ity), and by the freedom that pertains to it But every perception of the soul is not clear and distinct; it is in a great degree involved in doubt, and is so far an imperfect, finite being. This imper- fection of its own leads it to the idea of an absolutely perfect being. (He, there- fore, here makes use of the (so called) ontological proof of the existence of God, in a different manner from that in which Anselm of Canterbury had, somewhat earlier, employed the same; and hence the name of the " Cartesian proof".) He placed at the head of his system the idea of an absolutely perfect being, which he considers as an innate idea, and deduces from it aU further knowledge of truth. The principal problems of metaphysics he conceived to be substantiality and causality. He contributed greatly to the advancement of mathematics and physics. He made use of the discoveries and observations of others, defining them accurately, and as- signing them their place in his system. The higher departments of geometry (to which he successfully applied analysis), as well as optics, dioptrics and mechanics, were greatly extended by him, their method simplified, and thereby the way prepared for the great discoveries made in the sci- ences by Newton and Leibnitz; for in- stance, he contributed much to define and illustrate the true law of refraction. His system of the universe attracted great at- tention in his time, but has been long since exploded. It rests on the strange hypodiesis of the heavenly vortices, im- mense currents of ethereal matter, with which space is fiUed, and by which he accounted for the motion of the planets. He labored much to extend the Coper- nican system of astronomy. Descartes loved independence; he nevertheless suf- fered himself to be persuaded to go to Stockholm, upon the invitation of queen Christina, who Avas veiy desirous of his society. He died at that place, 4 months after his arrival. His body was canied to Paris in 1666, and interred anew in the church of St Genevieve du Mont Des- cartes Avas never married, but had one natural daughter, Francina, who died in his arms, in her fifth year, and whose loss he felt acutely. His works have at vari- ous times been published, singly and to- gether; as, for instance, at Amsterdam, 1692, 9 vols. 4to. BaUle and Tarpelius have written his life. (See his letters; also the eulogies on him by GaiUard, Thomas and Mercier, and Leibnitz s ac- count of him in his letters.) Descent, in law, is the transmission of the right and title to lands to the heir, on the decease of the proprietor, by the mere operation of law. A title by descent is distinguished from a title by purchase, which latter includes title by devise, as well as by grant. The law of descent is, accordingly, the kvw relating to and regu- lating the mheritance of estates. Wherev- er there is an exclusive property in lands possessed by individuals, or, in other words, wherever the soil is held by dis- tinct, permanent proprietaries, the law provides for the disposition of the posses- sion in case of the death of the proprietor, without any designation of heirs by him- self. It is a theory of aU states, that the title to lands is originally in the govern- ment Thus, in aU the American states, the government granted the title originally; and, in case of a vacant possession, the title now reverts, by escheat to this ori- ginal grantor. The government considers itself to be the heir to all its subjects or citizens', who leave no other heir. In some countries, as in Egypt, particularly, the government is the perpetual and prac- tical owner of the soil, and stands in the relation of landlord to all the cultivators, who are its tenants, and pay regular rents. It is a theory of the tenures of lands in England, that they are generally held, di- rectly or indirectly, of the king, as superior lord. This is only the theoretical rem- nant of the principle, that the property in the soil belongs originally to the sovereign; and the title is held by the subject in England upon certain conditions; for the lands of a traitor are forfeited, which makes allegiance one of the conditions of the tenure. Though there are countries in which the sovereign is the sole landed proprietor, while in others he is the heir of the landed proprietors, whose estates are accordingly for life, yet most countries provide for the transmission or descent of property in lands to the heirs of the pro- prietor; one distinction in the different laws being, that some codes, or the pro- visions relating, to some particular kinds of estate, do not permit the occupant or proprietor, for the time being, to alter the disposition made by the law. Thus, be- fore the conquest lands were devisable in England, and the proprietor could appoint by wiU who should inherit them after his death; but it was one part of the policy of the feudal law, which was introduced into England after the conquest to take away this power, and moke lands descend DESCENT. 203 only according to a prescribed rule. But expedients have been resorted to in Eng- land to break entails, and give the present proprietor the power of disposing of the lands during his Ufetime. These expe- dients are denominated a fine and a com- mon recovery. In the case of entailed es- tates, the successive possessors do not, in fact come in as inheritors to the preceding occupiers, but in virtue of the grant or original constitution of the estate; and tliese grants make the law for tliese particular species of estates. Estates of this description were formerly much more numerous in the U. States than at present. But they were never much fa- vored, and after the revolution, the laAvs leaned still more against diem, so that at Eresent they are but few. But in Great Iritain and the continent of Europe, a very large part of the soil is held by this species of title. The rule determining to whom an estate belongs, on the decease of the proprietor, is that of consanguinity, or relationship by blood, though Avith some exceptions, as in the case of the portion or the use of a portion of a man's prop- erty, given, by the laAvs of England and the United States, to his widow. The rules of descent designating what rela- tions shall inherit and their respective shares, will be determined by the genius and policy of the government and institu- tions. Hence the practice of entailments in the feudal system. And Avherever the government is founded in family privi- leges, or very intimately comiected with them, as is the case in aU governments where the hereditarily aristocratical part of the community have a great prepon- derance, the sustaining of families will very probably be a characteristic feature in the code of laws. Thus, in England, all the lands of the father, unless otherwise directed by will, go to the eldest son; and accordingly aU the eldest sons, who re- ceive any benefit from this law of descent, are naturally the supporters of aristocrat- ical privileges. It has accordingly been predicted, that the provision introduced into the French laws, since the revolution, for equalizing inheritances, and thus di- viding estates, and forming a numerous body of small proprietors, will have a rapid and poAverful influence in giving a popular character to the government and institu- tions of the country. Some remnant of this family poUcy, which prevails so gen- erally in Europe, appears in the early laws of the American colonics and prov- inces, in the preference given to eldest sons, by assigning them a double portion of the inheritance. This distinction prob- ably resulted very much from the mere force of habit and custom. It is, how- ever, not improbable that a reverence for the Levitical code might have led some of the colonies to this distinction in favor of the first-born. This is an argument made use of in the pragmatic sanction, published by the Spanish king, March 29, 1830, annuUing the rale of the Salic law, which excludes females from the succession. In this decree, an argument is cited from the petition of the cortes of 1789, in favor of the right of the eldest which is vindicated, 1. from the order of nature; 2. from the Old Testament; 3. from usage; from all which the petition infers, that " the advantage of being the first-bom is a particular mark of the love of God." But the distinction in favor of the eldest 6on, which existed in the colo- nies now constituting the U. States, has been abolished since the establishment of independence. A compendious notice of the various laws of the several U. States on the subject of the descent of real es- tate, will be found in the first volume of the American Jurist and Law Magazine. These laws are founded upon the princi- ple of equal distribution, both of real and personal estates, among heirs of the nearest surviving degree, and the representativea of deceased heirs of the same degree; the representatives of a deceased heir Avho, when alive, Avas of the same degree with the nearest that survive, being entitled collect- ively to the share which would have come to such deceased heir, had he been Uving. This general principle is adopted from the English statutes of the 22d and 23d of Charles II, relating to the distribution of per- sonal property; for the English laAV makes a great distinction as to the descent of real and personal estate, whereas, in the U. States, they descend and are distributed upon the same general principle, though there are some differences in the particu- lar provisions. But this right of taking by representa*.ion is very variously modi- fied in the different states. To make the subject better understood, a Avord ought to be ssjd on the subject of affinity, or degrees of consanguinity, which is very lucidly treated in Blackstone's Commen- taries. Kindred in blood are divided into three general classes, viz. 1. descendants; 2. ancestors; 3. collateral relatives, that is, those who have descended from the same common ancestor. The civil law computes the degrees by counting the generations up to the commoii ancestor, as father, grandfather, great grandfather; or 204 DESCENT—DE SERRE. modier, grandmother, great grandmother; and from him or her down to the collat- eral relative, as brother, cousin, &c., mak- ing the degree of relationship die sum of these two series of generations. Every person has two sets of ancestors, the pa- ternal and maternal, and therefore tAvo sets of collateral relatiAes. There is also a distinction of collateral kindred, into diose of the whole blood, and those of the half blood. Our limits will not alloAV us to state the various regulations in England and the U. States, as to the rules of inher- itance among kindred of these different kinds; they are thus generally noticed, merely for the purpose of intimating some general diversities in the rules of descent. Thus in England and France, it is a rule, that real estate cannot ascend, tiiat is, can- not go to father, grandfather, &c. on the decease of the son, grandson, &c.; for which die quaint reason is given by Brac- ton, that the weight of the inheritance makes it descend. Notwithstanding this supposed dowmvard tendency of an in- heritance in land, it is, in defect of de- scendants, made by the American laws to ascend, as weU as to pass off coUaterally; and diis is the rale respecting personal estate, both in England and the U. States. Another distinction is made by the EngUsh laws, between coUateral relatives of the whole and half blood, as the latter cannot inherit real estate; but in respect to per- sonal estate in England, and both personal and real estate in the U. States, no distinc- tion of this sort is made. Another diver- sity in the laws of inheritance relates to the distinction of male and female heirs. The Jewish law prefened the male heirs, and the present laws of Vermont (1830) give a similar preference. But the laws of the U. States generaUy, in regard both to real and personal estate, and those of Eng- land respecting the latter, make no dis- tinction on account of the sex of the heirs. Deseada, Desirada, or Desiderada ; the first of the Caribbee islands discovered by Columbus in the year 1494; belonging to France, about 10 miles long, and hardly 5 broad. The soil is, in some places, black and good; in others, sandy and un- {aoductive; 16 miles E. Guadaloupe ; on. 61° 15' W.; lat 16° 307 N.; popula- tion, about 1000. De Serre, Hercule, count a French minister of state, who, in 1822, was ap- pointed ambassador at the court of Naples, was bom at Metz, in 1774, of a noble famUy of Lorraine. In 1791, he emi- grated, and served in several campaigns, in the army of the prince of Conde. He then lived a long time in Germany, in Biberach, a small place in Suabia, as a schoolmaster. Here he acquired his per- fect knowledge of the German language and literature. He afterward obtained permission to return to France, and be- came a lawyer. Napoleon appointed him avocat-giniral to the court of appeal at Metz, and first president of the court of appeal at Hamburg, where he acquired esteem by his integrity, talents and mode- ration. He left Hamburg just before the siege, in 1813. In 18i4, Louis XVIII appointed him first president of the court of appeal at Colmar. During the hundred days, he resided with the king in Ghent Being chosen a deputy by the department of the Upper Rhine, in 1815, the energy with which he opposed the ultra-royabst majority attracted the attention of the ministry, and gained him the confidence of the nation. From 1816 to 1818, he filled the chair of president of the cham- ber of deputies with dignity and impar- tiality ; at the same time he was a mem- ber of the committee of legislation in the council of state. In December, 1818, the king appointed him keeper of the seals and minister of justice. He pursued the policy of Decazes, and distinguished him- self, in 1819, by his defence of the three laws proposed for the regulation of the press, 17th May, 26th May, 9th June, which took the place of the censorship then existing. He also opposed, with vigor, the change of the law of elections. In his speech, March 23, 1819, he de- nounced the party spirit of the ultras as the cause that the crimes committed in the south of France, in 1815, had remained unpunished. He opposed, howeA'er, the demands of die liberals for the restoration of the regicides, by his famous Jamais (17th May, 1819). He afterwards sepa- rated himself from the doctrinaires, whose principles he had hitherto maintained, and supported the proposal of Decazes, of February, 1820, to change the law of, election of 1817. When the excitement of parties in regard to the three project! of the late premier had reached its height, he completed the triumph of the ministry and the moderate right side, by advocating the amendments of the proposed new law of election (9th June, 1820). As the prin- cipal supporter of the new law of election, in 1820, he was of the greatest service to the royaUsts, but lpst the favor of the Ub- erals. The king created him a count and bestowed on his son an income of 20,000 francs per annum. De Sene him- self had no fortune and a numerous family. DE SERRE-DESHOULIERES. 205 The new elections of 1820 and 1821 brought a great number of ultra-royalists into the chamber of deputies, and a strong opposition was formed, on the part of the right side, against die ministry. The leaders, Corbiere and ViUele, endeavored to obtain seats in the ministry, and their influence finally effected the change of the 14th Dec, 1821; De Serre, Pasquier, La- tour- Maubourg, Simeon, Portal and Roy left the ministry, and Peyronnet succeeded De Serre as minister of justice and keeper of the seals. De Serre is said to have con- tributed, himself, to the nomination of the latter. He did not join the opposition, though he was adverse to the plan of the new ministry for aboUshing the jury in trials for abuses of the press; and he de- clared, in the chamber of deputies (Feb- ruary, 1822), through His friend Froc de la Boulaye, that he was more fully convinced than ever of the expediency of a jury. The ministry, however, succeeded in its object Infirm health prevented count De Serre from taking part in the discus- sions on this occasion. In May, 1822, he was sent ambassador to Naples, where he died July 21,1824. Deserter ; a soldier who quits his regiment without, leave. If an armed soldier deserts a post where he is placed on duty, the offence, we beUeve, in aU armies, is punished with death; but shn- Ele desertion, not. In the English army, owevcr, death is' the punishment for de- sertion in any shape. In die U. States, the same law exists, but it will, probably, soon be changed. Deseze, Raymond, the advocate who defended Louis XVI before the bar of the national convention, belongs to an ancient family. His father Avas a celebrated par- liamentary advocate at Bordeaux, in which town Raymond was bom, m 1750. Ra)r- niond Deseze studied the law from incli- nation, and displayed uncommon talents in his profession. He made himself known to the minister De Vergennes, by his defence of the marchioness D'Anglure, and was induced by this minister to settle in Paris. His fame was already estab- lished, when he was associated with Males- herbes and Tronchet, in the responsible office of defending Louis XVI. He had only four nights for drawing up the articles of defence. The days were occupied in examining the pajiers connected with the cause, and in the necessary conversations with his colleagues. Notwithstanding this, his defence was a masterpiece, and the only reproach which can be cast upon Deseze is, tiiat he did not overstep the vol. iv. 18 limits of the advocate, and take the higher ground of a statesman. It was evident that the result would not reward his exer- tions. He survived the reign of tenor. On the return of the Bourbons, Deseze was crowned with marks of honor, and appointed first president of the court of cassation and grand-treasurer of the royal order. In 1815, he followed the court to Ghent and was made a peer of France and member of the academy. Desfontaines, Pierre Francois Guyot, abbe, born at Rouen, in 10o5, died at Paris, in 1745, was one of those French literati who are known to us more from their controversies With Voltaire, and his biting attacks, than from their own pro- ductions. Voltaire, by the superiority of his wit succeeded in gaining many to his opinions; but impartial judges have long agreed, that he was not altogether conect, and that the criticisms of the abbe Desfon- taines, though severe, are by no means unjust. One of the works of the abbe, which had the misfortune to excite the particular displeasure of the poet, was the well known Didionnaire Neologique, of. which the 6th edition appeared in 1750 (Amsterdam and Leipsic), and which was intended to guard the purity of die French language, as the great writers of the 17th century had formed it; and, in this respect, it has certainly proved of much service. Deshoulieres, Antoinette; a French lady of much literary reputation. Her maiden name was Du Ligier de Lagardc. She lived at Paris from 1638 till 1694. With a prepossessing appearance she combined a distinguished talent for light and agreeable poetry, Avhich she cultivated under the direction of the poet Ilainault She Avas acquainted with the Latin, Span- ish and Italian languages, and studied philosophy in her later years, during which she had to endure continual sickness. Voltaire was of opinion, that of all the Frencli poets of her sex, she had the greatest merit. Several learned societies elected her a member, and her agreeable manner, her animation and wit, which sometimes, but rarely, gave way to a gen- tle melancholy, made her the centre of attraction in the best societies at that period. For reasons unknown to us, she was imprisoned, in February, 1658, at Brussels, by the Spaniards ; but her hus- band, an officer, procured her deliverance. Her works appeared, together with those of her daughter Antoinette Therese (died 1718),—who also devoted herself to poetry, but with less success,—at Paris, in 1753, 2 vols., 12ino., and at Brussels, in 1740, 206 DESHOULIERES—DEgNOYERS. 2 vols., under the title (Euvres de Madame et de Mademoiselle Deshoulieres. They contain, 1. pastoral poems, which may still be numbered amongst the best French works of the kind (the finest of these, however, Les Moidons, is taken, nearly word for word, from a poem of Antoine Cotel or Coutel, and madame Deshoulieres has only the merit of having modernized the old style and expressions); 2. odes, which are, in general, very poor; 3. a tragedy, Genserich, in which so little talent was displayed, that she was advised, ac- cording to the French proverb, revenir a ses Moutons; 4. poetical letters; 5. mad- rigals, epigrams and small poems, of which some are full of excelleut and witty re- marks, which haAre become proverbial from their truth. Frederic II had a selection of her poems published together with Chalieu's, under the title Choix des mrilleures Pieces de Madame Deshoulieres et de I'AbU de Chaulieu (Berlin, 1777). This selection is Uttle known. Design, in painting; the first plan of a large work, draAvn roughly, and on a small scale, vrith the intention of being executed and finished in large. (See Drawing.) —In music, design means the invention and execution of the subject in all its parts, agreeably to the general order of the whole.—In manufactures, dedgn expresses the figures Avith which die workman en- riches his stuff or silk, and which he copies after his own draAving, or the sketches of some artist.—In building, the term ichnography may be used, when by design is only meant the plan of a building, or a flat figure drawn on paper; when some side or face of the building is raised from the ground, we may use the term oHhography; and when both front and sides are seen in perspective, it may be termed scenography. Desmology (from the Greek Stcpis, a Ugament and Xoyos) ; that branch of anat- omy which treats of the Ugaments and sinews. (See Anatomy.) Desmoulins, Benoit Camille, bom in 1762, Avas conspicuous during the first period of the French revolution. His exterior was mean ; he Avas of a dark complexion and repulsive expression. From the commencement of the revolu- tion, he was connected Avith Robespiene, with Avhom he had studied at college. From die secret meetings which he had at Mousseaux with the duke of Orleans, it may be inferred that he was, at first only the agent of this prince. He chose the palais royal for the usual scene of his citizen-aposdeship, and was constantly seen there sunounded by many orators, who, with him, prepared "the plan for the taking of the Bastile. After this first triumph, he endeavored to excite the minds of the people by his orations or his publications, and called himself procureur- general de la lanterne. He then became one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers, connected himself intimately with Danton, and remained faithful to him. On the flight of Louis XVI to Varermes, he was one of the instigators of the assem- bly of the champ de Mars. He Avas par- ticularly active in the tumult of June 20, 1792, and on the 10th of August. About this time, he Avas secretary to the minister of justice, Danton, and prepared with him the scenes of September. As deputy of Paris, in the national conA'ention, he de- fended the duke of Orleans, December 16. Jan. 16, 1793, he gave his vote for the death of Louis XVI. His friendship for Danton was the cause of his fall. Robes- piene, at the head of the committee of public safety, was making rapid progress towards tyranny. Danton, assisted by tlie leaders of the Cordeliers, intended to re- sist this committee, and Camille com- menced the attack in his journal Le Vieux Corddier, in which he declared himself against the tcnorists, and even made use of the Avord clemency (clemence). Upon this, he was, at the instigation of St. Just, whom Camille had also attacked in his journal, imprisoned on the night of the 31st of May, 1794, together widi those who were called his accomplices, brought before the revolutionary tribunal, June 4, and condemned to death," because he had dishonored the revolutionary system, and had attempted to reestablish monarchy.'' June 5, he was taken, after a violent strag- gle, to the place of execution. His wife, whom he adored, and who returned his affection,—a beautiful, courageous and spirited woman,—desired to share her hus- band's fate. Robespierre ordered her to the scaffold ten days after Desmoulins' death. During her trial, she evinced a wonderful tranquillity, and died with much greater finnness than her husband. Desnoyers, Auguste-Boucher, an en- graver, member of the institute, honoraiy member of the academies at Vienna and Geneva, bom in 1779, at Paris, where his father was castellan in the service of Louis XVI, commenced his career as a historical painter, and studied in Rome, where he copied many paintings in water^colors. After this, his taste Avas directed towards engraving, in which art Tardieu was his instructer. His first great attempt, in 1805, DESNOYERS—DESSALINES. 207 La Vierge, dite la beUe Jardiniere, of Rapha- el, the plate of which he executed in a year, succeeded remarkably, and laid the foundation of his fame. His engraving of Napoleon, in his coronation costume, a full length figure, from Gerard's painting, in 1805, is equaUy grand and highly fin- ished. It is now seldom to be met with. It is 2 French feet high, and 18 in- ches wide. The emperor gave Desno- yers the order for it, and paid him 50,000 francs for the plate, which he left to the artist, after having received a thousand copies. Desnoyers Ukewise engraved the Ukeness of the young king of Rome, from Guerin's painting. We owe to him, also, the two excellent engravings of Phedre et Hip- polyte and the Vierge au linge. Desno- yers is an industrious artist: he himself makes the drawings for his plates. His style is noble and simple, and he is fortu- nate in his choice of subjects. Amongst his best works, besides tlie portrait of the emperor, are his Bdisaire, engraved in 1806, from Gerard's painting, his Vierge aux Rockers, from Leonardo da Vinci, and his Madonna da Foligno, from Raphael. Some are of opinion, that the Vierge aux Rochers is his best production; others prefer the Madonna da Foligno. A more recent work of his, which appeared in 1822, is the Madonna dd Pesce, from Raphael's picture in the Escurial. Despard, Edward Marcus, an officer in the English army, was an Irishman by birth, and, in the American war, served in the troops of the line. In 1779, he went to Jamaica, where he acted as an engi- neer. He afterwards assisted in the cap- ture of the Spanish establishments on the Mosquito shore, of which he was sub- sequently appointed superintendent. In 1786, some disputes arose in the colony, and he was suspended from his functions. He arrived in Europe in 1790, bringing with him the most honorable testimonies to his conduct. His applications to gov- ernment for redress, and for the payment of sums which he claimed as due to him, were unavailing; and die disappointment probably soured his mind. In November, 1802, he was arrested, as the head of a conspiracy to kill the king and overthrow the goveniment. All the conspirators, ex- cept Despard, were persons of the lowest classes, and many of them common sol- diers. Their leader and seven of • his accomplices Avere executed. The scheme of Despard was so absurdly ananged, and his means so utterly inadequate to the suc- cess of the plot, that some supposed him to be deranged; whde others absurdly as- cribed the affair to the machinations of Bonaparte, who shortly after declared war against England. Despot (from the Greek itont-rnt); orig- inally, a master, a lord: at a later period, it became an honorary title, which the Greek emperors gave to their sons and sons-in-law, when governors of provinces. Alexis III, sumamed Angdus, towards the end of the 12th century, is said to have first introduced this title, and to have made it the first in rank after that of em- peror. Thus there was a despot of the Morea, of Servia, &c The Turkish designation of the princes of Moldavia and Walachia (hospodar) is a remnant of this title. At present, despot means an absolute ruler, as the emperor of Russia; but, in a narrower sense, it conveys the idea of tyranny, as, in fact die possession of absolute power and the abuse of it are two things bordering very closely on each other. Dessaix, Joseph-Marie, count (who must not be confounded with Desaix), was bom in Savoy, in 1764, and was pur- suing his medical studies in Paris, when, in consequence of the events of 1789, he joined the national guard of that city. In 1792, he proposed the raising of the free legion of the AUobroges, composed of foreigners in France, and soon became colonel of that corps. He distinguished himself particularly at the siege of Tou- lon, and was offered the command of a brigade, which he declined. After having served, in Italy, he was chosen (1798) member of the five hundred, from the de- partment of Mont Blanc. He was appoint- ed general of division in 1809, and grand officer of the legion of honor in 1811. In 1814, he commanded the levy en masse in the department of Mont Blanc, and deUvered the country from the invading forces. In the same year, he Avas named chevalier of St Louis, but, in the hundred days, accepted the command of a division, and has since Uved in retirement at Femey. Des salines, Jean-Jacques, emperor of Hayti, was a slave in 1791, when the in- surrection of the blacks occurred in that island. His master was a shingler of houses, and Jean Jacques was bred to the same trade. His talents for war, his enter- prise, courage, and unscrupulous conduct raised him to command among the insur- gent Negroes; and, when Le Clerc in- vaded the island, in 1802, Dessalines and Christophe stood next in reputation and rank to Toussaint-Louverture. (See Toussaint.) After the deportation of the latter, Dessalines, Christophe and Cler- 208 DESSALINES—DESSOLES. vaux took the command, and maintained a desperate and sanguinary warfare against the French, until the latter evacuated the island. This happened in November, 1803. The black chiefs immediately pro- ceeded to proclaim the island independent, restoring its Indian name of Hayti, and nominated Dessalines governor-general for Ufe, with alisolute power. Dessalines now gave full scope to his savage character. He began by ordering a general massacre of the white French, without distinction of age or sex, stimulating the Negroes to glut their vengeance for the wrongs they had undergone. In October, 1804, he assumed the title and state of emperor of Hayti; and, in May ensuing, be promul- gated a new constitution, containing pro- vision for pennanently organizing the im- perial government His reign, however, was bnef; for the people, aided by the troops, sick of his atrocities, and wearied out by his suspicious and vindictive con- duct, conspired against his Ufe, and he was killed by one of his soldiers, Oct. 17, 1806, who thus ended a despotism stained by eveiy barbarous enormity. (Ma- lo's Hist. d'Hayti, published in 1825, pp. 270—304; Franklin's Hayti, ch. 6 and 7.) Dessau, Anhalt; one of the three prin- cipalities of the German house of Anhalt. It contains 360 square miles, and 56,000 inhabitants. The revenue is estimated at 510,000 guilders. Since 1807, the princes have borne the title of duke. The capital is Dessau, on the Mulda, with 9400 inhab- itants, fine parks, &c. Four miles and a half from this city is Worlitz, distinguished by its lieautiful park, belonging to the duke. (See Anhalt.) Dessoles, Jean-Joseph-Paul-Angustin, marquis, lieutenant-general and peer of France, minister of state, &c, is descend- ed from a noble family in Gascony. He was bom at Audi, in the department of Gers, July 3,1767, and received a care- ful education. At the commencement of the revolution, he enrolled himself among the volunteers, served, in 1792, as captain in the western army of the Pyrenees, was marie adjutant to general Reynier, and placed on the general staff. In 1796, he was adjutant-general and chief of battal- ion in the army of Italy, under Bona- parte, and canied to Paris the news of the preliminaries of peace concluded at Leo- ben in 1796. Ujion diis, he was appointed general of brigade, defeated the Austri- ans in the Valteline, near Santa Maria, and became (April, 1799) general of division and chief of the general staff under Sche- rer, in the army of Italy, where he gained Moreau's esteem and friendship. Des- Boles particularly distinguished himself, to- gedier with his friend Gouvion St. Cat, by his heroic conduct in die battle of Novi. WhenMoreau commanded the army on the Rhine, in the spring of 1800, Dessoles was appointed, at his request chief of his gen- eral staff. Tiris famous campaign, and the battle of Hohenlinden, estabUshed the mili- tary fame of Dessoles, whose reports must still be considered as models. In 1803, after Moitier's departure, he commanded, for a time, the anny of Hanover, in Avhich country he gained general esteem by his disinterestedness and moderation. On Bemadotte's arrival, he returned to Paris. and, together with Macdonald and Le- courbe, Avarmly defended Moreau on the occasion of his trial. He soon after re- tired to his estate at Auch. In 1808, the emperor intrasted him with the command of the army in Spain—an office which he discharged with equal bravery and hu- manity. From 1810 to 1612, he again Uved as a private individual in France, for his opinions did not agree with the empe- ror's plans. Notwithstanding this, Bona- parte appointed him, in 1812, chief of the general staff, in the corps commanded by the viceroy ; but, on the conquest of Smo- lensk, disapproving die invasion of Russia, he retired to reestablish his health, and returned to Paris, where he was connected with Talleyrand. March 31,1814, the pro- visionalgoverninentgavehimthecommand of the Parisian national guard. He declared himself, with Talleyrand, on the night of 6th April, before the emperor Alexander, opposed to the regency of the empress Maria-Louisa, proposed by Bonaparte as a condition of his abdication, and in favor of the reestabUshment of the Bourbons. Soon after, he Avas nominated military commandant of the department of the Seine, and ehief of the general staff of die national guard of France, commanded by Monsieur, the king's brother. Louis XVIII made him peer and minister of state. During the hundred days, he lived retired on his estate. July 7, 1815, he re- entered the chamber of peers, and Louis XVIII appointed him a member of the privy council. But, disapproving the sys- tem of the ultras, and expressing himself in favor of constitutional principles in the chamlier of peers, he was compeUed to renounce the command of the national guard, October, 1815, Avhich was then con- ferred on die duke of Reggio. He divided his time between his estates and Paris, where he was active in the committees of the chamber of peers. Dec. 29, 1818, he DESSOLES—DETROIT. 209 was appointed to the department of foreign affairs, in the ministry formed by Decazes, and received the presidency of the minis- try, taking the place of Richelieu. At the same time, the king made him marquis. He still remained true to constitutional principles, and warmly opposed any change in the law of election of 1817; tiris was the cause why he and his col- leagues, St. Cyr and Louis, left the minis- try of the count Decazes (q. v.), Nov. 17, 1819. The baron Pasquier took his place. Dessoles at that time Avas caUed, by the nation, in honor of his firmness, le minis- tre honnde homme. The king, who had conferred upon him, in 1814, the grand cross of the legion of honor, in 1818 the command of the order of St Louis, and, in 1820, the command of the order of the Holy Ghost, retained him as minister of state, and often requested his opinion as a member of the privy council. These sit- uations he, however, lost (1822), partly in consequence of the principles Avhich he expressed on the occasion of the election of the deputies in the month of May, part- ly from his connexion Avith the present opposition. Dessoles is distinguished as a statesman by his candor, firmness and frankness. Desultores (from desilio, I vault); the Latin name for vaulters or leapers, who jumped from one horse to another. The Scythian, Indian and Numidian cavalry were very expert desultores, and each man canied at least two horses to the field. When one was weary, he jumped Avith great agility upon another, Avhich he led by his hand. The Greeks and Romans introduced the same practice in their games, races, and funeral solemnities, but never, as far as we know, in war. Homer describes a vaulter of this sort, who per- formed his feats on four horses at once (Iliad, xv. 673.); and Livy (xxiii. 29) de- scribes a kind of Numidian cavaliy, in Asdrubal's army, in Spain, in which the soldiers had two horses each, and, in the heat of an engagement, frequently leaped, fully armed, from one to another. Mhan gives a similar account of a tribe dwell- ing not far from the Danube, who, on this account, were called Amphippi. Destouches, Philippe Nericault, one of the best French comic poets, was bom at Tours, in 1680. According to the general opinion, he left his father's house when young, and joined a company of strolUng players, among whom he distinguished himself by the propriety of his conduct Having deUvered a harangue at the head of his troop, before M. de Puysieux, then ambassador in Switzerland, this statesman was struck with the talent which he dis- played, took him into his service, and formed him for diplomacy. According to the account given by the relations of Destouches, who considered the profes- sion of a player dishonorable, he studied with success at Paris, where he devoted himself to poetry; and, at the age of 20, entered the army as a volunteer, and was' present in several engagements. Having written the comedy called Curieux Imper- tinent, Avhile in winter quarters, and read it in several societies, M. Puysieux was struck with it and persuaded the author to turn his talents to diplomacy. Iu Switzerland, he wrote several plays, which met with great applause. By his knowl- edge of diplomacy, he Ukewise gained the favor of the regent, who sent him to England, in 1717, as an assistant to the abbe Dubois. When Dubois returned to France, Destouches remained in England, where he married. He acquitted himself so well in the business intrusted him, that the regent promised to give him a proof of his satisfaction which would surprise all France; but upon the death of this prince, he lost his protector and his expec- tations. He retired to his country seat at Fort-Oiseau, near Melun, and endeavored to forget the caprice of fortune in the study of philosophy and devotion to the muses. Cardinal Fleury wished to send him to St. Petersburg as ambassador, but he declined the offer. He died in 1754, leaving a son, who, by order of Louis XV, superintended the pubUcation of his works. After Moliere and Regnard, Destouches is considered the best French writer in the department of comedy. His comedies Le Glorieux and Le Philosophe marie are con- sidered among the best French works of their class. But, as he made the comic effect subordinate to the moral, his pro- ductions have something of the character of sentimental comedy (la comedie larmoy- aide). He excels most in the drawing of character, and exhibits a fertile imagina- tion, pleasing Avit, elegance, vivacity and decorum. His numerous epigrams are poor. An elegant edition of his works appeared, in 1750, in 4 vols., 4to. Detonation ; a sudden combustion and explosion. \ Detroit ; a city, port of entry, and capital of Michigan, in Wayne county, on the west side of the river Detroit, between lakes St. Clair and Erie, 18 miles N. of the west end of the latter, and 9 S. of the for- mer ; 300 S. bv E. Miclrilimackinac ; 302 W. by S. Buffalo; lon. 82° 58' W. ; lat. 210 DETROIT—DEUX-PONTS. 42" 24' N.: population, in 1810, 770; in 1820, 1422, exclusive of the garrison. It is finely situated, regularly laid out in a square three quarters of a nule on each side, Avith spacious streets, havuig an ele- A-ation of about 40 feet above the river, of which it commands beautiful views. It contains a handsome CathoUc church of stone, besides several other public build- ings. The town is defended by fort Shel- by, which is a regular work of an oblong form, covering an acre of ground ; and the bareacks adjoining are capable of quar- tering several regiments. It is advan- tageously situated, and has a consider- able and growing commerce, and is a place of importance in die fur trade. In 1825, as it appears from the custom-house books, there were 270 arrivals, and the same number of clearances of vessels, at ;uid from this port It was wholly de- stroyed by fire in 1805; but the streets have been since laid out regular and Avide, and the town built in an improved style. De- troit Avas settled by the French from Canada as early as 1683. In August, 1812, it Avas taken by the British, under general Brock, but it did not long remain hi their possession. Detroit River, or Strait of St. Clair ; a river or strait of North America, which runs from lake St Clair to lake Erie. Detroit is the French word for straits; and the name was given by the French, the first white men avIio settled here. Its course is nearly S., with a gen- tle cunent, and sufficient depth of Avatcr for the navigation of large vessels; the banks are covered with settlements, and the country is exceedingly fertile. Near the banks of the river are many fine or- chards of apple-trees, pear-trees and cher- ry-trees, producing as fine fruit as any in the U. States, and presenting a veiy agree- able view as one saUs up the river. It is 27 nriles long, and diree quarters of anrile wide opposite to Detroit, enlarging as it descends. Deucalion, father of Hellen, ancestor of die HeUenes, was the son of Prome- theus and Pandora. He led a colony from Asia into Greece, and established himself in Lycorea on mount Parnassus, from whence he aftenvards made an in- cursion into Thessaly, and expeUed the Pelasgi. In his time was the celebrated flood (die deluge of Deucalion, in the 16th century B. C). It was caused by the river Peneus, and is thus described in fable :—Jupiter, determining to destroy mankind by Avater, on account of their impiety, brought a flood upon the earth, by means of a violent rain; DeucaUon saved himself, and his wife Pynha, on the top of mount Parnassus. After the flood had subsided, they consulted the oracle of Themis, to know what they must do to repair the loss of mankind; and were directed to throw behind them the bones of then mother. Understanding their mother to signify the earth, and her bones the stones, they did as the oracle directed. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, and those thrown by Pynha became women. Many odier circumstances are related by the ancient writers concerning this deluge, which bear a resemblance to those related in the Scriptures of die del- uge of Noah. (See Deluge.) Deuse, or Duse ; an evil spirit. This word is only used as an exclamation; as, " What the deuse is the matter ?" It is generally derived from dusius, a Latinized term of the Gauls. St. Augustine (De Cimtate Dei, 15, 23) has the words Quos- dam daimones quos dudos Galli nuncupant. Isidorus, in his glossary annexed to Mar- tinius, suggests that dusius may be a cor- ruption of the name of Drusus, son of Tiberius, notorious for his German victo- ries, whose name may have been perpet- uated as a term of terror among the con- quered people. Isidoras also suspects that the word drocs, used among the Dutch as we use deuse, has the same origin. An- other derivation, also, might be suggested Teut or Deut Avas the name of a deity among the ancient Germans. May not the Saxons have continued to swear by this name, even after their baptism, and have carried it Avith them to England ? Their continuing to use the Avoid would not be more surprising than the practice of the Italians, who still retain the excla- mations per Bacco (by Bacchus)! per Venere (by Venus)! &c. Deuteronomy ; the last of the books of Moses. The word is derived from the Greek bevTcpos, second, and vopos, the rule, or law, because the book of Deuteronomy is a repetition which the legislator made to the IsraeUtes, just before his death, of the law which he had before deUvered to them at large. Deux-Ponts ; the French name for the Gennan city Zwribriicken, in Latin Bi- pons, all which names signify Two- Bridges. In EngUsh, the French name is used. Deux-Ponts belongs at present to the circle of the Rhine, of the kingdom of Bavaria, and was formerly the capital of the duchy of Deux-Ponts. (See Ba- varia.) By the peace of Luneville, die duchy was ceded, with ail the left bank of the Rhine, to France, and afterwards DEUX-PONTS—DEVEREUX. 311 composed a part of the department of the Donnersberg. It contains 70,000 inhab- itants, on 763 square miles. By the peace of May 30, 1814, it Avas restored to Ger- many. Madder and hops are important articles of agriculture in this district. The city of Deux-Ponts is small, and agreea- bly situated, in lon. 7° 25' E., lat. 49° 1& N.; and contained, in 1822, 800 houses, anil 0332 inhabitants, exclusive of the suburbs, which contained 82*3 inhabitants. Here is a high school, and a court of ap- peal for the Bavarian circle of the Rhine. The manufactures are of cloth, leather and tobacco. The well-known editions of Greek, Roman and French classics, called Bipont editions, were published here by a society of learned men. The pub- lication commenced in 1779. Deva ; a Sanscrit word, meaning God. It occurs in various geographical com- pounds. Devereux, Robert, earl of Essex, was born in 1567, and educated at Cambridge. Iu his 17th year, he was introduced at court; in 1586, distinguished himself at the battle of Zutphen, so as to be created a knight banneret, and on his return be- came master of the horse. The queen assembling her army at Tilbury, to resist the Spanish invasion, Essex was appoint- ed general of the horse, and received the order of the garter. In 1591, he was sent, with 4000 men, to the assistance of Henry IV, then fighting against the league, but effected nothing of consequence. He, however, retained the queen's favor, was soon after created a privy counseUor, in 1596 was appointed joint commander with lord Howard, in a successful expedition to the coast of Spain, and on his return was made master-general of the ordnance. In 1597, he was created earl marshal of England. On the breaking out of the rebellion of Tyrone, Essex was appointed governor of Ireland. He attempted to quell a rebeUiou at Munster, before he proceeded against Tyrone, which so much reduced his army, that "ot being able to meet the Irish leader, he entered into a negotiation. These transactions displeased the queen, and several sharp letters passed, which determined him to confront his enemies at home. He accordingly left Ireland, contrary to orders, and hastened to die court, without changing his dress, where, finding the queen in her bed-cham- ber, he feU upon his knees, and was re- ceived better than he expected. He was, however, soon after strictly examined by die council, and deprived of all his em- ployments but that of master of the horse. He might, however, have regained the queen's favor, had not her refusal to renew to him a monopoly of sweet wines so irri- tated him, that he indulged himself in freedoms of speech concerning her, which she could never forget. He also carried on a secret correspondence with the king of Scodand, the object of which was, to procure a public declaration of his right of succession to the Eifglish throne ; and he would have engaged his friend, lord Mountjoy, deputy of Ireland, to bring over troops to compel tiris measure. He then entered into a conspiracy to seize on the queen's person, remove his enemies, and setde a new plan of goveniment Believ- ing that this was discovered, he endeav- ored to raise the city of London in his favor: here, however, he Avas disappoint- ed ; for, instead of meeting with friends, he was proclaimed a traitor, and the streets were barricadoed against his return. He was soon invested by the queen's forces, and obliged to surrender at discretion. He was committed to the Tower, with the earl of Southampton, his chief adherent, and a jury of peers was appointed for their trial. Being found guilty, he received his sentence like a man prepared for his fate. The queen long hesitated as to signing the wan-ant for his execution, but, being persuaded by his enemies that he wished to die, and interpreting his sUence into obstinacy, at length signed it; and the earl was executed within the Tower, on the 25th of February, 1601. In the height of his favor, he had received a ring from the queen, as a pledge, on die return of which she would pardon any offence he might commit. This ring he is said to have intrusted to the countess of Nottingham, his relation, but the wife of his enemy, the admiral, who would not suffer her to defiver it to the queen, and thereby the proffered clemency Avas frastrated. The countess, on her death-bed, having con- fessed the secret to the queen, the latter was greatly agitated, and told her "that God might forgive her, but she never could." Essex was rash, violent and pre- sumptuous, but at the same time brave, generous and affectionate. He Avas the friend and patron of literature, and Avrote weU himself in prose, and attempted verse, though without much success. He erect- ed a monument to Spenser, gave an estate to Bacon, and encouraged VVotton and other men of learning. His fate has formed the subject of four tragedies. Devereux, Robert, earl of Essex, son of the preceding, was born in 1592. He was entered at Meiton college, iu his lOdi 212 DEVEREUX—DEVIL. year, and, in 1603, king James restored him to his hereditary honors. He Avas betrothed, at the age of 14, to lady Fran- ces Howard, but the marriage Avas not consummated until his return from his travels. The affections of the young countess had, in the mean time, been gained by James's unworthy favorite, Can, earl of Somerset; the consequence of which was, a scandalous suit against the earl of Essex for impotency. A divorce folloAved, and the lady married Somerset. In 1620, Essex joined the earl of Oxford, in an expedition to the Palatinate, and, in 1624, commanded one of the English regi- ments raised for the United Provinces. On the accession of Charles I, he Avas employed as vice-admiral in an expedi- tion against Spain ; and after a second marriage, in Avhich the conduct of the lady rendered a divorce necessary, he dedicated himself solely to public Ufe. In 1635, he was second in command of a fleet equipped against France and Hol- land, and, in 1639, was made lieutenant- general of the army sent against the Scottish rebels. His services were coldly received, until, in 1641, popular measures being thought necessary, he was made lord chamberlain. At this time, such was his popularity, both parties strenuously sought to gain him: the king made him lieutenant-general of all his armies south of the Trent, the house of lords made him chairman of their standing committee, and, when the people became tumultuous, the house of commons requested a guard un- der his command. When the king re- tired from the capital, he required his household nobles to attend him, which Essex declining to do, was deprived of his employments. This step fixed him in opposition, and, in 1642, he accepted the command of the parliamentary anny. He probably imagined the contest might be terminated without any radical change of goveniment, as he always seemed attached to the principles of the constitution. He commanded at the battle of Edgehill, cap- tured Reading, raised the siege of Glouces- ter, and fought the first battle of Newbury. His want of success, in 1644, in the west and the inclination he showed for peace, began at length to lower his interest with the pariiamentary party; and, the self- denying ordinance throwing hun out of command, he resigned his commission with visible discontent. He died sud- denly, in September, 1646, and was buried in Westminster abbey, with a pubUc fu- neral. Deviation. In the law of marine in- surance, deviation is an unnecessary de- parture from the usual course of the A'oyage insured. Necessary causes of de- parture from the customary line, are stress of weather, want of repair, joining con- voy, danger fi-om an enemy, mutiny, \ c.; and, even in these cases, the shortest and easiest courses must be taken, or a devi- ation wdl be incuned. Deviation, from the moment at which it commences, dis- charges the insurer from all subsequent responsibility, and entities him to retain the premium. Device, or Baoge, in heraldry ; a name common to all figures, ciphers, charac- ters, rebuses, mottoes, &c, Avhich, by their allusions to the names of persons, of fam- ines, &c, denote their qualities, nobility, or the like. Device, in this sense, is of a much older standing than heraldry itself; being that which first gave rise to armorial ensigns. Thus the eagle was the device of the Roman empire. S. P. Q. R. was the device of the Roman people, and still continues to be what is called the escutcheon of the city of Rome. The first devices were mere letters placed on the borders of Uveries, housings and banners, and at length on shields. Thus the K was the device of the French kings of the name of Charles, from Charles V to Charles IX. Badges, impresses and devices were greatly in vogue in England, from the reign of king Edward I until that of queen Elizabeth, when they sunk into disuse. Device is now taken, in a more limited sense, for an emblem, or a representation of some natural body, with a motto, or sentence, applied in a figura- tive sense. Thus a young nobleman, of great courage and ambition, bore for his device, in a carousal at the court of France, a rocket mounted in the air, with this Italian motto, Poco duri, purcM m'innalzi (May I continue but a short time, provided I mount high). A device is, therefore, a painted metaphor. Devices are used on coins, counters, seals, shields, triumphal arches, artificial fire-works, &c. The French have distinguished themselves in the invention of devices, especially since the time of cardinal Mazarin, who had a great fondness for them. The Italians have reduced the making of devices to an art, and laid down laws and rales for this purpose. Devil. Most of the old religions of the East acknowledged a host of demons, who, like their gods, were not original- ly considered, in a moral point of view, as good or bad, but merely as exercis- ing a salutary or injurious influence. In DEVIL. 213 the latter case, they were looked upon as punishing spirits, without inimical or wicked purpose. Seeva, the judging and destroying god of the Indian mythology, is a symbol of the great power of nature, which is alternately beneficial and injuri- ous, but in itself neither good nor evil. The doctrine of Zoroaster, who adopted an evil principle, called Ahriman, opposed to the good principle, and served by sev- eral orders of inferior spirits (in order to explain the existence of evil in this world), spread the belief in such spirits among the people. The Greek mythology did not distinguish with the same precision between the good and bad spirits. The Titans, it is true, struggled against the gods, but not for any merely moral rea- son, and the gods are not represented as patterns of pure morality. The caco- demons of the Greek mythology, as, for instance, the Furies, always appear more in the character of punishing than of ma- lignant spirits. On the contrary, Hecate, the goddess of the lower world and of enchantment, and the Lamiae, conespond- ing to the witches of the modern popular belief, have more of what we understand under the diabolical character. Typhon, Avho partakes in the fate of the Titans, properly belongs to the Egyptian mythol- ogy, in which he appears as the origin of evil, under the figure of a horrid monster. Similar to him is Beelzebub, or Beelzebul, who, from the mythology of Western Asia, was introduced into the belief of the Hebrews. But as the captivity of the HebreAvs in Babylon had in many respects a decisive influence upon their way of thinking and prevailing notions, by the acquaintance which they there acquired with the ideas of the Chaldeans, the idea of the devil, as the principle of evil, re- sembling Ahriman, first appeared among the Jews after that captivity. He is called Satanai, in Greek, iiaMos, the fiend, de- stroyer, antagonist. The word devil is derived from &rt/?oA«. This Satan, how- ever, is to be distinguished from the one in the book of Job. The latter is no fiend, but the accuser before the throne of the Almighty, and belongs to the heavenly servants of God. All the conceptions of evil spirits, which had been entertained before the Christian era—the impure Beelzebub, whose breath scattered pestilence ; Belial, the prince of hell; Samael, the seducer and destroyer; Lucifer (the Phosphoros of the Greeks), who lives in the fire; As- modeus, the devil of marriage—were now amalgamated with that idea of the evU principle, which the Jews had acquired in Babylon. Thus the Jewish doctrine of evil spirits and their chief was devel- oped. Insane persons, and patients suf- fering from nervous diseases, which man- ifest themselves by epileptic fits, were con- sidered as subject to his influence; and people suffering under such diseases were said to "have a devil." The founder of the Christian religion not only did not contradict this doctrine, but made use of if in the instruction of the people, ac- cording to several passages of the New Testament. Yet the whole doctrine re- ceived from the New Testament a new character; for the devil and his auxiUary spirits are represented there as originally created good, but as having fallen from virtue, and the favor of God, owing to ambition, or other evil dispositions. The Satan of the New Testament is a rebel against God. Endowed with the intel- lect and power of angels, he uses diem since his fall to entangle men in sin, and obtain power over them. He is " the prince of the world" (St. John, xii. 31), the Antichrist because he constantly opposes the great work of salvation. But, though he succeeds in effecting the perdition of individuals, yet Iris own damnation, and the eternal victory of good over evil, are certain. The same is taught in Zoroas- ter's doctrine; yet his devil was evU from eternity. Some early sects, as the Ma- nichaeans, likewise gave to Satan exist- enae fi-om eternity ; yet this idea was never adopted by the Christians at large. The doctrine of the New Testament, however, soon became blended with numerous fic- tions of human imagination, with the va- rious superstitions of different countries, and the mythology of the pagans. In Italy, Greece and Germany, this last el- ement Avas, and to a certain degree still is, blended with the idea of the devil. The gods of the ancients became evil spirits, seeking every opportunity to injure mankind. The excited imagination of hermits, in their lonely retreats, sunk as they were in ignorance, and unable to account for natural appearances, frequent- ly led them to suppose Satan visibly pres- ent ; and innumerable stories were told of his appearance, and his attributes dis- tinctly described. Among these were homs, a tail, a cloven foot, &c. The writings of the fathers of the church, also, contain several passages respecting the appearance of the devil. The sign of the cross was considered as a safeguard against him, and crucifixes were erected on many spots, as, for instance, cross- ways, Avhere he was supposed to be most 214 DEVIL—DEVIL-FISH. likely to present himself. In most Avorks or appearances of an extraordinary char- acter, the devil was supposed to be con- cerned. How many a dam, bridge, &c, has been built in one night, with his as- sistance! and every one knows that the monks made the people believe that Faus- tus invented the art of printing by the help of Satan. In consequence of the cures which Christ and his aposdes performed on the possessed, the early church believed in a power, connected with the consecra- tion of priests, to drive out evil spirits; and as early as the third century, particu- lar officers of the church Avere appointed for tiris purpose ; they Avere caUed exorcists, and are to this day tlie second of the lower orders in the Latin church. The Catho- Ucs say, the church employed such infe- rior ministers for this business, in order to shoAV the contempt which it entertained towards demons (see Dictionnaire de TM- ologie, Toulouse, 1817, article Exorciste); but this does not agree with the num- berless legends of the poAver of the devil. (See Exorcism.) The belief in evil spirits, Avitches, &c, was, in the 17th century, so common, that they became the objects of judicial process. (See Witches.) It can- not be said that the reformation directly overturned this belief. Luther once threw an ink-stand at the devd, who interrupted him when he was engaged in translating the Bible; and, even to this day, the black spot is shown on the wall in his room in the Wartburg. The trials of witches, in the 17th century, took place in Protest- ant countries, as well as in CathoUc ones. With the progress of the natural sciences, however, in the 18th century, many won- derful phenomena became explained, and less Avas heard of the devd. Our limits will not allow us to give a statement of the opinions of different Christian sects respecting evil spirits. Devil-Fish ; the popular name of a large species of ray (q. v.), which is occa- sionally captured on the coasts of the U. States. During gales of wind, or from strong cunents, these immense fish are driven into shoal water, and, being unable to extricate themselves, fall an easy prey to the vigilance of the fishermen, who ob- tain considerable quantities of oil from their livers. The pecuUar anangement of the two lateral appendages to the head, has induced naturaUsts to erect a sub- genus, expressly for the reception of these marine monsters, which has been called cephaloptera, in aUusion to the wings, or processes. In size, the species of this sub-genus exceed aU others of the fanuly, individuals frequendy measuring sixteen feet from the angles of the body. Cepha- loptera giorna, the devd-fish, sea-devil, &c, is recognised by the following char- acters: "Jaws terminal, inferior one ad- vanced; mouth with a movable flabelli- form appendage on each side ; eyes prom- inent, lateral; tad longer than the body, and armed with one or two spines, very distinct from the dorsal fin, which is situ- ated between the ventrals;" teeth very minute and numerous, ananged in rows. The skin of this fish is not covered with spinous protuberances, like that of most others of the ray species, but is merely rough to the touch, like that of many sharks. In preparing the specimen now deposited in the Philadelphia museum, this roughness of the skin produced most disagreeable effects on the hands of the operators. Color above, blackish ; be- neath, white, varied with dusky. The measurements of the individual just men- tioned, made him in breadth between fif- teen and sixteen feet, and seven feet ten inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which was somewhat longer than the body. A similar specimen was exhibited in New York, under the title of " the Vam- pyre of the ocean," and described as such by doctor Samuel L. MitchelL Others have been observed on various parts of our coast, generally in small fanulies, and are believed to visit sandy bottoms, for the purpose of breeding, arriving in July, and seldom remaining later than the end of September. The great size of the speci- men purchased by Mr. Peale rendered it necessary to divide the body, transversely, into two equal portions, in which state the process of stuffing was more easy. The pieces were afterwards joined to- gether, and the animal exhibited in the museum, where it now remains. In dry- ing, the skin, of course, contracted consid- erably, and the measurements now would be much less than those taken from the recent animal. Pyroligneous acid being used to counteract putrefaction, during several hot days in which it was exhibited, prevented any experiment being made, to determine the flavor of the flesh, and its utility as an article of food. It is not improbable, that most of the stories rela- tive to sea-serpents, which have so long been a theme of wonder, are in truth to be refened to numbers of these or other marine fishes of extraordinary size and uncommon form. It is to be regretted, that more perfect examinations have not been made, particularly in relation to the anatomical structure of the cephaloptera; DEVIL-FISH—DEVONSHffiE. 215 but it is to be hoped that our naturalists, in subsequent researches, may supply the desired information. Devil's Advocate (advocatus diaboli) is the person appointed to raise doubts against the genuineness of the miracles of a candidate for canonization (q. v.), to expose any want of formahty in the in- vestigation of the miracles, and to assail the general merits of the candidate. Af- ter every thing is said pro and contra, and three papal advocates of tlie consistory have found the whole course of proceed- ings legal and fonnal, the canonization follows. It is said that in the beginning of the 17th century, the canonization of the cardinal Charles Bonomeo was al- most prevented by the accusations of the devil's advocate. Devil's .Bridge ; a famous bridge in Switzerland, over the Reuss, built of stone, from mountain to mountain, 75 feet in length, on the road over St. Gothard, from Germany to Italy. It owes its name principally to its antiquity, for there are higher, longer and wider bridges in Swit- zerland. The Devil's Bridge is a very common subject of prints and paintings, and is situated in a most romantic country. Devil's Wall, in the south of Germa- ny. It was very common for gigantic works of art, or pecuUar formations of nature, to receive, in the middle ages, the name of the devil. This waU was origi- nally a'Roman ditch, Avith palisades behind it to which, under the reign of the empe- ror Probus, a waU with tOAvers was added. It was intended to protect the Roman settlements on the left bank of the Dan- ube, and on the right bank of the Rhine, against the inroads of the Teutonic and other tribes. The wall extended for about 368 miles, over mountains, through val- leys, and over rivers, running towards the Danube. Remains of it are found at present only from Abensberg, in Bavaria, to Cologne, on the Rhine. Sometimes these remains form elevated roads and paths through woods, sometimes taU oaks groAV upon them, sometimes buildings stand up- on the imperishable structure. A. Buchner has shown, in his Journey along the Devil's Wall (Ratisbon, 1821), that it was the work of nearly two centuries, commenc- ing in the time of Adrian, and was at first a mere waU of earth, but was afterwards made a substantial stone wall, of from six to eight feet in width. Buchner fol- lowed the traces of this wall for two sum- mers. He points out, also, the course of die Roman road behind it. The same book contains a plan of the canal by which Charlemagne intended to unite the Danube and the Rhine, and of which a dry ditch, called the Fossa Carolina, is the only remains. (See Carolina.) Buchner says, that six miUion guilders would be sufficient to complete this great plan, which others doubt. (See Danube.) Devise, in law, is the disposition of real estate by will. It is distinguished from a bequest of personal estate by wUL the personal estate so disposed of being called a legacy. The word devise is also sometimes appUed to any gift by wUl, whether of real or personal estate. The person to whom a devise is made is caUed devisee. Devolution. By the rule of deAolution, the right of presentation to a vacant place, especially a clerical one, reverts, in case of neglect in exercising it, to a superio* (bishop, prince or consistory). Devonport ; a market-town of Eng- land, at the confluence of the Tamar Avith the sea in Plymouth sound. It is the seat of the naval and miUtery government of the port, and contains the dock-yard and naval arsenal. Hence it was, until lately, called Plymouth dock, and viewed only as an appendage to the town of Plymouth. In the year 1824, it received the name of Devonport, which it has since borne. The dock-yard is well worthy of notice. It extends on the eastern bank of the Tamar, in a circular sweep along the shore, 3500 feet in length, Avitli a Avidth at the middle, where it is greatest of 1600 feet, and at each extremity 1000, thus including an area of 96 acres. The harbor of Hamoaze, which liounds the dock-yard on the western side, is a commodious basin, formed by the estuary of the Tamar, half a mile wide, and extending four miles in length. Dev- onport, within the lines, contains about 20,000 inhabitants. Devonshire ; 1. Georgiana Cavendish, duchess of; famous for her beauty and poetical talents, and the patriotic friend of Fox. She Avas bom in London, 1757, celebrated the passage of St. Gothard (translated into French by Delille, A\ith the original, Paris, 1802), and died in 1806. 2. Elizabeth Hervey, duchess of Devon- shire, lived, from 1815, in Rome, where she died, March 30,1824. In Rome, she was sunounded by distinguished men, especially artists. She Avas the friend of cardinal Gonsalvi, Canova, Camuccini, Thorwaldsen and others. She pubUshed VirgU's poems, in the translation of Han- nibal Caro, widi engravings, from the de- signs of the first painters of Rome. This edition consisted of only 150 copies, which 316 DEVONSHIRE—DEW. the duchess distributed to the European sovereigns, the principal libraries, and her particular friends. She caused an edition of the fifth satire of Horace to be pub- Ushed on the same plan, and was about to undertake an edition of Dante, when she died. Her house in Rome was the resort of the most cultivated society. Devonshire, WilUam, duke of. (See Cavendish.) Dfw is 'a deposition of water from the atmosphere upon the surface of the earth. The conditions under which the phenom- ena of dew take place are the following: The most plentiful deposit occurs when the weather is clear and serene; very Uttle is ever deposited under opposite cir- cumstances. It is never seen on nights both cloudy and windy. It is well known, likewise, that a reduction in the tempera- uire of thp air, and of the surface of the earth, always accompanies the falling of dew, the surface on which it is depos- ited being, however, colder than the air above. These phenomena admit of an easy and elegant explanation from the well known effect of the radiation of calor- ic from bodies. This radiation constantly taking place in all bodies, it is obvious that the temperature of any body can remain the same only by its receiving from another source as many rays as it emits. In the case of the earth's surface, so long as the sun remains above the horizon, it continues to receive as well as to emit heat; but when the sun sinks below the horizon, no object is present in the atmosphere to exchange rays with the earth, Avhich, still emitting heat into free space, must, consequently, experience a diminution in its temperature. It thus becomes not only many degrees cooler than in the day time, but also cooler than the superincumbent air; and, as the at- mosphere always contains Avatery vapor, this vapor becomes condensed on the cold surface ; hence the origin of dew, and, if the temperature of the earth is below 32°, of hoar frost. And since the projection of heat into free space takes place most readily in a clear atmosphere, and is im- peded by a cloudy atmosphere, it is under the former condition that dew and hoar frost are formed; for if the radiant caloric, proceeding from the earth, is intercepted by the clouds, an interchange is estab- Ushed, and the ground retains nearly, if not quite, the same temperature as the adjacent portions of air. Whatever cir- cumstances favor radiation favor also the production of dew; and, accordingly, un- der the same exposure, dew is much more copiously deposited on some sur- faces than on others. Gravel walks and pavements project heat and acquire dew less readily than a grassy surface. Rough and porous surfaces, as shavings of wood, take more dew than smooth and solid wood. Glass projects heat rapidly, and is as rapidly coated with dew. But bright metals attract dew much less powerfully than other bodies. Water, which stands at the head of radiating substances, is seen to condense the vapor of the superincum- bent air in such a manner as to create thick mists and fogs over its surface. The unusual abundance of precipitated mois- ture over ponds and streams is attributa- ble, however, not merely to the inferior temperature of their waters to the air, arising from radiation, but to the circum- stance that more moisture is ordinarily contained in such air, since the sheltered situation it enjoys prevents its being borne away by those aerial currents prevailing elsewhere. An acquaintance with tlie cause which produces dew and hoar-frost enables us to understand the rationale of the process resorted to by gardeners to protect tender plants from cold, >vhich consists simply in spreading over them a thin mat or some flimsy substance. In this way, the radiation of their heat to the heavens is prevented, or, rather, the heat which they emit is returned to them from the awning above, and they are preserved at a temperature considerably higher than that of the sunounding atmosphere. To ensure the full advantage of this kind of protection from the chill of the air, die coverings should not touch the bodies they are intended to defend. Garden walls operate, in part, upon the same principle. In warm cUmates, the deposition of dewy moisture on animal substances hastens their putrefaction. As this usually hap- pens only in clear nights, it was anciently supposed that bright moonshine favored animal conuptioiL This rapid emission of heat from the surface of the ground enables us to explain the artificial forma- tion of ice, during the night, in Bengal, while the temperature of the air is above 32°. The nights most favorable for tiris effect are those which are the calmest and most serene, and in which the air is so dry as to deposit Uttle deAV after mid- night Clouds and frequent changes of vrind never fad to interrapt the congela- tion. 300 persons are employed in this operation at one place. The enclosures formed on the ground are four or five feet wide, and have waUs only four inches high. In these enclosures, previously DEW—DE WITT. 217 bedded with dry straw, broad, shaUow, unglazed pans are 6et, containing water. Wind, Avhich so greatly promotes evapo- ration, prevents the freezing altogether; and dew forms, in a greater or less de- gree, during the whole of the nights most productive of ice. The straw is carefully preserved dry, since if, by accident, it be- comes moistened by the spilling of water, it conducts heat, and raises vapor from the ground, so as greatly to impede the con- gelation. The radiation from the earth's surface is one of those happy provisions for the necessities of living beings, with winch nature every where abounds. The heavy dews which faU in tropical regions are, in the highest degree, beneficial to vegetation, which, but for this supply of moisture, Avould, in countries where scarcely any ram falls for months, be soon scorched and withered. But, after the high temperature of the day, the ground radiates under these clear skies with great rapidity; the surface is quickly cooled, even to a great extent, and, as soon as this refreshing cold is produced, the watery vapor, which, from the great daily evapo- ration, exists in large quantities in the atmosphere, is deposited abundantly. This deposition is more plentiful, also, on plants, from their greater radiating poAver ; while, on hard, bare ground and stones, Avhere it is less wanted, it is comparatively trifling. In cold climates, the earth, being cold and sufficiently moist, requires little dew; accordingly the clouds, which are so com- mon in damp and chilly regions, prevent die radiation of heat: the surface is thus preserved warm, and the deposition of dew is, in a great measure, prevented. De Wette. (See Wette.) De Witt, John, grand-pensioner of Holland, celebrated as a statesman and for his tragical end, was the son of Ja- cob De Witt, burgomaster of Dort, and was born in 1625. His father was im- prisoned for some time on account of his opposition to prince William II of Orange. John De Witt inherited from his father republican principles and a hatred to die house of Orange. After having carefuUy. cultivated his talents, he entered into the service of his country, and was one of the deputies sent by the states of Holland to Zealand, in 1652, to dis- suade this province from conferring the office of captain-general on the young prince of Orange, William III, Avho was but two years old. 1 lis eloquence procured him universal confidence; but to pre- serve this was almost impossible during the dissensions which raged in the vol. iv. 19 states-general. One party was anxious, during the war between England and Holland, to have all power and honors confereed on prince WilUam III ; the other, with De Witt at its head, endeavored to withdraw aU authority from this prince, and entirely to abolish the stadtholdership. The war with England, sometimes fortu- nate, sometimes adA'erse, was injurious to commeTce, and excited the disjileasure of the nation against the latter party, of which excitement the Orange party took aih'an- tage to effect their purposes, until, in 1654, the former concluded a peace with Crom- well, Avith the secret condition that the house of Orange should be excluded from all situations of authority. Thus the republican party was victorious, and De Witt, as grand-pensioner, employed' the time of peace in healing the wounds un- der which the state was suffering. When Charles II again took possession of the crown of England, De Witt inclined to the side of France, which inclination be- came more powerful when, in 1665, the war recommenced between England and the states-general. The bishop of Mini- ster, likewise, taking arms against the latter, the discontent of the people against De Witt became so great, that he was compelled, in order to pacify them, to give up some privileges to the prince of Orange, and to conclude peace with England, in 1667. To increase the danger of De Witt's situation, Louis XIV hoav began to manifest his intentions with regard to the Spanish Netherlands. The Orange party insisted on elevating prince William to the dignity of his ancestors. De Witt succeeded in separating the offices of stadtholder and captain-general, and pro- vided that, in Holland at least, he should be entirely excluded from die latter. The number of De WTitt's enemies increased. He was obliged to conclude an alliance with England and Sweden against France, which produced the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle, and was as quickly dissolved as it had been formed. Louis XIV, now united Avith England, invaded the Span- ish Netherlands (1672). William's friends succeeded in procuring for him the post of commander-in-chief. The first cam- paign was unfortunate in its results, which were imputed to De Witt and his friends. The Ufe of the former Avas endangered. William was nominated stadtholder by universal consent, and De Witt resigned his employments. But the disposition of the people was little changed by this volun- tary act, nor was the hatred of the Orange party satisfied. His brother Cornehus 218 DE WITT—DEY. was accused of having attempted to assas- sinate the prince. He was imprisoned and put to the rack; butas he would not con- fess any such design, he was banished from the country, and his property confiscated. Hearing that his brother Avished to speak to him while in prison, John de Witt hastened thither, when a tumult suddenly arose among the people at die Hague. The militia could not disperse die mob, the greater number of the officers being devoted to the prince. The people broke into the prison, and both brothers fell vic- tims to their rage (Aug. 20,1672). The states demanded an investigation of this affair, and the punishment of the mur- derers, from the stadtholder, which, how- ever, never took place. That the opinions of De Witt's contemporaries respecting him did not agree, may weU be supposed ; but aU acquitted him of treason against his country. He was simple and modest in all his relations. He fell a victim to party spirit, nor could the friends of the house of Orange accuse him of any other crime than that of not belonging to dieir party, and of aiming to elevate his own party at their expense. De Witt was an ac- tive political writer, and has left many excellent observations on the events of his time. Dexter, Samuel, an eminent American laAvyer and statesman, Ava6 born at Boston, in 1761. IBs father Avas a distinguished merchant, and a benefactor of Harvard college. The son Avas graduated at that institution, in 1781, AA'ith its first honors. He then engaged in the study of the law. He had not been long at the bar before he Avas elected to die state legislature, from which he was transferred to congress, first to the house of representatives, and then to the senate. He was in congress dur- ing a period of strong party excitement, and succeeded in gaining much influence and honor by the force of* his talents and character, proving himself an enlightened politician and superior orator. President Adams made him, successively, secretary of war and of die treasury. He dis- charged these offices in a masterly man- ner. Towards the end of Mr. Adams's administration, he was offered a foreign embassy, but decUned it. When Mr. Jefferson became president, he resigned his public employments, and returned to the practice of the law. In 1815, president Madison requested him to accept an ex- traordinary mission to the court of Spain, but he decUned the offer. For many years, he continued to display extraordi- nary powers in his profession, having no superior, and scarcely a rival, before the supreme court at Washington, in which he appeared every winter, in cases of the highest importance. On his return from that capital, in die spring of 1816, he feU sick at Athens, in the state of NeAV York, and died there May 4, aged 55. Mr. Dexter Avas tall and well formed, with strong features and a muscular frame. His eloquence was that of clear exposition, and cogent plrilosoplrical reasoning ; his deUvery in general simple, and his enun- ciation monotonous; but he often expressed himself with signal energy and beauty, and always gave evidence of uncommon poAver. He devoted much of his leisure to theological studies, and died a zealous Christian. In the party divisions of the American republic, he held, at first, the post of an acknoAvledged leader among the federalists : eventually, hoAvever, he separated himself from his colleagues, on some questions of primary interest and magnitude. In the fine sketch of his life and character, drawn by judge Story, it is truly said of him, "He considered the union of the states as the main security of their Uberties; Avhatever might be his Opinion of any measures, he never breathed a doubt to shake public or private confi- dence in the excellence of the constitu- tion itself." Dey ; the chief of Algiers, which is a military aristocratic state. In Tunis and Tripoli, the same officer in these similarly regulated military republics, is named bey. The bey of Tripoli is, however, assisted by a pacha. , Since 1520, Algiers has recognised the authority of the Turkish sultan. Turkish soldiers, under the com- mand of a pacha, sent to Algiers by the sultan, once governed there, and, not re- ceiving their pay fi-om the pacha, they prayed permission of the Porte, at the commencement of the 17th century, to choose a chief from their number, with the title of dey. The pacha was to remain, but to have no share in the government This was agreed to by the Porte. In the year 1710, the dey banished the pacha from Algiers, and obtained permission of the Porte to enjoy both tides. Since that period, every dey chosen by the soldiers must apply to the sultan for continuation and for appointment as pacha. The sul- tan, therefore, reckons Algiers amongst his possessions, and sends orders to the pacha and the divan. In time of Avar, the people of Algiers must assist the Porte, if required, with soldiers and ships. AU money coined here bears the stamp of the sultan, and pubUc prayers are offered fir DEY—DIAL. 219 him, as through the whole of Turkey. The dey sends an annual tribute to Con- stantinople. The highest authority is widi the divan, or the councd of state; but" the greater and lesser members of the invin- cible militia of Algiers" make decrees according to the majority of votes, in all things which concern the goveniment Dhioliba. (See Niger, and Timbudoo.) Diadem ; a band of suit or woollen, invented, according to some, by Bacchus, to relieve the headache produced by ex- cessive drinking. It more probably be- longed to him as coming from the East (the Indies). It afterwards became the distinguishing ornament of royalty. The diadem of the Egyptian deities and kings bore the symbol of the sacred serpent Among the Persians, it was twined about the tiara of the kings, and was purple and white. The diadem of Bacchus, particu- larly of the Indian Bacchus, as seen in very old representations, consisted of a broad, plaited band, encircling the fore- head and temples, and tied behind, with die ends hanging down. When unfolded, it formed, in fact a veil ; and, for tiris rea- son, it was often caUed, by the Greeks, calyptra, i. e., a veil. It was afterwards attributed to other deities, and finally became the badge of kings. In the ear- Uest times, it was very narrow. Alexan- der the Great adopted the broad diadem of the Persian kings, the ends of which hung over his shoulders ; and this mark of regal dignity Avas retained by his suc- cessors. On coins Ave see queens, also, Avith the diadem, Avith the addition of a veil. The early Roman emperors ab- stained from this ornament, to avoid giving offence to the people. Constantine the Great was the first who used it, and he added new ornaments to it. After his time, it was set with a single or double row of pearls and other precious stones, so that it was somewhat siinUar to a Turkish turban. Di.r.nous, in botany; plants Avhich have their stamens on one individual and their pistils on another. The willow, the ash, the poplar, &c, are dioecious. On this account, the weeping willow and several otiier trees never produce seeds in the U. States, as the male plants only have been introduced. Diaglypho.v (Lat; iiay\b^ov, Gr.); in ancient sculjiture ; the name by which the Greeks designated works in sculpture when sunk in Avith the chisel. Among the most celebrated of tliese were the buckler and pedestal of a colossal statue of Minerva at Athens. When it was in re- Uef, die work was called anaglyphic. (See Anaglyphic.) Diagnosis, in medicine; the distinc- tion of one disease from others resembling it by means of a coUected vieAV of the symptoms. Diagnostic symptoms are the leading symptoms, or those which are most char- acteristic of any particular form or seat of disease. Diagonal, Diagonal Line ; a straight line, joining two angles not adjacent, in a rectilinear figure, having more than three sides. Every rectilinear figure may be divided by diagonals into as many tri- angles as it has sides, minus two. Diagram ; a figure or geometrical deUn- eation, applied to the illustration or solu- tion of geometrical problems, or a de- scription or sketch in general. Anciently, it signified a musical scale. Among the Gnostics, the name diagram was giA-en to a figure formed by die superposition of one triangle on another, and inscribed Avith some mystical name of the Deity, and worn as an amulet. Dial, Sun. This instrument has been known from the earUest times: the Egyp- tians, Chaldeans and Hebrews (Isaiah xxxvii. 8) were acquainted Avith the uses of it The Greeks derived it from dieir eastern neighbors, and it was introduced into Rome during the first Punic war. A dial constructed for the latitude of Catana Avas carried off from that city and placed in the forum by Valerius Messana ; but, as there was a difference of 4° of latitude between the two cities, it could not, of course, indicate the true time at Rome. Before this period, the Romans ascertain- ed the hour by the rude method of ob- serving the lengths of shadows, or, in the absence of the sun, by the clepsydra (q..v.), wlrich a slave Avas employed in tending.— Sun-dials have lost much of their value in modem times, by the general introduc- tion of instruments which indicate the time at any period of the day or night; but clocks and Avatches require to be regulated, and the shadows projected by the sun are the most convenient standard for this purpose. Dials are of various kinds ; but the horizontal and vertical are most commonly used. In this place, we can give only the general rules of construc- tion applicable to all of them. Suppose 12 planes, making with each other angles of 15°, passing through the axis of the earth and dividing the sphere into 24 equal parts, one of these planes being the me- ridian of the place of the observer; start from the meridian, and, moving towards 220 DIAL—DIALECT. the west, number these planes respectively 1, 2, 3, and so on up to 12, Avhich will be the lower meridian of the place; starting from this point, number as before, 1, 2, 3, & c, again to 12, which will now faU on die upper meridian. We shaU thus have a series of horary circles, in passing from one of which to the next the sun -will oc- cupy one hour. At noon, he Avill be on the meridian, wlrich is numbered 12; it is then 12 o'clock; an hour before, he Avas on the last horaiy circle preceding (to the east), numbered 11, and it Avas 11 o'clock. Twelve hours from the time of passing die upper meridian, he will pass the lower, also numbered 12, and it will be midnight. Suppose, now, an opaque plane passing through the centre of the earth, and inter- sected by the 12. planes in as many diverg- ing straight lines, and mark tliese lines with the numbers belonging to their respective planes. This opaque plane will represent die face of a dial, the straight Unes avUI form the horary lines marked on its surface, and the style will represent the axis of the earth, and will project its shadow succes- sively on each of the hour lines, the num- ber affixed to Avhich Avill show the hour of the day; that is, at 10 o'clock the shadow will fall on the line numbered 10, &c. We shall thus have a dial construct- ed at the centre of the earth; but the radius of tlie earth, or the distance from its centre to its surface, is so small, in com- parison Avith the distance of the earth from die sun, that it may be considered as nothing: Ave may therefore transport our central dial to any given place, keeping the style and surface always parallel to the positions in which we supposed them at first, and we shall have a dial for that place. This is the theoiy of dials. It fol- lows, from this explanation, 1. that a sun- dial, calculated for any given place,will also serve for any other place under the same meridian, provided its position in the latter place be parallel to its position in the for- mer place. 2. The style of a dial is parallel to the axis of the earth; the meridian line is the intersection of the plane of the dial and the meridian of the place ; the style is in the meridian, and inclines to the rational horizon in the same manner as the terres- trial axis, that is, by an angle equal to the latitude of the place. 3. The hour lines are the intersections of the face of the dial by 12 planes, incUned to each other by an angle of 15°, drawn from the meridian, and passing through die style. If it is required to mark shorter intervals of time as half hours, it is only necessaiy to con- ceive 24 planes, at an angle of 7£° with each odier, and so on for any subdivisions 4. The hour lines of a dial drawn on a plane are straight lines meeting in the centre of the dial, where the face is pene- trated by the stv le. The forenoon and afternoon hour lines of the same number are given by die intersection of the same horaiy plane, on the opposite sides of the style. Sometimes the hour is indicated by means of a plate, placed before the dial, having a hole through which the Ught passes. It is only necessary that this hole should be one of the points of the style; the Ught will then fall upon that part of the dial Avhere the shadow of the conesponding point of the style would be projected. Dialect; a A'ariety of a language. This definition is certainly vague, but is necessarily so from the nature of the sub- ject, as it is impossible to determine nicely the line where dialects begin to become distinct languages. For instance, in some respects, German, Danish, SAvedish, Ice- landish, may be called dialects of the com- mon Teutonic stock; yet a German is no more able to understand Swedish than Hebrew, if he has not studied it. It Avould not be correct, however, to lay it down as a rule, that dialects are such forms of the common language, as may be understood, if not entirely, yet in gen- eral, by all who speak one of the vari- eties of the common language, because a person who never heard or spoke any thing but High-Gennan cannot under- stand the people of Lower Germany, speaking to each other in their dialect: a Portuguese, indeed, is generally able to understand Spanish, Avithout having learn- ed the language systematically, The Common meaning of the term dialect, in modem times, is the language of a part of a country or a distant colony, deviating, either in its grammar, words or pronun- ciation, from the language of that jiart of the common countiy whose idiom has been adopted as the literary language, arid the medium of intercourse between well- educated people. In ancient times, when the great difficulties in the Avay of inter- course and communication between dif- ferent parts of a country prevented, or at least impeded, the formation of a general language, each dialect AA'as developed independently of the others, until some event gave to one the ascendency. In Greece, we find four distinct dialects ; the Ionic, Attic, Doric and iEolic ; each of which gave birth to literary productions still extant, until at last the greater refine- ment, and the cultivation of arts and sci- DIALECT—DIALOGUE. 221 ences in Athens, gave the Attic dialect the superiority. It is a great mistake to con- sider dialects as something to be rooted out like noxious Aveeds; for, if they are independent varieties of a common lan- guage, not mere corruptions of a language already settled, they always retain many beauties, which Avould not exist Avithout them; many peculiarities, which often afford a great insight into tlie language, to a judicious philologist. No one, who has studied the peculiarities of the Provencal, the LoAV-German, or the Allemannic dia- lects, or the Neapolitan, Avith its many rem- nants of the Greek, Avould wish to put an end to their existence. Dialects resemble rebels against lawful authority, until die stamp of legitimacy is impressed upon them by a great man or great event. Ital- ian was once the vulgar dialect; and, even now, to teanslate into Italian is caUed vol- garizzare. It was conupt Latin mixed Avith barbarous words derived from the idioms of the conquerors of the country, and was used at first only by the loAver classes; it then became the general dia- lect-of common life; and, at last, the giant mind of Dante dared to sing in the " vul- gar dialect," and to stamp it as a legitimate language.* Portuguese Avas a corrupted dialect of Spanish, until Portugal separated from Spain, and dared to uphold its dialect as an independent language. In Germa- ny, no dialect has ever obtained entire ascendency. Much Avas once Avritten in Low-German, and the activity of the Hanseatic league, and the wide extent to which it was spoken, gave it much influ- ence. Charles V, born at Ghent, spoke Low-German ; but Luther's translation of the Bible, like Dante's Divina Commedia, made High-German the literary language. Since that time, it has changed very much, and has acquired, in many respects, a de- velopement of its own. It is a great mis- take, common among foreigners, to con- sider Saxon as the Castilian or Tuscan dialect of Germany, because Luther was bom in Saxony. On the contrary, the Saxon dialect is one of the most disa- greeable to a German car, and deviates much from the modem High-German. Only the fundamental characteristics of die language of Upper-Germany have re- mained in High-German. In other re- spects, it has developed itself independent- ly of any provincial dialect In England, there are but two great dialects, English * It must be observed, that Neapolitan was written even before Tuscan; but Dante's great- ness made the Tuscan at once the standard dia- and Scotch; yet it has often been observ- ed that no country has more variations from the common literary language. Every county has its peculiarities, which are sometimes striking and difficult to be un- derstood. On the other hand, there never has existed a country so vast, and a popu- lation so large as that of the U. States, with so little variety of dialect, which is owing to the quick and constant commu- nication between the different parts of the country, and the roving spirit of the people, the great mass of whom, be- sides, derive their descent from the same stock. Dialectics ; the old name of logic, or the art of reasoning (from StaXiytaOae, to speak), because thought and reasoning are expressed by speech, and thus w ere first manifested, and the mind naturally pro- ceeds from the obvious to the remote, from the particular to the general. Logic (q. at.) was early denominated, in confor- mity with this name, the art of speaking or disputing. By dialectician, we under- stand a teacher of dialectics, or one who understands tlie art of logical disputation. Dialogue ; a conversation or conference between two or more persons. The word is particularly used in reference to theat- rical performances and to Avritten conver- sations, or a composition in which two or more persons are represented as inter- changing ideas on a given topic. The ancient philosophers, especially the Greeks, from their peculiar vivacity, were fond of this form ; they used it for the communi- cation of their investigations on scientific subjects. The dialogues of Plato are a sort of philosophical dramas. The Socrat- ic dialogue (so called) consists of questions and answers, and the person questioned is obliged, by successively assenting to the interrogatories put to him, to come to the conclusions which the questioner wishes to produce. This dialogue sup- poses in the intenogator a thorough knowl- edge of human nature in general, and of the person questioned in particular. The dialogue is now much used for verbal in- struction. The philosophical dialogue seems but little adapted to our manners and the present improved state of tlie sci- ences ; and, being written, of course, Avith the view of establishing certain positions, the objections raised are only such as can be readily answered, and thereby assist in establishing the desired conclusions ; but are not always such as present themselves to the reader, who is often dissatisfied with the result because his own doubts are not settled, Erasmus of Rotterdam, 222 DIALOGUE—DIAMOND. and subsequently, among the Germans, LcsMiur, Moses Mendelssohn, Engel, Her- der, Jacobi, Solgcr, have Avritten in this fonn. In comic and satiric dialogue, Wieland has imitated the satirist Lu- cian. Among the most distinguished Italian Avriters of dialogue are Petrarca (De vera Sapientia), Machiavelli, GeUi, Algarotti and Gozzi; and among the French, Sarrasin, Malebranche, Fenelon: Fontenelle and St. Mard imitated Lucian, and, among the EngUsh, bishop Berkeley and Hurd have imitated Plato, and Hanis, Cicero. Lord Lyttelton's dialogues of the dead, and Addison's dialogues on medals, are well known. Landor's imaginary con- versations of literary men and statesmen (London, 1826) attracted some attention. If the conversation gives rise to action, dien the drama is produced. In the dra- ma, the dialogue, in a namrwer sense, is opposed to monologue or soliloquy; in the opera, it is that which is spoken, in opposi- tion to that which is sung. (See Drama.) Diameter ; the straight hue drawn through the centre of a circle, and touch- ing the two opposite points of the circum- ference. It thus divides the circle into two equal parts, and is the greatest chord. The1 radius is half this diameter, and con- sequently the space comprehended be- tween the centre and circumference of a circle. (For the magnitude of the diame- ter, in comparison with die circumference, see Circle.) Diamo.nd; diehardest and most valua- ble of all the gems. To the account of tlie diamond already given in the article Carbon, we will only add at present, that diamonds are of various colors; but the colorless, which is the sort mostly used in the arts, is, Avhen pure, perfectly clear, and pellucid as the purest water. Hence the phrases, the water of a diamond, a diamond of the finest ivater, &c. The colorless diamonds are not, hoAvever, the most common. The rarest colors are blue, pink, and dark brown; but yellow diamonds, when the color is clear and equal throughout, are very beautiful and much valued. Pale blue diamonds are also very fine and rare, but deep blue still more rare. The largest diamond hitherto found is in the possession of the rajah of Mattan, in the island of Borneo, where it Avas found about eighty years since. It weighs three hundred and sixty-seven carats. It is described as having the sha|ie of an egg, with an indentation near the smaller end. Many years ago, tlie governor of Batavia tried to purchase it, and offered in exchange one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, tAVO large brigs of war, Avith their guns and ammunition, and other cannon, with powder and shot But the rajah refused to part Avith a jewel, to which the Malays attach miraculous poAv- ers, and which "tiny imagine to be con- nected with the fate of his family. This diamond is mentioned in the memoirs of the Batavian society. The diamond is the hardest of all knoAvii substances. Nothing Avill scratch it, nor can it be cut but by itself. By cutting, it acquires a brilliancy and play of lustre that much augment its price. The hardness of the diamond was well knoAvn to the ancients; its name, both in Greek and Latin (aSdpas, adainas), implying invincible hardness. The an- cients did not confine the word adamas to indicate the diamond alone, but applied it to other hard and adamantine substances. They Avere unacquainted with the art of cutting the diamond, satisfying themselves with those which were polished naturally; but knew of the property of its powder or dust for cutting, engraving, and polishing other stones. The art of cutting and pol- ishing the diamond was unknown iu Eu- rope till the fifteenth century. Before that period, rough and unpolished ones were set as ornaments, and valued accord- ing to the beauty and perfection of their crystallization and transparency. This art is said to have been invented and first practised in 1456, by Louis de Berquen, a native of Bruges. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, was one of the first princes of modem times who affected a great splendor in diamonds. Among engraved or sculptured diamonds is one Avith a head, Avhich Gori falsely imagined to be antique, and called it a portrait of Posido- nius. It belonged to the duke of Bedford. Lessing thinks that many of the engraved antique gems, Avhich are called diamonds, are nothing but amethysts, sapphires and emeralds, deprived of their color by the operation of fire. Diamonds are/valuable for many purposes. Their poAvder is the best for the lapidary and gem engraver, and more economical than any other mate- rial for cutting, engraving and polishing hard stones. Glaziers cut glass with them; glass cutters looking-glasses, and other ar- ticles of window and plate glass. The glazier's diamond is set in a steel socket and attached to a Avooden handle about the size of a thick pencil. It is very re- markable, that only the point of a natural crystal can be used ; cut or split diamonds scratch, but the glass will not break along the scratch,as it does when a natural crys- tal is used. An application of the diamond, DIAMOND—DIAMOND DISTRICT. 223 of great importance in the art of engrav- ing, has been also made within a few years by the late Wilson Lowry, to the purpose of drawing or ruUng lines, which are af- tenvards to be deepened by aqua fortis. Formerly steel points, called etching nee- dles, were used for that purpose ; but they soon became blunt by the friction against the copper, so that it has always been im- practicable to make what are called flat or even tints with them; such as the azure parts of skies, large architectural subjects, and the sea in maps; but the diamond, being turned to a conical point, or other- wise cut to a proper form, is not worn aAvay by the friction of the copper, and, consequently, the lines draAvn by it are all of equal thickness. The diamond etching points of Mr. Lowry are turned in a lathe, by holding a thin splinter of diamond against them, as a chisel. Diamond District, in Brazil. That part of Brazil where the government collects diamonds.is not far from Villa di Principe, and extends about sixteen leagues fi-om north to south, and about eight from east to west, in the district of Ceno do Frio, which consists of rugged mountains, gen- erally considered the highest in Brazil. The first diamonds found here were used by the governor of Villa di Principe as card counters, and considered by him as curious bright crystals. They were sent to Lisbon, where the Dutch consul recog- nised their value, and sent them to Hol- land, then die market of precious stones. Holland immediately concluded a com- mercial treaty Avith Portugal, and it is said tiiat the weight of the diamonds intro- duced during the next twenty years into Europe, exceeded a thousand ounces. This diminished their value, and diamonds Avere exported profitably even to India, the only country whence, till then, these stones had come. An interesting account of the proceedings in the Diamond district, into which few visitors are ever admitted, is contained in the excellent work called Travels in Brazd, in die Years 1817—1820, undertaken by Command of H. M. the King of Bavaria, by die late Dr. Jolin Bapt. von Spix, and Dr. C. F. Phil, von Martius, 2 vols., Avritten and edited by the survivor, Dr. Martius, Munich, 1828, 4to., translated into English 1829. From this work the folloAving account is extracted:— The travellers reached Villa di Principe, a toAvn of some size, lying near the edge of the Diamond district, into which they Avere admitted by virtue of an order from the king. This tract of country is entirely occupied by the government, for the sake of its mineral treasures. In 1730, diamonds were declared the property of the crown; and this district, abounding particularly in them, has been subjected to a most curious system of exclusion. Lines of demarcation are drawn around it guarded as strictly as those of an infected city. No person is permitted to pass these, in either direction, AAithout an order from the intendant of the mines. Every one, on going out, is subjected, with his horses and baggage, to a most minute examina- tion, and, in case of suspicion that a dia- mond has been swallowed, may be detain- ed for tAventy-four hours. The intendant is head judge in all cases, and chief of the police; he may send any inhabitant out of the district on bare suspicion; nor is there any appeal from him and his coun- cil, the junta diamantina, except to the mercy of the king. Every member of this board, if he knows of any person having diamonds in his possession, is bound to give notice to the intendant, who imme- diately issues his search-Avarrant, though, in cases of emergency, the soldiers are per- mitted to search without such authority. There are also strict rules with regard to the registering of the inhabitants, the ad- mission of settlers, the erection of new inns or shops, and the hiring of slaves. The members of the expedition being ac- quainted with the intendant, who, though a native Brazilian, had studied mineralo- gy under Werner, in Germany, were in- vited to a sitting of the junta. The order of proceedings was as follows. First, the whole stock of diamonds Avas laid -before the meeting. It amounted to 9396 carats 2 grains, and Avas divided into twelve class- es (lotes), enclosed in bags of red silk.— The division AA'as made by means of a brass box, in Avhich there Avere eleven sieves of different sizes, so ananged that the smallest diamonds Avere collected in the lowest, the largest in the upper sieve. There were eleA-en stones of more than eight carats in weight Some spurious diamonds were rejected by tlie junta, and given, for the sake of accurate examination, to die ttaveUers. These are noAV preserved at Munich, and were found to be several beautiful varieties of cluysoberyls (chiefly those called in Brazil green aqua-marines) and sapphires, white and blue topazes, rubies, quartzes, and other stones. After the whole collection of the year had been examined and a list made, they AArere, in the presence of all the members, packed up in bags, and deposited in a small red mo- rocco box. This was fastened by two locks, of which the intendant and die officer 224 DIAMOND DISTRICT—DIANA. of the crown reA-enue had each a key, and then given in charge, together Avith the min- utes of the proceedings, to a detachment of dragoons, and addressed to the king, to be forwarded by the governor of Villa Rica, to Rio Janeiro. The diamond-Avashing is perfonned by slaves, who are hired 1 >y the goveniment from private proprietors, at the rate of 300 to 600 rees a Aveek. They are under the control of certain inspectors, named fdtores, of whom there Avere, in 1818, one hundred. These persons have the more immediate care of the slaves, and receive from them the diamonds. The fdtores, again, are under die control of ten surveyors (adminislradores), who weigh the diamonds, deliver diem to the junta, and have die management of die works, machinery, &c The government formerly prohibited the washing for gold in the Diamond district; it is, however, iioav per- mitted, as a favor to individuals; but if any precious stones are found, they are given up to the junta. The most formi- dable enemy to the goveniment, are the diamond smugglers, orgrimpdros. These persons, who are frequently runaway slaves, being well acquainted with the country, are able by night to elude the vigilance of the royal guards. The dia- monds smuggled are generally procured from the slaves, who are able, in the pres- ence of the inspectors, to secrete them in various ways between their fingers and toes, in their ears, mouth or hair; or they swallow the stones, or throw them over their heads, so tiiat they can find them again by night When the guards are once past the smugglers sell the stones to traders, who easily conceal them in bales of cotton and other simdar commodities, and send them down to the coast. Such is the necessary and natural consequence of the system adopted by die Brazilian government " It is," as doctor Martius re- marks, " the only instance in which a tract of country has been isolated, and all civil relations made subordinate to a monopoly of tlie crown." The happiness and con- venience of bodi the inhabitants and neigh- bors are obviously sacrificed to maintain a mercantile speculation, of which the prof- its cannot be very great* Diamond, in technical language, is the rhomboid, that is, a quadrangle with equal sides, and two acute and two obtuse an- gles ; for instance, in patterns of caUco. * Diamonds have been lately brought by Alex. von Humboldt from the Ural mountains, where from some passages in ancient writers, they ap- pear to have been found in ancient times. " Not far from the Rhiphaean mountains/' says Dionysius Diana ; the Roman name of the Arte- mis of the Greeks; tlie daughter of Jupiter and Latona, twin sister of Apollo. (See Apollo, and Ddos.) While yet a child, as Callimachus relates in his hymn, she en- treated her father to suffer her to continue a virgin, because her mother's sufferings had rendered her averse from love. She deshcd him, at the same time, to give her a bow and arrows, a city, and rule oA'er die hills, 60 Oceanides and 20 river- nymphs, and to permit her to bear a torch and hunt in the forests. Jupiter gave her more than she asked. He caused 30 cities to be devoted exclusively to her worship, and appointed many others where she was venerated in common Avith other deities. Diana then retired to the woods of Leucus, in Crete; tiience she went to the ocean, Avhere she selected a numerous retinue of nymphs, nine years old. Her next journey was to the Cyclops, on the island Lipara, of whom she asked a Cy- donian bow, and a quiver and arrows. They executed the commands of the god- dess, and she now appeared with her arms in the Arcadian tenitory of Pan, Avho pre- sented her with some beautiful hunting- dogs. Thus equipped, at the foot of mount Parrhasius, she took four beautiful stags, with gold antlers, yoked them to her chariot, and proceeded with them first to the Thracian Heemus. On Olympus, in Mysia, she cut a torch from a tree, and kindled it with the lightning of Jove. When she returned to the palace of the gods, loaded with game, Mercury and Apollo met her in the vestibule ; the for- mer took her weapons, and the latter the fruits of the chase. The river-nymphs unyoked the stags from her chariot, fed them in Juno's meadoAvs, and gave them water from golden vessels. Diana then went into the palace of the gods, and sat by the side of Apollo. As he directs the chariot of the sun, she guides that of the moon. Cupid and Venus sought to con- quer her in vain. Hunting, music and dancing alone had charms for her. She punished without mercy those of her vir- gins avIio violated their voavs of chastity. Actaeon, the grandson of Cadmus, who secretly Avatched her as she was bathing, she changed into a stag, and his own dogs tore him in pieces. The beautiful En- dymion, however, at length made her feel the power of love. While enlightening Periegetes, "among the cold Agathyrsi, spark- ling diamonds are collected;" and Ammianus Marcellinus agrees with him when he mentions; " Agathyrsi apud quos adamantis est copia\ laputis." DIANA—DIAPASON. 225 the earth as Luna (the moon), she beheld the hunter, fatigued with the chase, slum- bering in the Avoods. She descended from her ethereal course, and kissed the lips of the youth, who enjoyed a favor never before granted to mortal or immor- tal. Notwithstanding her aversion to love, she afforded aid to women who called upon her in travail. She was also the goddess of death. She aims her darts es- pecially at the female sex, and brings the old, who are satisfied with life, to a gentle death, to make way for the vigorous and blooming. When she is angry, she de- stroys Avith pestilence and disease, Uke her brother Apollo. When offended, she re- venges without compassion. Thus she slew Oriou, the hunter, from jealousy, be- cause Aurora had fallen in love with him; so also the daughters of Niobe, because then mother prefereed herself above La- tona, &c. In the Trojan war, both Diana and Apollo aided the Trojans ; and in the war with the giants and Titans, she proved her valor. The worship of Diana was spread through all Greece. She received many surnames, particularly from the places where her worship was established, and from the functions over which she presided. She Avas caUed Lucina, Ilythia, or Juno Pronuba, when invoked by women in child-bed, and Trivia when worshipped in the cross-Avays where her statues Avere generaUy erected. She was supposed to be the same as the moon and Proserpine or Hecate, and fromthat circumstance she was called Triformis; and some of her statues represented her Avith three heads, that of a horse, a dog, and a boar. She Avas also called Agrotda, Oithia, Taurica, Delia, Cynthia, Aricia, &c. She Avas supposed to be the same as the Isis of the Egyp- tians, whose worship was introduced into Greece with that of Osiris, under the name of Apollo. The Artemisia Avas a festival celebrated in honor of her at Delphi.—At first she was represented with a diadem, afterwards with the crescent upon her head, with bow and anows, a quiver over her shoulders, and a light hunting dress, together with her hounds. Her most famous temple was at Ephesus (q. v.), and was considered one of the wonders of the world. She was worship- ped there as the symbol of fruitful nature, und represented Avith many breasts, en- circled with numerous bands. Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valenti- nois, born in 1499. She Avas the mistress of king Henry II of France, and de- scended from the noble fanrily of Poitiers, in Dauphiny. At an early age, she mar- ried the grand-seneschal of Normandy, Louis de Breze, became a widoAV at. 31, and, some time after, tlie mistress of the young duke of Orleans. When the duke became dauphin, a violent hostflity arose between Diana and the duchess of Etam- pes, mistress of Francis I, who taunted her rival with her age. Diana satisfied her revenge by banishing the duchess on the accession of Henry II to the throne, in 1547, in Avhose name she ruled with un- limited power. TU1 his death, in 1559, she exercised such an absolute empire over the king, by the charms of her wit and grace, that her superstitious contem- poraries ascribed her poAVer to magic. Upon his death, she retired to her castle Anet, Avhere she estabUshed a charitable institution for the support of 12 AvidoAVS, and died in 1566. Medals are still to be seen bearing her image, trampling under foot the god of love, with the inscription, Omnium vidorem vici (I have conquered the universal conqueror). Diana's Tree (arbor Dianai, or sUver tree) is formed from a solution of silver in nitrous acid, precipitated by quicksilver, and crystallized in prismatic needles,Avlrich are grouped together in the fonnof a tree. To make this beautiful process of crystalU- zation visible to the eye, let a quantity of pure silver be dissolved in nitrous acid; then dilute the saturated solution Avith 20 or 30 parts of water, and put in an amalgam of 8 parts mercury and 1 part silver leaf, upon which, after some days, crystals are formed. A Uttle mercury, in fijie linen, is suspended in tiris solution by a silk thread, and the tree may tiien be withdrawn from the solution, and pre- served under a glass bell. Copper filings dropped into a solution of silver in aqua fortis produce the same effect; and such trees are often found in working silver ore, on the removal of the quicksilver. Since the invention of the voltaic pile, scientific men have succeeded in produc- ing the tree of Diana by its influence on the union of metals Avith acids. If the electric current, for example, is transmitted through nitrate of silver, the needles of silver arrange themselves in the same way on the wire of the pile. Diapason. By the term diapason, the ancient Greeks expressed the interval" of the octave. And certain musical instru- ment-makers have a kind of rule or scale, called the diapason, by which they deter- mine the measures of the pipes, or other parts of their instruments. There is a diapason for trumpets and serpents. Bell- founders have also a diapason, for the 226 DL4PASON—DIBDIN. regulation of the size, thickness, weight, &c, of their bells. Diapason is likewise die appellation given to certain stops in an organ. (See Stop.) Diaper (French, diapre); so caned from Ypres (d'Ypres) ; linen clpth woven in flowers and other figures; die finest spe- cies of figured linen after damask. Hence, as a verb, it signifies to diversify or variegate Avith flowers, or to imitate diaper. Diaphragm, in anatomy; a large, ro- bust, muscular membrane or skin, placed transversely in the trunk, and dividing the ehest from the belly. In its natural situa- tion, the diaphragm is convex on the up- per side toAA'ards the breast, and concave on its lower side towards the belly; there- fore, Avhen its fibres swell and contract it must become plain on each side; and consequently the cavity of the breast is enlarged, to give Uberty to the lungs to receive air in inspiration; and the stom- ach and intestines are.pressed for the dis- tribution of their contents ; hence the use of this muscle is A'ery considerable. It is the principal agent in respiration, particu- larly in inspiration; for, when it is in action, the cavity of the chest is enlarged, particularly at the sides, where the lungs are chiefly situated; and, as the lungs must always be contiguous to the inside of the chest and upper side of the dia- phragm, the air rushes into them, in order to fill up the increased space. In expira- tion, it is relaxed, and pushed up by the pressure of the abdominal muscles upon the viscera of the abdomen; andr at the same time that they press it upwards, diey pull down the ribs, by which the cavity of the chest is diminished, and the ah suddenly pushed out of the lungs. Diatonic (from the Greek); a term in music, applied by the Greeks to that one of their three genera, wlrich consisted, Uke the modern system of intervals, of major tones and semitones. The diatonic genus has long since been considered as more natural than either the chromatic or en- harmonic. Aristoxenus asserts it to have been the first, and informs us that the other two Avere formed from the division of its intervals. Diatonpm Intensum, or Sharp Dia- tonic ; die name given by musical theo- rists to those famous proportions of the intervals proposed by Ptolemy, in his sys- tem of diat name; a system which, long after the time of this ancient speculative musician, was received in our counter- point aQd is pronounced by doctor WalUs, doctor Smith, and the most learned writers on harmonics, to be the best division of the scale. Diaz ; 1. Michael, an Arragonese, con> panion of Christopher Columbus. In 1495, he discovered the gold mines of St Christopher, in the new world, and con- tributed much to the founding of New Isabella, afterwards St. Domingo. He died in 1512.—2. Bartholomew; a Portu- guese. In 1486, he was commissioned by Iris government during the reign of John II, to seek a new Avay to the East Indies. He advanced boldly to the south, and reached the southern extremity of Africa ; but the mutinous spirit of his crew, and the dangerous tempests that raged there, compeUed him to return to Lisbon. Diaz called the southern cape of Africa Cabo de todos los tormentos; but his king, John II, gave it the name of the cape of Good Hope, convinced that tho expected Avay to India was hoAV found. Dib, or Div, signifying island; the final syllable of several Hindoo names, as, Mal- dives, Laccadives, Serendib (Ceylon). Dibdin, Charles, bom 1748; an Eng- Ush dramatic manager and poet, com- poser and actor. At the age of 15, he made his appearance on the stage, and was early distinguished as a composer. He excited uncommon admiration, and soon gained friends and a sufficient sup- port. He invented a neAv kind of enter- tainment, consisting of nausic, songs and public declamations, which he wrote, sung, composed and performed himself, and, by this means, Succeeded in amusing the pubhc for 20 years. His patriotic songs were very popular, and his sea songs are still the favorites of the British navy. Their favorable influence on the lower classes obtained him a pension of £200 from government. Improvidence, how- ever, kept him constantly poor. He died in 1814. His son, Charles Dibdin, has composed and written many small pieces and occasional songs. His second son, Thomas Dibdin, is Ukewise a fruitful writer of theatrical and occasional pieces. DiBniN, Thomas Frognall; a distin- guished bibUographer. He is a clergy- man, member of the society of antiquities in London, and Ubrarian of earl Spencer, and, in diis office, has the care of one of the richest and most valuable private U- braries in the world. We have from him many estimable works, bibliographical and bibUomanical, of which we will mention the most important:—Introduction to a Knowledge of rare and valuable Editions of the Greek and Roman Classics (London, 3d edit., 1808, 2 vols.); the Bibliomania, a DIBDIN—DICKINSON. 227 bibliographical Romance (London, 2d edit, 1811); BibUography, a Poem (London, 1812); the Bibliotheca Spenceriana, or a de- scriptive Catalogue of the Books printed in the 15th Century, and of many valuable first Editions, in the Library of George Jolin Earl Spencer (3 vols., 1814), the only book of its kind in existence ; Bibliographical Decameron, or Ten Days' pleasant Dis- course upon illuminated Manuscripts, and Subjects connected with early Engraving, Typography and BibUography (London, 1817, 3 vols.): this is ornamented with a great variety of fine wood cuts and engrav- ings, and is one of the master-pieces of the art of printing. He has described his travels through France and the south of Germany (1818), in the foUowing work: A Bib- liographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (London, 1821,- 3 vols., with numerous engravings and wood cuts). It is executed with simi- lar typographical splendor, but the con- tents are inferior to the beauty of the exterior. The author has made his col- lections without choice, and often without taste, and, in all that is not immediately bibliographical, he is a mere copyist; even his bililiographical notices are not always new or fully worthy of credit. His JEdes Althorpianai is of more value. It contains a supplement to his Bibliotheca Spenceria- na, and a catalogue of the pictures in the Spencer gallery. Dice ; cubical pieces of bone or ivory, mukid with dots on each of their six faces, from one to six, according to the number of faces. Sharpers have several ways of falsifying dice: 1. By sticking a hog's bristle in them so as to make them run high or low, as they please; 2. by drilling and loading them with quicksilver, Avhich cheat is found out by holding them gently by two diagonal corners; for, if false, the heavy sides will turn always down; 3. by filing and rounding them. But all these Avays faU far short of the art of the dice-makers, some of whom are so dexterous this way, that sharping gamesters will give any money for their assistance. Dice are very old. The Ro- man word tessera is derived from the Greek rfaacpcg, Ionic for riooapct, four ; be- cause it is, on every side, square. Nu- merous passages in the ancient writers, and very many representations in marble or ji;iin"fings, shoAV hoAV frequent dice- playing was among them. Different from the tessera, Avhich Avere precisely like our dice, were the tali (which means, origi- nally, the pastern bone of a beast—Greek, ■&oronyn>e,<). These were almost of a cubic form, and had numbers only on four sides, lengthwise. Three tessera, and four tali were often used together; and the game with dice was properly caUed alea, tiiough alea afterwards came to signify any game at hazard, and aleator, a gambler. Dice- playing, and aU games of chance, were prohibited by several laws of the Romans, except in December, yet the laws Avere not strictly observed. Dickinson, John, an eminent poUtical writer, was born in Maryland, in Decem- ber, 1732, and educated in Delaware, to which province his parents removed soon after his birth. He read law in Philadel- phia, and resided three years in the Tem- ple, London. After Iris return to Ameriqa, he practised laAV with success in Phila- delphia. He was soon elected to the legislature of Pennsylvania, in which his superior quaUfications as a speaker and a man of business gave him considerable influence. The attempts of the mother country upon the liberties of the colonies early aAvakened his attention. His first elaborate publication against the neAv pol- icy, of the British cabinet was printed at Philadelphia, in 1765, and entitled, The late Regulations respecting the British Colonics on the Continent of America considered. In that year he was deputed, by Pennsyl- vania, to attend the first congress, held at New York, and prepared the draft of the bold resolutions of that congress. In 1766, he published a spirited address on the same questions, to a committee of cone- spondence in Barbadoes. He next issued in Philadelphia, in 1767, his celebrated Farmer's Letters to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies—a production which had a great influence in enlightening the American people on the subject of their rights, and preparing them for resistance. They were reprinted in London, Avith a preface by doctor Franklin, and published in French, at Paris. In 1774, Mr. Dickin- son wrote the resolves of the committee of Pennsylvania, and their instructions to their representatives. These instructions formed a profound and extensive essay on the constitutional power of Great Britain over the colonies in America, and in that shape they Avere pubUshed by the com- mittee. While in congress, he wrote the Address to the Inhabitants of Quebec; the first Petition to the King; the Address to the Armies; the second Petition to the King, and the Address to the seA'eral States; all among the ablest state-papers of the time. As an orator, he had feAV superiors in diat body. He penned the famous Declaration of the United Colonics 228 DICKINSON—DICTATOR, of North America (July 6,1775); but he opposed the declaration of independence, believing that compromise Avas still prac- ticable, and that his countrymen Avere not yet ripe for a complete separation from Great Britain. This rendered him for a time so unpopular, that he withdrew from the public councils, and did not recover his seat in congress until about two years afterwards. He then returned, earnest in the cause of independence. His zeal Avas shoAvn in the ardent address of congress to the several states, of May, 1779, which he Avrote and reported. He Avas after- wards president of the states of Pennsyl- vania and Delaware, successively ; and, in the lieginning of 1788, being alarmed by die hesitation of some states to ratify the constitution proposed by the federal con- vention the year before, he published, for the purpose of promoting its adoption, nine very able letters, under the signature of Fabius. This signature he again used in fourteen letters, published in 1797, the object of which Avas to produce a favorable feeling in the U. States toAvards France, Avhose revolution he believed to be then at an end. Before the period last mentioned, he had Avithdrawn to private life, at Wilmington, in tho state of Dela- ware, where he died, Feb. 14, 1808. His retirement was spent in literary studies, in charitable offices and the exercise of an elegant hospitality. His conversation and manners Avere veiy attractive ; his coun- tenance and person, uncommonly fine. His public services were eminent: his Avritings have been justly described as copious, forci- ble and correct; sometimes eloquently rhe- torical and vehement, and generally rich in historical references and classical quota- tions. Dickinson College. (See Carlisle.) Dictator. We shall state first the opinions commonly entertained respecting the Roman dictator, and afterwards some of the vieAVs of Niebuhr respecting this officer, as given in his Roman History. This magistrate, the highest in the Roman republic, w as appointed only in extraordi- nary emergencies, Avhich demanded the fullest power in the executive. The au- thority of die dictator was, therefore, al- most Avithout restrictions in tlie administra- tion of the state and of the army, and from it there was no appeal. It continued only six months. In fact die dictators common- ly resigned their office as soon as the ob- ject was accomplished for which they had been appointed. There are only a few instances of their continuing a longer time; for example, in the cases of Sylla and of Caesar. The audiority of all civil magistrates, except that of tribunes of the people, immediately ceased on the ap- pointment of a dictator. The consuls, in- deed, continued in the discharge of their office; but they were subject to the orders of the dictator, and in his presence had no badges of power. The dictator, on the contrary, both within and without the city, was attended by 24 Uctors, with their fasces and axes. He had the power of Ufe and death, and was only restrained in not being permitted to spend the public money arbitrarily, or to leave Italy, or to enter the city on horseback. He might also be Compelled to account for his con- duct, when he laid down his office. The choice of dictator was not, as in the case of other magistrates, decided by the pop- ular voice, but one of the consuls appoint- ed him, at the command of the senate. The dictator then selected a master of the horse (magister equitum); In the sequel, dictators Avere also appointed to officiate in certain public solemnities; for example, to summon the comitia for the choice of neAV consuls, to anange the festivals, and the like.—The remainder of this article contains Niebuhr's views. The name of dictator, says Niebuhr, was of Latin ori- gin. The Latins elected dictators in their several cities, and also over the whole nation. If Rome and Latium were con- federate states, on a footing of equality, iu the room of that supremacy which lasted but for a brief space after the revolution, they must have possessed the chief com- mand alternately; and this would explain why the Roman dictators were appointed for only six months, and Avhy they came to have twenty-four Uctors. These were a symbol that the governments of the two states were united under the same head; the consuls had only twelve lictors between diem, which served them in turn. The dictator, at first, therefore,"coulfd then doubled to form gold-beaters' skin, is six times thinner. A single pound of cotton has been spun intoathread 76miles in length; and the same quantity of wool has been extended into a thread of 95 miles; the DIVISIBILITY. 259 diameters of those threads being hence only the 350th and 400th parts of an inch. But the ductility of some metals far ex- ceeds that of any other substance. The gold-beaters begin with a riband an inch broad and 150 inches long, which has been reduced, by jiassing through rollers, to about the 800th part of an inch in thick- ness. This riband is cut into squares, wlrich are disposed between leaves of vel- lum, and beat by a heavy hammer, till they acquire a breadth of more than three inches, and are therefore extended ten times. Tliese are again quartered, and placed between the folds of gold-beaters' skin, and stretched out, by the operation of a lighter hammer, to the breadth of five inches. The same process is rejieated, sometimes more than once, by a succes- sion of lighter hammers; so that 376 grains of gold are thus finally extended into 2000 leaves of 3.3 inches square, mak- ing in all 80 books, containing each 25 leaves. The metal is, consequently, re- duced to the thinness ofthe 282,000th part of an inch, and eArery leaf Aveighs rather less than the 5th part of a grain. Silver is likewise cajiable of being laminated, but will scarcely bear an extension above half that of gold, or the 150,000th part of an inch thick. Copper and tin have still inferior degrees of ductility, and cannot, perhaps, be beat thinner than tlie 20,000th jiart of an inch. Tliese form what is called Dutch leaf. In the gilding of but- tons, five grains of gold, which is applied as an amalgam with mercury, is allowed to each gross ; so that the coating left must amount to the 110,000th part of an inch in thickness. If a piece iof ivory or white satin be immersed in a nitro-tnuriate solution of gold, and then plunged into a jar of hydrogen gas, it will become cov- ered AVith a surface of gold hardly ex- ceeding in thickness the 10,000,000th part of an inch. The gilt wire used in em- broidery is formed by extending gold over a surface of silver. A silver rod, about two feet long and an inch and a half in diameter, and therefore weighing nearly 20 pounds, is richly coated with about 800 grams of pure gold. In Eng- land, the lowest proportion allowed is 100 grains of gold to a jiound of silver. This gilt rod is then drawn through a series of diminishing holes, till it has stretched to the vast length of 240 miles, when the gold has, consequently, become attenuated 800 times, each grain covering a surface of 9600 square inches. This wire being now flatted, the golden film suffers a fur- ther extension, and has its thickness re- duced to the four or five milUonth part of an inch. It has been asserted, that wires of pure gold can be drawn of only the 4000th part of an inch in diameter. But doctor W. II. Wollaston, by an ingenious process, has lately advanced much further. Taking a short cylinder of silver, about the third part of an inch in diameter, he chined a fine hole through its axis, and in- serted a Avire of platinum, only the 100th part of an inch thick. This silver mould was now drawn through the successive holes of a steel plate, till its diameter was brought to near the 1500th part of an inch, and, consequently, the internal wire, be- ing diminished in the same jiroportion, was reduced to between the four and five thousandth part of an inch. The compound wire was then dijiped in warm nitric acid, which dissolved the silver, and left its core, or the wire of platinum. By passing the incrustcd platinum through a greater number of holes, wires still liner were obtained, some of them only the 30,000th jiart of an inch in diameter. The tenacity of the metal, before reaching that limit, was considerable ; a platinum wire of the 18,000th part of an inch in diame- ter, supporting the weight of one grain and a third. Such excessive fineness is hardly surpassed by the filamentous pro- ductions of nature. Human hair varies hi thickness, from the 250th to the 600th part of an inch. The fibre of the coarsest avooI is about the 500th jiart of an inch in diameter, and that of the finest only the 1500th jiart. The silk line, as spun by the worm, is about the 5000th part of an. inch thick; but a spider's line is, jierhaps, six times finer, or only the 30,000th jiart of an inch in diameter; insomuch, that a single pound of this attenuated substance might be sufficient to encompass our globe. The red globules of the human blood have an irregular, roundish shape, from the 2500th to the 3300th of an inch in diameter, with a dark central spot. The trituration and levigation of powders, and the perennial abrasion and waste of the surface of solid bodies, occasion a dis- integration of particles, almost exceeding the jiowers of computation. Emery, after it has been ground, is thrown into a vat filled Avith Avater, and the fineness of the jiowder is distinguished by the time of its subsidence. In very dry situations, the dust lodged near the corners and crevices of ancient buildings is, by the continual agitation of the air, made to give a glossy polish to the interior side of the piUars, and the less prominent parts of those venera- ble remains. So fine is the saud on the 260 DIVISIBILITY —in V ORCE. adust plains of Arabia, that it is carried sometimes 300 miles over the Mediterra- nean, by the sweeping sirocco. Along the shores of that sea, the rocks are peo- pled by the pholas, a testaceous and edible worm, which, though very soft, yet, by un- wearied perseverance, Avorks a cylindrical hole into the heart of the hardest stone. The marble stejis ofthe great churches in Italy are worn by the incessant crawUng of abject devotees; nay, the hands and feet of bronze statues are, in the lapse of ages, Avasted away by the ardent kisses of in- numerable pilgrims tiiat resort to those shrines. What an evanescent pellicle of die metal must be abraded at each suc- cessive contact! The solutions of certain saline bodies, and of other colored sub- stances, exhibit a jirodigious subdivision and dissemination of matter. A single grain of the sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol, will communicate a fine azure tint to five gallons of water. In this case, the copper must be attenuated at least ten million times; yet each drop of the liquid may contain as many colored particles, distinguishable by our unassisted vision. A still minuter portion of cochineal, dis- solved in deliquiate potash, Avill strike a bright purple color through an equal mass of water. Odors are capable of a much wider diffusion. A single grain of musk has been known to perfume a large room for the sjiace of 20 years. Consider Iioav often, during that time, the air of the apart- ment must have been renewed, and have become charged with fresh odor! At the lowest computation, the musk had been subdivided into 320 quadrillions of parti- cles, each of them capable of affecting the olfactory organs. The vast diffusion of odorous effluvia may be conceived from the fact, that a lump of assafcetida, ex- posed to the open air, lost only a grain in seven Aveeks. Yet, since dogs hunt by the scent alone, the effluvia emitted from the several species of animals, and from different individuals of the same race, must be essentially distinct. The vapor of pestilence conveys its poison in a still more subtile and attenuated form. The seeds of contagion arc known to lurk, for years, in various absorbent substances, which scatter death on exposure to the air. But the diffusion of the particles of light defies all powers of calculation. A small taper will, in a twinkling, Uluminate the atmosphere to the distance of four miles; yet the luminous particles which fill that wide concavity cannot amount to die 5000th part of a grain, which may be the whole consumption of the wax in Ught, smoke and ashes. Animated mat- ter likewise exhibits, in many instances, a wonderful subdivision. The milt of a codfish, when it begins to putrefy, has been computed to contain a billion of perfect insects ; so that thousands of these living creatures could be lifted on the point of a needle. But die infusory animalcules dis- play, in their stnicture and functions, the most transcendent attenuation of matter. The vibrio undula, found in duck-weed, is computed to be ten thousand million tunes smaller than a hemp seed. The vibrio lineola occurs in-vegetable infusions, every drop containing myriads of those oblong points. Of the monas gdalinosa, discovered in ditch water, millions appear in the field of a microscope, playing, like the sunbeams, in a single drop of liquid. Insects have been discovered so small as not to exceed the 10,000th jiartof an inch, so that 1,000,000,000,000 of them might be contained within the space of one cubic inch; yet each animalcule must consist of parts connected Avith each other, with ves- sels, with fluids, and with organs neces- sary for its motions, for its increase, for its jiropagation, &c. How inconceivably smaU must those organs be! and yet they are, unquestionably, composed of other parts still smaller, and still farther re- moved from the perception of our senses. Divorce is a separation, by law, of hus- band and wife, and is either a divorce a mnculo matrimonii, that is, a complete dissolution of the marriage bonds, whereby the parties become as entirely disconnected as those who have not been joined in wed- lock, or a divorce a mensa d thoro (from bed and board), whereby the parties are legally separated, but not unmarried. The causes admitted by different codes of laws as grounds for the modification or entire dissolution of the marriage contract, as well as the description of tribunal which has jurisdiction of the proceedings, and die form of the proceedings, are quite various. According to the law of Moses (Deut. xxiv. 1), "when a man hath taken a-wife, and married her, and it come to pass that she find no favor in his eyes, because he hath found some uncleanness in her; then let him write her a bill of divorcement, and give it in her hand, and send her out of his house." This Avas a very sum- mary proceeding, and the provision seems scarcely to recognise the force of a mar- riage contract, as binding upon the hus- band, who, according to the prevalent in- terpretation of this law among the Jews, might be his own judge of the sufficiency ofthe cause for repudiating his wife; and DIVORCE. 261 one school of doctors, whose interpreta- tions were had in resjiect considered it to be sufficient cause if he preferred another woman, or if his Avife did not dress his victuals to his satisfaction. This law is said (Matt, xix.) to have been a concession to the hardness of heart ofthe Jews, Avho were not jirepared to receive a better doc- trine. The wife, on receiving her biU of divorce, Avas at liberty to many again, after Avaiting 90 days, in order to avoid doubts as to the paternity of her next born child. This law, Uke those of the Eastern countries generally, pays very Uttle respect to the rights of the wife as a party to a matrimonial contract. The husband might many another wife immediately. The wife could not divorce the husband. The Mohammedan law of divorce, founded ujion some passages in the Koran, allows of a separation by mutual consent, giving the wife the right of retaining her marriage portion, unless she agrees to relinquish a jiart of it as the price of the separation. The parties are permitted to sejiarate and reunite twice, if they can so agree, without any particular conditions; but after the third divorce, the husband is not pennitted to receive his wife again, until she shall have previously manied another husband. The act of divorce is a judicial proceeding before the cadi, who does not decree it until three months after die application, which delay is made in order to determine whether the wife is pregnant; and if she be so, the divorce is delayed until after her delivery. The ma- gistrates throw obstacles in the way of divorce, so that the expenses of the pro- ceedings, and the necessity of allowing the wife her marriage portion back again, in case of divorce, sometimes discourage the husband from prosecuting the affair, and induce hiin to make a composition. But here, according to D'Arvieux's Memoirs, the magistrate interposes, and will not jiermit a reconciliation and discontinuance of the proceedings, until the wife is first married to another person; for which pin- pose some youth is agreed with to act the part of second husband, so far as may be necessary in order to afford a ground for tlie discontinuance ofthe proceedings, and the relenting husband must be a spectator of this second marriage and its incidents. A cadi informed this traveller that diis condition was rigidly enforced, in order to prevent the tribunals from being overbur- thened with applications for divorce. The Hindoo laws pay still less respect to the women, who are considered very much in the light of slaves to their hus- bands. According to a maxim of these laws," prudent husbands instantly forsake a wife who speaks unkindly." Barren- ness, the bearing of daughters only, eating in her husband's jiresence, any incurable disease, or quarrelsomeness, is each a suf- ficient cause of divorce. The same law inculcates upon the wife the obligation to revere her husband as a god, although he is devoid of all good quaUties, or enam- ored of another woman. If the wife is sujierseded by the husband's taking anoth- er, he must still maintain her. The wife is, however, so far protected, that the hus- band is not allowed to put her to death, or to mutilate her person, unless in case of an amour with one of a lower caste. The Chinese laws of divorce are vcry similar to the Hindoo, but add some other sufficient causes, such as disregard to the husband's parents, loquaciousness, and jealousy of temjier. But the husband cannot divorce a wife who has mourned three years for his parents, or if his family has liecome rich subsequently to his mar- riage, or if the Avife have no jiarents living to receive her back again. A woman who has been deserted three years by her husband, may many another. The different Grecian states had each their respective laws of divorce. At Spar- ta, they do not seem to have greatly regarded the delicacy of the marriage bed, when the interest of the republic was in question; but divorces appear to have been rare, since the ephori fined Lysander for repudiating his wife. At Athens, either the husband or Avife might procure a di- vorce, by exhibiting a bill for this purpose to the archon, and obtaining the verdict or consent of a jury, to Avhom the question Avas referred. But the party applying must, it seems, have made application per- sonally ; and Alcibiades, according to Plu- tarch, took advantage of his authority as a husband, to prevent his Avife from making the application personally ; for, Avhen she Avas going from her brother's house, where she had taken refuge, to the archon's, to sue for a divorce, he forcibly seized upon her, and confined her to his own house. The early laws of Rome, permitted the husband to divorce his wife for poisoning his children, counterfeiting his keys, or adultery. But other causes were after- wards added ; for the first divorce recorded was for die steriUty of the wife. This was by Sp. C. Ruga, in die year 523 after the building ofthe city. Divorces afterwards became very frequent and a law was, on this account, made by Augustus, requiring additional ceremonies in a divorce; among other things, the presence of seven wit- nesses to the act of dissolution ofthe mar- 262 DIVORCE—DJEZZAR. riage. By the Theodosian code, the hus- band could divorce the Avife for adultery, or if she was a witch or a murderess, had sold a frecborn person into slavery, vio- lated a sejiulchre, committed sacrilege, been accessary to theft or robbery, was giA'en to feeding Avith strangers Avithout the knowledge or against the wishes of the husband, lodging abroad without good reason, or frequented theatres and shows, her husband forbidding, or was aiding and abetting in plots against the state, or dealt falsely, or offered blows. The wife had equivalent rights in this respect for she could jirocure a divorce on similar charges against her husband. He could be manied again immediately ; she, not within a year. The facility of divorce continued, without restriction, under the Roman emperors, not- Avithstanding the doctrine promulgated on the subject in the New Testament; but, as the modem nations of Europe emerged from the ruins ofthe Roman empire, they adopted the doctruie of the New Testa- ment (Matt, xix.), " what God hath joined together, let not man put asunder." Mar- riage, under the Roman church, instead of a civil contract came to be considered a sacrament of the church, and subject to the ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and so it is, at this time, in England; and the canonists founded upon this text the doctrine of the unlawfulness of dissolving this contract the dissolution of which they considered to be a violation of a sacred institution. If parties were once legally manied, they could not be unmarried, though they might be separated. But though mar- riage was thus held to be a sacrament still the ceremony of union might pass lietween those who could not lawfully be joined in " holy" wedlock, in which case the marriage might be annulled, or rather declared, by the competent tribunals, to have been null from the first. Divorces a vinculo are, accordingly, decreed by the ecclesiastical courts in England, for prior contract impotency, too near an affinity or consanguinity, and other causes, existing at the time of the maniage, but not for any subsequent cause. For any cause what- ever, arising after the maniage, the eccle- siastical courts can only decree divorce a mensa et thoro, which does not leave either of the parties at Uberty to marry again. To obtain a divorce a vinculo mat- rimonii, for any cause whatever, arising after the maniage of the parties, to whose union no legal impediment existed at the time of the marriage, the omnipotence, as it is caUed, of parliament must be resort- ed to. In the U. States, marriage, though it may be celebrated before clergymen as well as civil magistrates, is considered to be a civil contract. The causes of divorce, and the facility or difficulty of obtaining it, are by no means the same in the sev- eral states; and the div ersity in this respect is so great, that instances have heretofore not been unfrequent, of one ofthe parties removing into a neighboring state for the express purpose of obtaining a divorce a vinculo. The more general causes of such a divorce are, former marriage, phys- ical incapacity, or fraudulent contract, ac- cording to the expression in the Connecti- cut law, to include these and other causes; consanguinity; and the New York code particularly enumerates idiocy and insan- ity, and the circumstance of either party being under the age of consent Adul- tery is also a cause of divorce a vinculo; but the laws of some of the states pro- hibit the guilty party from marrying again. If the husband or wife is absent seven years, or, by the laws of some states, three years, and not heard from, the other is at liberty to many again ; and in some states, if the husband desert die wife, and make no provision for her support during three years, being able to make such jirovision, die wife can obtain a divorce. Extreme cruelty in either party is also, generally, a cause of divorce, either a vinculo or a mensa. In many of the states, ajiplications to the legislature for divorce, in cases not provided for by the statutes, are very frequent In New York and New Jersey, divorce is a subject of chancery jurisdiction, from which, as in other cases, questions of law may be refened to a jury for trial. But, in most of the states, the courts of law have cogni- zance of divorce. The laws jirescribe the provision to be made for the wife in case of divorce, confiding to the courts, however, some degree of discretion in fixing the amount of alimony. Djebel is an Arabian word, signifying mountain, as Djebel-el-Mousa, the mountain of Moses; Djebel-el-Tarik (Gibraltar),the mountain of Tarik. Djezzar, Achmet, pacha of Acre, who checked the victorious career of Bonaparte in Egypt and Syria, was bom in Bosnia, and is said to have sold himself as a slave to AU Bey, in Egypt. There he ingra- tiated himself with his master to such a degree, that he rose from the low state of a mameluke to that of governor of Cairo. For his future success, he was not less indebted to his faithlessness and ingrati- tude, than to his courage and talents. As pacha of Acre, he rendered himself so formidable to the rebels, that he was DJEZZAR—DOCKS. 263 raised to the dignity of a pacha of three tails. Differences soon arose between him and the Porte, which is jealous of everv pacha of spirit and enterjirise. Obeying the commands received from Constanti- nople no farther than they coincided with his own plans, he maintained himself by force and cunning. On Bonajiarte's inva- sion of Syria, in 1799, he broke out into the most ungovernable fury, that Chris- tians from Europe should dare to attempt the conquest of his province. Assisted by the French engineer, Philijqieaux, who conducted the defence with great abifity, and by sir Sidney Smith, Avho supported him with several EngUsh men-of-war, Djezzar could boast of repelling the man before whom Eurojie trembled. He after- wards had several bloody struggles with the grand-vizier and the pacha of Jaffa, and died in 1804. He received the name of Djezzar (butcher) from his bloodthirsty disposition. Djidda. (See Jidda.) Dnieper, or Dneper, or Nieper (an- ciently, Borysthenes) ; a river of Russia, which rises in the west part of the gov- ernment of Tver, passes by Smolensk, Mogilev, Kiev, Ekaterinoslavr, &c, and lims into the Black sea, near Otchakov. It begins to be navigable a little above Smolensk. Notwithstanding die course of this river is so extensive, its navigation is only once intenupted by a series of cat- aracts, Avhich commence about 200 miles from its mouth, and continue 30 or 40 miles ; these, however, are not very dan- gerous, and may be passed in the spring by loaded barks. Length, 1000 miles. The lower jiart of the river has been the theatre of many conflicts between the Russians and Turks. Dniester, orDxiESTR (the ancient Ty- ras or Danaster) ; a large river of Europe, Avhich has its source in a lake in the Carpathian mountains, in Austrian Galicia, and emjities itself into the Black sea, be- tween Ovidiopol and Akerman, after a course of between 500 and 600 miles, mostly through Russia, the government of AA'hich has done much towards improving its navigation. Dobberan ; a castle and borough (210 houses and 1400 inhabitants), under the jurisdiction of a bailiff, between two and three miles from the Baltic, in the duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. About a mile from the place is the HeiUge Dainrn, or Holy Dam, a high natural mound of stones, curiously formed and colored, stretching far into the Baltic. Tradition says, that the sea threw up these stones in one night: it was, perhaps, the effect of an earthquake. Three miles dis- tant from Dobberan is a bathing-house, the oldest establishment for sea-bathing in Germany. It was founded by the duke in 1793; and to it Dobberan has been chiefly indebted for its celebrity. Dobroavsky, Joseph, abbe, born in 1754, doctor of philosophy, member of the royal Bohemian society of sciences, and several other societies, lives at Prague, in the fam- ily of count Nostitz. He is the most learned Sclavonian in the Austrian empire. Beside other works, he has written a His- tory of the Language and ancient Litera- ture of Bohemia (revised edition, Prague, 1818); and a work entitled Methodius and CyriUus, the apostles of the Sclavonians. He is now preparing a critical edition of Jornandes, for the society of ancient Ger- man history at Frankfort Dock ; a name applied to different spe- cies ofthe genus rumex. These are large herbaceous plants, with stout roots, alter- nate and often entire leaves, and bearing panicles of small greenish flowers. Sev- eral species have been introduced into our gardens from Europe, and have become troublesome Aveeds. Their roots have an austere taste, are astringent and styptic, and the seeds are sometimes employed in hemorrhage. The root of the water-dock (R. aquaticus) strikes a black color in a solution of sulphate of iron. About 60 species of this genus are known, five or six of which are really natives of the U. States. The term dock is frequently ap- plied to other large weeds. Docks. The word dock was fonncrly appUed to the slip or excavation made for the purpose of building or repairuig a vessel; and was distinguished as a dry dock Avhen furnished with flood-gates to prevent the influx of the tide, if required; and as a wet dock Avhen, having no flood- gates, the vessel could only be cleaned or repaired during the jieriod in Avhich the tide left her accessible. These 6lips or docks are still used. At present, die name of graving or building dock is more gen- erally given to what we have termed dry dock, which latter term is applied to those docks or basins left dry by the tide; while the appellation slip is confined to the narrow inlet for building or repairing, unprotected by gates. During the growth of the maritime power and the commerce of Europe, it was found highly inconve- nient to load and unload vessels in a tide- river or in a harbor not entirely land- locked; for either the ships could not be brought close to the wharves, or, Avhen 264 DOCKS. conducted there at the flood of the tide, they Avere left dry at the ebb, and suffered continual damage by straining, by delay from neap tides, and other accidents and inconveniences. To obAiate these incon- veniences, improvements in the existing docks or slips Avere made from time to time, until England, taking die lead, intro- duced a system of floating docks, which have greatly contributed to her advance- ment and prosperity. Many of the prin- cipal maritime ports of Europe are pro- vided with dry docks for building and repairing vessels; and of those Toulon, Havre and Brest have the most remark- able, Most seajxirt towns are jirovided widi graving docks for the repairing of ships ; but it is only in the British islands that the system has been carried to any extent of forming large basins or floating docks, furnished with flood-gates for the reception of shipping to load and unload, wherein the vessel remains safe at the quay-side. The docks of Liverpool were die first constructed in England; and many other maritime towns have been induced to follow her example. It is scarcely 30 years'since nearly the whole of the vessels that entered the port of London Avere obliged to remain moored in the ojien stream of the Thames. The example Avhich Liverpool had set for nearly a cen- tury pointed out the remedy for the exist- ing evils, and the construction of floating docks in the jiort of London was resolv- ed on. The first constructed, and those nearest the trading part of the metropo- lis, are called the London docks. They are just IiHoav the site of the Tower, and on the left bank of the Thames; were be- gun in 1800, and completed in 1805. The dock, properly so called, is 420 yards in length, 276 yards in breadth, and 29 feet in dejith; its superficies is equal to 25 acres; that of the basin communicating Avith it is above 2-i acres; and, including the ground occupied by warehouses, sheds and quays, the whole jireinises contain a superficies of 110 acres. Excepting those ships that trade to the East and West In- dies, every vessel, whether English or foreign, may enter the London dock upon paying the duties, to unship her cargo or take in a neAv lading. For the conve- nience of business, ranges of sheds, Ioav, and of a very simple construction, haAre been erected along the sides of the dock and near the edges of the quays, into which cargoes are removed. Behind these sheds, and in a parallel direction to them, stands a Une of magnificent ware- houses, four stories high, with spacious vaults, into which the casks are conveyed by inclined planes. These buildings oc- cupy a superficies of 120,000 square yards. The cellars are appropriated to wines and brandies, and railways, or rather tramways, running in all directions, facilitate labor. The London docks have their several parts perfectly adapted to each other, and are of the most admirable construction. The gates, Uke all those whose size much exceeds 20 feet, instead of being straight, are curved on the side on which the water presses. The West India docks are on the left bank of the Thames, at the distance of about one mile and a half below the London docks. They are situated on the base of a tongue of land of the Isle of Dogs—a sort of peninsula formed by a long circuit of the river. The West India docks are much superior to the London, both in extent and regu- larity. These vast works Avere under-* taken and executed by an association of priAate individuals, and by means of a mere subscription. 27 months sufficed to accomjilish the whole. The excavations of the West India docks were begun on the 12th of July, 1800; and as early as the month of September, 1802, vessels entered the import dock! At the highest tides, the dejith of water in the two docks is 24 feet; they are formed parallel to each other; their common length is about 890 yards. The largest, which has a sujier- ficies of above 30 acres, is destined for those vessels returning to the West Indies, wlrich deposit their cargoes in the ware- houses of this artificial port. The second, the superficies of which is about 25 acres, receives the vessels laid up in ordinaiy, or taking the outAvard-bound cargoes. These docks, with their basins, and the locks which connect them with the river, pre- sent an area of 68 acres of ground, exca- vated by human hands, for the reception and moorage of vessels. The total super- ficies, including that of the quays and warehouses, is 140 acres. During the busy season, this estabUshment employs about 2600 workmen. It can admit, at the same time, 204 vessels in the import, and 195 in the export dock, forming a total of 120,000 tons. During the first 15 years, 7260 vessels entered them. Upon the quays, under the sheds, and in the warehouses, there have been deposited, at tlie same time, 148,563 banels or casks of sugar, 70,875 barrels and 433,648 bags of coffee, 35,158 pipes of rum and Madeira wine, 14,021 logs of mahogany, 21,350 tons of logwood, &c. At the upper and lower entrances of the two docks, a basin DOCKS—DODD. 265 presents tiiree locks of communication. The first communicates with the Thames; the water is kept in it by means of double gates. The second and third locks lead respectively into the export and import docks ; they have also double gates. By this means, the vessels are able to come in and go out indejiendently of the state of the tide; they may remain iu the basin as long as is judged convenient The water of the docks being but veiy little higher than that, of the basins, it does not press violently on the gates of the locks. It should be also observed, that this water, having had time to settle in its previous jiassage through the basin, hardly dejiosits any sediment Avhen introduced into the docks. The East India docks, belonging to the East India company, are inferior to the West India docks in magnitude, but equal in [joint of construction and secu- rity of projierty. Having to receive vessels of 2500 tons, they are deeper than the West India docks, and have never less than 23 or 24 feet water. Dock-Yards ; arsenals containing all sorts of naval stores, and timber for slriji- building. In England, the royal dock- yards are at Chatham, Portsmouth, Plym- outh, Deptfbrd, Woolwich, and Sheer- ness, where the king's ships and vessels of war are generally moored during peace, and such as want rejiairing are taken into the docks, examuied, and refitted for ser- vice. Doctor. The title of doctor originated at the same time with the establishment of the universities. The dignity con- nected with it first received jiublic sanc- tion at the law univei-sity in Bologna, between 1128 and 1137, where the cele- brated Iinerius (Werner) began to give instructions in law, in 1128, and was con- firmed by the emperor as professor of law. He is said to have prevailed on the emperor Lothaire II, whose chancellor he Avas, to introduce the dignity of doctor. From the faculty of law, this title passed to that of theology. The faculty hi Paris first conferred the degree of doctor of di- vinity on Peter Lombard, who, in 1159, became bishoji of Paris. William Gorde- nio,of the college at Asti, in 1329, was the first person who was promoted to the dig- nity of doctor artium et medieinai. The doctorate of philosophy Avas established last, because the faculty of philosophy was formed the latest The title of magister was more common among the members of this faculty. The degree of dodor is either conferred publicly, with cer- tain ceremonies, or by diploma. On the vol. ir. 23 continent of Europe, the order of rank is this—doctor of theology, of law, of medi- cine, and of phUosophy; but in England and the U. States of America, the doctor of laws ranks first a°d the doctor of di- vinity next. Dodor of medidne is a pro- fessional title.—The degree-of doctor of music is conferred at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge (England). The great Haydn and Romberg received this title from the university of Oxford. Doctors' Commons. (See College of Civilians.) Doctrinaires. Since the second res- toration of the Bourbons, a smaU number of deputies in the French chamber would neither rank themselves among the friends of absolute power, nor among the de- fenders ofthe revolution. They supported Decazes, whUe he was minister; and sev- eral of them held offices in the ministry, as, for instance, the counsellors of state Camille Jordan and Royer-Collard. Their system embraced a constitutional mon- archy, allowing the government more power than the ultra-Uberals would admit and, on the other hand, restricting the royal power more, and admitting less ap- proach towards the old form of govern- ment, than the ultra-royalists demanded. They retired with Decazes, and after- wards joined the liberal ojiposition. The first orator among them Avas Royer-Col- lard, and their most distinguished writer out of the chamber, Guizot. (See Cham- bers.) Dodd, William, an English clergyman, born in 1729, the son of a clergyman, Avas educated at Cambridge. In 1750, he married Avidiout the means of support; in 1753, took orders, and soon became one of the most jiopular jireachers in London. An expensive mode of living rendered his circumstances embanassed, and he be- came the author or editor of several works which afforded him large profits. In 1764, he was chosen one of his majesty's chaplains, and Avas active in the formation of a society for the reUef of persons con- fined for smaU debts. Being noAv much involved in debt, he disgraced his station, and violated the rules of common honesty, by offering a bribe to the lord chancellor's lady if she Avould procure his nomination to a vacant rectory. The lady was indig- nant and informed the chancellor of the offer, who procured Dodd's name to be struck from the list ofthe king's chaplains. To escape from the disgrace which at- tended the knowledge of his conduct, he went to Geneva, Avhere he met Avith the earl of Chesterfield, to whom he had been 266 DODD—DODINGTON. tutor. This nobleman afterwards pre- sented him Avith a living. In 1777, he committed a forgery upon his patron, by which he obtained a large sum of money, which he probably hoped to replace, and thereby avoid detection. But the offence was scarcely committed before the crimi- nal was discovered. He was imprisoned, tried, convicted, and executed at Tyburn, notwithstanding great efforts to procure his pardon. He died with all the marks of sincere contrition for the crimes he had committed and the scandal he had brought upon his profession. His works were numerous. Dodd, Ralph, a civil engineer, the ori- ginal projector of a tunnel under the Thames, and various other public works of importance. In 1795, he published an Account of the jirincipal Canals in the known World, with Reflections on the great Utility of Canals. In 1798, he laid before die public his plan for a tunnel under the Thames, which was ajiproved by govern- ment; but the scheme was abandoned soon after its commencement He had also a share in the imjirovement of steam- vessels; and the first impetus to the scheme for navigating by steam in Eng- land Avas given by a patent which he ob- tained for a steam-boat on the Thames, from London to Gravesend, which, how- ever, Avas not carried into effect. He afterwards navigated, in a steam-vessel, round the coasts of England and Ireland. In 1822, he was severely Avounded by an explosion of the boiler of a steam-packet, and, after lingering a feAv months, died at Cheltenham, in April of that year. Doddridge, Philip; an eminent dis- senting divine. His father Avas a trades- man in London, and he was born there in 1702. After some previous education, he became the pupil of Mr. John Jennings, who kept a theological academy. On the death of his tutor, he succeeded to the sit- uation, but removed the seminary, in 1729, to Northampton. There he resided nearly 22 years, filling his station as a minister and academical preceptor Avith great credit He died Oct. 26,1751, at Lisbon, whither he had gone in the hope of deriving bene- fit from the change of air, in a pulmon- ic complaint Doctor Doddridge distin- guished himself by a commentary on the New Testament, published under the title of the Family Expodtor, which became deservedly popular, and has gone through many editions. After his death appeared a Course of Lectures on the principal Subjects of Pneumatology, Ethics and Divinity, with References to the most con- siderable Authors on each of those sub- jects (4to., 1763; republished, vrith im- provements, by doctor Kippis, in 1794, 2 vols., 8vo.). Doctor Doddridge was also the author of sermons, hymns, devotional treatises, &c. Dodecandria (from loStKa, twelve, and &wp, man); the 12di class of Linnams, in botany, because it comprises plants Avith hermaphrodite flowers, that have 12 male organs. It is, however, not limited to this number: several genera of this class have 16, 18, and even 19 stamens. The essen- tial character is, that the stamens, how- ever numerous, are inserted into the recep- tacle. Dodington, George Bubb (lord Mel- combe Regis), was the son of a gentleman of fortune; or, as others say, of an apothe- cary, named Bubb, who married into a wealthy family, in Dorsetshire. He was born in 1691, Avas elected member of par- liament for Winchelsea, in 1715, and was soon after apjiointed envoy to the court of Spain. In 1720, by the death of his ma- ternal uncle, he came into possession of a large estate, and took the surname of Dodington. In 1724, having closely con- nected himself with sir Robert Walpole, he Avas appointed a lord of the treasury, and became clerk of the pells in Ireland. He afterwards joined the opposition, and, on the fall of Walpole, became treasurer of the navy. This party he also quitted, in order to lead the opposition under Frederic, prince of Wales, w-liose death for some time arrested his career. In 1755, he accepted his former post of treasurer of the navy, under the duke of Newcas- tle, but lost it the following year. On the accession of George III, he was early received into the confidence of lord Bute ; and, in 1761, was advanced to the peer- age by the title of lord Melcombe, and died the following year. This versatile poli- tician was generous, magnificent and con- vivial in private life, and the patron or friend of Young, Thomson, Glover, Field- ing, Bentley, Voltaire, Lyttelton and Ches- terfield, who, with many of meaner pre- tensions, mingled at his hospitable table. He is best known by his celebrated Diary, pubUshed in 1784, by Henry Penruddock Wyndham, Esq. A more curious exposi- tion of avarice, vanity, serviUty and selfish- ness, as a place-hunter and trading poli- tician, has seldom been exhibited. It is a most extraordinary instance of a self-re- corded and seemingly unconscious pros- tration of honorable and manly feelings to the acquirement of place, emolument and court favor. DODONA—DODWELL. 267 Dodona ; a celebrated place in Epirus, built according to tradition, by Deucalion, containing one ofthe most ancient oracles in Greece. The oracle belonged to Jupi- ter, and near the splendid temjile was a sacred grove, in which there was a pro- phetic oak. Jupiter, says the fable, had presented to his daughter Thebe two doves, which possessed the faculty of speaking. One day they left Thebes in Egypt taking their course, the one to Libya, where it founded the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, the other to Epirus, where, alighting on an oak tree, it an- nounced, in a loud voice, to the inhabitants, that it was the will of Jupiter to establish diere an oracle. The prophetic priestesses announced the divine communications in different ways. They approached the sacred tree, and listened to the rustUng of its leaves, or, standing by the fountain at the foot of the tree, observed the murmur- ing ofthe water which gushed forth from the earth. They also prophesied from the sounds issuing from brazen vessels, which were suspended from die pillars of the temple, &c. Dodsley, Robert, an ingenious poet and dramatist was born of parents in humble life, at Mansfield, in Nottinghamshire, in 1703. He Avas apprenticed to a stocking- Aveaver, but left that employment, became footman to the honorable Mrs. LoAvther, and published by subscription a volume of poems, entitled the Muse in Livery, Avhich attracted public favor less fi-om its intrinsic merit than from the situation of the author. His next effort Avas the Toy- shop, a dramatic satire on the fashionable follies of the time. Pope pau-onised this piece, and, through his influence, it was brought upon the stage in 1735. Dodsley was enabled, by his profits as an author, to set up a bookseller's shop in Pall-MaU, Avhich ultimately proved a very prosper- ous concern. He next wrote the farce of the King and the Miller of Mansfield, founded on an old ballad; which succeed- ed so Avell, that he jiroduced a sequel to it, called Sir John Cockle at Court. In 1741, he brought out a musical piece, en- titled the Blind Beggar of Bethnal Green; and, in 1745, he made an attempt to intro- duce on the stage a new species of panto- mime, in Rex et Pontifex. A loyal masque in honor of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, appeared in 1749. His next Avork Avas the Economy of Human Life, a well known coUection of moral maxims. He wrote a tragedy, entitled Cleone, which had some success on the stage, but possesses no extraordinary merit. A selection of Fables in prose, with an Essay on Fable prefixed, was one of his latest productions. Hav- ing acquired a competent fortune by his double occupation of author and booksel- ler, he retired from business. He died at Durham, in 17(54. He planned the Pre- ceptor; the Collection of Old Plays, 12 vols., 12mO.; and the Collection of Poems by different Hands, 6 vols., 12mo. Dodwell, Henry, a critic and theolog- ical writer of distinction, was born at Dub- lin, in 1641, and, owing to family misfor- tunes during the Irish rebellion, and the death of his father, was early subjected to a life of want and dependence. Sir Hemy Slingsby, his mother's brotiier, at length enabled him to obtain some education. In 1656, he became a student of Trinity college, Dublin, where he distinguished himself by his application, and was chosen to a fellowship. This station he resigned in 1666, because he had scruples relative to the lawfulness of taking orders in the church, as enjoined by the statutes of the college. He then visited England, and for some time resided at Oxford. Re- turning to Ireland, he began his career of authorship with a preface to a theological tract of his tutor, doctor Stearn. His next production was entitled Two Letters of Advice; 1. for the Susception of Holy Orders; 2. for Studies Theological, espe- cially such as are rational. To the second edition of this work (1681) was annexed a Discourse on the Phoenician History of Sanchoniathon, which he deemed spuri- ous. In 1674, he came again to England, and settled in London, where he continued to employ his pen. In 1688, he was chosen Camden professor of history at Oxford. After the revolution, his high- church principles inducing him to espouse the cause of the nonjurors, he was de- prived of his office. He died in 1711. He produced a multitude of works relat- ing to theological and classical literature. Of these, the most valuable is entitled De veteribus Graicorum, Romanorumqut Cyclis, obiterque de Cyclo Judaiorum JEtate Christi, Dissertationes X. cum Tabulis ne- cessariis, &c. (folio); and another, entitled An Epistolary Discourse, proving from the Scrijitures and the first Fathers, that the Soul is a Principle naturally mortal, but immortalized actually by the Pleasure of God, to Punishment or to Reward, by its Union with the divine baptismal Spirit; where it is proved that none have the Pow- er of giving this divine immortalizing Spirit since the Apostles, but only the Bishops. This work gave rise to a warm controversy, and subjected the author to much obloquy. 263 DOE—DOG. Doe, John, and Richard Roe. (See Bail, and Writ.) Dog (canis familiaris). To no animal is mankind more indebted for faithful and unswerving affection than to the dog. His incorruptible fidelity, his forbearing and enduring attachment Ids inexhausti- ble diligence, ardor and obedience, have been noticed and eulogized from the ear- liest times. This A'aluable quadruped may be emphatically termed the friend of man; as, unlike other animals, his attachment is purely personal, and uninfluenced by changes of time or place. The dog seems to remember only the benefits which he may have received, and, instead of discoAr- ering resentment Avhen he is chastised, exposes himself to torture, and even licks the hand from Avhich it proceeds. Witii- out the aid of this almost reasoning animal, how could man have resisted the attacks ofthe savage and ferocious tenants of the forest, or have procured sustenance in those ages of the Avorld Avhen agriculture was unknown!—When we attempt to trace the source or origin ofthe species, it will be found that the changes and varie- ties, which the influence of domestication and the intermixture of races have pro- duced, are so multifarious and intermina- ble as to baffle all research. Pennant is of opinion that the original stock of dogs in the old world is with great reason sup- posed to be the jackal; that from their tamed offspring, casually crossed with the wolf, the fox, and even the hya?na, have arisen the numberless forms and sizes of the canine race. Buffon, with much in- genuity, has traced out a genealogical table of all the knoAvn dogs, deducing all the odier A-arieties from the shepherd's dog, variously affected by •climate, and other casual circumstances. From the recent observations of travellers in the high northern parts of this continent, where, although dogs have been employed for an incalculable length of time, they still retain much of the external appear- ance and general caniage of a wild ani- mal, it would seem that Pennant's sugges- tion is worthy of attention. But, at the same time, it should be remarked, that the breed of dogs, produced from the Avolf and varieties of the domestic dog, during a long succession of generations, still retains marked characteristics of the jiredomi- nance ofthe savage qualities derived fi-om its untamed progenitors, in the keen and rivid expression of the eye, ferocity of dis- position and severity of bite. It is also a singular fact, that the race of European dogs evince as great an antipathy to the Esquimaux species as they do to a wolf. Linnams has asserted that the tail of this animal, in all its species and varieties, in- variably bends to die left ; but although such is very often the case, it is by no means universal, as the slightest observa- tion will demonstrate. Desmarest, how- ever, has remarked a peculiarity as re- spects the tail of dogs, which api>cars much better entitled to rank as a sjiecific char- acter ; that, Avhenever this member is of white united Avith any other color, the white is always tenninal. The same re- mark applies to other species of this genu.-* equally with the dogs. Naturalists have divided dogs into several classes: 1. mas- tiffs, including the dog of New Holland, the mastiff, (particularly so called), the Danish dog, spaniels, including the spaniel and its varieties, the Avater-dog, the hound, the terrier, the shepherd's dog, the wolf-dog, the Siberian dog, the Es- quimaux dog, and the alco or Peruvi- an dog; 3. bull-dogs, consisting of the bull-dog and its varieties, the house- dog, die tumsjiit, the pug, &c. The sagacity and attention of the dog are so great, that it is not difficult to teach him to bunt dance, and exhibit a thousand tricks. The mode in which he is taught to point out different cards that are placed near him is this:—He is first taught, by repeated trials, to know something by a certain mark, and then to distinguish one ace from another; food is frequently offer- ed him on a card lie is unacquainted Avith, after which he is sent to search it out. from the pack ; and, after a little experience, he never mistakes. Profiting by the discove- ry of receiving food and caresses for his docility, he soon becomes able to know each particular card, which, Avhen it is called for, he brings Avidi an air of gaycty, and without confusion. But ofthe attain- ments by Avhich the dog has been distin- guished, that of learning to speak is the most extraordinary. The celebrated Leib- nitz communicated a fact of diis nature to the royal academy of France; and Avere it not that he asserts, that he, himself was a witness of the phenomenon, we should scarcely have dared to report the circum- stance. The dog, from his account, could articulate about thirty Avords, but it Ava3 necessary that tiiey should, be first pro- nounced to him.—Dogs are found in all parts ofthe Avorld, with the exception of a few groups of islands in the southern Pacific ocean. It is only in temperate climates that they preserve their ardor, courage, sagacity and other talents. When transported to very hot countries, they lose those qualities for which we admire them. DOG—DOG-FISH. 269 These animals form an important article of food among many nations. In China, the Society islands, &c, young puppies are considered a great deUcacy, and are al- lowed by Europeans, who have overcome their prejudices, to be very sweet and pal- atable.—This taste for dog's flesh is of very early origin. The ancients regarded a young and fat dog as excellent food; and Hijipocrates placed it on a footing with mutton and jiork, and, in another place, ob- serves, that the flesh of a grown dog is wholesome and nourishing. The Romans admired sucking jiuppies, and sacrificed them to the gods, as the most acceptable offering. Virgil has not thought the praise of dogs a subject unworthy of his pen. He recommends it to the husbandmen of Italy to pay jiarticular attention to the rearing and training of dogs.* The dog is horn with its eyes closed; they do not become opened until the tenth or twelfth day; its teeth begin to change about the fourth month, and its growth is perfected in two years. The female generally has a litter of from six to twelve pups. The dog seldom lives beyond fifteen years. (See Bloodhound, Bull-Dog, Greyhound, Hound, Mastiff, Pointer, Spaniel, Shepherd's Dog.) Dog-Bane (apocynum androsaimifoli- um, Lin.), a perennial American jilant found from Canada to Carolina, has an erect smooth stem from three to five feet high, and leaves acute, entire, and two or three inches long.—The whole plant is lactescent: the root is intensely bitter and nauseous. It is considered as containing a bitter extractive principle, soluble in water and alcohol, a coloring principle soluble in Avater only, a very large quantity of caoutchouc, and a volatile oil.—It is a very active plant, highly valued by our southern Indians. The root is the most poAverful part, and is much employed by our country physicians instead of ipecacu- anha. Thirty grains of the recently pow- dered root evacuate the stomach as effectu- ally as two thirds of this quantity of ipe- cacuanha, by which name it is known in various parts of the Eastern States. Its poAver is diminished by keeping, and de- stroyed by age. Doctor Bigelow remarks, that we have very few indigenous vegeta- bles which exceed this apocynum in bit- terness, and thinks the sensible and chem- ical projierties of the root promise a good effect, when given in small doses as a tonic medicine. Dog-Days. This name is ajiphed to the * Nee tibi cura canum fuerit postrema; sed una Velocis Sparta catulos, acremque molossum, Parce sero pingui, &c— Georg. lib. in. v. 404. period between the 24th July and 24th August because the dog-star (Sirius), dur- ing this period, rises witii the sun. The heat which is usually most oppressive at this season, was formerly ascribed to the conjunction of this star with the sun. Doge; formerly the title of the first mag- istrates in the ItaUan republics of Venice and Genoa, (q. v.) He was chosen from the nobility, who governed the state, and formed a tyrannical aristocracy. In Ven- ice, he held Iris dignity for life; in Genoa, for two years. His power became, by de- grees, veiy Umited. In rank he was con- sidered only equal to a duke, though the re- pubUc of Venice was in dignity equal to a kingdom. (See Ceremonial.) Dog-Fish ; the popular name of sev- eral species of the genus squalus, or shark, which are arranged by Cuvier under his sub-genus scyllium. S. canicula and & ca- tulus are the two most common species, and those in particular to which the trivial name is given. In their general anatomy, they differ but Uttle from the other sub-gen- era ofthe great shark family, so Avell known for their ferocious and savage habits. The dog-fishes, though among the smallest ofthe tribe, manifest projiensities equally cruel with those which have rendered the white shark and others so justly dreaded. Al- though seldom or never injurious to man, they commit great raAages in the fisheries, and, where they abound, constitute one of the greatest nuisances of the fishermen. Exceedingly voracious, and devouring almost eveiy thing they encounter, die mischief they occasion by taking the baits, and very often the hooks, of the deep sea fines, is veiy considerable, and not at all compensated for by the flesh of those which are captured. The sub-genus is characterized by having a short, obtuse snout; the nostrils situated near the mouth, and in a sinus, or groove, which runs along the edge of the upper Up, partially covered by two lobes or productions of the skin; teeth with a large triangular point, and a smaller one on each side.—The larger species, S. canicula, is distinguished by the foUowing characters: blackish browTi, marked Avith numerous small blackish spots ; lengdi 3 to 5 feet; inhabits the seas of almost every portion of the globe; swift, voracious, and very powerful; fol- lows ships to feed upon the refuse which is thrown overboard; feeds on small fish moUusca, and destroys great numbers of the young of its own species; breeds sev- eral times a year, and brings forth nume- rous individuals at a birth. The young are hatched from the egg, in the compU- 270 DOGFISH—DOGMAS, HISTORY OF. cated oviducts of the female, and are bom alive. The eggs are similar to others of the family, and covered by a tough mem- branaceous integument The skin of tiicse fish is beset with numerous small asperi- ties, which render it, when dried, well calculated for polishing wood, and for other mechanical purposes. When aUve, it has a strong musky smeU.—S. catulus, the lesser dog-fish, or rock shark, resem- bles the fonner in its general ajijiearance and habits, but the spots with which it is marked are larger and more scattered. It has very frequently been confounded with it and by some authors described as the male; color gray-brown, spots blackish, .unequal, rounded; dorsal fins equal, nos- trils bilobate; inhabits rocky bottoms, and preys principally on crustacta and shell fish; produces eighteen or twenty at a time. The young evince their ferocious propensities very soon after birth, and are destroyed by the larger individuals of their own species.—The flesh of all the species is hard, dry and unpalatable, requiring to be weU-soaked before it is eaten. Oil, in con- siderable quantity, is obtained from the liver. Poisonous effects are, at certain times, observed in consequence of eating the livers of dog-fish ; and some cases are recorded, in which the most distressing illness has been occasioned, followed by a heavy, torpid stupor of two or three days. The patients Avere afterwards affected by an erythematous eruption,which extended all over the body, and which was tenni- nated by a general peeling off of the skin. —M. Cuvier has divided the genus squalus into numerous sub-genera, which include many new and extraordinary species. The sub-genus scyllium is now divided into tAvo sections:—Sect. 1. anal fin situated under the interval between the two dor- sals ; sect 2. anal fin placed posterior to the second dorsal.—The first division includes S. canicula, S. catulus, &c.; the second, <& africanum, S. tuberculatum, &c. Dogger ; a Dutch vessel navigated in the German ocean; it is equipped with two masts, a main and a mizzen-mast and somewhat resembles a ketch. It is Erincipally used for fishing on the Dogger ank. Dog-Grass (radix graminis; gramen caninum; triticum repens, Lin.); a peren- nial plant vety common in uncultivated grounds; root repent; stems straight, about two feet high; leaves soft and green; spike elongate, compressed; spike- lets distichous, unarmed, and formed of from four to five flowers. Dog-grass root is long, cylindrical, thin, knotty, white in- ternally, yellowish and skinny externally, inodorous, of a farinaceous and sweet taste. This root is used in medicine.— Among the demulcent substances, dog- grass is one of die most frequently em- ployed in France. It is used in most of the inflammatory and febrile diseases, and esjiecially in those ofthe urinary jiassages. It was formerly recommended as a jioav- erful diuretic, and was emjiloyed as such in dropsies ; but we knoAV, at present, this opinion to be erroneous. Dogmas, History of ; a branch of the- ology, more attended to in the universities ofthe north of Germany, than any where else. Its object is to exhibit, in a histor- ical way, the origin and the changes of the various Christian systems of belief, showing Avhat opinions were received by the various sects, in different ages of Christianity, the sources of the different creeds, by what arguments they Avere attacked and sujiported, Avhat degrees of importance Avere attached to them in dif- ferent ages, the circumstances by which they were affected, and the mode in which the dogmas Avere combined into systems. The sources of this branch of history are the public creeds, the acts of councils, and other ecclesiastical assemblies, letters und decrees ofthe heads of churches, liturgies and books of rituals, the works of the fathers of the church, and of later eccle- siastical writers, as well as the nanations of contemporary historians. It is easily seen how important and interesting a study this is, teaching, as it does, modesty and forbearance in the support of jiarticu- • lar opinions, by showing the vast variety of those Avhich have afforded subjects of bitter controversy at particular periods, and have then passed away into oblivion; and how much learning, industry, and crit- ical acuteness, are often required, to make a thorough investigation of contested points of doctrine. The distinction between this branch of history and ecclesiastical his- tory is obvious. It is the same as exists between poUtical history and the history of politics. Lectures on this subject are delivered in aU the German universities. It is evident that the views taken of the history of dogmas must vary according to the sect to which the writer belongs; be- cause it does not consist of a series of facts, but of the representation of the de- velopement of certain ideas, which must appear different, according to the idea which is considered by the writer as the most important. This is more or less the ease with all history, in proportion as the writer abandons mere relation for an DOGMAS, HISTORY OF—DOGWOOD. 271 analysis ofthe nature, the causes and con- sequences of what he describes. Thus a republican would give a very different history of politics from a rovalist; and a writer of the nineteenth century a differ- ent history of civilization from that which would be given by a writer of the seven- teenth. One division of dogmatical his- tory, by a Protestant professor, is the fol- lowing :—1st period ; from the foundation of Christianity, to the beginning of gnos- ticism (about 125, A. D.). The 2d period (from 125 to 325, A. D.) is that of the dawn of speculation, and the rise of the desire for settled creeds, and systems of Christianity, which appeared very strongly in the council of Nice, in 325. The 3d period (from 325 to 604) is that of the increasing authority of councils, and the heads of the church. Able men, as Atha- nasius, the great Basil, die two Gregories, Jerome, Augustine, and the pojies Leo I and Gregoiy I, exercised great influence in settling the dogmas during this period. 4th period; from the death of Gregoiy, in 604, to Gregoiy VII, in 1073; character- ized by the rapid growth of the pajial power. In this period, the first system of dogmatics was settled by the influence of John of Damascus (died in 754), found- ed on a systematical revision of the dog- mas of the church. 5th period ; from Gregory VII, in 1073, to Luther, in 1517 ; in which the power of the pojies attained its highest point, and, at the same time, a new spirit of jihilosophy arose, which, influenced by mistaken notions of the Greek philosophy, gave rise to the scho- lastic theology, the opposition to Avhich gave birth to m}rsticism. 6th period; that of the reformation, the period since which, of course, admits of many divisions, ac- cording to the different views which may be taken of the subject Dogmatics ; a systematic arrangement ofthe articles of Christian faith (dogmas). It is the duty of the compiler of such a system, to collect the religious ideas, which are scattered through the Holy Scrijitures, to explain, establish and com- bine them. No one can successfully treat this important but difficult subject, Avho is not well acquainted both Avith ex- egesis and philosophy. The first attempt to furnish a complete and coherent sys- tem of Christian dogmas Avas made "by Origen in the 3d century, who was suc- ceeded by Aur. Augustine in the 4th, by Isidore of Seville in the 6th, and by John of Damascus (see Damascenus) in the 8th century. In the middle ages, ingenious examinations of the Christian doctrines were made by the schoolmen; but, agi- tating as they did subtle questions of Uttle practical importance, they loaded the sci- ence with useless refinements. Among the Protestants, Melancthon was the first who wrote a compendium ofthe Christian doctrine, wlrich is still justly esteemed. This science has been successfully culti- vated by the Protestant theologians sinca the last centuiy. Dogs, Isle of ; in England, in the county of Middlesex, opposite Greenwich. In this island are magnificent docks, with large and convenient warehouses for the accommodation of the West India mer- chants. (See Docks.) One ofthe largest canals ever attempted in England has been cut nearly one mile and a quarter in length, 142 feet wide at top, and 24 feet deeji, across the Isle of Dogs, for the pur- pose of shortening the passage of vessels to and from the pool, and avoiding the long circuit by Greenwich and Deptford. Dog-Star ; Sirius; the star that gives their name to the dog-days. (q. v.) Dogwood (cornus jloritla) is a small tree, inhabiting the U. States from the 43d parallel of latitude to Florida, and ex- tending Avestward beyond die AlississijipL The leaves are oval, entire, pointed, and whitish beneath; the flowers small, yel- lowish, and surrounded with an involucre conijiosed of four large white leaves; the berries are red, and remain on the tree during a great jiart of the winter. Throughout a great part of the U. States, the large AA'hite involucres ofthe dogwood, together Avith the rose-colored floAvers of the Judas tree (cercis Canadensis) make a beautiful ajipearance in the spring. The dogwood attains the height of 20 or 30 feet, and has a trunk 8 or 10 inehes in di- ameter ; the Avood is Avhite, hard, of a fine texture, and much esteemed; it is used by cabinet-makers for inlaying, &c. dif- ferent ornamental Avorks; for the handles of tools, plane-stocks, &c, it is considered little inferior to box. The bark of this tree, as well as that of several other spe- cies of cornus inhabiting Canada and the Northern States, possesses similar proper- ties with the Peruvian bark, and is em- ployed successfully in the cure of inter- mittent fevers. The bark of the root stem and branches tastes very much like this famous bark; it is bitter, astringent and slightly aromatic. Its astringency is, however, stronger than tiiat of the Peru- vian bark. This bark is, without doubt one of our most valuable native articles. As a sulistitute for the Peruvian bark, much has beeii written in commendation of it. 272 DOGWOOD—DOLL. The resemblance extends to its chemical and physical, as Avell as therapeutical prop- erties. The bark of the dogwood is ex- tensively employed by country practition- ers in intermittent fevers, and the report they give of it is very favorable and satis- factory. It is remarked that, in its recent state, it is apt to disagree Avith the stomach, and to produce pains in the boAvels; but, in order to prevent this effect it's simply needful to add to it when used, a few drops of laudanum, or to use the bark after it has been collected for some time. This bark* may be used Avith still greater advantage in intermittents, if combined Avith serpentaria. The C. sericea and C. drdnata, Linn, (swamp and round-leaved dogwood), seem to possess the same prop- erties as the preceding. Some other plants have received the name of dogwood in die U. States, particularly the jioisonous sumach (rhus vernix). Dohm, Christian WiUiam Aron; a states- man and scholar, distinguished for his jirin- cijiles, genius and merits ; born at Lemgo, Dec. 11, 1751. He was the son of a Lu- theran minister in that city, and cultivated his taste by the study of ancient literature and the English classics. He lived for some time in a private condition at Berlin, where he made himself known by his writings. lie was then emjiloyed by the Prussian government, and, during the reign of the two last kings and the pres- ent, gradually rose from one post to an- other. He was Prussian ambassador at the congress of Rastadt, in 1797, and, in the name of the whole diplomatic corps, made a rejiort concerning the murder of the two French envoys. He remained in Westjihalia while the country was occu- pied by Napoleon ; for, as his estates were in this part of the Prussian dominions, he was compelled to continue his residence there, after they had been separated from Prussia by the peace of Tilsit in 1807. By the command ofthe French intendant general, he went to Paris in September, 1807, at the head of a delegation of the states ofthe province and the administra- tive authorities. After his return, in De- cember of the same year, he was made a member of the council of state; and in February, 1808, he was appointed by the king ambassador to the court of Dresden. A dangerous inflammation of the lungs forced him to retire in April, 1810. He Avas permitted to reside on his estate of Pustleben, in the county of Hohenstein, till he should be able to take his place again in the council of state. From that time he devoted hunself exclusively to his- torical pursuits. His work Denkwurdigkei- ten mdner Zdt, oder Beitrage zur Gesckichte von 1778 bis 1806, Lemgo and Hanover, 1814—19, 5 vols, (wlrich extend to the death of Frederic the Great) gives much information respecting the most memorable persons and events since 1778, drawn part- ly from his own observation and experi- ence, partly from other sources. It is es- teemed also on account of its clearness, cor- rect spirit, and impartiality. Dohm died at his estate of Pustleben, May 29, 1820. Doit Avas the ancient Scottish jienny piece, of Avhich tAvelve Avere equal to a penny sterling. Two of them were equal to the bodle, six to the baubee, and eight to the acheson. There was also in Lower Germany a small coin called deut (pro- nounced like doit) and diitchen, the dimin- utive of deut. In the Netherlands, the coin is called dayt, and Frisch believes that tliese words took their origin from the French tl-te, head ; the piece of 20 kreuzor is still called, in Germany, kopfstiick (head-piece). Dolce, Carlo (also Carlino Dolce), a celebrated painter, ofthe Florentine school, born at Florence, in 1616, and died there in 1686, was a disciple of Jacopo Vigniali; and his Avorks, in Fiorillo's opinion, bear the character which his name imjilies. His subjects are principally heads of ma- donnas and saints, so mild and soft that they have been rejiroached with want of character. In minuteness and accuracy of finish, he ajiproaches the Dutch school. It must be confessed, however, that in his madonnas we discover frequent rep- etitions, and tiiat his paintings betray that timidity and melancholy to Avhich he Avas subject. His works are spread over all Europe; many of them are in Florence. Three of his best pieces are in the gallery at Dresden—namely, Cecilia, or the Organ-Player, Christ blessing the Bread and Wine (which has been very frequently engraved), and Herodias with the Head of John the Baptist. Among his chief productions, also, is Christ ou the Mount of Olives, now at Paris. Doll, Frederic William; professor of the art of sculpture in Gotha, born at Hild- burghausen in 1750; a distinguished Ger- man artist. His first important work was the monument of Winkelmann, Avhich was honored with a place in the Pantheon at Rome. His best works are the Reliefs in the riding-academy at Dessau : a large group representing Faith, Hope, and Charity, for the principal church at Lu- nenburg ; the monument of Leibnitz at Hanover, and Kepler's at Ratisbon. He died at Gotha, March 30,1816. DOLLAR—DOLOMIEU. 273 Dollar; a coin of different value. (See Coins.) This word conesjxinds to the Ger- man thaler, the Low-German daUer, the Danish daler, the ItaUan tailero. AU these words, together with our dollar, are deriv- ed from the name of the Bohemian town Joachims-Thai (Joachim's Valley), where, in 1518, the count of Schlick coined silver pieces of an ounce weight These, indeed, were not the first ofthe kind coined; yet as they were numerous and very good, they became generally known by the name of Joachims-thaler, which is the Ger- man adjective of Joachims-thal, and also SddickeiUhaler, from the name of the counts. As these coins were in good re- pute, thalers were also coined in other countries, but of different value: thus orig- inated the laub-tkaler (leaf-dollar) Philipps- tlialer, the Swedish copper dollar, &c. In Russia, a dollar is called jephimock, from Joachim, Dollond, John, an eminent optician of French descent, was born in Sjiitalfields in 1706. He was brought up a silk-weaver, and carried on that business for many years; but, finding it little congenial to his taste, he devoted himself to the study of mathematics, optics, and astronomy, and at last commenced optician, in conjunction with his eldest son, Peter. His first atten- tion Avas directed to the improvement of refracting telescopes, an account of which was printed in the Philosophical Transac- tions, Arol. xlviii; and he soon after com- municated his discovery ofthe micrometer, as ajqilied to the reflecting telescojie. Mr. Dollond then engaged in a defence of New- ton's doctrine of refraction, against Euler, Avhich correspondence was also published in the Philosojmical Transactions. He next constructed object-glasses, in Avhich the different refrangibility of the rays of light was coreected, to which the name of achromatic was given by doctor Bevis, on account of their being free from the prismatic colors. In 1761, Mr. Dollond was elected F.R. S., and appointed optician to the king; but died of apoplexy in the same year. Dollond, Peter, eldest son ofthe pre- ceding, was bom in 1730. In 1765, he communicated a paper to the royal so- ciety, upon his improvement of telescopes, and another in 1772, on his additions to, and alterations of, Hadley's quadrant He also gave a description of his equatorial instrument for correcting the errors arising in altitude from refraction. In 1789, he published Some Account of the Discovery made by his Father in refracting Teles- copes. "He died in 1820. Dolomieu, Deodat Guy Silvain Tan- crede Gratet de, a geologist and mineral- ogist bom June 24, 1750, at Dolomieu, in Dauphiny, Avas received into the order of the knights of Malta while yet a child, and began his novitiate in his 18th year. On his first cruise in the Mediterranean, he kiUed one of the officers of his gaUey in a quarrel. He was tried at Malta, and condemned to lose the robe of the order; but the grand-master, considering his great youth, reprieved him ; and the pojie was at last prevailed on to give his consent to a full pardon. Dolomieu Avas in prison nine months, and, during his confinement, ac- quired a taste for poetry. He continued his studies at Metz, Avhither he was trans- fened as an officer of a regiment of car- bineers, in garrison at that jilace. Tho duke de la Rqchefoucault became ac- quainted with him there, and, through his influence, Dolomieu Avas made a corre- sponding member of the academy of sci- ences. In order to devote himself entirely to his studies, Dolomieu left the military service, and returned to Malta, Avhence he went to Portugal in 1777, in the retinue of the bailfi de Rohan. He examined this country, visited Sicily and the neigh- boring islands, Naples and mount Vesu- vius in 1781, travelled over the Pyrenees in 1782, and in 1783 jiassed through Cala- bria, which had just been desolated by an earthquake. In consequence of some se- cret communications, wlrich he made to the grand-master on his return, being be- trayed to the court of Naples, which Avas interested in them, he Avas forbidden to enter that kingdom, and experienced ma- ny difficulties in Malta. Leaving this island again, he visited the mountains of Italy, the Tyrol, and the country of the Grisons. He returned once more to Malta, for die purpose of bringing off his collection, and thence went to France, in May, 1791, where he resided at Roche- Guyon, the estate of his friend the duko de la Rochefoucault, who had fallen a victim to the revolutionary fury. After the 9th Thermidor, he renewed his geo- logical excursions through France, always on foot, with a hammer in his hand, and a bag on his back. In 1796, he Avas ap- pointed engineer and professor, and, at tho establishment of the institute, was made a member of that society. In these capa- cities, he published several works relative to the theory of the earth and the nature of minerals. He eagerly sei zed the opjior- tunity'of visiting Egypt, offered to him by the French expedition to that country. But the occupation of Malta on the Avay 274 DOLOMIEU—DOLPHIN. made him dissatisfied with the whole un- dertaking, and the situation ofthe army in Egypt soon condemned him to inactivity. In March, 1799, he embarked for Europe. On die passage, the vessel sprung a leak, and only succeeded, after great efforts, in reaching the harbor of Tarentum. There the crew were treated as prisoners of war; and, when the rest were set at liberty, Do- lomieu was recognised and detained as a prisoner. During twenty-one months, he suffered hardships and privations of every kind. Even books and writing materials were denied him. His firmness, howev- er, sustained him. On the margins of two or three books, which he had contriv- ed to conceal from the eyes of his senti- nel, he Avrote his treatise on mineralogical philosophy: his pen was a piece of vvood, and the soot of his lamp supplied him with ink. In consequence of the peace con- cluded between France and Naples, March 15, 1801, he obtained his liberty, and re- ceived the professorship of mineralogy in die museum of natural history, which had become vacant by the death of Daubenton. His health, however, having been already undermined by his captivity, was entirely destroyed by a journey to Switzerland, Sa- voy and Dauphiny, in 1801, and he died at Chateauneuf, ft ov. 28 of the same year. With a passionate love for geology, Dolo- mieu united all the qualities, physical and moral, necessaiy for the successful study of diis science; and it is therefore much to be regretted, that he was prevented from combining and systematizing his views and observations. Dolomite; a mineral species, speci- mens of which occur under considerably diversified aspects. A variety called bitter spar, and sometimes rhomb spar, is found in crystals, having the form of a rhomboid, with angles varying from 106° 157 to 107° 2C and 73° 45> to 72° 40\ It cleaves with ease parallel to this form. Color grayish, yellowish or reddish brown; hardness a little above that of calcareous spar, but is easUy scratched with the knife; semitrans- parent and very brittle. It is found in steatite or soapstone, disseminated in crys- tals, varying in size, from three-fourths to one-fourth of an inch in diameter. It has numerous localities in the U. States, one of the most remarkable of which is at Marlborough, in Vemiont, where it exists in a soapstone quarry. It is also found abundantly in other countries. A second variety of this species is denominated pearl spar. It differs from bitter spar chiefly in the slightly curvilinear faces of its crystals, and in possessing a more shin- ing, pearly lustre, and usually lighter shades of color, being sometimes quite white. It is found principally in metallic veins accompanying the ores of lead and tin. It occurs abundantly, however, in cavities along with calcareous spar and selenite, in the secondary limestone of Lockport, N. Y. The most abundant A-a- riety of the present species goes by the name of dolomite. It is massive, or con- sists of fine crystalUne grains, but slightly coherent a°d of various shades of Avhite. It constitutes beds of very great extent and therefore belongs to the class of rocks; and, as such, comes under the division of primitive rocks. It exists in great abundance in Litchfield county, in Connecticut, and in the south-western towns of Massachusetts. It abounds in the Apennines, the Tyrol, SAvitzerland and Tuscany. It is frequently employed as a marble, both in the U. States and Eu- rope. It is composed of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia; but tho relative quantity of the two seems not to be exactly the same in all A-arieties. Its decomposition is conceived to form a good soil for agriculture. Dolphin (delphinus). A cetaceous ani- mal, the name of which is improperly applied to a fish, the coryphaina hippuris, or dolphin of navigators, so celebrated for the beautiful changes of color which it exhibits when dying. The real dolphin has been rendered famous by the tales re- lated of it by the ancient writers ; one of the most familiar of Avhich is the fable of the musician Arion. (q. v.) There are several species of dolphins enumerated by naturalists. Those which occur common- ly are D. delphis, or common dolphin., D. rostratus, and D. turdo. Dolphins are cosmopolite animals, inhabiting every sea, from the equator to the poles, enduring equally Avell the extremes of heat or cold; they are gregarious, and SAvim with extra- ordinary velocity, outstripping in their course the fleetest vessels. During the electrical excitement of the atmosjihere previous to changes of weather, they are observed to be very active and vivacious, leaping considerable distances out of the water, and displaying, in their rapid movements, their uncommon muscular powers. The characters distinctive of the common dolphin are—black, beneath white; snout porrect, depressed; jaws with forty or forty-two curved, pointed teeth on each side ; length eight or ten feet; flesh coarse, rank, and disagree- able (used by the Laplanders, and the in- habitants of Greenland, as food, but is apt DOLPHIN—DOMAIN. &5 x» produce sickness in persons who eat it for the first time); skin smooth, soft, with a layer of very white fat or blubber under it; fiver large, yielding a larger quantity of oil than the blubber. The ori- fice from whence the water, inspired by the mouth, is ejected, is of a semilunar form, Avith a kind of valvular apparatus, and 0|iens on the vertex, nearly over the eyes. The volume and developement of the brain have induced naturalists to consider the dolphin an animal of unusual intelligence, and capable of feeling an attachment to man. Many stories are related of its do- cility, but, unfortunately, want confirma- tion. The skeleton presents a modifica- tion of the principal bones of the higher tnammifera, and the absence of many of minor importance. The structure of the ear renders the sense of hearing very acute, and the animal is observed to be at- tracted by regular or harmonious sounds. Owing to the flattened form of the cervi- cal vertebrae, which amount to seven, the neck is very short, and, the two first be- ing immovably connected, the motion is very limited. A single bone, composed of or replacing those of the arm, is the support of the pectoral fins: it articulates with a peculiar shajied scapula, and the muscular arrangement is such as to give die fin great force. The whole number of vertebra? amounts to fifty-three, the sacrum being produced to support die tail. Compactness and strength arc die characteristics ofthe genus, and the mus- cular powers of the tail are proverbial. The food of the dolphin consists of fish, moilusca, &c.; and shoals of dolphins are observed to hover round the herring and other fisheries, in pursuit of their jirey. When one of a shoal is struck, the rest are observed to pursue it immediately, probably for the purpose of devouring the wounded animal. One or two young are produced by the female, who suckles and watches them, with great care and anxie- ty, long after they have acquired consid- erable size. It is stated by some authors, that they cease groAving at ten years of age, and live eighty or a hundred years.— Tlie dolphin respiring by lungs, and not in the manner of fishes, it is compelled to rise to the surface, at short intervals, to breathe, throwing out the water from the bloAV-hole, or aperture on the head, Uke a cloud of steam. The color varies in dif- ferent individuals: some are black, olive or gray, and others mottled, or even quite white. The inhabitants of ancient By- zantium and Thrace pursued a regular fishery of the dolphin, destroying them with a kind of trident attached to a long line. Figures of this animal are found on antique coins, and very good representa- tions of it occur on the Corinthian medals. Dolphin of navigators ; a fish, the co- ryphama hippuris of authors; celebrated by travellers and poets in their marvellous recitals of its changes of color when ex- piring. Such changes do occur, and are curious, but by no means so much so as romantic travellers would have us believe. The color of the dolphin is silvery Avhite, spotted with yelloAvish. Body compress- ed, elongate, gradually decreasing from the front (which is very obtuse) to the tail; dorsal fin extending from the nape nearly to the caudal; caudal fin large, fur- cate ; anal nearly reaching the base ofthe caudal; pectorals somewhat falciform; length usually four or five feet tiiough specimens of six feet in length are occa- sionally taken. Few fish are more agile, or swim with greater velocity. They abound within the tropics, and are found in all temperate latitudes. In the neigh- borhood of the equator, they commit great havoc in the immense shoals of flying fish which inhabit those regions, and which constitute the principal food of the coiy- phama. It is remarkable that, in swal- lowing their prey, the position of the cap- tured fish is reversed, and it passes down the throat head foremost: by this manoeu- vre the fins are prevented from impeding its passage. The flesh of the doljihin is coarse and dry, but, to those who have subsisted for a long Avhile on salted pro- visions, is very acceptable. At certain times, and in particular localities, the flesh acquires a deleterious quality, which has often proved fatal to persons who have eaten of it The best antidote to its poi- sonous effect is a copious emetic, admin- istered as soon as any symptom of poison is apparent. The doljihin bites freely at a hook baited with a piece of salted meat or better with a flying fish, and, from its great strength, affords fine sport to the fisherman. Domain, or Demain, or Demesne (in French domaine), in its popular sense, de- notes the lord's manor-place, with the lands thereto belonguig, which he and his ancestors have from time to time kept in their own occupation. In England the domains ofthe crown {terra, dominica- les regis) denote either the share reserved to the croAvn, in the distribution of landed property at the time of the conquest or such as came to it aftenvards, by forfeit- ures or other means. They are, at pres- ent, contracted witiiin a very nanow com- 276 DOMAIN—DOMENICHINO. pass, having been almost entirely granted to private subjects; and though diis Avas often done in a most injudicious manner, jt has been of great benefit to the Eng- lish nation, by diminishing die poAver of «ie crown, and making it dependent on die grants of parliament; whilst in many odier countries, the Avealth of the croAvn has rendered it independent and strong enough to oppress the subjects, and un- dertake wars injurious to the public wel- fare. The rents and profits of the de- mesne lands of the crown constitute, at present, one branch of tlie king of Eng- land's ordinary revenue. (For more in- formation respecting the history of croAvn lands in England, see the article Civil List.) b In France, there are several different kinds of domains:—1. Domaine de Ve'tat, or public domains, comprising higliAA'ays, harbors, rivers, canals, sea-coasts, banks of rivers, fortifications, &c. (Code Na- poleon, a. 538—541), to which the estates of the emigrants were also added (Charte Const., a. 9). 2. Domaine or dotation de la couronne (Senatus Cons, of January 30, 1810, and law of Nov. 8, 1814). To this class belong the palaces, gardens, forests, farms, crown jewels, &c, of the sove- reign, which are all inalienable, and not chargeable with debts, and pass thus from each king to his successor. 3. Domaine privi consists of such estates as the king acquires as a private person, and over which he exercises an entire control. But whatever portion of this the king does not disjiose of by testament becomes, at his death, a part of the public domains; so, also, whatever a prince jiossesses, be- fore he ascends the throne, becomes a part of the public domain at the moment he becomes king, and his debts, at the same time, become charges on the public treasury. 4. Napoleon had also a domaine extraordinaire (law of Jan. 30,1810), which consisted of his acquisitions by conquests, and were kept entirely at his disjiosal: these sujiplied the means of donations to his generals, &c. The domaine extraordi- naire has been also retained by the Bour- bons (law of May 22, 1816). The admin- istration of these donations was conducted with great wisdom; and Napoleon, as Las Cases relates, dwelt with pleasure on this branch of his government. (See Dota- tions of Napoleon.) There also existed, formerly, domains which Avere inaUenable in the ruling family, but did not belong to the state; and in some countries there are still such. The question, what part of the domain a sovereign may aUenate, what are public domains, and vvbat the private projierty of the ruling family, &c., is extremely difficult to be decided, in states in which the origin of die domains goes back to periods when feAV political subjects were distincdy settled, and par- ticularly in countries in which there is no constitution binding the sovereign, and settling die distinction between tliese different kinds of property. Power will generally decide, instead of justice, av beli- ever it is for tide advantage of the sove- reign, as has often been the case in Ger- many. An important question arose in Germany, in regard to the sale of the domains in the kingdom of Westphalia, during the reign of Jerome. The elector of Hesse-Cassel and the duke of Bruns- wick, having resumed possession of their countries, wlrich had been included in that kingdom, declared the sales void, because, as they said, they never had acknowledged the king of Westphalia. Prussia, wlrich received back a jiart ofthe territory which constituted the kingdom of Westphalia, acknowledged the validity of the sale, because it had recognised Jerome Bonaparte as king. Much dis- cussion took place respecting these sales. Austria, as well as Prussia, showed a dis- position to favor the purchasers. The diet of the Germanic confederacy showed its weakness on this occasion, as it could effect nothing against the elector and the duke. (Whoever wishes to read a full account of these transactions, is referred to the article Domainenverkauf, in the German Conversations-Lexikon.) For the public lands of the U. States, see the article United States. Domat, John ; an eminent French law- yer, who was born in the province of Auvergne, in 1625. He was king's advo- cate in the jiresidial court of Clermont, for thirty years. He died at Paris, in 1696. His treatise, entitled Les Loix riviles, dans leur Ordre naturd, Avas pub- lished in 1694, 3 vols. 4to.; and after his death appeared three volumes more, on public law, &c. An improved edition of his works was published in 1777, and there is an English translation of them, 1720, 2 vols, folio. Dome. (See Architecture, vol. i. page 336, right column; also the article Cupola.) Domenichino ; the name, among artists, of Domenico Zampieri, a painter of great eminence, of the Lombard school, bom at Bologna, in 1581. He was sent to stody first with Calvart, and afterwards with the Carracci. From the slowness of his performance, ho was named, by his fellow- DOMENICHINO—ST. DOMINIC DE GUZMAN. 277 students, the ox of painting; but Annibal Carracci predicted that the ox would "plough a fruitful field." Having con- tracted a great friendship for Albano, he joined him at Rome, and his former mas- ter, Annilial Carracci, jealous of Guido, procured for him the execution of one of the jrictures for a Roman church, which had been promised to that great painter. It was a custom with Domenichino to as- sume, for a time, the passion he was dejricturing; so that while working by himself, he was often heard to laugh, weep and talk aloud, in a manner that would have induced a stranger to suppose him a lunatic. The effect was, however, such, that few painters have surpassed him in lively representation. His Com- munion of St Jerome has been considered, by some connoisseurs, inferior only to the Transfiguration of Raphael; and the His- tory of Apollo, which he painted in ten frescoes, for cardinal Aldobrandini, is also much admired. Although a modest and inoffensive man, his merit excited so much envy, that he retired to his native city, where he married, and employed himself two years on his famous picture of the Rosary. He was afterwards re- caUed to Rome, by Gregory XV, who created him his first painter, and architect of the Vatican. Losing this post after the pope's death, he accepted an invita- tion to Naples, to paint the chapel of St. Januarius. But here he encountered a jealousy so rancorous, that his life became altogether imbittered by it; and so great Avas his dread of poison, that he prepared all his eatables with his own hand. He died in 1641, at the age of sixty. Dome- nichino, who understood every branch of his ait produced nothing exceUent with- out study and labor; but, in consequence of his great jiremeditation, no painter has given his pieces more ofthe properties be- longing to the subject. At the same time, his designs are correct; and he succeeded equally in the grand and the tender. Near- ly fifty of his pieces have been engraved. Domesday or Doomsday Book, a very ancient record, made in the time of Wil- liam the Conqueror, which now remains in the exchequer, and consists of two volumes; the greater contains a "survey of all the lands in most ofthe counties in England, and the less comprehends some counties that were not at first surveyed. The Book of Domesday Avas begun by five justices, assigned for that purpose, in each county, in the year 1081, and fin- ished in 1086. It was of such audionty, that the Conqueror himself submitted, in vol. iv. 24 some cases wherein he Avas concerned, to be governed by it. Camden calls this book the Tax-Book of king William; and it was further called Magna Rolla. There is likewise a third Book of Domcs.iay, made by command of the Conqueror ; and also a fourth, being an abridgment ol" the other books. Domicil. The dwelling had peculiar privileges among the Romans; it was re- garded as inviolable; for example, ne debtor could be anested in his domicil; no officer of the police or court could pass the threshold of a private house, to anest even a person who did not dAvell there. These rights and privUeges still belong to the dwelUng-bouse in England, the Netherlands and the U. States of America. The name domicil implies, in general, a place of residence; in a nar- rower sense, the place where one Uves, in oj>position to that where he only re- mains for a time. (See Appendix.) Domingo, St. (See Hayti.) Dominic de Guzman, St, founder of the Dominican order, bom in 1170, at Calahorra, in Old Castile, applied bim^lf, in his early years, with zeal and ability, to the acquisition of knowledge, was made canon and archdeacon at Osma, in Cas- tile, and Avas employed with others by pope Innocent III, to discover, confute, and punish heretics, especially the Albi- genses in France. This was the origin of the court ofthe inquisition, and St. Dom- inic is considered as the first inquiHtor- general. As he prescribed to the members of his order a certain number of Pater Nosters and Ave-Marias daily, he is sup- posed to have introduced the rosary. He died at Bologna, in 1221, and in 1233 was canonized by Gregoiy IX. In the exami- nation, previous to the canonization, it was proved that he had converted more than 100,000 souls to the true faith. An inter- esting comparison might be made between St. Dominicus and St. Franciscus, cer- tainly two of the most powerful minds among the saints. St. Franciscus labored all his life to reUeve the poor and perse- cuted, to propagate the gospel among the lower classes, who, in those convul- I periods, were almost entirely excluded, in most countries, from education and in- struction in 'Christianity ; whilst St. Do- minicus strove to spread Christianity by persecution. The character of the two founders is deeply imprinted on the two orders—the humble Franciscans and he zealous Dominicans. Dante speaks of tliese two saints, in one of the most beau- tiful passages in Iris Paradise. 278 DOMINICA—DOMINICANS. Dominica ; one of the Caribbee islands in die West Inches, belonging to Great Britain ; situated between Guadaloujie and Martinico; about 29 miles in length, and 16 in breadth, containing 186,436 acres of land. Colquhoun estimated the pop- ulation, in 1812, at 26,500. An article on the state of the English colonies, in the Edinburgh Review, gives it, in 1823, as only 16,554. This same article gives the imports from this island into Great Brit- ain, in 1823, at 39,013 quintals of sugar, 17,136 quintals of coffee, and 14,310 gal- lons of nun. It was discovered by Co- lumbus, ftTov. 3, 1493, on Sunday—hence its name. It contains many high and rugged mountains, among which are vol- canoes, that frequently discharge eruji- tions. From some of these mountains issue springs of hot water, whose medi- cinal virtues are much commended. Do- minica is Avell watered, there being up- wards of 30 rivers in the island, besides a great number of rivulets. The soil, in most of the interior country, is a light, brown-colored mould, and appears to have been washed fi-om the mountains. Towards die sea-coast, and in many of die valleys, it is a deep, black, and rich native earth, which seems well adajited to the cultivation of all the articles of West Indian jiroduce. The jirincipal towns are Portsmouth and Roseau or Charlotte's Town. Lon. 61° 23' W.; lat 15° 32' ft. Dominical Letter, in chronology; properly called Sunday letter; one of the seven letters of the aljihabet, A B C D E F G, used in almanacs, ephemerides, &c, to designate the Sundays throughout die year. In our almanacs, the first seven letters of the aljihabet are commonly placed to show on what days of the week the days of the month fall tiiroughout the year. And because one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sun- day, it is printed in a capital form, and called the dominical letter; the other six being inserted in different characters, to denote the other >ix days of the week. Now, since a common Julian year con- tains 365 days, if this number be divided by 7 (the number of days in a week), there AviU remain one day. If there had been no remainder, it is obAious the year Avould constantly begin on the same day of the week; but, since one remains, it is plain that the year must begin and end on the same day of the week; and therefore the next year wiU begin on the day following. Hence, when January begins on Sunday, A is the dominical or Sunday letter for that year: then, because the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday will fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the seventh letter, G, which, therefore, will be the dominical letter for all that year: and, as the third year will begin on Tuesday, the Sunday will, fall on the sixth day; dierefore F -will be the Sunday let- ter for that year. Whence it is evident, that the Sunday letters wi 11 go annually in retrograde order, thus, G, F, E, D, C, B, A ; and, in the course of seven years, if they were all common ones, the same days of the Aveek and dominical letters would return to the same days of tho months. But, because there are 366 days in a leap-year, if the number lie divided by 7, there will remain two days over and above the 52 weeks, of which the year consists. And, therefore, if the leap-year begins on Sunday, it will end on Monday; and, as the year Avill begin on Tuesday, the first Sunday thereof must fall on the* 6th of January, to Avhich is annexed tho letter F, and not G, as in common yeary. By this means, the leaji-ycaf returning: every fourth year, the order of die domin- ical letters is interrupted, and the series cannot return to its first state till after four times seven, or 28 years; and then the same days of the months return in order, to the same days of die week as before. The dominical letter may be found uni- versally, for any year of any century, thus: Divide the centuries by 4, and take twice what remains from 6; then add tlie re- mainder to the odd years, above the even centuries, and their 4th. Divide their sum by 7, and the remainder taken from 7 wiU leave the number answering to tho letter required. Thus, for the year 1^7t, die letter is F. For the centuries, 18, di- vided by 4, leave 2; the double of which, taken from 6, leaves 2 again ; to wlrich add the odd years, 78, and their 4th part, 19, the sum, 99, divided by 7, leaves 1, which, taken from 7, leaves 6, answering to F, the sixth letter in tlie alphabet (See Cycle, and Calendar.) Dominicans, called also predicants en- preaching friars (pra>dicatores), derived their name from their founder, Dominic. At their origin (1215, at Toulouse), they were governed by the rule of St Augus- tine ; and the principal object of their in- stitution Avas to jireach against heretics. They retained these rules and regulations after they had adopted a white habit, sim- ilar to that of the Carthusians, and the character of monks, in 1219. They Avere caUed Jacobins in France, because their first convent at Paris Avas in the rue SL DOMINICANS—DOMINO. 279 Jaques. The Dominican nuns were es- tabUshed, in 1206, by St. Dominic, and increased in numbers after 1218, when he founded a nunnery in Rome. They fol- low the same rules; they are required, also, to labor, which is not expected of the friars, on account of their higher du- ties. A third establishment of St. Dom- inic was the military order of Christ, originally comjiosed of knights and no- blemen, whose duty it was to wage war against heretics. After the death of the founder, this became the order of the penitence of St. Dominic, for both sexes, and constituted the third order of Domin- icans. These Tertiarians, widiout making any solemn vows, enjoy great sjriritual privileges, for the observance of a few fasts and prayers; they continue, also, in the enjoyment of their civil and domes- tic relations.- Some few companies of Dominican sisters of the third order, par- ticularly in Italy, united in a monastic Ufe, and became regular nuns; the most celebrated of whom is St. Catharine of Sienna. That they might devote them- selves widi. success to the promulgation and establishment of the Catholic faith, which was, in fact die object of their institution, and the first proof of their zeal for which they gave in the extirpation of the Albigenses, the Dominicans received, in 1272, the privileges of a mendicant or- der, which contributed greatly to their rapid increase. They filled not only Europe, but the coasts of Asia, Africa and America, with their monasteries and missionaries. Their strictly monarchical constitution, which connected all the prov- inces and congregations of their order under one general, secured their perma- nent existence, and a unity in their suc- cessful efforts to obtain influence in church and state. They made themselves useful by preaching, which was much neglected at the period of their establish- ment and by their missions; respectable and serviceable to the church by the dis- tinguished scholars they produced, such as Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aqui- nas ; and formidable as managers of the inquisition, wlrich was committed exclu- sively to them, in Spain, Portugal and Italy. After they had obtained permission to receive donations, in 1425, notwith- standing their original vow of absolute poverty, they ceased to belong to the mendicants, and, in the enjoyment of rich benefices, superior to other orders, they paid more attention to politics and theo- logical science. They gave to kings father-confessors, to universities instruct- ers, and to the pious rosaries; and for all they were richly rewarded, from their establishment they found dangerous rivals in the Franciscans (q. v.), and engaged in contests with them, the heat and bitter- ness of which have been perpetuated by the hostilities of the Thomists and Scot- ists (see Duns, and Schoolmen), and have continued even to modern times. These two orders divided the honor of ruling in church and state till the 16th century, when the Jesuits gradually superseded them in the schools and courts, and they fell back again to dieir original destina- tion. They obtained new importance by the censorship of books, which was com- mitted, in 1620, to the master ofthe sacred palace at Rome, who is always a Domin- ican. What the reformation took from them in Europe, the activity of their mis- sions in America and the East Indies restored. In the 18th century, the order comprised more than 1000 monasteries, divided into 45 jirovinces and 12 congre- gations. To the latter belonged the nuns of the holy sacrament, in Marseilles, es- tablished by Le Quien, in 1636, under the strictest rules. They dress in black, with Avhite mantles and veils, while the Dominican nuns wear white, with black mantles and veils. The Dominican order is now flourishing only in Spain, Portugal, Sicily and America: they have hopes of a revival in Italy. The good Las Casas (q. v.) belonged to this order. Dominique le Pere, harlequin of the Italian theatre (properly, Gius. Dominico Biancolelli), born at Bologna, in 1640, was invited, in 1660, to Paris, by cardinal Mazarin, where he jilayed the harlequin with the greatest applause, till his death, in 1688. The French comedians wished to prevent the Italians from bringing French jiieces on their stage, and Louis XIV gave both parties an audience. Baron and Dominique were ordered to apjiear as their deputies. The former having spoken, in the name ofthe French, it Avas. Dominique's turn to plead his cause; and he asked the king how he should speak. "Speak as you please," answered the king. " That is all I want," rejoined the harlequin; "1 have Avon." The king received this saUy with a laugh, and from that time the Italian theatre represented French pieces Avithout oppo- sition. Domino ; formerly a dress worn by priests, in the winter, which, reaching no lower than the shoulders, served to pro- tect the face and head from the weather. At present it is a masquerade dress, worn 280 DOMINO—DONATISTS. by gentlemen and ladies, consisting of a long silk mantie, Avith a cap and wide sleeves. 1)omitian, Titus Flavrus Sabinus, son of Vespasian, and brother of Titus, bom A. D. 51, made himself odious, even in youth, by his indolence and voluptuous- ness, by his cruel, malignant and suspi- cious temper, and Rome trembled when, on his brother's death, he obtained the diadem (A. D. 81). At first, indeed, he deceived the people by acts of kind- ness, good laws and a show of justice, so that their fears vanished ; but he soon returned to Iris former excesses and cruel- ty. He first caused his kinsman, Flavius Sabinus, to be put to death, though en- tirely innocent. No less vain than cruel, while his general, Agricola, was A'ictorious over the Caledonians, in Britain, he made a ridiculous expedition against the Catti, returned speedily to Rome, Avithout having effected any thing, and canied a multi- tude of slaves, dressed like Germans, in triumph to die city. Agricola's victories exciting his jealousy, he recalled that general to Rome, and kept him in total inactivity. At the same time, he spread ten<>r through Rome by the execution of a great number of the first citizens. He gave himself up to every excess, and to die meanest avarice. He at last conceived the mad idea of arrogating divine honors to himself, assumed the tides of Lord and God, and claimed to be a son of Minerva. His principal amusement consisted in the shows of the circus. In the year 86, the bloody war with the Dacians began, which was carried on with various suc- cess, and terminated (A. D. 90) by a peace bought by the jiromise of paying a certain tribute. Notwithstanding this, Domitian celebrated a grand triumph on the occasion. The misery of the people was, meanwhile, continually increasing; and, after the revival of the law against high treason, no one was secure of his property or his Ufe. The tyrant once made a feast, on purpose to terrify the senators and knights. They were assem- bled in a dark hall, in Avhich Avere coffins, with the names of the individuals invited inscribed upon them; suddenly the doors opened, and a troop of naked men, paint- ed black, with drawn swords and blazing torches, rushed in, and danced about the guests, until the emperor had sufficiently enjoyed their tenor, when he dismissed tlie supposed executioners. The fears of the tyrant increased his cruelty. A paper fed into the hands of his wife, the infa- mous Domitia, in which she found her own name, and those of the two com* manders of the pretorian guard'*, noted down by the emperor, with many others, to be sacrificed. This discovery induced her to conspire against him, and to mur- der him in his chamber, A. D. (^6- He had reigned 15 years, and was 45 years old. Domitian built die most magnificent temple in Rome. Domremy la Pucelle ; the birth-place of Joan of Arc (q. v.): a small village in the department of the Vosges, in France, not far from Vaucouleurs, in the depart- ment of the Meuse, in a fruitful region. The house is still shown here in which the heroine was born. In the neighbor- hood is the monument erected to her memory by the prefect of the department of the Vosges, with her marble bust, Avhich Avas solemnly consecrated, Sept 10, 1820. A free school is established there, for the instruction of girls. (Sec the description, in the Hist, abregie de la Vie et des Exploits de Jeanne d'Arc, par Jollois (with engravings, 1821, folio). Don, the Tanais of the ancients, a river of European Russia, rising in the small lake of Ivan Ozero, in the government of Toula, has a course of about 880 miles, generally from north to south, jiasses Azoph, and falls into the sea, two leagues below this place. Many large rivers cmjity into the Don, and its valley is one of the most extensive in Europe. A canal, dug by Peter the Great, in 1707, connects the Volga and the Don, by the help of intermediate rivers. It is intended to dig another canal between the Don and Volga, which, in the 49th parallel of lat- itude, are distant from each other 33 leagues only; and thus a communication would be easy between the sea of Azoph and the Casjiian. (For information re- specting the Cossacks of the Don, see the article Cossacks.) Don (Spanish, from the Latin dominus). In Naples, however, the Spanish fashion of giving every gentleman the title of don became common during the time when that country Avas under the govern- ment of Spain. In the north of Italy, it is given only to ecclesiastics. Donatists ; the followers of Donatns, a Numidian bishop, who, Avith his friends, refusing, in 311, in a contested election of a bishop, to recognise the Traditors (i. e. the ecclesiastics who had given up the sacred books to the heathen magis- trates, during the periods of persecution) as eligible to office in the church, quitted the Roman church, with his friends, and founded a peculiar sect, which refused to DONATISTS—DOPPELMAYR. 281 receive Christians of other sects, without a second baptism. These schismatics prevailed in the Christian provinces of northern Africa, and, in &30, numbered 172 bishojis of their jiersuasion. Their strictness was increased by tlie adoption of the Novatian principle of excommuni- cating apostates, or gross offenders, and declaring the most perfect blamelessness of life and doctrine essential to the mem- bers ofthe true church—a principle after- Avards adopted by the Catholics. The Donatists made themselves formidable, when swarms of fanatical peasants, in- flamed by their doctrines, in 348, under the name of Circumcelliones, attacked the imperial army, sent to convert them by force, and, in Mauritania and Numidia, for 13 years after, desolated the land with pillage and murder. Martyrdom Avas eagerly sought by them, and they A'olun- tarily gaA-e themselves up to the Catholics, to be executed. This sect, Avhich flour- ished in the fourth and fifth centuries, Avas finally extinguished when the coun- try was conquered by the Saracens. Donatus, ^Elius; a Roman gramma- rian and commentator (e. g., on Terence), who lived in the 4th century. He wrote an elementary work on the Latin language (De odo Partibus Orationis), which sei-ved as a guide to the learning of Latin in the middle ages. It was not till a recent pe- riod that it was sujierseded by more judi- cious grammars. It was one of the first books printed by Guttenberg. Donad. (See Danube.) Don gratuit ; a free gift, bestowed by the subject on the sovereign, in extraordi- nary cases, especially in countries where the prince can levy no new tax Avithout the consent of the estates. For example, the ancient French provinces, in which the representation of the estates existed, viz., Burgundy, Provence, Languedoc, Britta- n v, Artois, and the kingdom of Navane, granted the king a tax as a don gratuit. This used to be the case, formerly, in the Austrian Netherlands, and in the German ecclesiastical principalities having similar rejnesentative governments. Donjon, in fortification, signifies a strong tower or redoubt, in old fortresses, whither the ganison could retreat in case of neces- sity. Donne, John, D. D., a celebrated poet and divine, was the son of a merchant of London, in which city he was bom in 1573. He studied both at Oxford and Cambridge, and was dien entered at Lin- coln's Inn. His parents were Catholics; but, in his 19th year, he abjured the Cath- olic reUgion, and became secretary to tbe lord chancellor Ellesmere. Hocontinued in that capacity five years; but finally lost his office by a-clandestine marriage with his jiatron's niece. The young couple were, in consequence, reduced to great distress. At length, his father-in-law re- lented so far as to give his daughter a moderate portion; and they were lodged in the house of sir Robert Dnuy, in Lon- don, Avhom Donne accompanied in his embassy to Paris. On his return, he com- plied with James's wish, by taking orders, and was soon after made one of his chaplains. He immediately received four- teen offers of benefices from persons of rank, but preferred settiing in London, and was made preacher of Lincoln's Inn. In 1(519, he accompanied the earl of Don- caster in his embassy to the German princes. He was chosen prolocutor to the convocation in 162:3—4 ; and, in con- sequence of a dangerous illness, soon after wrote a religious work, entitled Devotions upon emergent Occasions. He died in March, 1631, and Avas interred in St Paul's. As a jioet, and the precursor of Cowley, Donne may be deemed the founder of what doctor Johnson calls the mdaphyrical class of poets : abounding in thought, this school generally neglected versification, and that of doctor Donne Avas peculiarly harsh and unmusical. He wrote Latin verse Avith much elegance, of which a col- lection was published in 1633. Of his prose Avorks, one ofthe most remarkable is that entitled Biuthanatos, to prove that suicide is not necessarily sinful, which he never published himself, but which found its way to the press after his death. His style is quaint and pedantic; but he dis- jilays sound learning, deep thinking, and originality of manner. Besides die works already mentioned, he wrote the Pseudo Martyr (4to., 1610), Letters, Sermons, Es- says on Divinity, and other pieces. Donner, George Raphael; a sculptor, bom in Lower Austria, 1680. He was, at first, a goldsmith. He received his ear- liest instructions in art from John Giuliani, a sculptor of the neighborhood, and, from 1726, devoted himself entirely to sculp- ture. Donner's works, in many Austrian churches and palaces, are masterpieces. The beautiful statues, which form one of the finest ornaments of the fountain in the new market-place at Vienna, and the statue of Charles VI, at Breitenfiirt, are particu- larly admired. He died at Vienna, Feb. 16,1741. Don Qcixote. (See Cervantes.) Doppelmayr, John Gabriel; a mathe- 282 DOPPELMAYR—DORIC. matician, bom in 1671, at Nuremberg. He travelled dirough Holland and Eng- %ud, and received a mathematical profes- sorship at Nuremberg, which he held 46 years. He pubUshed mathematical, geo- grajrirical and astronomical works, among which his celestial atlas has spread his name the farthest (Atlas cadestis, with 30 astronomical tables, Nuremberg, 1743, folio). He gained the esteem of Leibnitz, was received into several learned societies, and died in 1759; or, according to some accounts, in 1750. In Will's Nuremberg Literary Lexicon, there is a catalogue of his works on dialling, experimental physics, astronomy, &c. Doppelmayr's Account of the Nuremberg Mathematicians and Artists (Nuremberg, 1730, folio), is an im- portant work in respect to literary history. It contains interesting notices of the geo- grajilrical discoveries of Martin Behaim. (See Behaim.) Dorat, Claude Joseph; a poet, bom in 1734, at Paris. He renounced the study of law, and afterwards the military ser- vice, into which he had entered as a mus- keteer, and devoted himself entirely to poetiy. Among his earlier Avorks are his tragedies and heroides. Though the lat- ter were received with much applause, he was Utde fitted for this sort of jioetry. His dramatical works were unsuccessful. He has succeeded better in songs, tales and jioetical ejiistles, and in these depart- ments he is still in high estimation. Ow- ing to his vanity in causing his works to be pubUshed Avith the greatest splendor, he wasted a considerable part of his property. He died at Paris, April 24, 1780. His works appeared at Paris com- plete in 20 vols. His (Euvres choisies were published in 1786, 3 vols., 12mo. For several years he was editor of the Journal des Dames. Doree. (See Dory.) Dorf ; a very common syllable at the end of German names, signifying village; as, Altdorf, Diissddorf. Doria; one of the oldest and most powerful families of Genoa. The annals of this republic do not reach further back than the year 1100; but, even at this period, we find the Doria family in the highest offices of the state. Four of them were distinguished admirals before the 14th century. The most celebrated of the whole family was Andrew Doria, bom at Oneglia, in 1468. He gained renown when but a youth, by his heroic conduct against the pirates and Corsicans, and, in 1524, Avas made admiral of the French galleys by Francis I. Receiving some offence from the French, he went over to tlie Spanish-Austrian party, and thereby prevented the progress of the French arms in Italy. This great naval hero was the deliverer of his country. Since 1M!>, Genoa had been governed by a chief mag- istrate, called the doge, whose office lasted for life; but the constitution was so dis- ordered, and party spirit so violent, that sometimes the state, sometimes one ofthe parties in it, was compeUed to seek pro- tection from a foreign power, which usu- ally became the oppressor of the whole. Thus Genoa was, at one time, under the yoke of Milan or Austria; at another time, of France. In 1528, France had jiosses- sion of Genoa, when Doria surprised the city, drove out the French without blood- shed, received the title of father and deliv- erer of his country, and established an improved constitution. Only 28 noble families were allowed to be eligible to the highest offices, which were annually filled anew. The doge and his council presided over the affairs of state, and were chosen at the end of every two years. The great Doria, however, failed in remedying the oppressions and evils of aristocracy ; and many of his institutions were changed by a statute, in 1576, on which the future constitution Avas based. Notwithstanding Doria held the office of doge for life, he again entered the naval service of Charles V, contended with brilliant success against the Turks and Corsairs, and died in 1560, at the age of 93. Noble as was the char- acter of this great man, and honored as he was by the Genoese, several conspiracies were yet formed against him, of which that of Fiesco (q. v.) was the most dan- gerous; but they were, suppressed by his address and decision. Doric; belonging to the Dorian race, or of a quality or style common in that race. The Dorians, one of die four great branches of the Greek nation, derive their name from Dorus, the son of Hellen. They dwelt first in Estiseotis, were then driven by the Penhaebi into Macedonia, forced their way into Crete, where the lawgiver Minos sprang from them, built the four Dorian towns (Dorica Tetrapolis) at the foot of mount CEta, between Thes- saly, iEtolia, Locris and Phocis, and sub- sequently, together with the Heraclidse, made a settlement hi the Peloponnesus, where they ruled in Sjiarta. Colonies emigrated from them to Italy, Sicily and Asia Minor. The four chief cities of the Greek race were distinguished from each other by marked peculiarities of dialect, manners and government; and the Dori- DORIC—DORMANT. 283 ans were the reverse of the Ionians. The winter returning to an apparendy inani- Dorie manner always retained the antique mate state: we mean the plants; but this style, and with it something solid and phenomenon is not common in the case grave, but at the same time, hard and of animals. There is, however, a small rough. The Doric dialect was broad and number of animals, which, besides the rough; die Ionic, delicate and smooth; daily rest that they have in common with yet there vvas something venerable and most other animals, remain, during some dignified in the antique style of the for- months in the year, in an ajiparently life- mer; for which reason it was often made less state ; at least, in utter inactivity. use of in solemn odes, e. g., in hymns and Exeejit the hedgehog and the bat, all the in choruses, which belonged to the liturgy mammalia subject to this dormant state, of the Greeks. The Cretan and Sjiartan belong to the class of digitated animals. legislative codes of Minos and Lycurgus They are found not only in cold climates, were much more rigid than the mild but in very warm ones; for instance, the Athenian institutions of Solon. The jerboa in Arabia, and the taurick in Mada- Spartan women wore the light, tucked up gascar. The period of long sleep generally hunting dress, while die Ionian females begins when the food of the animal begins arrayed themselves in long, sweeping gar- to become scarce, and inactivity sjireads ments. Both have been idealized by art- over the vegetable kingdom. Instinct, at ists; the one in Diana and her nymphs, this time, imjiels the animals to seek a safe the other in Pallas Athene and the Ca- place for their period of rest. The bat nephorae. The same contrast appears no hides itself in dark caves, or in walls of less strikingly in their architecture, in the decayed buildings. The hedgehog en- strong, unadorned Doric, and the slender, velopes himself in leaves, and generaUy elegant Ionian columns. (See Orders of conceals himself in fern-brakes. Hatn- Architecture.) In the music of the an- sters and marmots bury themselves in the cients there Avas also a Dorian mode, ground, and the jumpihg-mouse of Can- (See Music.) ada and the U. States encloses itself in a Dorigny; the name of several cele- ball of clay. At the same time, these bratedengravers and jiainters:—1. Michael singular animals roll themselves together Dorigny, born at St. Quentin, in 1618, a in such a way that the extremities are scholar of Simon Vouet, whose Avorks he protected against cold, and the abdominal etched, and whose faults in drawing he intestines, and even the windjiipe, are coin- copied. His style of execution is bold, pressed, so that the circulation of the blood and his management of light and shade is checked. Many of them, especially the good. He died while professor of the gnaAvers, as the hamster and Norway rat academy at Paris, in 1665.—2. His son collect, previously to their period of sleep, Louis, born in 1654, entered the school of considerable stores of food, on Avhich they Lebrun, and made a journey to Italy, jirobably live until sleep overjioAvers them. Avhere he copied the great masters. From Iu this period Ave observe in the animals, Venice he Avent to Verona, where he set- first, a decrease of animal heat, which, tied, and died in 1742.—3. Nicholas, the in the case of some, is diminished 20°, brother of the latter, born in 1657, at Paris, with others, 40° to 50° Fahrenheit ; yet is the most celebrated engraver of the it is always higher than the tempera- three here noticed. He spent 28 years in ture of the atmosphere in the winter Italy, in studying the most illustrious mas- months. If these animals are waked dur- ters", and 8 in engraving die famous cartoons ing winter, they soon recover their natural ofRaphael, at Hampton court, for wlrich he warmth, and this artificial awaking does received the honor of knighthood from not injure them. Secondly, animals in king George I. In 1725, he became a the donnant state breathe much slower member of the academy at Paris, and and more interruptedly than at other times. died in 1746. One of his best engravings, Some will remain even a quarter of an besides his cartoons, is the Transfigura- hour Avithout any respiration; and animals tion, from Raphael, and the Apotheosis in this state seldom breathe more than of St. Petronilla, after Guercino. His once in a minute. Hence they cor- engraving is easy and strong, and the rupt the sunounding air much less work of the needle and die graver happily than if their respiration was free. Of united. course, the heart moves proportionally Doris. (See Nereus.) slow. With the hamster, it only beats 15 Dormant state of animals. We are all times a minute, whilst in a waking state, accustomed to see a large part of creation, it beats 115 times a minute. The irrita- durin» summer, in great activity, and in biUty of the animals is very low; and 284 DORMANT—DORMOUSE. hamsters in this state have been dissected, Avhich only noAv and then gasped for air, or, at least, opened die mouth; and on which sulphuric acid, put on their intes- tines, had little or no effect Marmots can be aAvakened only by powerful elec- tric shocks. The digestion is also dimin- ished ; the stomach and intestines are usually emjity ; and, even if tlie animals are awakened, they do not manifest symji- toms of appetite, excejit in heated rooms. The causes of the dormant state of ani- mals have generally been sought in a peculiar consunction of the organs. It is true, that the veuis in such animals are usu- ally much wider and larger than in others; hence the arteries can exert compare lively little activity. The great vena cava also not merely opens into the right auricle of the heart, but divides itself into two con- siderable branches; and the thymus gland, Which, in the foetus, is so large, is also very extensive in this species of animals. The immediate cause, however, producing this toqiidity, is mostly, if not entirely, the cold. The animals of this species fall into this sleep in the middle of summer, if they are exjHised to a cold temperature ; on the •other hand, they remain awake during winter, if diey are brought, towards au- tumn, into a warm room. Yet they fall asleep if the heating of the room is discon- tinued for some time. In the case of some of them, confined air produces the sleeji; thus a hamster may be made to sleep veiy easily if it is jiut into a vessel which is buried deep under ground. Among the birds, some of die swallows are subject to a similar sleep. The swift (hirundo apus) is not only found in the crevices of walls, but also in morasses, in a dormant state, during winter; and many have concluded from this that all swallows pass the winter in this state, which is incorrect as they are knoAvn to be birds of passage. Most probably those swalloAvs wlrich have been found in a dormant state, were prevented from emigrating by accident, and became torpid in their retreat through cold. In a similar way, young cuckoos have been found torpid in the Avater, though this state is by no means natural to them. With frogs and other amphibious reptiles, the dormant state is very common. As soon as the temperature of the atmosphere sinks under 50° Fahrenheit, the number of pulsations of the heart, is diminished from 30 to 12 in a minute. If, in this state, food is put into the stomach by force, it remains undigested for a long time. Frogs, serpents and lizards, kept in arti- ficial cold, may remain for years in this Btate: hence they have been sometimes found enclosed in stones, in which diey have been, perhaps, for centuries. The other lower animals, as snails, bisects, &C, are also subject to a similar torpidity. A state of partial torjior takes place in the case of die common liear and the raccoon. The bear begins to be drowsy in Novem- ber, when he is particularly fat, and retires into Iris den, which he has lined with mosx, and where he but rarely awakes in winter. When he does awake, he is ac- customed to lick his paws, wlrich are without hair, and full of small glands; hence the belief that he draAVs his nour- ishment only from diem. The badger also sleeps the greater part ofthe Avintcr. Dormouse (myoxus, Gm. Cuv.); a ge- nus of mammiferous quadnipeds, of the order glires (L.). These little animals, which appear to be intermediate between the squirrels and the mice, inhabit tem- perate and Avarm countries, and subsist entirely on vegetable food. They have not the activity and sprightliuess of the squirrel, but, like that animal, can ascend trees in search of their food, w Irich they carefully store up for their winter con- sumption. This, hoAvever, is not great, as, during the rigor of winter, they retire to their retreats, and, rolling themselves up, fall into a torpid or lethargic state, Avhich lasts, with little intenuption, throughout that gloomy season. Tota mihi donnitur liyems, et pinjruior illo Tempore sum, quo me nil nisi sonuius afit. Mart. Lib. xiii. Ep. 39. Sometimes they experience a short revival, in a Avarm, sunny day, when they take a little food, and then relapse into their for- mer condition. During this torpidity, their natural heat is considerably dimin- ished. They make their nests of grass, moss and dried leaves, about six inches in diameter, and open only from above. The number of young is generally three or four. Their pace is a kind of leaji, in which, it is said, they are assisted by their tails. Like the jerboa, whilst feeding, they sit upright, and cany the food to their mouth with their paws. When they are thirsty, they do not lap, like most other quadrupeds, but dip their fore feet, with the toes bent 'nto the water, and thus carry it to their mouths. They are distin- guished from all the rest of the gnawers, by the Avant of the cacum, and large intestines. They were esteemed a great delicacy by the Romans, who had their gliraria, or places in which they were kept and fattened for the table. DORPAT—DORT. 285 Dorpat, Dorpt (in Esthonian, Tart- Lin) ; a city on the Embach, fonnerly an important commercial place, at present the chief town of the government of Riga (764 houses and 8450 inhabitants), about 175 miles S. W. of St. Peters! lunm ; lat. 58° 23' N. ; lon. 26° 46/ 15" II The transit trade of Dorpat in products of the interior, is stilt considerable, and will be increased when the Alexander canal is finished. The emperor Alexander estab- Ushed here, in 1802, a university for Fin- land, Esthonia, Livonia and Courland. The students (about 400) wear a uniform, and, after finishing their studies, have the rank of a commissioned officer. The library contains 40,000 vols. There are, besides, many scientific institutions. Dor- pat is situated on the road from Peters- burg to Germany. Its environs are agree- able and fertile. Dorsey, John Syng, an eminent physi- cian, was born in Philadelphia, Dec. 23, 1783, and received an excellent classical education, at a school in Philadelphia, of die society of Friends. He here mani- fested the same vivacity of genius, and mild and amiable disposition, for wlrich he was subsequently conspicuous. At the age of 15 years, he applied himself to the study of medicine ; and, in the sjiring of 1802, being then in his 19th year, was graduated doctor in physic, having previ- ously defended an inaugural dissertation On the Powers of the Gastric Liquor as a Solvent of urinary Calculi. This work exhibits some original vieAvs, illustrated by a number of Avell conducted experi- ments. Not long after he received his de- gree, the yellow fever appeared in Phila- deljihia, and prevailed so extensively that an hospital was opened for those sick with this malady, to which he Avas ap- pointed resident physician. He improved this opportunity of investigating the dis- ease, elucidated some of the more intricate parts of its pathology, and aided in the establishment of a better system of prac- tice. At the close of the same season, he visited Europe. He returned home in December, 1804, and entered on the prac- tice of his profession. His reputation, amiable temper, popular manners, and fidelity and attention, soon introduced him to a large share of business. In 1807, he was elected adjunct professor of surgery, and held the office till he succeeded to the chair of materia medica. He delivered two courses of lectures on this subject, when, the chair of anatomy becoming vacant by the death of doctor Wistar, he was raised to tiiat professorship. He opened the session by one of the finest exhibitions of eloquence ever heard within the walls of the university. But, on the evening of the same day, he was attacked with a fever, which in one week closed his existence. He had cultivated every department of medicine assiduously, but for surgery he evinced a decided predilec- tion, and in this made the greatest jiro- ficiency. He was one of the most accom- plished surgeons of this country, equally distinguished for the number, variety and difficulty of his operations, and the skiH and boldness with which they were per- formed. As a teacher of medicine, his merits were great and he was constantly resorted to in cases of emergency in the school. He has been known, in tlie same day, to lecture on surgery and the mate- ria medica, the details of the anatomical structure and the laAvs ofthe animal econ- omy. He contributed many valuable pa- jiers to the journals, and his Elements of Surgery (2 vols., 8vo.) is probably the best work on the subject. It embraces, in a narrow compass, a digest of surgery, with all the recent improvements which it had received in Europe and this country. It has been adopted as a text-book in the university of Edinburgh, and was the first American work on medicine reprinted in Europe. Dort ; a pleasant commercial town in South Holland (18,000 inhabitants, 3900 houses), on the Mervve and Biesbosch, situated on an island, which was formed by the inundation of 1421, Avhen 72 vil- lages and 100,000 persons Avere destroyed. Lat. 51° 48' 54" N. ; lon. 4° 39' 42" E. Its great church is a fine building. Its harbor is spacious, and its commerce in Rhenish wines and lumber (which is brought down in rafts, and exjiorted to Spain, England and Portugal) is imjior- tant Ship-building, the manufacture of salt, bleaching, and the sahnon fisheries, are extensively carried on. Dort has an artillery and engineer school. .It was formerly the residence of the counts of Holland, and is the native jilace of De Witt (q. v.), John Gerhard Vosshis, the painter Varestag, and other distinguished persons. In 1618 and 1619, the Protes- tants held here the famous synod of Dort, the resolutions of which still constitute the laws of the Dutch reformed church. The synod declared the Anninians heretics, and confirmed the Belgic confession with the Heidelberg catechism. Since the navi- gation ofthe Rhine has not yet been regu- lated according to the promise ofthe con- gress of Vienna, Dort is still in jiossession 286 DORT—DOTATIONS OF NAPOLEON. of its ancient and unjust right of staple. (For a more particular account of die sy- nod of Dort, see Arminians, and Arminius.) Dortmund ; a city on the Ems, in Prossian Westphalia (900 houses and 4500 inhabitants); lat 51° 31' 24" N. ; lon. 52° 2d7 41" E. It was formerly a free, impe- rial and Hanseatic city. In 1803, it Avas bestowed on the prince of Orange; in 1808, Najioleon gave it to the grand-duke of Berg ; in 1815, it was ceded to Prussia. Its archives contain interesting manu- scrijits and documents of the time when the chief tribunal ofthe Vehme (q. v.) was here, Dortrecht. (See Dort.) Dory, or John Dory ; a fish belonging to the genus zeus of Linnaeus, and cele- brated for the delicacy of its flesh. The species is distinguished by having the spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins separated by a deep emargination from the soft-rayed portion, and having the base of all the vertical fins, and the carina of the belly anterior to the anal fin, fur- nished with sjiines or serratures; color, yel- lowish-green, with a blackish spot on each side ; dorsal and anal with furcate spines, and a long filament produced from behind each dorsal spinous ray. Tradition has rendered this fish famous on several ac- counts. First, it is said to derive the mark on each side of its body, from the im- pression of the fore finger and thumb of the apostle Peter. There is a schism among the superstitious in relation to this story, as the haddock also enjoys a similar distinction, it is affirmed, from the same cause. Another fable is, that the impres- sion was produced by the foot of St. Christopher, which, it is fair to say, is equally jirobable. The dory obtains its food very much by stratagem, and its ex- ceedingly protractile jaws enable it to cap- ture small fish, &c, in its vicinity with ease, when lying concealed in the ooze or weeds. Torbay, in England, is distin- guished as the locality from whence the greatest number of these fish is obtained. They are also found on the coasts of France, on the Atlantic shores of Europe, and in die Mediterranean. Dosso Dossi; a painter of Ferrara, much honored by duke Alfonso, and im- mortalized by Ariosto (whose portrait he executed in a masterly manner) in his Or- lando, canto 23. His manner approaches to that of Titian, with whom he painted some apartments in the ducal castle. His paintings there represent bacchanalians, fauns, satyrs and nymphs. In other paint- ings he imitated Raphael. Among eight of Dossi's jiictures in Dresden, the Dispute of the four Fathers of the Church is dis- tinguished as a masterpiece by accurate delineation and pecuUar power of coloring, and is entirely in the style of Titian. His brothers are less celebrated. He Avas bom 1479, and died 1560. Dotations of Napoleon; gifts from the national domains, which Najioleon bestowed on his generals in the conquered countries, as the ancient Lombard kings made grants to their vassals, on the di- vision of the countries which they sub- dued. These gifts, sometimes connected with a title of nobility, formed a sort of fief, and, both in respect to possession and inheritance, had the character of majorats (q. v.); and die donees stood, as such, under the general superintendents of the extraordinary domains, so called, to whom was committed the care of all those por- tions of land, capitals, or other sources of revenue, which the emperor was accus- tomed to reserve to himself (chiefly with a view to making such dotations), in the con- quered countries, and those transferred by him to other princes. It was the duty of the above-mentioned officers of state to see that all avIio had received from the em- peror dotations in foreign countries, should sell their estates, one half within the first 20 years, and the remainder within a second period of the same length ; so that, in the course of 40 years, all these estates AA-ere to be alienated and changed, either into landed or other jiroperty, in France. Deeds of investiture were jirepared for these donees, by the arch-chancellor ofthe kingdom, as president of the conseil du sccau des titres; but within three months after the death of the donee, documents of confirmation must be applied for by the heirs. By this officer, many dotations owned by the same man might be thrown into one mass, or the amount might be augmented out of the other property of the donee, if the dotation alone did not afford income enough to enable it to be raised to a majorat, with the title of knight, baron, count or duke annexed. If the at- torney-general of the council was inform- ed of the extinction of the male line of the descendants of the owner of a majo- rat received wholly or in part from the emperor,' he was obliged to make a re- port of it to the sujierintendent of the extraordinary imperial domains, or of die imperial jirivate domains, according as the estate had been granted from one or the other; upon which the intendant immediately took possession, in order to secure the property to the treasury. A DOTATIONS OF NAPOLEON-DOUGLAS. 287 decree of May 13, 1809, established in countries not belonging to the French imperial states, where the einjieror had raised such grants to majorats, particular officers (agens conservateurs), whose prin- cipal duty was to see that the owners of the majorats managed diem well, and that, if any lapse of such property took place, it should be united again, entirely and without delay, to the Frencli crown. All gifts of this sort so far as they had not been alienated, became null and void on the death of the giver. Douane ; in France, the name given to the custom-houses on the borders.—Doua- niers ; the officers who received the cus- tom-;. During the wars of France with Eng- land (1793—1814), and jiarticularly while the continental system was in operation, the French douaniers were of much po- litical importance. Tliey were divided into bodies of six men each, had a military organization, and Avere well armed. Thus they guarded, in three lines, the bounda- ries of France, against the introduction of all prohibited articles, including not only English produce and manufactures, but also those of nearly all other countries. They likeAvise collected the export duties. Their number, in 1812, was 80,000, and the expense to the French government amounted, in 1809, to 50,000,000 francs. The severity with Avhich the French reve- nue system Avas executed; the interrup- tions it caused to almost all classes, partic- ularly in die conquered provinces, and the arbitrary extortions of the douaniers, ex- asperated the people, especially in the newly acquired jirovinces. In the insur- rections, in 1813, in Germany and Hol- land, against the French, the people at- tacked, in the first instance, the custom- officers and custom-houses, tearing down and burning die latter, in Hamburg and Amsterdam. Double Entente (French). Mots a double entente are words which have two different meanings; entente being, prop- erly, the interpretation given to a word. Double entendre is often used for a phrase which has a covert as weU as an obvious meaning. Doubling a cape is to sail round or pass beyond it, so that the point of land shall separate the ship from her former situation, or lie between her and any dis- tant observer. Doubling upon, in a naval engage- ment ; tlie act of enclosing any part of a hostile fleet between two fires, or of can- nonading it on both sides. It is usually performed by the van or rear of the fleet which is superior in number, taking the ad- vantage ofthe AVind, or of its situation and circumstances, and tacking or running round the1 van or rear of the enemy, who are thereby exjiosed to great dariger. Doubloon ; a Spanish coin of the value of two pistoles. (S^e Coin.) Douglas, Gawin ; an early Scottish poet of- eminence. He was the son of Archibald, earl of Angus, and Avas bom at Brechin, in 1474—5. He received a lib- eral education, commenced at home, and completed at the university of Paris. On returning to Scotland, he took orders in the. church, and was made provost of the church of St. Giles's, at Edinburgh, af- terwards abbot of Aberbrotlrick, and, at length, bishop of Dunkeld. Political commotions, after a time, obliged him to seek a retreat in England, where he was hberally treated by Henry VIII. He died ofthe plague, in London, in 1522, and was intened in the Savoy church. Gawin Douglas translated the jioem of Ovid. De Remedio Amoris ; also, the iEneid of Vir- gil, and the supplementary book of Ma- phaeus, in heroic verse. This work, in the Scottish dialect of the English lan- guage, is executed with great spirit; and, considering the age of the author, with extraordinary elegance of diction, far sur- passing, in that respect, the succeeding productions of Phaer, Swyne, and even of lord Surrey. It was" written about 1512, and is said to have been completed hi 16 months. To each book is prefixed a highly poetical prologue. It was first published in 1553 (London, 4to.); and rejirinted at Edinburgh (1710, folio). Douglas, John, a learned divine and critic, was born in Scotland in 1721. Af- ter some education at a grammar-school in his native country, he Avas sent to the univei-sity of Oxford in 1736, and in 1743 he took the degree of M. A. Soon after, he Avas appointed chajilain to the 3d regi- ment of foot-guards. He Avas afterwards a travelling tutor to lord Pulteney, Avith whom he visited several parts of the con- tinent but quitted him and returned to England in 1749, Avhen his patron, the earl of Bath, presented him with several benefices. His first Uterary production was a letter to the earl of Bath, entitled MUton vindicated from the Charge of Plagiarism, brought against him by Mr. Lauder (1751, 8vo.). (See Lauder, W.) In 1754, he published a tract, entided the Criterion, or a Discourse on Miracles. In 1762, he was made canon of Wimlsor, which benefice he exchanged Avith doctor Barrington for a residentiary canonry of 288 DOUGLAS—DOVER. St Paul's. His next preferment was the deanery of Windsor. In 1777, he Avas employed in jirepariug for the press the journal of cajitain Cook's second A*oyage, to which he jirefixed a Avell-written inUo- rluction, and added notes. He assisted lord HardAvicke in arranging and pub- lishing his Miscellaneous Papers, which appeared the following year. In 1778, he was elected a fellow of the royal and antiquarian societies; and, in 1781, he edited the account of captain Cook's third voyage. In 1787, he was raised to the see of Carlisle, and, in 1792, was made bishop of Salisbury. He died May 18, 1807. Dousa, or Van der Does ; born 1545, at Noordwyk, in Holland; a statesman, philologist historian and poet. He stud- ied at Delft and Louvain, resided some time at Paris, and then Uyed in domestic retirement devoted to Uterary pursuits, till 1572, when he went ambassador to England to obtain the sujijiort of queen Elizabeth for the cause of the Dutch. As chief com- mander, during the siege of Leyden by the Spaniards, he conducted with prudence and unshaken courage, in the midst of the horrors of famine, plague and civil dissen- sions. He kept up an intercourse widi the expected deUverers by means of trained pigeons; and to these faithful messengers he has exjiressed his gratitude in some of bis poems. The stadtholder, William I, compensated the city for its sufferings, by the establishment of the university, of which Dousa was the first curator. His extensive connexions Avith the Uterary men of other countries enabled him to procure for the new institution that most distinguished instructor, Joseph Scaliger. After the assassination of WiUiam I, Dou- sa secretly visited London to seek die pro- tection of queen Elizabeth, for the freedom of his country, of Avhich he was always the faithful defender; and during the period when the government of the earl of Leicester proved oppressive to the Dutch nation (see Dudley), he conducted with prudence and moderation. Domestic misfortunes, particularly the death of his eldest son, Janus Dousa, a youth of great promise, afflicted the last years of his life, and he died 1604. The many works which he left show how true he was to his motto—Dulces ante omnia Musm. His best known work is Bataviai Hollandiaique Annates, extending to 1606, which had been commenced by his son. It was pubUshed both in verse and in prose. Douw, Gerard. (See Dow.) Dove. (See Turtle Dove, and Pigeon.) Dover; a post-town of New Hamp- shire, capital of Strafford count v, 12 miles N. W. by N. Portsmouth, 40 E. Concord, 50 S. W. Portland, 60 N. Boston; lon. 70° 54' W. ; lat 43° 13/ N.; population, in 1820, 2871; in 1826, 4160. It is situ- ated on the west side ofthe Piscataqua, and the Cochecho flows through it. This river has several falls, the largest of which, upwards of 40 feet perpendicular, are at die centre of the town, and afford water- power equal to any in New England. The supply of Avater is abundant, and the river never rises so high as to endanger the buildings on it. These falls are 15 miles from the sea, at the head of tide Avater. Gondolas come up to the nulls, and sloops within a quarter of a mile. Large iron and cotton manufactories have been erected on these falls, and others two miles higher up the river. Dover is one of the most considerable and flourishing towns in the state. It contains a court- house, a jail, a bank, a printing-office, an academy, and three houses of public wor- ship. The greatest part of the timber exported from the state, is brought to this toAvn. Considerable shipping is also OAvned here. Dover is the oldest town in New Hampshire, having been settled in 1623, by Edward and William Hilton. The part first settled is in the south of Dover, an elevated and beautiful neck of land, called by the Indians Winnichahan- nat, and by the first settlers Northam. Dover; a post-town of Delaware, the seat of the government of the state, in the county of Kent on Jones's creek, 7 miles above its entrance into Delaware bay; 36 S. Newcastle; lon. 75° 'S& W. ; lat 39° 10* N. It contains a handsome State- house, a jail, an academy, a bank, &c. The town is well built, chiefly of brick, and careies on a considerable trade with Philadeljihia in flour. Dover ; a seaport of England, in the county of Kent, situated on a small stream which falls into the harbor. It consists chiefly of three long streets, converging to one point. Dover is defended by a strong and spacious castle, and aU the neighbor- ing heights are fortified. The castle oc- cupies a lofty eminence, steep and rugged toAvards the town and harbor, and jiresents a precipitous cUff, 320 feet higher than the sea. Subterraneous works and case- mates have been added, since the alarm of French invasion, capable of accommo- dating 2000 men. Dover is one of the Cinque ports, and a borough returning two members to parUament, who are elected DOVER—DOWER. 289 by about 2000 voters. The harbor can receive vessels of 400 or 500 tons, and is defended by sttong batteries. It is the principal place of embarkation to France, and steam-packets ply daily to Calais and Boulogne. Population, 10,327; 8 miles from Deal, 72 E. S. E. London; lon. 1° 197 E. ; lat 51° & N. Dov er, Straits of ; the nanow chan- nel between Dover and Calais, which sepa- rates Great Britain from the French coast Britain is supposed by many to have been once a peninsula, the present straits occupying the site of the isthmus, which joined it to Gaul. " The conespondency of strata," says Mr. Pennant in his Arct. Zoology, " on part of the opposite shores of Britain and France, leaves no room to doubt that they were once united. The chalky chffs of Blancnez, between Calais and Boulogne, and those to the westward of Dover, exactly tally: the last are vast and continued, the former short, and the termination ofthe immense bed. Between Bologne and Folkstone (about six miles from the latter) is another memorial of the junction of the two countries—a nar- row submarine hill, called the Rip-raps, about a quarter of a mile broad, and ten mUes long, extending eastward, towards the Goodwin sands. Its materials are boulder-stones, adventitious to many strata. The depth of water on it, in very low spring tides, is only 14 feet. The fisher- men from Folkstone have often touched it with a 15 feet oar; so that it is justly the dread of navigators. Many a tall ship has struck on it, and sunk instantly into 21 fathoms of water." In July, 1782, the Belleisle, of 64 guns, struck and lay on it during three hours; but, by starting her beer and water, got clear off. These cel- ebrated straits are only 21 miles wide, in the narrowest part; from the pier at Dover to that of Calais, 24 miles. It is said that their breadth is diminishing, and that they are two miles narrower than they were in ancient times. An accurate ob- server for fifty years remarks that the in- creased height of water, from a decrease of breadth, has been apparent, even in that space. The depth of the channel, at a medium, in the highest spring tides, is .about 25 fathoms ; the bottom is either coarse sand or rugged sears, which have, for ages unknown, resisted the attrition ofthe currents. Dove-tailing, in carpentry, is the fast- ening boards together, by letting one piece into another, in the form of the tail of a dove. • The dove-tail is the strongest of jointings, because the tenon, or piece of vol. iv. 25 wood which is put into the other, goes widening to the end, so that it cannot be drawn out again. Dow (also written Douw), Gerard; bom at Leyden, 1613, son of a glazier. He studied under Rembrandt, and was distin- ' guished for the exceUence of his coloring and chiaro scuro. He surjiassed his mas- ter in diligence, and nothing can be more finished than his small pieces. They are so delicate that a magnifying glass is ne- cessaiy to see distinctly the work in them. His softest figures are full of life, and he never neglected, in his representations, the almost invisible minutiae of nature. Still, his paintings do not appear artificial nor forced. He is regarded as the inventor of the ingenious mode of painting large pictures on a reduced scale, by covering the original with a frame, including a space divided into small quadrangular parts, by means of threads, and then trans- ferring the parts into an equal number of similar divisions, drawn on the canvass. He made use of the convex mirror, to represent objects on a reduced scale. Dow died in 1680, leaAing a large proper- ty. His works brought high prices, and are still among the dearest of the Dutch school. In 1809, a picture, painted by him for the royal museum of Holland, was sold for 17,000 guilders; and at the auction of Peter de Smith in Amsterdam, in 1810, Dow's pictures brought from 5 to 10,000 guilders. His scholars, Metzii, Schalken and Mieris, are worthy of their master. Dower is the portion Avhich a widow has in the lands of her husband, after his decease, by the operation of law, and without any special provision, by will or maniage settlement There are three species of dower enumerated in the books ofthe common law, which are noAV obso- lete. A fourth kind of dOAver, in Eng- land, includes several sorts. It is dower by custom, as distinguished from dower at common law. In some particular manors and districts in England, the widow is endowed, not according to common right, but according to the practice or custom in that particular district or manor; as of half her husband's lands, by the custom of gavd-kind, or ofthe whole of them, for her Ufe, where she is entitled to her free bench. But the genera] kind of dower, or that by the common law, is the third part, for Ufe, of the lands or tenements whereof the husband was seized, in fee simple or fee toil, during the time of tlie marriage. If the parties have been divorced from 290 DOWER. the bonds of marriage, the woman is not entitled to dower. But if the divorce be from bed and board only, her dower is not barred. The common law of England and the U. States respects the laws of other countries, so that a marriage, vaUd where it is contracted, is considered as valid by die common law, and entitles the wife to dower, in die countries just named. The wife of an idiot is not en- tided to dower, because the marriage was not valid, from the want of the power of consent in the husband. By the ancient EngUsh law, the wife of a traitor was not entitled to doAver. Some say the reason was, that the wife Avas presumed to be privy to the treason; others say, that it was in- tended to secure the loyalty ofthe subject, by an appeal to his affection for his wife and children. The statute of 1 Edward VI, c. 12, abated the rigor ofthe law, and allowed the widow of a traitor dower; a subsequent statute, hoAvever, passed five or six years afterwards, restored the old law in respect to most kinds of treason. According to an opinion, supported by very respectable authorities, the death of the husband is not necessary, in all cases, to entitle the wife to doAver; as, if he is outlawed, ban- ished, or transported for life, she is, ac- cording to this opinion, entitled to dower. So, in New York, the wife is endowed, if the husband is condemned to imprison- ment for Ufe. In one of Mr. Hargrave's notes to Coke's Littleton, it is said that an act of parliament of 8 Henry V, jirovides, that where an Englishman marries a foreigner, "by license of the king," she shall be endowed; and statutes of many of the U. States contain a similar pro- vision, aUoAAdng to alien Avidovvs, who have resided in die U. States, the same rights of dower as if they had been bom in the country. A seizin (q. v.) in law, no less than a seizin with actual posses- sion, entitles the widow to dower. But if the husband is only seized for an in- stant, and the same transaction which gives him the fee passes it to another, the wife does not thereby gain the right of dower. This right of the wife is an in- sejxarable hicident to an estate in fee or in tail, so that, if such an estate be conveyed upon condition that it shaU not be subject to this right, the condition wiU be void. A woman is not, by the common law, entided to dower in lands held in trust for her husband; and, as a large part of the lands of England are so held, joint- ures were introduced instead, and, as it is usually expressed, in bar of dower. The statutes of some of the U. States, as Pennsylvania, Virginia, Mississippi, pro- vide for the wife's dower in trust estates. In England, the wife is barred of her dower by a jointure, although she may be married under the age of 21, and so within the age requisite to make a vaUd contract to most other purposes. But, after her marriage, her acts are void, as she is then sujijiosed to be under the authority, and subject to the coercion of her husband, and, accordingly, cannot re- lease her right of dower, except by a fine or common recovery, which are acts done in court. (See Fine.) But, in the U. States, although the general nde as to the wife's inability to contract is the same as in England, yet one exception is made, in respect to die right of dower, in all those states which borrow this right from the common law of England; for the wife may, in all those states, release her right of dower, by joining her husband in the conveyance, or by endorsing upon the deed, or subjoining to it, an agreement to that effect; or, in a number of the states, by making a distinct agreement to this effect. But, to satisfy the rule that the wife cannot bind herself by any con- tract made by her during her coverture, and as a substitute for the English fine and common recovery, as far as the right of dower is concerned, the laws of many ofthe states, as Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, Georgia, Alabama, Missouri, Mississippi, Maryland, DelaAvare, Kentucky, and New Jersey, require that the wife shall be ex- amined by a magistrate, separately from her husband, to ascertain whether she signs the deed freely, and without com- pulsion ; and, on her acknowledging that it is a free act on her part, the magistrate certifies accordingly, and her right of dower is released. The rule of the Eng- lish law, as to a married woman's inca- pacity to bind herself, would be exceed- ingly troublesome in the U. States, if applied to her right of dower, by embar- rassing the conveyance of lands; and so the statutes or usages avoid the incon- venience, by this formality of a private examination, which, if the rule be Uterally weU founded, is a very unsatisfactory compliance with it, or excuse for deviating from it; for if the wife be, in fact under the coercion supposed by the rule, she would hardly be liberated from it by merely going into an adjoining room, or into open court; so that if the theory of the laAv were true, she would be com- pelled to make a false declaration, as weU as to lose her dower. But the theory DOWER—DOXOLOGY. 291 of the common law is by no means true: that of the civil law is much more just, namely, that the wife is capable of voU- tion, and of making contracts, as far as her owm rights are concerned ; and so is the rule as to the conveyance of real estate in some of the U. States; for in Maine, New Hampshire and Massachu- setts, although, in general, the law sup- poses a married woman to have no dis- cretion or liberty as to contracting about other things, yet it aUows her to release her dower in her husband's lands, and to convey those which she holds in her own right by merely joining in the deed with the husband, and without any private ex- amination as to her being under compul- sion. In other states, the difficulty is avoided by altering the law of dower, and giving it only in the lands of Avhich the husband " dies seized." This is the law of Vermont Connecticut, N. Carolina, S. Carolina and .Tennessee. The civil law being the common law of Louisiana, the wife is there a partner ofthe husband, and, accordingly, instead of being entitled to dower, she is, on the dissolution of the cojiartnership, by his decease, entitled to her share of the joint stock. The laws of the other U. States, generally, agree with the English in giving the wife, for dower, a Ufe estate in one third part of the lands and tenements of which the husband was seized, in fee simple or fee tail, during the coverture, or, in some of the states, as before mentioned, at the time of his decease. In some states, as Alabama and Tennessee, the widow has the right to occupy the principal man- sion-house of her husband during her life, unless, in the opinion of the court, this would be too great a share; and much discretion appears to be given to the court in judging whether this is an ex- cessive proportion of the husband's estate. As to the particular modes of proceeding in assigning or setting off the widow's dower, in England and the different U. States, it would too much extend this ar- ticle to go into the detail of them. Be- sides dower, the widow is generally en- titled to a greater or smaller portion of her husband's personal property, not, as in case of the dower, merely to receive the income of it for her life, but she has it absolutely. The laws of some of the U. States provide, that lands sold by the sheriff to pay the debts of the husband, shall be discharged of the wife's dower; in others, it is set off to the creditor, or sold under a judgment obtained by him, subject to this right, and is, accordingly, set off" at a lower appraisement, or sold at a lower price. Downing Street, Westminster, Lon- don ; a street from which many important state pajiers are dated, because here are the offices of the ministers of the foreign and home departments. Business with foreign ministers is generally ttansacted in Downing street. The two offices are not far from Westminster abbey and St Stephen's, where parUament assembles. Downs ; banks or elevations of sand, which the sea gathers and forms along its shores, and which serve it as a barrier. The term is also applied to large tracts of naked, poor land, on which sheep usually graze. Downs ; a celebrated road for ships, extending six miles along the east coast of Kent, in England, between North and South Foreland, where both the outward and homeward bound ships frequently make some stay, and squadrons of men- of-war rendezvous in time of war. It affords excellent anchorage, and is de- fended by the castles of Deal, Dover and Sandwich, as well as by Goodwin sands. Doxology (from &>|a, praise, glory, and Xoyoj, the word). This name is given to hymns in praise of the Almighty, distin- guished by the title of greater and lesser. Both die doxologies have a place in the church of England, the former being re- peated after every psalm, and the latter used in the communion service. Doxol- ogy the greater, or the angelic hymn, was of great note in the ancient church. It began with the words which the angels sung at our Savior's birth, " Glory be to God on high," &c. It was chiefly used in the communion service, and in jirivate devotions. Doxology the lesser was an- ciently only a single sentence, without response, in these words—"Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, world Avithout end; amen." Part ofthe latter clause, "as it was in the beginning, is noAV, and ever shall be," Avas inserted some time after the first compo- sition. Some read this ancient hymn, " Glory be to the Father, and to the Son, with the Holy Ghost"; others, " Glory be to the Father, in or by the Son, and by the Holy Ghost." This difference of ex- pression occasioned no disputes in the church, till the followers of Arius began to make use ofthe latter as a distinguishing characteristic of their party, when it was entirely laid aside by the Catholics, and the use of it was sufficient to bring any one under suspicion of heterodoxy. The doxology was used at the close of every 292 DOXOLOGY—DRACUNCULI. solemn office. The Western church re- peated it at the end of every psalm. Many of the prayers Avere also concluded with it, particularly the solemn thanksgiv- ing or consecration prayer, at the celebra- tion of the eucharist. It was also the or- dinary conclusion ofthe sermons. Doyen, Gabriel Francois, born at Paris, in 1726, a pupil of the painter Vanloo. At the age of 20, he gained the first prize for painting. He went to Rome, in 1748, where the works of those painters, who were distinguished for boldness of design and strength of expression, as Annibal Carracci, Pietro di Cortona, Giulio Roma- no, PoUdore, and Michael Angelo, were the particular objects of his study and en- thusiastic emulation. After his return to Paris, he remained a long time without employment, occupied solely with his art He spent tAVO years in the execution of his Virginia, which procured him admis- sion into the academy of painting, in 1758. The picture La Peste des Ardents, for the church of St. Roch, increased his reputation. To give his works more truth, he visited the hospitals, and studied the expression and appearances of the sick and dying. He executed several works for the court. In the beginning of the revolution, Catharine II invited him to Russia, gave him a pension of 1200 rubles, with a residence in one of the palaces, and appointed him professor in the acad- emy of painting at Petersburg. After the death of the empress, Paul II con- tinued to treat him Avith equal favor. He painted much for the imperial palaces, and died at Petersburg, June 5, 1806. Drachm (ipa-xjth), the unit of weight and of money among the ancient Greeks, both as a weight and a coin, contained six oboU (&fio\oi), and was itself the 100th part of a mina (pva), and the 6000th part of a talent (rdXavrov). 1. According to the cal- culations of Wurm (De Pond. Nummorum- que rat., Stuttgard, 1821), the Aveight of the Attic drachm is 67.383 grains English Troy weight, and the Attic talent 70 lbs. 6£ oz. The calculation of M. Letronne differs slightly from this. There were several other kinds of drachm and talent in use: those of ^Egina were the heaviest, the ^Eginetic talent being equal to 1,0000 Attic drachms; the Euboic talent was nearly the same as the Attic; the Rhodian and Egyptian talents were each about one third of the Attic. Whenever no particular kind is designated, the Attic talent is meant. 2. The principal Gre- cian coin was the drachm: it was of sil- ver : it was divided, like the weight, into six oboli (silver). The tetradrachm (of four drachms) Avas called die stater. These coins differed much in value in different countries in Greece, and in different ages in the same country. The Attic drachm and stater occur most frequently. Those coined previous to the time of Pericles were worth about 17.05 cents, the talents (silver), of course, $1023; the value of the later drachms (during the two centu- ries before and after the Christian era), was 15.20 cents; ofthe talents, £912.50. The stater, in the former period, Avas worth 68.2 cents; in the latter, 60.8 cents. Besides these silver coins, there were also the stater of gold, equal in value to 20 drachms, and the talent of gold, which was used sometimes to designate a quan- tity of gold equal in value, sometimes a quantity of gold equal in weight, to the silver talent. It sometimes, also, desig- nates a gold coin, weighing six drachms. In the time of Solon, a sheep could be bought for one drachm, an ox for five. In the time of Demosthenes, a fat ox cost 80 drachms, a lamb, 10. Draco ; an archon and legislator of Athens, about 600 B. C, celebrated for the extraordinary severity of his laAvs. The slightest offence, such as stealing fruit, and even idleness, he punished with death, no less than sacrilege, murder or treason. Hence his laws Avere said to be written in blood. Nothing was more natu- ral than that this rigor should render them odious, and prevent their execution, espe- cially as the people became more civiUzed and refined. Solon Avas therefore com- missioned to compose a new code. (See Attica.) Tradition relates that Draco, on his appearance in the theatre at ^Egina, where he is said to have carried his laws, was suffocated amidst the apjilauscs of the people, avIio, according to their custom, threw their garments and caps upon him. He Avas buried under the theatre. Dracu.nculi, in medicine; small, long Avorms, Avhich breed in the muscular parts of the arms and legs, called Guinea- worms, common among the natives of Guinea. The vv orm is white, round and uniform, resembling white, round tape. It is lodged between the interstices and membranes of the muscles, where it in- sinuates itself, sometimes exceeding five ells in length. It occasions no great pain in the beginning; but, at such times as it is ready to go out, the part adjoining to the extremity of the worm, where it attempts its exit, begins to swell, throb, and become inflamed : this generally happens about the ankle, leg, or thigh, and rarely higher. DRACUNCULI—DRAGON. 293 The countries where this distemper is ob- served are hot and sultry, subject to great droughts, and the inhabitants make use of stagnating and corrupted water, in which it is very jirobable tiiat the ova of these an- imalcule may be contained; for the white people who drink this Avater are liable to the disease as well as the Negroes. Drag ; a machine consisting of a sharp, square frame of iron, encircled with a net, and commonly used to rake the mud off from the platform or bottom of the docks, or to clean rivers. Dragging the Anchor; the act of trailing it along the bottom, after it is loosened from the ground, by the effort ofthe wind or current Dragomvn; an interpreter, employed in the East, and especially at the Turkish court. The dragoman of" tlie Porte, who is in the service of tho court and through whom the sultan receives the communi- cations of the Christian ambassadors, was formerly a Christian, by birth a Greek, and often attained the rank of a prince (hospodar) of Moldavia or Wallachia. Dragon ; 1. One of the northern con- stellations. Fable says that Juno trans- lated to the heavens the dragon which kept the golden apples in the chamber of the Hesperides, and was slain by Hercules. 2. The dragon of fable. The fabulous stories of this monster reach back almost as far as history. His form is described as most terrible, and his residence has been assigned to almost all countries, particularly that part of India and Africa that was formerly unknown. His length is represented from 20 to 70 ells. Of the latter sort was the dragon which lived in India, according to iElian, in the time of Alexander tlie Great, and was venerated as a god. The dragon is de- scribed as having no feet, but as crawUng like a serpent, his body covered Avith scales, and his neck, according to some accounts, adorned with a mane. These relations are almost all contradictory, and agree only in this—that the dragon had veiy acute senses, especially a piercing vision. His strength was so great that he could easily strangle an elephant. His food consisted of the blood and flesh of all sorts of animals, and of various fruits. Notwithstanding his ferocity, however, the dragon might be confined and tamed, Avhich the old authors represent as having happened in various cases. The animal which gave occasion to these fables is probably no other than the great boa constrictor. (See Boa.) The fabled drag- on of the middle ages had four Uons 25* feet a l°ng» thick, serpent's tad, and an immense throat from which streamed flames of fire. This dragon played a distinguished part in the ages of chivalry: he is one of those monsters whom it was the business of the heroes of romance to destroy. The idea of the dragon of the middle ages probably grew out of indis- tinct and exaggerated accounts of the crocodile ofthe Nile, which were brought to Europe , by means of the crusades, and from similar descriptions of the larg- est land serpents. Even at the present day, die existence of dragons is fully be- lieved in by the inhabitants of certain countries. 3. The researches of modem naturalists have served to explode this and many other fictions connected with the history of animals; and, at the present day, the curious inquirer, who seeks for the celebrated dragon, will be disappoint- ed in discovering that the animal to which the name properly belongs, is not an un- tamable and ferocious monster, but an inoffensive lizard, a feAV inches long, for- midable to nodiing but the smaU insects on which it feeds. The love of gain often makes the natives of wann climates gudry of the most ingenious frauds on the credu- Uty of strangers, for whom they prepare, with great art, fictitious animals, which are purchased by the ignorant, as genuine dragons, mermaids, &.c. In this way, ill-informed travellers are led occasionally to revive tlie fable of the existence of the dragon. Two species of dragon- lizard are described by naturalists, but it is most probable that die second is merely a variety ofthe first (D. volans), which is said to inhabit Asia, Africa, and South America. Length, seldom exceeding 12 inches; body lacertiform; sides furnished with pecuUar productions of the skin, supported by internal cartilaginous rays, which, when expanded, enable it to sup- port itself in the air for a few seconds, in springing from branch to branch, among die lofty trees in Avhich it resides; body and wings covered by small scales; back slightly carinate; throat with the skin produced into a pouch-shaped expansion, Avhich is inflated with air, at the pleasure of the animal. The food consists almost exclusively of insects. Color varied with blackish, brown and whitish. The pro- portions of the animal are dehcate, and it is very active. Dried specimens, preserved in the cabinets of the curious, do not give a good idea of the animal, as the process of drying destroys the proportions; and it is also to be regretted that few engraved figures are commendable for their fideUty. 294 DRAGON'S BLOOD—DRAKE. Dragon's Blood ; a resinous juice ob- tained by incision from several different plants, found betAveen the tropics;—from the trunk of the pterocarpus draco, a tree of the natural order leguminosai, growing in the East Indies, which yields Oriental dragon's blood ; fi-om the pterocarpus santalinus, inhabiting tropical America, Avhich affords it in less quantity and more impure; from the calamus draco, a palm of the East Indies, from which it is obtained, accord- ing to Kampfer, by boiling the fruit; from a dalbergia in Guiana, and a croton in South America; from the dracaina draco, the native country of which is not known with certainty, but is sujiposed to be Afri- ca. A single tree of this last species, which was introduced into the Canaries at the time of tlie conquest, acquired enormous dimensions, and has been vis- ited and celebrated by every traveller, but was destroyed by a storm, hi 1822. Drag- on's blood is obtained, in commerce, in three principal forms—in that of oval masses, of the size of a pigeon's egg, en- velojied with leaves of die pandanus ; in cylinders, covered with palm leaves ; and in irregular masses, marked with impres- sions of leaves: that in oval masses is the most esteemed. It is often veiy much adulterated, and other substances are sub- stituted; particularly gum Arabic and gum Senegal, colored with logwood, &c. Sev- eral of these substances may be detected by their dissolving in water, Avhile drag- on's blood is nearly insoluble ; others re- quire to be submitted to some chemical tests. Madagascar furnishes this resin of a good quality, but so much mixed with foreign substances, that it is Uttle used. Dragon's blood is opaque, of a deep red- dish-brown color, brittle, and has a smooth and shining conchoidal fracture; av hen in thin laminae, it is sometimes transparent; when burnt it giyes out an odor somewhat analogous to benzoin; its taste is a Uttle astringent; it is soluble in alcohol, and the solution vriU permanently stain heated marble, for which purpose it is often used, as well as for staining leather and wood. It is also soluble in od, and enters into the composition of a very briUiant var- nish, which is much esteemed by artists. Its quaUty may be proved by making marks on paper: the best leaves a fine red trace, and commands a pretty high price. It was formerly in high repute as a med- icine, but at the present time is very Uttle used. An astringent resin, obtained from the ■eucalyptus rednifera of New Holland, bears the name of dragon's blood in the English settlements in that country. Dragon-Shkli,, in natural history; a name given to a species of concamera- ted patella or limpet. It ha6 a toj) veiy much bent, and is of an ash-color on the outside, but of an elegant and bright flesh- color Avitirin. It has been found sticking to the back of a tortoise, as the common limpets do to the sides of rocks, and some have been affixed to large shells of the pinna marina. Dragoon; a kind of light-horseman, of French origin, trained to fight either in or out of the line, in a body, or singly, chiefly on horseback, but, if necessary, on foot also. The dragoons were mounted, armed and exercised as these objects require. They jirobably took the name of dragoons from the Roman draconarii, Whose lances were adomed with figures of dragons. Experience proving that they did not ansAver the end designed, they were hardly ever used in infantiy serv ice, and now form a useful kind of cavaliy, mounted on horses too heavy for the hussars, and too light for the cuirassiers. —Dragoonades, dragoon-conversions; i. e. conversions which are compelled by force of arms; forced conversions. Louis XIV, for instance, sent dragoons for this pur- pose to the Cevennes, in 1684, to chastise the Huguenots. Drake, sir Francis, a distinguished English navigator, was born at Tavistock, in Devonshire, 1545, and served as a sailor in a coasting-Aessel, which some- times made voyages to France and Ire- land. He gained the favor of his master, who, on his death, left his vessel to him. Sir John Hawkins, one of his relations, then took him under his care, and, at the age of 18, he served as purser of a ship which traded to Biscay. At 20, he made a voyage to the coast of Guinea; at 22, received the command of a ship, and dis- tinguished himself by his valor in the unfortunate expedition of sir John Haw- kins against the Spaniards, in the harbor of Vera Cruz. In this affair, however, he lost aU wlrich he possessed. Hereupon he conceived an inveterate hatred against the Spaniards, and projected new expe- ditions against them. He had no sooner made his plans known in England, than a multitude of adventurers joined him. He now made two cruises to the West Indies, but avoided an engagement with the Spaniards. The result of these voy- ages, hoAvever, Avas so successful, that he received the command of two vessels, in 1572, for the purpose of attacking the commercial ports of Spanish America. One of them was commanded by his DRAKE—DRAMA. 295 brother. He captured the cities of Nom- bre de Dios and Vera Cruz, lying on the eastern coast of the isthmus of Darien, and took a rich booty. After his return, he equipped three frigates at his OAvn ex- pense, with which he served as a volun- teer, in an expedition to Ireland, under the command of the earl of Essex, father of ijueen Elizabeth's favorite. On the death of his protector, he returned to England. Sir Christopher Hatton, vice- chamberlain and privy-counsellor of queen Elizabeth, introduced him to this princess. Drake disclosed to her his jilan, which Avas to pass through the straits of Magel- lan to the South seas, and there to attack die S[laniards. The queen furnished him Avith means for equipping a fleet of five shijis for this purpose. Drake sailed from Plymouth Nov. 13, 1577, and arrived at the straits of Magellan Aug. 20, 1578. Nov. 6, he succeeded in leaving the straits, but was overtaken by a storm the day after, which compelled him to steer to the south. Returning to the extremity of the straits, he called the bay in which he anchored The Parting of Friends, on account of the separation of one of his ships. New storms again drove him to the south. He now found himself be- tween the islands which geograjihers, in later charts, have laid down as 200 leagues west of America. But Fleuiieu has jirov- ed that they belong to those numerous isl- ands, as yet but Uttle known, which com- pose the south-western part of the Archi- pelago of the Terea del Fuego: he has shown, likewise, that Drake then saw cape Horn, and has, therefore, the honor of the discovery. November 20, Drake came in sight of the island of Mocha, south of Chile, where he had appointed a rendezvous for his fleet As none of his vessels arrived, he continued his course to the north, along the coast of Chile and Peru, in search of Spanish ships, and suitable places for making incursions into the country. When his crew was suffi- ciently enriched with booty, he followed the coast of North America, to 48° north latitude, hoping to find a passage into the Atlantic. Deceived in his expectations, and compelled by the cold to return to 38°, he named the place where he re- paired his vessels New Albion, and took possession of it in the name of queen EUzabeth. Sept. 29, 1579, he directed his course to the Moluccas, and anchored at Ternate, Nov. 4. He nanowly escaped being lost near the Celebes. Nov. 3,1580, he arrived at Plymouth; April 4, 1581, EUzabeth herself went on board Drake's vessel, then at anchor at Deptford, dined with him, knighted him, and approved of what he had done. In 1585, Drake dis- turbed the Spaniards anew in the Cape Verd islands, and in the West Indies. In 1587, he commanded a fleet of 30 sail, which burned a part of the celebrated armada in the harbor of Cadiz, and, m 1588, commanded, as vice-admiral, under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the conflict with the Spanish armada. A rich galleon sunendered to him at the mere sound of his name, and he distin- guished himself in the pursuit of the en- emy. In 1589, he commanded the fleet intendetl to restore don Antonio to the throne of Portugal. But this enterprise failed on account of a misunderstanding between Drake and the general of the land forces. The war Avith Spain still continued. Drake and Hawkins proposed to Elizabeth a new expedition against the Spaniards in the West Indies, Avhich should surpass all tiiat had preceded it. They were willing to bear a part of the exjiense, and the queen furnished ships. The exjiedition, however, was unfortu- nate. Nov. 12, 1595, the day of sir John Hawkins's death, Drake's vessel, in sailing from the port of Porto Rico, was struck by a cannon-ball, which carried away the chair in which he sat, without doing him any injury. The next day, the Spanish vessels Avere attacked before Porto Rico with great violence, but Avithout success. He then sailed to the continent, and set fire to Rio de la Hacha and Nombre de Dios; but, having undertake!, an expedi- tion against Panama, some days after, which entirely failed, the disappointment threw him into a sIoav fever, wlrich ter- minated his life, Dec. 30, 1596,0. S. (Jan. 9, 1597). Among the honorable uses of his wealth must be mentioned his pro- viding Plymouth with water, which he brought from the distance of 20 miles. To him Europe is indebted for the intro- duction ofthe potato. (See The famous Voyage of Sir Francis Drake into the South Sea, and hence about the whole Globe ofthe Earth, London 1600, 12mo., edited by Francis Pretty, who served under Drake.) Drama (the Greek Spapa, from Spda, I act); a class of writings in which the author does not appear as such, either reasoning or relating, but persons are represented as acting and speaking, and the course of the story and the feelings of the parties are to be gathered from what they say. In epic poetry, the per- sons of the poem are also often introduced speaking, but description is the prevailing 296 DRAMA. characteristic ofthe epopee, whilst in the drama, every thing is represented as actu- ally happening. The drama, dierefore, represents action and its motives directly, not in the way of description. Taking the word in its most general sense, we also caU an epic poem or a novel dra- matic, when a quick succession of inter- esting events is rapidly developed; when, in a word, action prevails over descrip- tion or reasoning. The French, however, designate by drame only something inter- mediate between tragedy and comedy. The origin of the drama must be sought for in that powerful agent in human nature —the love of imitation. The rude war- dance of a savage tribe is a beginning of the drama, because it rejiresents an ac- tion for the entertainment of tlie spectators or performers, and the dance is found among all early religious rites. (See Dance.) So dramatic performances, that is to say, imitative representations of im- portant events, in religious history, are found among the rites or reUgious ser- vices of all nations in their early period. With many they are always preserved; as tlie Catholics, both Greek and Roman, to diis day, at the celebration of their various festivals, bring forward exhibitions, which rejiresent with more or less accuracy, the chief particulars of that event which is to be commemorated. These religious per- formances are connected with or give rise to the symbolical performances in the different rites. Thus the Catholic priest, by moving from one end of the altar to the other, while reading mass, indicates the flight of Joseph and Mary to Egypt The elements of the dramatic art, as has already been said, are found among all na- tions ; and every people, wlrich has made progress in civUization, has, at die same time, developed this art The Chinese and the Indians have their dramatic per- formances ; but the Europeans are indebt- ed for the drama, as for so many other productions of civiUzation, to the Greeks. From them it passed to the Romans, whose acquisitions in civilization were in part preserved, and in part revived by the Italians, though the latter never cultivated this species of poetry, at least the tragic branch of it so much as die epic and lyric. The gifted Maclriavelli, inspired by the productions of the ancients, may be said to have commenced a new era of the drama, though the art had been in some measure cultivated by the Italians before his time. But the dramatic genius who has surpassed aU ancient and modem writers, in universality of conception and knowledge of human nature, appeared among the EngUsh. The drama began with action; that is to say, with panto- mimic dances. No art, useful or orna- mental, is, in its origin, clearly defined. The dramatic art, in its origin among the Greeks, was by no means so distinctly separated from epic and lyric poetry as we find it at a later period. The Greek comedy commenced about 580 B. C, with Susarion, the contemporary of Thespis, who travelled from place to place, holding uji to ridicule, on a small movable stage, the follies and vices of his age. The old comedy of the Greeks consisted of dra- matic-epic songs connected with dancing, by which traA-elling actors entertained the people ; hence the name comedy (Kwp.eplia), signifying, originally,' village-song. The contents of these songs were mirthful, ludicrous, often indecent. By degrees, tragedy became a distinct branch of the art, and its graver scenes served as an en- tertainment for the inhabitants ofthe cities, whilst the comedy retained its gay charac- ter, and chiefly served to amuse the coun- try people of Attica. Regular companies of comedians were at length established at Athens, where they were only tolerated by the goveniment A chief) a dancing and singing chorus, together Avith several actors, appeared on a convenient stage. Epicharmus, about 485 B. C, introduced unity of action, and modeled his come- dies after the tragedies. His comedies Avere pojiular in Greece, and among his folloAvcrsare distinguished Phormes, Mag- ues, Crates, Cratinus, Eupolis, Pherecia- .'" tes and Aristojihanes. With all these, personal satire Avas the chief object and magistrates, as well as private persons,were called by name and exhibited on the stage. The old comedy of the Greeks was thor- oughly national, with somewhat of a polit- ical tendency. It was in vain jirolribited by laws and decrees of the jicojile. At the end of the Peloponnesian war, comedy received a new character and form. The middle comedy,so called,now began. The new oligarchy deprived the people of the privilege of ridiculing the measures of government It was strictly prohibited to bring Uving persons by name on the stage, and the chorus, till then the chief instrument of vituperation, was aboUshed ; Avhilst with the representations of gen- eral characters, conesponding masks Avere introduced, instead of those imitating the countenances of particular individuals. Even Aristophanes was obliged to submit to these regulations in his last produc- tions, and thus comparative decorum was DRAMA. 297 introduced into the representations. The subjects of comedy continued to be taken From mythology and history ; but the de- scriptions of the ridiculous were more general than formerly, when they were often entirely individual. The chorus rarely appeared. To the new comedy of the Greeks belongs Menander, about 300 B. C, who, by the keenness of his wit, and the regularity of his pieces, began a new period of the Greek comedy. Of him and Philemon fragments only have come down to us. (For a particular ac- count of the character of the Greek com- edy, as distinguished from the tragedy, we refer the reader to the excellent Lec- tures on Dramatic Literature, by A. W. Schlegel.) Tragedy consisted, originally, of lyric and epic songs, sung in honor of Bacchus, at the festival of the vintage. The traces of its origin are lost. (See Greek Literature.) Tlie invention of tra- gedy is generally ascribed to Thespis (q. v.), who was followed by Phrynichus. The true creator of the tragedy was JEs- chylus (q. v.); Thespis had only one actor, who from time to time relieved the chorus by declamation. iEschylus changed this representation into real ac- tion, by making use of two, sometimes three or four actors, and inventing the dialogue. Being assisted by the liberality of the government, he increased the num- ber of his actors, who now became the principal object of interest with the spec- tators: the chorus, on the other hand, became less prominent; its songs were shortened, though they still remained very long, and were always written hi a tone of the highest lyrical elevation, which sometimes appears even in the dialogue. iEschylus aimed more at sublimity than beauty. There are many traces of rude- ness in his jilays, yet they are Avonderfully grand. The action is simple in the ex- treme. The chorus no longer chants songs which have no connexion with the play, but it forms a part of one whole, is the adviser of kings, the confidant of the persons ofthe action, the comforter ofthe unhapjiy, the tenor of tyrants. Instead of wine lees, with which the actors of Thesjiis had besmeared their faces, JEs- chylus introduced masks; and, by means of a long gOAvn and the cothurnus (q. v.), tlie loftv stature ofthe heroes was imi- tated. The accommodations for the spec- tators were improved, and machinery and scenery were introduced. iEschylus gen- erally instructed his actors himself, in the declamation of his pieces. Sophocles (q. v.) followed him, and showed himself a master ofthe tragic art: he knew better than his predecessor how to excite com- passion, and to move the human heart Euripides (q. v.) was superior to both in this respect but he is not so happy in the plan and execution of his plays. These three great poets carried die Greek tragedy to its perfection. Many poets foUowed them, but only the three just named have left works which have come down to us. (See Bockh Ueber die griech- ischen TragUcer—On the Greek Tragedi- ans.) The Romans, a practical nation, and not possessing that keen sense of beauty which we find in ancient Greece, never accompUshed much in this branch. The earliest specimens of the drama in Italy were the Fabulai Atdlanai, so called from Atella, a city of the Oscians, whence the performers in these entertainments came to Rome. Plautus and Terence were imitators of the new Greek comedy. Of the Roman tragedy, the dramas which go under the name of Seneca are the only specimens extant. (See Seneca, and En- nius.) When the enormous accumulation of wealth in Rome, and the total depravity of morals, had conupted almost every thing Avhich ancient Rome and Greece had produced, the theatre became Uttle better than a show-place, where spectacles were exhibited, rather than plays per- formed. In the beginning of the middle ages, when every thing noble Avas buried under the deluge of barbarism, the dra- matic art was lost, or existed only among the lowest classes of the peojile, in jilays improvisated at certain festivals, for in- stance, the carnival. These Avere attacked as heathenish, immoral, and indecent ex- hibitions ; but the favor which they en- joyed among the people, and the sjiirit of the times, induced the clergy to encourage theatrical exhibitions of subjects from sacred history. These were called mys- teries (q. v.), and, in all the southern coun- tries of Europe, as well as in Germany and England, preceded the rise of the national drama. (See Ancient Mysteries, especially the English Miracle-Plays, by William Hone, London, 1823.) Of this kind were the ridiculous Festa Arinaria, in which mass was read by persons dressed like asses, and every means taken to divert the people in churches, on die occunence of the festival of Easter. So pojndar were these extravagances, that even the decrees of popes against them were for a long time of little avail. With Albertino Mussati (bom 1260) a better kind of drama arose. He wrote some tragedies, and the drama, in Italy, was divided into the eru- 298 DRAMA. dita and the commedia delT arte, which last is supjiosed to be derived from the an- cient Fabidai Atellanoz and thenuW. Car- dinal Bibbiena wrote the first genuine Ital- ian comedy—the Calandria—an account of which would startle the reader, who should be told that it was performed for the amusement of the holy fathers of the church, and the principal clergy, in the presence of the ladies of the court. Ari- osto and MachiaveUi Avrote dramas ; and of the Mandragola of the latter, Voltaire says, that it is worth all the comedies of Aristophanes; which shows, at least that it is a truly valuable performance. The comedy was cultivated by many Italians, including numerous ecclesiastics. Leo X was a great patron of the theatre. Alfieri is the most important of the dra- matic writers of Italy ; yet his comedies are to be considered rather as bitter sa- tires. His comedies are more tragic than his tragedies. (See Alfieri, and Goldoni.) The other European nations cultivated the dramatic art much later than the Italians. The EngUsh and Spaniards devoted their attention to it almost at the same time ; the former reaching their acme in Shakspeare, the latter in Lope de Vega. The history of the English theatre and the drama is nat- urally divided into two parts, the first of which begins with Elizabeth, and ends with the reign of Charles I. The Puri- tans then prohibited all kinds of plays, and the theatres were shut up for 13 years. With Charles II the drama reap- peared, and exhibited a licentiousness hardly equalled by that of any other Christian nation. No species of literature Avas more admired and more debased than this. From the close of the 17th to that of the 18th century, British comedy was cultivated with much success by Cibber, Farquhar, Congreve, Sheridan and others. In tragedy, during the same period, the British have little to boast of, and at pres- ent the theatre of Britain is at a very low ebb. The French drama was in a mis- erable state before Corneille. " It was," ea3's ScblegeL " in its childhood, and that not a healthy and promising childhood, but a crippled one." Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Meliere, Scanon, Boursault, &c, are some of die most distinguished dramatists. The theory of the unities, to which the French have so tenaciously adhered, is so opposed to what the Eng- Ush and Germans call true, elevated poetry, that the latter have been Uttle satisfied with the French tragic muse, whom they consider cold, stiff and un- poetical; but French comedy is univer- sally admired. So much has been said about the difference between tragedy and comedy—a difference greater dian exists between any other species of poetry that fall under die same general class—and the explanations of what constitutes this dif- ference are often so unsatisfactory, that we may be excused for introducing, at some length, the remarks of Schlegel on this subject, in his work above mentioned: "Tragedy and comedy bear the same relation to one another as earnestness and mirth. Both these states of mind bear the stamp of our common nature; but earnestness belongs more to the moral, and mirth to the sensual side. The crea- tures destitute of reason are incapable of either. Earnestness, in the most exten- sive signification, is the direction of our mental powers to some aim. But as soon as we begin to call ourselves to account for our actions, reason compels us to fix this aim higher and higher, till we come at last to the highest end of our existence; and here the desire for what is infinite, which dwells in our being, is thwarted by the Umits of the finite, by which we are fettered. All that we do, all that we effect, is vain and perishable; Death stands every where in the back ground, and every good or Ul spent moment brings us in closer contact with him. And even if a man has been so singularly successful as to reach the utmost term of life without misfortune, he must still submit to leave all that is dear to him on earth. There is no bond of love without separation, no enjoyment without grief for its loss. When we contemplate, however, all the relations of our existence; when we re- flect on its dependence on an endless chain of causes and effects; when we consider that we are exposed in our weakness to struggle with the immeas- urable powers of nature, and with con- flicting desires on the shores of an un- known world ; that we are subject to all manner of errors and deceptions, every one of which is capable of undoing us; that, in our passions, we carry our own enemy in our bosoms; that every mo- ment demands from us the sacrifice of our dearest inclinations, in the name of the most sacred duties, and that we may, at one blow, be robbed of all that we haA'e acquired by toils and difficulties; that, with every extension of possession, the danger of loss is proportionally in- creased, and we are the more exposed to the snares of hostile attack,—then every feeling mind must be fined by melancholy, DRAMA. 299 against which there is no other protection than the consciousness of a destiny above this earthly life. This is the tragic tone; and when the mind dwells on the consid- eration of the possible, as an existing real- ity ; when that tone is inspired by the most striking examples of violent revolu- tions in human destiny, either from dejec- tion of soul, or after powerful but inef- fectual struggles,—then tragic poetry has its origin. We thus see that tragic poetry lias its foundation in our nature, and, to a certain extent we have answered the question, why Ave are fond of mournful representations, and even find something consoling and elevating in them? As earnestness, in the highest degree, is the essence of the tragic tone, the essence of the comic is mirth. The disposition to mirth is a forgetfulness of all gloomy con- siderations, in the pleasant feeling of pres- ent happiness. We are then inclined to view every thing in a sportive Ught and to admit no impressions calculated to disturb or ruffle us. The imperfections of men, and the incongruities in their conduct and relations, are no longer an object of dislike and compassion, but serve to entertain the mind. The comic poet must therefore, carefully abstain from whatever is calculated to excite moral disgust with the conduct of men, or sympathy with their situation, because this Avould bring us back to a tone of earnest feeling. He must paint their inegularities as arising out of the pre- dominance of the sensual part of their nature, and as constituting a mere ludi- crous infirmity, Avhich can be attended with no ruinous consequences. This is uniformly Avhat takes jilace in Avhat we call comedy, in which, however, there is stul a mixture of seriousness, as I shall show in the sequel. The oldest com- edy of the Greeks was, however, en- tirely gay, and, in that respect, formed the most complete contrast with their tragedy. Not only the characters and situations of individuals were worked up into a picture of the true comic, but the state, the constitution, the gods, and nature, were all fantastically painted, in the most extravagantly ridiculous and laughable colors." We shall now say a few words respect- in<*the so much talked of unities in the drama. In consequence of a passage in the Poetics of Aristotle, the French, priu- cipaUy through the influence of Boi- leau, adopted the theory of the three unities in a drama,—those of action, place »nd time,—and this theory has recom- mended itself so strongly to the national taste, that a strict observance of the uni- ties is considered, by the French, one of the chief merits of a dramatic production. The reader who wishes to form a correct idea of the theory of Aristotle, may con- sult with advantage the work of SchlegeL above mentioned. The French have construed it to mean, in substance, as follows: 1st, that the action of the drama must be one; the interest or attention must not be distracted by several plots, but every thing must be subservient to the main action; 2dly, all the actions must take place on the same spot, or very nearly so, in order that the illusion may not be disturbed ; and, 3dly, every tiring ought to happen on the same day, for the same reason. These three rules are all true to a certain degree. The unity of action is as necessary in .a drama as in any production of the fine arts; the whole must be essentially one; but the Ger- mans and EngUsh think it absurd to con- fine unity of action within such nanoAV limits as the French do. On the contra- ry, as, in a picture of Rajihael, many groups exist, all interesting, yet all contributing to form one great picture, and subservient to the main object of the work; so they think it not only allowable, but an excel- lence, to introduce a number of actions in a drama, if they are so comiected as aU to make but one Avhole. What a variety of character and action is to be found in Romeo and JuUet! and yet how closely is every tiring connected! how directly every scene draws towards the great tragic end! The grandeur of a lofty dome is not diminished by the statues and bas- reUefs wlrich it may contain. The two other unities—those of place and time— may also be too servdely followed. As for disturbing the illusion, Schiller very truly says, that every tiring on the stage is different from reality. Who thinks that the Ught ofthe lamps is dayUght ? Who, we ask, ever found such a jirecise square as the stage in a forest ? or who ever saw people in real life turning their faces all to one point, as the actors necessarily do, that their action may be seen. The French consider it a great fault if an actor turns his back towards the audience. Is not this inconsistent ? Besides, is not the very theory of unity of time, Avhich requires all the events in a drama to happen on one day, entirely at variance with nature ? and Avhich is easier, to consider all the events represented in a drama, all the develope- ments of the actions, as happening in one day, or to transport ourselves, in imagina- 300 DRAMA—DRAWING. tion, from one place to another, and sup- pose weeks and months to pass between the falling and rising of the curtain ? Yet tiicre is no doubt that the performance may make too great claims on our imagi- nation. It is imjiossible to settle precisely the limits within which the dramatic writer should confine himself. As long as he can avoid offending the imagination by the abruptness of his transitions, he may be considered as not having over- stepped the just bounds. The Uberties allowed in the drama, as in all the higher branches of art, must depend very much on the genius of die artist Since the revolution, particularly since 1814, a new dramatic school has been formed in France, which, departing from the ancient strict- ness of the clasdc drama, so called, ap- proaches more and more to the German and English, or the romantic drama, so called. Madame de Stael, in her L'AUe- magne^ treats this subject at some length. We must refer the reader, for further in- formation on this interesting subject, to Augustus William Schlegel's work, Ueber dramatische Kunst und Litteratur, Heidel- berg, 1809 (On dramatic Art and Litera- ture ; translated into English, by John Black, London, 1815), Avhich may be con- sidered at once as a model of the higher species of criticism, and a specimen of German erudition and philosophy. Dramaturgy ; the science which treats ofthe rules for composing a drama and representing it on die stage, as far as the subject can be brought under general rules. It comprehends die whole poetry of the drama, and the theory of dramatic representation. No work embracing the subject in its whole extent has yet been published. The sjilendid lectures of Schle- gel on dramatic art and literature approach nearest to it The first who pubUshed a Avork under this name was Lessing. Tieck's Dramaturgical Essays deserve to be mentioned here. Drapery. (See Costume.) Draught ; the depth of a body of wa- ter necessary to float a ship; hence a ship is said to draw so many feet of water, when she is borne up by a column of Avater of that particular depth; for in- stance, if it requires a body of water whose depth is equal to 12 feet to float or buoy up a ship on its surface, she is said to draAv 12 feet water; and, that this draught may be more readily known, the feet are marked on the stem and stern- post from the keel upwards. Draughts ; a game played on a check- ered board, like the chess-board, with 24 pieces, which, by angular movements, are enabled to take each other, according to certain mles, until one of die parties has lost all his men, or is placed in a situa- tion to lose them all, Avhen die game is at an end. Drawback, in commerce; an allowance made to merchants on the re-exportation of certain goods, which in some cases consists of the whole, in others of a jiart, ofthe duties which had been paid upon the importation. A stiU more equitable arrangement than that of drawbacks, is, to allow the merchant, who imports any commodity which he may probably wish to export again, to deposit it in the public warehouses, giving a bond for the pay- ment of the duties, should he dispose of it for home consumption. This is called bonding, and is allowed to a considerable extent in England. Drawing, considered as a distinct branch of art, is die elder sister of paint- ing, and, in the course of time, became connected widi geometry. It is the art of representing, by means of lines, upon a flat surface, the forms of objects, and their positions and relations. The attempt to imitate, by lines, die forms which we see in nature, is the commencement of all draAA-ing. According to a Greek tradition, drawing and sculpture took their rise to- gether, when the daughter of Dibutadcs drew the outUne of the shadow of her lover ujion the wall, which her father cut out and modelled in clay. We can distin- guish, in the earliest attempts at drawing, different epochs, which are found in al- most all nations:—1. Objects AveredeUne- ated only Avith rude, shapeless lines; e. g., an oval represented a head. 2. In order to make such drawings more striking to the eye, the sketch was filled uji with black, or some other color, and then the eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth and hair were marked with white upon the dark surface. To all these figures the name was attached, and, in general, explanatory words, such as Ave find upon all the old vases. This custom Avas continued, by the Greeks, even in the most flourishing period of the art of draAving among them; for the figures of the great picture of Polygnotus, at Delphi, were designated by such inscriptions. In the 3d epoch, an attempt was made to give animation to pictures, by representing the different col- ors of the drapery; but, as yet, there was no attempt at perspective. In this man- ner Helen and Andromache embroidered tapestry, as described in the poems of Homer. In the 4th period, the want of DRAWING. 301 prominence in the figures was remarked. Ardices and Telephanes (probably ficti- tious names) began, by draAving lines in the back ground, to produce the appear- ance of shadow, and to give prominence to their figures. In later times, Polido- ro di Caravaggio delineated in this way many frescoes in Rome, where he used only a single color, but produced the shading by lines drawn thus, in the man- ner called hatching. These Avorks are called al sgrafito or pehdures haeMes. This manner of drawing, however, was very hard. Philocles and Cleanthes invented the monochrome, or picture with one color. In the monochrome, the color used was mixed with white, so that this resembled the manner that is now called en camayeu. This was the first step from drawing to proper painting, which is distinguished by having the back ground of the picture filled. The Greeks were very careful and particular in their instruction hi draAving. Pamphilus, the teacher of Apelles, wish- ed his pupils to remain Avith him 10 years. There were three stages of instruction: in the first, firmness of hand and of stroke wras obtained, and the learners dreAV with styles upon tablets covered with wax ; in the second, fineness and delicacy of stroke was studied, AvhUe the learner labored with the style upon smoodi tablets, made of boxwood, and sometimes upon mem- branes, or upon the skins of Avild beasts, properly prepared, and covered with Avax. In the third stage, freedom and ease were to be acquired ; here the pencil was used instead of the style, and with it black or red sketches were drawn upon white tab- lets, or white sketches upon black tablets. The tablets used were covered either Avich chalk or gypsum. Line-draAving was canied to the highest perfection, and was the glory of the greatest masters. The rivalship of Apelles and Protogenes in such Unes, drawn with distinguished deli- cacy and skill, and displaying a master's hand, is weU known. This fineness and clearness of outline is also the chief merit of the celebrated vase painters. Some- thing hard and dry was found in the pic- tures executed on such outlines, and it may weU be maintained that this manner of draAving, through the influence of the Byzantine school on the Avest of Europe, gave rise to the dry and meager style of the old ItaUan as well as ofthe old Dutch school. When we consider the art of drawing as it exists at the present time, we per- ceive that the kinds of drawing are three— with the pen, with crayons, and with Indian vol. iv. 26 ink, or similar substances. Artists some- times employ colored and sometimes white paper; in the former case, the lights are pro- duced by white crayons; but in the latter case, they are produced by leaving the paper uncovered. The drawings with the pen have always something hard and disagree- able, yet they give steadiness and ease to the hand, and are pecuUarly serviceable to landscape painters. There are two differ- ent ways of drawing Avith the pen; either the drawing is darkened on the shaded side with lines, or the outline only is given by the pen, and the shades are deUcatery touched in with India ink. This mode is peculiarly adapted to architectural draw- ings. The crayon draAvings are the most common, and the most suitable for begin- ners, because any faults can be effaced or covered over. Artists make use of black, as well as of red crayons; and, when the ground is colored, they produce the light by means of white crayons. If the crayon is scraped, and the powder rubbed in Avith Uttle rolls of paper or leather, the drawing becomes exceedingly delicate and agreea- ble, though its outline is deficient in strict precision. This manner, which, from the French name of the rolls used, is also called a I'estompe, is pecuUarly suitable for large masses, and shades, and chiaro- scuro, and for producing a harmonious effect of Ught. There are also crayon drawings, where the principal colors of the objects painted are delicately sketched with colored pencils. These are pecu- liarly suitable for portraits. To this kind of drawings belong Ukewise those made with lead and silver pencils, upon paper and parchment, which are suitable for the delicate delineation of small objects. In some cases, drawings of this descrip- tion are softly touched Avith dry colors. There is another style of drawing, in which India'ink, or sepia and bistre inter- mingled with carmine and indigo, are used. The rights are produced by leaving die white surface uncovered. This mode produces the finest effect, and is very much used in the representation of all kinds of subjects. There are various classes of drawings, as sketches, studies, academy figures, cartoons, &c. Sketches are the first ideas of the subject of a pic- ture, throAvn off hastdy, to serve as die basis of a future drawing. They are made with charcoal, with the pen or the pencU. To the rapidity of their execu- tion may be ascribed the animation per- ceptible in the sketches of great masters, of which there are rich coUections. Stud- ies are copies of single parts of subjects, 302 DRAWING. made either after life or from models ; as heads, hands, feet, sometimes also AAhole figures. Drawings from skeletons and anatomical preparations, those of drapery, animals, plants, flowers, scenery, &c, are also called by this name. Academy fig- ures are drawn from Uving models, who stand in academies of fine arts and other establishments, intended for the education of artists. The models, male and female, of aU ages, are placed in different situa- tions and attitudes, ou an elevated sjiot, by lamp Ught. The pupils stand round and draw, under the direction of profess- ors. Experienced painters and sculptors Ukewise continue to draw from living models, either in private or in company. The most perfect figures, of course, are selected. In order to study drapery, a Ut- de figure of wood, with movable limbs, is placed so that die student can draw from it. The drapery is often put on Avet, diat it may follow more closely the form of the body, and that the folds may be more marked and expressive. Cartoons (q. v.) are drawings on gray paper, of the same size as die paintings Avhich are to be copied from them. Tliese are, for instance, large oil paintings, fresco pictures, &c. Artists make use, also, of other means, in order to transfer the outlines of a painting upon another canvass, if they wish to copy very faithfully. If the copy is to be on a larger or a smaller scale than the original, it is customary to place on each canvass frames of Avood, the space enclosed by wlrich is divided, by means of threads, into quadrangular compartments. The compartments on the original are larger or smaller than the others, as tlie case may be. The artist then draws in each square of his canvass vAdiat he finds in the corresponding square in the original. If the cojiy is intended to be precisely ofthe same size Avith the original, the outlines are often traced through a black gauze, from Avhich they are afterwards transfer- red by pressure to the canATass of the copy. This, it is true, does not give any distinct forms, but it indicates precisely the spot where every object is to be placed, which saves much time. If the intention is to copy the outlines of the original exacdy, it is necessary to make a caique, that is, a paper saturated Avith A'arnish, and quite transparent, Avhich is put on the painting; the outlines are drawn; then the paper is blackened with crayons on one side, put on the neAV canvass, and the outlines are foUowed by some pointed instrument, and thus tr^nsfened to the canvass. It is evi- dent that it is never allowable to take a copy in this way from very valuable pic- tures. The sketches of great masters are always valued very highly, because they bIiow most distinctly the fire and boldness of their first conceptions. But for this very reason, because their excellence de- pends on the freedom Avith which they are throAvn off, it is far more difficult to make copies from them than from finished paintings. The great schools in painting differ quite as much in respect to drawing; as in respect to coloring. The style of drawing of the old Italian school is as hard, dry and meager as that of the old German school. The defects of the for- mer are more often redeemed by beautiful forms and just proportions, whUst in the latter a meaning is frequently expressed which inclines more to poetry than to art. At a later period, the Roman school be- came, in Italy, through the influence of Raphael's exquisite sense of the beautiful and expressive in form, and through the study of the antique, the true model of beautiful drawing. The Florentine school strove to excel the Roman in this respect, and lost, by exaggeration, the superiority which it might, perhaps, otherwise have gained from its anatomical correctness and deep study of the art. The masters of the Florentine school often foreshorten too boldly. In the Lombard school, delicate i drawing appears through enchanting col- oring ; but perhaps it is more true to nature and feeling than to scientific rules. The Venetian school, in reference to the other schools of Italy, has many points of resem- blance, good and bad, with the Dutch school, in reference to Germany. In the Venetian school, the draAving is often lost in the glow and power of the coloring; and it is very often not the nobleness of the figures and ideas in the drawing, but the richness, boldness and glowing nature of the painting, which delight us. The French school was, in Poussin's time, veiy correct in drawing ; and he was justly called the French Raphael. At a later period, the style of this school be- came manieri. David introduced again a purer taste in drawing, and a deep study of the antique. This study of the antique, together AAith the precision of their draw- ing, are die distinguishing characteristics of the modem French school. In Ger- many, there cannot be said to be any gen- eral style of drawing peculiar to her artists. The many distinguished artists of that country have formed themselves individu- aUy, by the study of nature and works of art; and whilst some of the most cele- brated painters are distinguished for cor- DRAWING—DREBBEL. 303 red draAving, others are reproached for tlie want of it, in some of their finest pic- tures. On the whole, their drawing is not so correct as that of the French. Many young German artists unfortunately con- sider the naiveti ofthe ancient masters of their country as beauty, and strive to imi- tate it Drawing Slate, sometimes caUed black chalk, is a fine-grained, soft stone, pretty nearly allied to clay slate or argilUte, a rock along with which it always occurs. It adheres slightly to the tongue, and feels fine and rather meager. It soils more or less, and Avrites; hence its use as a mark-. ing or drawing material. The best kind comes from Italy, Spain and France. Drayton, WilUam Henry, a states- man of the American revolution, and an able poUtical writer, was born hi South Carolina, in September, 1742. In 1753, he went to England, and Avas placed in Westminster school; thence he removed, in 1761, to Oxford, Avhere he continued nearly three years, when he returned to South Carolina. In 1771, he was ap- pointed, by the British government, privy counsellor for the province, and became conspicuous by his defence of the rights of his country against the encroachments and irregularities of the crown officers and judges. In 1774, he accepted the office of an assistant judge of the prov- ince. When the continental congress was about to sit at Philadelphia, he Avrote and published a pamphlet under the sig- nature of Freeman,—a production, of Avhich Ramsay, in his Histoiy of South CaroUna, observes, that " it substantially chalked out the line of conduct adopted by the congress." The lieutenant-gov- ernor suspended him from his place in the king's council, in consequence of his representation of American grievances, and the " bill of American rights," which he submitted to the congress in his pamphlet As soon as the revolution be- gan, he became an efficient leader, and, in 1775, was chosen president of the pro- vincial congress. In March ofthe next year, he Avas elected chief justice of the colony, in wlrich character he deUvered to the grand jury political charges of the most energetic character. He published, besides, a pamphlet, refuting the sugges- tions in favor of lord Howe's plan of a reconcifiation with the mother country. Independence—unqualified independence __was his constant advice. In the year 1777 Mr. Drayton was invested with fuU powers, as president of South Carolina, und, early in the following year, w as elect- ed a delegate to the continental congress. In this body he took a prominent part. His speeches and writings against the propo- sitions of the three British commissioners were particularly celebrated. The congress employed him on various important mis- sions. The censure Avhich he pronoun- ced upon major-general Charles Lee's conduct at the battle of Monmouth, caused that officer to challenge him. The rea- sons which he assigned for declining the duel are such as became a true pauiot and honorable man.—Mr. Drayton con- tinued in congress until September, 1779, when he died suddenly at Philadelphia, in the thirty-sixth year of his age. His political resolution and sagacity, his lite- rary attainments, his domestic Arirtues, and his polished manners, rendered him valuable to his country, and dear to all his associates. He left behind a considerable body of historical materials, which his only son, John Drayton, revised and di- gested, and jiublished at Charleston, in 1821, in two octavo volumes, under the title of Memoirs ofthe American Revolu- tion, from its Commencement to the Year 1776, inclusive, as relating to the State of South Carolina, and occasionally referring to the States of North CaroUna and Geor- gia. The work is much esteemed. Drebbel, Cornelius; a natural philoso- pher and philosojihical instrument maker, bom at Alkmaer, in North Holland, in 1572, possessed a great spirit of observa- tion, and a sufficient fortune to enable him to jierform his mechanical and optical experiments. He soon became so famous, that the emperor of Germany, Ferdinand II, intrusted to him the instruction of his sons, and appointed him imperial coun- sellor. In the troubles of 1620, he was made prisoner by the troops of Frederic V, elector palatine, and plundered of his property. He was liberated by the inter- ference of James I of England, the father- in-law of Frederic, who delighted in the conversation of learned men, and to whose court he repaired. From this time, he lived in London, constantly occupied in scientific pursuits, and died there in 1634. The accounts Avhich his contemporaries give of his experiments are not to be trusted, on account of the ignorance and credulity of the time. It is certain that, in mechanics and ojitics, he possessed great knoAvledge for the age. He invent- ed several mathematical instruments, and the thermometer (about 1630), Avhich Hal- ley, Fahrenheit and Reaumur afterward brought to perfection. The invention of telescopes, which has been also attributed 304 DREBBEL—DRESDEN. to him, probably belongs to Zachariah Janson (1590). His Tradatus de Natura Elementorum et Quinta Essentia, pubUshed by Joh. Ernst Burggrav, Leyden, 1608, passed through several editions. His Epistola de Machina Astroiwmica perpduo mobili, was pubUshed at Leyden, 1620, by Joach. Morsius. A letter in German to the emperor Rodolph II, in which he describes an instrument of his called Ma- china musica perpduo mobilis, is contained in Harsdorffer's Ddidoz physico-mathemat- icai, 2d vol. Dresden, one of the finest places of Germany, the residence of the lungs of Saxony, is situated in the circle of Meis- sen, on the Elbe, which separates Dresden Proper from the Neustadt (New Town). Dresden has more than 55,000 inhabitants. It consists ofthe Royal Residence or Dres- den Proper, and the Neustadt (so called since 1732, and handsomely built since the time of Augustus II, formerly Old Dresden), and of Friederichstadt (formerly Ostra, laid out since 1670). Among the objects Avorthy of notice are, the stone bridge across the Elbe, 552 feet long, con- sisting of 16 arches, with a raised foot- path of flag stones, round stone seats and an iron railing; the equestrian statue oc Au- gustus II, erected in 1736, in the Neustadt, made of gilt bronze; the Catholic church for the court, and several pictures; among others, the Ascension of Christ by Mengs; the famous gallery of pictures; the royal Ubrary, and the cabinet of antiques, to- gether with a collection of porcelain, and die first attemjits of Bottcher; the gallery of the casts of Mengs (besides the an- tiques) ; tlie cabinet of natural history ; the arsenal, and the cabinet of works of art; the great garden; the garden of Briihl, with a small collection of pictures. In the vicinity of Dresden, the Plauensche Grund (valley of Plauen) and the vale of Seifersdorf are well known to the lovers of nature. Besides tliese, may be men- tioned the royal summer residence, Pilnitz; the fortress of Koiiigstein; the Sonnen- stein (at present an insane hospital); the Saxon Switzerland (q.v.); and the heights of Kesselsdorf, rendered famous by a bat- tle in the seven years' war. The city suf- fered much in this wrar. In 1760, it Avas bombarded by Frederic the Great nine days, and has been frequently exposed to the devastations of war. The importance of its situation occasioned the building of a fort, probably as early as the 9th century. The Austrians occupied the city in 1809 without injuring it In the following years, they commenced pulling down the fortifications, but desisted from it on the breaking out of the Russian wat Mar- shal Davoust caused a pier and two arches of the bridge to be bloAvn up (March 19, 1813), which the Russian government rebuilt in 1814. The campaign of 1813 was most ruinous for the city and its environs. After nine years of war and suf- fering, on the 7th of June, 1815, peace and industry returned to die German Flo- rence, as Herder calls Dresden. Since that time, dAvelling-houses, gardens and parks have taken the place of' the former fortifications. The city is also distin- guished for its excellent literary institu- tions, among which are the surgical and medical academy, and a veterinary school, which is connected with it; the military academy; the academy for noblemen, established since 1725; the academy of fine arts, Avith a school for architecture. The last academy, enlarged since 1763, has a branch in Leipsic, and an exhibition year- ly (3d of August).—We may here 6ay a few words on the collections of art. The gaUery of pictures, one ofthe finest in the world, Avas begun very early, but first be- came of much importance under Augus- tus II, king of Poland and elector of Sax- ony. It owes its most A'aluable treasures, however, to Augustus III, a prodigal monarch, who exhausted his country by his extravagances. He purchased the gallery of pictures of Modena for $912,000, and many single jiictures; among them Rajihael's masteririece, the Madonna di Sisto. The gallery is rich in pictures of the different schools, with the exception of the old German. From the Dutch school there are, among others, 30 Ru- bens, 18 Van Dykes, many Rembrandts, Ostades, Gerard Dows, Tenniers, Wou- vermanns, &c. Ofthe old German school, Holbein's Madonna, a sublime work, is particularly distinguished. Ofthe French school, there are many Claude Lonaines, Poussins, Le Bruns and others. Of the Italian school, the gallery is rich in pictures of Correggio, including his fa- mous Night; of Raphael, the Madonna di Sisto, the Madonna della Seggiola and others. There are also Avorks of Leonar- do da Vinci, Giulio Romano, Andrea del Sarto Battoni, Titian (his famous Venus), Garofalo, Paul Veronese, Guido Reni, Car- racci, Carlo Dolce, and every distinguished Italian painter. There arc 150 pieces in pastel. This collection is liberally open every day to all visitors. Six pieces of tapestry, from designs by Raphael, a pres- ent from pope Leo X, which were lost, have lately been found again. The gai- DRESDEN IN 18ia 305 l«ry of jjictures in the garden of Briihl is likewise valuable. The Augusteum, or collection of antiques, was commenced as early as the 16th century. It contains some excellent statues, among which are distinguished three female figures from Herculaneum. The cabinet of engravings is one ofthe richest in the Avorld. It con- tains 200,000 jiieces, and die rarest pro- ductions of the art. The cabinet of casts contains copies of all the most important antiques, made under the direction ofRa- phael Mengs, in Italy. The collection of porcelain is valued at several millions. Dresden being thus rich in treasures of art, and favored by a beautifill natural situa- tion, is the summer resort of many for- eigners, especially siuce the artificial min- eral waters have been prejiared in the beautiful garden of Struve.—Dresden Avas the centre of operations in the contest of 1813, when almost all the jiowers of Eu- rope were arrayed against Napoleon. Be- sides the political imjiortance of Dresden ns a capital, the possession of the Elbe, by means of the fortresses of Torgau, Witten- berg and Magdeburg, was another motive which induced Napoleon to place himself with his whole array a clieval (that is, on both sides) of the river; and the Avhole neighborhood resembled a great fortified camp, from Avhich he could pour out his columns, with equal ease, on Prague, Breslau, or Berlin. The king of Saxony had left his capital Feb. 7,1813. March 7, a division of French and Saxons, consist- ing of only 3500 men, pursued on their retreat from Poland by the Russian light troojis, entered Dresden. The 12th, mar- shal Davoust, with 12,000 men and 20 cannon, marched from Meissen, where he had burnt the bridge, to Dresden. The Cossacks kept, up a continual skirmishing before the Neustadt. The 19th, marshal Davoust left Dresden with his corps, with the excejition of a ganison of 3000 men, under general Durutte. The Neustadt was surrendered the 22d, to a division of Cossacks. A few days after, several hun- dred Cossacks swam across the Elbe, and Durutte left Dresden to the Ruasians, un- der Winzingcrode, Avho was followed by the army of Bliicher, which passed the Elbe Ajiril 16th, at Dresden. The second Russian army, under Miloradowitsch, fol- lowed, and, after the entry of the emperor Alexander and the king of Prussia, another division of 16,000 men. May 2d was fought the bloody battle of Liitzen (q. v.), after which the two sovereigns returned to Dresden, and their troops crossed, without interruption, to the right bank of the Elbe, 26* by Meissen and Dresden. May 8th, the Russians occupied only the Neustadt and the French army, under Napoleon, en- tered Dresden. On this and the foUowing ,day, a violent firing was begun from the walls and houses. On the morning of the 10th, the allies retreated to Bautzen, close- ly followed by the French. The coun- try was devastated, and many villages burnt down. The king of Saxony re- turned May 12. The French were ac- tively employed in fortifying the Neustadt. After the battles of Bautzen, Wurschen and Hochkirch (19th, 20th, and 21st of May), there were more than 20,000 wound- ed men to be provided for in Dres- den : the slightly wounded, and many of the sick, Avere distributed in the houses of the citizens. The distress of the city Avas increased during the armistice often weeks, during Avhich nearly 30,000 soldiers had to be provided for. A fortified camp, con- nected, by two bridges, with the fortress of Konigstein, and capable of containing 60,000 men, was laid out at the foot of the Lilienstein. On the right bank, the works round the Neustadt covered the roads to Berlin, Warsaw and Bautzen ; another ex- tensive Une of retrenchments surrounded the suburbs of the old city, round which large bodies of troops encamped on both banks. At this time, Metternich and Bubna came to Dresden, but the negotiations were broken off, and the Avar was renewed the 17th of August. Dresden Avas the centre of operations of the French army. Au- gust 15th, Napoleon passed through Baut- zen to Silesia; and Vandamme, with 40;000 men from the Lower Elite, passed to the right bank of the Elbe, between the 17th and 19th, and moved, Avidi Poniatowski, towards Rumburg and Gabel on the fron- tiers of Bohemia. But the grand army of the alUes, under prince Schvvarzenberg, unexpectedly advanced, in four divisions, from the passes of the Bohemian moun- tains, on the left bank of the Elbe. The Russians, under Wittgenstein, drove mar- shal St. Cyr, with his 20,000 men, from the strong positions of Giesshubel and Pima. Whilst Bliicher occupied Napo- leon on the frontiers of Silesia, the princi- pal force of the alUes advanced to the great line of communication of the French in Saxony; and it was resolved to take Dresden. The Russians and Prussians, under Wittgenstein and Kleist, now ad- vanced from Pima; but the Austriane were obliged to take a longer route, upon the road of Commotau. Couriers were despatched with the information to Napo- leon, who immediately returned to Dres- 306 DRESDEN IN 18ia den. The 25th, the alUes surrounded the city. On this day, the allied army was wholly united before Dresden, and, in- cluding the reserve, consisted of 120,000 men. Napoleon advanced, Avidi the flow- er of his army, by forced marches, and entered the city on the 26th, with part of his guards, after having despatched Van- damme in the direction of Pirna. Be- tween noon and evening, more than 60,000 men had marched from the Baut- zen road, through the city, to the field of battle. About 4 o'clock in the afternoon, after the whole body of die guard, and the cavalry under Latour-Maubourg, had passed the Elbe, the alUes advanced fo the city in six columns. The Prussians drove the young guard to the Avails of Anton's garden, where the latter were driven back by the balls of their oaati comrades, and obliged to renew the com- bat At the same time, the city was bom- barded. In the evening, the French un- dertook a general attack. The guards, supported by 16 cannon, drove the Pnis- sians out of the suburbs, and the alUes perceived the impossibility of taking a city defended by 100,000 men, and strong- ly fortified. At night they withdrew their forces into dieir former position upon the heights. August 27, the French were re- enforced by the corps of Mannont and Victor. Napoleon made several ineffect- ual attacks on the centre of the allies; and here Moreau (q. v.) was mortally wounded by a cannon ball, at no great distance from the emperor Alexander. About noon, the king of Naples (Murat), with the columns under Victor, and the French and Saxon cavalry under Latour-Maubourg, succeed- ed in sunounding and overpowering the Austrians. ' More than 10,000 men, Avith general Me^co, were made prisoners. Meanwhile the commander of the allies, hearing that Vandamme had passed the Elbe, near Konigstein, on the 25th, and was advancing towards Pirna, decided on a retreat, which was accomplished in the night. The king of Naples pursued only to Marienburg. The allies lost, in killed, wounded and prisoners, 30,000 men. The French, iu these two bloody days, had more than 10,000 men Avounded: the number of killed was considerable, but cannot be given exactly. There were now 24 hospitals in the city. After the 27th August, the star of Napoleon de- clined. The news of Oudinot's defeat near Grossbeeren (q. v.), of the defeat of Macdonald on the Katzbach (q. v.), and of the defeat of Vandamme, near Culm (q. v.), rapidly foUowed each other. The marches and countermarches of the French army now caused great injury in the vicinity of Dresden. Three new re- trenchments Avere thrown uji before the Altstadt, Meissen was to form an outwork of Dresden, and the French army seemed to be able to bid defiance to the allies from this strong position. The allied army ad- vanced anew from Bohemia. The defeat of Ney atDennewitz (q. v.), September 6th, and the advance of Bliicher, on the 10th, towards Herrnhut, compelled the French emperor to retire from the frontiers of Bo- hemia to Dresden, and to turn upon the right bank of the Elbe. These marches devastated the country, and turned it into a desert. The 14th, Napoleon advanced again towards the frontiers of Bohemia, and penetrated,on the 15th,to Culm; but his guards were driven back at NoUendorf, with considerable loss, by Colloredo, on the 16th: on the 21st he returned to Dresden. The Austrians occupied Frey- berg on the 17th: detachments from the army of the crown prince of Sweden advanced to Leipsic, and Bliicher formed a junction with Bubna. Napoleon drove back the Prussians to Bautzen, but was, on the 24th, again in Dresden. He now entirely abandoned the right bank of the Elbe, and concentrated his forces on the left. The 28th and 29th, the allies at- tacked the bridge at Meissen without suc- cess. The forces of Napoleon marched through Freyburg towards Chemnitz, and dirough Rossen toAvards Leipsic. The unexpected passage of Bliicher over the Elbe, at Wartenburg (3d of October), de- cided the inarch of Napoleon from Dres- den (October 7). The king of Saxony followed him. (See Leipsic, Battle of.) About 30,000 men, under St. Cyr and the count von der Lobau, ren lained in the vicin- ity of Dresden. Bubna stormed, on the 8th, the bridge of Pirna, and the allies attacked the outAvorks of the Neustadt. At the same time, 16,000 Russians under Tolstoi, lwanoffand Markoff) apjiroached Dresden, to cover the march of Benningsen towards Leipsic. On the 17th, St. Cyr drove Tol- stoi back to Dohna, with a loss of six can- nons and some hundred men on the side of the Russians; but, on the 20th, the Rus- sians obliged the marshal to retreat to- wards Dresden, which was now entirely sunounded, as the Austrian generals Chasteler and Klenau had joined Tolstoi on the 20th. The city, which was cut off from aU suppUes, suffered more and more from want of provisions. St. Cyr, however, prepared for the most obstinate resistance: he barricaded the suburbs, DRESDEN IN 1813—DROITS REUNIS. 307 converted a number of dwelling-houses into block-houses, and destroyed most of the gardens round the city. November 6, 10,000 infantry and 1000 cavalry, under the count von der Lobau, with 200 wagons, inarched out from the Neustadt, on their Avay towards Torgau; but they were driven back, near Reichenberg, by the prince of Wied-Runkel, and returned to the city in r the evening. Famine and disease raged among the soldiers and inhabitants. More than 200 corpses were daily carried from the hospitals, and from 200 to 300 deaths occuned every week in the city. No- vember 11, articles of capitulation were agreed to by Klenau, but not ratified by prince Schwarzenberg. The garrison Avere made prisoners of war. 6000 sick remained in the hospitals. Dresden re- ceived a strong Russian garrison, and be- came the seat of the Russian administra- tion, under the jirince Repnin. The ex- cellence of Napoleon's tactics Avas never, perhaps, displayed to greater advantage than in the battle of Dresden, a master- piece of military skill. Dress. (See Clothing.) Drinker, Edward, a man remarkable for longevity, was born Dec. 24, 1680, in a small cabin, near the jiresent corner of Walnut and Second streets, in the city of Philadelphia, and died Nov. 17, 1782, in the 103d year of his age. The banks of the Delaware, on Avhich the city of Philadelphia now stands, AA-ere inhab- ited, at the time of his birth, by In- dians, and a few Swedes and Hollanders. He often talked to his companions of pick- ing whortlebenies and catching rabbits on spots now the most improved and pop- ulous in the city. He recollected the second time William Penn came to Penn- sylvania, and used to point out the place where he had been told the cabin stood, in which Penn and his friends that ac- companied him were accommodated ujion their first arrival. At twelve years of age, he went to Boston, where he served his apprenticeship to a cabinet-maker. In the year 1745, he returned to Philadel- phia Avith his family, where he lived until die time of his death. He was four times married, and had eighteen children, all of whom were by his first wife. Not long before his death, he heard of the birth of a grand-child to one of his grand- children, the fifth in succession to himself. __He retained his mental faculties tiU the last year of his Ufe. Even his memory was but Uttle impaired. He not only re- membered the incidents of his childhood and youth, but the events of latter years; and so faithful was his memory, that the members of his family never heard him tell the same story twice, but to dif- ferent persons and in different companies. His eye-sight failed him many years be- fore his death, but his hearing was per- fect His appetite Avas good till within a few days before his death; but he had lost all his teeth thirty years previous to that event, in consequence, it was said, of drawing excessively hot smoke of tobacco into his mouth. He had been the subject of seven successive sovereigns, and saw Penn conclude his treaty with the In- dians. Droit d'Aubaine. (See Aubaine, Droit d'.) A work has lately been published un- der the title of Droit d'Aubaine de la Grande- Bretagne, par C. H. Okey, Avocat Anglais, which explains, in a concise form, the rights of foreigners in England. Droits Reunis (French); united im- posts ; the name given, in France, to an indirect tax imposed on wine, cider, beer, spirits, salt, tobacco, jilaying-cards, stage- coaches, &c. The name originated from the circumstance, that these and similar taxes Avere united into one administration ginerale des droits reunis (general admin- istration of the united imjiosts). It affords annually from 120 to 150 millions of francs, and, of course, forms a very im- portant branch of the French administra- tion, Avith which, however, the inconven- iences are connected, Avhich always attend indirect taxes, if they are high, and it be- comes an object to evade them; because not only many officers are required to watch the persons from whom the taxes are to be obtained; but a strict observation must also be kept over the officers them- selves, that they may not connive at frauds upon government. In 1812 and 1813, aU the laws respecting the droits riunis were collected by order of tlie director-gen- eral, since their number had increased so much, that neither the officers nor the people could know them all. The gen- eral direction of the whole is, in Paris, under a counsellor of state: he and five administrators form the general council, which decides all doubtful cases. In each department is a director, under whom are the inspectors and other infe- rior officers. The director sends every fortnight the amount which he has col- lected to Paris. The directors make a journey every three months through their district, close their accounts, and make three copies of a statement of their rejiorts and expenditures, of which one copy re- mains in the hands of the inspector, one. 308 DROITS REUNIS—DROPSY. goes to Paris, and one to the director of the department This system tends to prevent die enormous abuses which pre- vailed in the whole tax department before the revolution. Drome ; a river of France, in the east- ern part of the kingdom. It rises near Valdrome, and falls into the Rhone about eleven miles south of Valence. The river gives its name to a department (See De- partment.) Dromebary. (See Camd.) Dropsy; a preternatural collection of serous or watery fluid in the cellular substance, or different cavities of the body. It receives different appellations, according to the jiarticular situation of the fluid.—When it is diffused through the cellular membrane, either generally or partially, it is called anasarca; when it is dejiosited in the cavity of the cra- nium, it is caUed hydrocephalus ; when in the chest hydrothorax, or hydrops pecto- ris; when in the abdomen, asdtes; in tbe uterus, kydrometra; and Avithin the scrotum, hydrocele.—The causes of these diseases are a family disposition thereto, frequent salivations, excessive and long- continued evacuations, a free use of spir- ituous liquors (which never fail to de- stroy the digestive poAvers,) scirthositics of the liver, s|ileen, pancreas, mesentery, and other abdominal viscera; preceding diseases,as die jaundice, diarrhoea, dysen- tery, phthisis, asthma, gout, intermittents of long duration, scarlet fever, and some of the exanthemata; a suppression of ac- customed evacuations, the sudden striking in of eruptive humors, ossification ofthe valves of the heart, polyjii iu the right ventricle, aneurism in the arteries, tumors making a considerable pressure on the neighboring parts, permanent obstruction in the lungs, mpture of the thoracic duct, exposure for a length of time to a moist atmosphere, laxity ofthe exhalants, defect in the absorbents, topical weakness, and general debility.—The first of tliese spe- cies Avhich we shall describe is ascites (from iaKii, a sack or bottle; so called from its bottle-like proruberancy), or dropsy of the belly, a tense, but scarcely elastic, SAveUing of the abdomen from accumu- lation of water. Ascites is often pre- ceded by loss of appetite, sluggishness, dryness of the 6kin, oppression at the chest cough, diminution of the natural discharge of urine, and costiveness. After the swelling has commenced, it increases until the whole beUy becomes uniformly sweUed and tense. The distension and sense of weight vary somewhat with the jiosition ofthe body, being greatest on the side on which the patient lies. As the coUection of A\*ater becomes more consid- erable, the difficulty of breathing is much increased, the countenance exhibits a pale and bloated appearance, an immoderate thirst comes on, the skin is dry and parch- ed, and the urine is veiy scanty, thick, and high-colored, and dejiosites a lacteri- tious sediment. The pulse is variable, being sometimes considerably quicker, sometimes slower than is natural. The operation of tapping should be performed only Avhere the distension is very great, and the respiration or other important functions imjieded; and it will often be best not to draAV off the whole fluid at once. Great care must be taken, also, to keep up a sufficient pressure, by a broad bandage over the abdomen, as even fatal syncope has arisen from the neglect of this. The contraction ofthe muscles will be promoted by friction. The remedies for diis disease are cathartics, diuretics, gentle friction of the abdomen with oil, &c. Tonic medicines, a nutritious diet, and, if the comjilaint appears giving Avay, such exercise as the patient can take Avithout fatigue, with other means of im- proving the general health, ought not to be neglected.—Another sjiecies of dropsy is called anasarca (from Hva, through, and erupt, flesh). It is occasioned by a serous humor, spread between the skin and flesh, or rather by a general accumula- tion of lymph in the cellular system.— This species of dropsy shoAvs itself at first by a swelling of the feet and ankles towards the evening, Avhich, for a time, disappears again in the morning. The tumefaction is soft and inelastic, and, Avhen pressed upon by the finger, re- tains its mark for some time, the skin becoming much paler than usual. By degrees, the swelling ascends, and occu- pies the trunk of the body; and, at last, even the face and eyelids appear full and bloated: the breathing then becomes dif- ficult, the urine is small in quantity, high- colored, and deposits a reddish sediment; the belly is costive, the perspiration much obstructed, the countenance yellow, and a considerable degree of thirst, with ema- ciation of the whole body, prevails. To these symptoms succeed torpor, heaviness, a troublesome cough, and a slow fever. In some cases, the water oozestiut through the pores of the cuticle; in others, being too gross to pass through them, it raises the cuticle in small Misters; and sometimes the skin, not allowing the water to escape through it is compressed and hardened, DROPSY-DROSOMETER. 309 and is, at the same time, so much dis- tended as to give the tumor a considerable degree of firmness. In some few cases, the disease goes off by a spontaneous cri- sis, by vomiting, purging, &c. Where the quantity of fluid collected is such as to disturb the more important functions, the best mode of relieving the patient is to make a few small incisions with a lancet, not too near each other, through the in- teguments on the fore and upper part of each thigh; the discharge may be assisted by pressure. In the use of issues or blis- ters, there is some risk of inducing gan- grene, especially if appUed to the legs; and the same has happened from scari- fications with the cupping instrument. Absorption may lie promoted by friction, and bandaging the parts, Avhich will, at the same time, obviate further effusion; but most powerfully by the use of differ- ent evacuating remedies, especially those which occasion a sudden considerable discharge of fluids. Emetics have been often employed with advantage ; but it is necessaiy to guard against weakening the stomach by the frequent rejietition of diose which produce much nausea.— Cathartics are of much greater and more general utility. Diuretics are universally proper. Digitalis is often a very powerful remedy. Opium, and some other narcot- ics, have been occasionally useful. In the use of diuretics, the patient should not be restricted from drinking freely. It is very desirable to promote evacuation by the skin. Sometimes much relief is obtain- ed by promoting perspiration, locally, by means of the vapor bath. Mercury has been much employed. Regular exercise, such as the patient can bear (the limbs being properly supported, esjiecially by a well-contrived laced stocking), ought to be enjoined, or diligent friction of the skin, jiarticularly of the affected parts, em- ployed when the tumefaction is usually least, namely, in the morning. The cold bath, duly regulated, may also, when the patient is convalescent, materially con- tribute to obviate a relapse.—The next species of dropsy which Ave shall consider is hydrocephalus (from Wo»p, water, and Kfpa\ri, the head); hydrocephalum, hydro- cephalus ; dropsy of the brain, dropsy of the head. It is sometimes of a chronic nature, when the water has been known to increase to an enormous quantity, ef- fecting a separation of the bones of the head, and an absorption of the brain. Pain in the head, particularly across the brow, stupor, dilatation ofthe pupils, nau- sea, vomiting, preternatural slowness of the pulse, and convulsions, are symptoms of this disease. Hydrocephalus is almost pecuUar to children, being rarely known to extend beyond the age of twelve or fourteen; and it seems more frequently to arise in those of a scrofulous and ricketty habit than in others. It is an af- fection which has been observed to per- vade families, affecting all or the greater part ofthe children at a certain period of their Ufe; which seems to show that, in many cases, it depends more on the gen- eral habit than on any local affection, or accidental cause. The disease has gen erally been supposed to arise in conse- quence either of injuries done to the brain itself, by blows, falls, &c, from scinhous tumors or excrescences within the skull, from original laxity or weakness in the brain, or from general debility and an im- poverished state of the blood. With, re- spect to its proximate cause, very opposite opinions are still entertained by medical writers, which, in conjunction Avith the equivocal nature of its symptoms, prove a source of considerable embarrassment to the young practitioner. When recoveries have taken place in hydrocephalus, we ought probably, to attribute more to the efforts of nature than to the interference of art. It is always to be regarded as of difficult cure. The treatment should lie prompt and active. The inflammatory action should be lessened, and then ab- sorption promoted. After taking some blood by bleeding or by leeches, the tor- pid bowels are to be evacuated by some active cathartic, and their activity kept up, in the jirogress of the complaint, by calo- mel or some other mercurial preparation. Mercury also contributes powerfully to rouse the absorbents. After the bow- els are cleared, some evaporating lotion is to be applied to the shaved scalp, and the antiphlogistic regimen observed. Sudorific medicines will generally be proper, assisted by the warm bath. Blis- ters may be apjilied to the temples, behind the ears, or to the nape of the neck. If the progress of the disease is anested, the strength is to be established by a nutri- tious diet and tonic medicines. Drosky; a kind of light, four-Avheeled carriage, used by the Russians. It is not covered, and its side seats contain a greater or less number of persons. The lower wheels are covered with wings, which keep off the mud. Drosometer; an instrument for ascer- taining the quantity of dew which falls. It consists of a balance, one end of which is furnished with a plate fitted to receive the 310 DROSOMETER—DROWNING. dew, the other containing a weight pro- tected from it Drouais, John Germain, born at Paris, 1763, the most distinguished painter ofthe school of David. His desire of going to Rome to study the great works of art, in- duced him to enter the lists for the great prize, which consisted of a pension for four years ; but, being dissatisfied with his work, he destroyed it and left the prize to another. When reproached for this by his master, who saw with surprise die remains of his picture, he said, " Are you satisfied with me ?" "Perfectly," answer- ed David. "Well, then, I have gained the prize," returned Drouais; " this was my aim; the prize of the academy be- longs to another, to whom it may be more useful than it would have been to me; the next year I hope to deserve it by a better work." In 1784, Drouais again entered the lists. The Canaanitish Avoman at the feet of Jesus was the fruit of his study. He was pubUcly crowned, and led in triumph, by his fellow students, to their master. He accompanied him as a pensioner to Rome, where he studied and copied the greatest masters. His Dying Gladiator, and, particularly, his Marius at Minturnae, on being exhibited in Paris, gained him and David's school a new triumph. He noAV sketched his Philoc- tetes at Lemnos; but his career was sud- denly checked by an inflammatory fever, wlrich put an end to his life before he had completed his 25th year, and while he Avas engaged on a picture of Caius Grac- chus. His rivals and his friends united in erecting a monument- to him in St. Maiy's church (in the Via Lata). Drouet, Jean Baptiste; post-master at St Menehould; born 1763. It was he who recognised Louis XVI, in his flight through St Menehould, and caused him to be arrested at Varennes. In Septem- ber, 1792, he was chosen member of the convention from the department of the Mame, and voted for the death of Louis. In September, 1793, he was sent to the northern army. In October of this year, he was taken prisoner, and carried to Mo- ravia. Havuig attempted to make his escape by springing from a AvindoAv, he broke his leg, and was retaken. In Nov., 1795, he Avas exchanged at Basle, with Camus, Beumonville, and others, for the daughter of Louis XVI, and entered die council of the five hundred, as an old member of the convention. Dissatisfied with the moderate system which at that time prevailed in France, he became, with Babceuf, one of the leaders ofthe Jacobin conspiracy; and, on this account, was ar- rested (May 11, 1796), but made his escape, and fled to SAvitzerland. He Avas finally acquitted, and returned to France. In 1799, he was sub-prefect at St. Menehould. During the hundred days (see Cent Jours), he Avas a member of the chamber of deputies. In 1816, he was banished from France as a regicide. Drowning is a sort of death caused by immersing the exterior opening of the respiratory tube in a Uquid. Actual death is often preceded by ajiparent death (as- phyxia, q. v.); and it is possible, if this state has not continued too long, to resuscitate a person apparently drowned. This cir- cumstance has led to careful investigations of the nature of drowning, and also, in the neighborhood of seas and large rivers, to the erection of public institutions for the resuscitation of persons apparently drowned. This kind of death furnishes, likewise, a difficult subject for medical jurisprudence, and gives occasion to the inquiry, Avhether a body found in the water Avas actually drowned, or whether life was lost in some other way; and great attention has been paid to the marks of this sort of death, which are to be found upon the body. But, notwith- standing all this pains, much uncertainty still hangs over the subject. This re<- mark is true, as well of the manner in which death is the consequence of im- mersion, as of the signs of having been drowned, and the means of resuscitating from apparent death. If a person volun- tarily immerses his head in water, he per- ceives a roaring in his ears, a tickUng in his nose, a pressure upon his breast, and a kind of stupid feeling. If a man, unable to swim, falls into the water, he instinc- th-ely makes every exertion to escape from it; he holds his breath, moves his head up and backwards, lays hold of every solid body which jiresents itself, and even grapples at the bottom of the Avater. These struggles continue a longer or shorter time, according to the strength and presence of mind of the unhappy subject: at last, he sinks, exhausted, be- comes unconscious, strives to breathe, draws in Avater, and life is gone. If the body is taken from the water, it is com- monly found to be very cold; the limbs are stiff) the countenance distorted, livid, and often pale, the eyes half open, the pu- pUs enlarged, the mouth filled with foam, the breast and region ofthe upper stomach expanded. Sometimes the body is still warm, though it cannot be reanimated, the countenance blue and distorted, the veins DROWNING. 311 of the neck much swollen. This takes place when one is drowned in alcohol, or in marshy or warm water, or Avhen a per- son, in a state of intoxication, or Avith a full stomach, or a heated body, falls overboard. On opening the body of a person who has been drowned, the epiglottis is found to be raised, bloody foam appears in the wind- pipe and bronchial passages, the lungs are soft and distended, a large quantity of black fluid blood is collected in the right, and less in the left cavity of the heart, a little Avater is in the stomach, and the vessels of the brain are SAvelled with blood. Death is sometimes caused by suffocation and want of air, and some- times as in apoplexy: in the latter case, it happens very speedily, and a little water is sufficient to produce it, if the person falls upon his face. In this case, when the body is opened, the foam in the wind-pipe is Avanting, and the vessels of the head are fuller. The various con- stituents of the water, such as inespirable gases, contribute also to modify and com- pUcate the mode of death. The following are the methods of treat- ment recommended by the London Hu- mane Society for the Recovery of Persons in a State of Suspended Animation. As drowning is, probably, the most frequent accident by which animation is suspend- ed, we give all the rules ofthe society here, and shall refer fi-om Freezing, Hanging, &c, to this article. Cautions. Lose no time. Avoid all rough usage. Never hold the body up by the feet; nor roll the body on casks ; nor rub the body with salts or spirits ; nor in- ject tobacco smoke or infusion of tobacco. Restorative Means. If apparently drown- ed, send quickly for medical assistance; but do not delay the following means:— Convey the body carefully, with the head and shoulders supported in a raised posi- tion, to the nearest house. Strip the body, and rub it dry ; then wrap it in hot blankets, and place it in a warm bed, in a warm chamber. Wipe and cleanse the mouth and nostrils. In order to restore the natural warmth of the body, move a heated covered warming pan over the back and spine; put bladders or bottles of hot water, or heated bricks, to the pit of the stomach, the arm-pits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet; fo- ment the body with hot flannels; but, if possible, immerse the body in a warm bath, as hot as the hand can bear without pain, as this is preferable to the odier means for restoring warmth ; rub the body briskly with the hand; do not, how- ever, suspend the use of the other means at the same time. In order to restore breathing, introduce the pipe of a com- mon bellows (where the apparatus of the society is not at hand) into one nostril, carefully closing the other and the mouth; at the same time drawing downwards, and pushing gently backwards, the upj>er part of the windpipe, to allow a more free admission of air; blow the bellows gently, in order to inflate die lungs, till the breast be a little raised ; the mouth and nostrils should dien be set free, and a moderate pressure made with the hand upon the chest. Repeat this process till life ap- peal's. Electricity to be employed early by a medical assistant. Inject into the stom- ach, by means of an elastic tube or syringe, half a pint of warm brandy and water, or wine and Avater. Apply sal A-olatile or hartshorn to the nostrils.—If apparently dead from intense cold, rub the body over Avith snow, ice or cold water. Restore warmth by slow degrees ; and after some time, if necessaiy, employ die means rec- ommended for the drowned. In these accidents, it is highly dangerous to apply heat too early.—If apparently dead from hanging, in addition to the means recom- mended for the drowned, bleeding should early be employed by a medical assistant. —if apparently dead fi-om noxious vapors, &c, remove the body into a cool, fresh air. Dash cold water on the neck, face and breast, frequently. If the body be cold, apply Avannth, as recommended for the drowned. Use the means as above recommended for inflating the lungs. Let electricity (particularly in accidents from lightning) be early employed by a medical assistant.—If apparently dead from intoxication, lay the body on a bed with the head raised ; remove the neckcloth, and loosen the clothes. Obtain instantly medical assistance, as the treatment must be regulated by the state of the patient; but, in the mean time, apply clotlis soaked in cold water to the head, and bottles of hot water, or hot bricks, to the calves of die legs and to the feet.—If apparently dead from apoplexy, the patient should be placed in a cool air, and the clothes loos- ened, particularly about the neck and breast. Bleeding must be early employed by a medical assistant; the quantity regu- lated by the state of the pulse. Cloths soaked in water, spirits, or vinegar and water, should be applied to the head, which should be instantly shaved. AU stimulants should be avoided.—In cases of coup de soldi, or strokes of the sun, the same means are to be used as in apoplexy. 312 DROWNING—DRUIDS. General Observations. On restoration to life, a tea-spoonful of Avarm water should be given; and then, if the power of swal- lowing be returned, small quantities of warm wine, or Aveak brandy and water, warm; the patient should be kept in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged, except in cases of intoxication, apoplexy and coup de sdeil. Great care is requisite to maintain the restored vital actions, and, at the same time, to prevent undue excite- ment The treatment recommended by die society is to be persevered in for three or four hours. It is an enoneous opinion diat persons are irrecoverable because Ufe does not soon make its appearance; and it is absurd to suppose that a body must not be meddled with or removed without the permission of a coroner. Droz ; the name of three celebrated mechanicians: 1. Piene-Jacquet, born at Chaux-de-Fond. . Aspiring to be something more than a mere workman, he endeavored to perfect die different parts of clock-work, and succeeded in at- taching to common time-pieces, at a small expense, machinery which produced mu- sic resembling the chime of bells, and the music of a flute. His attempts to dis- cover the means of effecting a perpetual motion, led him to important discoveries. He contrived, among other things, a pen- dulum, wlrich, being composed of two metals of unequal dilatebility, remained unaffected by heat or cold. He after- Avards made his celebrated Avriting autom- aton, wlrich, by means of machinery contained within the figure, was made to moAre its fingers and hands, and to form handsome letters. His last work was an astronomical clock. He was surprised by death before this was finished.—2. Henri-Louis-Jacquet, son ofthe preceding, bora 1752, at Chaux-de-Fond. From his earUest youth, he was employed in me- chanical works. At die age of 22, he went to Paris with some of the products of his labor ; among which was an au- tomaton, representing a young female, which played different tunes on the harp- sichord, foUowed the notes in the music book with her eyes and head, and, having finished playing, rose and saluted the company. In Paris, he caused one of the workmen, taught by his father, to make a pair of artificial hands for a young man who was mutUated, by means of which he was enabled to perform most of the necessary offices for himself. " Young man," said the famous Vaucan- son to Droz, when he saw this work, " you begin where I should be willing to end." He died 1791, at Naples, where he had gone forthc recovery of his health.—Jean-Piene united himself, in 1783, Avidi Boulton, in Birmingham, for the purpose of striking all the English copper coin. He made for the French mint a stamjiing machine, Avhich, with one stroke, and less expenditure of power than is required in the usual process. stamps both sides and the rim of coins. Droz, Joseph, formerly member of tho parliament of Besancon, bom 1773, be- came a member of the French academy at Paris, in 1824, made himself known, in 1806, by Iris Essai sur VArt d'dre heu- reux (4th ed., 1825); by his Eloge de Montaigne (3d ed., 1815); by his Etudes sur le beau dans les Arts (1815), and his Memoires de Jacques Fauvel. In his Phi- losophic morale, he showed himself a deep thinker, a scholar, and a good writer. At the time of his election to tlie French academy, the poet Lamartine was his com- petitor. His inaugural address (July 7, 1825) contains some excellent remarks on the moral influence of literature. ullfaut icrire," said Droz, uavec sa conscience, en presence de Dieu, dans I'interd de Vkumanite.''' Druids. These priests of the Celts, or Gauls, resembled, in many respects, the Bramuis of India: they formed a distinct caste, possessing the greatest authority, be- ing the learned men and philosophers of tliese people, and having also veiy great authority in the government ofthe state. Julius Caesar has left more information concerning them than any other writer. According to him, they performed all pub- Uc and private sacrifices, explained the doctrines of their religion, distributed aU kinds of rewards, administered justice at stated times, and determined the punish- ment wlrich should be inflicted on offend- ers. Whoever opposed dieir decisions, was excommunicated by them, and there- by deprived of all share in religious wor- ship. They could even pronounce this curse against a whole people; and, in fact their power had hardly any limits. They appointed the highest officers in aU the cities, and these dared not undertake any tiring without their advice and direc- tion. They were free from taxes and aU public burdens. Instruction in religious and aU other kinds of knoAvledge, the art of war alone excepted, was intrusted en- tirely to them. They gave oral instruction in the form of verses, which often had a hidden meaning, and which were com- mitted to memory. According to Caesar, they believed in the immortality of the soul, and its transmigration through dif- ferent bodies. They taught, moreover, DRUIDS—DRURY LANE THEATRE. 313 the nature and motions of the heavenly bodies, the magnitude ofthe universe and the earth, the nature of things, and the power of the gods. They also practised astrology, magic and soothsaying. Ac- cording to Pliny, they were not ignorant of natural philosophy and physic. They had a wonderful reverence for the holy mistletoe (a parasitical plant wlrich grows, not from the earth, but on other plants, particularly on tlie oak, and which, even at the present time, is celebrated as a remedy for ejiilepsy). This they looked upon as the holiest object in nature, and as a panacea: they likewise esteemed the oak sacred, from which circumstance they have derived their name. The Druids had a common superior, avIio was elected by a majority of votes from their own number, and who enjoyed his dig- nity for life.y Their principal seat was in Britain. The temples of the Dwiids bear a strong resemblance to those of India. Drum. Instruments which produce a sound by means of a tightly extended skin, are common in almost every part of the world. The tambourine is found among most nations ; the ancients call- ed it tympanum. All these instruments are used both for profane and sacred purposes. But the peculiar use of the drum for military purposes seems to have been introduced among the Europeans in the time of the crusades. There are very many different kinds of drums in the East, described by Niebuhr, the father, in his Reisebeschreibung, i. 180, with his well known accuracy. The kettle drum, the base drum, tambourine, and other kinds, are all common in the East. The drum, as a military instrument, is used both to beat the march and to give signals. No man, who has not experienced it, can imagine the exciting power of the drum. The fatigued and exhausted soldier is at once animated by its sound; and in battle it preserves order, and inspires courage in a body attacking en colonne. The French drummers perform admirably, and, under Napoleon, a great number Avere attached to each battalion. A drum which has acquired historical celebrity, is that which, by the order of Zisca, was covered with his own skin, that he might still aid in battle, where he had so often com- manded, even after he had become blind. Drummond, William, a Scottish poet, born in 1585, was educated at the univer- sity of Edinburgh, after which he spent four years in foreign travels, residing, for a part ofthe time, at Bourges, to study the civil law. On his return to Scotland, he vol. iv. 27 resigned aU idea of the law, and, retiring to his romantic seat of Hawthornden, gave himself up to the cultivation of poetry and polite literature. A dangerous illness fostered a serious and devout torn of mind, which was evinced by his first productions, The Cypress Grove, in prose, containing reflections upon death, and Flowers of Sion, or Spiritual Poems. The death of a young lady, to whom he was about to be manied, rendered home insupportable, and drove him again abroad. He remained on the continent eight years. In his forty-fifth year, he was manied, and again took up his resi- dence at Hawthornden. He died in De- cember, 1649, in his sixty-fourth year. As a historian, Drummond claims Utde notice. His History of the Jameses, pub- lished after his death, shows a total de- ficiency of historic talent. He is now re- membered only as a poet. There is much sweetness and melody in his verse, and although tinged widi the conceits of the Italian school, there is much genuine imagery and truth of feeling in all his poetry, but particularly in his sonnets, which are replete with tenderness and delicacy. An edition of Drummond's poems Avas pubUshed in 1791. Drunkenness is made a crime by some codes of laws. A statute of Con- necticut provides that if a man is " found drunk so as to be bereaved and disabled in his reason and understanding, appear- ing either in his speech, gesture or be- havior," he shall be subject to a fine, for tlie use of the town, of one dollar and thirty-four cents. The fine for the same offence, in New Jersey, is one dollar, and the party is liable to be put in the stocks, if it be not paid. In Delaware, it is five shillings. But this vice does not appear among the crimes and misdemeanors of the statute-book, in the codes of all the United States. The English statutes of 4 James I, chapter 5, and 21 James I, chapter 7, provide, that if any jierson shall be convicted of drunkenness, he shall for- feit five shillings, to be levied by distress, and, for want of a distress, shaU be set in die stocks. (See Intoxication.) Drupe; in botany, a simple succulent fruit, containing a hard kernel or stone. Peaches, chereies, &c, are drupes. Drury Lane Theatre, one of the principal theatres in London, was estab- lished in the reign of James I, under the name of die Plucnix. After the restora- tion, patents for stage perfonnances were issued, and 10 of the actors were caUed king's servants, wlrich usage still exists. 314 DRURY LANE THEATRE—DRUSUS. In 1671, it was burnt down, and was rebuilt by sir C. Wren, but again con- sumed, Feb. 24,1809, and rebuilt by B. Wyatt, 1811. It was opened with an address composed by lord Byron. The interior was entirely rebuilt in 1822, and is estimated to be capable of containing 3611 persons. The price of admittance into the pit is 3s. 6d. ; into the boxes, 7s. Druses ; a people of Syria, inhabiting a nact of country about 1165 miles square, in the mountains Libanus and Anti-Liba- nus. They are about 160,000 in number, 40,000 of whom are able to bear arms. Their pretended descent from the Franks, who came to this region in the time ofthe cmsades, is a fable. Their name is de- rived from one of dieir religious teachers. At the end of the 16th century, this people began to excite attention in Europe, par- ticularly on account of their religion, con- cerning which they maintain the utmost secrecy. The sacred books of the Druses, which Avere concealed in the earth, con- tain doctrines wlrich prove the selfish policy of their authors, and are a disgrace to humanity. The layman who should accidentaUy become acquainted with the contents of tliese books, was punished with death. The doctrines of the Druses are a mixture of those of the Sadducees, the Samaritans and the Mohammedans. The Druses were formerly governed by many sheiks or lords, but one by the name of Ibrahim contrived to make himself master of the av hole nation, and thereby became formidable to the Turks. In the beginning of the 17th centuiy, the Druses, under the renoAvned emir Fakreddin (usu- ally called Fakardin), reached the summit of their power; but this leader was, in 1631, strangled at Constantinople; and, although other princes were placed over them, they never recovered their former reputation. They endeavored, indeed, by the assistance of the Russians, in 1773, to regain their freedom; but they were soon obliged to become again dependent on the Turks. They are now governed by emirs (princes), who, in their turn, are subject to a grand emir: they are tributa- ries ofthe Porte, but are almost entirely independent cultivating the soil, and pro- ducing wine and silk. Their reUgion divides the people into wise men (akales, learned or initiated) and secular persons (djabd, or laymen, ignorant uninitiated). They have no public worship, but they frequent Christian and Mohammedan churches: they have, nevertheless, some symbols and persons devoted to reUgious worship. Drusus. There were several distin- guished Romans of this name:—1. Marcus Livius (B. C. 123) Avas tribune of the peo- ple with Caius Gracchus. He vvas also the father of Livia, the wife of M - Cato and the mother of Cato of Utica. He opjiosed the projects of the pojiular fa- vorite, Caius Gracehus, so strenuously, that the patricians called him thepatronus sena- tus. By his victories in Thrace, he made the Danube the boundary of the republic, was honored with a triumph, and died in the office of censor, B.C. 110.—2. His son, Marcus Livius (grandfather of Livia, wife of Augustus), Avas distinguished for his talents, energy and eloquence; but his zeal often led him to neglect the regular forms of proceeding in the republic, while his extravagant munificence and high opin- ion of himself sometimes caused him to commit imprudent actions. Rome was then divided by the disputes of the senate and the equestrian order. The power of the latter, Avhich, since the time of the Gracchi, had risen to its utmost height, excited the jealousy of the senate, who struggled zealously for their old but now almost lost authority. Drusus endeavored to gain over the people to the party of the senate, by the division of lands, to which the senate agreed with the utmost reluc- tance, and to gain the Roman allies by the promise of citizenship. He came forward, relying on this assistance, as a mediator between the hostile parties. He proposed to supply the vacant seats of the senators with knights, and to allow the new magistrates the judicial authority, which, from the time of die Gracchi, had belonged to the knights alone, but before that time, to the sena- tors. He succeeded in this plan, notwith- standing the most violent opposition from both parties. But the jealousy with which each party guarded its rights, and the rash and violent manner in Avhich Drusus had effected the union, rendered him un- popular with both parties. When, there- fore, he proposed to grant the right of citizenship to the allies, for their services to the senate, that body rejected the prop- osition decidedly, so that Drusus could effect nothing. On his return to his house from an assembly of the people, accompanied by a number of the Latins, he was stabbed at his door, by an un- known hand. He died a few hours after, with these words—"When will the repub- Uc again possess such a citizen as I have been." His death (B. C. 93) was the sig- nal for the beginning of the social war, which had been so long threatening.— 3. Claudius Nero, son of Tiberius Nero DRUSUS—DRYDEN. 315 and of Livia (aftenvards wife of the em- peror Augustus), and brother of Tiberius, who was afterwards emperor, was sent as questor, with his brotiier, against the Rhee- tians, whom he subdued. He then sup- pressed an insurrection in Gaul, defeat- ed the Germans who dwelt beyond the Rhine, passed the river, and van- quished the Sicambri and Bructeri, and made the Frisians tributary to the Ro- mans. He was the first Roman general Avho ventured upon the Northern ocean. After these campaigns, he became pretor (11 B. C), but returned in the next spring to Germany, subdued many tribes as far as the Weser, and commenced the erec- tion of fortresses. On this account he Avas honored with an ovation at Rome, and was appointed proconsul; the army salu- ted him with the title of imperator, which Avas not, however, sanctioned by Augus- tus. B. C. 9, he was made consul, but returned soon after to Germany, and pen- etrated as far as the Elbe, but was unable to jiass the river. He, however, ordered trophies to be erected there, to testify his progress. He died hi the same year, while on his return, in the 30th year of his age. The canal, uniting the Rhine with the Yssel, was his work; and the place called Drusenhrim, in Alsace, where lie encamped for some time, received its name from him. By his wife Antonia, he had a daughter, Livia, and two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, who afterwards became emperors. Rome lost, in Drusus, a man equally distinguished in the field and the council, and one of her most vir- tuous and noble citizens. (See A. Bene- dict Wilhelm's work, Die Fddzuge des Nero Claudius Drusus in dem nbrdl. Deutschl. (Halle, 1826). Dryads ; wood-nymphs, in the mythol- ogy of the Arcadian Greeks; supposed to be the tutelar deities of trees in groves, particularly ofthe oak; hence their name. Dryden, John, one ofthe most eminent EngUsh poets, was bora, according to the most probable accounts, on the 9th of August, 1631, in die parish of Aldwinkle- AU-Saints, in Northamptonshire. His fa- ther possessed a small estate, and acted as a justice of the peace during the pro- tectorate. The subject of this article, his eldest son, received his early education in the country, and was then removed to Westminster school, whence he was elect- ed to a scholarship in Trinity coUege, Cambridge, and took his degree of bache- lor of arts. His father dying in 1654, he succeeded to the possession of his estate, jmbject, however, to considerable deduc- tions for the widow and younger chUdren. He immediately removed to London, un- der the auspices of his relation, sir Gilbert Pickering, one of Cromwell's council and house of lords. On the death of OUver, he wrote his celebrated Heroic Stanzas on tiiat event—one of the first of his poems, that evinced the loftiness of ex- pression and imagery which characterize his maturer efforts. At the restoration, he greeted the king's return in a poem, entitled Astraia Redux, which was quickly followed by a Panegyric on the Corona- tion. In 1661, he produced his first play, die Duke of Guise, and, in the next year, the Wild Gallant. In 1662, also, ap- peared his poem addressed to the chan- cellor Hyde, and his Satire on the Dutch. Setting aside the drama, to which his at- tention was unremitting, Iris next publica- tion of consequence was the ./oiaus mirab- Uis, published in 1667. His rejiutation, both as a jioet and a royalist was by this time so well established, thaton the death of sir William Davenant he was appoint- ed poet laureate and historiographer, with a salary of £200 per annum. He soon after published his Essay on Dramatic Poesy, which he had written in 1665, in his retirement, during the plague; jirevi- ously to which he had married lady Eliz- abeth Howard, daughter of the earl of Berkshire. He now became profession- ally a writer for the stage, by entering into a contract with the jiatentees of the king's theatre, to supply three plays a year. The earlier dramatic productions of Dryden were written in rhyme—a circumstance which favored the rant that disfigured them in common with most of the trage- dies of the day. To correct this fault, Villiers, duke of Buckingham, in conjunc- tion with other wits, composed the Re- hearsal, in wfiich celebrated burlesque Dryden was openly ridiculed, in the char- acter of Bayes. In 1679, he joined lord Mulgrave, in an Essay on Satire; and, in 1681, at the express desire of Charles II, he composed his famous political poem, entitled Absalom and Achitophel, in which the incidents of the rebellion of Absalom against David are admirably applied to Charles II, the duke of Monmouth and the intriguing earl of Shaftesbury. The severity of this production raised him in- numerable enemies, whom he still further enraged by his Medal, a Satire on Sedi- tion, written on the occasion of a medal struck by the whig party, when an indict- ment against Shaftesbury for high treason was declared ignoramus. The rancor of the last production is not easily to be 316 DRYDEN—DRY-ROT. paralleled. Having succeeded so well in political, be next essayed literary satire, attacking Shadwell in his Mac Flecknoe. Soon after appeared his Religio Laid, a compendious view of the arguments in favor of revelation. AVith all his abiUty and industry, Dryden suffered die anxiety attendant on straitened circumstances. He next published some classical transla- tions, and two volumes of Miscellany Poems; and, on the death of the king, composed his Tkrenodia Augustalis, a Funeral Poem. On the accession of James II, he conformed to the religion of the new sovereign. One of the fruits of this conversion, was his controversial poem of the Hind and the Pandier, the very absurdity of the plan of which, overcome as it is by the force and beauty ofthe versification and execution, is high- ly honorable to the poetic talents of Dry- den. By the loss of his places and pen- sions, in consequence of the revolution, he had nothing to trust to but his literary industry; and, during the ten concluding years of his life, when he wrote actually for bread, and at so much per Une, he produced some of the pieces which have most contributed to his well established fame. Passing over his translations of Juvenal and Persius, and various minor works, it may be observed that he com- menced his celebrated translation of Vir- gil in 1694, and it was sent to the press in 1697. He is sujiposed to have received £1300 for this hasty but able translation. Soon after the appearance of Virgil, he was solicited to write a second ode for St. CeciUa's day, which request produced his admirable Alexander's Feast, the finest lyric poem in the English language. He then undertook to modernize Chaucer's Tales, contracting with a bookseller to furnish 10,000 lines for £300. This bargain pro- duced the collection called his Fables, some ofthe most poetical pieces he ever compos- ed. He soon after decUned in health. The immediate cause of Iris death Avas an in- flammation in one of his toes, which, ter- minating in a mortification, put an end to his life May 1, 1700. The body of this great poet Avas interred in Westminster abbey, next to that of Chaucer. The Elace was, for some time, undistinguished y a monument, until a plain one, Avith his bust was erected by Sheffield, duke of Buckingham.—Although reserved and saturnine, Dryden was friendly and hu- mane, domestic in his habits, and affec- tionate towards his family. That the pen •f such a man should be so freely prosti- tuted to party rancor and venal panegyric, appears surprising; and it is equally so, that, although regular in his own manners, few AVent beyond him in the dramatic licentiousness of the age. His narrow circumstances may have occasioned, but are not a sufficient apology for these blemishes. As a dramatic poet, he has wit force and majesty, but very little-of nature or propriety. His comedy, with the exception of the Spanish Friar, is alto- gether inferior; and, of all his tragedies, Don Sebastian and All for Love alone are spoken of at present. He stands unrival- led in point of versification, and, in fulness and variety of harmony, and a fine flow- ing and resisdess current of 'numbers, he has never been surpassed. His style in prose, chiefly exhibited in the critical es- says prefixed to his works, forms an ex- cellent specimen of genuine English composition. Of recent editions of his works, we may refer to the prose works, by Malone (1800, 4 vols., 8vo.); his poeti- cal Avorks, edited by Todd, with notes by Warton (1812, 4 vols., 8vo.); and the whole of his works, by sir Walter Scott (1818, 18 vols., 8vo.). Dry-Rot ; a term or name appUed to a rapid decay of any vegetable matter, when it has the apjiearance of being tol- erably dry, but, in general, is applied only to timber when in diat state, and is so named in contradistinction to the common mode of decay, by being exjiosed to the alternate states of wet and dry. There arc a great number of causes for this sjiecies of decay: some are quite simple, others are very complicated; yet, what- ever may be the original cause, simple or compound, the effects are the same, name- ly, to render the timber useless, by de- stroying its elasticity and toughness, ren- dering it insufficient to resist any consid- erable pressure, and, indeed, for any of the useful jiurjioses to Avhich timber is applied. When timber is in a tolerably dry state, any means which will absorb or extract its oxygen from the other com- ponent parts will leave it in the suite com- monly called dry rotten. Moist, wann situations, with little or no current of air, are the most likely to generate this evil. The effluvia from timber in such a state of decay xvill rapidly cany its effects to the circumjacent timber, howrever dry it may appear; and any sort of timber will be, in a very little time, rendered quite useless. When timber is exposed to any considerable degree of moisture and heat, fungi of various shapes and texture, ac- cording to the sjiecies of timber, and other causes, will appear upon it; and although DRY-ROT—DUBLIN. 317 this fungous matter be really an effect of the dry-rot yet it is as truly a cause ofthe same evil. There are no means of restor- ing rotten timber to a sound state, and the dry-rot can only be cured, as it is called, by removing the decayed and affected parts, clearing away all the fungi, and destroying its vegetating principle, with which the hard materials, such as bricks or stone, may have been impregnated. For this purpose, a strong solution of iron, copper, or zinc, is used with advantage. This, Avidi the admission of a large quan- tity of air, is very advantageous. Many persons have written on the subject; and the nostrums proposed are as numerous as their authors. But no means of check- ing the evil can be depended upon, ex- cept that of removing the conujited and contagious matter, and admitting a free circulation of air. Much also may be done by cutting timber in Avinter, and properly seasoning it, by steeping it in water for some time, and then thorough- ly drying it before it is used in build- ing^ Dshamy; a Persian poet (See Ja- mi.) Dshingis Khan. (See Gengis Khan.) Dual, in grammar; that number which is used, in some hinguages, to designate two things, whilst another number (the plural) exists to express many. The dual, in some languages, is a firmly established grammatical form, as in the Attic dialect; in other languages, it is used only in cer- tain cases, with certain words, or only faint traces of it are to be recognised. The Sanscrit has a dual number. Of modem languages which haA-e a literature, Arabic is the only idiom which has re- tained it. That copious language has a dual, to designate two things; a particular plural form, to express from three to nine objects; the plural, for several of any number whatever; and die plural-plural, formed from the plural (though only in some Avords), to designate ten or any larger or indefinite number. Even for substantives Avhich express a number of things, as a sjiecies of animals or plants, the Arabians have a characteristical singu- lar, of which also a plural may be made. (See Silvestre de Sacy's Grammaire Arabe, torn, i., jij). 702, 704, 710.) In the Ameri- can languages, traces of the dual are very often met with, from Greenland to Arau- cania. (See William von Humboldt's Discourse Ueber den Dualis, read in the academy of sciences at Berlin, April 26, 1827, printed at Berlin, 1828; a treatise which does not pretend to exhaust the subject, but wiU assist a scholar in making further investigations.) Dualism ; Dualist. 1. Dualism is the philosophical exposition of the nature of tilings by the adoption of two dissimilar primitive principles, not derived from each other: such, for uistance, are the ideal and the real, or the material and the thinking substance. Dualism may be either dogmatical, or critical, or scep- tical. In a stricter sense, dualism is con- fined to (a) the adoption of two funda- mental beings, a good and an evil one, as is done in the Oriental religions; (b), to the adoption of two different principles in man, viz., a spiritual and a corporeal principle: this is called the psychological dualism. He who embraces this view is caUed a dualist. Opposed to the system of duaUsm is monism, which is either idealism or realism, spiritualism or mate- rialism. 2. In theology, dualism is the doctrine of those who maintain that only certain elected persons are capable of ad- mission to eternal happiness, and that aU the rest Avill be subjected to eternal con- demnation. Dublin, the metropolis of Ireland, is sit- uated in the province of Leinster and coun- ty of Dublin, within a mile ofthe bay of that name, which is of a circular form, and about six miles in diameter, and into which the river Liffey runs, after divid- ing the city, through which its course is nearly west to east, into equal parts. Though spacious, this bay is neither com- modious nor safe, particularly in winter. Its defects are, in part, remedied by a magnificent waU of stone, which runs out into the bay the distance of 8564 yards, and is terminated by a light-house. On the opposite side of the harbor is another light-house, together with a pier and har- bor ; and, lately, a pier has been begun at Dunleary, a village on the south side of the bay, and two and a half miles within its mouth. From die point of Ringsend, where the Liffey enters the bay, it is em- banked on either side with a noble wall of freestone, forming a range of beautiful and spacious quays through the whole city. The river is crossed in its course through the city by seven stone bridges. Dublin is, besides, nearly insulated by two canals, which give great advantages for inland communication. The houses, iritli the exception of the principal public struc- tures, are generally brick, and frem three to five stories high. In the old part ofthe city, the streets are irregutor, although those which range paraUei to, and at right angles with, the Liffey, are uniform and 318 DUBLIN—DUBOIS. capacious. Few cities of its size can boast •f a greater number of magnificent and useful buildings. The castle, which was completed and flanked Avith towers in 1213, is situated about the centre of the city, and is the seat of government The castle chapel, recently rebuilt, is an exqui- site specimen of Gothic arclritecture. The other public buUdings are, the royal ex- change, the commercial buildings, the corn exchange or burgh-quay, the linen hall, the custom-house (in front 375 by 209 feet), the stamp-office, the post-office, and the parliament house (now converted into the national bank). Opposite to the east front of the custom-house are the government Avet docks; and adjacent to the post-office is Nelson's pillar, raised to the height of 130 feet. In the centre of coUege-green is an equestriun statue of WilUam III, erected in 1701. In the Phoenix park, an obelisk, 210 feet high, has been erected in honor of the duke of Wel- lington. On the east side of college-green is the grand front of Trinity college, which is of Portland stone, of die Corinthian order. This building extends in depth 600 feet. The park is in the rear of the college, and contains 25£ acres, adorned with fine trees. Dublin university (viz., its provost, fellows, and scholars arrived at 21 years of age) returned two members to the parliament of Ireland, and stdl returns one to that of the United Kingdom. Dub- Un contains 19 jiarishes, 2 cathedrals, 19 parish churches, besides several chapels of the estabUshed religion; 2 meeting- houses of the church of Scotland, 7 of other dissenters, 4 of Methodists, 2 of Quakers, 1 Lutheran Danish, 1 French Calvinist, and about 26 Roman CathoUc chapels. St. Patrick's cathedral is an an- tique building, in a low and ruinous part of the town, erected in 1190, decorated with a steeple in 1370, and a very lofty sphe in 1750. Christ church, built in 1038, die ancient cathedral of Dublin, is another venerable pile, containing some curious monuments. St George's church is a superb edifice, lately built, Avith a magnificent front and lofty spire. No city, for its size, abounds more in charitable institutions. These are, in general, well endoAved, and some of them are splendid bhildings. The royal barracks are in the west end of the town, near the river. At th« west of the city, opposite to the Phcenix park, is the royal hospital of Kil- mainham, for the reception of disabled and superannuated soldiers, on the plan of the Chelsea hospital. Dublin is a cor- porate body, with a chief magistrate, who has the title of lord mayor, elected annually from the aldermen, who are 25in number, elected for life from citizens who have served as sheriffs: two sheriffs are chosen annually from the common council, who are 96 in number, and are triennial re- elected from their respective guilds by the freemen, a veiy numerous body, amount- ing to perhajis 2000. The freemen of DubUn, in conjunction with its freeholders, also return two members to the united jiarliament Population, 185,881; 60 miles W. of Holyhead in Wales, and 330 N. W. London; Jon. 6° 157 W.; lat. 53° 21' N. Dubois, William, cardinal, jirime min- ister of the duke of Orleans, regent of France, was the son of an apodiecary, and Avas born in 1656, in a small town in the province of Limousin. At the age of 12 years, he was sent to Paris; and, after having studied in the college of St Mi- chael, he obtained the place of private tutor. He afterwards became acquainted with the sub-tutor of the duke of Chartres, M. de St. Laurent, who, having become infirm, was assisted in his duties by Dubois. Dubois ingratiated himself into the favor of his pupil, and, after the death of St. Laurent, Avas chosen to succeed him. From this time he played two parts—that of a tutor and that of a jiimp to his young master. Louis XIV wished to marry his nephew to his natural daughter, Mile, de Blois. Monsieur, the king's brother, was not averse to the match, but the king was too Avell acquainted with the haughty spirit of the duchess to expect her consent Dubois was therefore emjiloyed to gain her and the young prince. His address was successful, and he Avas reAvarded with the abbey of St Just, in Picardy. Louis, Avho had become sensible of his talents, allowed him to join the French ambassa- dor at London. Here the chevalier Du- bois made some important acquaintances, through the influence of St. Evremont He was particularly connected with lord Stanhope, whose friendship was the source of his future fortune. Dubois returned to France, and, under the modest title of a secretary, soon became the privy counsel- lor of the duke of Orleans, and overseer of his household. He encountered, with success, the numerous obstacles and ene- mies opposed to his advancement In 1715, the duke was declared regent; and Dubois, not less ambitious than artful,now ventured to indulge extravagant hopes. In spite of the opposition of the most influential per- sons, he was appointed by the duke coun- seUor of state. The intrigues of the Span- ish court, at that time under the direction of DUBOIS—DUCAT. 319 tlie cardinal Alberoni, gave the duke much trouble, and made him desirous of a powerful ally. Dubois directed his at- tention towards England, and offered to conduct a secret negotiation with the court of that country. His acquaintance with lord Stanhope was now very useful to him. He succeeded in overcoming the dislike of George I to the person of the regent ami, in 1718, concluded the triple ulliiince between England, France and Holland. It has been asserted that Du- bois sold himself to England; but this is not true; on the contraiy, it was neces- sary for him to buy others, to succeed in his negotiations. He was rewarded by the jilace of minister of foreign affairs, and now began to asjiire to the highest dignities of the church. The archbish- opric of Cambray having become vacant, Dubois ventured to request it of the regent, although he was not even a jiriest. The regent Avas astonished at his boldness ; but, as the king of England united Avith Du- bois in his request, he obtained it, and, in one morning, received all the orders, and, a few days after, the archbishojiric. By his consummate address, he obtained a cardinal's hat, and, in 1722, was appointed prime minister. His power had now no bounds; but his excesses had rendered him infirm. He was scarcely able to get in and out of his carriage, and yet he ap- peared on horseback for the sake of receiv- ing military honors at a review. The ex- ertion caused an internal injuiy, of Avhich he died Aug. 10, 1723. The duke of St. Simon has given an accurate picture of him: "Dubois was a little, thin, meager man, with a polecat visage. All the vices, falsehood, avarice, licentiousness, ambition, and the meanest flattery, contended in him for the mastery. He lied to such a degree as to deny his own actions, when taken in the fact. Notwithstanding an affected stammering, which he had adopted for the purpose of gaming time to penetrate the motives of others, his rich, instructive and insinuating conversation would have ren- dered him agreeable, had it not been for the mist of falsehood which issued from every pore, and rendered even his gayety unpleasant. In spite of his debauchery, he was very industrious. His wealth was immense, and his revenue amounted to millions. His memory was hated and ridiculed. Even the inscription on his tomb is a satire; for, after enumerating all his offices and dignities, it concludes, solidiora et stabiliora bona, viator, mortuo frecare." Dubos, Jean Baptiste; one of tUe ear- Uest French writers who endeavored to found a theory of the arts on general prin- ciples. He enriched the theory of the arts by his comparison of poetiy, painting and music (Reflexions sur la Poede, la Pdnture et la Musique, Paris, 1719; 6th ed., 1755, in 3 vols.). The foundation on which he rested his theory was, die neces- sity which every one feels of exercising the powers of his mind, and of setting his invention at work. He was bom at Beau- Aais, in 1670, studied there and at Paris, and Avas placed, in 1095, in the office of foreign affairs, under the nrinister De Torey, who gave him important commis- sions in Germany, Italy, England and Holland. In tliese journeys, be collected the information concerning the arts which his book contains. After his return to France, he obtained a benefice, a pension, and, in 1722, was elected perpetual secre- tary of the French academy. He distin- guished himself as a historian by his His- toire de la Ligue de Candtray (Paris, 1721, 2 vols., 12mo.), and by his Histoire critique de I'Etablissement de la Monarchic Francaise dans les Gaules (Amsterdam, 1743, 2 vols., 4to. and 12mo.). Voltaire ranks him among the writers who Avere an honor to the age of Louis XIV. He died at Paris, 1742. Ducange. (See Dufresne.) Ducat is a gold or silver coin. For its value, see Coins.—In Switzerland, ducats are called Sckildfranken. The Dutch duc- ats, which are coined in great numbers, are the most used in commerce, and are to be found in all quarters of the AA-orld. In the northern countries of Europe, and jiarticularly in Russia, the dealings in money and goods are carried on mostly by means of this coin. The exportation of ducats is, therefore, an important branch of Dutch commerce. This coin and the name are derived from Longinus, a duke of Ravenna, in the 6th centuiy: the first issue of them has also been ascribed to St. Roger II, of Apulia, Avho, in 1140, coined ducats bearing the figure of Christ, and the inscription, Sit tibi, Christe, datus, quern tu regis, iste ducatus. The Vene- tians took his ducats for their pattern in 1280: they were found to constitute a convenient medium of exchange, were adopted by Genoa, and thus came into general use. This standard of coin was also adopted in Hungary; and, for a long time, all foreign coins bore the name of Ongri or Hungarians, in Italy, where the trade of the world was, at this period, concentrated. They were, in many kinds of business, the favorite standard of reck- 320 DUCAT—DUCK. oning. They did not become so common in Germanv tiU a much later date. The golden buli of Charles IV gave to all the members of the empire the privilege of issuing gold coins, with any stamp they chose; but these were only gold guilders, equivalent to the favorite florin. The ducats most generally met Avith are the old Dutch ducats, bearing the inijiression of an armed figure, which gave way, for a short time only, to the figure of Louis, king of Holland. They circulated almost as merchandise, but bad been frequently counterfeited in the Grisons. The coun- terfeits were very good to appearance, both in weight and sound. (See Coins.) Ducatoon ; a Dutch gold coin (also called Ruyder) worth about 20 florins (see Coins); also an Italian silver coin cur- rent for about $1,09. The Dutch gold ducatoon is a national coin, only circulat- ing in the country. There is also a silver ducatoon, used particularly in the East India trade. There is Ukewise a French silver coin of this name, of nearly die same value as the Italian ducatoon. Duchesne, or Du Chesne, Andre (Lat, Chcsnius, Duckenius, Qiiercetanus), from his historical researches, has been called the father of French history. He was bom 1584, at Isle Bouchard, in Touraine; lie studied at Loudon and Paris, was appointed royal geographer and histori- ographer, and died in 1640. His most important works are, his collection of French historians (Hiitoriaz Francorum Scriptores, 3 vols., to which his son Fran- cois Duchesne added a 4th and 5th from the papers left by his father), which the French government have since several times expressed a wish to have completed; his Historim Noimanorum Scriptores ab Anno 838—1220 ; and his genealogical works, which throw much light on the history of France. The number of his writings is veiy great; some were pub- lished by his son after his death. He left more than a hundred foUos in manu- script. Ducis, Jean Francois, a French dra- matic poet known by his adaptation of many pieces of Shakspeare to the French theatre, was born at Versailles, and, late in Ufe, became a writer for the stage. His first piece, caUed Amdise, was unsuccess- ful, and those which followed it shared the same fate. His Hamlet attracted much attention, as it was the Jirst of Shakspeare's plays which appeared on the French stage. This play and his next, Romeo and JuUet and likewise those which appeared later, were so much changed, to adapt them to the French taste, that die title, in some instances, is almost the only thing which reminds us ofthe original. These changes, however, only added to the applause with which they were received in France. He after- wards endeavored, in his (Edipe chez Ad- mde, to imitate the Greeks; but he soon returned to Shakspeare, and translated suc- cessively Lear, Macbeth, Othello and other plays. Abufar or the Arabian Family is one of die best of his original pieces. His style is, perhaps, harsh, but sometimes noble, and full of tragic dignity. He suc- ceeded Voltaire, in the academy, in 1778. He was subsequently secretary to Louis XVIII. He remained true to this mon- arch under all circumstances, and, Avhile on the point of starving, refused the place of a senator, with 40,000 francs a year, and die cross of the legion of honor, offered him by Bonaparte. The return of Louis XVIII made his old age happy. He was gratified when the king recited some of his verses to him at his first audience. " I am more happy," said he, " than Boi- leau and Racine; they recited their verses to Louis XIV; the king recites mine to me." He died March 31,1817, at Ver- sailles. His (Euvres appeared, in 1819, at Paris, in 3 vols. Campenon published, at Paris, in 1824, Lettrcs sur la Vie, le Caract. et les Ecrits de J. F. Ducis. Duck (anas, Lin.); a veiy extensive and natural genus of water birds, which are found in all parts of the world. It has been divided by naturalists into an infin- ity of different genera; to such a degree, indeed, that, according to some of the dis- tinctions which have been made, it would be impossible to leave the females of several species in the same genus with the males. The prince of Musignano is of opinion, that they might be advantageous- ly separated into four sub-genera, in which we shall follow him. These are anser, or goose, cygnus, or swan, anas, or duck, and fuligula. We have thirty-one species of this interesting genus, inhabiting North America, being within one of the number found in Europe: of these, twenty-one are common to the two continents, leaving ten peculiar to America, and eleven to Eu- rope. The mallard, or common wild duck (A. boschas), is found both in Europe and America. This is the original stock of the domesticated duck, which appears to have been reclaimed at a very early period. It is found in every fresh water lake and river of the U. States, in winter, but seldom frequents the sea shores or salt marshes. During the summer, it re- DUCK. 321 sides in the north, along with the im- mense flocks of other water-fowl that retire thither for the purpose of breeding. A few pairs, however, occasionally met re- main in the Middle States during the whole year. The nest is usually placed in the most solitary recesses of a marsh or bog, among coarse grass, reeds and rush- es, and generally contains from twelve to sixteen eggs, of a dull greenish-white. The flesh of the wUd duck is held in general estimation, and various methods are re- sorted to, in order to obtain these birds in quantities. In Picardy, in France, vast numbers are taken in decoys, and sold in the Paris market, where, in one season, thirty thousand francs have been paid for the produce ofthe small lake of St. Lam- bert They also abound in Lincolnshire, in England, and are there taken in great quantities, by nearly the same means as in Picardy. Pennant had an account sent him of the produce often decoys, which, in one winter, amounted to thirty-two thousand two hundred. We are indebted to Wilson (American Ornithology) for an enumeration of several simple and effective contrivances made use of) in this country, for the capture of these Avary birds. In some ponds, frequented by them, five or six wooden figures, cut and painted to represent ducks, and sunk, by pieces of lead nailed to the bottom, so as to float at the usual depth on the surface, are anchored in a favorable position to be raked from a concealment of brush, &c. These attract the passing flocks, which alight, and thus exjiose themselves to cer- tain destruction. In winter, when de- tached pieces of ice are occasionally float- ing in the river, some of the gunners on, the Delaware paint their boats white, and, laying themselves flat in the bottom, direct them almost imjiercejitibly near a flock, before the ducks have distinguished them from a floating piece of ice. On land, an- other stratagem is sometimes practised with great success. A tight hogshead is sunk in the marsh, or mud, near the place where ducks are accustomed to feed at low water, and where, otherwise, there is no shelter; the edges and top are artfully concealed with tufts of long, coarse grass and reeds or sedge. From within this, the gunner watches his collecting prey, and usuaUy commits great havoc. In China, the sportsman covers his head with a calabash, jiierced with eye-holes, and, thus equipped, wades into the water, keeping only his head above die surface, and, on arriving amidst a flock, seizes them by the legs, fastens them to his girdle, and thus takes as many as he wishes, without disturbing the rest. (See Wilson's Am. Ornilhol.; Pennant's Brit. Zoology, vol. 2.) —Muscovy duck (A. moschata). This well known bird is the largest of the duck kind, and approaches nearly to the size of a goose. It has obtained its name from a strong smell of musk, which ex- hales from its body, and not because it comes from Russia, as has been supposed. The Muscovy ducks are tamed in great quantities in the West Indies, and are found wild in Guiana, where they nestle on the trunks of trees, close upon the water's edge. They feed in the morning upon a plant called wild rice, and seldom permit the sportsman to approach within gunshot*—Canvass-back duck (A. vallis- neria). This delicious bird is peculiar to this country, and was known to the epi- cure long before it was described by the naturalist We are indebted to Wilson for the first account of it He gave it the name of the plant on which it feeds, and which had been called after the celebrated Vallisneri. The canvass-back ducks ar- rive in the U. States, fi-om the north, about the middle of October, and, principally, assemble in the numerous rivers in the neighborhood of the Chesapeake bay. On the Susquehannah, they are called canvass-baeks, on the Potomac, white-backs, and on James' river, sheldrakes. When they first anive, they are very lean; but from the abundance of their favorite food, they become fat about November. They are sometimes found in such multitudes as to cover several acres. From the great demand for these ducks, and the high price they ahvays command, various methods are employed to decoy them Avithin gun-shot. The most successful is that termed tolling, in which they are enticed to approach the shore, by means of a dog properly trained. The article in Wilson's work is extremely interesting, and Mr. Ord has made a long and Aalua- ble addition to it. The canvass-back is constantly attended by another species, the widgeon (A. Americana), Avhich manages to make a good subsistence from his la- bors. This bird is extremely fond of the tender roots of that particular species of plant on Avhich the canvass-back feeds. The vridgeon, which never dives, watches the moment the canvass-back rises, and, before he has his eyes well opened, snatches the morsel from his mouth, and makes off.—The other American species of ducks are, A. clypeata, or shoveller, re- * Several pairs of wild Muscovy ducks hare been killed, at different periods, iu our rivers. 322 DUCK—DUCTILITY. markable for the strange form of its bill. A.strepera, or gadwall, Avhich is more rare in America than in Europe. A. acuta, pin- tail, or sprigtail, remarkable for the form of its tail; it is abundant in both hemi- spheres. A. obscura, black or dusky duck, pecuUar to this continent and very abun- dant; this is perhaps the most sagacious and timid of all the American ducks. A. sponsa, summer or wood duck; not more remarkable for its great beauty, in wlrich it stands preeminent dian for its habits, its migrations being directly oppo- sed to those of the other species. A. dis- cors, blue-winged teal. A. crecca, green- winged teaL (See Teal.) A. mollisdma, eider duck (q. v.). A. perspidllata, black or surf duck. This is common to both hemispheres, but is very rare in Europe. A. fusca, velvet duck, also found in bodi hemispheres; its flavor is rank and fishy, and it is therefore seldom sought after. A. nigra, scoter ; found both in Europe and America ; these birds, and a few others of the same fishy flavor, are ex- empted from the interdict which forbids Roman CathoUcs the use of animal food on certain days, on the supposition of their being cold-blooded, and partaking of the nature offish. A. rubida, ruddy duck; this species was very rare in Wilson's time, but has since become more plenty. A. ferina, red-head; common to both continents ; it approaches very near to the canvass-back in delicacy ; its usual weight is about one pound and three quarters. A. marilla, scaup duck or blue-bill, a well known and common species in both con- tinents. A. rufitorques, tufted duck; a species confounded with the A. fuligula of Europe, until the differences were pointed out by the prince of Musignano. (See Journ. Acad. Nat. Sri., vol. 3.) A. dangula, golden-eye; common to both hemisjiheres. A. albeola, buffet-head, or butter-ball ; peculiar to this country, where it is common. A. glarialis, long- tailed duck, south southerly, oldwife; common to both continents, remarkable for the long and slender middle feathers of its taiL A. labradoria, pied duck; a beautiful and rare species, peculiar to America. A. histrionica, harlequin duck; a magnificent species, found on both con- tinents; it derives its name from the singularity of its markings ; along the coast of New England it is called the lord Duck ; a sort of strong, brown, Unen cloth, used chiefly by sail-makers. Ducking-Stool. (See Cucking-Stool.) Duclos, Charles Pineau, known as a novelist, a dcscriber of character and man- ners, a writer of memoirs, and a gramma- rian, bom 1705, at Dinant, received a good education at Paris, early turned his knowledge to jirofit, in 1739 was chosen member of the academy of insertions, in 1748 member, and soon after secretary of the French academy. Though he re- sided at Paris, he was elected mayor of his native toAvnin 1744. When die states of Bretagne, in reward of their zeal for the welfare of the kingdom, were permit- ted to nominate such of their number as they thought most worthy of the royal favor, Duclos was unanimously elected one of the number, and received letters of nobility. Not long before his death, he was appointed historiographer of France, in Voltaire's place. He died at Paris, 1772. Among the best of his novels, are Confessions du Comte de B*** (1741, 12mo.); and of his memoirs, his Memoires sur les Mau'rs du XVIIIme Siecle (1751, 12mo.); both full of acute and striking re- marks, especially on women and love. His Considerations sur les Maturs de ce Siecle are full of striking sketches of character, and deep knowledge of human nature. His History of Louis XI is esteemed, but shoAvs the hand of the novelist. Of more value are his Memoires secrets sur les Rtgnes de Louis XIV et XV. This work was com- posed in his character of historiographer. He also distinguished himself in his Re- marques sur la Grammaire generate de Port-Royal (1764,12mo.), as a grammarian. Desessarts published the (Euvres compldcs de Duclos (Paris, 1809, 10 vols.). The last volume contains a fragment of his autobiography. In the entertaining Mi- moires de Madame d'Epinay, the character of Duclos is represented in no very favor- able light. Ductility ; the extensibility and cohe- sion of particles, which enables metal to be drawn ipto wire without breaking. The ductility of some bodies, especially of gold, is very surprising. A single grain of gold may be stretched under tile ham- mer into a leaf that will cover a house, and yet the leaf remain so compact as not .to transmit die rays of light, nor even admit spirit of wine to transude. But M. Reaumur has shown the ductility of gold to be still greater. What is called gold-wire, every body knows, is only sil- ver gilt The cylinder of silver, cover- ed with leaf gold, is drawn through the hole of an iron, and the gilding is ex- tended with the wire, to whatever length it may be stretched. Now, M. Reau- mur shows, that, in the common way of DUCTILITY—DUDLEY. 323 drawing gold wire, a cylinder of silver, twenty-two inches long, and fifteen lines in diameter, is stretched to 1,163,520 feet, or is 631,692 lines longer than before, which amounts to about ninety-seven leagues. To Avind this thread on silk, for use, it is first flattened, in doing which it stretches at least one seventh further, so tiiat the twenty-two inches are now 111 leagues; but in the flattening, instead of one seventh, it could be stretched one fourth, which would bring it to 120 leagues. This appears a prodigious extension, and yet it is nothing to what this gentleman hns proved gold to be capable of. Ductility of Glass. When glass is pen- etrated with the heat of fire, it can be managed Uke soft wax, and may be drawn out into threads exceedingly long . and fine. Ordinary spinners do not form their threads of silk, flax, or the like, with half the ease and expedition the glass-sjiinners do threads of tlrs brittle matter. Some of them are made into plumes, and used in other works; they are made much finer than hair, and bend and wave, like hair, with every wind. Two work- men are employed in malting them: the first holds one end of apiece of glass over the flame of a lamp, and, when the heat has softened it the second operator applies a glass hook, and draws out a thread of glass, which still adlieres to the mass; then, fitting his hook on the circumference of a wheel about two feet and a half in diameter, he turns the wheel as fast as he pleases, till it is covered with a skein of glass thread. The parts, as they recede from the flame, by gradually cooling, become more coliesive : the parts near- est the fire are always the least cohe- sive, and, consequently, must give way to the effort made to draw them to- wards the wheeL These threads are commonly of a flat oval shape, being three or four times as broad as thick: some of them seem scarcely bigger than the thread of a silk-worm, and are sur- prisingly flexible. If the two ends of such threads are knotted together, they may be drawn and bent till the aper- ture, or space in the middle of the knot, does not exceed one fourth of a line, or one forty-eighth of an inch, in diameter. The flexibiUty of glass in- creases in proportion to the fineness of the threads; and, probably, had we the art of drawing threads as fine as a spi- der's web, we might weave stuffs and cloths of them, but could never make them long enough to be serviceable. (For further information, see Divisibility.) Du-Deffand, Madame. (See Deffand.) Dudley, Edmund; noted in English history as an instrument of Henry VII, in the arbitrary acts of extortion practised during the latter years of his reign. He was born in 1462, of an ancient and re- spectable family; and was educated at the university of Oxford. Becoming a stu- dent of the law at Gray's Inn, he arrived at such eminence in his jirofession as recommended him to the favor of the king, who made much use of his services, and conferred on him various offices and emoluments. In 1505, he was made speaker of the house of commons, and, through his influence, several enactments took jilace, oppressive to the peojile and profitable to the monarch. On the ac- cession of Henry VIII, he perished on the scaffold, August 18, 1510, with his associ- ate, sir Richard Emson (who was die son of a sieve-maker at Towcester). Dudley, John, duke of Northumber- land ; son of the preceding. He was born in 1502, and, after his father's execution, was restored in blood by act of parlia- ment. In 1542, he was raised to the peerage as viscount Lisle, in right of his mother, who inherited that title. Soon after, he was made KG.; and, at length, the post of lord-lrigh-admiral was confer- red on him for life. He served with rep- utation in Scotland and France, and was left, by Henry VIII, one of the executors named in his will, as a kind of joint- regent during the minority of Edward VI. Under that jiiince, he manifested the most insatiable ambition, and obtained vast ac- cessions of honors, power, and emolu- ments. At first, he joined his interest with that of the duke of Somerset, the king's uncle, whom, however, at length he un- dermined and destroyed. He had been advanced to the titles of earl of Warwick and duke of Northumberland ; and, after the fall of his rival, his authority was almost unbounded. The illness of the king, over Avhom he had gained complete ascendency, alarmed his fears, and he endeavored to strengthen his interest by marrying his son, lord Guilford Dudley, to lady Jane Grey, descended from the younger sister of Henry VIII, and per- suaded Edward to settle the crown on his kinswoman by will, to the exclusion of his two sisters, the princesses Mary and Elizabeth. The death of the king, the abortive attempts to place lady Jane Grey on the throne, and the ruin of all those concerned in the scheme, are among the most familiar events in the annals of Eng- land. Northumberland himself was be- 324 DUDLEY. beaded on Tower-hill, August 22,1553. He professed himself a Catholic a short time before his execution, and died in that faith, though the avowed object of the plot was to secure the establishment of Protestantism in England. Dudley, sir Henry Bate, baronet w*as bom at Fenny Compton, August 25, 1745. His father, the reverend Henry Bate, was rector of North Farmbridge, in Essex, in which benefice his son Henry succeeded him at his death; but the emoluments ofthe Uving being but trifling, he- established the Morning Post news- paper, and, in 1780, the Morning Her- ald, commencing also, about the same time, the Courier de I'Europe—a journal Erinted in the French language—and the Inglish Chronicle. At this period, he was a contributor to the Probationary Odes, die Rolliad, and other works of a similar class. In 1781, the advowson of the rectory of Bradwell-juxta-Mare was purchased in trust for him, subject to the life of the reverend George Pawson. In 1784, he assumed the name of Dudley, in compliance Avith the will of a relation. Mr. Pawson dying in 1797, Mr. Dudley presented himself to the vacant benefice; but die bishop of London refused insti- tution, and a compromise was at length effected. In 1812, he received the liv- ing of Willingham, in. Cambridgeshire. Shortly after, he obtained a baronetcy, and, in 1816, the dignity of a jirebend in Ely cathedral, which he retained till the day of his death, February 1,1824. Sir Henry distinguished himself as a useful magistrate; while his literary abilities were manifested in the composition of a variety of dramatic pieces. Among these are the Flitch of Bacon, written for the purpose of introducing his friend Shield to the public; the Woodman; the Rival Candidates ; the Blackamoor Washed White (at the representation of which, party spirit ran so high as to produce a serious conflict, in which swords Avere draAvn, &c, among the audience); the TraA'ellers in Switzerland; and the popu- lar piece At Home. In his earlier years, the Avarmth of his temperament betrayed him, notwithstanding his cloth, into seve- ral quarrels. The cause of two of these rencontres Avas Mrs. Hartley, an actress celebrated for her beauty. A third, of more equivocal character, fought with Mr. Sto- ney Bowes, made a great noise at the time. Sir Henry, at the time of his decease, was a magistrate for sevren EngUsh counties, and four in Ireland, Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester, was the fifth son of the duke of Northumber- land, and Avas born about 1532. He Avas knighted when young, and was made gen- tleman ofthe bed-chamber to Edward VI. Though uivolved in die criminal designs of his father, and included in the sentence of attainder passed against him on the acces- sion of Mary, he was pardoned, and em- ployed by that queen. After Elizabeth ascended the throne, Dudley soon acquir- ed the distinction of being her favorite. Offices, honors and wealth were shower- ed on him with an unsparing hand. He Avas appointed master ofthe horse, knight ofthe garter, and privy counsellor; and he received grants of the princely domains of Kenilworth, Denbigh, and Chirk cas- tle. In 1560, the death of his wife took place, at Cumnor-haU, in Berkshire. This event, according to popular ojiinion, as appears from Aubrey, involved Dudley in the guilt of murder. If he sacrificed the life of his consort, in the hope of marrying the queen, his ambitious views Avere dis- appointed. Elizabeth, however, encour- aged him to aspire to the hand of Mary of Scotland, who rejected him with dis- dain. In 1564, he was created baron Denbigh and carl of Leicester, and was the same year elected chancellor of Ox- ford university, having previously been chosen to the same office at Cambridge. About 1572, he apjiears to have married the baroness-doAvager Sheffield, lady Dou- glas HoAvard, by Avhom he had children, but whom he disowned as his wife, and even compelled her to marry another per- son. In 1575, he gave a princely enter- tainment to the queen, at Kenihvorth cas- tle ; the festivities of which are described in a picturesque manner, in the celebrated romance of Kenilworth, and, in defiance of chronology, connected with the death of Leicester's first Avife. Leicester, in 1578, offended the queen by his maniage with the widow of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex. He, however, recovered her favor, and, in 1585, was appointed, through her influence, governor ofthe Netherlands, then recently emancijiated from the Span- ish yoke. His conduct in this station did not give satisfaction to the queen, or to the states over which he presided, and he was recalled the following year. He re- turned to his command in June, 1587; but he was finally displaced a few months after, and returned to England. He was accused of misconduct by lord Buekhurst and others; but Elizabeth still retained so much partiality for him, that she support- ed him against aU his enemies; and, on the prospect of the Spanish invasion, in DUDLEY—DUEL. 325 1588, she appointed him commander of the forces assembled at Tilbury, for the defence of the kingdom. Leicester died September 4, the same year, at Corjibu- ry park, in Oxfordshire, and was interred in a chapel of the collegiate church of Warwick, where a splendid monument was raised to his memory. Duel (from duellum, derived from duo) is a combat betAveen two, at a time and place appointed, in consequence of a chal- lenge, and so is distinguished from an encounter, taking place Avithout any pre- vious arrangement The custom of duel- ling was derived from the northern nations; the judicial combat and the private duel, upon the principle of the point of honor, haAing both been unknown to the an- cients. The Germans, Danes and Franks carried the jiractice of the judicial combat so far, that none .were excused, except women, sick people, cripples, and such as were over 60 years of age. Even eccle- siastics and monks were obliged to main- tain their controversies by a champion in arms; and this singular sjiecics of ju- risprudence Avas not confined to crim- inal accusations, but the titles to estates were decided in the same manner. At length, however, this mode of trial Avas limited to those accusations of capital offences, in Avhich there Avas no other testimony, and in Avhich common fame pronounced the accused party to be guilty. The party vanquished Avas punished by hanging, beheading, or mutilation of mem- bers. A judicial combat was authorized by Gundebald, king of the Burgundians, as early as A. D. 501. Fleta (1. 1. c. 32) says it is a combat between tAvo, to prove the truth in respect to their controversy, and the party who conquers shall prevad in the suit. The practice of trying rights to land, as Avell as the guilt or innocence of an accused Jiarty, by combat under judicial authority, very naturally suggest- ed the decision of personal quarrels in the same AAray (particularly those in which the jioint of honor was concerned), and all cases in which there was no adequate redress provided in the ordinary tribunals. The example of Francis I of France, and Charles V of Sjiain, gave a sanction to this mode of arbitration. On the break- ing up of the treaty betAveen these sove- reigns, and the declaration of war by the French and English heralds, at the court of Charles, Jan. 2, 1528, the emperor, in rejilying to the declaration of the French monarch, desired the herald to acquaint his sovereign, that he Avould henceforth consider him, not only as a base violator vol. iv. 28 of public faith, but as a stranger to the honor and integrity becoming a gentle- man. On receiving this message, Francis immediately sent back the herald with a cartel of defiance, gave the emperor the lie in form, chaUenged him to single com- bat, and required him to appoint the time, jilace and Aveapon.--. Charles accepted the challenge; but, after many messages concerning die arrangements for the com- bat, accompanied Avith mutual rejiroaches, bordering on the most indecent scurriDty,' all thoughts of the duel were given up. But this affair, though it thus terminated without any rencounter, is supposed to have had a great influence in jiroducing an important change in manners all over Europe. Upon every insult or injuiy, which seemed to touch his honor, a gentleman thought himself entitled to draw his sword, and to call on Lis adver- sary to give him satisfaction. Such an opinion becoming prevalent among men of fierce courage, of high sjiirit, and rude manners, where offence was often given, and revenge alvvavs jirompt, led to the sacrifice of many fives. This "detectable practice of duelling, introduced," as the council of Trent say, " at the instigation of the devil," raged with the greatest violence in France, Avhere it is calculated that 6000 persons fell in duels, during 10 years of the reign of Henry IV. liis celebrated minister, Sully, remonstrated against the practice; but the king connived at it, supposing that it tended to maintain a military sjiirit among his peojile. But afterwards, in 1602, near the close of his reign, he issued a very severe decree against it, and declared it to be punishable with death. This decree was ojiposed by Sully, as being so far beyond the senw- ments of the people on the subject, that it could not be canied into execution; and experience jiroved the correctness of Sully's opinion. Under Henry's succes- sor, the cardinal Richelieu uitroduced a law, that eveiy person who should fight a duel should lose his offices and pensions, a third of his property, and be exiled for-three years from the kingdom. Duels soon de- creased. Two noblemen Ave re executed for this offence in 1627. In 1632, two noble- men killed each other in a duel ; their corpses were hung upon the gallows, vvith the legs upjiennost. (.Mtrcure, XIII, 450.) Duels are not severely punished by the present French code. " It must be admit- ted," says Mr. Robertson, in connexion with his account of the challenge between Charles and Francis, " diat to this absurd custom we must ascribe, in some degree, 326 DUEL. the extraordinary gentleness and complai- sance of modern manners, and that re- spectful attention of one man to another, Avhich, at present, render the social inter- courses of Ufe far more agreeable and decent than among the most civiUzed nations of antiquity." Duelling sprung up as a branch of the chivalrous spirit of tlie middle ages; and the remnant of that spirit, Avhich has survived to our own times, and which makes an insult, or an injuiy to honor, insupportable, has pre- served this custom, in opjiosition to the exhortations and denunciations of the teachers of religion, and the prohibitions and jienalties of die laAvs, Avhich have been leveUed against it in all ciAiUzed countries. A duel, provoked from a spirit of revenge and thirst of blood, shocks the moral sense, and excites the horror of mankind, little less than a cold-blooded assassination. But, where a man burns Avith a sense of atrocious insult, which no laAvs can redress, and resorts to the duel, not from a spirit of revenge, but as the only means supplied which he considers to be left him for vindicating his honor, although this remedy is ever so inadequate, and even absurd, and al- though it is Uable to so great abuse, still, in such a case, the general sentiment, in spite of all laws to the contraiy, regards a challenge with tolerance; and it is these instances that sustain the practice of duelling, and defeat, in a great degree, the execution of the laws against duels. As far as men are impelled to combat by these motives, as Sully remarked to Hen- ry IV, the threat of the punishment of death, by the law, has feeble influenco with diem ; since they expose their lives in the combat itself, in order to avoid what they consider a greater evil than death. This evil is one inflicted, in many instances, by the public opinion, and de- pends on the customs of particular socie- ties. Thus, in France, Spain and Italy, a blow with die hand is a mortal injury; and that it is so is matter merely of jmblic opinion, for in England and the U. States, tliis is by no means so burning a disgrace. But, in both of the latter countries, a stroke with a whip is, by the pubUc opin- ion, rendered exceedingly galling. After all, however, parties in the heat of resent- ment, and the high excitement of their eensibiuties, are apt greatiy to OA'enate the importance of the supposed disparage- ment of their reputation ; and the friA'oUty of the occasion would frequently make duels subjects of ridicule, if they were not cases of Ufe and death. And, though the public are disposed to paUiate them, in extreme cases, stiU the laws very proper- ly prohibit the practice of duelling, in Mo. Accordingly, tlie laws of England make killing in a duel, after time for reflection and deliberation, murder. " A party," says Mr. Russell, in his treatise on crimes, "killing another in a deliberate duel, is guilty of murder, and cannot helji himself by alleging that he was first struck by the deceased; or that he had often declined to meet him, and Avas prevailed upon to do so by his imjiortunity ; or that it was his intent only to vindicate bis reji- utation; or that he meant not to kill, but only to disarm his adversary. He has deUberately engaged in an act highly un- lawful, and he must abide the conse- quences." Such is the law of England, but it does not prevent duels; and the parties concerned in them often come off with impunity. In the U. States, there is a Arery considerable diversity in the laws of the different states on this subject, at the time of writing this article, in 1830. In Maine, the punishment for challenging, fighting a duel, or acting as second, is solitary imprisonment not over a year, confinement to hard labor not more than 20 years, and disqualification for office for 20 years; for accepting a challenge, im- prisonment not exceeding a year, and dis- qualification for office 5 years: in Ver- mont, for kilUng in a duel, death; for sending or accepting a challenge, a fine of from $50 to $1000, and absolute dis- quaUfication for office : in Massachusetts, for fighting, in case death does not ensue, or challenging, accepting a challenge, or being second, the same as in Maine: in Rhode Island, for fighting, though death does not ensue, carting to the galloAvs, Avith a rojie about the neck, sitting on tbe gallows an hour, and imprisonment not ex- ceeding a year, either or both: in Connec- ticut for sending or accepting a challenge, a fine of $3000, bonds for good behavior during life, and disqualification for office ; for delivering a challenge, the same, ex- cepting the bonds: in New Jersey, for challenging, or bearing a challenge, or aiding, a fine not over $500, or imprison- ment not more than 2 years, or both; for fighting, or being second, or aiding, a fine not over £1000, and imprisonment to hard labor not more, than 2 years: in Pennsylvania, for chaUenging, or bear- ing a challenge, a fine not over $500, and imprisonment of 1 year: in Delaware, for fighting a duel, or sending, bearing or accepting a challenge, or aiding therein, a fine of $1000, imprisonment for three DUEL—DUGUAY-TROUIN. 327 months, and absolute disqualification for office: in Maryland, for sending or ac- cepting a challenge, disqualification for office; for killing an antagonist in a duel, or wounding him so that he shall die within a year and a day, confinement in the penitentiary not less than 5, nor more than 18 years: in Virginia, for killing in a duel, death ; for challenging, or accepting a challenge, disqualification for office: in Louisiana, for ail insult, with intent to pro- voke a challenge, a fine of $50 to $300, and close imprisonment from 5 to 30 days; for giving or accejiting a chal- lenge, imprisonment from 2 to 6 months, and susjiension of political rights for 4 years; for fighting, without Avounding, imprisonment from 6 to 12 months, and susjiension from political rights 6 years; for wounding, but not mortally, or so as to occasion a permanent bodily disabil- ity, imprisonment from 12 to 18 months, and suspension from political rights 8 years; for killing in a duel, imprisonment from 2 to 4 years, and absolute forfeiture of certain political rights. In many of the states, of which the statutes make no special provision for the case of killing in a duel, it is either murder or manslaugh- ter, by the general law. The laws of Illi- nois, and some other states, require certain officers of the state to make oath, either that they have not, within a certain time, been, or will not be, concerned in a duel. " Some advocates for duelling," says Coke, " allege the combat of David and Goliath, in vindication of the practice;" and there are some other instances on record, of single combats proposed, which Coke looks upon in a more favorable light He mentions that Edward III, in the 16th year of his reign, jiroposed a speedy trial of all right in controversy between him and the French king, by a personal combat with his rival. And Richard II, of England, having a contro- versy with the king of France, concerning the title to the French crown, "it was," says Coke, " an honorable offer tiiat Rich- ard made to Charles, the French king, for saving of guildess Christian blood, and to put an end to that bloody and lingering war, through his uncle, the duke of Lan- caster," that the war should be concluded, 1 by a personal combat between them- selves ; or, 2, between themselves, with three of their uncles on each side; or, 3, by a general battle, at an appointed time and jilace, between all the forces that they could respectively muster. The duke of Lancaster, according to his commission, made these offers to Charles, the king of France, " but king Charles liked none of their offers." In 1196, in the eighth year of the reign of Richard I, PhiUp, king of France, sent this challenge to Richard I of England,—"that king Richard would choose five for his part, and the king of France would choose five for his part, which might fight in lists for trial of all matters in controversy betAveen them, for the avoiding of shedding of more guiltless blood. Richard accepted the offer, Avitli the condition that cither king might be of the number, but this condition would not be granted." Upon which Coke re- marks, that " these and the like offers, as they jiroceeded from high courage and greatness of mind, so had they been lawful if they had been warranted by public au- thority. To take away all motive and ex- cuse for the duel, Henry IV of France erect- ed a court of honor, to try, and administer redress in, those cases Avhich are the usual subjects of martial arbitrament. But this did not supplant the mode of decision by combat; and no court of this sort seems to be now in existence, or, at least in the course of jiractical administration, in any country; and whether, it be at all practi- cable, remains yet to be determined. Dufresne, or Du Fresne, Charles, lord of Cange, hence often called Ducange; a man of letters, who did much for the his- tory of the middle ages, especially as re- gards his own country, as Avell as for the Byzantine history. He was born in 1610, at a farm near Amiens, of a respectable family, and studied in the Jesuits' college, at that place, afterwards at Orleans and Paris. At this last place he became par- liamentary advocate, in 1631, and, in 1645, royal treasurer at Amiens, from which place he was driven by a pestilence, in 1668, to Paris. Here he devoted himself entirely to Uterature, and published his great works, viz., his Glossary ofthe Greek and Latin peculiar fo the Middle Ages and the Moderns; his Historia-Byzantina(l*aris, 1660, fol.); the Annals of Zonaras; the Nu- mismatics of the Middle Ages, and other important works. He died in 108. Duguay-Trouin, Rene, one ofthe most distinguished seamen of his time, bom, 1673, at St. Malo, was the son of a rich merchant and skilful navigator. He made his first voyage in 1689, in a vessel of 18 guns, wlrich his family fitted out, in the Avar against England and Holland. His courage induced his family to trust him with a ship of 14 guns. Being driven on the coast of Ireland, he burnt two ships, and took a fort, in spite of the opposition of a numerous garrison. He was once 328 DUGUAY-TROUIN—DUKE. taken prisoner, and carried into Plymouth. He there gained the love of an English female, wlio procured him his liberty. He once more made a cruise on the coast of England, and took two ships of war. Duguay-Trouin, hoav in his 21st year, at- tracted the attention of the government Louis XIV.sent him a svvord. Ho cap- tured great numbers of English and Dutch phijxs on the coast of Spain and Ireland ; in 16!>«>, he took a great part ofthe out- ward bound Dutch fleet, under Wassc- naer; in 1697, he entered the royal ma- rine, as a captain. He signalized himself so nuich in the Spanish war, that the king granted him letters of nobility, in Avhich it Avas stated, that he had cajitured more than 300 merchant shijis, and 20 ships of war. By the capture of Rio de Janeiro, 1611, lie brought the crown more than 25 millions. Under Louis XV, he rendered imjiortant services in the Levant and the Mediterranean. He died at Paris, 1736. His memoirs appeared there, in 1740, in 4 vols. -His Eloge was written by Thomas. Dujardix, Charles, a painter, bom 1640, at Amsterdam, a scholar of Ber- ghem, excelled in painting landscajies, animals, and scenes in low life, lie went to Italy when young, and was a member ofthe society of painters at Rome, among whom he Avas called Barba di Becco. His works met with general ajiprobation. On his return to his native country, he contracted considerable debts at Lyons, to free himself from which he manied his old and rich landlady. He went with her to Amsterdam, where his pictures wrere Aalued A'ery highly. He soon se- cretly left Iris home in that city, jirobably from dislike to lr.s Avife, and went to Rome, where he was Avclcomed by his old friends and admirers, and lived at great exjiense. Thence he went to Venice, where he died, in 1678, in the prime of life. His landscajies have sjiirit and hannony, his figures expression, and his coloring the brilliancy wlrich distinguishes his school. His paintings are rare, and command a high j-ricc. He'also jiublished 52 land- scape-, etched with much sjiirit and case. Dike (from the Latin dux, leader, com- mander). Among the ancient German tribes, the military leaders were chosen by the jieojile (reges ex nobilitate, duces cr virtute sumunt, says Tacitus), with whom, however, the whole legislative jiower remained: this is the natural and jirobably the common origin of the princes of all nations. By degrees, as appears from Marculphus, and Gregory of Tours, the oath of aUegiance was introduced among the Franks, which was taken, not only by the foUowcrs of the prince (comites), but also by the people at large, Avho still continued, however, to hold the legislative poAver. The counts and dukes, after this time, were no longer chosen by the peojile, but by the jiiinee. Dukes Avere set over provinces or districts, to regulate the military affairs, and counts to administer justice, and to collect the taxes. (See Count.) Charlemagne suffered the dignity of die dukes to cease, because their jiower seemed to him too dangerous. But the incursions of foreign tribes into Germany made the reestablishment of dukes necessary under his successors. In 847, the emperor Louis appointed a duke of Thuringia, to protect the frontiers against the Wendes, or Vandals, a Scla- vonic tribe. The power ofthe dukes now gradually increased, their dignity, like that of counts, became hereditary, and they soon became powerful members of the German empire. An archbishop of Co- logne, Bruno, was the first who bore (in 959) the title of archduke, which, since the time of the emperor Frederic III (1453), has been given exclusively to the princes ofthe house of Austria. All the Austrian princes are archdukes. The kings of Poland styled themselves grand-dukes of Lithuania; and Maximilian II, emperor of Germany, gave this title of grand-duke to the dukes of Florence. Napoleon con- fen-ed the arch-ducal dignity on several German jirinccs, which the congress of Vienna confirmed to them. In other countries, duke is only a title of nobility, as duca in Italy, due in France, and du/ce in England. In the two first countries, dukes are the second hi rank among the nobles; in the latter, the highest. Napo- leon created dues, after he had assumed the title of emperor, and gaAe them titles generally taken from jilaccs or countries in which they had distinguished them- selves; as, for instance, Duroc was cre- ated duke of Friuli. In England, the first hereditary duke was the black prince, created by his father, Edward III, in 1336. The duchy of Cornwall was be- stowed ujion him, and was thenceforward attached to the eldest son of the king, Avho is considered duxnatus. The duchy of Lancaster was soon after conferred on his third son, John of Gaunt, and hence arose the special privileges which tliese tAvo duchies still in jiart retain. In the reign of EUzabeth, in 1572, the ducal order Avas extinct, and not revived till the creation of Villars duke of Buckingham, by James I. There are now, besides the brothers of DUKE—DUMB AND DEAF. 329 the king of England, who are all dukes, 19 English dukes. The coronet of an English duke consists of eight strawberry leaves, on a rim of gold. His style is, most high, potent and noble prince—your grace. In the distribution of the empire, under Coustantine, dux was the title borne by a military provincial governor. On the division of the empire, 13 duces were nominated in the East. In the Bible, the Avord dukes is used, Gen. xxxvi. 15, for the duces ofthe Vulgate. Dulvvich; a village in Surry, England, noted for the College of God's Gift, five miles S. E. London. The gallery of jiaintings at Dulwich college is one of the finest collections in the world. Dul- Ayich is charmingly situated, and the de- lightful walk to the village, after leaving the long and noisy streets ofthe metropo- lis, adds to the enjoyment of the gallery, where the jiicces of Cuyp and other mas- ters seem to reflect the beautiful scenery on which you have just been gazing. In that collection you find jiaintings of all characters and schools, from the comic, and, sometimes, almost too natural Teuiers and Wouvrermann, up to Cuyp, Claude, Paul Potter, and the grave RuysdaeJ. The gallery contains, likewise, many works of Murillo, Vandyke, Rubens, Rembrandt, Poussin, Salvator Rosa, Caravaggio, Guer- cino, Paul Veronese, Guido, Andrea del Sarto, and Titian. Of the last there is a nymph, a picture in which this glorious artist expressed, perhaps more than in any of his other productions, that luxu- riant beauty and glowing voluptuousness, which so often insjiired him. The galle- ry at Dulwich is also advantageously dis- tinguished from many others in England, by the facility of admittance. Not a few of the greatest works of art are immured in the retired scats of the nobility, and only seen, if at all, after tedious ajijilications, which contrast very disagreeably with the facility of reception in Italy. Dumarsais, Cesar Chesneau, a philol- ogist, born in 1676, at Marseilles, early lost Iris father, his fortune was dissipated by the extravagance of his mother, and a library, which he inherited, Avas sold. The idea of losing the latter so disturbed the boy, then but seven years old, that he concealed all the books of which he could possess himself. He became an advocate, married unhappily, kept a school, and died in misery, 1756. His merits were overlooked by his own age, and his best works remained for a long time unknown. D'Alembert aptly calls him the La Fon- taine of phUosophers. De Gerando, in a prize dissertation, presented to the French institute in 1805, has jusdy appreciated die merit of this profound inquirer. His works Avere published at Paris, 1797, in seven vols. The principal are, A NeAV Method of teaching the Latin Language; a Treatise on Tropes; the Principles of (general) Grammar; and his contributions to the Encyclopaedia. Dumas, Matthieu (count), a distinguish- ed French general, born 1758, at Mont- pellier, served as a colonel in the Avar of the American revolution. In 1789, he entered the national guard, under La Fayette. In 1792, he exerted all his in- fluence to prevent the declaration of wrar against Austria. In the reign of tenor, he concealed himself. In September, 1795, lie was chosen member of the council of elders. In 1797, he spoke energetically against bringing up the troops, whom the directory had sent for to occupy the capi- tal, and was condemned to deportation. He fled to Germany. In 1799, he pub- lished, at Hamburg, a well Avritten jour- nal, entitled Precis des Eve'nements mili- taires, wlrich showed his profound knowl- edge of the miUtary art. After the lc^tli Brumaire, he returned to France. In 1800, he was at the head of the staff of the second army of reserve, and served in the campaign of 1801, in SAvitzerland. In August 1802, he formed the plan of a legion of honor. He was afterwards general of division, and chief of the staff. In 1805, he served in the grand army in Germany, in this latter capacity. In 1812, he accompanied Napoleon in the Russian camjiaign, as intendent-general of the army, and Avas at last taken jiiison- cr at the sunender of Dresden. He has since continued his Pre1 eis des Evenements, 19 vols, of Avhich had appeared in 1825, with 8 vols, of Atlas, folio. The 19th volume extended to the end ofthe war of 1807. Dumb and Deaf, or Deaf Mutes. Deafness. The sensation which Ave call hearing is produced by the A'ibrations of the air, striking on the tympanum or drum of the ear, and communicated to the auditory nerve, by means of a series of small bones connected in a very re- markable manner. When the tympanum becomes insensible to these impulses, a person is termed deaf; although the vi- brations may still be communicated, in some cases, through the bones ofthe head, by means of a stick placed between the teeth, or, as the Code of Justinian states to have been practised In the case of dying persons, by speaking with the 330 DUMB AND DEAF. mouth close to the top of the head. The Eustachian tube extends from the tymjianum into the mouth; and some- times sounds are better distinguished by opening the mouth, when the external opening, only, is obstructed. Hence the habit of " listening Avidi the mouth open." Deafness occurs in eveiy degree, from that Avhich merely impairs the accuracy ofthe ear in distinguishing faint or similar sounds, to that state in Avhich there is no more sensation in this organ than in any odier; and sound is fejt in almost every part of the body, as a mere vibration. Articulation and Dumbness. Articula- tion is acquired by imitating the sounds which we hear uttered by others, and cor- recting the voice, by means of the ear, until the imitation is precise. Deafness, therefore, in eveiy degree, affects the dis- tinctness of articulation, and, if it is so great that the subject can no longer dis- tinguish between articulate sounds, he is incajiable of acquiring sjieech, in the or- dinary manner, and becomes dumb in con- sequence of his deafness. A case has oc- curred within the knowledge of the writer, in which entire deafness, taking place at the age of 18, so affected the articulation, that the individual Avas no longer intelli- gible, even to his friends. This result will not be prevented by any degree of hearing less than Ave have mentioned ; for most deaf and dumb persons can hear some sounds; and some can distinguish the high from the Ioav, Avho perceive no difference in articulations. Only a few mutes are found, avIio owe this defect to feebleness of mind, or to any imperfec- tions in the organs of speech. These re- marks show the fallacy of the idea, that the want of speech is owing to the want of mental capacity—a prejudice which has been cherished by the usual name of deaf and dumb, which we hope, for this reason, as Avell as for euphony, will be changed for that of deaf mute, which may be emjiloyed both as a noun and an ad- jective. Number. The number of deaf mutes varies materially in different countries, and situations, and classes of men. 'In the U. States, jiartial examination leads to the belief that there is one deaf mute for every 2000 k inhabitants. In some coun- tries of Europe, there is one for every 1500 or 1700; in others, one for every 1000; and, in some locations, the propor- tion is three or four times as great as diis. Tlie proportion has been found greatest in some districts or portions of cities re- markable for the dampness and impurity ofthe air. The greater number of these unfortunate persons is found among the poorer classes; and hence it has been suji- posed, that the" defect is frequently caused by the want ofthe necessary sti|ifilies and attentions during infancy or disease. Origin. A large number of deaf mutes are born deaf; but it ajipears from the rejiorts of the American asv lum, that more than half the pujiUs of that institu- tion lost their hearing by accidents or dis- eases, chiefly fevers and diseases of chil- dren. Causes and Cure. The immediate caus- es of ordinary dumbness are known to be various. In some few cases, it is owing to an imperfection or injury of some part of the organs of speech, and, of course, is irremediable. In other cases, it seems to arise from obstructions in the external or internal jiassage of the ear. Cures have sometimes been effected by removing tliese obstructions by means of instru- ments or injections, esjiecially, of late, by doctors Itard and Deleau, of Paris, who throw injections into the Eustachian pas- sage, by means of a flexible tube passed through the nostrils. Doctor Deleau is reported, by a committee of the French institute, to have relieved or cured several deaf jiersons, by injections of air, long continued ; but he does not estimate the probable number of cures in deaf mutes at more than one in ten. Perforation of the tympanum is sometimes useful in ren- dering it more easy to remove obstruc- tions which may be discovered ; and for tiris purjiose, it is deemed imjiortant to perform it by means of circular discs, closing with a sjiring, which remove a portion ofthe membrane, and leave a per- manent ojiening. In other cases, and in the usual mode, this ojieration often jiro- duces great suffering, and has not been generally useful. In 81 cases of perfora- tion at Groningen, in Holland, only three were permanently reUevcd, and these in a very partial degree. In the greater pro- portion of deaf mutes, no defect is visible, and no apjilications appear to be useful. In a number of anatomical examinations of deceased deaf mutes, at Paris, the ear was found perfect in all its parts. The inference has therefore been made, that the disease consists in a paralysis of the auditory nerve—a conclusion which seems to be sustained by the fact, that, in some cases, a eure has been effected by actual cautery on the back of the head, and that galvanism has sometimes given tem- porary reUef. According to the esti- mates Ave have mentioned, the number of DUMB AND DEAF. 331 deaf mutes in the U. States is about 6000, and in Europe not less than 140,000; all of whom, by their deafness (which we see is usually beyond the reach of reme- dies), are shut out from the intercourse of society, and the ordinary means of acquiring knoAvledge. The situation and character of such a large class of unfortu- nate persons are subjects of deep interest. Cuminunieation.—Natural Language. The necessity of communication, and the Avant of Avords, oblige the deaf mute to observe and imitate the actions and expressions which accomjiany various states of mind and of feeling, to indicate objects by their appearance and use, and persons by some peculiar mark, and to describe their actions by direct imitation. In this Avay, he and his friends are led to form a dialect of that universal language of attitude, gesture and expression, by Avlrieh the jiainter and the sculptor con- vey to us eveiy event of history, and every feeling of the soul—which becomes a substitute for words in the hands of the pantomimic actor, and Avhich adds force and clearness to the finest effusions of the orator—in other Avords, the natural sign language. Description of the Language. The terms of tiris language are of- two kinds—the descrijitive and the characteristic or in- dicative signs. Descrijitive signs involve an account (more or less complete) of the apjiearauce, qualities and uses of an ob- ject, or the circumstances of an event, for the purjiose of description or explanation, and must, from their nature, be varied, like a jiaiuting, only by the point of view from Avhich the objects are described, or the ca|iacity and accuracy of the person that describes. The indicative signs, on the contrary, which are emjiloyed in com- mon conversation, are usually mere ab- breviations of these, involving a single striking feature ofthe person, or object, or event; as an elephant is indicated by its trunk, a flower by its fragrance, or a town by a collection of roofs. The siuns of jiersons are usually conventional, and de- rived from some feature, or mark, or habit, but often from an accidental cir- cumstance in dress, &c, which struck the deaf mute on first seeing the person, and is still referred to when it no longer exists. It is obvious that, in this class of signs, there is great room for dialects, according to the situation, capacity and habits of observation of the individual, and that much may be done for its improvement, by a proper selection. Extent of the Sign Language. The sign language, like every other, varies in its extent with the intelligence, the wants, and the circle of ideas of those who use it. When employed by an insulated deaf mute, it will usually exhibit only the ob- jects of the first necessity, and the most common impulses, like the language of a savage tribe. Wlien his ideas expand, from age or observation, he -will find neAV modes of expressing them ; and, when his education js begun, an intelligent deaf mute will often express ideas in this lan- guage, for which it is difficult to find ex- pressions in words. When a number of deaf mutes are brought together in a sin- gle institution, selections and combinations of their various dialects are formed ; the best are gradually adopted by all; and a new and more complete form of the lan- guage is the result—as in nations collected by civilization. This process, carried on for half a century in the institution of Paris, and some others in Europe, under the observation and direction of intelligent men possessed of hearing, has produced a language capable of expressing all the ideas we convey by articulate sounds, with clearness, though not always with equal brevity, and which those who value it least admit to surpass speech in the force with Avhich it communicates the feelings and states of mind. Like paint- ing (as Condillac observes), it has the im- mense advantage of jiresenting a group of ideas at once, which lose much of their force and beauty, by being detailed in the successive words and artificial arrange- ments of written language. The eye, the hand, the Avhole body, speak simultane- ously on one subject; the rejiresentation changes every moment, and these peculiar- ities, with the elliptical form of exjiression which is adopted in conversation, give a rapidity to communication by the sign language, which, on common subjects, among those familiar Avith it, surpasses that of speech. If we remark the new shades of meaning given to the same words, by the varying attitude and gen- eral exjiression of the speaker, and the accuracy with Avhich a nice obseirer will discover, in tliese signs, the thoughts, and feelings and intentions, even of one who wishes to conceal them, Ave shall find reason to believe that they are capable of conveying the most delicate shades of thought Generic and abstract terms, as their objects do not exist in nature, have no conesponding terms of equal clearness in the sign language; and tlie abbreviated manner in Avhich we express relations by conjunctions, prepositions, relatives and 332 DUMB AND DEAF. inflections, can only be imitated by adopt- ing similar conventional signs, which do not easily fitil in with the idiom of the language. In these respects, there- fore, the sign language wants the algebraic brevity and accuracy which are found in artificial languages, and Avhich render tliese so invaluable as mediums of thought and instruments of philosoph- ical investigation; at the same time, it is capable of describing Avhat is conveyed by these forms, with an accuracy at least as great as that of Avords, by circumlocu- tion and example. It is Avorthy of re- mark, that the order of expression, in the sign language, is that which we term inverted—the subject before the quality, the object before the action, and, general- ly, tlie thing modified before tlie modifier. This language, in its elements, is to be found among aU nations, and has ever been the medium of communication be- tween voyagers and the natives of newly discovered countries. It is employed by many savage tribes to supply the paucity of expression in their language, or to com- municate with other tribes, as in the Sandwich islands, and in North America. Among the Indians of the western terri- tory of the United States, major Long found it an organized language, employed betAveen tribes who spoke different artic- ulate languages. The accounts received from himself, as Avell as his work, show that it corresponds, almost precisely, with that in use in the school of Paris; and a Sandwich islander, who visited the Amer- ican asylum for deaf mutes, gave a nar- rative of his rife in the sign language, which was perfectly understood by the pupils. If testimony be wanting that it still retains its universal character, in its cultivated form, the writer of this article, who acquired it in this form, can state, that he has employed it, or seen it em- ployed, with success, in communicating with an American Indian, a Sandwich islander, a Chinese, and the deaf and dumb in various parts of the U. States, in Eng- land, Scotland, France, Germany, Switzer- land and Italy. The more lively nations of Europe, belonging to the Celtic race, the French and Italians, &c. make great use of this language, in connexion with AA-ords, and, sometimes, even witiiout them. The more phlegmatic people of the Teu- tonic race, in England and Germany, are so Uttle disposed to it, and so much less able to aequire or understand it, that they regard it as a species of affectation or buf- foonery in their southern neighbors; and to this circumstance it is probably owing, that it has been so extensively rejected, among these nations, as an auxUiary in the education ofthe deaf mute. Natural State of the deaf Mute. The natural condition of the deaf mute may be inferred from the account avc have given of his language. It is obvious that the mere loss of hearing cannot, in itself, diminish the natural vigor of any other faculty, either of body or mind. He must, however, be destitute of all ideas of sounds; but tliese fomi so small a part of the circle of our ideas, in comparison with those derived from sight, that they cannot seriously affect him. 1 lis concep- tions, derived through the medium of sight, are usually more accurate than ours, his recollections more vivid, and his jioav- ers of description more striking, because his attention is more undivided. His dis- crimination of feelings and character is often intuitiA'e, and he frequently divines the subject of conversation from the aji- pearance of the speaker. The tremen- dous part of his misfortune is the inter- ruption of communication Avith his felloAV men, on all subjects excejit the primary wants and imjiulses, Avhich arises from the imperfect character of his sign lan- guage, in an uneducated state. His ideas are very much limited to the objects and events he witnesses, and the exterior re- lations of things; and he is shut out from all die knowledge derived from history and tradition. Past ages, distant coun- tries, a future Avorld, a Deity, are all be- yond his reach. In regard to the com- bination and ajqilication ofthe ideas which he acquires, he is still in the state of na- tions in the infancy of society, and cannot be aided or directed by others, in his efforts to reason. After extensive obser- vation and inquiry, Ave cannot hear of or find a single instance in Avhich a person, liorn deaf, has conceived of a First Cause, from a view ofthe works of nature, Avith- out education. They describe themsekes as looking at these objects like the brutes. Even those whose friends have made great efforts to communicate religious truths seldom have an idea of the Deity, as a Creator or Benefactor; and a deaf mute at Chartres, in France, who had been taught to perform all the rites of the Catholic church, and was deemed very devout, on receiving his hearing, stated that he had no conceptions of any thing but the external forms of religion. Con- science, in them, derives all its light from the observation of the conduct of others, and the instinctive impulses; but recog- nises no invariable law, and often leaves DUMB AND DEAF. 333 these unfortunate persons to commit gross crimes, without any sense of guilt. In short, they are enveloped in intellectual and moral darkness, hi the midst of the clearest light. History of the Art of Insii-uetion. Men- tion is made of deaf mutes in the writ- ings of Pliny; and they were declared, by the Code of Justinian, incapable of civil acts. No attemjits ajipear to have been made to give them instruction, until the latter jiart of the 15th centuiy, when we are merely told by Agricola, jirofessor of plrilosojihy at Heidelberg, in Germany, of a deaf mute who had been instructed. In the middle ofthe 16th century, Pascha, a clergyman of Brandenburg, instructed a daughter, who was a deaf mute, by means of pictures. But the first effort for this interesting object, of AA'hich we have a distinct account, Avas made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk, of the Spanish kingdom of Leon, avIio instructed four deaf mutes, of noble families, to write and speak, in 1570. In 1620, John Bonet, another Spaniard, published the first book known on this subject, contain- ing an account of the method which he adojited in a sinrilar course of instruction, and accomjianied by a manual alphabet, from which that now in use at Paris was derived. In 1659, the instruction of deaf mutes was attempted, with ajijiarent suc- cess, by doctors Holder and Wallis, both of whom published accounts of their methods. At about the same time, Van Helmont, in HoUand, published an in- genious treatise on the manner of forming articulate sounds, the principles of which, he says, he had ajipUed with success to the instruction of a deaf mute. In 1691, John Conrad Amman, a Swiss physician in Leyden, published a similar work ; but be and bis predecessors appear to have devised and executed their jilans without any knowledge of those who had jire- viou>ly attempted the same thing. In 1704, the methods published in Spain, England and Holland, were first applied, in Germany, by Kerger, apparently with much ingenuity and success, and some improvements. He was soon followed bv a number of laborers in the same field, of whom Amoldi ajipears to have been the most distinguished. In 1743, the jiracticability of instructing deaf mutes was first publicly demonstrated in France, by Pereira, a Spaniard, before the acade- my of sciences, who gave their testimony to its success. About the same time, this branch of instruction Avas attempt- ed in France, by several others, among whom Deschamps, Emaud, and Vanin Were best known. In 1755, Heinicke in Germany, De I'Epee in France, both of whom were led to feel an interest in deaf mutes thrown accidentally in their way, formed each an independent system of instruction, established the first institu- tions for the education of deaf mutes, at Paris and Leipsic, and may be justly re- garded as the founders of die two great schools, into which the instructers of the deaf mutes have since been divided. In 17(i4, Thomas Braidwood, of Edinburgh, devised a system of instruction, in which, as in that of Heinicke, articulation Avas the chief object Both these persons, for a long time, refused to communicate their inventions, excejit for a compensation, and under seal of secrecy ; and their jirin- cijiles have scarcely extended beyond the countries in wlrich they originated. De I'Epee devoted his fortune and his Ufe to the instruction of his pupils, and the gra- tuitous communication of the art to aU who would learn it; and, in consequence of his efforts and instructions, schools were founded by Silvestri at Rome, Stork at Vienna, Guyot at Groningen, and Ul- rich in Switzerland, which still exist in the hands of their disciples. The system of De I'Epee Avas materially improved by Sicard, bis pupil and successor in die institution of Paris, who is admitted to have surpassed his master, and to rank with him as one of the greatest benefac- tors of the deaf mute. Towards the close of the last century, Assarotti, of Genoa, established, by his own benevolent efforts, an institution which ranks among the first in Europe, and formed a system of instruction, based, indeed, upon that in Sicard's works, but involving important improvements, which entitle him to be considered the founder of the Italian school. European Institutions. From the last report of the Paris institution, with some additional accounts, it appears, that there are now 81 establishments for deaf mutes in Europe; of which Sjiain has 1, Portu- gal 1, Italy 6, Switzerland 4, Baden 4, Wurtemburg 3, Bavaria 1, Prussia 8, the rest of Germany 10, Denmark 2, Sweden 1, Russia 1, Holland 4, Great Britain 10, and France 26. Sixty-two of these have been established within the last 30 years. A few in Great Britain, and in Germany and Switzerland, are conducted on the system of Heinicke and Braidwood. The rest, including several in Great Britain, adojit the fundamental principles of Do I'Epee and Sicard. 334 DUMB AND DEAF. American Institutions. The first instruc- tion of deaf mutes in America Avas given in Virginia, by a descendant of Braid- wood, who adopted the system of con- cealment like his ancestor. A small school Avas formed ; but Ave have not learned the results, and beUeve it has ceased to exist. The first institution for this purpose, and Avhich noAV ranks among the most distinguished of the kind, was the American Asylum, projected hi 1815, and established in 1817, in Hartford, Con- necticut by the efforts of the Reverend T. II. Gailaudet, aided by 3ir. Laurent Clerc, a distinguished pupil of Sicard, and sustained by the contributions of gentle- men in that town. The course of instruc- tion is based on the system of Sicard, but with imjiortant improvements by Mr. Gailaudet. Asylums for die deaf mute were subsequently founded in Philadel- phia, at Canajoharie, in the state of NeAV York, in Ohio, and in Kentucky, all of which obtained their system of instruction from the American Asylum; and this in- stitution is thus entitled to the praise of having given birth to an American school of instructors, and to an American system of education for the deaf mute, whose re- sults have excited surprise in Eurojie, and have even been declared to be utterly im- probable, from their superiority to those usually jiroduced. An asylum was es- tablished in the city of New York, at about the same time with the American Asylum, which has not derived its system from any existing institution. The legis- latures of Maryland and most ofthe states north of this have granted annual supplies for the education of their indigent deaf mutes, at some one of these institutions ; odier states have proposed to establish .asylums, and, by a bill now before the congress of the U. States, a tract of land is granted to every such institution. If the deaf mutes in the U. States be estimated at 1 for every 2000, or 1000 for eveiy 2,000,000 of inhabitants, the annual in- crease for one generation, supposing it to be 30 years, will be 33 for every 2,000,000; and, if the course of instmction occujiy 4 or 5 years, 150 deaf mutes, for every 2,000,000, ought to be continually under instruction. According to this calculation, the five existing institutions are sufficient for the existing 8,000,000 of inhabitants north of Tennessee and Virginia; and it only remains to establish two or three others, at central points, for the Southern States. Systems of Instrudion. The objects to be accomplished in the education of a deaf mute, are to teach him an entire lan- guage, and to give him aU that mass of moral, religious and ordinary knowledge that is necessary for him, as a social and immortal being, for Avhich, in other chil- dren, 12 or 15 years of constant intercourse with society, and much study, are deemed necessary; aU this is to be done in six, and often even in three years. It is obvi- ous diat to accomplish diis, some method, more rapid in its results than the ordinary one, must be adopted. The earlier in- structors of the deaf mute usually had only one, or a very few pupils, and have given us hints for instruction, rather than a system. The first account which Ave have of the reduction of this art to a reg- ular and permanent form, is in the Avorks of Heinicke and De I'Epee. Heinicke, like many of his predecessors, considered the want of speech as the great misfor- tune of the deaf mute, and made it the great object of instruction to teach him to articulate, in order to aid the progress of his OAvn mind, as well as to enable him to communicate Avith others in this manner. We are told by the successor of Heinicke in the Leipsic school, that the following "are and were the views and principles of Heinicke and his discijiles:"—that " we think in articulate Avords, and cannot think in written Avords;" " that Avritten words can never lead to the develope- ment of ideas, in children bom deaf;" and that "no freedom in thought, or in the use of language, can be jiioduccd Avithout articulation, either by signs or by written language." If it AVere credible that sounds were more allied to abstract ideas than objects of sight are; if we could forget that we often have ideas for w hich we cannot easily find words, the facts Ave have stated concerning the language of signs, and the capacity of several hun- dred pupils, educated merely by signs, in the French and American institutions, to read and Avrite, and converse and reason, prove the entire fallacy of these views; and the argument ab ignorantia cannot be adduced, at this day, on that subject, without disgrace. Those who folloAV this system admit the use ofthe sign language in the early stages of instruction, but seek to banish it as early as possible, consider- ing it as a rude language, incajiable of improvement, and Avhich retards the ex- pansion of the pupil's mind, and renders it less necessary for him to attend to Avrit- ten language. They adopt the methods ofthe early instructors, in waiting for occa- sions to teach words and explain phrases. They rely upon repeating the word or DUMB AND DEAF. 335 phrase in the appropriate circumstances, and in questions and answers, as the means of making it understood, rather than on direct explanation, or examples presented by the sign language. Too many of this school forget one of the fundamental maxims of Heinicke—" first ideas, then words"—and occupy the pupil for a long time with mere mechanical articulation. In one school, months are passed in the mere study of names attached to pictures, without the least attempt to excite or en- lighten the mind by means of signs; and usually a year is passed, at a period of life Avhen most of the mental faculties are ripe for developement, in the mere exer- cise of memory (in learning names of ob- jects, and quaUties, and actions), which only requires the powers of an infant, and would be aided, instead of retarded, by the expansion of the mind, as the experience of the odier schools fully proves. Reli- gious instruction is rarely attempted, in this school before the second year, or until it can be given in words, from the belief that it cannot be given correctly by signs ; and in the school of Leipsic, it is even deferred to the third year. The at- tention of De I'Epee, and other instructers of the same views, Avas called especially to the intellectual and moral wants of the deaf mute ; and they deemed it most important first to develope his jiowers, and cultivate his feelings; and, next, to give him such a knowledge of written language as is indispensable to the ac- quisition of knowledge, and the commu- nication of his wants. They found the only medium of conveying truth, or ex- plaining terms, in the sign language which we have described. They em- ployed it in its natural state, to explain the first simple terms. They discovered that it Avas capable of extension, and they preserved and cultivated it, as we have mentioned, as a language intelligible to the pupil, by which they could always refer to any objects of thought or feeling, physical, intellectual or moral, and dius form original explanations of new words, and avoid the enor which might arise from the imperfection of previous expla- nations. Words they considered as ar- bitrary si mis, and De l'Ejiee maintained, that the instruction of the deaf mute, like that of a foreigner, ought to consist in a course of translation and retranslation from the known to tlie unknown lan- guage. To aid in this process, he added a series of mediodical and conventional signs, founded on analogy, for the parti- cles and inflections of language. These were used chiefly in instruction, in order to render the translation complete, as weU as to indicate the character and meaning of the connectives. He does not appear to have practised fully upon his own prin- ciples, but occupied himself too exclusive- ly with the intellectual improvement of his jiupils, and with single words, and seems to have despaired of enabling them to use language, in its connexion, except in a mechanical manner. Sicard endeavored to complete the plan of his master, by the improvement of the signs employed; and to him and his pupils we owe, more than to any others, the perfection which this language has attained. He also endeav- ored to avoid the enor of De I'Epee, by explaining the theory of grammar, and the formulas of the various species of propositions, and, in this way, Avas led into a course of metaphysical and philosophi- cal lessons, which later instructers have found too extensive and too little jiracti- cal. According to the system adopted under his direction, the first year was oc- cupied with a vocabulary of names, of adjectives, and of verbs in three simple tenses, with simple religious and other nanatives in the sign language. It Avas only in the second year, that words Avere shown, in their connexion, in short phra- ses ; the pronouns, prepositions, and the full inflection of the A-erbs, were taught and religious uistruction given, in writ- ten language. In the third and fourth years, the organs, senses, and operations of the mind, and the theory of sentences, were explained, original description and definitions required, and in the fourth year, books were put into the hands of the pupils. Throughout the course, pub- lic lectures were given, in which written accounts of Bible history and religious truth were explained in the sign language; but no devotional exercises in this lan- guage were ever connected with them, or practised by the pupils. American System. This system has been materially modified in the school of Paris itself, and in several others on the continent of Europe, which adopt the same principles. As the American sys- tem of instruction, devised by Mr. Gai- laudet, without any knowledge of others, excejit that of Paris, on which it is found- ed, comprises most of these imjirove- ments, with some others of great impor- tance, peculiar to itself, we cannot do better, within the limits allowed us, than to de- scribe this as we have found it, in his own statement, and in die American Asylum. Mr. GaUaudet has combined 336 DUMB AND DEAF. the fundamental principle of Heinicke— " first ideas, then words"—with that of De I'Epee—that "the natural language of signs must be elevated to as high a degree of excellence as possible, in order to serve as the medium for gning the ideas clear- ly, and explaining them accurately." He has added another of no small importance —that, as Avoids describe rather the im- pression, or states of mind produced by external objects, than those essential qual- ities Avhich are beyond our reach, the process of learning them Avould be facil- itated by leading the pupils to reflect on their OAvn sensations and ideas; and he states, as the result of his experience, that, among deaf mutes of equal capacities, "those avIio can be led to mark or de- scribe, Avith the greatest precision, the operations of their own mind, uniformly make the most rapid progress in the ac- quisition of written language, and of reli- gious truth." A leading object, therefore, in connexion* with the first lessons, in Avhich sensible ideas are presented and named, is to establish a free communica- tion Avith the pupil, in the sign language, in reference to his feelings and thoughts, as excited by the objects Avhich he sees, or the events of his oaati life. He easily conijirehends those of others, and is thus led to learn the names of the simple emo- tions and acts of die mind. Hence he is brought to think of an invisible agent, which Ave term the soul, as the feeling and percipient being; and, by a natural transition, is led, by the use of signs alone, to the Great Sjiirit, as the First Cause ; to his character, as our Creator and Benefactor; and to a knowledge of his law and our future destiny. In this man- ner, the deaf mutes in the American Asy- lum (and, we jiresume, in others derived from it) are made -acquainted with the simple truths of religion and morality in one year; a jieriod in which, in most Euro- jiean institutions, they are scarcely ad- vanced beyond the kuoAvledge of sounds, and the names of sensible objects, quali- ties and actions, or the most common phrases. By communicating this instruc- tion in the natural sign language, pujiils, Avhose inferior capacity or advanced age would not allow them to acquire enough of written language to receive religious truth through this medium, have been early prepared to enjoy its blessings and hopes, and feel its sanctions as a restraint upon their conduct, which renders their government more easy, whUe it aids them in the formation of correct habits. An- other plan, which is not known to have been ever employed before its introduc- tion by Mr. Gailaudet, in 1817, was to conduct the daily and weekly devotional exercises by signs; and the deaf mutes haA-e been thus taught to address the Father of their spirits in their own natural language, and have been admitted to the new- privilege of social worship. In ap- jilying the first principles to the course of instruction in language, an important im- provement has been made, by combining words into jihrases as early as possible, and thus teaching the pupil how to use them. The idea of each phrase is first explained by the sign language, and then translated into words, and dien retrans- lated by the pupil into his oavh language. The process is carried on for more diffi- cult Avords, and the phrases are lengthened until they become nanatives. The ac- quisition and use of the connectives are aided by the methodical signs of De I'Epee and Sicard. The pupil is called upon, at intervals, to express his own ideas in writing, and to explain by signs what is written by others. An important addi- tional improvement is " to emjiloy the pupil, as early as possible, in the study of books Avritten in an easy style, exjilained by signs when necessaiy," so as to lead him, by his oaati, and often by his unaided eftbi-ts, to become acquainted with the arrangement of Avords, and the idioms of Avritten language. He is led gradually to infer the mles of grammar from a series of examples, instead of committing them to memory; and the theory of language is reserved for the later years of instruc- tion, Avhen the pupil is familiar with its practical use. The methods of instruc- tion in the elements of arithmetic, geogra- phy and history, do not differ materially from those usually employed, excejit that much aid is derived from explanatory signs; and experiments, made in some of the schools of Europe prove, that these may be usefully employed to illustrate various subjects to persons possessed of hearing. Articulation. While the instructers of the school of De I'Epee and Sicard unite in denying that articulation is necessaiy to the deaf mute, as a means of mental developement they admit its great value as a supplement to intellectual education, if it be attainable. But diey differ as to the practicability and expediency of at- tempting to teach it generally. Of its great practical value in darkness, or in cases of sudden danger, there can be but one opinion; and it is certainly imjiortant that every deaf mute should be taught DUMB AND DEAF—DUMMER. 337 some cry of distress, or perhaps a few words for such occasions; for some do not know how to use their voice even to this extent The power of articulating, even imperfectly, may also be of great im- portance to the deaf mute, Avhere ignorance in Avriting is combined with a phlegmatic inattention to signs, in those among Avhom he is situated. But that it is not indis- pensable, as an ordinary means of com- munication, is proved by the fact diat the pupils of the French and American schools find no difficulty in making them- selves intelligible to those around them, either by writing or signs, on all necessa- ry subjects. Articulation is learned and recoUccted by the deaf mute, as a set of movements and sensations in the organs of speech. It is taught by pointing out to the pupil the powers of the vowels and consonants, and the position of the Ups, teeth and tongue, and by making him feel with his hand, or a silver instrument, all the perceptible movements and vibrations of die throat and interior organs, which are requisite for their pronunciation. He is then required to imitate this position, and to force a quantity of air from the lungs, sufficient to produce the sound, and is taught to read the articulations of oth- ers, by observing the position of the or- gans and the countenance. The facility of doing this will depend much upon the pliability of the organ of speech, and the nature of the language to be learned. We observed, as would naturally be supposed, that the soft and regular language of Italy, in a climate where we have other evidence of a superior pliancy in the vocal powers, was acquired, with tolerable suc- cess, by a short period of daily practice. But the harsh and guttural sounds of the northern languages, and the inegularity which is found in the pronunciation of some of them, jiresent several additional difficulties, which are perhaps increased by the frequent diseases of the vocal or- gans produced by a cold climate. Those instructors who attempt to teach all their pupils tliese languages, are usually com- pelled to make it a constant and individ- ual exercise, and to make and to demand efforts painful to the teacher, and pupil, and spectator, with only a partial success. Of a number of speakers, whom we have seen and heard of, in various countries, thus taught, few Avould have been intelU- gible to a stranger so readily as by signs ; and their tones were extremely disagree- able. On the other hand, we have seen a few deaf mutes Avho are capable of speaking in a manner perfectly intelUgi- vol. iv. 29 ble, and of reading, from the lips and countenance, what~Avas said by others. They were such, however, as either re- tained some remnant of hearing, or had been the subjects of individual instructions for a series of years. We presume the truth lies in that middle course, now adopt- ed by the school of Paris, and by some advocates of articulation, who have had an opportunity of observing it in all its forms. They believe that, by that por- tion of the pupils of eA'ery institution, whose organs are pliable, and who have some remnant of sensibility, either in the external or internal ear (those term- ed demi sourds in the Paris school), the acquisition may be made with a degree of ease and perfection, which renders it a desirable and important branch of in- struction for such portion of the pupils in every institution. They are equally con- vinced, that to attempt to teach articula- tion to those entirely destitute of sensibil- ity in the ear, or who cannot exercise the organ of speech without difficulty or pain, is a useless labor, and may produce dis- ease in the pupil; as more than one in- stance proves. On the last point some have maintained that the exercise of the lungs is important to the pupil, while others have declared the contrary. We believe here, also, much will depend on individual organization, and that the general question will be modified much by the climate, and nature of the lan- guage to be taught. Most of the schools for deaf mutes employ a manual alpha- bet f°r die more rapid communication in words ;—in England, usually made with both hands, and elsewhere with one. This aljihabet, with writing, on paper and in the air, and the use of natural and con- ventional signs, are found adequate means of communication for those who cannot acquire articulate language. (See the Gesckichte des Taubstummen-Unterrichtes in Spanien und Frankrrich von Newman; the Blicke auf der Taubstummenbildung von Reich (of Leipsic); the Supplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, article Deaf and Dumb ; Sullo Stato dei Sordi muti, &c, del Abbate Bagutti, Milan; Journal des Sourds-muets du Bebian; Del Education des Sourds-muets,par M. de Gerando, Paris.) For an account of the different American institutions, see Hartford, New York, Phil- adelphia, &c. Dummer, Jeremy, an eminent American scholar and pohtical writer, Avas bom in Boston, and was graduated at Harvard col- lege in 1699. At the university of Utrecht he passed several years, and obtained a 338 DUMMER—DUMONT. doctor's degree. He afterwards went to England, with the intention of pursuing the career of a minister of the gospel Here he formed poUtical connexions of a high order. The celebrity which he ac- quired as a writer and man of business caused him to be chosen, in 1710, agent for the province of Massachusetts. In this capacity, he exerted his great abdities and influence widi constant zeal for the benefit of his constituents; but, in tlie couise of some years, his poUtical attach- ments and general deportment rendered him so unpopular at home, that, in 1721, he Avas dismissed. Dummer contracted irreligious opinions and licentious habits, owing, said his enemies, to his personal intercourse with lord BoUngbroke, avIio employed him in secret negotiations, and promised him a high office, which Avas never given. He wrote an admirable pamphlet in defence of die Ncav England charters, Avhen they were threatened, in 1721. This work constitutes the best specimen of his English style, which is uncommonly elegant and forcible. His Latin dissertations in theology and philos- ophy have, also, much merit. He died in 1739, havuig spent the last few years of his Ufe in Uterary retirement Dumont, Stephen, was born at Geneva, in 1759, of a family Avhich had suffered great reverses of fortune. From his in- fancy, he had to contend with adversity. He early displayed superior talents, spirit and inteUigence, Avas destined to the ec- clesiastical career, and was ordained a nrinister ofthe Protestant church in 1781. He attached himself to die democratic party in Geneva, and, when the opposite party gained die ascendency, he went to Petersburg, Avhere he was appointed pastor of the French reformed church. His talents for the pulpit caused his ac- quaintance to be sought by the eminent men, Russians or strangers, who Avere at the court of Catharine II. He had re- mained there but eighteen months, when lord Lansdowne invited him to England, with the intention of employing him to finish the education of his son. It Avas in the house of this statesman that he formed intimate connexions with some of the men who have done most honor to Great Britain, particularly sir Samuel Romilly. The French revolution brought him to Paris in the year 1789. He was soon caUed to associate himself with the men who were selected, for their stt-ength and inteUigence, to direct the destinies of France. It is asserted that the famous address of the king, proposed by Mira- beau,Julj^9,1789, to obtain the sending back of the troops, was composed by Du- mont They undertook together a jour- nal, the Courier of the Provinces, designed to develope and render popular the new doctrines; and, as was likely to happen in such a partnership, the most assiduous as Avell as the most important labor fell upon Dumont.—As soon as scenes of violence and cruelty began to sully the cause of liberty, Dumont quitted Paris, and return- ed to England, before the sickness of Mi- rabeau, Avho died April 2, 1791. When the details of the reign of terror reached Dumont in England, he was overcome Avith grief, and remained for some years plunged in sadness. What contributed the most to draAV him from this state of depression, was his increased intimacy Avith Jeremy Bentham, whom he had known since 1788. The enthusiasm of Dumont for Bentham was kept up, with- out deviation or division, to the end of his Ufe. The English lawyer Avas for him written reason. He sometimes said of AA-hat he most admired in other philoso- phers, " It is convincing; it is truth itself; it is almost Benthamic."—It is well knoAvn that Mr,. Dumont has edited many of the works of this distinguished laAvyer, after divesting the ideas ofthe uncouth garb in which the author had clothed diem. Du- mont has spoken of the manuscripts Avhich his friend put into his hands as " a first draft," " unfinished manuscripts," " not coreccted," " fragments or simple notes." (Preface to the Treatise on Pun- ishments.) This Avas pointing out but a smaU part of their imperfections. But it is from this source that he dreAV out all the jihilosophy of Bentham. The public had afterAvards an occasion to judge of Mr. Bentham's style (Avhen he published him- self), of his obscurity, his neologism, his pleasantries, at the same time grotesque and learned. Mr. Dumont, judging that the manuscrijits of Mr. Bentham would never be published, or, if they Avere, in the origi- nal form, would produce no impression, succeeded hi having them given up to him to do what he wished with them. Bentham " refused at the same time any participation in the work, and declared that he should in no way hold himself respon- sible for it" (Theory of Punishments, pref. 10.) Dumont then, penetrating to the original ideas, remodelled, and made them over again, so far as not only to change entirely the style of the work, but also the argumentation, distribution, some- times even the results. Suppressing much, sometimes adding, always making more DUMONT—DUMOURIEZ. 339 perfect he finally produced a system wlrich has powerfully excited thought and reflection all over Europe. The works jifoduced by this singular fusion of two minds into a single one, were published in the following order:—1. Treatise on Civil and Penal Legislation (Paris, 1802, 3 vols.; 2d edit, Paris, 1820); 2. Theory of Rewards and Punishments (London, 1811, 2 vols.) ; 3. Tactics of Legislative Assemblies, foUowed by a Treatise on Po- litical Sophisms (Geneva, 1816, 2 vols.) ; 4. Treatise on Judicial Proofs (Paris, 1823, 2 vols.); 5. Of the Organization of the Ju- diciary and Codification (Paris, 1828, 1 vol.). Numerous manuscripts of Ben- tham, wlrich had already received the first labor from Dumont, still remained in his hands, and he- disposed of them in favor of one of his nephews.—When Geneva recovered her independence, in 1814, M. Dumont hastened back to his country, where his attemjits to introduce Uberal princijiles into the constitution of this Uttle state, exposed him t,6 much political per- secution ; but he succeeded, eventually, in effecting some important improve- ments. He afterwards labored assiduous- ly to introduce an improved penal code, and was a member of a committee, ap- pointed in May, 1817, for this purpose. A great deal of time was spent by Du- mont, and the other members of the com- mittee, in digesting a plan, which, hoAV- ever, was not laid before the legislature at the time of his death, in September, 1829. He Avas also active in getting uji a penitentiary, for which he drew up a jilan in 1 ^24, and which is in veiy successful operation. He died at Milan, while on a party of jileasure, in September, 1829. Dumouriez, Charles Francois, born at Cambray, 1739, of a noble family of Pro- vence, joined the army in Germany, under marshal Estrees, in 1757, and was ap- pointed a commissary. He then served as a cornet in the regiment of Escars. The day before die battle of Clostercamp, he was wounded and taken prisoner; in 1761, Avas made a cajitain; dismissed in 1763, and jirescnted with the cross of St Louis. Too active to remain unemployed, he offered his services to the Genoese, and then to Paoli; and, both parties declining his proffers, Ue went on his own account to Corsica, then returned to France, and proposed a plan for reducing the island, but was not listened to. Hereupon he went to Sjiain, visited the Portuguese frontiers, and, in 1766, wrote his weU known Essay on Portugal (1768). The conquest of Corsica being determined upon, Dumouriez Avent as quarter-master- general of the small anny which was sent thither, and was afterwards made colonel. He had frequent quarrels with all the generals, especiaUy with Marbceuf. In 1770, the government gave him the com- mission to oppose the measures of the Russian court, at the confederation of Bar. He took part in the campaign of 1771, against the Russians. In 1773, he Avas sent by the king on a mission to Swe- den, but Avas anested at Hamburg, by D'Aiguillon, to Avhom the mission was not agreeable, and put in the Bastile. In 1776, he was appointed one of the com- missioners to examine Avhether a na- val dock should be constructed on the coast of the English channel, and, in 1778, made an unsuccessful appUcation for the command of Cherbourg. In 1788, he was appointed brigadier. In 1789, he came out, in a pamphlet, in favor of the principles then in vogue, but failed in ob- taining, as he wished, the rank of general. He therefore returned to Cherbourg, Avhere he was made commander of the national guard in that city, and governor of Lower Normandy. At the end of the year, he again returned to the capital, vvhere he became a member of the Jacobin club. He aftenvards sought to effect a union with Mirabeau, with whom he had for- merly been at A'ariance. About this time, he Avas made field-marshal of the twelfth division of the army ; but, being dissatis- fied with a post where he had little op- portunity to distinguish himself, he staid in the capital, and courted more than ever the Jacobin jiarty. After leaving the ministry, in which he had been placed for some time, he Avas made lieutenant- general in the army of Luckner, on the northern frontiers, and Avas invested with the command of this army after the de- parture of Lafayette (19th of August). The Prussians, Austrians, and united emi- grants, had then made themselves masters of Longwy and Verdun, and were ad- vancing upon Champagne. He took his position at Grandpre, and occupied the five passes of the Avoody heights of Ar- gonne; but, when the pass of Croix aux Bois was forced by the Austrians, he re- tired to St. Menehould, while Kellerman maintained his position at Valmy (Sept. 20, 1792), and then opened a negotiation with the king of Prussia. In October, he returned to Paris, and formed a plan with the executive council for the winter cam- paign. On his return to the army, he issued a proclamation, caUing upon the Belgians to rise against their sovereign, 340 DUMOURD2Z—DUNCAN. and, November 6, assaulted the Austrian camp at Jemappe. Notwithstanding their small numbers, the imperial troops did not yield till after a long and bloody bat- tle ; after which he took up his winter quarters on tlie Meuse and the Roer. At this time, his hostility to the minister Pache, with whom he had been at open variance during the whole campaign, for neglecting the supplies of his army, broke out into an open quarrel. He then re- paired to the capital, with the view, as he tells us in his Memoirs, of delivering the king, whose trial was then beginning. On a second journey thither, he saw many more deputies on the side of the Giron- dists ; but he had little influence, and was himself accused in the convention. Feb- ruary 15, he opened the campaign with the bombardment of Maestricht, and, from Breda and Clundert, both which places he had captured, he made his attack on Holland. The greatest jiart of his troops, hoAvever, Avhom he had scattered in winter-quarters, were in no condition to meet the prince of Coburg. This general, March 1, assaulted the French outposts on the Roer, overcame them, and threatened Maestricht. Du- mouriez now dreAV together his troops to die plains of Tirlemont, gave batde to the Austrians at Neenvinden, and was de- feated, owing, according to his own ac- count, to the mismanagement of Miranda, who commanded the left wing. He met Avith another loss at Louvain, and found himself obliged to retreat. These disas- ters were the signal for his downfall. All who wished his ruin now rose against him. On his arrival at the Frencli fron- tiers, four commissioners, and the minis- ter BeurnonvUle, who were sent to arrest him, were deUvered by him into the hands of the Austrians. He then issued a proc- lamation, in which he promised the resto- ration of the constitutional monarchy, in die person of the heir to the croAvn, but was attacked by the Versailles volunteers, compeUed to cross the Scheldt, and to fly to the prince of Coburg (April 4,1793). The convention set a price of 300,000 Uvres upon his head. At first, he retired to Brussels, afterwards to Cologne. The elector refusing him a residence in Mer- gentheim, he went to Switzerland, and, in July, passed over to England, which, how- ever, he was compelled to quit by com- mand of lord GrenvUle, roved about, for some time, in Switzerland and Germa- ny, and, at last, settled near Hamburg. Here he published his Memoirs. There was no party, except that of the Mountain, for which this poUtical Proteus did not declare himself, in some of the various pamphlets that he published during his exile. In 1805, at the time of the bat- tle of Austerlitz, he was in Teschen. It is certain, that, in 1803, he was made counsellor of Avar to the duke of York; but he did not keep the oflice long. Shortly after the battle of Eylau, he wrote his Jugement sur Bonaparte, adressi a la Nation Frangaise et a I'Europe. During the Spanish and Portuguese Avar, he Avas very active in communicating plans to the English government alld to the Spanish and Portuguese authorities. In the Nea- politan revolution, in 1821, he also com- municated plans of defence to the par- liament The British ministry granted him an annual pension of £1200. He died March 14, 1823, at Turvillc park, near Henley-upon-Thames, England, at the age of 84. Of his Memoirs (Ham- burg, by Hoffmann) there has appeared an enlarged edition of 4 vols., in the Paris Col- lection of Memoirs, byBaudouin. There is a veiy complete article on Dumouriez in the Biographie des Contemporains. Dun (hm); a Celtic or ancient Teuton- ic word, from which comes the French word dune, and the final syllable dunum in Latin, as Augustodunum (Autun). The same word is found in Dunkirk (church of the hills). In Low-Gennan, the word Dune is still used for sandy hills on the sea-shore. It is, perhaps, from the same root with the German Dehnen, Dunst. In several English names, the syllable dun is used in a sense corresponding to down. Denmark (Icelandisb, Daunmark) is in part composed of a word of simi- lar sound and signification. It means low country. Duncan, Adam, viscount, a naval offi- cer of distinguished skill and courage, was bom in Scotland, in 1731, went to sea when young, obtained a lieutenancy in 1755, was made master and command- er in 1759, and Avas a jiost captain in 1761. In that station he served, in the following year, at the taking of Havanna; and, in 1779, he shared in the victory of admiral Rodney over the Spaniards. In 1789, he Avas promoted to the rank of rear- admiral of the blue ; and, by regular gra- dation, in 1794, he became vice-admiral of the white squadron. The following year, he was appointed commander of the North Sea fleet; when, after a tedious and harassing service of two years, occu- pied in watching the motions of the Dutch, in the harbor of the Texel, admi- ral Duncan found himself obUged to leave DUNCAN—DUNKIRK. 341 his station, and sail to Yarmouth roads, in consequence of the mutinous disposition of his sailors. The Dutch fleet put to sea, which Avas no sooner made known to ad- miral Duncan's men, than they returned to their duty, and he immediately sailed in jiursirit of the enemy, came up with them, defeated them, and captured the commander, admiral De Winter, and eight of his ships. The conqueror was rewarded with the title of viscount Dun- can, and a pension of £2000 a year. " He died August 4, 1804. Dundas, Henry, viscount Melville, was born in 1740, studied at the university of Edinburgh, and, in 1763, was admitted a member ofthe faculty of advocates. He obtained the post of solicitor-general in 1773, that of lord-advocate in 1775, and Avas made joint keeper of the signet for Scotland in 1777. In 1782, he was ap- pointed treasurer of the navy, and mem- ber ofthe privy council; but he continued only a short time in office, the coalition between lord North and Mr. Fox having disjilaced his party. The triumph of his opponents was but temporary; and, on their retreat from jiower, he resumed his office under Mr. Pitt, whose firm partisan he approved himself during their joint lives. On the passing of the act of par- liament for regulating the affairs of the East India company, Mr. Dundas was appointed jiresident of the board of con- trol; in 1791, he was made secretary of state for the home department ; and, in 1794, he became secretary at Avar. On the resignation of Mr. Pitt, he also re- tired from jiublic life; and, when the for- mer resumed the helm of state, he Avas appointed first lord of the admiralty. In 1805, he was impeached, before the house of lords, of high crimes and misdemean- ors in his former office of treasurer of the navy. As the evidence adduced against him did not directly imjilicate him in the malversation proved against his deputy, he was acquitted. He did not, however, hold any situation after- Avards, except that of privy counsellor. His death took place in May, 1811. He was created viscount Melville in 1801, and was succeeded in that title by his son. Dunker. (See Ephrata, also Bap- tists*} * Dunkirk (French, Dunkerque, signify- ing the church on the doums), about 27 miles from Calais, a strong commercial city, containing 24,200 inhabitants, in French Flanders (Depart, du Nord), was formerly a constant cause of jealousy be- 29* tween England and France. It was cap- tured from the Spanish, in 1658, by the French and English in conjunction, Cromwell having formed an alliance with the French. It was noAV put into the hands of the English, and, in 1662, bought of Charles II, by Louis XIV, for £400,000. Louis made every exertion to fortify the place, and to improve the har- bor. This is capable of accommodating 200 large vessels at anchor, and is one of the most convenient in Eurojie. In the wars between England and France, the freebooters of Dunkirk did great injuiy to the English and Dutch trade. Tiris, to- gether with the increasing prosperity of the place, induced England to make it a principal condition ofthe peace of Utrecht (1713), that France should demolish the fortifications, and destroy this master-piece of military architecture. The French at- tempted, by digging a new canal to Moer- dyk, a league from Dunkirk, to indemnify themselves for the loss they had sustained by the treaty: the inhabitants of Dunkirk also occupied themselves in quietly re- storing the harbor; but the English, from time to time, urged the destruction of these works. The peace of Paris, 1763, which England dictated, repeated the conditions ofthe peace of Utrecht in rela- tion to Dunkirk. Lord Chatham replied, in answer to the attemjits of count Bussi, the French negotiator, to arrange other terms with regard to Dunkirk, that the people of England considered the demo- lition of Dunkirk as a perpetual memo- rial of the subjugation of France, and the minister who should dare to change the conditions of this treaty would risk his head. An English commissioner was even estabUshed there to superintend the execution of the treaty, who was to be supported by France. But, by the peace of Paris, 1783, this article was annulled. The restoration of the toAAm Avas after- wards attempted, as far as the condition of France permitted. The importance of the place induced the duke of York, in August, 1793, contraiy to the advice of Coburg, to advance with his oaati division, from the main body of the Austrian ar- my, before Dunkirk, and make vigorous preparations for pushing the siege. The sunender was daily expected, when the approach of general Houchard, with a superior force, and the vigorous sorties of the besieged, compelled the duke to raise die siege, and retire in haste, with field- marshal Freitag, under whom he com- manded. Dunkirk is a free port, and, in peace, has an extensive commerce. The 342 DUNKIRK—DUNSTAN. manufacture of tobacco in this place is important Dunning, John, lord Ashburton, an eminent lawyer, was the son of an attor- ney at Ashburton, in Devonshire, where he was born, October 18, 1731. He was educated at the free-school of his native place, and served his clerkship to his father; but, early determining to study for the bar, he pursued a course of assid- uous application, both before and after his admission. The first thing which estab- lished his character, was his employment, in 1759, to draw up a defence of the East India company against the claims of the Dutch. Tiris memorial, being esteemed a masterly production, gamed him consid- erable practice; which was prodigiously augmented by his becoming counsel for Wilkes in all the causes produced by the question of the general warrants. He dis- tinguished himself hi such a manner, on this popular occasion, as to obtain the character of a sound constitutional law- yer; and his practice soon after became the most lucrative at the English bar. In 1766, he was chosen recorder of Bristol, and, in 1767, solicitor-general, which of- fice he resigned in 1770, in consequence of the resignation of his patron, lord Shel- burne, by whose interest he had been chosen member for Calne, in Wiltshire. From the time of his resignation, he re- mained a firm ojiponent to the ministry who conducted the American war; and, on the return of lord Shelburne to power in 1782, he was made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, and advanced to the peerage by the title of lord Ashburton. He died August 18,1783, leaving one son, the jiresent possessor of the titles. Dunois, Jean, count of Orleans and of Longueville; born 1402, died 1468; a nat- ural son of Louis, duke of Orleans (who was murdered by the duke of Burgundy), and of the wife of Cany. Dunois made the name " Bastard of Orleans" illustrious by his military exploits. He began his career with the defeat of Warwick and Suffolk, Avhom he pursued to Paris. Being be- sieged by the English, he defended Or- leans with the greatest courage until relieved by the maid of Orleans. To the count of Orleans belongsv almost entirely, the honor of expelling tlie enemies of his country from Normandy and Guienne. In 1441, he gave them their death-bloAV at Chatillon; and it may truly be said, that Charles VII was indebted to him for his crown. Dunois received from him the title of " deliverer of his country," the county of Longueville, and the dignity of high-chamberlain of France. Louis XI valued him no less. Notwithstanding this, Dunois was the soul of die league Avhich was formed against Louis, under die name of die league for the pubtk good. Duns, John, commonly called Duns Scotus, an eminent scholastic divine of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, was born at Dunstance, near Alnwick, in Northumberland, and was admitted, when young, into an institution belonging to the Franciscan friars at NeAvcastle, whence he Avas sent to Merton college, Oxford. Becoming celebrated for his skUl in scho- lastic theology, civil laAV, logic, and mathe- matics, he Avas, in 1301, ajipointcd divin- ity professor at Oxford ; and the fame of his learning and talents drew crowds of scholars from all parts. In 1304, he was sent by his superiors to Paris, in the uni- versity of which city he was admitted to the highest honors, and apjiointed jiro- fessor and regent in the theological schools, in which situation he acquired the title of '• the most subtle doctor." Nothing, however, could be more barren and useless than die chimerical abstraction and metaphysical refinements which ob- tained him this title. Duns opposed Aqui- nas on the subject of grace; and hence the Scotists are opposed to the Thomists. The immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary was another of the tenets Avhich divided these fierce antagonists; and it is beUeved by many authors, that it was Duns who first propounded it In the year 1308, he was sent to Cologne, by the head of his order, to teach theology, but Avas cut off by an apoplexy, and, as a dis- jiuted account asserts, buried before he was actually dead, as Avas discovered by an examination of his grave. His death happened, according to some writers, in his thirty-fourth, and to others, in his forty- third year. He left behind him numerous works, which were collected by Lucas Waddingius, in 12 vols., foUo, Lyons, 1639. Dunstan, St., an Anglo-Saxon divine and statesman of the 10th century, alike celebrated in legendary and authentic his- tory, Avas born at Glastonbury, in 925, and was educated under Irish ecclesias- tics, who were inmates of the famous ab- bey at that place. He acquired a knowl- edge of the Latin language and of philos- ophy, and studied the Scriptures and the writings ofthe fathers; besides which, he became skiUed in music, painting, carving, and working in metals. He was intro- duced, early in Ufe, to the court of king DUNSTAN-DUPIN. 343 Athelatan, by his uncle Athelm, archbish- op of Canterbury. Some indiscretion, or the jealousy of rivals, compelled him to retire from court; and the disappointment of his prospects, together with a danger- ous fit of sickness, seriously impressed his mind, and led him to seek for tranquiUity in the monastic life. He took the vows at Glastonbury, and devoted himself with ardor to the duties of his profession. So entirely had he relinquished all views of secular ambition, that he divided between the church and the poor a valuable estate, bequeathed to him by a wealthy Saxon lady, as Avell as his paternal inheritance, which devolved to him at this period. On the death of Athelstan, Edmund, the brother and successor of that prince, in- vited him to court; and Edred, the next king, made him his prime minister and principal director in civil and ecclesiasti- cal affairs. On the death of Edred, his nejihew Edwy, who was, probably, not more than fourteen years of age, ascended the throne. The enmity of the profligate courtiers was particularly directed against Dunstan, who was obliged to flee from his native country. He took refuge in Flanders, where lie remained till he was recalled to England by king Edgar, to whom the imprudent Edwy had been obliged to cede a part of his dominions. Dunstan was made bishop of Worcester, and, when Edgar became possessed of the whole kingdom, was raised to the see of Canterbury. In this station, his influence Avas exerted in promoting tlie introduction of the rule of St Benedict, which incul- cated vows of chastity into the monastic institutions in England. The secular priests, who were generally manied, were expelled from religious houses, and re- placed by Benedictine monks, wherever the power of Dunstan extended. During the reign of Edgar, he was supported in the execution of his plans by the royal authority; but, under Edward the Martyr, he experienced great opposition from the patrons of the secular clergy; and, after Ethelred II became king, his influence stiU further declined, and he thencefor- Avard interfered but little in pubUc affairs. He died in 988. Few characters in Eng- lish history have been more variously represented than that of Dunstan. The monks represent him as the most learned and accomplished prelate, and most emi- nent statesman of his age. Popular tra- dition paints him as a master of magic arts, subjecting demons to his power. Modem Protestant writers have imputed the imaginary miracles of Dunstan to his hypocrisy, overlooking their real origin in popular misconception. Osbem, who wrote the life of Dunstan a centuiy after his decease, first appears to have propa- gated the legendary tales which have been so injurious to his fame, and of which no notice is taken by a contemporary anony- mous biographer, whose memoir of the saint has been published by the Bollan- dists, and has every mark of authen- ticity. Dupatt, Jean Baptiste Mercier; bom 1746, at Rochelle. In 1767, he became advocate-general to the parliament of Bor- deaux, afterwards president a mortier of that body, drew upon himself, by his love of strict justice, the jiersecutions of the ministerial despotism wlrich oppressed France in the last years of Louis XV. Having written, in the name of the par- Uament of Bordeaux, against the duke of Aiguillon, when this nobleman became minister (1770), he was sent to Piene-en- Cise (a fortress at Lyons, once a state- prison), and afterwards banished, until the accession of Louis XVI. Being acquaint- ed with the defects of the ancient admin- istration of justice in France, he made every exertion to expose them. The me- morial by which he preserved the lives of three innocent citizens of Chaumont who were condemned to the wheel, de- serves particular mention. His other works are, Reflexions hisloriques sur les Loix criminelles, a valuable work ; various Discours academiques; and Lettres sur Vlta- lie en 1785, which appeared 1788, in 2 vols. Tliese letters, among many prejudiced views, contain some excellent observa- tions on the arts, and interesting descrip- tions of natural sceneiy; but his style is often disfigured by labored ornaments. He (Ued 1788, at Paris.—His son (Charles Mercier), born at Bordeaux September 29, 1771, died at Paris November 12, 1825. He was the restorer of sculpture in France, a member of die institute, and professor in the icole des beaux arts; was at first an advocate, served during the revo- lution as a dragoon, then as desdnateur giograpke, and finally Avent to Rome, where he studied sculpture, under the direction of Lemot, and, during a resi- dence of eight years, made himself knoAvn by numerous Avorks. His principal pro- ductions are Ajax pursued by Neptune ; Iris equestrian statue of Louis XIII (1816); and Orestes pursued by the Fu- ries. Cortot, his successor in the acade- my, completed some of his Avorks. Ddpin, Andre Marie Jean Jacques, one of the most distinguislied Parisian jurists 344 DUPIN. and advocates of our time, born 1783, at Varzy, lost his father early, by an act of revolutionary violence. The midnight in- vasion of his paternal mansion, the search for papers, and all tlie circumstances Avhich accompany the seizure of a father of a family, made a deeji imjiression on his mind, and contributed to excite in him that hatred of arbitrary power, which he has ever since displayed. During the impris- onment of his father, his mother occupied herself Avith the education of her tAvo oldest sons. The history of Rome afford- ed her the means of kindling in diem a love of freedom and glory. After the Uberation of their father, he himself be- came their instructor. In his 23d year, Dujiin commenced the practice of his profession: after the restoration ofthe law- schools, which had been suspended at the beginning of the revolution, he was the first who defended a thesis: this made him the oldest lawyer of the new schools. He also distinguislied himself as a writer, by his Prinripia Juris. In 1815, he became a member of the chamber of deputies, and was distinguislied for his boldness. He ojiposod the proposition to bestow on Napoleon the title of savior of his country, voted for the abdication of the emperor, and desired that the chamber of dejiuties should declare itself a national assembly, and opposed the proclaiming of Najioleon 11. After the return of the king, Dupin devoted himself exclusively to jurisjiru- deucc, and was, together with Berryer, die defender of Ney. He drew up some powerful memorials on this subject, and that in which he endeavored to save the marshal, on the ground of the convention of July 3, 1815, was veiy Avell received, but produced only an addition to his own rejuitation. His eloquence Avas more successful in the following year, when he defended the Englishmen, sir Robert Wil- son, Mr. Bruce and Mr. Hutchinson, who were accused of having assisted in the escape of Lavalette. lie never refused his aid to any of those Avho were perse- cuted in these times of party hatred. He defended the freedom of the press by his writings, full of the sjiirit of liberty, and Iris able sjieeches, always ready to unmask the aits and the reA-engeful spirit of a pow- erful party. Dupin united distinguished talents Avith the noblest sentiments; and die disinterestedness which he displayed in hi3 professional duties, is every Avhere known. Besides the work already men- tioned, he has published several on the Romati and French law, and a good edi- tion of Burlamaqui's Natural Law, in 5 vols. His Memoires, Plaidoyers d Con- sultations, are collected in 12 vols., 4to. Dupin, Charles, brother of the preced- ing, distinguished for his knowledge of geometry, engineering and hydraulics, born 1784, became, in 1801, a pupil in the polytechnic school, founded by Napoleon, at Paris, apjilied himself AAith zeal to geometry, and devoted his mathematical knowledge to the good of the state. During Napoleon's wars, he served in the fleet, and was employed in construct- ing the harbor of Antwerp. In 1808, he joined, as a volunteer, the squadron under admiral Gantheaume, and went with him to Corfu. He remained in the Ionian islands, where he became secre- tary to the newly established Ionian academy. He founded the Olympian prizes for writings in the ancient and modern Greek, for which all the Greeks in Europe and Asia Avere invited to contend. In Corcyra, he made a trans- lation of the Olynthian orations of De- mosthenes, and an essay concerning this orator. In 1811, he left the Ionian isl- ands, and went to Italy. Here he pub- lished some profound geometrical inqui- ries. In 1813, he Avas at Toulon, and was the means of saving tlie beautiful decorations for galleys, Avhich Pugct had executed for Louis XIV; and these me- morials ofthe naval glory of France be- came the ornaments of the museum, founded by Dupin, in the arsenal at Tou- lon. He began here his account of the naval architecture of the 18th and 19th centuries, which he continued to the year 1815. After the second peace of Paris, he made a journey to England ; and, dur- ing a residence of twenty months in that country, he travelled in different direc- tions. The fruit of this journey was his Treatise on the Marine, the Bridges and the Roads of France and England. After his return, in 1818, he became a member of the academy of sciences, and read at their sittings several valuable treatises. When the new conservatory of arts and manufactures Avas estabUshed, he was ap- pointed professor of practical mechanics. Since 1820, has appeared his Voyages dans la Grande-Bretagne—a comprehen- sive account of the exceUences and de- ficiencies of the EngUsh administration in regard to the army, navy, artillery, roads, municipal regulations, mines, in- dustry and commerce. Dupin does not always judge the riA'al of his country Avith impartiality; there is, however, much jus- tice in his criticisms on many ofthe insti- tutions ofthe island, and on the great abuses DUPIN—DUPUIS. 345 of the government Dupin's Forces pro- dudives d commerciales de la France ap- peared at Paris, 1827, 1 vol. 4to. Dupin was a member of the chamber which was dissolved in 1830. Dupont de Nemours, Pierre Samuel, born at Paris, December, 1739, distin- guished as well for his knowledge and talents as for his mUd and benevolent character, his excellent principles and his blameless Ufe, Uved almost unknown, at Paris, as a private man of letters, until 1773, when his principles of jihilosojihy and political economy, set forth in his Les Ephemirides du Citoyen, excited the dis- pleasure of the minister Choiseul, and obUged him to leave France. Several foreign jirinces offered him a reception, and conferred honors upon him. He re- turned, however, to his native country, and accejited of a small place, given him by Turgot, minister of finance. In 1782 and 1783, with doctor Hutton, the English agent he negotiated the basis of the treaty by which the independence of the United States was acknowledged. As inspector- general of commerce and manufactures, and as a counsellor of state, he afterwards did much to encourage French industry. In 1787 and 1788, he was appomted, by Louis XVI, secretary to the assembly ofthe notables. In 1789, he became a member of the first national assembly, where he distinguished himself by his princijiles, his courage, his talents, and his firm opposition to the intrigues of factions. He was twice president of the national assembly, and always supported moderate jirinciples. Under Robespierre, he was imprisoned, and nothing but the fall ofthe tyrant preserved him. He was afterwards a member of the council of elders. After the directory was aboUshed, he went to America, in 1798. In 1802, he returned to France, but did not, at that time, take any office, notwithstanding the offers made him by Napoleon. The confidence of his fellow citizens followed him in his retirement, as was shown by Iris appoint- ment to several important offices. In 1814, Dupont was made secretary of the provisional government which prepared the way for the return of the house of Bourbon to the throne of France. After Napoleon's return from Elba, he went again to America, of which country his two sons had already become citizens. Here he terminated his useful life, August 6,1817, at the advanced age of 78. Dupont de L'Etano. (See Baylen.) Dupuis, Charles Francois, a member ofthe national institute, born at Trie-le- Chateau, near Gisors, in 1742, Avas in- structed by his father in mathematics and surveying. The duke de la Rochefou- cault sent him to the colUge d'Harcourt, to pursue his studies ; and, in his 24th year, he was made professor of rhetoric at Lisieux. His intimacy with Lalande, and his own incfination, led him to devote himself particularly to madiematics; the knowledge and the prejudices of that learned man had a great influence on him. In 1778, he invented the telegraph, which AA-as afterwards improved by the brothers Chappe. IIis Mcmoire surl'Ori- gine des Constdlations et sur I'Explication de la fable par VAstronomie (1781), is full of originality and learning. In 1788, Ue became a member of the acadtmie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, and Avent to Paris, where he Avas named one of the four commissioners of pubUc instruction, to ascertain the resources of all the insti- tutions for education and learning in Paris. As a member of the national convention, he was constant in his sujiport of mode- rate measures. On this account, he was chosen a member of the council of five hundred; and the reputation which he diere acquired for activity and informa- tion, procured him admission into the national institute. The tribunal and the legislative body proposed him as a sena- tor. His Avork, Orxgine de tous les Cultes, ou la RHigion universelle (1794, 3 vols., 4to., with an atlas), was severely criticised in Germany, Holland, France and Italy, but is a remarkable monument of his learning. In this work, he attempted to exjilain, not only all die mysteries of an- tiquity, but also the origin of all religious traditions. An abridgment, in one volume, afterwards followed. His two works on the Pelasgi, their origin in Ethiopia, their sjireading over Lybia, Cyrenaica, and the north of Africa, and thence to Sjiain, Greece and Italy, attracted great atten- tion. His treatises on the zodiac of Den- derah (q. v.), and on the Phoenix, suc- ceeded. In his last work, Memmre ex- plicatif du Zodiaque ckronologique et my- thologique (1806, 4to., engravings), he maintained that the astronomical and re- ligious opinions of the Greeks, Egyptians, Chinese, Persians and Arabians, had a common origin. He died at his estate near Dijon, 1809, 77 years old, and left, in manuscript, a work on cosmogony and theogony, the object of which was to confirm the theory he had laid down in his Origine de tous les Cultes. He also endeavored, in this work, to explain hie- roglyphics. 346 DUPUYTREN—DURER. Dupuytren, Gudlaume; the most dis- tinguished French surgeon of our time, professor of medical science in the faculty of medicine in Paris, and chief surgeon in the Hotel Dieu; bom 1778, at Pierre- Buffiere. He made such rapid progress in his studies diat in his 17di year, he Avas ap- pointed jirosector in the Ecole de Sante, at Paris, and, soon after, lectured on surgery and anatomy to large audiences. In 1802, he was made second surgeon in the Hotel Dieu, and, in 1815, became the head of this great hospital. As an operative sur- geon, he has gained great reputation by his boldness and skill, and the improve- ments Avhich he has introduced. He has invented some new instruments, and im- proved others; as, for instance, his specu- lum, for the removal of the uterine poly- pus by cauterization, and his instrument for couching; we are also indebted to him for some valuable discoveries in path- ological anatomy. He has written sev- eral surgical treatises, some of Avhich have been published singly, and some are collected. Duquesne, Abraham, a French admi- ral, under Louis XIV, was born at Dieppe, in 1610, and acquired his knowledge of naval affairs under his father, who was an experienced captain. In his 17th year, he was in the sea-fight off Rochelle, and distinguished himself, during and after the year 1637, in the war against Spain. In 1644, he entered the service of Sweden. He was recalled, in 1647, to France, and commanded the expedition against Na- ples. Bordeaux, which had rebelled, he reduced, notwithstanding the assistance afforded it by Spain. In the Sicilian war, he thrice defeated the combined fleets of Holland and Spain, under the renowned De Ruyter. After he had reduced Al- giers and Genoa to the necessity of sup- plicating the mercy of Louis XlV, the king conferred upon him the fine estate of Bouchet, and made it a marquisate, Avith the title of Duquesne. More than this he could not do, because Duquesne was a Protestant. He was, also, the only person exempted from the banishment of his sect, occasioned by the repeal of the edict of Nantes. He died at Paris, in 1668. Mildness and modesty tempered his heroic character; and De Ruyter was his model. He left four sons, of whom the most famous, Henry, marquis of Du- quesne, Avas also distinguished as a naval character. Durango ; a toAvn in Mexico, capital of the province of New Biscay, or Du- rango; 335 miles N. W. Mexico; lon. 103° 35' W.; lat. 24° 25' N.: population, according to Humboldt, 12,000; according to Pike, 40,000. It is a bishop's see. The town is situated on an eleva- tion, 6845 feet above the sea. The air is healthy, the surrounding country fertile, producing an abundance of w heat, maize, fruits, &c, and the trade of the tovm is considerable. Durante, Francesco, a celebrated com- poser, bom 1693, at Naples, received his first instruction from the famous Alexan- der Scarlatti. The fame of Pasquiiri and Pittoni drew him to Rome, whither he went to perfect himself in the knoAvlcdge of counterpoint. He then returned to Naples, as maestro di capella (director of the musical choir), and conqioscd, almost exclusively, for the church. In vocal church music, he attained a high degree of eminence. He also educated the most celebrated musical masters of the 18th centuiy in Naples—Pergolese, Sacclrini, Piccini, Guglielmi, Traetta, Jomelli, &c.— and died at Naples, 1755, at the age of 62. Durer, Albert; born at Nuremberg, 1471. His father was a skilful goldsmith of Hungary, and himself instructed his son Albert. Diirer's talent early devel- oped itself; and, although he had made great progress in his father's profession by the time he was 15, his inclination took a decided turn for painting. Michael Wohlgemuth, then the best painter in Nuremberg, became his instructor in 1486. Having finished his studies, he entered ujion his travels, and, in 1490, travelled through Germany and Alsace. In 1492, he passed through Colmar and Basle, and, in 1494, returned home. Here he exe- cuted his masterpiece, a drawing of Or- pheus. To please his father, he manied the daughter of Hans Fritz, a celebrated mechanic; but this connexion iinbittered his life, and perhaps brought him to an early grave. In 1505, he went to Venice to accomplish himself in Iris art. His abilities excited envy and admiration. He painted the Martyrdom of Bartholomew, for St. Mark's church, Avhich painting was purchased by the emperor Rodolph, and removed to Prague. He also travelled to Bologna, to improve his knowledge of perspective. This journey had no effect upon his style. At his return, in 1507, begins the proper era of his greatness. In 1520, he again visited the Netherlands, probably for amusement only. His fame spread far and wide. Maximilian I ap- pointed him his court-painter, and Charles V confirmed him in this office, bestowing upon him, at the same time, the painter's DURER—DUROC. 347 coat of arms, viz., three escutcheons argent in a deep azure field. Diirer was in favor with high and low. All the artists and learned men of his time honored and loved him, and his early death, in 1528, was greatly lamented. Profound appUcation, great facility in the mechanical part of his art, and a remarkable talent of imitation, were the characteristics of Diirer, and enabled him to exert a great influence on the character of German art. He was the first in Germany who taught the rules of erspective, and of the proportions of the uman body, accorduig to mathematical jninciples. His treatise on projiortions Avas occasioned, it is said, by his studies on the picture of Adam and Eve. He not only made use of the burin, like his predecessors, but was also the inventor of etching, or, if not the inventor, the first who excelled in the art. He invented the method of printing wood-cuts with two colors. His great mathematical knowl- edge enabled him to form a regular system of rules for drawing and painting. He wrote the first book on fortification in Germany, and showed how to cast the letters of the alphabet according to fixed projiortions, by geometrical calculations. He was jiarticularly eminent as a por- trait painter. He had the power of catching the exact expression of the features, and of delineating all the pas- sions. Among his best engravings in copper are his Fortune, Melancholy, Ad- am and Eve in Paradise, St. Hubert, St. Jerome, and the Smaller Passion (so called), in 16 plates. Among his best wood-cuts are the Greater Passion (so called), in 13 plates ; the Smaller Passion, with the frontisjiiece, 37 pieces; the Revelation of St. John, with the frontispiece, 15 jilates; the Life of Maty, 2 prints, with die frontis- piece. Bartsch, however, has made it more than probable, that Diirer himself did not engrave in wood. He only made the drawings on Avooden tablets, which were then cut by form-cutters, of whom there were many skilful ones at diat time. Dii- rer has, also, much merit as a writer. He labored to purify and elevate the German language, in which he was assisted by his friend, W. Pirkheimer. His writings, Avhich were aftenvards translated into Latin, French, &c, were published, in a collected form, at Arnheim, by J. Jansen (1603, folio). J. J. Roth has written a life of him (Leipsic, 1791). Duress, in law, is restramt or compul- sion ; and it is a general principle, that a contract made under compulsion is not binding; and many acts will be excused on this ground, which would otherwise be blamable. There may be very differ- ent degrees of constraint from absolute necessity down to a slight motive of fear; and the motives of fear may be of very different strength; for, if a man's life is endangered by his refusal to do an act, the law considers him to be under the high- est compulsion, and contracts made under such motives are not binding. Duress may take place in two different ways: 1. by actual imprisonment, and, 2. by threats, per minus. If a man be Ulegally confined to compel him to sign a deed, he may avoid it; but, if he be legaUy imprisoned, and, to gain his Uberty, signs a deed or agreement it wUl bind him. This is not the duress contemplated by the law. Compulsion will excuse acts, which, done voluntarily, and from choice, Avould be capital crimes; for, by compulsion of an enemy, a man may do acts which, had they been of his free choice, would have been treason, and yet be excused. But the evil committed must be in some propor- tion to that feared, as a man would not be excused for homicide, to avoid even a serious injury to himself. But in regard to civil transactions, a smaller degree of restraint will be the ground of avoiding an obligation. It has been adjudged that if one make a deed to avoid the duress done by merely taking his cattle, in other words, to jirocure their liberation, if they were unlawfully detained, the deed may be avoided. A son may allege the duress of a father, a husband that of his Avife, a servant that of his master, and a master that of his servant, in avoidance of a deecL A marriage, as well as any otiier contract made by one under duress, may, on this ground, be avoided. Duroc, Michael, duke of Friuli, grand- marshal of the palace, senator, general of division, grand-cordon of the legion of honor, and of nearly all the orders of Eu- ro|ie, was born at Pont-a-Mousson, in 1772, His father was of an ancient family of Auvergne; liaving become a captain and knight of St. Louis, he married, and estab- lished himself in Lorraine. Young Duroc was early destined for the army, and studied at the rrrilitary school of Pont-a- Mousson. March 1, 1792, he was made lieutenant of artillery. He then served in the repubUcan armies. Honorable men- tion is made of his name in the bulletins of the Italian army, particularly at the siege of Mantua, and at the battle of Sismone, in 1796. He served, during tho first campaign in Italy, as aid-de-camp of the general of artillery, Lespinasse. 348 DUROC. Being subsequently appointed aid-de-camp to general Bonaparte, he soon made him- self consjiicuous for coolness, courage and ability. He distinguished himself at the battle of Grimolano, where he was wound- ed, and his horse was killed under him. At the jiassage of the Izonso, in Friuli, he was mentioned as one of the bravest and most able officers. The title of duke of Friuli, which he received ten years after- Avards, was chosen in allusion to his con- duct at Izonso. Duroc followed general Bonaparte into Egypt and was promoted to the rank of chief of battalion the 25th of Brumaire, year VI. During this cam- paign, in which his services were of the greatest value, his name was again men- tioned with honor, after the battle of Sa- lahia, the successful result of which was mainly owing to his valor. During the expedition into Syria, at the siege of Jaffa, Duroc, seeing the grenadiers falling at the foot of the breach, and wavering, put himself at their head, and engaged, hand to hand, with several Turks. The army, seeing him disappear in a tower Avhich Avas defended with great fury, gave him up for lost but soon received him Avith shouts on seeing him appear on the top, master of the tower and of the ramparts. After having distinguished himself, on several occasions, before St Jean d'Acre, he was severely wounded by the bursting of a howitzer, in one of the last assaults made during the siege, the most bloody and obstinate in the military annals of France. He distinguished himself no less at the battle of Aboukir. Being named chief of brigade, he accompanied general Bona- parte on his return to France; he was almost the only aid-de-camp of the com- mander-in-chief who survived the expedi- tion: four had been killed in the cam- paign. Duroc took part in the events of the 18th Brumaire, and, a few days after, Avas sent to the court of Berlin, where he Avas received with great distinction. This embassy contributed to preserve the peace between these two countries. War con- tinuing between France and Austria, the first consul set out on the campaign, which was terminated at Marengo. Du- roc accompanied him as first aid-de-camp. His name is honorably mentioned in the account of the passage of the Ticino, where he Avas one of the first to leap into a boat at die head of the grenadiers. After the peace of Amiens, he was sent, on difilomatic missions, to the courts of St. Petersburg, Stockholm and Copen- hagen. On his return, he was promoted to the rank of general of brigade and gov- ernor of the Tuueries; and, on the 9th Fructidor, year X, he was made general of division. When the first consul as- sumed the tide of emperor, he made Duroc grand marshal of the palace. The court- ier and faA'orite never ceased to be a sol- dier. He accompanied Napoleon in all his campaigns. In 1805, he was charged with a mission to the Prussian court, at the time when Napoleon was marching against Vienna. He rejoined the army preAiously to the battle of Aus- terlitz, and took the command of the division of grenadiers, which had been left witiiout a head, in consequence of the wound of Oudinot At the battle of Aus- teriitz, he also commanded a division of this chosen corps. During the camjiaign in Prussia, hi 1806, Duroc Avas commis- sioned to sign the treaty of peace with the king of Saxony; and, at a later period, he Avas the principal negotiator of the armi- stice which preceded the peace of Tilsit He followed Napoleon to Spain, and during the campaign of Wagram. At the battle of Esslingen, he ananged and directed his batteries in such a way as to anest the progress of the enemy in a decisive movement. After the battle of Znaym, Napoleon sent him to the arch- duke Charles, to negotiate an armistice. On the return from the Russian cam- paign, in 1812, Duroc reorganized the imjierial guard, Avhich, at this time, and on several other occasions, he commanded. Before his last departure for the army, he Avas ajijipinted senator. Duroc finally followed Napoleon to Germany, in 1813, and was killed, May 23, after the battle of Bautzen, in entering the village of Mer- kersdorf, by a ball, which also killed gen- eral Kirschner, with Avhom he Avas con- versing behind the emperor. This ball Avas the last which fell on that day; and the piece from which it Avas discharged was at so great a distance, and surrounded by so many obstacles, that it is incon- ceivable how it could have reached the place. Napoleon visited Duroc on his death-bed, and mingled tears with his farewell. He lost in him a true counsel- lor, a faithful friend, and one of his bravest officers. The deaths of the duke of Fri- uU and of the duke of Montebello are the two events on which Napoleon showed the greatest sensibiUty. Successively charged with the most important duties, military and poUtical, the duke of FriuU was ever remarkable for a moderation rare in a soldier, for abiUty, disinterested- ness, modesty, firmness, and a presence of mind which never deserted him. For DUROC—DUTENS. 349 15 years, he was the confidant and friend of that extraordinary man. When Napo- leon left France, in 1815, and embark- ed on board the Bellerophon, he wished to live in England, under the name of colonel Duroc. Seven years afterwards, we have another proof of the constant and affectionate remembrance which Na- poleon retained of him. He left to Iris daughter one of the largest legacies be- queathed by his will. Dusseldorf; capital of the goveniment of Diisseldorf, in the Prussian province of Juliers-Cleves-Berg, formerly the capital of the duchy of Berg, situated in a beauti- ful jilain on the Rhine and the Diissel, which unite under its walls. It was bom- barded by the French in 1794, and the castle and many of the finest buildings were destroyed. The town is one of the finest on the Rhine; some of the streets are regularly laid out; the houses are of brick. It contains 2200 houses and 26,600 inhabitants, and is divided into the Old Town, New Town and Charles's Town. The New Town was built by the elector John William. The buildings resemble palaces, and the princijial street is adorned with lime-trees. Charles's Town owes its existence to the elector Charles Theo- dore, from whom it derives its name. It has recently been much embellished, and contains several spacious squares. The collegiate church, and principal parochial church, which contains the tombs of the ancient dukes of Juliers and Berg (among which the marble mausoleum of the duke John is distinguished), deserve mention. The Jesuits' church, which is, however, too much ornamented ; the bronze statue, by Crepello, of the elector John William (a great jiatron of the arts, to whom Diis- seldorf was indebted for its prosperity), which stands in the market-place, and a marble statue of the same elector, by the same artist, in the yard of the castle (the beautiful castle itself is in ruins); the observatory, in what was formerly the Jesuits' college, and the fine scientific apjiaratus, are also Avordiy of attention. The gallery of paintings, containing the richest collection ofthe works of Rubens, and other great artists of the Dutch and Flemish schools, and formerly the chief ornament of Diisseldorf, has been removed to Munich; only the valuable collection, containing 14,241 original designs, 23,445 copperplates and casts in plaster, is still retained for the use of the academy of arts at Dusseldorf. The town has some im- portant silk and cotton manufactories and sugar refineries, with glass founderies and vol. iv. 30 vinegar and soap manufactories. Dussel- dorf is one of the principal commercial towns on the Rhine. Dutch Language, Literature, SchoolsofArt, &c. (See Netherlands.) Dutens, Louis, bom at Tours, 1730, of Protestant parents, died in London, 1812. At the time of his death, which happened at an advanced age, he was historiogra- pher to the king of England, and member of the academy of sciences in London, and of the Paris academy of inscriptions. Being convinced, by some unsuccessful attempts in tragedy, diat he had no genius for poetry, he obtained, AA-ith some diffi- culty, the place of a tutor. He became the friend of many distinguished men, Avho enriched him with pensions, bene- fices and legacies. He Avas three times British charge d'affaires to Turin, travel- led through Europe several times, and formed an acquaintance with many of the learned men in different parts of the con- tinent His works have been often repub- lished, and show the variety of his learning, refined by intercourse Avith the jiolite world. He published die Avorks of Leib- nitz, at Geneva, in 6 vols., not quite com- plete. The preface to the mathemati- cal part is highly esteemed by mathe- maticians. Dutens made himself known as a poet by the two collections Le Caprice podique and Pofoies. His Re- cherches sur VOrigine des Dicouvertes at- tributes aux Modemes show the extent of his reading, but rate the knowledge and invention of the ancients somewhat too high. His Tocsin ou Appel au bon Sens, of which he printed several successive editions, contains severe remarks upon Voltaire and Rousseau. In general, he was an opponent of the French philoso- jihers, and attacked them on every occa- sion. In his (Euvres milees (Lqndon, 4 vols.) may be found bis Logique ou I'Art de raisonner. His Histoire de ce qui s'est passe pour le Rdablisscment d'une Regence enAnglderre (1789) has historical interest. Dutens also composed a work, rather alien from his common pursuits, On the Genealogy ofthe Heroes of Romance. Three volumes of Mimoires d'un Voyagevr qui se repose (Paris, 1806) were received with general approbation. The 3d vol., entitled Dutensiana, contains anecdotes and observations. An earlier work of a similar kind was interesting as a sort of scandalous chronicle of the distinguished men of his time; but he thought it advis- able to destroy the whole edition before it was made public, and, what is rarely the case, he accomplished his object. 350 DUTIES—DUVAL. Duties. (See Revenue.) Duval, Valentine Jameray, librarian of the emperor Francis I, born in 1695, was the son of a poor peasant in the village of Artonay, in Champagne. In his 10th year, he lost his parents; in his 14th year, feeing driven from his native place by the want of employment half famished, and soon after attacked by the smaU pox, he wandered about in the open country, in the terrible winter of 1709. Providence conducted him to the cell of the good hermit Palemon, who received him, per- mitted him to share his labors, and taught him to read. Here Duval became devout without being superstitious. He then exchanged this quiet retreat for another at St. Anne, near Luneville. Here his only comjiany was four ignorant hermits; Iris employment, tending six coaa-s, and his only means of improvement, some volumes of the Blaue Bibliotliek; but he finally succeeded in learning to AA-rite. An epit- ome of arithmetic, which fell into his hands, highly interested Iris youthful mind. In the solitude of a forest, he received his first idpas of astronomy and geography. In order to procure the means of educat- ing himself, he killed game, and, in a few months, the proceeds of his toils furnished him with a little stock of money. Hap- pening' to find a gold seal engraved with a coat of arms, he had it advertised by the minister of the place. An Englishman by the name of Forster appeared as the owner, and Duval gave it up to him on condition that he Avould explain to him the coat of anna Surprised by this hon- esty and curiosity, Forster rewarded him so bountifully, that his Ubraiy, which had been gradually fonning out of the hunting fund, was increased fo 200 volumes, while he spent nothing on personal or external conveniences. Engaged in his studies, Duval jiaid little attention to his herd, and thereby displeased the hermits. One of them eA'en threatened to burn his books. This roused the spirit of DuAral. He seized a fire-shovel, drove the brother out of his own cell, and shut himself up in it. The other brothers came with the superior, but he refused to open the door till they had agreed to pass over all that had happened, and to allow him, in future, two hours a day for studying, while he, on his part, was to serve them 10 years more for his clothes and victuals. Du bad, and r-v-lts, digestion) ; difficulty of digestion. The strict'etymology of the term implies an iinjierfect or disordered condition ofthe function of digestion. Systematic writers have been not a little perplexed to find an ajiiirojiriate location for this affection in dieir artificial arrangements ; and this dif- ficulty must exist whilst symptoms, which are always fluctuating, are admitted, as the elements of nomenclature and arrange- ment, into systems of nosology. From the same circumstance, different symp- toms of the affection have received the character of separate diseases, as apepsia, bradyjiejisia (t'.e.e'vs, slow), anorexia, car- dialyia, &c These are no more than different grades in the symptoms, or vari- eties ofthe affection, and are not different diseases. The disorder of the digestive function is the most frequent and jirevail- ing of the ailments that afflict man in die civilized state; all classes and all ages suffer from its attacks. Few are so hap- jiy as to jiass through a life of ordinary duration, without undergoing a protracted struggle with this malady, aud experienc- ing its torments. Once let it be fully established, and the comfort of existence disajijiears, or is regained, in most cases, tediously, and at the price of the most ascetic self-denial. The greater preva- lence of dyspepsia or indigestion, in mod- ern times, arises from the more frequent injury done to the stomach and its func- tions, directly, by the habits of luxurious indulgence, which have been exceedingly increased and extended; and, indirectly, by the multiplication of intellectual and moral agitations, from the extension ofthe commercial and financial operations of society, the greater activity and employ- ment ofthe iiiteUectual faculties, and aug- mentation of political, social and indivicU ual reverses. Something, too, is to be ascribed to the mere change of names. We call that dyspepsia now, which, for- merly, was termed liver disease, bilious disorder, &c. A large proportion of the discomfort produced by this malady, arises from an ignorance of the digestive functions, leading to their abuse and pre- mature derangement, and may be obvi- ated, to a great extent, by instruction as to the nature of tliese functions, and their natural exercise. A general view of the digestive organs and functions is, there- fore, requisite to an understanding of their disorders, the means to prevent, and the methods to remedy them. All organized or animated beings hold their existence under the condition of renewing, inces- santly, the elements of their comjiosition, by the ajijiropriation to themselves of exterior matters. The simple animals (polyjii,&c.)find, in the medium in which they live, and from which they directly receive them, the principles serving for their composition. The decomposition of animal and vegetable matter in the soil jirepares the aliment or nutritive jninciple of vegetables, wlrich, being held in solu- tion by water, is absorbed by their roots. In all these beings there are no digestive organs or functions. The preparation of their nutriment is effected by physical operations exterior to themselves, and over which they have no control. In the higher or complete animals, or in man, the case is very different Nature does not present to them the nutritive elements in a state fitted to be introduced, at once, into the interior organism, and to be em- ployed in its composition. Their aliment consists of the nutritive principles in a compound state, intimately combined with other substances, from wlrich they require to be disengaged. This is accomplished by the animal itself, which is jirovided with especial organs or apparatus and func- tions for this purpose. Digestion, then, consists in the disengagement of the nu- tritive elements from their combinations, and their reduction to the molecular state, admitting their introduction into the ves- sels, and their diffusion throughout the organism, for the purposes of its compo- sition. It is a process analogous to die decomposition of the aUment of vegetables in the soil, and is effected, like all decom- positions, by analogous or chemical ope- rations. In this class, the procuring of the aliment is the act of the animal, de- pending on its voluntary powers, and is controlled by a great variety of circum- stances, affecting the quantity and quaUty DYSPEPSIA. 357 of the food. The organs composing the digestive apparatus in man are numerous. They are the mouth, anned with teeth, for mechanically breaking down the food by mastication; the salivary glands, fur- nishing a fluid intimately combined with the food, in mastication, and collected in die stomach, winch is its reservoir; the pharynx, a muscular and membranous bag, for the reception of the masticated bolus from die mouth; the oesophagus, a muscular and membranous tube, for con- ducting the bolus into the stomach; the stomach, a muscular and membranous bag, or enlargement of die alimentary canal, secreting a fluid or fluids, and a reservoir of the salivary and other secre- tory fluids of the interior surfaces, and in wlrich the food is subjected to die decom- posing process, until reduced to a pulpy mass, called chyme, consisting of the nu- tritive and innutritive elements, in a state of mechanical mixture; the duodenum, or second stomach, in which the chymous mass is submitted to the action of the biUary and pancreatic fluids, and in which the nutritive elements begin to separate from the innutritive matters, and to be absorbed by the lacteals, the roots of the animal economy; the liver and pancreas, furnishing bile and a species of saliva, which are mixed with, and act on, the chyme in the duodenum; the jejunum and ileum, or small intestines, in the course of which the separation, begun in the duodenum, is completed, and nearly the whole ofthe nutritive principles forming chyle are absorbed; and,lastly,the large in- testines, a reservoir for all the excrementi- tious principles, and which, in it are con- verted into faeces. The whole of these organs compose the apparatus of diges- tion, but aU are not of equal importance. The stomach and duodenum are the most eminent organs, and those whose condi- tion exercises the greatest influence over the powers of digestion. This ajijiaratus is intimately connected, and a natural state of each of its parts, and a due exercise of the function of each, are essential to the healthy, undisturbed performance of di- gestion. This connexion is maintained through the ganglionary system of nerves, which not only unites these organs to- gether, but combines them Avith all their congeries, apjirojiriated to the perfect elab- oration of the nutritive and sustaining principles ofthe economy. The stomach is the centre of the digestive apparatus, and may be regarded in nearly die same vieAv, for the whole of the organs con- nected with individual nutrition, It owes this character to its intimate union with the great solar plexus, the centre or brain, if it may be so termed, ofthe ganglionary system, regulating the nutritive functions. It is also immediately associated with the brain, through the medium of the eighth pair or pneumo-gastric neires, and thus is placed in relation Avith the exercise of the moral and intellectual faculties. The stomach is consequently exposed to be disordered in its functions by violent im- pressions from these faculties, as they are also liable to be affected by the disordered conditions of the stomach. It is neces- sary to have these diversified connexions pointed out, to possess a clear understand- ing of the numerous and very different sources from which disturbances reach the process of digestion. A feAV words will now be necessary as to digestion itself. It is not all substances that are fitted for aUment, and are susceptible of digestion. Food is intended for the reno- vation of tlie body. It must consist ofthe same elements as the animal structure, and be capable of becoming organized and Uving. It must then contain, at least, three elementary animal principles—hy- drogen, carbon and oxygen; and much of it contains, also, a fourth—azote. These elements form secondary comjiounds, in wlrich state alone they constitute aliment: such are albumen, fibrin, gelatin, osina- zome, oil, engau, farina, mucilage, and other animal and vegetable compounds. In aU these substances, the molecules are easily separable without being chemically decomposed, which is one of the primary requisites of digestibiUty, and to effect which is the chief object of digestion. The masticated and insalivated food passes in- to die stomach. Here it is macerated in the saUva collected in the stomach, and in the proper liquid secreted by the villi of the gastric mucous membrane, at a temperature of 104° Fahr. This liquor is called gastric juice. Its true nature is not accurately determined, but, as far as ex- amination has ascertained, it resembles saliva mixed with a small portion of lac- tic or muriatic acid. The stomach, in a healthy state, always contracts on its con- tents, so that its parietes, in digestion, are always in contact with the food. During digestion, the stomach has a constant ver- micular motion, its muscular fibres con- tracting, successively, from the smaller to the larger end. The food is thus agitat- ed, acquires a rotatory movement, and is mingled with die fluids of the stomach. In a short time, the change accomplished in the stomach commences; it becomes 358 DYSPEPSIA. pulpy, and then reduced to a semifluid of a light, grayish color. From the uni- fonn jiressure of the stomach, the soUd and most resisting portions are forced into the centre, AvhUe the digested and more fluid matter is found on the surface, and is gradually canied, by the contraction of the muscular fibres, into the duodenum. W. Philips and others have been led to suppose, from this circumstance, that the food in contact with the parietes of the stomach was alone digested; but it is a mere physical result as uniform pressure in every direction, on a mass of different consistency, avUI always drive the most fluid to the circumference. The pulpy, grayish substance resulting from the stomachic digestion is caUed chyme, (q.v.) When examined Avith the microscope, the writer of this article has always found it to consist of an immense number of transpa- rent globules, of various sizes, intermixed with undissolved fragments of the fibres of the alimentary substance. When food is masticated, and macerated for a few hours in simjile saliva, he has found it to pre- sent exactly the same appearances as the chyme of the stomach. The digestion of the stomach, he infers from his experimeiUs, is not a decomposition of the alimentary matter, but is a simple dirintegration or reduction of it into its component molecules, the animal character remaining unchanged. The chyme, having passed into the duo- denum, meets Avith the pancreatic liquor and the bile. What are the positive changes induced by these fluids, certainly is not accurately known. The acids of the chymous mass are neutralized by the alkaline princijiles of the bile, the picro- mel and coloring matter of Avhich appear to coalesce with the unassimilable princi- ples of the food, and assist in their con- version into faeces. A chemical modifica- tion in some of the aUmentary elements may also be effected. It is certain that chyle, or the nutritive principles of wlrich blood is formed, does not appear in the lacteals until after the action of the bile and jiancreatic fluid on the chyme, the product ofthe stomachic digestion. The action of the stomach on the food is that usually designated as digestion, and it is the derangement of this process that is usually exjiressed by the term dyspepda. The process accomplished in the duode- num is also a true digestion, and the symptoms arising from its disordered state are confounded Avith those of the 6tomachic digestion, in the general ac- counts of dyspepsia. From this sketch of the function of digestion, it is evident, that its most important agents are, 1st, the secreted fluids collected in the 6tomach; 2d, the contractile movements of the stomach, keeping die alimentary mass in constant agitation, mixing it Avith the fluids as diey are secreted, and remov- ing the portion digested or reduced into chyme; 3d, the application of the biUary and pancreatic fluids to the chyme in the duodenum; and, 4th, the contractile movements of this viscus. Most of the derangements of the digestive functions may be traced immediately to a departure from a natural state of some one or more of the above requisites of digestion. But this deviation from the natural order is, itself, an effect. The secretions are jirod- ucts of organs, and all excitement of the secretory organ, beyond the range of healthy action, causes vitiation of the secretion, or its total suspension. The action of the organ, diminished beloAV the physiological range, is attended with other Aitiations of the fluid, or the cessation of its secretion. Indigestion or dyspepsia is a consequence of both these conditions of the organs furnishing the fluids of di- gestion. Digestion is a very stimulating jirocess. All functional actions are excit- ing. The increased demand for secreted fluids renders an augmented action, and increase of blood in the furnishing organ, necessary for their production. The jires- ence of the food, drinks, &c, in the stomach, add to the stimulation of diges- tion. If the stomach of an animal be examined in the act of digestion, the mucous membrane is found of a diffused scarlet color. The movements of the stomach essential to digestion depend on its nervous communications, and esjiecial- ly on the integrity of the eighth jiair of nerves. When these are divided, the stomach and oesojihagus are paralysed; the food is no longer agitated and mixed up Avith the digestive fluids, and it often regurgitates from the stomach into the oesophagus. This experiment proves the influence of the contractile motion of the stomach in the act of digestion. The ganglionic nerves are not less important, though their specific influence cannot as readily be determined. But in many cases of disease of these ganglions, vomit- ing, eructations, pain in the gastric region, and impaired digestion, are accompanying symptoms. Through the nervous system, the function of digestion is exposed to numerous disorders from moral impres- sions, especially those of an agitating char- acter. From the preceding principles, it is evident that dyspepsia or indigestion is DYSPEPSIA. 359 not properly speaking, a disease, but rather a symptom, attached to diseases of the apparatus of digestion, of very various and even ojiposite character. No specific treatment can, therefore, be laid doAvn for the cure of dyspepsia, but each case re- quires to be managed according to its jieculiar cause and nature. The organ of the digestive apparatus die most frequent- ly jiroductive of dyspeptic symptoms is the stomach, and the most usual cause of dyspepsia is its irritation and inflamma- tion. The stomach is more Uable than any other organ to these states, from its direct exposure to so many initating ag- gressions, and its intimate sympathetic communications, which make it partici- pate iu the irritations of almost every other organ. The sub-acute anil chronic fori us of gastric initation and inflamma- tion, the signs of which have only of late been fully appreciated, are the disorders that, in seven or eight cases out of ten, are termed dyspepsia. Hence dysjiepsia so frequently succeeds to febrile diseases, especially when treated by emetics, dras- tics, anil the improper use of tonics and stimulants, which, although the patient escajies the fever, leave him a martyr to the chronic, disorganizing and perturbat- ing irritations ofthe gastric mucous mem- brane. Hence, too, dyspepsia almost in- evitably follows continued abuse of the digestive functions, from too highly sea- soned or too abundant food, and stimulant drinks. The constant stimulation of the stomach finally becomes pathological or morbid. The simple prolongation of the functional excitement essential to diges- tion, continued from meal to meal, with- out permitting die stomach to revert to a state of repose, is sufficient to constitute a morbid state. All functions, for their per- fect performance, require alternate periods of rejiose and activity. Incessant action irritates, inflames, and finally disorganizes the structure of the organs. A second condition of the stomach, productive of dvspepsia, is the congestion of its mucous tissue. This may be confined to the stomach alone, succeeding to an attack of acute gastritis, or following on its pro- tracted irritation; or it may be an attend- ant on a general congestion of the whole portal svstem involving most of the ab- dominal" viscera. Eveiy irritation is at- tended with an afflux of the circulating fluids into the structure where it is seated, proportioned to its intensity and the vas- cularity of the stmcture. This gorged state often continues after the subsidence of the irritation that provoked it, and pre- vents the resumption of the healthy func- tions. It is a state of passive congestion, and often exists in the mucous membrane of the stomach, after attacks of inflamma- tion or acute initation, and embanasses its digestive operations. In aU the exten- sive irritations of the alimentary canal, especially when attended Avith fever, hav- ing a paroxysmal character, die great portal system of die abdomen becomes loaded with blood, and congestion of its radical vessels ensues. The functions of the viscera are then disordered, the secre- tions are defective, and indigestion, cos- tiveness, and their attendant nervous af- fections, are the necessaiy consequences of this condition. A third state of the stomach, a cause of dyspeptic symptoms, is precisely the reverse of die jireeeding. Asthenia, or diminution of vitality and ac- tions below the healthy degree, occasion- ally takes possession of the stomach. Its circulation is then deficient its secreted fluids are defective in quantity or quality, its sensibility is impaired, and digestion is imperfect It is not juobable that gastric asthenia is ever primitive. It succeeds to previous initation, and is often occasioned by initation in other organs.—The pre- ceding form a first class of dyspeptic dis- eases, Avlrich, depending entirely on the stomach, may be termed gastric dyspepsia. They present characters totally different, and require a very opposite treatment This class embraces three species. A second class of dyspeptic diseases is connected with the duodenum and its functions. This viscus, similarly con- stituted to the stomach, is subject to the same morbid alterations. Its mucous membrane is the seat of irritation, in its various grades, and productive of its usual consequences—augmented initability, sen- sibility, perversion of secretions, vitiation of structure, and disorder of function, Duodenic irritation most commonly ac- comjianies gastric initation, and the symji- toms of the two are blended together. It exists, however, in many instances, inde- pendently,- and then manifests particular symptoms, which are often termed dys- pepsia. It is, more especially, die chronic irritation ofthe duodenum, that passes for dyspepsia. It is not probable, that con- gestion, or asthenia, ever affect the duo- denum exclusively to the detriment of its function. When these states prevail, it is in conjunction with similar conditions of tlie whole digestive apparatus. At least, we have no knowledge of these states limited to the duodenum. A third class of dyspeptic diseases de- 360 DYSPEPSIA. pend on the nervous organs, which fur- nish nerves to the digestive viscera. The ganglionic system of nerves, distributed on each side of the spine, from the head to the pelvis, transmits nerves to all the organs connected Avith the nutritive func- tion. The stomach, especially, is largely supjiUed from the solar plexus, and it receives, likewise, numerous nervous fila- ments from die pneumo-gastric, placing it in connexion with the functions of rela- tion. The offices of the ganglionic sys- tem are not ascertained with precision. It is, however, well determined, that dis- eases of the ganglions disorder the func- tions of the viscera to AAhich they trans- mit nerves. Hence arises an order of dyspeptic symptoms, uidependent of any immediate affection of the stomach, but occasioned by disease hi the great solar, or other neighboring plexus. The disor- ders of the digestive functions, from this cause, are various. The sensibility ofthe stomach is sometimes greatly increased, constituting gastralgia. At odier times, the secreted fluids of the stomach are morbidly acid. The stomach appears, in other cases, to be jiartially paralysed, and the peristaltic moAements necessary for the admixture of die food, and the gastric fluids, and the continuous passage of the chyme into the duodenum, are suspended. At the same time, considerable quantities of flatus collect in and distend the stom- ach, preventing its action on the food. Mechanical manipulation of the abdomen, and particularly of the epigastrium, after a meal, becomes a substitute for the natu- ral motion of the stomach, expels the wind, and facilitates digestion, that would otherwise be laborious and jiainful.—Dys- jiejisia or indigestion, from this analysis of its modes of jiroduction, is seen not to be a disease of uniform character, and depending on an identical state of the digestive organs. It is attached, as a symptom, rather, to a variety of condi- tions, each of which requires to be man- aged in its appropriate mode. It is not possible that it can be remedied by any one general mode of treatment or by any set of specific remedies. The most com- mon causes of dyspepsia are excesses of various kinds, especially in the quantity of food eaten. Most individuals, in this country, err in this respect Meat at throe meals, daily, can be borne only by the most robust frames, and by hard laborers. Persons of a sedentary Ufe require less nutriment; the economy makes less de- mand on the stomach for sujiplies; and if it be compelled then to labor, it is at its own loss. Exercise, or the expenditure of the nutritive elements by the economy, and die quantity of food to be digested, must be proportioned to each other, for die preservation of health and the due Aigor of digestion. This fundamental principle is laid down in an axiom by Hijipocrates—Homo edens sanus esse non potest, nisi etiam laborat.—De Di^ta, Lib. I. Good cookery, by rendering food more digestible, is one preservative against dyspepsia. The food, by being rendered tender and pulpy, is reduced to chyme in a shorter period, with a smaller expenditure of the secreted fluids, and less excitement of the stomach, than when it is not properly concocted. The art of long and healthful living -will de- pend on a perfect system of cooking, and a rational mode of eating. The powers of the stomach differ, in individuals, as much as the force of their muscles; and each one must adopt a mode of nutrition, both as to quantity and quality of food, suitable to the wants of his economy and the digestive capacity of his stomach. The quality of food is a frequent cause of dyspepsia. Tough and badly dressed meats, and crude vegetables, are among the prominent causes of this affliction, as are also hot bread and cakes, heavy and fresh bread, and the daily use of hot cof- fee for breakfast. In enumerating the more common causes of dyspeptic symji- toms, we ought not to omit die frequent exacerbations of the malevolent passions, as anger, hatred, envy, jealousy, and, what is not often suspected, excessive indulgence and abuses ofthe venereal pro- pensity. Another fruitful source of the digestive disorders is found in the em- ployment of emetics, and in a frequent resort to saline or drastic cathartic medi- cines. When a constipated habit prevails, it should always be overcome, if possible, by a laxative regimen, and the aids of purgatives be cautiously and rarely in- voked. E—EAGLE. 361 Ei; the second vowel and the fifth letter of the English alphabet The sound c (as in bench, or long, as in the French pere) in the early stages of all languages, often passes into t (as in liver, or the Ital- ian i), into a (as in father), and into o. But of the languages of modern civilized na- tions, since their orthography has been set- tled, the English gives to the letter e the most different sounds; as that ofthe Ger- man short e, for instance, in bet; that of the German i, as in revere, he, me; that of the German a, in clerk (pronounced dark), sergeant (jironounced sargeant; at least this mode of pronouncing exists in England); that of u, as in voter, murder. We find similar sounds of e in different dialects of Germany; for instance, in the dialect of Silesia, where spoken most broadly, Seele (soul) is pronounced as an EngUshman would pronounce it, whilst the true German pronunciation of the word is as if it were written Sa-le. In Latin, we also find here for heri, Vergilius for Virgilius, Deana for Diana; and, in old ItaUan, desiderio and disiderio, peggiore and piggiore. In French, e is pronounced in three different Avays—the k ouvert, i fermi and e mud—all three in the word fermete. In German, there are four differ- ent ways of pronouncing the letter e; 1. merely as an aspiration, or very short in- deed, as in hatte or hoffen; 2. short, Uke the English e in bd, met, as in recht, rennen; 3. long, Uke the English a in fate, as in reden, predigen; and like the French h ouvert, or like the German a or a, as in Elend, although Uttle distinc- tion is generally made between the two latter. Some provinces generally pro- nounce both like the latter; others pro- nounce them like the former, or like a in fate. The letter e may be called an in- truder into the German language, because it has taken the place formerly occupied by full and melodious vowels, and it oc- curs too often. The Greeks, it is weU known, had two characters—e, or epsilon, and r,, or da, the latter correspondmg to the French e ouvert, if it was not pro- nounced, as in modem Greek, like the vol. iv. 31 Italian i. E, in the Greek numeration, signified five. Many dictionaries state, that E was used by the ancients for 250, according to die verse— E quoque ducentos et quinquaginta tenebit 5 but this was only in late and barbarous times. E, as an abbreviation, stands, in English, for east. On ancient medals, it stands for the names of cities which begin with this letter; for exercitus, effigies, eait- tum, or for itoS, the year, IXndcpta, Uberty, &c. The letter E, on modern French coins, signifies the mint of Tours; on Prus- sian, the mint of Kbnigsoerg; on Austrian, that of Karlsburg. (See Abbreviations.) Eagle ; a coin. (See Coins.) Eagle (faleo). This weU known bird belongs to the genus faleo, which has been much subdivided by modem orni- thologists. In the present article, those species only will be noticed which belong to the subgenera of aquila and kaliatus. The eagle has been elevated, by the popular voice, to the rank of the no- blest and most courageous of the rapa- cious birds. Its natural fierceness is so great, that it has seldom been employed for the purposes of the chase, as it can never be rendered sufficiently tractable to obey its keeper. The eagle soars to a greater height than any other bird, from which circumstance the ancients consid- ered it as the messenger of Jove," Ful- vam aquilam Jovis nuntiamP Its sense of sight is exquisite. It lives for a great length of time, even in the captive state. Mr. Pennant mentions one in the posses- sion of a gentleman, which he had kept for nine years, and the person from Avhom he had received it thirty-two. The prin- cipal species are, 1. the faleo imperialis (Bechst), or imperial eagle. This species is the largest known. It is distinguished by a large white 6pot ori the scapulars, transverse nostrils, black taU, marked Avith gray on its superior portion. The female is fawn-colored, with brown spots. It is stouter than the common eagle. It inhab- its the high mountains of the middle of Europe; and to this species may be refer- 362 EAGLE. red all the accounts of the ancients respect- ing the strength, courage and magnanimity of these birds. 2. Faleo chrysaitos (golden eagle). This fine bird measures, from the point of the bill to the extremity of the toes, upwards of three feet aQd, from tip to tip, above six, Aveighing from 12 to 18 pounds. The male is smaller than the female. The bill is of a deep blue color, the cere yellow, the eyes are large, deep sunk, and covered by a projecting brow; the iris is of a fine bright yelloAv, and sparkles with uncommon lustre. The general color is a deep broAvn mixed with tawny on the head and neck; the quills are chocolate, with white shafts; the tail is black, spotted with ash color, the legs are yellow, the toes very scaly, and the claws remarkably large. It occurs in va- rious parts of Europe and of North Amer- ica ; in the latter, hoAvever, it is rare. 3. F. fulvus (common or ring-tailed ea- gle) is said to be the young of this bird. The same nests are made use of by eagles for a succession of years. These nests arc, in fact, of great bulk, and of such durable materials as to be almost indestructible. They are built in dry and inaccessible situations, of large twigs, lined with seve- ral layers of reeds or brambles; of a flat form, several feet in breadth, and of such strength as to supjiort not only the eagle and her young, but likewise the large quantity of food she jirovides for them. This is so great, that it is related by Smith, in his history of Kerry, that a peasant procured a comfortable subsistence for his family, during a summer of famine, by robbing the eaglets of the food provided for them by the old birds. In the middle of this aerie, the female dejiosits two or three eggs, and sits on them about thirty days. The plumage of the eaglets is not as dark as it becomes when they anive at the adult state ; but age, famine and cap- tivity graduaUy diminish their natural colors, and give them a faded appearance. 4. White-tailed eagle (F. albicilla). This bird, which is only found in the old conti- nent, is inferior in size to the golden eagle. It inhabits far north, and is ex- tremely ferocious; feeds principally upon fish, and usuaUy lays two or three eggs, budding its nest upon lofty trees. It is distinguished by its black biU and claws, and white tail. 5. The sea-eagle of Europe (F.osdfragus) is the young of this species, whilst the bird on which Wilson has bestowed the same denomination in this country, is the young of the bald eagle. 6. Great eagle of Guiana (F. harpyia). This bird belongs to the sub-genus harpyia of Cuvier, and is furnished widi a terrible beak and ckvws. lis size is larger dian that of the common eagle ; its plumage is ash-colored on the head and neck, black- ish-brown on the breast and sides, whitish beneath, rayed with brown on the thighs. It has long plumes, which form a black tuft on the back of the head, and can be raised, giving it somewhat the physiogno- my of an owl. This bird is said to be so powerful as to have destroyed men by a blow of its beak. Its usual food is the sloth, though it sometimes carries off fawns. There can be no doubt but that this species is the yzquautzli of Heniandes, though this author is guilty of great exag- geration Avhen he says it is as large as a sheep. 7. Bald eagle (F. leucocephalus). The bald eagle is the most distinguished of the North American species, not only from his beauty, but also as the adopted em- blem of our country. This bird has been knoAvn to naturalists for a long time, and is common to both continents, chiefly fre- quenting the neighborhood of the sea, and die shores and cliffs of lakes and large rivers. He is found during the whole year in the countries he inhabits, jirefer- ring the sjiots we have mentioned from his great partiality for fish. The foUow- ing poetic dcscrijition of one of his modes of obtaining his prey is given by Wilson: " Elevated upon a high, dead limb of some gigantic tree, that commands a wide vieAV of the neighboring shore and ocean, he seems calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes tiiat pursue their busy avocations below—the snow- white gulls, slowly winnoAving the air; the busy tringai, coursing along the sands; trains of ducks, streaming over the surface; silent and watchful cranes, intent and Avading ; clamorous crows, and all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast liquid magazine of nature. High over all these hovers one, whose action instantly anests all his atten- tion. He knows him to be the fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His eye kindles at the sight aQd, balancing himself with half-opened wings on the branch, he watches the result Down, rapid as an anow from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention, the roar of its wings reaching the ear as it disappears in the deep, making the surges foam around. At this moment the eager looks of the eagle are aU ardor, and, level- ling his neck for flight he sees the fish- hawk once more emerging, snuggling with his prey, and mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are a signal EAGLE—EAR. 363 for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives chase; soon gains on the fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost to mount above the other, displaying, in the rencounter, the most elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unincumbered eagle rapidly advances, and is just on the point of reaching his opponent, when, Avith a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest execration, the latter drops his fish; the eagle, poising himself for a mo- ment as if to take a more certain aim, descends Uke a whirlwind, snatches it in his grasp, ere it reaches the Avater, and bears it silently away to the woods." The bald eagle also destroys quadrupeds, as lambs, pigs, &c.; and there are well authenticated instances of its attempting to carry off children. When this bird has fasted for some time, its appetite is ex- tremely voracious and indiscriminate. Even the most jiutrid carrion, Avhen noth- ing better can be had, is acceptable. In hard times, when food is very scarce, the eagle will attack the vulture, make it dis- gorge tho food it has Kvvallowed, and seize this disgusting matter before it can reach the ground. The nest of this species is usually found in a lofty tree, in a swamp or morass. It is large, and, being increased and repaired every season, becomes of great size. It is formed of large sticks, sods, hay, moss, &c. Few birds provide more abundantly for their young than the bald eagle. Fish are daily carried to the nest in such numbers, that they sometimes Ue scattered round the tree, and the putrid smell of the nest may be distinguished at the distance of several hundred yards. The eagle is said to live to a great age—60,80, or even 100 years.—In poetry and the fine arts, the eagle plays a very important part As king of birds, the eagle was the bird of Jove, the carrier of the lightning, and thereby expressive of sole or supreme dominion. In this sense, he is used as the emblem and symbol of nations, princes and armies. He was the hiero- glyphic sign ofthe cities Heliopolis, Erne- 6Us, Antioch and Tyre. Among the at- tributes of royalty, which the Tuscans once sent to the Romans, as a token of amity, was a sceptre with an eagle of ivorv; and from that time the eagle re- mained one of the principal emblems of the republic, and was retained also by the emperors. As the standard of an army, die eagle Avas first used by the Persians. Among the Romans, they were at first of wood, then of silver, with thunderbolts of gold, and, under Caesar and his success- ors, entirely of gold, without thunderbolts. For a long time, they were carried, as the standards of the legions, on a long pike, and reverenced as their peculiar deities. Napoleon chose the Roman eagle as his banner. It was of metal, grit and elevated on a long staff; but the royal army in France no longer retains this standard. The double-headed eagle was first found among the emperors of the East who thereby expressed their claims to the East- ern and Western empires. It was after- wards adopted by the Western emperors. The German emperor Otho IV had it first on his seal. King Philip afterwards made it the impress on his coins. Aus- tria received this emblem from the inher- itance of the East The eagle was also adopted by the kings of Prussia, Poland, Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, by die emperors of Russia, by many princes, counts and barons of the German empire, and by the U. States of America. Napoleon's eagle was seated, with his wings folded, like that of the Romans. The eagle of ihe U. States stands with outspread wings, guarding the shield below him, on which are the stripes and stars representing the states of the Union, and the motto E plu- ribus unum.—The eagle is also the badge of several orders, as the black eagle and the red eagle of Prussia, the white eagle of Poland, &c. Eaheinomauwe ; a large island in the South Pacific ocean, and the most north- ern ofthe two constituting New Zealand, extending from lat. 34° 301 to 41° 307 S. Its form is irregular. From lat 37° 30* to 39° 40/ S., the breadth is from 150 to 180 miles ; afterwards it decreases gradu- ally to 30 miles, the distance from cape Tierawitte to cape PalUser, its most south- ern point. Ear (auris). The ear is the organ of hearing. It is situated at the side of the head, and is divided into external and in- ternal ear. The auricula, or pinna, com- monly called the ear, constitutes the ex- ternal part. It is of a greater or less size, according to the individual. The pinna is formed of a fibrous cartilage, elastic and pliant: the skin which covers it is thin and dry. There are also seen, upon the different projections of die cartilaginous ear, certain muscular fibres, to which the name of muscles has been given. The pinna, receiving, many vessels and nerves, is very sensible, and easdy becomes red« It is fixed to the head by the cellular tissue, and by muscles, which are called, according to their position, anterior, supe- rior and posterior. These muscles are 364 EAR—EAR-TRUMPETS. much developed in many animals: in man, they may be considered as simple vestiges. The meatus auditorius, or audi- tory passage, extends from the concha to the membrane of tlie tympanum ; its length, variable according to age, is from 10 to 12 lines in the adult; it is narrower in the middle than at the ends; it presents a sliglit curve above and in front. Its external orifice is commonly covered with hairs, like the entrance to the other cavi- ties. The middle ear comprehends die cavity of the tympanum, the Uttle bones which are contained in this cavity, the mastoid ceUs, the Eustachian tulie, &c. The tympanum is a cavity which sepa- rates the external from the internal ear. Its form is that of a portion of a cylinder, but a Utde irregular. The external side presents the membrana tympani. This membrane is directed obliquely downward and inward: it is bent verv slender and transparent, covered on the outside by a continuation of the skin ^ on the inside, by the narroAv membrane which covers the tympanum. Its tissue is dry, brittle, and has nothing analogous in the animal econ- omy ; there are neither fibres, vessels nor nerves found in it. The cavity of the tympanum, and all the canals which end there, are covered with a very slender mucous membrane: this cavity, which is always foil of air, contains, besides, four small bones (the malleus, incus, os orbicu- lare, and stapes), which form a chain from the membrana tympani to the fenestra ova- Vis, where the base of the stapes is fixed. There are some Uttle muscles for the pur- pose of moving this osseous chain, of stretching and slackening the membranes to which it is attached: thus the in- ternal muscle of the malleus draws it for- ward, bends die chain in this direction, and stretches the membranes; the ante- rior muscle produces the contrary effect: it is also supposed that the small muscle which is placed in the pyramid, and which is attached to the neck of the stapes, may give a sUght tension to the chain, in drawing it towards itself. The internal ear, or labyrinth, is composed of the cochlea, of the semicircular canals, and of the vestibule. The cochlea is a bony cavity, in form of a spiral, from which it has taken its name. This cavity is di- vided into two others, which are distin- guished into external and internal. The partition which separates them is a plate set edgeways, ana which, in its whole length, is partly bony and partly mem- branous. The semicircular canals are three cylindrical cavities, bent in a semi- circular form, two of which are disposed horizontally, and the others vertically. These canals terminate by their extremi- ties in the vestibule. They contain bodies ,. of a gray color, the extremities of which are terminated by swellings. The vesti- bule is the central cavity, the point of union of aU the others. It communicates with the tympanum, the cochlea, the sem- icircular canals, and the internal meatus auditorius, by a great number of little openings. The cavities of the internal * ear are entirely hollowed out of the hardT est part of the temporal bone: they are covered Avith an extremely thin mem- brane, and are full of a very thin and limpid fluid: they contain, besides, the acoustic nerve. The internal ear and mid- dle ear are traversed by several nervous threads, the presence of which is, perhaps, useful to hearing. Ear-Trumpets ; instruments used by persons partially deaf, to strengthen the sensation of sound. They are of various forms, and are intended to compensate for the want cf the external car, or to aug- ment its power when the internal organs perform their functions but imperfectly. The purpose of the external ear, both in men and beasts, is to collect, by its funnel form, all the rays of sound (if we may be allowed the expression), and conduct them to the internal organs, the seat of the sense of hearing. All the artificial instru- ments, then, ought to resemble, in form, the natural ear. In ancient times, they i were made like a trumpet, of moderate size, and usually provided with handles, by which they might be held up to the ear. They were so fitted that the smaller aperture entered the ear, and the wider was directed to the quarter from which the sound was to proceed. But these in- * struments were soon found inconvenient, both on account of their size and the necessity of continually holding them to the ear. Another objection was, that they did not sufficiently conceal the defect they were designed to remedy, and therefore they were soon thrown aside. New in- struments were made without these de- ^ fects. One resembles a small silver fun- nel, with a long winding channel in its interior, which terminates at the beginning of the auditory passage. On the broad, bent rim there are holes, with ribbons passing through them, to fix the machine to the external ear. A second form con- sists of a lackered tin tube, with numerous windings, having the nanow end commu- nicating with the auditory passage, and the exterior, wider end made fast to tho EAR-TRUMPETS—EARTH. 365 external ear. In the same way, two of these instruments might be connected by an elastic hoop, and fitted, at the same time, to both ears. A third instrument consists of a sort of holloav tin case, curv- ing so as to fit the head, having a broad ajterture in the middle of the front surface, and terminated by two tubes bent inwards. This hooji is so fixed under the hair, that the aperture in the middle is exactly over the ii|ijier jiart of the forehead, and the lateral tubes communicate Avith the right and left auditory passages. The great advantage of this last instrument is, that it receives directly sounds which come from before. Earl ; a degree ofthe English nobility, between marquis and a iscount (For the origin of the title and die dignity, see Alder- man.) In Latin, the earls are called comites, conesponding to the count or Graf of the European continent (See Count.) It is now become a mere title, the official au- thority which the earls formerly possessed in the counties having devolved entirely on the sheriffs (in Latin, vice-comites). In official instruments, they are called, by the king, trusty and well beloved cousins—an appellation as ancient as the reign of Henry IV, who, being, either by his wife, mother or sisters, actually related or allied to every earl in the kingdom, artfully acknowledged this connexion in all his letters and other pubUc acts. An earl's coronet is composed of eight pearls, raised upon points, with small leaves between, above the rim. There are, at present 105 earls in England, 5 in Scotland, and 19 in Ireland- As the earls, for some time after the Norman conquest, were called counts, their wives are stiU caUed countesses. Earl Marshal of England ; a great officer, who had, anciently, several courts under his jurisdiction, as the court of clriv- alry and the court of honor. Under him is also the herald's office, or college of arms. He has some preeminence in the court of Marshalsea, Avhere he may sit in judgment against those who offend within the verge of the king's court. Earlom, Richard, a mezzotinto en- graver, was born in London, and was the son ofthe vestry-clerk ofthe parish of St. Sepulchre. His taste for design is said to have been excited by the inspection ofthe ornaments on the state-coach of the lord- mayor, which had been painted by Cipri- ani. About 1765, he Avas employed by alderman Boydell to make drawings from the celebrated collection of pictures at Houghton, most of which he afterwards admirably engraved in mezzotinto. In this branch of art he had been his own instructer, and he introduced into the practice of it improvements and instru- ments not previously used. The fruit and flower-pieces executed by Earlom, after Van Huysum, estabUshed his fame. In history, he distinguished himself by his engraving of Agrippina, from the grand picture by West. He also engraved some Oriental scenes, from paintings by Zoffa- ni, and published two volumes of plates from the Liber Veritatis or sketch book of Claude. He died Oct. 9,1822, aged 79. Earnest ; a part of the price paid in advance, to bind parties to the perform- ance of a verbal agreement. The party is then obliged to abide by his bargain, and is not discharged upon forfeiting his ear- nest Dut may be sued for the whole money stipulated, and damages. No con- tract for the sale of goods not to be deliv- ered immediately, to the value of £10 or more, is valid, unless a written contract is made by the parties, or those lawfuUy authorized by them, or earnest is given. Earth ; the name of the planet which we inhabit. We may view it in regard to its physical, mathematical and poUtical condition. (See Geography.) First, as to the form of the earth: to an observer whose view is not obstructed, it presents itself as a circular plain, on the circum- ference of which the heavens appear to rest. Accordingly, in remote antiquity, the earth was regarded as a flat, circular body, floating on the water. But the great distances which men were able to teavel soon refuted this Umited idea as an ojitical Ulusion; and, even in antiquity, die spherical fonn of the earth began to be suspected. On this supposition alone can aU the phenomena relating to it be ex- plained. A sphere of so great a magni- tude as our earth, sunounded by a stra- tum of air, or the Aisible firmament must present to the eye of an observer, on a plain, the appearance just described. But how could the earth appear, from every possible position, as a surface bounded by the firmament if it were not a sphere encircled by it ? How else could the horizon grow wider and wider, the higher the position we choose? How else can the fact be explained, that we see the tops of towers and of mountains, at at-distance, before the bases become visible ? But besides these proofs of the sphericity of the earth, there are many others, such as its circular shadow on the moon during an ecUpse, the gradual appearance and disappearance of the sun, the inequality of day and night, the changes in the posi- 366 EARTH. tion and course ofthe stars, and the grad- ual disappearance of some and appearance of others, as we go from the equator to the poles. Finally, if the earth were not spherical, it Avould be imjiossible to sad round it which is frequently done. The cause of the earth's sphericity is very evi- dent if we consider it as having been, at first, a yielding mass, capable of assuming any form: then, by die force of gravity, every particle contained in it tending towards the common centre, the globular form is the necessaiy consequence. As to the objection to the sphericity of tlie earth, drawTi by weak and ignorant jieo- ple, from the imagination that our antipo- des (q. v.) would fall from its surface, and many similar ones, they will ajipear to have no force whatever, when we con- sider that, in a globe of the magnitude of the earth, every thing on the surface tends to the centre, and that, if we speak of what is above and below, the whole surface of the earth is below, and the surrounding atmosjihere above. The earth is not, however, an exact sphere, but is flat- tened at the poles. Philosophers were first led to observe this by the varia- tion in the vibrations of the pendu- lum under the equator and near the poles. It was found that the pendulum performed its vibrations slower the nearer it apjiroached the equator, and hence was inferred the variableness of the force of gravity. This was easily explained on the theory just mentioned, because, the circle of daily revolution being greatest at the equator, all bodies revolve proportionally faster there than at the poles, so that the eentrifugal force is greater, and the force of gravity less, than at other parts of the earth's surface; and because, at the equator, the centrifugal force is exactly opposed to that of gravity, but towards the poles, being oblique to it, produces less effect From these obser- vations it was jusdy infened, that the earth is a sphere flattened at the poles, or a spheroid; and this form was satisfacto- rily accounted for by the fact that the particles of a yielding mass, which re- volves on its own axis, depart from the poles and tend to the centre, by which the poles are, of course, flattened, and die middle elevated. Various measurements have put this beyond all doubt. (See Maupertuis, and Condamine, and Degree, Measurement of.) Another important de- sideratum for a more intimate acquaint- ance with the earth was, to fix its magni- tude. The labors of the ancients, in this respect, were all fruidess, owing to their want of suitable instruments. Accurate results were first obtained in the year 1615. Willibrord Snellius, a Dutchman, first struck into the only true way, and measured an arc of a meridian from Alc- maar to Leyden and Bergen op Zoom, by means of triangles. After him, the meas- urements of Picard, and the later ones of Maupertuis,ajiproxiniated nearer the truth. These made the circumference of a great circle of the earth 25,000 miles. But it is to be remarked that, in this calculation, the earth is regarded as a perfect sphere. Further measurements of all parts of the surface of the earth will be necessary to find, rigidly and accurately, the true mag- nitude of it. (See Account of Experi- ments, to determine the Figure of the Eartk, by Means of the Pendulum, fyc, by Captain Ed. Sabine (London, 1825, 4to.), under the direction of the board of longitude.) If we take a view of our earth in its relation to the solar system, astronomy teaches us that, contrary to appearances, which make the sun revolve about the earth, the earth and ten other planets revolve about die sun, and, being themselves opaque bodies, receive from the sun light and heat. The earth com- pletes its revolution round the sun in about 365 days and 6 hours, which forms our common year. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse, with the sun in one of its foci. Hence the earth is not equally distant from the sun in all parts of the year: its least distance is estimated at 93,336,000 miles, and its greatest, at 95,484,572, making a difference of more than 2,000,000 of miles. In winter, we are nearest the sun, and in summer, farthest from it; for the difference in the seasons is not occasioned by die greater or less distance of the earth from the sun, but by the more or less oblique direction of the sun's rays. The length of the path trav- elled over by the earth is estimated at 567,019,740 miles, and, as this immense distance is passed over in a year, the earth must move 17 miles a second—a rapidity so far exceeding our concejitions, that it gave very just occasion to the pleasant remark of Lichtenberg, that while one man salutes another hi the street he goes many miles bareheaded without catching cold. Besides this annual motion about the sun, the earth has also a daily motion about its own axis (according to mean time, in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 sec- onds). This diurnal revolution is the occasion of the alternation of day and night But as the axis on which the earth performs its diurnal rotation forms, EARTH—MOTION OF THE EARTH. 367 with its path about the sun, an angle of 234 degrees, the sun ascends, from March 21 to June 21, about 23£ degrees above the equator towards die norm pole, and descends again towards the equator from June 21 to September 23; it then sinks till December 21, about 234 degrees below the equator, towards the south pole, and returns again to the equator by March 21. This arrangement is the cause of the seasons, and the inequaUty of day and night attending them, which, for all coun- tries lying beyond the equator, are equal only tAvice in the year, when the eclijitic coincides with the equator. The moon, again, revolves about the earth, in a similar elliptical path, in 28 days and 14 hours. Copernicus first laid down this as the system of the universe.—To the physical knowledge of the earth belongs, especially, the consideration of its surface and its interior. The earth's surface contains over 196,000,000 square miles, of which scarcely a third part is dry land; the remaining two thirds are water. Of the surface of the earth, Europe comprises about one 54th part ; Asia, one 14th ; Af- rica, a 17th ; and America, a 16di. The islands of the Pacific, taken together, are somewhat larger than Europe. The pop- ulation of the whole earth is estimated at from 800 to 1000 millions. The interior of the earth is entirely unknown to us, as the depth to which we have been able to penetrate is nothing in comparison with its diameter. 3Iany modem speculators are of opinion that the interior is composed of a metallic mass. Respecting the origin and gradual formation of die earth, there are various hypotheses. (See Geology; see also Day,Cycle, Degree, &c.; and Moun- tain, Vdcano, Earthquake, Current, &c.) Earth, Motion of the. The earth has two motions, the daily motion round its axis, and the yearly motion in its orbit round the sun. The theory of the motion of the earth has become memorable in the history ofthe human mind, showing, as it does, a marked ability in man to resist the impressions produced by appearances, and to believe the contrary of that which had been believed and taught for many cen- turies. The theory of Copernicus not only founded the modern system of astron- omy, but made men eager to examine other articles of their creed, after they were thus convinced that they had erro- neously taught and believed the earth to be stationary for 6000 years. All the opinions of the ancients respecting the motion of die earth were speculative hy- potheses, arising from the Pythagorean school, which, as we know, considered fire the centre of the world, round which all was moving. Thus we ought to ex- plain the passage of Aristarchus of Samos, mentioned by Aristotle in his Arenario. Aristarchus, as a Pythagorean, held the idea, that the earth revolves round its axis, and, at the same time, in an oblique circle round the sun; and that the dis- tance of the stars is so great, that this circle is but a point in comparison with their orbits, and therefore the motion ofthe earth produces no apparent motion in them. Every Pythagorean might have entertained this idea, who considered the sun or fire as the centre of the world, and who was, at the same time, so correct a thinker, and so good an astronomer, as Aristarchus of Samos. But this was not the Copernican system of the world. It was the motions of the planets, their sta- tions and their retrogradations, which astronomers could not explain, and which led them to die compUcated motions of the epicycles, in which the planets moved in cycloids round the earth. Aristarchus lived 280 B. C, Hipparchus, the great astronomer of antiquity, 150 B. C, there- fore 130 years later. At diis time, all the writings of Aristarchus were extant, and, had the Copernican system been set forth in them, Hijijiarchus would not have de- sjiaired of explaining the motions of the planets. The same is true of Ptolemy, in whose Almagest, the most complete work of antiquity on astronomy, this system is not mentioned in the account of Aristar- chus. Every Copernican speaks of the motion of the earth, but not every one who speaks of the motion of the earth is a Copernican. Copernicus Avas led to the discovery of his system by a consideration of the complicated motion of the planets, and, in the dedication of his unmortal work, De Revolutionibus Orbium, to pope Paul III, he says, that the truth of his system is proved by the motion of the planets, since their successive stations and retrogradations are the simple and neces- sary consequence of the motion of the earth round the sun; and we need not take refuge in the complicated epicycles. Co- pernicus did not Uve to see the persecu- tions which die Roman Catholic priests raised against his system. They began only 100 years later (about 1610), Avhen the telescope was invented, when the moons of Jupiter and the phases of Venus were discovered, and, by these means, the zeal for astronomy had been highly excit- ed. Every city in Italy was then a little Athens, in which the arts and sciences 368 MOTION OF THE EARTH. flourished. GaUleo obtained high distinc- tion, and defended the new system of the world. The Roman inquisition sum- moned him before its tribunal, and he was compelled to abjure this theory. (See Galileo.) The general sympathy for tlie fate of this astronomer mcreased the popularity of the system, and it was as violendy defended on one side as it was attacked on the other. Among the argu- ments against the motion of the earth, it was alleged, that a stone, falling from a tower, did not fall Avestward ofthe tower, notwithstanding this had advanced east- Avard several hundred feet during the four or five seconds of the fall of the stone. Copernicus had ansAvered justly: the cause of its remaining near the tower is, that it has the same motion eastward, and, in falling, does not lose this motion, but advances with the earth. Galileo said the same, and asserted that a stone, falling from the top of the mast of a vessel, at full sail, falls at the foot of the mast, notwith- standing the mast advances, perhaps, 10 or more feet during the fall. Gassendi tried these experiments in the harbor of Marseilles, and the stones fell at the foot of the mast, notwithstanding the vessel was under full sail. Galileo therefore maintained, that it is impossible to draw any conclusions concerning the motion of the earth from such exjieriments, since bodies would fall on the earth in motion precisely tlie same as on the earth at rest. In 1642, GaUleo died. In the same year, NeAvton was bom. He proved, in 1679, diat the opinion of Galileo was erroneous, and that we certainly can tiy experiments on the motion of the earth; that the balls would not deviate westward, but would fall a Uttle eastward of the pjumbline, about a half inch at the height of 300 feet. The cause is diis: since the top of the tower is at a greater distance from the axis ofthe earth than its base, the centrif- ugal force must be greater at the former point than at the latter; the ball, in falling, does not lose this impulse, and, therefore, advances before the plumbUne, which strikes the foot ofthe tower, since it has a less impulse eastward. This hint given by Newton, was followed by Hooke. He tried experiments on the motion of the earth, at a height of 160 feet, and asserts that he succeeded. The academy ap- pointed a committee, Jan. 14,1680, in the presence of which he was to repeat his experiments. Probably they were not satisfactory, since they have never been mentioned in die Philosophical Transac- tions, and were entirely forgotten. Only 112 years later, a young geometrician in Bologna, GugUelmini, attempted to repeat diese experiments, which had been con- sidered very difficult by astronomers, in the tower DegU AsinelU, in diat city, at a height of 240 feet. After having sur- mounted all difficulties, he succeeded in causing the fall of 16 balls, which percep- tibly deviated eastward. But GugUel- mini committed an error in not suspend- ing the lead every day Avhen he tried his experiments, of Avhich he often made three or four in one night. He did not drop the plummet until after he had fin- ished all his experiments, and, as it did not come to a perpendicular position until six months, on account of stormy weather, the tower in the meantime was a Uttle bent, the jwint at which the plummet should have fallen was altered, and his experi- ments were lost. This hapjiened in 1792. Benzenberg, a German, performed similar experiments in 1804, in Michael's toAver, in Hamburg. He let fall 30 balls, from the height of 235 feet: the balls deviated from die perpendicular four lines east- ward. But they deviated, at the same time, 1£ line southward, probably owing to a gentle draft of air in the tower. He repeated these experiments in 1805, in a coalpit at Schlebusch, in the county of Mark, at the height of 260 feet: there the balls deviated from the perpendicular five lines eastward, just as the theory ofthe mo- tion of the earth requires for the latitude of 51°, but neither southward nor north- Avard. From these experiments, Laplace calculated that the chances are 8000 to 1 that the earth turns round its axis. The invention of the telescope, by means of which the rotation of Jupiter was soon observed, but still more, Newton's discov- ery of universal gravity, and of the nature ofthe celestial motions, estabUshed the theory of the motion of the earth ; and, in modern times, no man of inteUigence doubts it any longer. The French gen- eral AUix, however, endeavored to prove that the motion of the planets does not depend on the law of gravitation. The flattening of the earth (see Degree, Meas- urement of), and the diminution of gravity in the vicinity of the equator, proved by the experiments of Richers and others on the motion of the pendulum in the equa- torial regions (see Pendulum), also give as convincing proofs of the rotation of the earth, as the abenation of light (q. v.) affords of the revolution of the earth round the sun. Thus the human intellect has triumphed over the evidences of sense, and the opposition of authority. EARTHQUAKE—EARTHS. 369 Earthquake ; a shaking of certain parts of die earth's surface, produced by causes not perceivable by our senses. This motion occurs in very different ways, and in various-degrees of violence. Some- times it is perpendicular, throwing por- tions of the ground into die air, and mak- ing others sink. Sometimes it is a hori- zontal, undulating motion, and sometimes it ajqiears to be of a whirling nature. Sometimes it is quickly over; sometimes continues long, or recurs at intervals of weeks, days or months. At one time, it is confined within a small circle ; at another, it extends for many miles. At one time, it is hardly perceptible; at another, it is so violent that it not only demoUshes the works of human art, but changes the appearance of the ground itself. Some- times the surface of the ground remains unbroken ; sometimes it bursts open into clefts and chasms ; and then occasionally apjiears the jihenomenon of the eruption of gases, and also of flames, Avith the ejec- tion of water, mud and stones, as in vol- canic eruptions. The eruptions of proper and permanent volcanoes are preceded by, and proportionate to, the agitations of the earth in their neighborhood. These ob- servations furnish grounds for the conclu- sion, that earthquakes cannot proceed from external causes, but arise from cer- tain powers operating within the circum- ference or crust of the earth. Moreover, all the phenomena of earthquakes bear so much affinity to those of volcanoes, that there can hardly be a doubt that both proceed from the same causes, acting dif- ferently, according to the difference of situation, or different nature of the surface on which they operate. A volcano differs from an earthquake, principaUy, by having a permanent crater, and by the reappear- ance of the eruptions in the same place, or in its immediate vicinity. All the other phenomena of a volcano, such as the subterranean thunder-like noises, the shaking, raising and bursting asunder of the earth, and the emission of elastic fluids, the fire and flames, the ejection, too, of mineral substances, all occur, now and then, more or less, in earthquakes as well as in volcanic eruptions, even when at a distance from active volcanoes; and the genuine volcanic eruptions are, as has been remarked, accompanied or announc- ed by shakings of the earth. All our observations go to prove, that volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, the heaving of the ground from within, and the disruption of it in the same way, are produced by one and the same cause, by one and the same chemical process, which must have its seat at a great depth beneath the pres- ent surface of the earth. The most remarkable earthquakes of modern times are those wlrich destroyed Lima, in 1746, and Lisbon, in 1755; in the latter, 20,000 persons were killed. It extended from Greenland to Africa and America. A similar fate befell Calabria, in 1783, the province of Caracas, in South America, in 1812, and Aleppo, in Syria, hi 1822. Several earthquakes have taken place quite lately, in South America, one par- ticularly dreadful at Lima. The city of Guatemala, also, was nearly destroyed in the spring of 1830, by earthquakes, which continued five days successively. Earths. The term earth is applied, in common life, to denote a tasteless, inodor- ous, dry, uninflammable, sparingly-soluble substance, which is difficultly fusible, end of a moderate specific gravity. Several ofthe earths are found in a state of purity in nature; but their general mode of occurrence is in intimate union with each other, and with vaiious acids and metallic oxides. Under these circumstances, they constitute by far the greatest part of the strata, gravel and soil, which go to make up the mountains, valleys and plains of our globe. Their number is ten, and their names are dlex, alumina, magnesia, lime, barytes, strontites, zircon, glitdne, yttria and thorina. The four first have long been known to mankind; the remainder have been discovered in our own times. Silex exists nearly pure, in large masses, forming entire rocks, as quartz rock, and constitut- ing the chief ingredient in all granitic rocks and sandstones, so that it may safely be asserted to form more than- one half of the crust of the earth. Alumine is found pure in tAvo or three exceedingly rare minerals, but, in a mixed state, is well known as forming clays and a large fami- ly of rocks, usually caUed argillaceous. Lime, an earth well known from its im- portant uses in society, occurs combined with carbonic acid, in which state it forms limestone, marble, chalk, and the shells of snails. It exists also, ujion a large scale, in combination with suljihuric acid, when it bears the name of gypsum. Mag- nesia is rare in a state of purity, but enters largely into the composition of some of the primary rocks, especially of the lime- stones. The remaining eight (if Ave ex- cept barytes, which, in combination with sulphuric acid, is often met with in metallic veins) are only known to the chemist as occurring in the composition of certain min- erals, which, for the most part, are exceed- 370 EARTHS—EARWIG. ingly rare. The earths are very similar to the alkaUes (q. v.), forming, with the acids, peculiar salts, and resembling the alkalies UkeAvise in their composition. They consist of peculiar metals in com- bination with oxygen, and compose the greatest part of the solid contents of the globe. They differ from the alkalies principally in the following pecuUarities: they are incombustible, and cannot in their simple state, be volatilized by heat; with different acids, especially the car- bonic, they form salts, insoluble, or soluble only with much difficulty, and with fat oils, soaps insoluble in water. They are divided into two classes, the alkaUne and proper earths. The former have a greater similarity to the alkalies. In their active state, they are soluble in water, and these solutions may be crystalUzed. They change the vegetable colors almost in the same way as alkalies, and their affinity for acids is sometimes weaker and some- times stronger than that of the alkalies. They combine with sulphur, and form comjiounds perfectly similar to the sul- phureted alkaUes. With carbonic acid, they form insoluble salts, which, however, become soluble in water by an excess of carbonic acid. The alkaline earths are as follows: 1. barytes, or heavy earth, so called from its great weight; 2. strontites (q. v.); both these earths are counted among the alkalies, by many chemists, on account of their easy solubUity in water; 3. calcareous earth, or lime, forms one of die most abundant ingredients of our globe; 4. magnesia is a constituent of several minerals. The proper earths are wholly insoluble in water, infusible at the greatest heat of our furnaces, and, by being ex- posed to heat, in a greater or less degree, they lose their property of easy solubiUty in acids. Some of them are incajiable of combining with carbonic acid, and the remainder form with it insoluble com- pounds. They are the foUowing: 1. alu- mine ; 2. glucine, which is found only in the beryl and emerald, and a few other minerals; 3. yttria is found in the gado- hnite, in the yttrious oxide of columbium, &c.; 4. zirconia is found less frequently than the preceding, in the zircon and hyacinth ; 5. silex. The earths were regarded as simple bodies until the brill- iant researches of sir H. Davy proved them to be compounds of oxygen with peculiar bases, somewhat similar to those of the alkaUes, potassium and sodium. Some of the heavier of the earths had often been imagined to be analogous to the metafile oxides; but every attempt to effect their decomposition or reduction had proved unsuccessful. After ascer- taining the compound nature of the alka- lies, Davy submitted the earths' to the same mode of analysis by which he had effected that fine discovery. The results obtained in his first experiments were less complete than those afforded with the alka- lies, owing to the superior affinity between the principles of the earths, as well as to their being less perfect electrical conduc- tors. By submitting them to galvanic action, in mixture with potash, or with metallic oxides, more successful results were obtained; and a method employed by Berzelius and Pontin, of placing them in the galvanic circuit with quicksilver, terminated very perfectly in affording the bases of barytes and lime, in combination Avith this metal. By the same method, sir H. Davy decomposed strontites and magnesia; and, by submitting silex, alu- mine, zircon and glucine to the action of the galvanic battery, in fusion with potash or soda, or in contact with iron, or by fusing them with potassium and iron, appearances Avere obtained sufficiently indicative of their decomposition, and of the jiroduction of bases of a metallic na- ture. Thorina, the last discovered earth, was decomposed by heating the chloride of thorium with potassium. The metallic bases of the earths approach more nearly than those of the alkalies to the common metals, and the earths themselves have a stricter resemblance than the alkalies to metallic oxides. Viewing them as form- ing part of a natural anangement, they furnish the Unk which unites the alka- lies to the metals. Accordingly, many of the more recent systems of chem- istry treat of all these bodies as form- ing a single group under the name of tha metallic class. Still (as doctor Ure justly remarks), whatever may be the revolu- tions of chemical nomenclature, mankind will never cease to consider as earths those solid bodies composing the mineral strata, which are incombustible, colorless, not convertible into metals by all the ordinary methods of reduction, or, when reduced by scientific refinements, possessing but an evanescent metallic existence. (For a more particular account of the properties of the earths, and of their bases, consult the articles relating to them, respectively, in this work.) Earwig ; an insect whose name is de- rived from its supposed habit of insinuat- ing itself into the ears of persons who in- cautiously sleep among grass where it is found. It is extremely doubfiul whether EARWIG-EASTER ISLAND. 371 the animal intentionally enters the ear; and, indeed, there is no reason whatever that it should, except from mere accident A piece of an apple applied to the orifice, is said to entice the insect, and thus re- lieve the sufferer; Avhere this fails, a few drops of sAveet oil destroy the life of the earwig, which must then be extracted with a proper instrument by a physician. A remarkable fact m relation to the earwig, is its great abundance at particular times, and its subsequent rarity. From the ob- servations of entomologists, it has been proved that these insects migrate in con- siderable flocks, selecting the evening for their excursions. Much damage is sus- tained by gardeners from the depredations of diese Uttle animals among fruit and tender vegetables, which constitute their proper food: occasionaUy, however, they feed on animal substances, and even de- vour each other. The places in which the species of this small genus are found are chiefly damp and cool situa- tions, under stones and the bark of trees, among chests and boxes which have been long undisturbed, and in similar haunts. In the systems, the family which is formed of the original genus forficula of Linna?- us, consists of two genera, forficula and labidura; to which another is added by Leach, the characters of which differ in so trifling a degree from the preceding, as to prevent its being generally received as distinct. It is even doubtful whether the simple disparity in the number of joints in the antennas, is worthy of any distinc- tion further than a section. The forficula auricularia is a small insect, about three quarters of an inch in length, having the wings folded under very short and trun- cate elytra or Aving-cases, and the extrem- ity of the abdomen armed with a horny forceps. When alarmed, the insect ele- vates the abdomen, and opens tliese for- ceps, in order to defend itself from the at- tack of its enemies. East j one of the four cardinal points of the world, being the point of the hori- zon where the sun is seen to rise when in the equator. In Italy and throughout the Meditenanean, the east wind is called the levante. (For the origin of the Avord, see Easter.) Easter; the festival commemorating the resunection of Christ. The Greek 'exerxa, and the Latin pascha, from which come the Frencli paques, the Italian pasqua, and the name of the same festival in sev- eral other languages, originated from the notion that Christ was typified by the pas- chal lamb, ordained by Moses in the feast ofthe passover; thus Paul says (1 Cor. v. 7), "For even Christ our passover is sacri- ficed for us." The first Christians were therefore considered to continue the Jew- ish feast; understanding by the lamb, which was sacrificed at the festival, Jesus, who suffered for mankind. (See Passover.) Among the Greeks and Roman Catholics, Easter is the most joyful festival of the church, and is also observed with great solemnity by the English church, the Lu- therans, and the European Calvinists. The Greek and Roman Catholic churches did not celebrate it at precisely the same time, and, while some Christians were mourning in commemoration of the passion, others- were rejoicing in the resunection of the Savior. In the second century, the dis- pute became warm. The Eastern church would not discontinue the celebration of the feast at the same time with the JeAVS; whilst the Western church insisted upon celebrating it Avithout the paschal lamb, and beginning it on Sunday, the day of Christ's resunection. The dispute was finally settled by the council at Nice, in 325, wlrich ordered that the feast should be celebrated uniformly on the Sunday after March 14, and not on the same day with the Jews. The English name Easter, and the German Ostern, are most probably derived from the name of the feast ofthe Teutonic goddess Ostera, which was cele- brated by the ancient Saxons early in the spring, and for which, as in many other instances, the first missionaries wisely sub- stituted the Christian feast. Adelung de- rives ostern and easter from the old word oster, osten, which signifies riring, because nature arises anew in spring. This is also the derivation of east, in German, osten. Easter-fires, Easter-eggs, and many other customs and superstitions, have all their origin from the ancient heathen feast, which, as the celebration of the resurrec- tion of nature, was very appropriately suc- ceeded by the festival which commemo- rates the resunection of Christ. Easter Island, or Davis' Island ; an island in the South Pacific ocean, lon. 109° 50' W., lat. 27°8/ S. It is of a triangular form, one side about 12 miles long, the other two about 9 each. Square miles, about 14 Population differently estimated, at 700, 1500, and 2000. The inhabitants are of a tawny color, Avell formed, sagacious and hospitable, yet thievish. The surface is mountainous and stony, and the hills rise to such a height that they are visible at the distance of 45 miles. At the south- ern extremity is the crater of a volcano of great size and depth. The sod of the 372 EASTER ISLAND—EAST INDIA COMPANIES. island is extremely fertile, but not a tenth part is under cultivation. Eastern Empire. (See Byzantine Em- pire.) Fvst India Companies. From the earliest times, the commercial enterprise of the Europeans has been directed to- wards an immediate intercourse with the East Indies; but the Arabian empire, and its mercantile grandeur, at first and the do- minions of the Persians and Turks at a later period, presented insurmountable bar- riers. The commercial shrewdness ofthe Italian republics did not succeed in en- tirely overcoming these obstacles; and even the Venetian commerce with India, extensive as it was, could not be called direct. After the Turks had established themselves in Europe, by the conquest of Constantinople, and in Africa, by that of Egyjrt, the access to India was more com- pletely shut up, and the enterprising spirit of the merchants of Christendom was turned to the discovery of a direct chan- nel to that land of commerce. The west of Europe was delivered from the Sara- cens, and the warlike spirit Avhich had long been occupied by the contests with the infidels required some neAV scene of activity. The great Portuguese prince Henry, surnamed the Navigator, directed this energy towards the ocean; and not half a century had elapsed from the taking of Constantinople, when Vasco da Gama (1498) landed in Hindostan, on the coast of Malabar, and the Portuguese success- fully established themselves on those dis- tant shores. The whole commerce of the East Indies Avas in their hands for nearly a century—die golden age of Portugal.— The efforts of Alphonso Albuquerque, Nuiio da Cunha and Francis Xavier—the latter with spiritual weapons, and the for- mer by force of arms—will ever be remem- bered with admiration, even had they not been sung in the glorious verses of Camo- ens. During eighty years, while the trans- portation of Indian productions through Genoa, Venice and the Hanse towns, was constantly diminishing, Lisbon was the India of the north of Europe. The Eng- lish and Dutch obtained their supplies of Indian spices either from Lisbon or from Portuguese merchants in Antwerp. Ven- ice also found herself supplanted by the military power of the Portuguese and the subjection of her commercial friends, the Saracens. When, however, Philip II, in 1580, united Portugal with the Spanish monarchy, and soon after commenced his war with England, against whose vessels he closed the ports of his empire, the Brit- ish merchants were comjielled to draw their supplies of Indian produce from the Netherlands. The Dutch took advantage of this circumstance, and raised the price of pepper to three times its former amount. But the revolt of the Netherlands from Spain induced Philip II to take decided measures against the Dutch commerce also, and the capture of their Aessels in the port of Lisbon compeUed the Dutch to engage in a direct trade to India: the Eng- lish soon followed their example. Thus, during the last ten years of the sixteendi century, the foundation was laid in Eng- land and Holland, nearly at the same time, of those great commercial corporations, called East India Companies. They are distinguished from the Hanseatic league, and other earUer unions of that kind, in being merely associations of individuals uniting for a common commercial pur- pose, Avith transferable shares, and not of political bodies; and also by having bought their privileges and rights at once from their oaati governments, Avhile those ofthe earlier commercial confederacies were ob- tained, together Avith their political privi- leges, by successive treaties. As such an extensive commerce in distant parts ofthe world requires a poUtical power to pre- serve and protect it, we find the English, Dutch, and other smaUer East India com- panies, engaged, soon after their establish- ment, in laboring to form a political poAV- er on the basis of wealth; which, even if it succeeded, would not accord with the politics of the mother country, and would not be able, for any great length of time, to resist the reaction that would arise in the conquered countries.—I. The earliest East India company was the Portuguese, although essentially different in its organ- ization, from the others. By the union of Portugal with Spain, the connexion be- tween the distant Portuguese governments in India and the mother country became less close. Abuses of every kind, illicit traffic on the part of the viceroys and officers, smuggling and jiiracy became prevalent. The Spanish government per- ceived that the East India commerce, if continued on account ofthe crown, would not only be unprofitable, but would occa- sion an annually increasing loss, and there- fore granted the exclusive privilege ofthe East India trade, in 1587, to a company of Portuguese merchants, in consideration of the annual payment of a considerable sum. This company, in attempting to enforce its privileges, became involved in disputes, equally disadvantageous to both parties, with the Portuguese government DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. 373 in India, which was engaged in the smug- gling trade; and the way for the enterpris- es of the Dutch and English could not have been better prepared than by this weakening of the Portuguese power. To this may be added, the impatience of the Indian nations under the Portuguese yoke, and the jealousy and hatred entertained against both by the Arabians. The Eng- lish and Dutch companies found every thing in that state of division which is favorable to die establishment of a third party, by means which, in any other case, would be entirely inadequate. This ex- plains their immediate and brilliant suc- cess, notwithstanding the great inferiority of their strength. The Portuguese com- pany, on the contraiy, on the breaking out of open war between England and Holland and Spain, soon became unable to pay the annual tribute to the crown, and gradually decUned, till, in 1640, on the reestablishment of Portuguese inde- pendence by king John IV, of the house of Braganza, it was entirely abolished.— From diat time, the insignificant remains of the Portuguese commerce with the East Indies have been in the hands of die government if Ave except the unsuccess- ful attempt to form a new company in 1731. II. Eight years after the establishment of the first Portuguese company, the offer of a Dutchman, Cornelius Houtman, who had been taken prisoner by the Spanish, and had become acquainted Avith the Por- tuguese East India trade, induced the merchants of Amsterdam, who had al- ready made three unsuccessful attempts to discover a passage to India through the Northern ocean, to form a company, un- der the name of the " Company of Re- mote Parts," and send their first commer- cial fleet round the cape of Good Hope to India, under the command of Houtman. Four small vessels were equipped with a capital of 70,000 guilders, and sailed the 2d of April, 1595, from the Texel. The example of Amsterdam was followed in the odier United Provinces; but these comjianies soon became aware that they interfered mutually with each other; and, March 20, 1602, diey were united by a charter from the states general, confer- ring on them the exclusive privilege of trading to the East Indies for twenty-one years, together with aU necessary civil and military jiowers. The former companies remained, in some measure, distinct from each other, and the six cities of Am- sterdam, Middelburg, Delft, Rotterdam, Horn and Enklmysen, Avhich had made VOL. iv. 32 the first attempts, were allowed to contin- ue the commerce from their ports. This company began its operations with a cap- ital of 6.J millions guilders; 65 directors (Bewindhebbers)—divided amongst the dif- ferent members, in proportion to the amount of shares, so that Amsterdam had twenty-five, Middelburg twelve, and each of the other cities seven—superintended the equipment of the vessels, in their re- spective ports; a committee of fifteen di- rectors, apportioned in the same manner, had the general direction of affairs. In 1622, the subject of the renewal of the charter being before the states general, it appeared diat, during the 20 years of its existence, 30 milUons guilders, that is, more than four times the amount of the original capital, had been divided amongst the stockholders; besides which, a great amount of capital had been vested in colonies, fortifications, vessels, and other property, on which no dividend could be made. These results wiU not be surpris- ing, if we consider how much more fa- vorable was the condition of the East In- dies, in every respect, for republicans and Protestants than for CathoUcs and sub- jects of a monarchy. The Portuguese acted on the principle, that without a strong military force, and a religion com- mon to the conquered and nding nation, no permanent commercial connexion could be formed; and this system was pursued for a centuiy, sometimes with prudence, but more frequently Avidi great inhumanity. The Dutch, on the contra- ry, with their indifference to the moral re- lations of natious, and their weU conduct- ed commerce, were Avell calculated to succeed. Their superiority to the English, in their first enterprises, was owing not only to their superior skill by sea, then- youthful repubUcan spirit, and the greater amount of their capital, but chiefly to their having canied on aU their operations, from the first, with a common capital while the first English East India compa- ny, till 1610, Avas a mere association, each member of which transacted business on his own account merely conforming to certain general rules, such as the employ- ing the company's ships. It has been proved by subsequent results, that a mere money power cannot be upheld witiiout an entire disregard of the claims of hu- manity ; and the example of die first Por- tuguese conquerors has convinced en- lightened men, that the dominion of Eu- ropeans in India remains insecure, if not founded on a certain moral, legal and *e- Ugious community with the inhabitants of 374 DUTCH EAST INDia uuflirANY. the country. The charter of the Dutch • East India company was continued tiU 1644; Batavia was founded in a very fa- vorable situation for the traffic with tlie Spice islands, the chief branch of the In- dian trade; 34—41 freighted vessels an- nually left the ports of HoUand for India; 25—34 merchant vessels, on the average, returned. The commerce with Japan in- creased rapidly, and the extension of Por- tuguese power in the Brazils, after the ac- cession of the house of Braganza to the throne, although a great disadvantage to the Dutch West India company, promot- ed the interest of the East India compa- ny, by directing the attention of the Por- tuguese wholly to America, and leaving free scope to the Dutch in Asia. In 1641, Malacca, the capital of the Portuguese East Indies, fell into the hands of the Dutch, by the treason of the governor.—■ But the increasing activity of the English and French, and the political and military establishments of the company, diminish- ed their profits, and it Avas difficult to raise the 1,600,000 guilders, Avhich were to be paid to the states general, in 1644, for the extension of the charter till 1665. Soon after, however, the independence of the republic of the United Provinces was se- cured by the peace of Westphalia—an event Avhich was of great advantage to the comjiany, and enabled them to found colonies on the cape of Good Hope.— This Avas done in the course of 20 years (from 1650), at an expense of 20 millions guilders. These colonies were a great assistance to die intercourse between Eu- rope and India, and richly repaid the ex- penses incuned. In 1658, the conquest of Ceylon was completed, after a vigorous defence by the Portuguese; and the Tar- ter revolution in China occasioned the settlement of 30,000 Chinese, Avho would not submit to the new government, in the Dutch island of Formosa. These proved a valuable accession to the population. Al- though die direct commerce with China had to struggle with insurmountable dif- ficulties, the mdirect communication tlirough these emigrants, who were Avell acquainted with the country, and the in- flux, of Chinese productions from all sides into Batavia, amply recompensed the com- pany. They Avere, however, deprived of this valuable island in 1661, by a Chinese adventurer, named Kaxinga, whose fami- ly afterwards ceded it to the emperor of China. The energy of the company seemed to be excited by this loss. In 1663, the most valuable settlements of the Por- tuguese on the coast of Malabar Avere taken; and, in 1666, by the conquest of Macassar, the object of the exertions of 70 years, they obtained the monopoly of the spice trade. At this time, the civil and military expenses of the conijiany, exclu- sive of the expenses of the war, amount- ed to 3£ millions guilders. In 1665, after much opposition, the charter was reneAved tiU 1700, on condition of the payment of a large sum into the treasury ; and the re- port of the company shoAvcd an almost inconceivable extension of commerce.— Their factories extended from the cape of Good Hope to the coasts of Arabia and Persia. They Avere masters of all the important settlements of die Portuguese, from Surat, on the Malabar coast. CeylOn, with its cinnamon and ivory ; the pearl fishery and cotton trade on the coast of Coromandel; Bengal and Orissa, with their silks and cottons, rice, sugar, saltpetre, &c, were in the hands of the comjiany, as Avas also the commerce Avith Pegu, Si- am, and Tonquin, only intenujited by some temporary accidents. They obtain- ed valuable supplies of silver and copper from Japan ; carried on an extensive trade in spices with Amboyna, the Banda isl- ands, and the Moluccas, &c. Malacca, the jirincipal seat of the Portuguese trade, appeared, by this report, to be on the de- cline, the expense of protection being dis- proportioned to the size ofthe place ; and the straits of Sunda, on which Batavia is situated, had superseded the straits of Malacca, as the general passage to the farther East The charter of the compa- ny has since been several times renewed, and always on condition of the pay- ment of large sums; from 1701—40; then till 1775; and in 1776 for 30 years more, for the sum of two millions guilders, and the annual payment of 360,000 guilders. Avarice and cruelty, wlrich increased with the gradual decay of the republican sjiir- it, and the decline of simple and mode- rate habits; a shameless system of in- trigue towards their allies, and particular- ly their incapacity to ajipreciate the moral and religious character of the nations of India; and, finally, the renewed vigor of the British company at the commence- ment of the 18th century, and the change in the European demand ; the jireference given to other spices;—these are the prin- cijial causes of the decline of the Dutch East India company. In the 18th centu- ry, their annals abound with relations of conspiracies, insunections, and generally unsuccessful wars; and, in 1781, Ave find them so completely broken up by the war Avidi England, and by enormous political ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY. 375 expenses, that the states general, notwith- standing their own difficulties, were oblig- ed to assist them with a loan. In the first revolutionary war, the company lost most of their possessions, and were obUged to suspend the payment of their dividends in 1796. They had scarcely taken posses- sion of what was restored to them by the peace of Amiens, 1802 (England retaining only Ceylon), when every tiring was lost by the new war; and at the general peace, they retained none of their early East India possessions, but the governments of Batavia and Amboyua, Banda, Ternate, Malacca, Macassar, and some scattered factories on die coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. The cape of Good Hope and Ceylon were lost to them for ever. At their commencement, the Dutch East India company had enjoyed the advantage of all the Portuguese establishments; then- forts, magazines, artillery and provisions for defence, their commercial and poUtical relations, and an immense booty which the capture of the Portuguese ships on every sea afforded them ; while, on the contrary, the English had to struggle for a century with the difficulty of gradually gaining the ground on which to plant their commercial lever. But the very circum- stance of then- slow progress gave a firmer footing to their power. III. English East India Company.—The history of this great company may be divid- ed into four periods. During the first four- teen years, its members were, in a great measure, independent In the following ninety-five years, although it had a com- mon capital, its operations were confined by the superiority of the Dutch in the Indian seas, by the civil wars at home, and particularly by the calling in ques- tion of its exclusive privileges, which were merely a royal, and not a parlia- mentary grant. For the succeeding forty years, it enjoyed all its rights undisputed, and founded on parliamentary authority, but confined to mere commercial trans- actions. And, finally, during the subse- quent seventy years, its political power was developed. 1. Period from 1600 to 1613. The Eng- lish, in their first attempts to reach India, directed their course to the north-west, as the Dutch did to the north-east John Cabot, in the emjiloy of Henry VII, had discovered Newfoundland, and the coasts of North America, in 1497. In 1553, his son, Sebastian Cabot, under Edward VI, engaged in a second enterjirise of this kind. The king chartered a company, which, with a capital of £6000, equipjied three vessels, for the discovery of a north- em passage to India. Part of this expe- dition was lost in die northern ocean; anotiier part landed on the northern coast of Russia, and fonned commercial con- nexions Avhich gave rise to the EngUsh Russian company, in the same manner as the Hudson's bay company owes its es- tablishment to the attemjits to discover a north-west passage, which have been con- tinued to the present day. The English, at the same time, endeavored to penetrate to India, directly, by laud, and, at leastt0 rival the Venetians, if they could not con- tend Avith the Portuguese;. This was the main object of the English Turkish com- pany, established in 1581, which, howev- er, soon became convinced of the imprac- ticability of the attempt ar*d was induced, by sir Francis Drake's account of his cir- cumnavigation (1591), to send out three shijis to India, under the command of captain Raymond, on the route ofthe Por- tuguese. This attempt, and that made by Robert Dudley, hi 1596, failed entirely. The Spanish war, die shutting up of Lis- bon, and the avarice of the Dutch, gave, however, a new vigor to the enterprise of the London merchants, and, Sept. 22, 1599, a society was formed in London, which, in tlie course of two centuries, acquired the greatest power of any com- mercial association on record. The orig- inal capital amounted to £30,133 sterling; and queen EUzabeth, Dec. 31,1600, grant- ed to the governor and company of mer- chants of London trading to the East In- dies, for fifteen years, the exclusive right of trading to all countries from the cape of Good Hope eastward, to the straits of Magellan, excepting those Avdiich were in the possession of friendly European pow- ers. Until 1613, the company consisted merely of a society subject to particular regulations ; each member managed his affairs on his own account, and Avas only bound to conform to certain general rules. Notwithstanding the disadvantages of this arrangement, the profits of eight voyages amounted to 171 per cent. 2. Period from 1613 to 1708. At this time (1613), the capital was united, and die constitution, in consequence, became more aristocratic; the largest stockholders having the princijial management, and the great mass of the stockholders having on- ly a nominal control in the general meet- ings. These latter, in reafity, had only in view speculation in the shares. The con- cerns of the company were so prosperous, that, in the course of four years, the shares rose to the value of 203 per cent, and die 376 ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY. Dutch became desirous, though they did not succeed, to unite with it against the Portuguese. Its factories were extended to JaAra, Sumatra, Borneo, the Banda isl- ands, Celebes, Malacca, Siam, the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, but chiefly to the states of the Mogul, whose favor the company had very jirudently secur- ed. Their success was such, that, a new subscription being opened hi 1616, the amount raised was £1,629,040. But in 1627, complaints were made of bad man- agement and abuses of all kinds, particu- larly in regard to the private commerce ofthe officers, which has always been of the greatest disadvantage to all such com- panies. The opposition to the royal au- thority, under the Stuarts, brought into question the monopoly of the company which rested on a royal grant The kings diemselves contributed to raise these doubts, by granting to individuals the privilege of trading to India, much to the disadvantage of the comjiany. During the time ofthe commonwealth, the jiublic opinion became very strong against mo- nopoUes, and Cromwell, by destroying the charter, in 1655, attempted to make die East India trade free. But this was im- practicable. To give up the company, was to destroy the whole capital of power and influence obtained in India. After the restoration of the royal family, the charter Avhich even Cromwell had been obUged to renew, was again in full force. During the short period which elapsed from this time to the revolution of 1688, the company obtained, by the acquisition ©f Madras and Bombay, the predominance on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, and laid die foundation for the extension of its possessions into the interior of Hin- dostan, and for that power wlrich rose on die ruins of the empire of the great Mo- gul. The affairs of the company were not, however, in a prosperous state; and, soon after the revolution, the question was started, whether the king could impose restrictions on commerce by a charter, and whether a sovereign, who possessed the rights of sovereignty conditionaUy, could confer them on a privileged compa- ny. The consequence was, that the com- pany not being able to perform their obU- gations, on account of the losses occasion- ed by wars, infidelity of officers, extrava- gance, &c, parliament granted a charter to a new East India company, in 1698, on condition of a loan of £2,000,000 sterling, at 3 per cent, for the service of the state. But the great contentions between the two companies soon made it necessary to unite them, and a union was effected in 1708. 3. Period from 1708 to 1748. In 1708, an act of parliament was passed, establish- ing the English East India comjiany units present footing, under the title of The united Company of Merchants of England trad- ing to the East Indies. Its exclusive privi- leges Avere granted till 1726, after which it was determinable ujion three years' no- tice. The capital Avas raised by the sale of the shares: one share (of the value of £500) gave the holder a vote in the " Gen- eral Court;" four shares, or stock to the amount of £2000, rendered the holder eligible as one of tlie twenty-four " Direc- tors," who managed the goveniment of the company. The shares being transferable, the great mass of stockholders are con- stantly changing, and take no personal in- terest in the affairs of the company, but merely speculate in the shares. The whole management is thus left to the directors, and all the numberless abuses of an oli- garchical constitution are readily intro- duced. The local affairs of the comjiany were intrasted to the diree councils of Madras, Bombay and Calcutta, Avlrile the general direction was retained in England. But, as every thing depended ultimately on the local officers in India, the pernicious abuse prevailed of attempting to secure the fidelity of the sujierior officers by al- lowing them to appropriate to themselves the inferior lucrative jiosts. The renewal ofthe charter in 1732 was not obtained without great difficulty, and against a pow- erful ojijiosition. The company therefore thought it advisable, in 1744, to advance £1,000,000 sterling, at 3 per cent, for the service of goveniment, in consideration of an extension of their grant till 1780. 4th Period. The political power ofthe EngUsh in India commenced in 1748. The French had already set the example. In 1746, a French battalion had destroyed the army of the nabob of die Caniatic, and, soon after, the French officers suc- ceeded in disciplining Indian troops ac- cording to the European method. The inferiority of the native Indian troops op- posed to European soldiers, and the. facil- ity of instructing Indian soldiers, known by the name of Seapoys, in the European discipline, was thus jiroved. Ambition and avarice, political and mercantile cun- ning, could now acton a larger scale ; and the indejiendence of the Indian princes was gone Avhenever this trading comjiany, Avhich Avas already encroaching upon aU the rights, both of the rulers and the peo- ple of diose countries, should estabUsh a ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY. 377 permanent military force. Thus far, the military organization of the company had been merely on the defensive : it now be- came able to act offensively ; and the en- tire difference ofthe Eurojiean and Indian notions of law could never fail to furnish opportunities to put this new means of power into action. The rights of succes- sion, and all the righis of princes, subjects and families, were so much disjmted on the different jirinciples of the Indian, Mo- hammedan and British laws, that the com- pany (which often interjiosed as arbitra- tor) easily succeeded in extending their legal jurisdiction. If called to account in Eurojie for any of its undertakings, it was easy to ujihold the correctness of its conduct, politicaUy,' on the ground of self-defence, which, at the distance of several thousand miles, could not be called in question ; and, in legal matters, by taking advantage ofthe impenetrable labyrinth of law. Edmund Burke, who exjierienced, in the case ofHastings(q.v.), this imjiregnability ofthe company, accus- ed them justly uofhamng sold every mon- arch, prince and state in India, broken every contract, and ruined every prince and every state who had trusted them." The high officers in India, whatever great names may appear among them, become despot- ic from situation: 1. because each re- ceives an inheritance of injustice, which must be maintained; 2. because jiublic opinion has no influence ;* 3. because no moral and religious connexion, nor even that of language, exists between the ruled and the rulers; 4. because no fear of danger- ous insurrections can exist, on account of the great division of the Hindoo and Mo- hammedan classes ahd interests ; 5. be- cause the officers of the company have no object but to make money with a view of spending it in England as soon as they have accumulated sufficient to satisfy their wishes, and therefore are not dis- posed to make opposition against abuses. In 1749, the robberies ofthe company be- gan with its protection of the pretender of Tanjore. Under pretence of legitimacy, the nabob of this district was driven out, for the purjiose of obtaining some cessions * The East Indian government takes great pains to prevent the expression and consolidation of pub- lic opinion. Thus newspapers, which are so free in England, are under strict regulations in India. They are not allowed to criticise public meas- ures or public officers, nor to say any thing which may cause dissatisfaction among tlie natives. Violence always produces violence. The state- ment, at the oiid of this article, of the proportion of the English to the natives will easily show why «ich precautions are deemed necessary. 32* of territory, and then restored, on making further concessions. The rapid progress ofthe comjiany in the art of extending their possessions appears from their trea- ties with Sureajah-Dowlah, the nabob of Bengal, in 1757, when large and rich prov- inces were the reAvard of their faithless policy. This enlargement of territory caused such enormous expenditures, the difficulties of governing increased so great- ly with the increase of power, the numerous officers became so much more indepen- dent, rapacious and disobedient, that the finances of the company suffered. The direction in London was now nothing more than a mere control of the real gov- ernment which had its seat in India. Its orders were antiquated before they reached Calcutta. The governors having the advantage of being on the spot, it was to be expected that they would obey only when personal interest required it. Thus the repeated prohibition to carry on a traf- fic in the interior, with salt, tobacco and be- tel nuts, was entirely disregarded, with the express consent of the East Indian coun- cils ; and, long after the directors had for- bidden the officers of the company to ac- cept presents from the Indian princes, it was proved that they had openly received them, to the amount of £6,000,000, from the family of the nabob of Bengal alone. On this account, the internal situation of the company became constantly worse, and, in 1772, it was compelled to raise a loan, at first of £600,000, from the bank, and afterwards of £1,400,000 from the government, for its current expenses. The public dissatisfaction was the greater, as it had been expected that the extension of British power in India would have brought much wealth into the modier country. At the same time, great complaints were made against the unjirincipled conduct of die comjiany's officers towards the jirinces and jieople of India; and, as the expected advantages appeared not to have been ob- tained, it now began to be proclaimed, that the rights of humanity had been trampled upon. The popular hatred was unjustly directed against the directors; their power was to be limited; they, who had to manage a disobedient world, were to be still more cramped. Control was demanded; as if a control which sympa- thizes with the ojipressors, and has no connexion with the opjiressed, could avaU any thing; as if oppression were a single act, which might be prevented by super- intendence, or punished like a crime: and what would be the effect of a controlling power whose commands would require 378 ENGLISH EAST INDia tunirANY. 6—9 months to be conveyed to the spot and as much more time before the result could be knoAvn in Europe? And, if the company had obtained a power by force, which could only be preserved by the same means, on what principle should the con- trol act ? Burke's famous, but unsuccessful struggle of seven years, against Hastings, and in the cause of humanity in India, prov- ed, that the only possible control ofthe offi- cers in India, is the public opinion of the British nation. One party asserted that all would be weU as soon as die company di- vided its power with die ministry. An- other party maintained, that all that was Avanting to the Hindoo was die benefit of British law. Some thought it would be sufficient merely to increase the difficulty of becoming a director. Thus the incom- plete reform of 1773 took place. Instead of £500, £1000 was made necessary to give the right of a vote, £3000 for two votes, £6000 for three votes, and £10,000 for four votes. Only six directois were to be an- nually elected. A governor-general, with four counsellors (at first named by parlia- ment, that is, by the ministry, but after- Avards by the directors, for five years), was to be placed over the provinces of Bengal, Bahar and Orissa; the other provinces were to be dependent upon him. As a coun- terjioise to this concentration of jiower, a supreme court was established in Calcut- ta, with a chief justice and three associate judges, who were independent of the com- pany, and were appointed by the crown. All the civil and miUtary conespondence ofthe company was to be communicated to the ministry. Under the old system, in many disputed cases, conscience, or, at least common sense, had decided; but now, the introduction of a new and strange legal constitution occasioned the ruin of aU legal relations. The court decided in the case of every complaint made against any individual who was directly or indi- recdy in the service of the company, as Avell as aU complaints relating to con- tracts in which the parties had submitted to its jurisdiction. If we consider that nothing was more uncertain than the per- sonal condition of the Indian and Moham- medan inhabitants of Hindostan; that the eompany governed some provinces imme- diately, others indirectly, by means of the nabobs; that the zemindars were some- times considered as the independent no- bility of India, sometimes as officers ofthe company, &c.—it foUows, that the court could take aU cases into its own hands, or decline them, at pleasure. Immediately after its establishment, it gave a specimen of the spirit by which it Avas actuated. Nunkomar, who had accused the gov- ernor-general, Hastings, was convicted, on insufficient grounds, of forgery, and hang- ed; which, as has been ingeniously re- marked, is about the same as punishing a Mohammedan for bigamy. On the whole, the history of the British East India trade justifies the assertion, that, except Burke and the family of Wellesley, scarcely a single Englishman has ever entered com- pletely into the spirit of the peojile of In- dia. When the inefficacy of the meas- ures ofl773Avas sufficiently proved, and the finances of the company again suffer- ed by the American Avar, the establish- ment of aboard of control was again dis- cussed in parliament and on broader grounds ; from 1782 to 1784, the greatest men of England were engaged on this important subject. The famous East India bill of Fox, wlrich proposed seven com- missioners, to be appointed by parliament, and invested with supreme poAver, and, as it were, the right of protection over India, could not be agreeable to the court, as the principal object of die bill was to deprive the croAvn ofall influence on Indian affairs, and to place an intermediate jiower be- tAveen the king and India. Pitt's project, therefore, took effect. A board of control was erected, dependent on the croAvn, au- thorized to sujierintend the civil and mili- tary government and the revenues of the comjiany, and to transmit the desjiatches ofthe directors to the different presidencies. The salaries of the governor-general, the president and the council were fixed by the king. We have thus given a historical outline ofthe constitution of the compa- ny. The power of control in England, so far as any exists, is in the hands of the ministry ; the jiarticular direction of the government is subjected to the company. It is certain, that, since the establishment of the board, much less is known of Indian affairs than formerly. The ministers have not the same grounds for occasional investigation ; the stock- holders, in the general meetings of the company, can effect nothing, even if de- sirous to interfere, while the board and the directors agree ; and this agreement is the more firmly established, as a commit- tee of secrecy exists, consisting of three directors, which can consult and decide, with the concunence of the board, Avith- out any communication with the other directors. The improvement ofthe moral condition of British India is impossible, while the fear of a result like that which occuned in the case of the North Ameri- r.nuiasri uaST INDIA COMPANY. 379 can colonies prevents the regular coloniza- tion and establishment of British subjects in India A race of Englishmen bom in India could alone succeed, in the course of time, in bringing order and harmony into the jarring interests and relations of the country. The political importance of the East Indies, in their present state, to England, is too great to allow us to expect an essential improvement in the condition of this country. A taxable population of 83,000,000 of inhabitants, with 40,000,000 under dependent native princes; an army of200,000 men, in the service ofthe com- pany ; about 16,000 civil officers; an an- nual export of about £14,000,000, and an import to the same amount from all parts of the world; £4,000,000 paid in the shajie of duties to the British government annually, and an annual contribution of £11,000,000 for the general circulation of the British empire, are objects which outweigh all moral considerations. The funded stock of the company, at present amounts to £6,000,000, their indivisible and fluctuating property to about £50,000,000, and the amount of their annual land-taxis £28,000,000, half as large again as that of Russia. This gigantic poUtical-mercan- tile association will exist as long as a small military power is sufficient to pre- vent a great nation from attempting to throw off the yoke; as long as the system defaire le commerce en sultan et de faire la guerre enmarchand can survive; as long as the pretentions of themetis, the offspring of European fathers and Indian mothers, do not increase ; and the Indians and Moham- medans remain ignorant ofthe real weak- ness of their oppressors; that is, as long as the course of nature is reversed. Since 1813, all Britisli subjects have been per- mitted to trade to the East Indies, under certain conditions advantageous to the company, which has, however, claimed the exclusive commerce in tea. As the charter of the East India company is to expire in 1834 (having been renewed the last time for twenty-one years), interesting debates will, of course, take place in par- liament as to its continuation or aboUtion. In the session of 1830, parUament ap- pointed a committee to inquire into the affairs of the company. Hume, M'Intosh and Huskisson are members of it.—It ap- pears that the revenue of the British possessions in India is greater than diat of any Eurojiean state, excepting France and England. In 1827—28, it amounted to £23,035,164 in 1828—29, it is estimated at £23,350,317. The inter- est on the debt is about £2,000,000 yearly; the total interest on the debt and charges, including those paid in England, and the expenses of the island of St Helena, was £26,314,344, in 1827—28,and £23,994,503, in 1828—29; the surplus of charge above revenue was, in 1825—6, over three mil- lions ; the estimated surplus revenue in 1829, £1,318,593. Before the Burmese war, there was a surplus of revenue over expenditure of one miUion and a half; but in the twenty years preceding 1828— 29, there are only six which show a sur- plus revenue. The total assets of the company, including property of every de- scription, amounted to £18,400,039. The rate of dividend, since 1793, has been 10 j per cent. It is believed that the value of American imports from England into China amounts to $800,000, whilst that of the company amounts to £^00,000. The company's tonnage to China had in- creased, for the last nine or ten years, 5,000, on an average. The East India company exported tea from Canton, from 1824—25 to 1827—28, and sold in Eng- land and the North American colonies, during the same period, as follows: Exported from Canton. lbs. Prime cost. 1824—25. 28,697,078 £1,900,666 1825—26. 27,821,121 1,729,949 1826—27. 40,182,241 2,368,461 1827—28. 33,269,333 2,086,971 Sales. England. N.Am, colonies. lbs. lbs. Amount. 1824—25. 26,523,327.............. £3,741,402 1825—26. 27,803,668 512,314 3,946,770 1826—27. 27,700,978 723,081 3,567,737 1827—28. 28,120,354 941,794 3,468,590 From Great Britain to the East Indies and China, together Avith Mauritius, in the year ending January 5, 1829, goods were exported at the declared value of, By the East India company, . £1,126,926 7 7 Free trade including the > _ 4085,426 16 11 privileged trade.....) Total,.............£5,212,353 4 6 In produce of goods of the East Indies and China, Avere imported into Great Britain in the year ending Jan. 5,1829, By the East India company......£5,576,905 Free trade, including the privileged > g 543 571 trade..............) ' ' Total.................£11,220,576 The amount of the population of the British East Indies cannot °f course, be known with any thing Uke accuracy; but the following is probably as near an ap- proximation as can be made:—In the Ben- 380 EAST INDIA COMPANIx.^—^0 ± mv^n. gal presidency, 58,000,000; Madras presi- dency, 16,000,000 ; Bombay presidency, 11,000,000; total British, 85,000,000; sub- sidiary and dependent (say), 40,000,000; outports in the bay, &c. (say), 1,000,000; total under British control, 126,000,000; independent states, but conn-oiled by the British arms (say), 10,000,000; approxi- mate total, not Eurojiean, 136,000,000; to- tal Europeans, about 40,000; about one European to three thousand four hundred natives, or, where they have the whole command ofthe government and revenue, one European to two thousand one hun- dred and twenty-five natives.—We are glad to end our account by stating, that at last, the English have abolished the sut- tees, or burning alive of widows. The or- der is dated Dec. 4, 182.f). IV. The French, Danish and Swedish East India companies have been of Utde importance, even in dieir most flourishing state, to the commerce of the world. The French, established in 1664, could not succeed; in 1796, the trade was again thrown ojien. A new company, estab- lished in 1785, exjiired in 1791. The East India company in Denmark estab- lished in 1618, and several times renewed, finally sunendered its possessions to the king in 1777. The company has now only the Chinese trade. The Swedish East In- dia company, established in 1731, and re- newed in 1766 and 1786, still exists at Go- dienburg. For every voyage it pays §75,000 in silver to the croAvn, to which, on its es- tablishment, it Avas obliged to advance $3,000,000 in silver, of Avhich one million, not on interest, is merely a security, and the other two millions are considered as a loan. East India Fly (lytta gygas). The color is a deep azure or sea-blue; all parts of the insect, head, elytra or wing-cases, body and legs, are of the same color, Avith the exception of the under part of the chest, on which there is a brown spot. Its size is from three fourths of an inch to an inch in length, being nearly twice the size of the lytta vesicatoria, or cantharides. They have little or no odor. This species of cantharides has been tried at the Phila- delphia alms-house. They proved to be exceedingly active as v esicatories, and never failed in their effect. They produce a vesication, in general, much earlier than the Spanish fly, and, from being found so much more active, only one half the quan- tity is added in making the emplastrum cantharidis. (See Cantharides.) East Indies. (Sef the nation, so diat the bishop of Oporto, the patriarch Eleito, who con- ducted the revolution against the French, presented him with a gold cross; and aU the officers recommended by him were Sromoted. Notwithstanding this, lord leresford, who reorganized the Portu- guese army, in which Eben had been ac- knoAvledged as colonel, gave him who had been hidierto a British major, only a commission as lieutenant-colonel in that army. Eben, therefore, asked his dis- mission, which was granted to him by Beresford, but not by the Portuguese gov- ernment, which made him governor of Setaval. At the command of the English ambassador, he accepted the post, with the commission of a Portuguese; colonel. He subsequently commanded the loyal Lusitanian legion in the battle of Busaco, in the Unes of Torres Vedras, and in the pursuit of Massena. In 1811, he was made lieutenant-colonel and Portuguese brigadier-general, commanded a brigade of infantry of the Une in the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro, in the blockade of Al- meida, before Rodrigo and at Badajoz. After this, in 1812, he commanded the corps in Spain. In 1813, he was made govern- or intrino of the province Tras-os-Montes, and, hi 1814, he was appointed a colonel in the English army, and aid-de-camp of the prince regent, but was dismissed from the Portuguese service, as eldest brigadier, under the pretext that be had been for- merly an officer of the cavalry. This took place, however, Avithout the consent of the Portuguese government. He still remained, with the permission of the prince regent, in Portugal, and offered his services to the king, in the army of Brazil; but, by the contrivance of his enemies, he was implicated in the pretended conspira- cy of general Freyre d'Andrade, was ar- rested, and, on insufficient grounds, Avas sentenced to exile. Eben lived after this at Hamburg, frorii whence he jietitioned in vain the king of Portugal, at Rio Janeiro, for the revision of his trial. The Portu- guese ambassador in Hamburg, hoAvever, assured him that his master, the king, was entirely convinced of his innocence. In 1821, Eben repaired to South America, and offered his services to the republic of Colombia. He was admitted, as a briga- dier-general, into the army ofthe republic, organized the army, and, after the victory of BoUvar, in April, 1822, cooperated in die occupation of Quito. Ebenezer (Hebrew; the stone of help); the name of a field where the PhiUstines defeated the Hebrews, and seized on the sacred ark, and where, afterwards, at Sam- uel's request, the Lord discomfited the Philistines, vvilh thunder, &c. On tiris occasion, Samuel set up a stone, and gave it this designation, to indicate that the Lord had helped them. It is said to be about 40 miles south-west of Shiloh. The name of Ebenezer has also been given to a town in Georgia, Effingham county. Ebert, John Arnold; a poet and trans- EBERT—EBRO. 385 fevtor, particularly of English works; bom 1723, at Hamburg. His love of the Eng- lish language was aAvakened and cher- ished by llagedom, who contributed much to the influence of English Utera- lure upon the German. Not long after the establishment of the Carolinum, ui Brunswick, he received an ajipointment, in 1748, in die school connected Avith it and instructed the hereditary prince, after- wards duke of Brunswick, in the English language. About this time, he conceived the idea of translating, and thus making known to his countrymen, the best Eng- lish poets and authors. The best of his translations were those of Young's Night Thoughts, which gained him great repu- tation as a translator; and Glover's Le- onidas. In 1753, he obtained the jilace of regular professor in the Carolinum, and afterwards the station of court counsellor. He died in 1795. Ebert had a lively fan- cy, and a warm imagination. His writings, collected by himself; appeared under the title J. A. Ebert's Ejiistles and Miscel- laneous Poems, to which another volume was added after his death (Hamburg, 1789 and 1795, 2 vols.). Ebionites ; a sect of the first century, so called from their leader, Ebion. They held several dogmas in common with the Nazarenes, united the ceremonies of the Mosaic institution with the precepts of the gospel, observed both the Jewish Sabbath and Christian Sunday, and, in celebrating die Eucharist, made use of unleavened bread. They abstained from the flesh of animals, and even from milk. In relation to Jesus Christ, some of them held that he was born, Uke other men, of Joseph and Mary, and acquired sanctification only by his good Avorks. Others of them allowed that he was born of a virgin, but denied that he Avas the word of God, or had any existence before his human gen- eration. They said he was, indeed, the only true prophet; but yet a mere man, who, by his virtue, had anivred at being called Christ, and the Son of God. They also supposed that Christ and the devil Avere two principles, which God had op- posed to each other. Of the New Testa- ment they only received the Gospel of St. Matthew, Avhich they called the Gospel according to the Hebrews. (See the arti- cle Nazarenes.) Ebony; a kind of wood, extremely hard, and susceptible of a very fine polish, which is much used in mosaic, inlaying, and other ornamental works. Its color is red, black or green. The black is most esteemed, and is imported principally vol. iv. 33 from Madagascar and the Isle of France. Red ebony, so called, though its color is brown striped with black, is less compact, and is also brought from Madagascar. The green is softer than either of the preced- ing, yields a fine green tincture, Avhich is employed in dyeing, and is brought from the West Indies, particularly from Toba- go, as well as from the above mentioned islands. The best is jet black, and free from knots, or reddish veins. Ebony is imitated by subjecting some hard kinds of wood, especially that of the pear tree, to a hot decoction of galls, and, Avhen this is dry, applying ink with a stiff brush ; a little warm wax is then used to give it a polish : another method is by heating and burning the wood. The ebony-tree (di- ospyros ebenum) grows wild in the East Indies, and has been cultivated for many years in the Isle of France, which sup- plies a great part of that consumed in Eu- rope. The central part, or heart-wood, only is black; the sap-wood does not differ in color from that of other trees. Seve- ral other species of the genus afford ebony, among them D. decandrd and do- cecaiidra of Cochin China, which are used in that countiy for cabinet Avork, &c. The species of diospyros are trees or shrubs, Avith alternate petiolate and co- riaceous leaves; the flowers monopeta- lous, dioecious, axillary, and sessile or sub- sessile. About 30 species are known, one of which, the perrimmon, is found in the U. States. That which the Greeks used in the most ancient times was procured from India; but it Avas unknown in Rome till after the victories obtained by Pompey OA-er Mithridates. The ancient inhabi- tants of India, the Greeks, and finally the Romans, made frequent use of this fine wood, inlaying it with ivory on account of the contrast of colors. According to Pliny, the statue of Diana at Ephesus was of ebony, but accorduig to Viuuvius, it was of cedar. Artists and poets used ebony allegorically for the attributes of die infernals, giving a throne formed of it to Pluto and Proserpine, and making the gates of hell of the same dark and dura- ble material. It is also used at the present day for sculptural decorations, embellished and inlaid with ivory, modier of pearl, sUver and gold. Ebro (Latin, Iberus), a river in Spain, once the boundary between the territory of Rome and Carthage, has its source in a little valley east of Reynosa; it proceeds from a copious spring at the foot of an ancient tower, called Fontibre, and, after traversing many open and fertUe districts, 386 EBRO—ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. passes by the city of Tortosa, where there is a bridge of boats over it, and then falls into the Mediterranean, at the island of Alfachs; but, on account of its current and many rocks and shoals, it is navigable no higher dian Tortosa, and even to that place only for smaU craft. Length about 350 mUes. Ecbatana ; the chief city or ancient metropolis of Media, built according to PUny, by Seleucus. It was the summer residence ofthe Persian and Median kings, and existed in great splendor at a very early period in the history of the world. It was situated on a rising ground, about 12 stadia from 3fount Orontes, and 1200 stadia south of Palus Spauta. Its walls are described by ancient Avriters in a style of romantic exaggeration, and particular- ly by Herodotus and the author of the book of Judith. Daniel is said by Jose- phus to have buUt one of its most mag- nificent palaces, some of the beams of which were of silver, and the rest of cedar plated with gold. This splendid edifice afterwards served as a mausoleum to the kings of Media, and is affirmed, by the last mentioned author, to have been entire in his time. There are no traces now re- maining of these lofty buildings; and even the site of this celebrated city has become a subject of dispute among mod- ern travellers. It was pUlaged by the ar- my of Alexander. Ecce Homo (Latin; Behold the man!). This name is often given to cmcifixes and pictures which represent the suffering SaAior, because, according to John, xix. 5, Pilate broke out in these Avords, Avhen be saw with what patience Jesus suffered scourging. Ecclesiastical Courts. (See Courts.) Ecclesiastical Establishments. In the following article, an account is given of the number of the clergy, and the ex- pense of supporting the ecclesiastical es- tablishments in some of the principal countries of Eurojie. In the Tableau de la Constitution Politique de la Monarchie Frangaise selon la Charte, &c. par A. Ma- hull, is the following account of the French clergy: " The CathoUc clergy, be- fore the revolution, Avere composed of 136 archbishops and bishops, 6800 canons and priests of the bas choews, attached to the cathedral and collegial churches, 44,000 curates, 6400 succursalistes (a sort of cu- rates, removable by the bishops), 18,000 vicars, 16,000 ecclesiastics, with or with- out benefices, 600 canonesses, 31,000 monks, 27,000 nuns, 10.000 servants of the church; total, 159,936. The CathoUc population of France then comprised 25,000,000 souls. The clergy thus form- ed the hundred and sixty-eighth jiart of it. The possessions of the clergy then afforded, according to the statistical ta- bles of M. Cesar Moreau, 121,000,000 of the revenue. The French clergy, at the commencement of 1828, according to the documents collected by the editor of tho Almanack du Clergi, comprised 5 car- dinals, 14 archbishojis, 66 bishops, 5 cordons bleus, of the order of the Holy Ghost, 468 vicars-general, 684 titular canons, 1788 honorary canons, 3083 curates, 22,475 desservans (who perform the duties of the titular clergy), 5705 vic- ars, 439 chaplains, 839 almoners, 1076 priests resident in the parishes, or autho- rized to preach or hear confession, 1044 priests, directors and professors of semi- naries. The number of priests deemed necessary by the bishops amounts to 52,457, which would give for the present population of France, excluding the Prot- estant sects, one for each 550 souls. The total number of officiating priests is 36,649. In 1824, the number was estimated at only 30,443. Consequently, 15,808 are re- quired to complete the number desired by the heads ofthe church. It is estimated, that 13,493 of the priests employed are over sixty years of age, and that there are 2328 whom age and infirmity render in- capable of acting. The number of ec- clesiastical eleves is 44,244, of Avhom 9285 are theologiens, 3725 philosopkes, 21,118 are in the seminaries, 7761 in the colleges, 2355 with the curates. The whole ex- pense of supporting the Catholic worship, according to the calculation presented by M. Charles Dupin, June 21, 1828, to the chamber of deputies, is 62,845,000 francs. Before the revolution, the jiossessions of the clergy afforded, as we have said, 121 millions, leaving a difference of expense in favor of the present system, of 58,155,000 francs, although the lower orders of the clergy receive a much ampler comjien- sation than before, and the clergy are much more equally distributed among those whom they are to serve. In 1828, according to the Almanack du Clergi, die Avhole number of nuns in France was 19,340. De jure or de facto, there exist 3024 establishments of nuns, to wit, 1983 definitely audiorized, and 1041 en expecta- tive. There are but a smaU number of reUgious houses for males in France. The state of the clergy of Sjiain before the revolution is thus given in the Diario de la Coruna for July 1,1821:— ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 387 Archbishops and bishops,......62 Canons and dignitaries,......2 399 Prebends, .............1^869 Parish rectors, ......... 16 481 Curates,...............4927 Other beneficed clergy, .....16400 Religious men of the greater or- _ ders>.............. 17,411 Religious men of the minor or- ders, ...............9>088 Hermitands,............1 41(5 Servants,..............' S,987 Sacristans, church clerks, .... 15,000 Monks,..............5^00 Friars with shoes, ........13,500 Friars without shoes,......30,000 Regular congregationists.....2,000 Servants of regulars,.......6,400 Youths in their houses,......1,800 Total,.........148,242 Nuns and religious women, . . 32,000 Total of regular and secular "~ clergy,.............180,242 Property belonging to the Clergy. Pious foundations for the "i Value. use of both sexes, con- I ~an Knrt nnrt stating in lands and f£62'500'000 buildings,.......J Estates ofthe secular clergy, 62,000,000 Estates ofthe regular clergy, 62,000,000 Their contributions are as follow: 1. the subddio, or voluntary gift of £100,000 an- nually ; the excusado, or tithe, of the tenth house or farm, originally appropriated for building and repairing churches. Pope Pius V allowed Philip II to apply the produce of this tax to his wars against the infidels. It is now applied to the ordinary exjienses of the state. The king has the choice of all the houses and farms, and selects the most valuable; so that this tenth may be considered equivalent to one eighth or one seventh of all the tithes of the parish. 2. The tierrias reales is a tax of two-ninths of the tithes received by the clergy. 3. The noveno, another ninth part of the tithes annually paid to the clergy. 4. The novales, tithes on land newly brought into cultivation. 5. The diezmos extentos, the tithe of all lands orig- inally exempted from clerical jurisdic- tion. The Avhole of the above taxes are farmed. These, however, are not the only burden imposed on the clergy. It has for some time been the practice to obUge them to pay tAvo years' revenue upon their appointment to a new benefice. The payment is made during a period of four years, being the half of each year's in- come ; and, on the expiration of this term, the incumbent is sometimes removed to another Uving, to undergo the same deple- Realnronertv land and ) " toty operation during another four years. buildmi C £186,500,000 In consequence of this policy, the Spanish clergy, formerly so wealthy, are now, in many cases, but indifferently provided for, and are daily becoming of less conse- quence in the estimation of the people as well as of the government. Many of the great dignitaries, however, are very rich. Next to the ecclesiastical principalities of Germany, the richest Catholic prelacies are found in Spain. The archbishoprics of Toledo, Seville, Santiago, Valencia and Saragossa have larger revenues than any in France, or any other country. Some of the bishops and other dignitaries, also, have very considerable incomes. The bishop of Murcia receives annually about £20,833 sterling, and the bishop of Lerida £10,000. The possessions of some of the monasteries, particularly some of die Car- thusians and Ieronymites, include the greatest part of the district in which they are situated. These religious foundations, while .they depopulate and impoverish the neighboring country, increase poverty and idleness by indiscriminate charity. {xdusive of tithes, and various other taxes and dues for the clergy. The population of Spain, in 1827, was estimated in Has- sel's Historical and Statistical Almanack, published in 1829, at 13,953,959. The number of places of worship may be 11,000. At the period of the Spanish revolution, the cortes, by a decree of Oc- tober 24, 1821, introduced a new organi- zation of the Spanish church, abolishing all the monasteries, excepting ten or twelve, declaring all gifts and legacies to monasteries, churches and hospitals un- laAyful, and curtailing the whole ecclesi- astical establishment so as to effect a saving of forty-four and a half millions of dollars annually to the nation, reckoning the annual expense of the church to the nation, before the revolution, at six per cent on the church property. But the king, on his restoration to absolute jiower, October 1, 1823, immediately annulled all the decrees of the constitutional govern- ment, and the ecclesiastical establishment was placed on its former footing. The Spanish clergy, however, contribute con- siderably to the support ofthe government Latin Catholic Church in Hungary. Hearers,..............4,000,000 Places of worship,..........3,230 ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. Average number of persons to a place of Avorship,.........1,240 Clergvmen,..............5,469 3 irchbishops, 18 bishops, 16 titular bish- ops, -74 prebendaries and canons, 5158 working clergy. Average number of clergymen to a place of worship,..........If or five clergymen to three places of worship. Average number of clergymen to 1000 persons,.............1£ Income,..............£314,214 ' 37 archbishops and bishops, .... 96,000 374 prebends and canons,.....58,000 £154,000 5158 working clergy, averaging ? £170 214 £33 each,...........) ' 4,000,000 of hearers, at £80,000 per million of hearers, .... £320,000 This is, perhaps, the greatest instance on the continent of Europe of the abuse of church property: 311 comparatively idle churchmen possess themselves of nearly as much income as 5158 working clergymen, who, with scanty means of existence, labor in the ministry, and are the real spiritual pastors of the people. The richest benefices are considered a provision for members of the great families ol Hungary. Any benefice producing more than £3100 a year, pays the surplus to the fund for the working clergy. Calvinistic Church of Hungary. Hearers,..............1,050,000 Places of worship,..........1,351 Clergymen,............ . 1,384 One place of Avorship for every 750 people. One clergyman for every place of wor- ship. Income—1383 clergymen, aver- age £44 each,..........£60,896 1,050,000 hearers, at £60,000 per milhon of hearers,.......£63,000 Lutheran Church of Hungary. Hearers,...............650,000 Places of worship,...........448 Clergymen, ...............456 One place of worship for every 1500 persons. One clergyman for every place of wor- >ship. Income,...............£25,080 Highest stipend, £80—average, £55 for 456 persons. 650,000 hearers, at £40,000 per rnilUon of hearers,.......£26,000 Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy in Italy. Hearers,.............19,391,200 The Italians are all Roman Catholics. Ace ge?> cording to a publication called Prospetto 0-->graphicn statistico derli Stati Europei, printed at Milan, 1820, they are distributed as follows: Kingdom of Sardinia, /of which the isfand 520,900),.........3,985,000 Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, sub- ject to Austria,.........4,117,000 Duchy of Parma,..........390,000 Duchy of Modena (Rcegio and Mi- randola),.............350,000 Duchy of Massa and Carrara, . . . 30,000 Duchy of Lucca,...........127,000 Grand duchy of Tuscany, .... 1,198,000 States of the Church........2,430,000 Republic of San Marino........7,000 Kinsrdom of the Two Sicilies, or Naples, .............7,576,000 (Of which the island of Sicily 1,660,000). Malta, 104,600 Corsica, 180,000 19,391,200 284,600 Italians, but detached from Italy. Places of worship,.........16,170 Clergymen,.............20,400 Estimated at one working clergyman for every 1000 persons (being more than in France, and less than in Spain), and 1000 dignitaries, as follows: 1 pope, 46 cardinals, qo lu' u (Estimated at one pre- 38 archbishops, I , f ^m 62 bishops, . . ^pcople? ' 853 other dignitaries, 19,400 working clergymen. 20,400 One clergyman for every 950 persons. One place of worship for every 1200 persons. Income,..............£776,000 Being at the rate of £40,000 per million of hearers. 19,391,200 hearers, at £40,000 per million of hearers, .... £776,000 This table is taken from Remarks on the Consumption of die public Wealth, by the Clergy of every Nation, &c. (Lon- don, 1822), and is said to have been framed with the assistance of a gentleman Avho had resided a considerable time in tlie great cities of Italy, particularly in Rome, and had given much attention to the sub- ject. The following statements respecting Russia are taken from the Statistique et Itineraire de la Rusde, par J. H. Schnitz- ler, Paris and St. Petersburg, 1829. The population is estimated at 55,000,000. The clergy of Russia may be estimated at 230,000 mdividuals in actual service, of whom the cities comprise about 60,000; over 190,000 belong to the orthodox Greek ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. 389 church, inclusive of the lay brothers, the choristers, &c. ; the CathoUc clergy amount to more than 30,000; the Protest- ant clergy do not exceed 1000, and there are over 9000 Mollahs. These are all al- lowed to marry, except the CathoUcs. Nearly 200,000 are fathers of famihes, and the total number of persons connected with the clergy may be computed at 900,000. Their condition differs accord- ing to their rank: the metropolitans, the archbishops, bishops, and the archiman- drites are rich; but the great mass of the clergy is poorly jirovided for. The monks are numerous, and are supported at the exjiense of the state; but their Avants are few, and their manner of living extremely simple. The secular clergy, which is under the superintendence of die bishops, is divided into protokiereis or archpriests, hicrcis or priests (popes), and deacons. The regular clergy, Avhich is also called the black dergy (tcliornoie doukhovenslro) comprises the archiman- drites, the igoumenoi or priors, the igou- wenai or abbesses, the monks (monachi), and nuns (monachini), and the hermits (poustynniki). The bishops are taken from the regular clergy, and any priest who desires to remain attached to the ecclesiastical order after the death of his wife, must enter that body, and is then called a hicro-monk. The revenues of the clergy consisted originally of tithes; but, after it had come into possession of large landed estates, cultivated by boors, its support was derived partly from their produce, and partly from the raskol- nitchii-prikaze, or tax paid by dissidents for the privilege of wearing the beard. The management of the revenues was in the hands of the patriarch, until Catharine I established a commission for the purjiose, which was, however, sup- pressed in 1742. The holy synod was then intrusted with their administration; and it apjiears, from an enumeration made by order of the empress Elizabeth, in 1746, that 839,546 male boors were at- tached to the estates of the clergy. These astates were secularized by Peter III, in 1762, who appointed a new commission for their management Catharine II be- gan by abolishing this board, and improv- ing the condition of the clergy. In 1764, she secularized aU the ecclesiastical posses- sions, reestablished the commission, and assigned a fixed revenue to the members of the clergy. The chambers of account, in the capitals of the governments, are now invested with the administration of these estates, the annual revenue of which is 33* estimated at 250,000 sUver rubles, which is expended in paying the salaries of the clergy. Notwithstanding this seizure of their domains, the clergy have still a con- siderable amount of land connected with the convents, or Avith the church, but there are no boors attached. Church or Kirk of ScotlaiuJ. The established religion in Scotland is the Presbyterian or Calvinistic sect, and is de- nominated the kirk of Scotland. Hearers,..............1,500,000 According to sir John Sinclair, in 1814, there were in Scotland, Hearers of the established Presby- terian church, .........1,407,524 Dissenting Presbyterians,...... 256,000 Baptists, Bereans, Glassites, .... 50,000 Scotch Episcopalians,........28,000 Church of England,..........4,000 Roman Catholics,..........50,000 Methodists,...............9,000 Quakers,.................300 Total,.....7^804,824 The population having increased to 2,000,000, the hearers of the established church may be estimated at 1,500,000 (in 1822). Places of worship,..........1,000 One place of worship for every 1,500 persons, Clergymen,..............1,000 Average number of clergymen for a place of woiship,........1 Average number of clergymen for 1500 persons,............1 Income,..............£206,360 Being an average of £220 for 938 clergy- men. Their stipend can in no case be under £150: it averages much more; and then they are provided with a manse, or dwelling- house, and a glebe of land. 1,500,000 hearers, at £1&5,000 per million hearers,......£202,500 The revenue of the Scotch clergy, ac- cording to the Remarks, is derived from a charge on the rents of land, paid by the landlord throughout Scotland. It is a moderate charge, amounting to about ninepence sterling an acre on lands in cultivation, and, although it is called teinds or tithe, does not amount nearly to the tidie in England. An estate in Scotland pays £30 on 800 statute English acres, while the same sum of £30 is in some cases paid by an estate of 80 acres in England. The average Number of People for whom there is a Church. In France,...............1,150 In Scotland,..............1,500 In Spain,.........,.....1,000 390 ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS. In Portugal,..............1,000 In Hungary, CathoUcs,.......1,240 In do. Calvinists,........750 In do. Lutherans,.......1,500 The average Number of Persons for whom there is a Clergyman provided. In France,...............1,150 In Scotland,..............1,500 In Spain,.................700 In Portugal,...............700 In Hungary, Catholics,........730 In do. Calvinists,........750 In do. Lutherans,.......1,500 There are in France about 9000 clergy- men generally engaged in tuition, who have not employments in the church, but who ren- der occasional and regular aid to the minis- ters of the churches; tney are the remnants of the times before the revolution; their number is diminishing fast, and is not renew- ed. Taking these into consideration, there is in France one clergyman for every 830 persons. The folloAving estimates are taken from die Remarks above quoted, as are also the preceding respecting Scotland, &c. Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy of the Established Church of England. In Englano and Wales. Hearers,..............6,000,000 The whole population is 12,000,000; if one half are hearers of the establishment, it is certainly the outside.' Places of worship,..........11,743 Clergymen, ...:*.........18,000 Archbishops,.................2 Bishops,......'*.,...........24 Archdeacons, . . ..'. 1.......: . . 60 , Deans,.......;.,...........27 Canons and prebends,..........544 Dignitaries, ........_.......657 Working clergy, rectors, vicars, cu- rates, and chaplains,........17,343 One place of worship for every 500 hear- ers. One clergyman for every 333 hearers. One archbishop for every 3,000,000 hearers. One prelate for every 233,000 hearers. Income,.............£7,600,000 6,000,000 of hearers, at £1,266,000 per miUion, . . . 7,596,000 Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy ofthe Established Church of England and Ireland. lie Ireland. Hearers,...............400,000 According to the population return, there are in Ireland 6,846,000 people; say...........7,000,000 The following is deemed their distribution into sects: „„„ Roman Catholics,.........5,500,000 Presbyterians, ............800.000 Church of England and Ireland, . . 400,000 Methodists and other sects,.....300,000 Places of worship,...........740 Clergymen,..............1,700 Archbishops, . •........,.......4 Bishops,..................18 Deans,..................33 Archdeacons,...............34 Canons, prebends, &c..........500 Dignitaries, ...............587 Working clergy,............1,113 (For full particulars, see Ecclesiastical Register, printed by Nolan, Dublin.) One place of worship for every 540 hear- ers. One clergyman for every 235 hearers. One archbishop for every 100,000 hearers. One prelate for every 18,000 hearers. Income,.............£1,300,000 400,000 hearers, at £3,250,000 per million of hearers,. . . £1,300,000. Estimated Expenditure on thdr own Cler- gy, by the People who are not hearers of me Established Church. In England and Wales. Hearers,..............6,000,000 Places of worship,..........8,000 Clergymen,..............8,000 One place of worship to 750 hearers. One clergyman to 750 hearers. Income,..............£500,000 Voluntary contributions at an average rate of £65 for each clergyman. 6,000,000 of hearers, at £85,000 per million,...........£510,000 Estimated Expenditure on the Clergy of that Part of the People whose Ministers do not receive Stipends from the Kirk. In Scotland. Hearers,...............500,000 (See the numbers of each sect in the table of the Scotch kirk.) Places of worship,...........333 At an average of one place of worship for every 1500 persons, as in the kirk. Clergymen,...............400 At an average of six clergymen to five places of worship. Income,...............£44,000 _ Voluntary contributions at an average of £110 each, to 400 clergymen. A place of worship to every 1500 hearers. A clergyman to every 1250 hearers. 500,000 hearers, at £90,000 per miUion,..............£45,000 ECCLESIASTICAL ESTABLISHMENTS—ECHELON. 391 Estimated Expenditure on thdr own Cler- gy, by the people of Irdand who are not of the Established Church. Hearers,..............6,600,000 Computed as follows: Catholics,.............5,500,000 Presbyterians,............800,000 Methodists, and other sects, .... 300,000 Places of worship,..........2378 Clergymen,..............2378 One place of worship for every 2400 hearers, One clergyman for every 2400 hearers, Income,..............£261,580 Voluntary contribution, at an average of £110 each, for 2378 clergymen. 6,600,000 hearers, at £40,000 per milhon of hearers,......£264,000 Government grant, yearly, the sum of £13,487 to certain Protestant ministers, viz. to Presbyterians, £8,697 ; to seceding Pres- byterians, £4,034; to other Protestant dis- senting ministers, £756. To these tables succeed, in the Re- marks abovementioned, comparative ta- bles, showing in one view the expense of supporting the ecclesiastical establish- ments in all the countries of Europe and America. These latter, it must be recol- lected, were drawn up during the short sway of the constitutional governments in Spain and Portugal, when the expense of the church in these countries was great- ly reduced. The following comparison, therefore, is true only of that time:— Christians throughout the World. Roman Catholics. Protestants. Greek Church. In Great Britain and Ireland,........5,800,000 15,200,000 In all the rest of the world,........118,872,060 38,856,000 41,500,000 Total,........124,672,000 54,056,000 41,500,000 Catholics,........124,672,000 Protestants,....... 54,056,000 Greek Church,..... 41,500,000 Total of Christians, Pay to their clergy,........£6,106,000 " * ........11,906,000 " ..........760,000 220,228,000 " £18,772,000 Of which England, for 21 millions, pays more than half (as things dien stood). The restriction in the preceding paragraph appUes to a similar estimate in our article Church. Ecclesiastical History. (See Chris- tianity. Ecclesiastical States. (See Church, Stales ofthe; also Curia, Papal.) Echalote (allium ascahnicum); a kind of onion, a native of Syria, which has been cultivated in Europe for some cen- turies. The leaves are radical, awl-shaped and hollow; the stem naked, 6 to 8 inches high, terminated by a globose umbel of purplish flowers. The roots are pungent, but have an agreeable taste, and are gene- rally preferred to the onion for various purposes of cookery. Echard, Lawrence; an English divine and historian ofthe last centuiy. He was liorn in Suffolk in 1671, and studied at Cambridge. He died in 1730. Among his Avorks are, The Roman History, 3 vols. 8vo.; A General Ecclesiastical His- tory, 2 vols. 8vo.; both works extending only to the age of Constantine; A History of England to the Revolution, 3vols.foUo; The Gazetteer's or Newsman's Interpreter. Echea (hx** from hxim, I sound), in ancient architecture; the name which the ancients gave to the sonorous vases of bronze or earth, of a bell-like shape, which they used in die construction of their theatres, to give greater power to the voices of their actors. The size of these vases was proportioned to the magnitude of the building, and their conformation such, that they returned all the concords from the fourth and fifth to the double oe- tave. They were arranged between the seats of the theatres in niches made for the purpose ; the jiarticulars of which are described in the fifth book of VitruAius. According to this ancient author, such vases Avere inserted in the theatre at Cor- inth, from Avhence Lucius Mummius, at the taking of that city, transported them to Rome. It would appear that similar means have been employed in some of the Gothic cathedrals, to assist die voices of the priests and choristers; for in the choir of diat at Strasburg, formerly belonging to a monastery of Dominicans, professor Oberlin discovered similar vases in vari- ous parts of the vaulted ceilings. The student is referred to Mr. Wilkin's trans- lation of Vitruvius for further speculations on this curious mode of construction. Echelon (French; a ladder or stairway); used in military language. A batteUon, regiment, &c, marches en echelon, or par Echelon, if the divisions of which it is com- posed do not march in one line, but on parallel lines. The divisions are not ex- actly behind each other, but each is to the right or left of the one preceduig, so as 392 ECHELON—ECHINUS. to give the whole the appearance of a stairway. This order is used if the com- mander wishes to bring one part of a mass sooner into action, and to reserve the other. If the divisions of the echelon are battalions, these are generaUy from 100 to 200 stejis from each other. Echeneis ; the remora, in natural histo- ry, a genus of fishes of the order thorac- iri. Generic character: head furnished on the top with a flat, oval, transversely grooved shield; gill-membrane, Avith ten rays, according to Gmelin, and six, ac- cording to ShaAV; body not scaled. There are three species. The echineis remora, or Mediterranean remora, is of the lengdi of from 12 to 18 inches. Among the an- cients, its peculiarity of structure and hab- its Avas connected Avith the most incredi- ble and marvellous circumstances, which are, however, detailed with all jiossible gravity and faith, by their most profound naturalists. Pliny states, that the force of the tide, the current and the tempest, join- ing in one grand impulse with oars and sails, to urge a ship onwards in one di- rection, is cliecked by the operation of one small fish, called remora by the Roman authors, which counteracts this apparent- ly irresistible accumulation of jioAver, and compels the vessel to remain motionless in the midst of the ocean. He credits the jirevailing report, that Antony's ship, in the battle of Actium, AA'as kept motion- less by the exertion of the remora, not- Avitli6tanding the efforts of several hun- dred sailors; and that the vessel of Calig- ula Avas detained betAveen Astura and Antium by another of these fish found sticking to the helm, and whose solitary efforts could not be countervailed by a crew of 400 able seamen, tiU several of the latter, on examining into the cause of the detention, perceived the impediment, and detached the remora from its hold.— The emperor, he adds, was not a little as- tonished, that the fish should hold the ship so fast in the water, and, when brought upon deck, appear to possess no poAver of detention over it whatever. This confid- ing naturalist expresses himself as jierfect- ly convinced that all fishes possess a simi- lar jiower, and states, as a notorious ex- ample, the detention of Periander's ship by a porcellane, near the cape of Gnidos. Quitting, however, the fables of antiqui- ty, it may be observed, that the fins ofthe remora are particularly weak, and thus prevent its swimming to any considerable distance, on which account it attaches it- self to various bodies, inanimate or living, being found not only fastened to ships, but to whales, sharks, and other fishes; and with such extreme tenacity is this hold maintained, that, unless the effort of separation be applied in a particular direc- tion, it is imjiossible to effect the disunion without the destruction of the fish itself. As die remora is extremely voracious, and far from fastidious in its food, it may at- tach itself to vessels and large fish with a view to secure subsistence. This fish Avill often adhere to rocks, and particular- ly in boisterous and tempestuous Aveather. The apparatus for accomplishing this ad- hesion consists of an oval area on the top of the head, traversed by numerous dis- sepiments, each of which is fringed at the edge by a toav of very numerous perpen- dicular teeth, or filaments, while the whole oval space is strengthened by a longitudi- nal septum. It is rejxnted by some au- thors, that, in the Mozambique channel, a species of remora is employed by the na- tives ofthe coast in their pursuit of turtles with great success. A ring is fixed near the tail of the remora, Avitli a long cord attached to it, and, when the lioat has ar- rived as near as it weU can to the turtle, sleeping on die surface of the Avater, the remora is dismissed, and immediately pro- ceeds towards the turtle, wlrich it fastens on so firmly, that both are drawn into the boat with great ease. Echinus, or Sea Egg; a marine ani- mal, inhabiting the seas of most coun- tries, and subject to great variety in the species. Echinus esculentus, die edible sea egg, is common on the coast of Eu- rope, and is esteemed as an article of food. In systematic arrangements, the genus echinus of Linnaeus has been much di- vided, and is at present restricted to those species Avhich have an orbicular, oval or globular body, covered Avith spines, artic- ulated on imperforate tubercles. These spines are very slightly attached, and faU off the dead animal on the least friction ; in consequence, the specimens Avhich commonly come under observation are deprived of them entirely. Five ranges of jiores diverge from the summit, and tend to the centre beneath, dividing the shell into Avell marked sections. The mouth is situated on the inferior surface* in the cen- tre, and is armed with five osseous pieces or plates; anus superior. Many species are ornamented with a profusion of long and pointed spines, while in others, they are quite short. It is by means of" these spines that the animals change their posi- tion, and move from place to place. The apjiaratus of the mouth is provided with strong muscles, and is Avell calculated for crushing the hard jiortions of the animal's food. In the same species the colors va- ECHINUS-ECKMUHL. 393 ry considerably, the traits changing, how- ever, on the death of the animal. Echini are said to retreat to deep water on the approach of a storm, and preserve them- selves from injury by attaching them- selves to submarine bodies. E. melo is perhaps the largest species known, and is found not uncommonly in the Mediterra- nean. Many fine species have been dis- covered in a fossil state imbedded in chalk, &c, in beautiful preservation. Up- on the coast of the U. States, several spe- cies of recent echini are found, and some also occur in the fossil localities. The spe- cies constituting the genus have not been well determined. Echo ; daughter of the Air and Tellus; a nymph, who, according to fable, was changed by Juno into a rock, because her loquacity prevented Juno from listening to the conversation of Jupiter with the nymphs. The use of her voice, however, was left her so far as to be able to repeat the last word which she heard from oth- ers. Another account is, that Echo fell in love with Narcissus, and, because he did not reciprocate her affection, she pined away, until nothing was left but her voice. Echo. When 6ound strikes against a distant hard surface, it is reflected, and heard again after a short space; this rep- etition is called echo. If the sound is re- peated several times, which is the case when it strikes against objects at different distances, many echoes are heard. This phenomenon is not caused by a mere re- pulsion of the sonorous particles of air, for then every hard surface would pro- duce an echo ; but it probably requires a degree of concavity in the repelling body, which collects several diverging Unes of sound, and concentrates them in the place where tlie echo is audible, or, at least, re- flects them in parallel lines, without weak- ening the sound, as a concave mirror col- lects in a focus the diverging rays of light, or sometimes sends them back parallel.— Still, however, the theory of the repulsion of sound is not distinctly settled, proba- bly because the nature of reflecting sur- faces is not sufficiently knoAvn. The re- flectuig surface must be at a certain dis- tance, in order that the echo may come to the ear after the sound, and be distinctly separated from it Observation proves that sound travels 1142 feet in a second; consequently, an observer, standing at half that distance from the reflecting object, would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo, then, would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a second. This is caU- ed a polysyllabk echo. If the distance is less, die echo repeats fewer syUables; if only one is repeated, then the echo is monosyllabic. The most practised ear cannot distinguish, in a second, more than from 9 to 12 successive syllables, and, for a monosyllabic echo, a period of at least half a second is requisite. Hence we see why arched walks and halls echo, without producing a clear and distinct sound.— Some of the walls are too near; and some form an uninterrupted series of surfaces at different distances, and the ear is not able to distinguish the original sound from the first echo, nor to separate the numer- ous echoes which are thus confounded with each other. On the contrary, if sev- eral reflecting surfaces are at different dis- tances, each of them may produce a dis- tinct echo, of which the first is the strong- est, because the others are weakened by a longer passage through the air. As the reflection of sound depends on the same laws as those which regulate the reflection of Ught, on which the science of catop- trics depends, the doctrine of echoes is sometimes called the catoptrics of sound; a better name is catapkonics, or cata- coustics. The place ofthe sounding body is called the phonic centre, and the re- flecting place or object the phonocampHe centre. The most celebrated echoes are that at Rosneath, in Scotland, and that of the VUla Vimourtia, near Milan, which re- peats a word 30 or 40 times. Eckhel, Joseph Hilary, a learned Jesu- it, who distinguished himself greatly by his works on coins, medals, and other re- mains of classical antiquity. He was born at Enzersfeld, in Austria, in 1737. After becoming a member of the society of St Ignatius, he was appointed keeper of the imperial cabinet of medals, and professor of archaeology at Vienna. He died in 1798. Eckhel may be regarded as the founder of the science of numismatics, the principles of which are elaborately de- veloped in his treatise entitled Doctrinn Nummorum Veterum, 8 vols. foUo, finished in 1798. He also published catalogues of the ancient coins and gems in the impe- rial cabinet, and other learned treatises; His first work was Nummi veteres anecdo- ti, 1775. Eckmuhl ; a village on the Laber, in the Bavarian circle ofthe Regen, remark- able for the battle of April 22,1809. Aus- tria, encouraged by the national war, wlrich had been kindled in Spain against Napoleon, entered the contest without aUies, but, trusting chiefly to England and the Porte, with an energy greater than 3©4 ECKMUHL. she had ever before displayed. She called out all her regular forces, and the miUtia lately organized by the arch-duke John 5 the arch-duke Charles commanded in the character of generalissimo. While count Stodion, with Gentz and others, sum- moned the Germans to arms by procla- mations, and conducted the negotiations, the army was destined to put an end to the confederation of the Rhine, and the power of France in Germany, Poland and Italy, and to restore to Austria and the German empire their former independent position in the European system. Six corps d'armee, under the arch-duke Charles, with tAvo bodies of reserve, in all 220,000 men, guarded the Iser and Munich (April 16), and the Danube and Ratisbon (April 20); the seventh corps, under the arch- duke Ferdinand of Este, 36,000 strong, took possession of the duchy of Warsaw; and two corps, 80,000 strong, under the arch-duke John, menaced Italy, the Tyrol havuig already (April 11) taken up arms in favor of Austria. Napoleon's victory at Eckmiihl decided the campaign of 1809, on the Danube, in die vicinity of Ratisbon, and compelled Austria to give up her offensive operations, and. to reas- sume the disadvantageous attitude of de- fensive war. The operations on the Dan- ube, during the five days from the 19th to the 23d of April, cannot therefore, be disconnected from the important battle of Eckmiihl. Napoleon left Paris, April 13, and promised the king of Bavaria, at DilUngen, on the 16th, to restore him to his capital within a fortnight and to make him more powerful dian any of his an- cestors; on the 18th, his head-quarters were at Ingolstadt Here he detennined to concentrate the different corps of his army commanded by Davoust Oudinot and Massena, the Bavarians under the command of Lefebvre, and the Wurtem- berg troops under Vandamme, in all 200,000 men; Poniatowski, in expecta- tion of the Russian auxiUary corps, was charged with the defence of Warsaw; the viceroy Eugene, step-son of Napoleon, was to protect Italy; and marshal Mar- mont Dalmatia. Napoleon himself pre- pared for the attack. For this purpose, Oudinot by the affair at Pfaffenhofen, on the 19th April, effected a junction with Massena, on the 20th; at the same time, Davoust who advanced from Ratisbon, attacked the arch duke Louis at Tann (a town in the Bavarian circle of the lower Danube) and Rohr, whde the Bavarians, under Lefebvre, feU upon his rear. Da- voust, with the Bavarians, then joined the main army, under Napoleon, who novr commenced the attack in person. While Davoust kept in check three corps of the Austrian main army, under the arch-duke Charles, Napoleon, with the Bavarians and Wurtembergers, and the French corps under Lannes and Massena, fell ujion the Austrian left wing, consisting of about 60,000 men, under the arch-duke Louis and general Hiller, at Abensberg (near Rat- isbon), on the 20th, who were thus cm off from the Danube and the arch-duke Charles. Charles, meanwhile, had taken possession of Ratisbon on the 20th, formed a junction with the corps which advanced from the upper Palatinate, stormed the heights of Abbach, on the right bank of the Danube, on the 21st, and taken position at Eckmiihl, which commands the com- munication with Ratisbon. Here, having concentrated four corps, he menaced the victor of Abensberg in his rear, and hoped to make himself master of the road to Donauwerth, on which the possession of Bavaria depended. But Davoust and Lefebvre held him in check on the 21st, and, on the 22d, Napoleon, with the di- visions of Lannes and Massena, the Wur- tembergers and the cuirassiers, advanced from Landshut to the Danube, and at- tacked the arch-duke, at two o'clock in the afternoon, at Eckmiihl, where the Bavarians and Davoust were already en- gaged. This movement decided the con- test. The Wurtembergers took the village of Burghausen; the Bavarian general Seidewitz, with two Bavarian regiments of cavalry, carried an Austrian battery, which commanded the road from Land- shut to Ratisbon; Lannes flanked the Austrian left, whilst Davoust Lefebvre and Montbrun attacked them in front The Austrians obstinately defended their second position, and the Wurtemberg in- fantry took the viUage of Eckmuhl by storm. At this time, the French cavalry broke the Austuan lines, on the plain in the rear of Eckmiihl. The Austrian in- fantry, thus taken in flank, were thrown into disorder, and the arch-duke Charles himself was saved only by the fleetness of his horse. Thus, about 110,000 Austri- an troops, under an able general, covering a position of 12 miles in length, Avere at- tacked from aU quarters by about 130,000 Frencli and Germans, extending over a line of 29 miles, were outflanked on their left wing, and totaUy routed. During the night, the arch-duke passed the Danube, and attempted to cover his retreat by de- fending Ratisbon, which was indiffer- endy fortified. Napoleon moved on Uke ECKMUHL—ECLIPSE. 395 a storm. The French cuirassiers chased the Austrian cavalry, destined to cover Ratisbon, over the Danube. The French- Bavarian artillery made a breach in the walls, the French infantry, headed by Lannes, forced their way into the city, and, after a bloody combat in the streets, Napoleon became master of Ratisbon. Napoleon was slightly wounded in his foot by a spent musket-ball, on the 23d. His bulletin of the 24th announced that the fruits of the five days' campaign, of die three victories at Tann, Abensberg and Eckmiihl, and the combats at Frei- sing, Landshut and Ratisbon, were 100 cannon, 40 stands of colors, 50,000 pris- oners, 3 pontons and 3000 wagons; and added, " in four weeks, we shall be in Vienna." DaA-oust duke of Auerstadt received the title of prince of Eckmiihl. The same day, Napoleon abolished the Teutonic order in all the states of the confederation of the Rhine. The conse- quences of the battles of Eckmiihl and Ratisbon were very important The Aus- trian general Jellachich was obliged to evacuate Munich, which the king of Ba- varia reentered on the 25th. The Aus- trian main army, strengthened by the corps of Bellegarde, retired, under the arch-duke Charles, to Budweis, in Bohe- mia, and was concentrated on the left bank of the Danube, at the foot of the Bisamberg, and on the Marchfield, ready for die more famous combats at As- pern and Wagram. Charles, hoAArever, avos not able to save Vienna. Napoleon advanced along the right bank of the Danube, notwithstanding the insurrection in the Tyrol, and passed the Inn. On the 3d of May, general Hiller made an obstinate resistance at Ebensberg, Avith 35,000 men, but was compelled to retreat to the left bank of the Danube. The French passed the Ems, and adAanced to die capital of Austria, wlrich capitulated May 12. On the 13th, Napoleon fixed Iris head-quarters at Schonbrunn. May 20, Napoleon crossed to the left bank, and dius brought on the memorable battles upon the Marchfield, that of Aspem, or Essling, and that of Wagram. This whole campaign is highly interesting and instructive to a miUtary man, who may deriA'e useful lessons from the conduct of both parties; from that of Napoleon, who followed up a grand plan with unprece- dented ability and spirit; and from that of Charles, who displayed great military skill in his manoeuvres, as was ahvays acknowledged by the victors. Eclectics (from the Greek Mscr«fc, select from UUyu, to select) is a name given to all diose philosophers who do not follow one system entirely, but select what they think the best parts of all sys- tems. Their philosophy is also called eclec- tic. In die history of philosophy, this term is chiefly applied to that sect of Greek philosophers, who strove to unite and reconcile the opinions of Pythagoras, Plato and Aristotle, and to bring them into one harmonious system. Eclipse. An Eclipse ofthe Moon is a privation of the light of the moon, occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon ; consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon; for it is only when the moon is in opposition, that it can come within the earth's shadow, which must always be on tiiat side of the earth which is from the sun. The earth being in the plane ofthe ecliptic, the cen- tre of its shadow is always in that plane ; if, therefore, the moon be in its nodes, that is, in the plane of the ecliptic, the shadow ofthe earth will fall upon it. This shad- ow, being of considerable breadth, is partly above and partly below the plane of the ecliptic; if, therefore, the moon in oppo- sition be so near one of its nodes, that its latitude is less than half the breadth of the shadoAV, it will be eclipsed. But, be- cause the plane of the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than five degrees with the plane of the ecliptic, it will frequendy have too much latitude, at its opposition, to allow it to come within the shadow of the earth. An Eclipse ofthe Sun is an occultetion of part ofthe face of the sun, occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth and the sun; thus all ecUpses of the sun hajipen at the time of neAv moon. The dark or central part of the moon's shadoAV, Avhere the sun's rays are whoUy intercepted, is called the umbra, and the light part, Avhere only a part of them are intercepted, is called the penumbra; and it is evident, that if a spectator be situated on that part ofthe earth Avhere the umbra falls, there will be a total ecUpse of the sun at that place; in the penumbra there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra, there will be no eclipse. As the earth is not always at the same dis- tance from the moon, if an eclipse should happen when the earth is so far from the moon that the rays of Ught proceeding from the upper and loAver limbs of the sun cross each other before they come to the earth, a spectator situated on the earth, in a direct line between the centres ofthe 396 ECLIPSE—ECLIPTIC. i sun and moon, would see a ring of light tude, as to appear above or below the sun. round tlie dark body of the moon ; 6uch If the moon be in one of its nodes, having an eclipse is called annular; when this no altitude, it wdl cover the whole disc happens, there can be no total eclipse any of the sun, and produce a total eclipse, where, because the moon's umbra does except when its apparent diameter is less not reach the earth. People situated in than that of the sun ; if it be near one of the penumbra will perceive a partial its nodes, having a small degree of latitude, eclipse; and an eclipse can never be an- it will only pass over a part of the sun s nular longer than 12 minutes 24 seconds, disc, or produce a partial eclipse. In a nor total longer than 7 minutes 58 sec- total eclipse of the sun, the shadow or onds ; nor can the duration of an eclipse umbra ofthe moon falls upon that part of ofthe sun ever exceed 2 hours. the earth where the eclipse is seen, and a The sun being larger than die earth, die spectator, placed in the shadow, will not earth's shadow is a cone, whose base is on see any part of the sun, because the moon the surface of the earth, and the moon is wiU intercept all the rays of light corning ecUpsed by a section ofthe earth's shadow, directly from the sun. In a partial eclipse If die earth were larger than, or equal to, of the sun, a penumbra, or imperfect shad- the sun, its shadow would either perpetu- ow of the moon, falls upon that part of ally enlarge, or be always of the same di- the earth where the partial ecUpse is seen. mension; but "i this case, the superior Were the orbit of the earth and that of planets Avould sometimes come within it, the moon both in the same plane, there and be eclipsed, wlrich never happens, would be an eclipse of the sun every new Therefore the sun is larger than the moon, and an eclipse of the moon every earth, and produces a shadoAV from the full moon. But the orbit of the moon earth of a conical form, Avhich does not makes an angle of five degrees and a extend to the orbit of Mars. An eclipse quarter with the plane ofthe earth's orbit, of the moon is partial when only a part and crosses it in two points, called the of its disc is widrin the shadoAV of the nodes. Astronomers have calculated, that earth; it is total when all its disc is with- if the moon be less than 17° 21' from in the shadow; and it is central when either node, at the time of new moon, the die centre of tlie earth's shadoAV falls upon sun may be eclipsed; or if less than 11° 34/ the centre of the moon's disc. Now, the from either node, at the full moon, the nearer any part of the penumbra is to the moon may be eclipsed; at all other times umbra, the less light it receives from the there can be no eclipse, for the shadow sun; and as the moon enters the penum- of the moon will fall either above or below bra before she enters the umbra, she grad- the earth at the time of new moon; and ually loses her light, and ajipears less the shadow of the earth will fall either brilliant The duration of an eclijise ofthe above or below tlie moon, at the time of moon, from her first touching the earth's fuU moon. An eclipse of the sun begins penumbra to her leaAing it, does not ex- on the western side of his disc, and ends ceed five hours and a half. The moon on the eastern; and an eclipse of tho does not continue in the earth's umbra moon begins on the eastern side of her longer than three hours and three quar- disc, and ends on the western. The aver- ters in any eclipse, neither is she totaUy age number of eclipses in a year is four, ecUpsed for a longer period than one hour two of die sun, and two of the moon; and and three quarters. As the moon is ac- as the sun and moon are as long below tuaUy deprived of her Ught during an the horizon of any particular place as they eclipse, every inhabitant upon the face of are above it, the average number of visi- the earth, who sees the moon, sees the ble eclipses in a year is two, one of the ecUpse. An eclipse of the sun, as Ave sun and one of the moon. (See Astrono- have said, happens when the moon, pass- my.) ing between the sun and the earth, inter- Ecliptic ; the sun's path; the great cepts the sun's light; and the sun can on- circle ofthe celestial sphere, in which the ly be ecUpsed at the new moon, or when sun appears to describe his annual course the moon, at its conjunction, is in or near from west to east. The Greeks observed one of its nodes. For, unless the moon that ecUpses of the sun and moon took is in or near one of its nodes, it cannot place near this circle; whence they called appear in or near the 6ame plane with it the ecliptic, from eclipses. By a Uttle the sun ; without which it cannot appear attention, we shall see that the sun does to us to pass over the disc of the sun. not alwayB rise to the same height in die At every other part of its orbit h will meridian, but seems to revolve round the have so much northern or southern lati- earth in a spiral (see Day). We ukewise ECLIPTIC. 397 observe every day, at its rising and setting, new stars in the neighborhood ofthe sun. It will also be seen, that the sun is in the equator twice a year; about March 22 and Scjiteinber 22. The points of the equator, at Avhich the sun is stationary on these days, are at die intersection of the equator with the ecliptic. June 21, the sun reaches its greatest height in the heavens; and December 21, it descends the lowest. Because the sun appears to torn back at these points, they are called the tropics; and the times at Avhich the turning appears to commence are called solstices (solstitia, solis stationes). At these points, the sun has attained its greatest distance from the equator. These four jioints, the equinoctial and solstitial points, are distant from one another a quarter of a circle, or 90 degrees. Each of these quadrants, or quarters of a circle, is di- vided into 3 equal arcs of 30 degrees ; thus the whole ecliptic is divided into 12 equal arcs or signs: these receive their names from certain constellations through which the ecliptic jiasses, and which ex- tend each 30 degrees. The constellations, or 12 celestial signs, succeed one another in the following order, from the vernal equinox, reckoned towards the east: °l° Aries, March 20. Taurus, April 20. Gemini, May 21. 03 Cancer, June 21. & Leo, July 22. tijj Virgo, August 23. £2h Libra, Sejitember 23. ni. Scorpio, October 23. f Sagittarius, November 22. VJ Cajiricornus, December 21. z: Aquarius, Januaiy 19. X Pisces, February 18. The days of the month annexed show when the sun, in its annual revolution, enters each of the signs of the zodiac. The 30 degrees in every sign are divided into minutes and seconds, not reckoned separately, but after the signs. An arc of the eclijitic, for example, of 97° IS' 27", reckoned from Aries, eastward, is called 3 signs, 7° 15' 27" long, or, what is the same thing, it terminates in 7° 15' 27" of Cancer. In this way the longitude of the stars is given. The ecliptic, like all cir- cles, has two jioles, Avhich move about the poles of the earth every 24 hours, and in this manner describe the polar cir- cles. What appears to be the path of the sun, hoAvever, is, in reality, the path of the earth. The planets and the moon revolve in different planes; but these are vol. iv. 34 inclined at only a very small angle to the plane of the ecliptic; hence these bodies can be but a small distance from the ecliptic. The plane ofthe ecliptic is very imjiortant in theoretical astronomy, be- cause the courses of all the other planets are projected upon it, and reckoned by it. By the obliquity of the ecliptic we under- stand its inclination to the equator, or the angles formed by the planes of these ttvo great circles. This angle is measured by the arc of a third great circle, draAvn so as to intersect the two others perpendicularly, in the points at Avhich they arc farthest ajiart. These points of intersection are 90 degrees distant fi-om those points a: which the equator and ecliptic intersect each other, i. e. the solstitial points. The ancients endeavored to measure the obli- quity ofthe ecliptic. According to Pliny, it was first determined by Anaximander ; according to Gassendi, it had been ascer- tained by Thales. The most celebrated measurement of this obliquity in ancient times was made bv Pvtheas, at Marseilles. He found it, 350 B. C., to be 23° 49* 23". A hundred years later, according to Ptol- emy, Eratosthenes found it to be 23° 51' 20". Various measurements have subse- quently taken place, even doAvn to our own time; and it is remarkable that al- most every measurement makes die angle less than those which preceded it. Among the modern estimates are that of Cassini, 23° 28' 35" ; of La CaiUe, 23° 28' 19" ; of Bradley, 23° 28' 18"; and of Mayer, 23° 28' 16": the observations of Delambre, Maskelyne, Piazzi, Bessel and others, give this important astronomical element, for the year 1800, at 23° 27' 56". In respect to the decrease ofthe inclination ofthe eclip- tic, the most celebrated astronomers of our time, as Lalande, adopted the ojiinion that this decrease continues uninterruptedly. Louville determined the annual decrease to be 1', La Caitle 44", and Lalande 33". Several philosojihers of modern times concluded, from these observations, that the equator and the ecliptic Avere formerly in the same plane; that the shock of a comet, or some mighty revolution on the earth, gave the axis of our planet this in- clination, and that, for thousands of years, the axis has been returning to its orig- inal position, which it will reach after 190,000 years. Laplace, on the contrary-, in his Mecanique Celeste, shoAved that this will never take place, but that the de- crease of the angle between the planes of the equator and the ecUptic depends merely upon a periodical effect, arising from the action ofthe other planets; that, 398 GAY—GAZETTEER. its publication with so handsome a sub- scription, that his profits amounted to £1200, whereas the Beggar's Opera had gained him only £400. The duke and duchess of Queensbury took him into their house, and managed his pecuniary con- cerns. He was soon after seized with de- jection of spirits, but enjoyed intervals of ease sufficient to enable him to compose his sonata of Acis and Galatea, and the opera of Achilles. He died in 1732, and was interred in Westminster abbey. His mon- ument contains an epitaph by Pojie.— Among his smaller pieces, his two ballads of All in the Downs, and 'Twas when the Seas were roaring, are much admired. Gay-Lussac, member of the academy of sciences, and professor in the polytech- nic school at Paris, a chemist and natural philosopher of the highest eminence, first brought himself into notice, at Paris, by ascending in a balloon, with Biot, to the height of 3600 toises (23,018 English feet), a greater height than had been ever before reached. This ascension was the means of leading him to a number of re- markable discoveries in natural philoso- phy, which (as, for instance, his observa- tions on the rising and falling of the mer- cury, and many other fluid and elastic bodies in the higher region of the atmos- phere, as well as under different degrees of temperature) have been confirmed by repeated experiments, and gave occasion to the investigations of Dalton, upon the uncommon expansion of the volume of fluids (especially water) in passing through all the degrees of temperature from the freezing to the boiling point At a sub- sequent period, Gay-Lussac joined with Alexander Humboldt in an attempt to de- termine exactly the deviation of the mag- netic from the terrestrial equator, hi which they both took for the basis of their work the observations of La Pey- rouse, relating to this subject. There are some interesting essays of Gay-Lussac in the Annates de Chimie and the Bulletin de la Societe Philomathique. With his pres- ent colleague, Thenard, he has published Recherckes Physico-chimiques faites sur la Pile Galvanique, et. les Preparations du Potassium (Paris, 1811,2 vols.). Gaza, Theodore; a successor of Eman- uel Chrysoloras as teacher of the Greek language and literature in the West. He Came a fugitive, after the capture of Con- stantinople, through Turkey to Italy, and there speedily acquired a thorough knowl- edge of the language of the country. In 1440, he was public teacher at Ferrara, and, in 1451, pope Nicolas V invited him, with other learned men, to Rome, where cardinal Bessarion took him into his suite. After the death of Nicolas, king Alphonso invited him to Naples. When death had deprived him of this patron also, he returned again to Rome. Here, however, he was st> mortified by the smallness of a reward given hifh by pope Sextus IV, for a dedication, that he with- drew to Ferrara, and from that place to Calabria, where he died, in 1478. Gaza labored for the diffusion of Greek litera- ture not only by teaching, but also by his writings, and especially by Latin transla- tions of the Greek classics. His chief work is a translation of the writings of Aristotle on natural history. Gaza ; a town of Palestine, about a mile from the Mediterranean sea; 44 miles south-west Jerusalem; lon. 34° 40' E.; lat 31° 25' N. ; population, 5000. It is often mentioned in Scripture, and was formerly a magnificent city, and strongly fortified. It is now much reduc- ed from its ancient grandeur. The envi- rons are exceedingly fertile, and produce pomegranates, oranges, dates and flowers, in great request even at Constantinople, Here is a manufacture of cotton, which employs 500 looms in the town and neighborhood. There are likewise great quantities of ashes made by the Arabs, and used in the manufacture of soap; but this manufacture has decUned. Gaza, at present, is a large village, divided into two parts, called the Upper and Lower. Both of these parts, taken together, are now called Gazara; and the upper part, where the castle is situated, has the same name; but the lower part is by the Araba distinguished under die name of Hard el Segiaye. Gazelle. (See Antelope.) Gazette ; a printed account of the transactions of all the countries in the known Avorld, in a loose sheet or half sheet. This name, in England, is confin- ed to that paper of news published by authority of the government. The first gazette in England was published at Ox- ford, November 7,1665. (See Newspapers.) Gazetteer ; a geographical dictiona- ry. The first work of this kind, with which we are acquainted, is that of Ste- phen of Byzantium, who Uved in the be- ginning of the 6th century. We have only an abridgment of it. The first mod- ern work of the kind is the Didionarium Historico-Geographicum (Geneva, 1565), by Charles Stephens, with additions, by N. Lloyd (Oxford, 1670, and London, 1686). The works of Ferrari (Lexicon GAZETTEER—GECKO. 399 Geograpkicum, 1627), and Baudrand (Geogr. Ordine Literarum Dispos., 1682), are full of the strangest errors. Those of Maty (1701), Thomas Corneille (3 vols., fol., 1708), and Savonarola (1713), were based on the former, with additions and corrections. The Didionnaire Geogr a- phique, Historique et Critique, of La Mar- tiniere (Hague and Amsterdam, 1726,10 vols., folio, Paris, 1768,6 vols.), superseded all that had gone before it, though it re- tained many errors. An abridgment of it by Ladvocat, under the assumed name of Vosgier, has continued to be republish- ed in France till the present time. The Geographisch-Statistisclies Handworterbuch of the late eminent German geographer Hassel (1817, 2 vols., with a supplement of two volumes) is the result of laborious and judicious investigations. The Uni- versal Gazetteer, by Cruttwell (London, 1808, 4 vols. 4to.), and the Edinburgh Gazetteer (6 vols., 8vo., 1817—1822), are the principal EngUsh works of the kind. The latter, though not without errors, is a valuable work. An abridgment, in one volume (1829), professes to be brought down to the time of its pubUcation, but does not in all instances bear marks of revision. The most valuable and recent of French gazetteers is the Didionnaire Geograpkique Universd, now (1830) pub- lishing in Paris. The first volume ap- peared in 1823 (chez Kilian et Piquet), the seventh in 1830. Among the contribu- tors are Depping, Klaproth, the Lapies, Remusat, Walckenaer and Warden. A. von Humboldt and the late M. Malte- Brun have also assisted in the work. The Gazetteer of Mr. J. E. Worcester (second edition, Boston, 1823,2 vols., 8vo.) displays the industry and accuracy of its editor in a favorable light. It is particu- larly valuable for America. Gearing is the connexion of one tooth- ed wheel with another. (See Wheels.) Gebel, a corruption of the Arabic djebd (mountain), appeals in many geo- graphical names, as Gebel Amur, &c. (See Gibd.) Geber ; an Arabian philosopher, who, according to Leo Africanus, lived in the 8th century. He is said to have been a Greek by birth, and to have apostatized from Christianity to Mohammedanism. His Avritings relate to astronomy and chemistry, or rather alchemy, on which last subject his authority was so great, that he was styled the master of masters in that art. A Latin translation of his Commentary on the Almagest of Ptolemy ivas printed at Nuremberg, in 1533, and his alchemical works were published in Latin, by Golius, under the title of Lapis Philosophorum, and an English translation of them by Robert Russel appeared at Leyden in 1668 (8vo.). Geber corrected many errors in the astronomy of the an- cients, and described chemical instru- ments and operations with greater accu- racy than his predecessors. Vulgar igno- rance ascribed to this philosopher the character of a magician, on which Naude remarks, that, from the catalogue of the works of Geber, given by Gesner, it may be concluded he understood every thing except magic.—Another philosopher, named Geber, is supposed to have been a native of Se-ville in Spain, and to have flourished about 1090. These individuals have been improperly confounded by some writers. Gebers. (See Guebers.) Gebirge, a German word, the collec- tive noun of Berg (mountain), signifying a chain or family of mountains, appears in many geographical names, as Riesen- gebirge (mountains of giants), Erzgebirge (ore mountains). Gecko ; the local name of a small species of lizard, very common in the Le- vant, where it is supposed to poison per- sons who eat of provisions over which it has crawled. A peculiar acrid mucus is secreted by glands on the under surface of the toes, which is said to possess a slight blistering property when applied to the skin, and to be otherwise poisonous. There is in reality little foundation for the fears which are entertained of this little reptile, whose chief occupation is hunting flies, mosquitoes, and other trou- blesome insects, which constitute its prop- er food. The soles, or rather the inferior surface of the toes, is divided into a kind of lamella?, by means of which the animal is enabled to exhaust the air under the foot, and thus adhere forcibly to any flat surface on which it may be placed. In this manner, it courses over perpendicu- lar walls, and walks in perfect safety in- verted on a ceiling. Much variation in the disposition of these curious suckers is observable, and has afforded M. Cuvier characters for several very good divisions of the genus. The pupil of the eye is very large, dilating and contracting in the same manner as those of the feline race among quadrupeds. The teeth are ex- tremely small, and close set in the jaws. On the inferior surface of the thighs of some species are ranges of pores, and the skin of all the species is covered with rough scales and tubercles. Many of 400 EDGAR—EDGEWORTH. Northumbrians, and repel the incursions of the Scots, and fitted out a powerful navy to protect his subjects from die Danes. By these precautions, he not only prevented invasion from the Danes, but secured the submission ofthe independent provinces of Wales and Ireland, and the surrounding islands. During the reign of Edgar, wolves were nearly extirpated from the southern parts of the island^ by exchanging a tribute from Wales for pay- ment in the heads of these animals. His adventure and maniage with the beauti- ful Elfrida, daughter ofthe earl of Devon- shire, are AveU known. He died in 975, and Avas succeeded by his son, Edward the Martyr. Edgeworth de Firmoxt, Henry Es- sex, father-confessor of Louis XVI; born 1745, in Ireland, in the village of Edge- AVOrthtoAvn. His father, an Ejiiscojialian clergyman, adopted the Catholic faith with his family, and went to France. Henry studied first under the Jesuits at Toulouse, and then at the Sorbonne in Paris. His piety and virtue obtained him the confidence of the jirincess Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVI, who chose him for her confessor. The revolution broke out, and the king was throAvn into prison. Elizabeth Avas an angel of consolation to her brother during his confinement, and by her means Louis Avas first made ac- quainted Avith the character of Firmont, avIio then lived in concealment at Choisy- le-Roi, under the name of Essex. When the king was informed of his condemna- tion, he requested a delay of three days, to prejiare himself to apjicar before his God, and free communication with a jiriest of his oavh choice. This Avas Edgeworth. The convention assented to the latter request, but refused the respite. Edgeworth discharged the duties devolv- ing on him Avith the deepest devotion. He offered personally to attend the king to the place of execution. Edgeworth ascended the scaffold Avith him ; the exe- cutioner jilaced the king under the guillo- tine ; Edgeworth exclaimed, " Son of saint Louis, ascend to heaven!" and the axe fell. Edgeworth succeeded in escap- ing from France in safety, and arrived in England in 1796. Pitt offered him a pen- sion in die name of the king, which he declined. He soon after followed Louis XVIII to Blankenburg, in Brunswick, and thence to Mittau. As he had devoted his life to soothe the unhappy in the true spirit of Christian charity, he lost it in services of benevolence. In 1807, a num- ber of French prisoners of war Avere brought to Mittau, where Edgeworth was living Avith Louis XVIII. A contagious fever made the jnost dreadful devastation among them. ^Edgeworth, so far from being repelled by the danger, devoted himself to the care of die sick, and avbs himself attacked by the disease, of Avhich he died May 21, 1807. The duchess of Angouleme attended him in his sickness ; die royal family folloAved him to the tomb, and Louis XVIII wrote his ep- itaph. Edgeworth, Maria, a distinguislied fe- male writer of the day, daughter of the well-known ingenious Richard LoA'ell Edgeworth (Avhodied in 1817), Avas bom at Edgeworthtown, Ireland. The family Avas originally English, and settled in Ire- land in the reign of queen Elizabeth. Her mother (died 1772) Avas .the first of four wives of Mr. EdgeAvorth: he had married her in Scotland, wlrile he was yet a student in the university of Oxford. Of this Avife he speaks Avitii little affection or respect, in Iris account of himself (.Me- moirs of K. L. Edgeworth, continued by his daughter Maria, London, 1821); nor does miss Edgeworth herself pay her a passing tribute of filial love Avhen her death is mentioned. Maria, avIio was the favorite daughter of her father, must have been educated, principally, under the in- fluences of his second and third Avives, sisters, by the name of Sneyd, who Avere accomplished and amiable women.—In 1798, miss Edgeworth made her first ap- pearance as an author in the Treatise on Practical Education, written in conjunc- tion with her father. Her numerous nov- els, tales and essays, have been chiefly directed to the improvement of early ed- ucation. Children are not less delighted than instructed Avith her Moral Tales, Popular Tales, Parents' Assistant, Early Lessons, &c, Avhich convey imjiortant moral and prudential instruction in a sim- ple, clear and attractive form, and, at the same time, furnish many valuable lessons to jiarents and instructers in regard to the best methods of influencing the feelings, awakening the curiosity, and forming the minds and hearts of the young, in her other works, she does not lose sight of a moral application: her Patronage, Belin- da, Absentees, Tales of Fashionable Life, &c, are intended to correct some fashiona- ble folly, some national defect, or some mental or moral deformity. Miss Edge- worth possesses a cultivated mind, familiar with the Uterary riches of her own country, and not a stranger to the productions of oth- er nations: the French critics bear testimo- EDGEWORTH—EDINBURGH. 401 ny to her acquaintance with the manners and literature of France, and many of her Avorks have been translated and well re- ceived in that country. Her Avritings dis- jilay a great knowledge of life and of the human heart, a hajipy talent of conceiv- ing situations and incidents, and of de- scribing manners and characters. With- out jios> ssing great brilliancy of imagina- tion, or any extraordinary reach of mind, she unites a manly judgment Avith a fe- male tact, and affords a pleasing example of what Locke calls a round about com- mon sense. Her Avorks have enjoyed an extensive pojiularity in Europe, and have been often rcjniblished in the U. States. Edgeworth, Richard Lovell, a gentle- man distinguished for the versatility of his talents, was born in 1744, at Bath, of a family jiossessed of landed projierty at Edgeworthtown, in the south of Ire- land. He received Iris education at Trin- ity college, Dublin, and Corpus Christi, Oxford, after which he entered at the Temjile, but not probably with any serious intention of adojiting the law as a profes- sion. Mechanics and general Uteraturo chiefly attracted his attention. He formed an acquaintance with doctor Erasmus Darwin, Mr. Thomas Day, and other men of congenial pursuits, to whose researches, as well as his own, what may be termed practical jilrilosophy is not a little indebt- ed. In 1767, he contrived a telegraph, with regard to which, however, he had not the merit of having started the origin- al idea, neither did he bring it into general use. After residing some years in Eng- land, he went to France, where he was engaged in the direction of some Avorks on the Rhone at Lyons. In the latter jiart Of his life, he resided much on his own estate, occupying himself with plans for constructing rail-roads, draining bogs, and other undertakings for the improve- ment of agriculture, manufactures and commerce. Much of his time, too, was devoted to literature, and, in conjunction with his daughter, the celebrated Ma- ria Edgeworth (q. v.), he wrote a Treatise on Practical Education, one on Profession- al Education, as well as some subsidiaiy works, all remarkable for the air of good sense, and adaptation to the exigencies of common life, which they exhibit. He died in June, 1817. Mr. EdgeAvorth married four wives, of whom two were sisters. Edict ; a public proclamation. In an- cient Rome, the higher officers of state, who were elected annually, publicly de- clared, at their entrance upon office, the principles by which they should conduct * 34* their administration. This was done par- ticularly by the iEdiles (q. v.), who super- intended buildings and markets, and by the pretors, as supreme judges. These annual jiroclamations, by which the de- ficiencies of the general statutes were supjilied, and the laws Avere adapted to the peculiar wants of the period, graduaUy acquired a certain permanency, as each officer retained, unaltered, most of the regulations of his predecessor (edidum tra- latitium); and they became, in fact, the source of the whole system of Roman laAv, wlrich, being founded on the official au- thority ofthe authors,was calledjus honora- rium, and Avas opposed to the strictly formal law, Jus civile. The edidum praitoris, un- der the emperor Adrian, A. D. 131, was reduced to a regular form (edidum per- petuum) by Salvius Julianus, and received the sanction of legal authority, although the jiretors seem to have retained for a long time their privilege of issuing edicts, till aU legislative power fell exclusively into the hands of the emperor. The form of the edict was still made use of occasionally, although general principles were often brought forward in the de- cision of particular cases (decrees and re- scrijits). The name edict has since been ajiplied in several monarchical countries, as a general term, to an ordinance of the supreme authority. (See Civil Law.) Edict of Nantes. (See Huguenots.) Edile. (See JEdile.) Edinburgh; the metropolis of Scot- land, about a mile and a half from the frith of Forth, situated in the northern part of the county of Edinburgh. The town stands on high and uneven ground, being built on three eminences. The cen- tral ridge, on which the city was originally built, is terminated abruptly on the west by a precipitous rock, on which the castle is placed, whUe to the east it gradually in- clines to the plain, from which rise Ar- thur's seat, Salisbury crags, and the Cal- ton hill. Both sides of the central ridge, occupied by the principal street of the old town, extending from the castle to Holyrood house, are covered with build- ings closely crowded together, and de- scending from the main street, clriefly in narrow lanes, with Uttle regard either to health or cleanliness. That part of the town buut on die southern eminence is much more spacious and pleasant in its appearance than the centre of the city, and contains several elegant squares. Of these, the principal is George's square. Here are also the Meadows, a tract of ground intersected by walks, shaded on 402 EDINBURGH. both sides by rows of trees. The two ridges on which the old town is built are connected by a bridge, Avhich crosses the low street called the Cowgate, in the ra- vine between them, at right angles ; on each side of which bridge houses are ranged, and a spacious and nearly level street is formed, notwithstanding the ine- quaUties of the ground. The neAV toAvn is built on the lower and northernmost of the ridges, parallel with the old town, with which it is connected by a bridge, and by a mound of earth called the earthen mound. Its streets and squares have been constructed Avith great elegance and regu- larity. St. Andrew's and Charlotte squares are remarkable for their beauty. An ex- tension of the city is also making on the inclined plain on the north, and towards the Avest, where some handsome streets have lately been built; also the octagon of Moray place, the finest in die city. Edinburgh is connected Avith Leith by a paved road. A magnificent entrance from the east has also been formed along the soudi side of the Calton liiU; and on the summit of the hill a national monu- ment, after the model of the Parthenon at Athens, has been begun. Other improve- ments are at jiresent going on AAith a view of remedying the disadvantages occasion- ed by the inequalities of the ground on which Edinburgh is built. The scenery around Edinburgh, owing to the abrujit and craggy heights of the Calton hill and Arthur's seat, which suddenly rises 800 feet from the surrounding jilain, and pre- sents the rocky heights of Salisbury crags towards the city, is uncommonly striking; and every thing has been done to disjilay tliese natural advantages. Around the Calton hill several walks have lately been made at different elevations, from which the surrounding toAvn and country are seen to great advantage ; a walk has also been made on die still higher elevation of Salis- bury crags, from which the vieAV is grand and imposing.—Of the public works and buildings in Edinburgh, the castle is the most remarkable. It is situated at the western extremity of the old town, on a mgged rock, which rises on three sides from a level plain to the height of 150 to 200 feet. At the opposite or eastern ex- tremity ofthe old town stands the palace and abbey of Holyrood, for several centu- ries the residence of the monarchs of Scot- land. The abbey, of which only the walls remain, was founded in the year 1128, by David I; and in the burying-place within are interred several of his successors. The palace is a large quadrangular edifice of heAvn stone, Avith a court Avithin, sur- rounded by jiiazzas. The palace contains a gallery 150 feet long, decorated Avitii imaginary portraits of the kings of Scot- land, fi-om the time of Fergus I. As it iioav stands, it is not of high antiquity. Its north-Avest tOAvers were built by James V, but the remaining part of it was added during the reign of Charles 11. The ap- pearance of the Parliament square, in the centre ofthe city, has been entirely chang- ed, in consequence of two fires, which oc- curred in 1824, and burnt down the south and east sides of the square. On the site ofthe former houses an elegant structure is now in progress for the accommodation of the courts, to be connected Avitii the former buildings, partly old and partly new, in which thesujireme courts at jires- ent hold their sittings. The original por- tion of those buildings was finished in the year 16-10, and was intended for the re- cejition ofthe Scottish jiarliament For the reception ofthe advocates' library, the rich- est collection in Scotland, consisting of more than 70,000 jirinted volumes, and a smaller one belonging to the writers to the signet, apartments attached to the north- west corner ofthe parliament house have lately been finished. Nearly ojiposite to the Parliament square stands the royal ex- change, which was founded in the year 1753, and was formerly emjiloyed as a custom-house. The register-office, in Avhich the jiublic records of Scotland are dejiosited, was founded in the year 1774, and is distinguislied for lightness, ele- gance, and classical simplicity of design. Ofthe churches, the metropolitan church, dedicated to saint Giles, is the most an- cient. It is built in the figure of a cross, and forms one side of the Parliament square. It Avas erected into a collegiate church in 146(3, but is said to have been founded nearly 600 years before. From the centre rises a square tower, surmounted by slender arches, supporting a s-jiire 161 feet in height, the Avhole exhil iiing the resemblance of an imperial crown. The other churches are, Trinity college church, the Old and New Grayfriars, the Tron, the Canongate, St. Cutlibert's, Lady Tes- ter's, St. Andrew's, St George's, St. Ma- ry's, and St. Vincent's, Avith five chapels of ease. Besides these places of Avorship, there are four for the Burghers, three for the Antiburghers, four for the ReUef, four for the Baptists, two for the Independents, a Gaelic chapel, and one each for the Meth- odists, Cameronians, Bereans, Glassites, Unitarians, Quakers, and Roman Catho- Ucs, and six for the Episcopalians. The uiWNBURGH—EDINBURGH REVIEW. 403 university of Edinburgh has long since at- tained general celebrity. It was founded in the year 1582, when there was only one jirofessor. All the different branches of literature, science and phdosophy are noAV taught in this seminary. The total num- lier of students is about 2000. To the university is attached a library of more than 50,000 volumes. The high-school, the jiiincipal grammar-school of the city, Avas established in 1578. Of literary asso- ciations, the jiiincipal is the royal socie- ty, constituted in 1782 ; the royal society of antiquaries, and the Wernerian socie- ty ; aud the astronomical institution. The Highland society was estabUshed for advancing the interests of agriculture, manufactures and arts, in the Highlands of Scotland. It distributes annually about £700 in premiums for inventions and im- provements. There are, besides, the fac- ulty of advocates, and the royal colleges of physicians and surgeons. The jirinci- jial charitable institution is Heriot's hos- pital, which was endowed by George He- riot, jeweller to James VI, for educating and maintaining the sons of burgesses and freemen: it was erected in 1650, at the expense of £30,000, after a Gothic design of Inigo Jones: it consists of a large quadrangle, with a court in tlie interior; and it is crowned Avith columns, turrets and sjiires. There are, also, numerous other hospitals, three charity work-houses, an asylum for the industrious blind, a Magdalene asylum, a house of industry, and a society for the suppression of beg- ging; and four dispensaries, two for af- fording advice and medicines to the poor, and two for curing diseases in the eye and ear. On the summit of the Calton liiU is Nelson's monument, a circular col- umn, 108 feet in height There are 13 banking comjianies, of which the bank of Scotland, the royal bank, and the British linen company, are incorporated by royal charter. The manufactures of Edinburgh are principally adapted for the consump- tion of its inhabitants, consisting of house- hold furniture; travelUng carriages, exe- cuted in a style of superior elegance; of engraving in all its branches, musical in- struments, &c.: there are also manufac- tures of glass and marble, in which equal taste and skill are displayed; and between 300 and 400 weavers are employed in the working of Unen, sUks, sarsnets, and • fine shawls. There are also brass and iron manufactures and distiUeries of spir- its in the neighborhood; and Edinburgh has been long noted for its exceUent ale, The trades of bookselling and printing are carried on to a great extent; and various periodical and other works are pubUshed here, which have deservedly attained ex- tensive celebrity. Among these may be mentioned the Edinburgh Review (see the next article) and BlackAvood's Magazine. There are two neAVspapers published three times a Aveek, three twice a week, and four once a week. The places of public amusement are the theatre, the pantheon, and the assembly-rooms. A gas-light company has been established. Edinburgh is a royal burgh, and its coun- cil sends one member to parUament.— The origin of Edinburgh is lost in remote antiquity. About the year 854, according to the accounts of the earUer historians, Edinburgh was a town of some note. In 1215, a parliament was assembled here for the first time. In 1437, the kings of Scotland usually resided in it, and held regular parliaments; and about the year 1456, it was considered the metropolis of Scotland. Pojiulation ofthe city and sub- urbs, including Leith, 138,235 ; 42 miles E. Glasgow, and 396 N. N. W. London ; lon. 3° 12' W., lat. 55° 5& N. A History of the University of Edinburgh, 2 vols. 8vo., Avas published, in 1830, by Bower, Edinburgh and London. Edinburgh Review (The Quarterly). This celebrated journal Avas established in 1802, at a time when the periodical litera- ture of the United Kingdom consisted of works conducted with interior talent, and occupying narrow grounds. Its success was immediate and very great. Discuss- ing all the great subjects of literature, science, philosophy and politics with free- dom, boldness, spirit, varied learning, acute reasoning, elegant criticism, a piquant satire, and profound and original views, in politics it has supported the principles of the Fox Avlrigs; in religion, it is more than suspected of a sceptical leaning. It is said to have originated in the social stud- ies of a number of young men in Edin- burgh, who Avere accustomed to meet oc- casionally to discuss questions in even- branch of science and philosophy. It was edited, during the first year, by die reverend Sydney Smith, after whom Mr. Jeffrey, then a young Scotch advocate of more talents and leisure than practice in his profession, is weU known to have been the editor, and one of the most fruitful contributors during tlie long time which he conducted it. His articles relate prin- cipally to the belles-lettres. Among the principal writers are to be found the distinguished names of Playfair, LesUe, Mackintosh, Brougham, Dugald Stewart, 404 EDINBURGH REVIEW—EDWARD THE MARTYR. doctor Brown, besides Macculloch (on po- litical economy and Ireland), Williams (the advocate), Macaulay, &c. Doctor Brown was the author of the article on Kant (No. 2), but owing to some Uberties taken with a paper intended for the 4th number, he dis- continued his contributions. Playfair wrote the articles relating to Laplace, 6cc. Sir J. Mackintosh is the author of numerous Uterary, historical, and political articles, which display the liberal and generous principles, the extensive views and the varied learning of a statesman and scholar. Mr. Brougham, hoAvever, is, jierhaps, the Coryphaius of the Edinburgh Review: he is present every Avhere, possessing a sort of mental ubiquity, in parUament, at die bar, in the pojiular assemblies; leading in legislation, literature, politics, science; de- Uvering lessons of Avisdom and taste in the ages of the Review, and diffusing the ghts of education and useful knowledge among the laboring classes, by means of the society formed for that purpose, of which he is at the head. The great influ- ence of the Edinburgh Review in the hands of the whigs led to the establish- ment of a tory jieriodical, as a counter- poise. The London Quarterly Review was established in 1809, under the direc- tion of Gifford. Blackwood's Magazine, a Avork of a smaller calibre, eifited first by Lockhart (now editor of the Quarterly), and aftenvards by Wilson, owed its ex- istence to the same cause. The multi- plication of quarterly and other periodi- cals has coojierated with the diminution of intellectual jiower in the Edinburgh it- self, in depriving it of its former undisput- ed supremacy. The editorship has late- ly passed into the hands of Mr. Napier. The Edinburgh Review had, at one time, 12,000 subscribers. This Review, and also the London Quarterly, are republished, and circulate extensively, in the U. States. Edmuxd I, king of England, an able and spirited prince, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded his brother Athelstan in 941. He conquered Cumberland, which he bestowed on Malcolm, king of Scotland, on condition of homage. He was stabbed at a banquet by Leolf, an outlaw, who entered among the guests, and provoked the king to a personal attack upon him. Edmund immediately expired of the wound, in the sixth year of his reign. Edmund II, surnamed Ironside, king of England, Avas the eldest son of Ethelred II. On the death of the latter, in 1016, he was obliged to take the field against Ca- nute, by av hom he was defeated at Assing- den, in Essex, in consequence of the defec- tion of Edric, duke of Mercia. A com- promise Avas then effected, by which the midland and northern counties Avere as- signed to Canute, and the southern to Edmund. He Avas soon after murdered at Oxford, at the instigation of the traitor Edric. This event made Canute master of the entire kingdom; but the line of Edmund was again jiartially restored by the marriage of his great grand-daughter, Matilda, to Henry I. Edred, king of England, son of E&- Avard the Elder, succeeded to the throne on the murder of his brother, Edmund I (947). He quelled a rebellion ofthe Northumbri- an Danes, and compelled Malcolm, king of Scotland, to reneAv his homagefbr his English possessions. Although active and warlike, he Avas extremely superstitious, and subservient to the celebrated Dunstan, abbot of Glastonbury. Eilred died after a reign of nine years, and left the crown to his nephew, Edwy. Edridge, Henry, ARA., FSA.; a land- scajie and miniature painter of eminence, born at Paddington, in 17(i8. His earlier portraits are principally drawn on paper, with black lead and Indian ink. It was in later years only that he made those elabo- rate and high-finished pictures, uniting the depth and richness of oil-jiainting with the freedom and freshness of Avatcr-colors, of Avhich there are so manv sjiecimens in England. He died in 182*1. Edward the Elder, king of England, son of Alfred the Great, whom he suc- ceeded in 901. Ethel wald, the son of his father's elder brother, claimed the crown ; but this insurrection ended with the death of Ethelwald in battle. The reign of Ed- ward was further distinguislied by suc- cesses OArer the Anglicised and foreign Danes. He fortified many inland tOAvns, acquired dominion over Northumbria and East Anglia, and subdued several of the Welsh tribes. He died, after a reign of twenty-four years, in 925. Edward, surnamed the Martyr, king of England, son of Edgar, succeeded his father, at the,age of fifteen, in 975. His step-mother, Elfrida, Avished to raise her own son, Ethehed, to the throne, but Avas opposed by Dunstan, through whose exertions Edward Avas peaceably crown- ed. His short reign Avas chiefly distin- guished by the disputes, between Dun- stan and the foreign monks on one side, and the secular clergy on the .other. ' The young king paid Uttle attention to any thing but the chase, which led to his unhappy death. Hunting one day in Dor- setshire, he was separated from his at- EDWARD THE MARTYR—EDWARD I. 405 tendants, and repaired to Corfe castle, Avhere Elfrida resided. After paying his resjiects to her, he requested a glass of liquor, and, as he was drinking it on horse- back, one of Elfiida's servants gave him a deep stab behind. He immediately set spurs to Iris horse, but, fainting from loss of blood, he was dragged in the stirrup until he died. The pity caused by his innocence and misfortune induced the people to regard him as a martyr. He had reigned tour years. Edavard, surnamed the Confessor, younger son of Ethelred II. On die deadi of his maternal brother, Hardicanute the Dane, in 1041, he was called to the throne, and thus renewed the Saxon Une. He was not the immediate heir, as his brother, Edmund Ironside, had left sons; but, as he received the support of Godwin, earl of Kent, on condition of marrying his daughter, Editha, his claim was establish- ed. Edward was a weak and supersti- tious, but Avell-intentioned prince, avIio acquired the love of his subjects by liis monkish sanctity, and care in the adminis- tration of justice. He gained the title of saint and confessor by abstaining from nujitial connexion Avith Iris queen. Hav- ing been educated in Normandy, he intro- duced so many natives of that country to his court, that the French language and manners became prevalent in England, to the great disgust of earl Godwin and his sons. A rebellion took place, and Edward was forced to dismiss his foreign favorites. Perceiving that the youth and weakness of his son, Edgar Atheling, would not se- cure the succession against the power and ability of Harold, the son of Godwin, he turned his eyes upon his kinsman, Will- iam of Normandy, in whose favor it has been asserted, with little probability, that he executed a will. He died in 1066, leaving the point of the succession unde- termined ; and with him ended the Saxon line of kings. Edward was the first Eng- lish monarch who touched for the king's evil. He caused a body of laws to be compiled from those of Ethelbert, Inaand Alfred, to Avlrich die nation was long fondly attached. Edward I (of the Norman Une), king of England, son of Henry III, was born at Winchester in 12.'J9. The contests be- tween his father and the barons called him early into active life, and he finally quelled all resistance to the royal authority, by the decisive defeat of Leicester, at the bat- tie of Evesham, in 1265. He then pro- ceeded to Palestine, where he signaUzed his valor on many occasions, and hispired so much terror, that an assassin was em- ployed to despatch him, from whom he received a Avound in the arm, which, as tradition reports, being supposed to be from a poisoned weapon, was sucked by his faithful consort, Eleanor of Castile. On assuming the government, he acted with great vigor in the repression of the lawlessness ofthe nobles, and the comiji- tion in the administration of justice; but often evinced an arbitrary and grasjiing disjiosition. In 1276, lie summoned Lle- wellyn, prince of Wales, to do him homage, and, upon his refusal, except on certain conditions, commenced the war wliich ended in the annexation of that jiriiiei- pality to the English crown in 1283. Ed- ward then spent some time abroad, in mediating a jieace between the crowns of France and Arragon, and, on his return, commenced his attempt to destroy the in- dependence of Scotland. The expense attendant ujion this strong, but unprinci- pled jiolicy, was such that EdAvard Avas necessitated to use every expedient to raise sujijilies; and, for this purpose, in the twenty-third year of his reign, he sum- moned to parliament representatives from all the boroughs in the kingdom i this is therefore considered by some authors the true epoch of die formation of a house of commons in England. After his return from the Scottish expedition in 1296, which terminated in die capture of Baliol, he became involved in a quarrel with his clergy, who, supported by the jiope, re- fused to submit to a tax which he hail im- posed on diem. Edward forced their compliance, by placing them out of the protection of the law. His frequent ex- jiedients to raise money at length pro- duced great discontent among the nobles, and peojile also, which obliged him to confirm the great charter, and charter of forests, and also to give other securities in favor of public liberty. He then made a campaign in Flanders against France, Avhich terminated with the recovery of Guienne, and his second marriage Avith Margaret, the sister of king Philip. Mean- time new commotions took jilace in Scot- land, under the guidance of the. celebrated William Wallace. Tliese transactions recalled Edward from Flanders, Avho hastened to the borders witii an army of 100,000 men. The events of this inter- esting campaign cannot be detailed here; but the ignominious execution of the brave WaUace, in 1303, as a traitor, forms a blot in the character of Edward. Nei- ther did it avail; since Robert Bruce was able, in 1306, to place himself at the head 406 EDWARD I—EDWARD III. of a neAV confederacy. Highly indignant at this determined sjiirit of resistance, Ed- Avard vowed revenge against the whole Scottish nation, and, assembling another army, was on the point of passing the bor- der, when he was arrested by sickness, and died at Burgh-upon-Sands, near Car- lisle, July 7, 1307, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, and thirty-ninth of his reign. Few princes have exhibited more vigor in action, or poUcy hi council, than Edward I. His enterprises Avere directed to permanent advantages, rather than to mere personal ambition and temporary splendor. Nor was he less intent upon the internal improvement of Iris kingdom than its external importance. The laws ofthe realm obtained so much additional order and precision during his reign, that he has been called the English Justinian. He passed an act of mortmain, protected and encouraged commerce; and in his reign first originated the society of mer- chant adventurers. The manners of this able sovereign were courteous, and his per- son majestic, although the disproportion- ate length of his legs gave him the popu- lar surname of Longshanks. He left a son and three daughters by his first wife, El- eanor, who died in 1290, and two sons by his second wife, Margaret of France. Edward II, king of England, born at Caernarvon castle in 1284, and the first English prince of Wales, succeeded his father, EdAvard I, in 1307. He Avas of an agreeable figure and mild disposition, but indolent and fond of pleasure. After marching a Uttle Avay into Scotland, with the army collected by his father, he re- turned, dismissed his troops, and aban- doned himself entirely to amusement His first step was to recaU Piers Gaveston, a young Gascon, Avhom his father had banished, and whom he created earl of Cornwall, and married to his niece. He then Avent over to France to espouse the princess Isabella, to whom he had been contracted by his father. Soon after his return, the barons associated against the favorite, Gaveston, whom they more than once obUged the king to send away. He Avas, however, as constantly recalled Avhen the immediate danger was over, until an open rebellion took place; and, the person of Gaveston being captured, he was exe- cuted as a pubUc enemy. In 1314, Ed- Avard assembled an immense army, to check the jirogress of Robert Bruce, but Avas completely defeated at Bannockburn. After the death of Gaveston, he selected a similar minion in the person of Hugh Spenser, a young nobleman whose father was Uving, upon whom he lavished favors of every kind, until the barons again re- belled, and, the parliament dooming the Sjiensers to exile, the king was obliged to confirm the sentence. Edward, however, on this occasion, in concert with the S|>en- sers, contrived to raise troops and attack the barons, at the head of whom was his cousin, the earl of Lancaster, who, being taken prisoner, was executed at Pomiret Several others also suffered, and the Spensers Avere enriched with the spoils. Edward subsequently made another fruit- less attempt against Scotland, which end- ed in the conclusion of a truce of thirteen years. In 1324, queen Isabella went to France to settle some disputes in relation to Guienne, and, while there, entered into a correspondence with several English fugitiA'es, in whose hatred to the Spensers she participated. Among these Avas Roger Mortimer, a young baron of the Welsh marches, between whom and Isabella a criminal intercourse succeeded, ui conse- quence of which the queen Avas still more determined upon the ruin of her weak and unhappy husband. Having formed an association with all the English malcon- tents, and being aided with a force by the count of Hainault, she embarked for England in September, 1326, and landed in Suffolk. Her forces seized the Tower of London and other fortresses, captured and executed both the Spensers Avithout trial, and at length took the king jirisoner, who had concealed himself in Wales, with a view of escajiing to Ireland. The un- fortunate Edward Avas confined in Kenil- worth casde, and in January, 1327, his deposition was unanimously voted in par- liament, on the ground of incapacity and misgovemnient A resignation of the crown was soon after extorted from him, and he was transferred to Berkeley castle, where Mortimer despatched two ruffians, who, it is said, murdered him, by thrusting a red-hot iron into his bowels, that no ex- ternal marks of violence might remain, 21st of Sept., 1327, in the twentieth year of his reign and forty-third of his age. Edward III, son of Edward II, by Isa- bella of France, was born in 1313. On his father's deposition in 1327, he was proclaimed king, under a council of re- gency, while his mother's paramour, Mor- timer, really possessed the principal jiower in the state. The pride and oppression of Mortimer iioav became so intolerable, that a general confederacy Avas formed against him, at the head of which was the young king himself, who, now in his eighteenth year, could ill brook the ascendency of EDWARD HI. 407 his mother's minion. The result was the seizure of Mortimer, in the castle of Not- tingham, where he lodged with the queen, and his immediate execution upon a gib- bet The queen Avas also confined to her house, with a reduced allowance, and, al- though treated with outvyard resjiect, nev- er again recovered any degree of authori- ty. Edward now turned his attention to Scotland. Assisted by some principal English nobles, who enjoyed estates in that country, which were widiheld from them contraiy to the terms of the late treaty, Edward Baliol, son ofthe John Bali- ol to whom the crown had been awarded by Edward I, raised a force, and, defeating the Scots in a great battle, set aside David Bruce, then a minor, and was crowned at Scone, in 1332. Baliol, being driven away on the departure of his English aux- iliaries, ajiplied to Edward, avIio levied a Avell-ajipointed army, with which he de- feated the regent, Douglas, at the famous batde of Halidown-hill, in July, 1333. This victory produced the restoration of Baliol, avIio was, however, again expelled, and again restored, until the ambition of Edward Avas called off by a still more splendid object The crown of France, by the Salique law, having devolved to Philip de Valois, cousin-german to the de- ceased king, Charles die Fair, Edward was induced to claim it in right of his mother, that monarch's sister. There ex- isted other claims that Avere superior; but these considerations weighed very Uttle Avith a young, ambitious monarch, eager for conquest and glory. The first hostil- ities jiroduced nothing of much moment. Edward, in order to obtain fresh supplies, made concessions to parliament which he never intended to keep; and, finding his territory of Guienne threatened, he sent over a force for its defence, and quickly followed himself, accompanied by his son Edward, the famous black prince, all his chief nobility, and 30,000 men. The memorable battle of Crecy followed, Aug. 25, 134(3, which was succeeded by the siege of Calais. In the mean time, David Bruce, having recovered the throne of Scotland, made an incursion, at the head of a large army, into England; but, being met at Durham by a much inferior force, raised by queen Plrilippa, and headed by lord Percy, he was totally defeated and taken prisoner, with many of his princijial nobles. Plrilippa went over to her hus- band at Calais, and, by her interference, prevented the barbarous execution of Eu- stache de St. Pierre and five other citizens, whom Edward, on the capitulation ofthe place, had determined to execute, in re venge for his long detention in the siege. In 1348, a truce was concluded with France. The year 1349 was distinguished by the institution of the order of the gar- ter ; which, owing to the fame and chiv- alrous character of Edward and Iris eldest son, soon became one of the most iUus- trious orders of knighthood in Europe. Philip, king of France, dying in 1350, was succeeded by his son John, the com- mencement of whose reign abounded with intestine commotion, and, in 1355, Ed- ward again invaded France on the side of Calais, while the black prince, at the same time, led a large army from Gasco- ny. Both these expeditions were attend- ed AAith much plunder and devastation; and EdAvard, being recalled home by a Scottish inroad, soon repelled it, and retal- iated by carrying fire and sword from Berwick to Edinburgh. During this time, the prince of Wales had penetrated from Guienne to the heart of France, Avhere he was opposed by king John, at the head of an army nearly five times more nu- merous. The famous battle of Poictiers ensued, in which the French monarch being taken prisoner, Edward held at the same time in captivity the kings of France and Scotland, tlie most dangerous of his enemies. John was taken to England, and treated with the greatest respect; and David was soon after Uberated upon ran- som. A truce had been made with France after the batde of Poictiers. at the expiration of which, in 1359, EdAvard once more passed OA-er to Calais with a large army, and desolated the provinces of Picardy and Champagne, but at length consented to a peace, Avhich was con- cluded in May, 1360. Besides the stipu- lation of a large ransom for king John, several provinces and districts in the south- west of France and neighborhood of Cal- ais were yielded to Edward, who, in his turn resigned his title to the crown of France and duchy of Normandy. The successor of John, Charles V, inAradedthe provinces intrusted to prince Edward, then in the last stage of declining health, and Ed- Avard had the mortification of witnessing the gradual loss of all his French posses- sions, except Bordeaux and Bayonne, and of all his conquests except Calais. In the decline of Ufe, he was in other respects unfortunate: becoming a widoAver, he fell into a species of dotage; and an artful mis- tress, named AUce Piers, so abused her influence, thaton a parliamentary remon- strance, he found it necessaiy to dismiss her. His administration also became un- 408 EDWARD in—EDWARD IV. popular; and he had the affliction of wit- nessing his heroic son, Edward, sink a victim to a lingering illness; which calam- ity he survived about a year, dying June 21, 1377, in the sixty-fifth year of his age, and fifty-first of his reign. Edward, prince of Wales, surnamed the Black Prince; one ofthe most chival- ric and heroic characters of history, the eldest soil of Edward III and Plrilippa: of Haiuault He Avas horn in 1330, and at the age of fifteen accompanied his father in his invasion of France, and received from him the honor of knighthood. The victoiy of Crecy, which king Edward left principally to the exertions of the force under his son's command, to use that war- like king's language, " showed that he merited his sjiurs." It Avas on this occa- sion that he assumed the motto of Ich dien (I serve), used by all succeeding jiiin- ces of Wales, and derived, it is said, from the crest ofthe king of Bohemia, slain in that battle, Avhich tradition, however, later antiquaries seem disposed to discredit. In 1355, he commanded die army which invaded France from Gascony, and the next year fought the great battle of Poic- tiers (see Edward III), and distinguished himself by the courtesy with which he treated his prisoner, king John. By the jieace of Bretagne, his father had obtained the provinces of Poictou, Saintonge, Peri- geux, Limousin, &c, which he annexed to Guienne, and formed into a sovereignty for Iris son, under the title of the jirinci- palily of Aquitain. There the jirince took up his residence; and at his court Pedro the Cruel sought refuge, when driven from his throne by his natural brother, Henry of Trastamare. Edward under- took the reestablishment of this tyrant, Which he accomplished, but lost his health in the enterjirise. Disapjiointed, by the perfidy of Pedro, of the stipulated reim- bursements, the taxes he was obliged to levy on his neAV subjects rendered his government unpopular ; and an appeal was made to the king of France, as his liege lord, AAiio summoned him as his vas- sal to appear at Paris. " I will come," replied the angry prince, "but it shall be at the head of 60,000 men." His health, however, was too far declined to enable him to take the field, when the king of France invaded his dominions; and, hav- ing suffered the mortification of seeing his generals defeated, he withdrew into Eng- land, ami after lingering some time, died, June 8,1376, in his forty-sixth year, leaving an only son, afterwards Richard II. Edward IV, king of England, was born in 1441. His father, Richard, duke of York, Avas grandson of Edward, earl ot Cambridge and duke of York, fourth son of Edward III, while die Lancaster branch descended from John of Gaunt, the third son. The York line had intermarried Avith the female descendants of Lionel, the second son, which gave it the prefer- able right to the crown. Edward, on the defeat and death of his father at the battle of Wakefield, assumed his title, and, hav- ing entered London, was declared king by acclamation in 1461. Soon after his accession, he had to fight for his croAvn against an army of 60,000 Lancastrians assembled in Yorkshire; and the field of Towton confirmed his title by a decisive victory. Although the high-spirited Mar- garet was enabled, by the aid of Louis XI of France, again to take the field, the re- sult ofthe battle of Hexham, in May, 1464, obliged her to return to Flanders, and leave her husband, the imbecile Henry, a prisoner in the hands of his enemies, who immured him in the Tower of London. Freed from warUke cares, Edward indulg- ed himself in the gallantries too common to his age and station, and, by a marriage of passion with Elizabeth Woodville, Avid- ow of sir John Grey of Groby, a Lancas- trian, betrayed himself into very serious difficulties, since, at the same time, he had despatched the earl of Warwick to negotiate a marriage for him with Bona of Savoy, sister to the queen of France; so that he at once offended two royal houses, and his powerful friend, War- Avick. Aided by France, Warwick, Avho had contracted his daughter to the Lan- castrian prince Edward, landed with Clar- ence and some other lords at Dartmouth ; and such was his popularity, that he quickly saw himself at the head of 60,000 men, with Avhom he marched to encoun- ter Edward. They approached each oth- er near Nottingham, where the king, by the treachery of the marquis of Montague, in whom he placed great confidence, had nearly been betrayed into the hands of his enemies. He had just time to mount on horseback, and with a few attendants pro- ceed to Lynn,where he instantly embarked, and reached a port in Holland, leaving WarAvick in full possession of his king- dom, eleven days after he had set his foot in it. Henry's title was again recognised by parliament, and Warwick and Clarence were declared regents of the kingdom. Edward, who at first had been received rather coldly by his brother-in-laAV, the duke of Burgundy, was at length secredy assisted by him with a small squadron of EDWARD IV—CHARLES EDWARD. 409 ships, and a force of about 2000 men, with which he safely reached Ravenspur, in Yorkshire. Here his forces quickly in- creased by partisans from all quarters, and he was soon enabled to march to Loudon, where, through the influence of many rich merchants who had advanced him money, he obtained entrance as king, and the un- fortunate Henry again became prisoner. Warwick advanced against him as far as Barnet, where, on the 14th of April, 1471, another great battle was fought, which ended iu the death of Warwick, and a de- cisive v ictory on the part of Edward. On the same day, queen Margaret and her son Edward lauded at Weymouth,and march- ed into Gloucestershire, where she was met by the victorious Edward, who totally defeated her at Tewkesbury. The queen and her son Edward, being taken prison- ers, and brought into the jiresence of the victor, Edward asked the latter how he dared to invade his dominions. On re- ceiving a spirited answer, he basely struck the captive jirince on the face with his gauntlet—the signal for immediate massa- cre by the king's brothers and odier nobles attendant. Margaret was thrown into the Tower, where Henry VI soon after died, but whether by violence or by disease is uncertain. Edward now once more re- signed himself to pleasure and gayety, until seized with a desire to make French conquests. Baffled by the arts, intrigues and money of Louis XI (which he con- descended to accejit), tliese attempts ended in nothing of importance. The latter part of his reign was disturbed by his jealousy of his brother Clarence. The consequeuce of this ill-will was the attainder of Clarence, who was indulged in his desire of meeting his death by immersion in a butt of Malm- sey wine. Edward was preparing for another exjiedition against France, when lie was taken off by sickness, in April, 1483, in the forty-second year of his age, and twenty-third of his reign. He left two sons and five daughters. Edward IV possessed some ability and activity, but was, however, more showy than solid. His valor was stained by cruelty, and he was less fitted to prevent evUs, than, by his courage and enterprise, to remedy diem. Edward V, king of England, the eldest sou.of Edward IV, was in his thirteenth year when he succeeded his father, in 1483. His uncle, the duke of Gloucester, the regent, caused the young king and his brother, who were lodged in the Tower, to be smothered by ruffians. Two bodies, answering their description, being found buried at the foot of the stairs of their vol. iv. 35 apartment in the reign of Charles II, Avere taken up by that king's order, and depos- ited in Westminster abbey. Edward VI, king of England, son of Henry VIII, by Jane Seymour, was born in 1538. At his father's death, he Avas only nine years of age, and, as he did not five to attain majority, the public acts of his reign are to be deemed those of his counsellors. His education was intrusted to men ofthe first character for learning, among whom were sir Andiony Cooke and sir John Cheke. The progress ofthe young king, whose disposition was very docile and amiable, Avas great, especially in classical acquirements, and a rooted zeal for the doctrines of the reformation. His reign was, on the whole, tumultuous and unsettled. After his father's death, his maternal uncle, Seymour, duke of Somer- set became protector; but his adminis- tration raised up such powerful enemies, that he was brought to the scaffold. Ed- ward was much afflicted at the necessity of consenting to his execution, and with equal reluctance consented to die death of a fanatical female, named Joan Bocher, who was sentenced to the flames for heresy. When Cranmer urged Edward to sign the warrant for her execution, he long resisted, and at length, overcome by his importunities, told him, that if it was wrong, the guilt lay with him. After the , death of Somerset Dudley, duke of North- umberland, became all powerful, and through Iris influence, Edward, in a de- clining state of health, was induced to set aside the succession of both his sisters, and to settle the crown upon the lady Jane Grey, claiming through his father's younger sister, the duchess of Suffolk. His decease, from a pulmonary comjilaint soon after followed, July 6,1553, in the six- teenth year of his age, and seventh of his reign. Edward, Charles, called the Prdend- er, grandson of James II, king of England, son of James Edward and Clementine, daughter of priuce Sobiesky, was born in 1720, at Rome, where his father enjoyed tlie friendship of the pojies Clement XI and Innocent XIII. The last scion of the royal house of Stuart, from tlie very cradle he was inspired with an impulse, that induced him, at the early age of 22, to attempt the recovery of the dirone of his ancestors. Supported by the court of Rome, he went to Paris in 1742, disguis- ed as a Spanish courier, and succeeded in gaining over to his views Louis XV. 15,000 men were on the point of sailing from Dunkirk for England, when the 410 CHARLES EDWARD—EDWARDS. EngUsh admiral Norris dispersed the whole French fleet, before it had gained the open sea. This prevented the French court from undertaking a second expedi- tion ; all the requests of Edward Avere in vain, and he now resolved to trust to his own exertions. Widi borrowed money, and seven trusty officers, he landed like a knight-errant June 27,1745, on the north- western coast of Scotland, from a ship of 18 guns, which contained arms for 1500 men. The attempt succeeded, and he found so many adherents among the dis- contented Scotch nobles, who went over to his party, together with the Highland- ers under them, that he was soon at the head of a Utde army. With this he marched forward, conquered the English troops, which advanced to meet him from Edinburgh, captured Perth, and caused himself to be proclaimed regent of Eng- land, Scotland and Ireland. He also took Edinburgh, September 19,1745, where he Avas once more proclaimed regent, and surrounded Avith his ministers and gene- rals. France sent him support. Sejitem- ber 21, 1745, he defeated at Preston Pans an army of 4000 English. He set the prisoners at liberty. His force was now 7000 strong. With this he advanced, and laid siege to Carlisle, November 26, wlrich, after three days, surrendered, and suppli- ed him with a great number of arms. He now caused his father to lie proclaimed king, and himself regent of England, re- moved his head-quarters to Manchester, and soon found himself within 100 miles of London, where many of Iris friends awaited his arrival. The rapid successes of the adventurer made the English gov- ernment tremble; and a part ofthe English forces in Germany was recalled. Want of support, disunion and jealousy among the adherents ofthe house of Stuart, some errors, and the superior force opposed to him, compelled prince Edward to retire in the beginning of 1746. The victory at Falkirk (January 23, 1746) was his last. As a final attempt, he risked the battle of Culloden, against the duke of Cumber- land, April 27, 1746, in wlrich his army was defeated, and entirely dispersed. The prince now Avandered about for a long time through the wilds of Scotland, often without food, and the price of £30,000 sterling was set upon his head. He was at last discovered by his most faithful friend O'Neil, a Scottish nobleman: they escaped detection by sailing, in a misera- ble skiff, from island to island, and wan- dering from vaUey to vaUey, pursued by a thousand dangers; for constant search Avas made for Charles in every direction. At Lochnanach, he was fortunate enough to meet one ofthe French frigates, which had been sent for his rescue. September 29, 1746, five months after the defeat of Culloden, he sailed from Scotland, and arrived in France, destitute of every thing. By the interest of madame de Pompadour, prince EdAvard now received an annual pension of 200,000 livres for life ; be had also 12,000 doubloons yearly from Spain. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) de- prived him of all prospect of recovering the throne of England; and when he heard that his own removal from France was stipulated in the articles of peace, his an- ger knew no bounds. It became neces- sary to carry him, under a guard, to the frontiers of Italy. He went to Rome, the residence of his father, James III; but his relations to the Roman court were changed after his father's death, January 1, 1766. His often ridiculous requests in regard to the etiquette to be observed to- Avards him, which he made under the name of count of Albany, rendered his presence troublesome. He went to Flor- ence, till Pius VI recalled him to Rome, by withdrawing bis pension. That his fam- ily might not become extinct, he married, in the 52d year of his age, April 17,1772, a princess of Stolberg-Gedern. But his violence led to a scjiaration, in 1780. (See Albany.) Edward now became addicted to intoxication. He died January 31,1788, in the 68th year of his life. Three years before, he sent for his natural daughter from France, legitimated her, and declared her, on his royal authority, his laAvful heiress, under the title of countess of Al- bany. His body was carried to Frascati, and entombed in a style worthy of a king. A sceptre, crown, sword, and the escutch- eons of England and Scotland, adorned his coffin, and his only brother then living, the cardinal of York, performed the fune- ral service for " dead king Charles." The cardinal of York receiA'ed from England an annual pension of £4000 sterling, from the year 1799, and died at Frascati, July 13,1807. The Stuarts ruled in Scotland 400 years, and iu England 85 years. Edwards, Bryan, historian of the West Indies, was born at Westbury, in Wilt- shire, in 1743. On the death of his father, in adverse circumstances, he acquired the protection of his maternal uncle, a person possessed of great property in the island of Jamaica. He inherited not only the large fortune of his uncle, but of a Mr. Hume, of Jamaica, and, becoming an emi- nent merchant, returned to England, and, EDWARDS. 411 in 1796, took his seat for the borough of Grampound, which he represented until his death, in July, 1800. His first publi- cation was a pamphlet entitled Thoughts on the Trade of die West India Islands with the U. States, 1784; this was fol- lowed by his Speech on the Slave Trade; but his most distinguished performance is his History, civd and commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies, 1793, 2 vols. 4to. A new edition of this work, published after his death, in 1801, 3 vols. 8vo., includes a History of St. Domingo. Mr. EdAvards also published, in 1796, the Proceedings of the Governor and Assem- bly of Jamaica, in regard to the Maroon Negroes, 8vo. All these works are valu- able for their uiformation, and are written with ease and elegance. Edwards, Jonathan, the most cele- brated of American metaphysicians and dieologians, whom Dugald SteAvart de- scribes as " indisputably the ablest cham- pion of the scheme of necessity since the time of Collins," was born in East Windsor, Connecticut, October 5, 1703. His father, a minister of the gospel, in- structed him in the dead languages. Jonathan entered Yale college, hi New Haven, in September 1716, Avhere he was distinguished for good morals, dili- gence, and proficiency in the collegiate .Studies. At fourteen, he read with pleas- ure Locke on the Human Understanding. His habits of application and thought, and his delight and success In metaphysical studies, were extraordinary. Papers, in his hand-writing, show, that at fourteen he conceived the design of composing a complete Treatise on Natural Philosophy and Natural History, including Chemistry and Geology. His piety, his devotion to die Bible, and his propensity for theologi- cal inquiries, were equally remarkable. In 1720, lie took his first degree, and re- mained nearly two years at Yale, pre- paring for the ministry. In 1722, he went to New York, where he preached for about eight months, with great distinc- tion. In September, 1723, he Avas elected a tutor in Yale college, and in the follow- ing year began to act iu that capacity, but resigned his office in 1720, in order to be- come the minister of the people of North- ampton, where he was ordained Febru- ary 15,1727.—The record of his labors as a pastor, divine, and metaphysical writer, is edifying in the highest degree. His various sermons and disquisitions procur- ed for him a wide reputation. His Trea- tise on ReUgious Affections was imme- diately republished in England and Scot- land, and placed him among the first writers of his sect. After more than three years of zealous service in Northampton, a total rupture occurred between him and his congregation, owing to tlie candor and boldness widi which he publicly reproved certain irregularities of some young per- sons of the principal families connected with his church. An ecclesiastical coun- cil dismissed him in June, 1750; and, in the following year, he accepted a call to serve as a missionary among die Indians at Stockbridge, in Massachusetts. Here he remained six years, exerting himself with an apostolical spirit, and, at the same time, prosecuting the deepest investiga- tions in mental philosophy. Here he composed his famous works on the Free- dom of the WiU, and on Original Sin.— The first is his masterpiece, and worthy of the powers of a Locke or Leibnitz. It was completed within the space of four months and a half. The date of its first ajipearance is the early part of 1754. In 1757, he was chosen president of the col- lege at Princeton, New Jersey, and ac- cepted this invitation, though not without reluctance, on account, chiefly, of his de- sire to accomplish two great literary enter- prises, which he had begun long before— a History of the Work of Redemption, and a View of the Harmony of the Old and New Testament In January, 1758^ he repaired u> Princeton, where the small- pox then prevailed. He was inoculated by the physician of the college. " He had the malady favorably, but a secondary fever set in, and, by reason of a number of pustules in his throat, the obstruction was such, that the medicines necessary to check die fever could not be administered. This disorder put an end to his life, March 22, 1758, in the 55th year of his age." This eminent man gave, to the last mo- ment an admirable example of Christian patience, resignation and hope. He left five daughters and three sons. One of his sons was president of the college at Sche- nectady, New York, having been^like his father, a tutor in the institution in which he was educated; subsequently dismissed from a parish under his care on account of his religious opinions, settled again in a retired situation, elected to the president- ship of a college, and called to leave this world shortly after his inauguration, and nearly at the same age with his father.— The physical constitution of Edwards (the father) was extremely delicate; but his mind was so active and well discipUned, that he was able to produce, besides the works already mentioned, a very large 412 EDWARDS—EEL. number of tracts and sermons. Various narratives of his life, and editions of his works, have been printed in Great Britain and the United States. The latest is in ten octavo volumes, pubUshed in 1830, at New York, and edited from original materials, by Sereno E. Dwight. The first volume is nearly occupied by the me- moir of his Ufe, comprising his resolu- tions, diary, and a jiart of his corresjion- dence. The description, Avhich he has furnished, of his own mind, temperament, theological sentiments, and literary pro- jects, deserves particularly to be consulted. He wrote with perspicuity, though not with elegance, and generally in a rugged and negligent style. Edwy, king of England, son of Ed- mund I, succeeded his uncle Edred in 955. Taking part with the secular clergy against the monks, he incurred the con- firmed enmity of the latter. Having call- ed Dunstan to account for his share in the administration in the preceding reign, die latter refused to attend the summons, and was in consequence banished. His jiarty was, however, so strong, that a re- bellion was excited, and Edwy driven from die throne, to make Avay for his brother Edgar. That his intrigue or mar- riage with Elgiva, may have given a jiretence for his dejiosition and excommu- nication is very jirobable*, but there is rea- - • • ■- v~.,tl, - - 1 ntl,-- son to oeneve, irom uio j<""« ttUVi ~-*~* circumstances, that the story of the fate of Elgiva, as related bv'"-— ™A Hume, is materially incorrect. Edwy died in 959. h,el ; a fish well known from its peculiar form and savory flesh. Many varieties of eels are described by naturalists, some tenants of fresh-water streams, others in- habiting the sea. The latter acquire a vast size, and numerous instances are on record of their having attacked and over- powered boys, and even men, while bath- ing. Gifted Avith prodigious strength and agility, and capable of inflicting severe wounds Avith its powerful jaws, the sea eel, or conger, must jirove a most dangerous assailant, Avhen encountered in its native element Fresh-water eels, inhabiting running streams with gravelly bottoms, are said to be uniformly Avhite upon the belly, and infinitely more delicate than those of muddy Avaters, which are ahvays yellow, and possess a peculiar smell and flavor, very disagreeable. In the choice of its food, the eel is far from cleanly, feeding indiscriminately ujion all kinds of small fish, and decayed animal matter; in con- sequence of which, many persons refuse to eat them. In the seas of India, there are large species caught varied with the most beautiful colors, resembling serpents; and one, in particular, has so much the as- pect of one of these reptiles, as to bear the name of snake eel. The flesh of eels is sapid and nourislung, but, owing to its fatness, offensive to weak stomachs. Od is procured from sea eels, which is re- markably clear, and burns very brightly. A curious opinion prevails in this country as to the projierties of eel-skins in pre- venting the cramp, so dangerous to bath- ers. Boys are frequently seen with one fastened round the ankle for the purpose of averting the attack of this dangerous spasm while in the Avater. It is needless to observe, that the virtues ascribed to it are.very apocryphal. The Romans are said to liaA-e fed eels upon human flesh; and one of the most cruel of the emper- ors caused his slaves to be thrown aUA'e into the fish-ponds for disobedience. A similar tale is related of Vedius Pollio. Muraina was the term used to express the male eel, and myrus the female. The common eel belongs to the subgenus mu- raina of Lacepede, and may be distin- guished thus: dorsal fin commencing very much in the rear of the pectorals; lower jaw shorter; color, olive-green above, sil- very or yellowish beneath. In the sea eels, or congers, the dorsal commences near the pectorals, or over them, and the superior jaw is always longest The con- ger of our seas attains the length of five or six feet W* *'- ' * u,nM °f ° ~—'~ * ..... uie IUICiu.^ -- ~ mall s ieg. A prejudice exists here against the flesh, which in Europe is salted in large quanti- ties. Some kinds of eels occur, in which there are no percejitible fins whatever. FeAV animals are more tenacious of life; they continue to move for a long while Avhen deprived of the head and skin, jire- serving the muscular irritability for many hours after death. Great quantities of river eels are consumed for food among the low- er classes, and the numbers taken during a night, in a trap, contrived for the purpose, and sunk upon the bottom, is frequently enormous, amounting to several hundreds. A barrel or box is used, having an aper- ture cut in the top, to which is attached a stocking or tube of coarse cloth, wlrich hangs doAvn in the interior; the fish enter Avith ease from without, but find it im- possible to return. At day-light, the trap is raised to the surface, and the cajitives se- cured. In England, a kind of trident is used, called an eel-spear. A fisherman wades to the shallows, and, striking his sjiear in the mud in every direction around him, the eels, reposing on the bottom, are caught EEL—EGEDE. 413 between the prongs, and shaken into a basket. The respiration of most subgen- era ofthe eel family is conducted through lateral openings at the gills, as in other fishes; but in some a different arrange- ment is observed. For instance, in the sphagebranchus, the ajiertures are apjirox- imated under the throat, and in the syn- branchus, the external orifice of the gills is a single hole under the throat A great variety is observable in the form of the air-bladder of these fishes, Avhich is want- ing only in a few species. Want of scales is usually mentioned as a characteristic ofthe family, but nevertheless inaccurate- ly. Scales do exist; but they are very minute, and so imbedded in the skin, as to be imperceptible in the recent animal, though sufficiently evident in the dried skin. Some marvellous accounts are on record of the migrations of eels from one river to another, over intervening jiortions of dry land. It is sufficiently well known, that such journeys are taken by these fish, but mostly over very small jiortions of soil, covered with damp grass. Authors relate stories, also, of eels having been rained down from the clouds, which phe- nomenon is accounted for in the same manner as the raining of frogs, small fish- es, &c, frequently mentioned as aston- ishing matters by the ancient writers. Eels are viviparous, and quite jiroductive. Effendi ; a corruption of the Greek word avQtvrri^ which signifies lord, or mas- ter, in the modern dialect and is pro- nounced aplhendis, or aphendis. It is a term of modern use in the Turkish lan- guage, and has been substituted for the Tartar word chelebi (noble), now applied to persons of inferior rank. Effendi is par- ticularly applied to the civil, as aga is to the military officers of the sultan ; and both are used in conversation, commonly joined to the name of their office. Thus the sultan's first jihysician is called Hakim effendi, the priest in the seraglio, Iman effendi, &c. The Reis effendi, or chan- cellor of the empire, is also minister of foreign affairs, and negotiates with the ambassadors and interpreters of foreign nations. Greek children are in the habit of calling their fathers effendi. The term is often used much in the same way as sir, Avhile the Greek nvptos may be com- pared to our Mr. Effigy, to execute or degrade in. The word effigy is derived from the Latin effigies, picture ; and the phrase at the head of this article denotes the execution or degradation of a condemned criminal, when he cannot be personaUy apprehend- ed, by subjecting his picture to the formal- ities of an execution; for instance, affixing the picture, with a rope round the neck, to the gallows (hanging in effigy). This practice is stiU continued sometimes in Prussia, and probably in other counUies. Efflorescence; a term applied in chemistry to the crystals of certain salts, which, on exposure to the air, part Avith a portion of their water, and crumble down into a white powder. (See Crys- tallization, under the article Cohesion.) Egalite, Philip, that is, Philip Equali- ty ; the name adopted, after the abolition of monarchy in France, by PhiUp Bour- bon Capet, duke of Orleans, (q. v.) Egbert, considered the first king of all England, was of the royal family of Wessex. Egbert served in the armies of Charlemagne. On the death of Brithric, he succeeded him as king of Wessex, in 800. He reduced the other kingdoms, and rendered them dependent on him, in 827. He Avas much annoyed by the repeated inroads of the Danes. Egbert died in 838. Egede, John, the apostle of Greenland, Avas born, 1686, in Denmark, and, in 1707, became a preacher at Wogen, in Norway. Having heard that Christianity had been once established in Greenland, but had become extinct in die country for want of teachers, he was filled with grief. Af- ter the most careful inquiry, he heard that the eastern coast of Greenland was inac- cessible, on account of the floating ice, and that the southern Avas inhabited by savages. He resolved to visit the country, and to preach the gospel to the inhabit- ants. But he Avas without resources. The merchants in Bergen were umvilling to undertake to trade vrith Greenland, and the government refused his petition for ships, money and men, because they were involved in a war with Sweden ; the bishops of Bergen and Drontheim praised his noble resolution, but were unable to help him. Having collected some money to aid him in his purpose, he resigned his charge, received from the Danish govern- ment after the conclusion of peace with Sweden, the title of royal missionary to Greenland, with a small pension and three ships, one to remain with him, an- other to bring back the news of Iris arri- val, and a third to engage in the Avhale fishery. The government encouraged the Bergen merchants to establish a Green- land trading company. May 21, 1721, Egede embarked, Avith 46 persons under his command. The whaling-vessel was wrecked; the other two reached Green- land, but an extent of 12 leagues of float- 414 EGEDE—EGERTON. ing ice seemed to make it impossible to land. June 4, they finally succeeded. The appearance of the country was wretched. A house was built, and called the haven of hope. The conversion of the Grecnlanders was now undertaken, but offered great difficulties; and the whole colony, tired of struggling against misery and wretchedness of every description, were eager to return to Denmark. Egede resolved to adopt that course; but the firm- ness of his Avife preA-ailed upon them all to remain, and trust to the arrival of a Aessel from Denmark with the necessary sup- plies. June 27, the news was brought, that two ships had arrived from Denmark, with the necessaiy articles, and letters which contained the assurance of efficient support. In die mean time, Egede had caused his son Paul to paint several scenes from the Bible, perhaps to convey to the Greenlanders some idea of the history, or to excite their curiosity. As this did not succeed, he took up his residence, Avith his tAvo sons, among the natives, in order to learn their language. He carefully noted down every word of which he dis- covered the meaning; he often performed long journeys, at the peril of his Ufe, to visit the remotest Greenlanders, for the purpose of gaining their confidence, in which he succeeded by a thousand acts of kindness; he also endeavored to render the trade more profitable to the crown, which sent him a vessel annually with supplies. Though he was unsuccessful in learning the language, his two sons, and especially Paul, attained it with little difficulty. Egede, therefore, sent him to Copenhagen for four years, to study theol- ogy, that he might leave him as his succes- sor in Greenland. Egede, the father, after spending 15 years in Greenland, amid innumerable discouragements, returned, in 1736, to Copenhagen, to make new exertions for the support of Christianity in that country. The government ap- pointed him director of the Greenland missions, and established his son Paul in die office of missionary there. When age rendered him incapable of the exer- cise of his duties, he retired to the island of Falster, where he died, 1758. His Avri- tings are in Danish, and haA'e been trans- lated into German. They relate to the natural history of Greenland, and his suf- ferings and adventures there.—His son Paul Egede, born 1708, was his assistant from the time he Avas 12 years old. He went to Copenhagen, in 1723, carrying with him some Greenlanders, to be instructed in various trades : they all soon died of the small-pox. Notwithstanding a strong in- cUnation for the naval sen-ice, he submit- ted to the wishes of his father, studied divinity, and took charge of the mission in Greenland. In this undertaking he embarked in 1734, carried out with him new colonists, and remained there till 1740. He then returned to Copenhagen, received the office of chajilain in the hos- pital dedicated to the Holy Ghost, and was commissioned, also, to direct the af- fairs of the mission. The next year, he was appointed by the king bishop of Greenland. He died in 1789. We have from him an Account of Greenland, ex- tracted from a Journal kept from 1721 to 1788, published at Copenhagen, 1789, 12mo.; moreover, a Didionarium Gram- landicum, Cojienhagen, 175-1; a Gram- matica Grcenlandica; a translation of the Gospels, the Pentateuch, several Danish prayers and liturgies, and the Imitation of Christ, by Thomas a Kemjiis, in the Greenland tongue. Egerax. (See Idocrase.) Egeria ; a nymph who received divine honors among the Romans. Numa pre- tended to have secret conversations with her, and to receive from her tlie laAvs which he gave to the Romans. Some say Egeria was the wife of Numa. Egerton, Francis (duke of Bridgewa- ter); an English nobleman, very highly distinguished for public spirit, born in 1726. His father, the first person who bore the title of duke of Bridgewater, had obtained, in 1732, an act of parliament authorizing him to dig a canal from Worsley, one of his estates, containing very valuable coal mines, to Manchester; but the difficulties in the way of executing it deterred him from attemjiting it. Fran- cis Egerton, by the death of his father and elder brother, coming into possession of the great estates of the family, resolved to complete the plan of his father, and succeeded, by the help of Blind ley (q. v.), a self-taught man of remarkable genius. To effect his object, he limited his per- sonal expenses to £400 a year, and de- voted all the rest of his income to his great undertaking. The canal, wlrich bears the name of the duke, was completed in five years, after the expenditure of immense sums, and enabled him to supply Man- chester and the neighboring towns Avith coal. He aftenvards extended his canal to the Mersey, so as to bring Liverpool into the line of his navigation. The success of his undertaking was so great diat ca- nals were now projected in every direc- tion. Brindley formed the grand idea of EGERTON—EGINETAN. 415 estabUshing a water communication be- tween London, Bristol, Liverpool and HuU, and completed it in part, as the duke, in 1766, liegan the grand trunk nav- igatwn, so called, whereby tlie rivers Trent and Mersey Avere united. This ca- nalwhich is 90 miles long, was finished in 1777, and connects Liverpool and Hull. • h.ean',,ke of Bri(1?ewater died unmarried, in 1803. (See Canal, and Brindley.) Egg. Birds, reptiles, fishes, insects and worms bring forth eggs; birds, indeed, without any exception. The eggs of fish- es are called roe or spawn. They contain the germ of the young animal, and, in this respect, resemble the seeds of jilants. Seeds require heat and moisture to devel- ope them ; and a great part of their sub- stance serves for the nourishment of the germ. So it is with eggs, which have, in addition, the necessary moisture in diem- selves, and, therefore, only need external heat for their developement The bird's egg consists (1.) ofthe shell. Immediately beneath this hard, porous covering Ues firm- ly enclosed (2.) the external membrane, which is also a little porous. Next comes (3.) the white of the egg, and, lastly, (4.) the yolk. In the yolk is seen a small, lens- shaped speck, in Avhich is found a little oval sack, of a grayish color. This is the place where the young animal is developed. The form ofthe eggs of birds is generally more or less of an oblong round. It . is different in other oviparous animals. Amongst reptiles, the crocodile, for in- stance, has a cone-shaped egg. There is a great variety of shades in the colors of birds' eggs, though they are confined chiefly to Avhite, blue and green. The spots, points, or stripes, with which many are marked, run in coundess degrees and shades, from red into gray, ash-colored, &c. The eggs of binls, especially of hens, are a pleasant and nutritive food. Among reptUes, turtles produce eggs Avhich are good for eating. The roe of fishes is also eaten, and caviare is com- posed wholly of the eggs of fish. The Avhite of liens' eggs is used for applica- tions in complaints of the eyes. It is also made use of for clarifying certain liquors, whey, sugar, &c. (See Clarification.) The simple white of eggs also furnishes a shining varnish for many works of art especially paintings and playing-cards! Mixed with poAvdered, fresh-burnt lime, Avith brick-dust, clay, meal, and other substances, according to circumstances, it forms a very strong cement To preserve eggs for any length of time, they must be kept from the air. They are covered with varnish or oil, set on the small end, upon a perforated board, or, which is still better, they are placed in layers, upon the small end, in very dry ashes, in chopped straw, &c, enclosed in tubs and boxes, and put in a dry place, protected from severe cold in Avinter, but at the same time, not too warm * (See Hatching.) Egg-plant (solanum melongena); a her- baceous annual, from a foot to 18 inches high, a Uttle branched, and more or less covered Avith a substance resembUng cot- ton : the leaves are oval, sinuate, and pe- tiolate; the flowers large, Avirite, or pur- plish, lateral, and frequently solitary; but sometimes two or three are situated upon a common divided peduncle; the calvx and peduncles are furnished with a few short jirickles ; the fruit is very large, smooth and shining, and generally of a violet color, but sometimes yellow or white. It is cultivated in the warm parts of both continents, and the fruit is much used as an article of food, Avhen cooked, which is done hi various ways: in India, it is generally served up with sugar and wine, or simply sugared Avater; in the south of France, with olive-oil. There are several varieties, one of which bears a white fruit, exactly resembling a pullet's egg, and has been sometimes confounded with another species, which is acrid and poisonous. Egg-jilants are now much cultivated in some parts of the U. States, and have become a AveU known article in the markets. Egil Scallagrim ; an Icelandic bard or poet ofthe 10th century, Avho distinguish- ed himself by his warlike exploits in pred- atory invasions of Scotland and North- umberland. Having killed hi combat the son of Eric Blodox, king of Norway, he was doomed to death on being subse- quently taken prisoner by that prince. Egil demanded permission to redeem his life by giving a specimen of his poAvers as an improvisatore. This was granted, and he immediately composed and recited a poem in praise of Eric, entitled Egil's Ransom, which procured him his Ufe and liberty. This piece is still extant, and a Latin version of it was published by Olaus Wormius, in his Literatura Danica Anti- quisrima, from which doctor Percy trans- lated it into English, and printed it in his Northern Antiquities. Egina. (See JEgina.) Eginetan Style of Art. (See JEsi- netan Style.) . * Ithappens not very rarely, that a small ejrg is found vmhin one of common size. (See Albu- men.) y 416 EGINHARD—EGMONT ISLAND. Eginhard (Einard), born in the Oden- Avalde ; at first the companion of Charle- magne, then his priAate secretary and chaplain, and general sujierintendent of the emperor's houses. His talents and learning gained him the love and confi- dence of Charlemagne, in Avhose court he was educated, and induced him to bestow on Eginhard his daughter Emma, or Im- ma, in maniage. It is a common story, the truth of which, however, is much doubt- ed, that she once admitted the fair young German to a nightly interview in her own room; that snow fell during the night, and Emma carried her lover from the castle on her shoulders, to save him from detection; the emperor, who had risen early, saw them from the vvindoAV, and, instead of punishing, united them in mar- riage. On the death of the emperor, Eginhard left his wife, entered the order of Benedictine monks, and became first abbot of the monastery at Seligenstadt, in Darmstadt, where he died, 839. Egin- hard is the oldest German historian ; and Ave have from him a full and AveU-written history of the life of Charlemagne, which Avas published by Schmink, 1711, in 4to., with illustrations and a biograjihy. An edition was published by Bredow (Helmst. 1806). Eginhard's Annals ofthe Franks, from 741 to 829, ajipeared also in 1711, in 4to., at Utrecht His letters, wJrich are of much importance as contributions to the history of his age (Frankfort, 1714, fol.), are still extant. A jilan is likewise ascribed to him of uniting the German ocean with the Mediterranean and the Black seas, by two canals, one of which was to form a connexion between the Moselle and Saone, and the other be- tween the Rhine and the Danube. Egis. (See AZgis.) Egisthus. (See Agamemnon.) Eglantine ; one of the names of the sweetbrier (rosa rubiginosa); but there is a good deal of confusion in its application, and it is often given indiscriminately to other species of rose. Egmont, Lamoral, count of, was born 1522, of an illustrious family of Holland. He entered the military service, and gained a high rejiutation under Charles V, whom he accompanied to Africa in 1544. He distinguislied himself as general of cavalry, under Philip II, in the battles of St Quen- tin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). Philip having gone to Spain, Egmont took part in the troubles in the Low Countries; he endeavored, however, to ad just the difficul- ties between the duchess of Parma, who governed the provinces, and the nobles confederated against her. I le even swore, in the presence of this princess, to sup- port the Roman Catholic faith, to punish the sacrilegious, and to extirpate heretics. Still his connexion Avith the prince of Orange and his most distinguished adhe- rents, made him an object of suspicion to the court of Aranjuez, and Egmont, Avith the noble Philip of Montmorency, count Horn, became the victims of hate and fanaticism. The duke of Alva, Avho was sent hy Philip II, to the Netherlands, to reduce the insurgents, ordered therri both to be executed at Brussels, June 5, 1563. Egmont Avas then in the 46th year of his age. He died with heroic firmness. The French ambassador announced the event to his court with these words: " I have seen that head fall which twice made France tremble." Egmont had before written to Philip II, that " he had never joined in any undertaking against the CathoUc religion, nor violated his duties as a loyal subject." But an example was thought necessaiy to strike terror into others. Philip II expressed himself thus on the subject: " he had caused those two heads to fall, because a pair of such sal- mon heads was worth more than many thousand frogs." Egmont's fine became extinct in Procopius Francis, count of Egmont, general of cavalry to the king of Sjiain, and brigadier in the French service, Avho died without children, at Fraga, in Arragon (1707), at the age of 38 years. (See J. J. de Cloet's Eloge kistorique du Comte d'Egmont, &c, Brussels, 1825.) Maximilian von Egmont, count of Biiren, general in the service of the emperor Charles V, who distinguished himself in the wars against Francis I, belonged to another line.—A well known drama of Gothe, called Egmoid, is founded on the above catastrophe; yet we cannot help thinking, that, if poetry often gives to his- torical characters a fictitious elevation, the reverse has taken place in this instance, and that Egmont in history, the father of a family, is greater than Gothe's Egmont, a lover and imprudent conspirator. Egmont Island, in the South Pacific ocean, six miles long and four broad, is low, and full of trees. Lon. 138° 3C W.; lat 19° 201 S. Egmont Island, or New Guernsey; principal island in the group called Queen Charlotte's islands, in the South Pacific ocean. According to the account given of them by captain Carteret, the inhabitants are extremely nimble, vigorous and ac- tive, with a bravery undismayed by the fire of musketry. They seem as fit to EGMONT ISLAND—EGYPT. 417 live in the water as on land. The coun- try in general is mountainous, covered with woods, and intersected with many valleys and small riA'ers. This island is about 54 miles in length, and from 20 to 32 in breadth. Lon. 166° E. ; lat. 11° S. Eura, Eger, or Chebbe ; a town in Bohemia, hi Saatz, capital of a district; 76 miles west of Prague; lon. 12° 21' E. ; lat. 50° 3' N.; population, 8111; houses, 740. It was formerly imperial, and has a castle, seven churches, an hospital, and a Catholic gymnasium. Near it are some medicinal spruigs, the Avaters of wlrich are exjiorted in bottles, sealed with the arms of the toAvn. Wallenstein was assassinated here in 1634. The popula- tion of the district, 23,000; square miles, 106. Egra, or Eger ; a river which rises in Bavaria, and runs into the Elbe, near Leitmeritz, in Bohemia. Egvpt (Mizraim, Kham-Rahab; called by the Arabs, Mezr; by the Copts, Khemi; and by the Turks, El Kabit); formerly a mighty empire, the seat of a high civiliza- tion, the land of wonderful creations of human power, and an object of endless curiosity to the philosophic inquirer; now a Turkish viceroyalty, scarcely a fifth part inhabited, governed by a pacha or viceroy, appointed or confirmed by the sultan. This —ua ;-. at present, Mo- hammed AU, a man of great ability. Egypt lies in North Africa, between 22° t""1 *: i;. lat, and 27° and 34° E. !""• It is bounded on the N. by the Mediterra- nean sea, on the E. by the Red sea and by Arabia, with which it is connected by the isthmus of Suez, on the S. by Nubia, and on the W. by Barca and the great desert. It contains about 200,000 square miles, of which only about 17,000 square miles, in the valley of the Nile (600 miles long, and from 12 to 25 broad), are susceptible of cultivation. The population is dif- ferently estimated at from 2,500,000 to 4,000,000. (ieographers divide it into Uppeu, Egyjit (Said), Middle Egypt (Vostani), and Lower Egypt (Bahari), including the fer- tile Delta. Tliese are again divided into 12 provinces, each of which is governed bv a bey, and wlrich, together, contain about 2,100 cities and villages. Three chains of mountains run dirough the country. The Nile (the Blue river) flows through it in a northerly direction. Be- sides lake Mcaris, celebrated in antiquity, at present called Birket Karun (Charon's lake), and almost dried up, there are others, esjiecially die natron or salt lakes. The climate is in general hot, and is mod- erate in Lower Egypt only. The great heat produces the rankest vegetation. The simoom (chamdn), a formidable south wind, which blows at intervals during the first 50 days after the vernal equinox, the plague and ophthalmia are the pecuUar torments of Egypt. It has but two sea- sous—spring and summer: the latter lasts from April to November. During this jieriod, the sky is always clear, and the weather hot. In the spring, the nights are cool and refreshing. The greater part of the land is arid, and covered with burning sands; but wherever the waters of the Nile are conducted in canals beyond the natural limits of their overflow, the earth becomes fertile, and fruits thrive Avith great luxuriance. Corn, rice, millet, pulse, kitchen vegetables, melons, sugar cane, sweet rush, papyrus (pecuUar to die coun- try), flax and hemp, onions, carthamus or saffron, indigo, aloe, jalap, coloquintida, saltwort (salsola soda), cardamom, cot- ton, palm-groves, sycamores, tamarinds, cassia, acacias, &c, cover the coun- try. There is not a great variety of garden flowers, but roses are raised in large quantities, especiaUy in the marshy Fayoum, and rose-water fonns an impor- tant article of export. The sod consists of lime, Avith numerous shells and petri- factions; it contains marble, alabaster, porphyry, jasper, granite, common salt, natron, saltpetre, alum, &c. The Avoods and marshes, rivers and plains, furnish a ereat variety of animals, including hom- ed cattle, butaioes, asses, norses, camels, sheep with large, fat tails, dogs, cats, lions, tigers, hyaenas, jackals, wolves, fox- es, gazeUes, giraffes, storks, ibises (which devour the snakes in the mud of die Nile), hens (the eggs of which are hatched in ovens), crocodiles, river-horses, ichneu- mons, &c. The people consist of Copts (embracing, at most, 30,000 families), Arabs (who are the most numerous, and are divided into Fellahs, or peasants, and Bedouins, die wandering tribes of the deserts), and Turks, the ruling people. The Mamelukes have been driven out of the country, and nearly exterminated. Besides tliese, there are JeAvs, Greeks, Armenians, &c. The Egyptian generally has a strong, active frame, tawny com- plexion, gay disposition, and a good heart, and is not devoid of capacity. He is tem- perate and reUgious, but superstitious. The prevailing religion is that of Moham- med. The prevailing language is the Arabic. At Cairo, the capital, resides the patriarch of the Eastern Christians. The inhabitants devote diemselves to agricul- 418 EGYPT. ture, die raising of bees and poultry, the preparation of rose-water and sal-ammo- niac, the manufacturing of leather, flax, hemp, silk and cotton, of carpets, glass, potters' Avare, and carry on an important commerce. Constantinople is supplied with grain from Egypt Avhich, when a Roman province, was called the granary of Rome. The coasting trade is consid- erable. Alexandria, Damietta and Suez are the principal harbors, and much in- land traffic is carried on, chiefly with Syria, Arabia and Western Africa.—Egypt Avas once the theatre of enterprise, civili- zation and science. An ancient astro- nomical observation authenticates the tra- dition, that, about 3362 B. C, the Babylo- nian Hermes (Thoth), the hero of mytho- logical antiquity, went to Ethiopia (as, sub- sequently, Cecrops from Sais, on die Nile, went to Attica), and founded this state on the model of that to which he himself belonged. The Ethiopians and Babylo- nians were the first nations enUghtened by Indian civilization. The organization of Ediiojiia was jirobably soon followed by the migration of an Ethiopian colony to Upper Egyjit, then inhabited by Nomadic, pastoral tribes. Subsequendy, the Egyp- tians became the third among the nations of antiquity, distinguished for a high de- gree of cultivation. The similarity of the inhabitants and their language increases almost to certainty the probability that Egypt received her first civilized inhab- itants from Ethiopia. This agrees with the Mosaic account, that after the flood, the descendants of Ham settled in Upper Egypt Even the Israelites, under Jo- seph, belonged to the Nomades, Uving on the frontiers, till they migrated again, under the conduct of Moses. Although Egypt had Babylon and Ethiopia for models, society in this country made but Blow advances towards perfection. The general division of the people into he- reditary castes, and the influence of the jiriesthood, checked the spirit of the Egyptians. Before the time of the enter- jirising Sesostris, they had but Uttle com- merce, especially by sea, and, consequent- ly, few of the collisions with foreign na- tions Avhich spring from an active trade. This was another reason of the slow progress of Egypt in inteUectual culture. The first important impulse was received Avhen the Egyptians were subdued by foreign nations. Previously to this, how- ever, there were astronomers in the coun- try. The Egyptian solar year contained 12 months and five supplementary days, like the repubUcan calendar of the French. The form of the earth was known to Egyptian scholars; solar and lunar eclipses were calculated; the moon they regarded as another earth ; the fixed stars as burning torches; sun-dials and water- clocks were not unknoAvn among them; the immense ring of Osymandyas seems to have been used for this purpose, and they ajipear to have been acquainted with the quadrant. They must, therefore, have made considerable progress in arithmetic. The arithmetical figures (the same that we call Arabic) they wrote from right to left. The overflowing of the Nile rendered geometry necessary to them; and their acquaintance with mathematics is evident from the instruments for measuring the height of the Nile at Syene, Memphis, and other places on the river, from their use of the water-screw, from their canals, and the sluices of lake Mceris, which presup- pose a knowledge of mechanics, hydrau- Ucs and hydrostatics. The Egyptian mu- sic is the basis of the Hebrew, Greek and Roman. The first musical instrument— the three-stringed lyre (see Lyre)—was invented among them by Hermes. But this discovery was soon secluded among the secrets of the priests, and further jier- fected under their mystic veil. In this circumstance, and in the serious, gloomy character of the nation, is to be found the reason why music was only used at fune- rals and the public worship of the gods. Besides the lyre above mentioned, they had a dichord, tAvo kinds of flutes, the sistrum, the kettle-drum, the trumpet and the triangular lyre. Musical notation seems not to have been known to them. Their short, simple songs were committed to memory. Their knowledge of natural history was confined to their native coun- try and its productions. They penetrated farther in chemistry and mineralogy: their metallic encaustics, their artificial emerald, the inlaying of silver with a blue color, display science and skill. They probably made much progress in the art of healing. Every disease had its partic- ular physician. Osiris, Isis and Hermes Avere the gods of health. The Pastophori (a class of priests) were the physicians. The king, as well as the lowest peasant, was subjected to the regimen prescribed by them. Their dietetics became cele- brated in other countries. Care of the skin, a thorough cleanUness, preserved by frequent bathing, and the practice of cir- cumcision, were their principal prescrip- tions. From their skiU in embalming the dead, we may judge of the anatomical knowledge of the Egyptians. Their nat. EGYPT. 419 ural philosophy was mystical; they as- cribed every dung to the immediate ope- ration of the gods: on this depended their system of magic. In the arts, their profi- ciency was various. Their sculpture has an insufferable dryness, stiffness and uni- formity ; their painting was limited to covering stones, wood, cloths, &c, with a single color, or, at the most to iUuminat- ing their hieroglyphics, variegating them with colors laid on without taste. The celestial planispheres on the ceiUng of the sepulchre of Osymandyas, and die figures on the ancient tombs of the kings of Thebes, exhibit the utmost stretch of the Egyptian pencil. Their architecture is more remarkable: its char- acteristic is soUdity rather than beauty, as appears from their labyrinths, pyramids, obelisks, temples, mausoleums, &c. (See Architedure, History of.)* Robert Vau- gondy, in his Essai sur VHistoire de la Geographic, says of the geography of the Egyptians, that they made the first maps (in the reign of Sesostris). Gatterer endeav- ors to prove the existence of geographical delineations in the time of Joshua. Their acquaintance with navigation they oAved to the great Sesostris; previously, they hardly dared trust themselves to rafts on the overflowing waters of the Nile ; they abhorred the sea; it was the Typhon which devoured the Nile, their national god (Osiris). Their first coasting trade seems to have been caused by a smug- gling trade of the Phoenicians, and by Inachus leading an Egyptian colony to Greece, in Phoenician vessels, 1836 B. C. It was confined, however, to the natives of the northern coasts. The inhabitants of the interior were repelled from the sea by superstition. On the other hand, the navigation of the Nile became more im- portant after it was incorporated widi the * Champollion, the famous explorer of Egyp- tian antiquities, holds the following lan'Mia^e" at tlie end of his fifteenth letter, dated Tnebes:__ " It is evident to me, as it must be to all who have thoroughly examined Egypt, or have art accurate knowledge of the Egyptian monuments existing in Europe, that the arts commenced in Greece by a servile imitation of the arts of Egypt, much more advanced than is vulgarly believed, at the period at which the first Egyptian colonies came in contact wilh the savage inhabitants of Attica or the Peloponnesus. Without Egypt, Greece woyld probably never have become the classical land of the fine arts. Such is my entire belief on tliis great problem. I write these lines almost in the presence of bas-reliefs which the Egyptians executed, with the most elegant delicacy of workmanship, 1700 years before the Christian era. What were the Greeks doing then V The sculptures of the monument of El Asaffif are ascertained to be more than 3500 years old. pubUc worship of their divinities. Sesos- tris the Great broke down the obstructions of reUgious prejudice. A splendid ship was consecrated to Osiris, and thus the cooperation of the priesthood was gained. The success of navigation was implored in the pubUc prayers, and the Egyptians now committed themselves to the back of the maUcious Typhon. Commerce was thus estabUshed, and carried on with various degrees of success and activity, according as the kingdom was more or less flourishing. It prospered most under the Ptolemies. Alexandria became the first emporium; the famous Pharos was erected; and the canal, 1000 stadia in lengtii, joined the Red sea with the Medi- terranean. When Egypt became a Ro- man province, after the death of Cleopa- tra, it lost its previous commercial dis- tinction. The Egyptians were particu- larly devoted to agriculture, and their measures for promoting it were bold, both in contrivance and execution. On what principle they conducted mining may be seen from their vast undertakings, in Avhich whole mountains were dug down, and the earth was washed from die ore by entire rivers turned from their channels for this purpose. Gold, silver, copper, lead, tin and iron were the principal met- als known to them. The trade of the Egyptians was confined, for a long time, to the sale of their own productions to foreigners who visited Egypt to purchase them. In the time of Psammetichus, they began to export for themselves. The principal traffic by land was canied on by means of caravans. Measures, weights and money, the chief instruments of trade, they were acquainted with, and a good poUce watched over justice. To indus- try, this traffic was necessarily lucrative. Then- skill in weaving and coloring sup- jilied them with articles of exchange. These, however, they did not carry to as high perfection as they might have done. If we contemplate die ancient Egyptians in their private life and poUtical character, taking into view dieir manners, customs and laws, Ave shall find a solution for many perplexities respecting this pecuUar jieople. The gloomy religion of the Egyptians banished gayety from their pri- vate circles. Pleasure Avas a stranger to them. They were serious, devout and sujierstitious. Songs, dances and sports they disliked; but they, nevertheless, pos- sessed a great degree of industry, good temper, politeness, and, at the same time, a vanity which prepossessed them in favor of whatever originated with them- 420 EGYPT. selves. As the Greeks and Romans caUed all foreign nations barbarians, so the Egyp- °ans gave this name to aU the nations which did not speak their language; but, m spite of their national pride, gratitude for benefits, AvhateA'cr might be the coun- try ofthe individual conferring them, was ever one of their national virtues. The government ofthe state Avas mostly in the hands of females. Every priest might have, at least one wife: to the laity, the number Avas not Umited by laAv. The husband had the charge of the domestic concerns; the wife, of buying and selling, and all affairs that were not of a domestic character. The Egyptian was distinguish- ed for temperance; he never drank wine; his only drink was beer, made of barley; his bread was of spelt; in his kitchen, he used vegetables of all kinds, and increased his numerous poultry, by artificially hatch- ing the eggs; beans and pork were inter- dicted, by his religion, as impure; and, on the other hand, he was forbidden to touch some other animals, as sacred. His dress Avas very simple. The respectable mat- ron AA-as distinguished from the maiden and the prostitute by a veil, which the latter were not allowed to wear. The children Avont naked till of considerable age. Funerals and times of sadness were the only occasions of parade and compe- tition in expense. The sovereign, Iioav- ever, and those who immediately sur- rounded him, glittered in all the pomp of Oriental magnificence. The power of the Pharaohs (the general name of the earlier kings of Egypt) was unlimited. At their pleasure, they could throw the grand vizier from the summit of his pow- er, and raise to their own side the lowest of their slaves, as the history of Joseph evinces. The sjiirit of industry inherent in the Egyptian was the supjiort of pub- lic virtue, and the police took care that criminals should be constantly employed. As early as the time of Joseph, there was a work-house for imprisoned slaves. The unsocial disposition ofthe Egyjitians, and their fear of offending the gods by inter- course with strangers, checked their im- provement, but ftt the same time, estab- lished their independence, their nation- al character, and their national virtues. When they were brought into closer con- tact with the Greeks, their industry was somewhat abated, so that Amasis found it necessary to enact a law, which obliged every Egyptian to report annually to the superior authorities his name, and the trade by which he obtained, or hoped to obtain, a subsistence. Disobedience to this law was punished with death. Justice was administered in a strict and speedy man- ner. Written laws were handed doAvn by Menes, Tnephactus, Bocchoris and Ama- sis. All causes were tried before a su- preme court of justice. The parties them- selves were obUged to conduct them in writing, without the aid of advocates. Perjury and murder (even of a slave) were punished with death, without any chance of pardon. Calumniators and false accusers received the punishment belong- ing to the crime of which they charged the innocent person. Falsehood was pun- ished by the loss of the tongue ; forgery, by the loss of the hands ; desertion from the army, or emigration, by infamy; and adultery, by flogging. The king had the power of mitigating any of these punish- ments. But notwithstanding the ajipear- ance of unlimited sovereignty, the will of the ruler was subject to the power of the priests, who imposed laws, even on the jirivate life ofthe monarch, and relaxed or contracted them as the interest of their order required. The daily duties of the king's slaves were minutely determined, his bill of fare regulated, nay, the A'ery secrecy of the royal bed-chamber Avas pen- etrated by the priests. For this reason, they were his physicians in ordinary. The education ofthe children was in uni- son Avith the rest of the Egyptian system. The children were carefully brought up to the trade of the father, and instructed by the priests, in various pubUc schools. Few Avere taught reading and writing; yet the Egyptians were the first people who could write, that history mentions, after the Babylonians and Phoenicians. They wrote, at first, on stones and bricks; afterwards, a paper was made of papyrus, which continued to' be used for 2000 years, and even after the invention of parchment, by the whole literary world. This art was taught to those only who Avere educated for merchants, and that in a limited degree; for it was the system of the priests to keep the mass of the people in ignorance. The division ofthe people into seven castes—priests, soldiers, shejilierds, swineherds, mechanics, inter- preters and fishermen—sprang partly from local circumstances, many districts afford- ing but one mode of subsistence; partly from the poficy of the priests, since it was necessaiy, for the management of die machine of state, that strict lines of de- marcation should be drawn between the various constituent parts of the nation. At the head of diem all stood the caste of priests, the first and most influ- EGYPT. 421 entiaL They maintained this rank as teachers of the people and patrons of sci- ence. From them all the offices of state were filled; they were the physicians, judges, architects, astronomers, astrolo- gers, \-c. But they held their knowl- edge, which they regarded (with justice) as the talisman of their political impor- tance and mighty influence, strictly within the limits of their order. The reliirion, mythology and philosophy of the Egyji- tians varied Avith the different periods of dieir political history. Their religion and philosophy were one thing before Moses, another from the time of Moses to that of Herodotus; and thus they continued to deviate from their original character till the times of the Ptolemies and the Ro- mans. Their whole religion and mythol- ogy were founded on astronomy; it was natural that the beneficial influences of the ci'lestial bodies should be followed by adoration. Osiris and Isis (the sun and moon) were the two principal deitias, and the Nile was thought to be very near- ly related to them. We frequently find Osiris and the Nile treated as one deity. The jieriod of 360 days, comjiuted from the reirular inundation of the river at the summer solstice, constituted the religious year. The natural solar year consisted of 365 days and 6 hours. The planets, together with the signs of the zodiac, were revered as deities, and rulers of the days of the Aveek and hours of the day. The ruler of the first hours ofthe day was the patron ofthe whole day, and commu- nicated to it his name; the physical char- acter and the agricultural relations of each month Avere likewise adored as divinities, under the 12 signs of the zodiac. Thus was the religious year constituted. The Avant, subsequently discovered, of five days and six hours, gave rise to seven more deities, and the solar year was intro- duced. These symbolical beings, how- ever, were regarded as actually existent, the authors and governors of time and the world ; < >siris and Isis were considered as beings of unlimited power, exercising an immediate influence over the earth and its inhabitants. To each divinity was as- signed a particular order of priests, into wlrich females were never admitted. Pil- grim;ur>'s and sacrifices were a part of the system of religion. The latter were employed for the expiation of sins. The AA'orshipper jilaced his hand on the head of the victim, loaded it with imjireca- tions, and its last gasp was the seal of his par.lon. Till the reign of Amasis, even lnmiau victims were offered. Be- vol. iv. 36 sides the heavenly bodies, some kinds of an- imals, also, were Avorshi pped. These Avere not regarded as mere symbols, but adored as actual gods, Uke the Apis and Mnevis ; this worship arose from the hieroglyphics ofthe Egyptians. (See Hieroglyphics.) The most remarkable phenomenon in the phi- losophy of the Egyptians is the doctrine of the transmigration of souls (see Me- tempsychosis), which was the immediate offspring of the worship of the stars. Pla- to has honored the inetempsychos^ of the Egyptians by adopting it into his sys- tem, as a symbol ofthe moral purification of human nature. The Egyptians, how- ever, did not make so accurate a distinc- tion between the spiritual and corporeal as this philosopher; the idea of the soul, as a pure intelligence, was unknown to them; and it is a very remarkable fact that the Pythagorean doctrine ofthe transmigration of souls, as delineated by Aristotle, although different from the Egyptian, is equally de- void of any moral sense. Political History of Egypt. If we go back beyond the period of tradition, to which belong the fabulous Pharaohs (kings), 31enes (2000 years before Christ), Osymandyas, Mceris,- Sesostris, Rhamp- sinitus, &c, we find, on the extreme con- fines of history, the Pharaoh of Joseph, and the migrations which took place in the storms of revolutions, under Cecrojis, Moses and Danaus. In the history of foreign states, Shishak is named, 87c be- fore the Christian era, as the Pharaoh of Egypt an20; but Gau, a Prussian architect from Cologne (see Gau), contradicts the accounts of Frediani; so also does Dro- vetti, late consul-general of France in Egyjit These ruins the French CailU- aud asserts he has examined and meas- * Several works have already been issued from iliis press ; among others, a Dizionario Ital- iano et Arabiano, Bolacco, delta stamp, reale, 1822, 2 tomi. ured. He also discovered the old emerald mines in the mountain Zabarah, and found them in the very state in which they had been left by the engineers of Ptolemy, with all their implements, from which Ave can, in some degree, deduce the mode of mining among the ancients. In 1820, Cailliaud accompanied the son of the viceroy on the above-mentioned expedition to Dongola. The travels of Cailliaud to the Oasis of Thebes, and the deserts to the east and Avest of it, were published by Jomard. The travels of Henry Light (a British captain of artillery) to Egypt, Nubia and the Holy Land, are not to be compared with those of Burck- hardt, but they are not Avithout interest as far as respects the pacha of Egypt, Jerusalem, and the Druses. The four months' journey of lieutenant Fitz-Clar- ence (aid to the marquis of Hastings, governor-general of India), fi-om Bombay through India and Egypt to London (1818), are more interesting. We ought to mention the travels of tAvo English- men (Waddington and Hanbury), who accompanied the pacha on his expedition from Egypt to Nubia (1820). They pre- tend to have examined, minutely, Dongo- la and Darshegga, and to have discov- ered the ancient Saba, subsequently called Merbe. In 1824, captain N. F. Gordon, of the English navy, undertook to traA'el up the Nile, to discover the sources ofthe Behr-el-Abiad. He only reached ViUel- Medinet (a day's journey from Sennaar), Avhere he died. Several Germans, also, have, within a short time, undertaken scientific expeditions to the East and Egypt; e. g., Seetzen (q. v.), Sieber (q. v.), whose book of travels describes Crete, Cairo and Jerusalem; and Ruppel, from Frankfort on the Maine. (See Africa.) With the same view, the Prussian gen- eral Menu von Minutoli undertook such a course of travels in August, 1820. Ehrenberg, who accompanied him, has published, in Berlin, his discoveries in natural history. They were support- ed in the enterprise by the Prussian government. The general returned to Germany in September, 1821, and pub- lished an interesting work respecting his collections and discoveries. The travels in Egypt, hoAvever, Avhich have lately excited most interest, are those of ChampoUion (q. v.), who has already, by various publications, greatly increased our knowledge respecting this country, and from whose Avork, now pubUshing, Ave have reason to expect much additional information. We also hope for interest- 421 CAMPAIGN OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. inir results from the expedition which the grand-duke of Tuscany sent to f^rypt, and Avhich has recendy returned, enriched with many treasures of art and science. (For a general account of what the late discoveries have taught of the ancient history of Egypt, and for a popular ac- count of Egyjrtiau antiquities, we must refer the reader to the marquis Spineto's Lectures on the Elements of Hieroglyphics and Egyptian Antitprilies (London, 1829). For information respecting the Egyptian language, we refer to A compendious Gram- mar if the Egyptian Language, as con- tainul in the Coptic and Sahidic Dialects, with Observations on the Bashmuric, to- gether with Alphabets and Numerals in the Hieroglyphic and Enchorial Cliaraders, by Hairy Tatlam; with an Appendix, consist- ing ofthe Rudiments of a Dictionai'y ofthe ane-iait Egyptian Language,in the Encho- rial Character, by Thomas Young (London, 1830); also an Account of Egyptian An- tiquities, by Doctor Th. Young (London, lb2v>t ; the Two Ldters of Champollion the Younger to the Duke Blacas D'Aulps (Paris, ]b20), his works mentioned under the article Champollion, imd his now work, which, according to the latest in- formation, will soon be published, and give the results of his indefatigable researches, during his stay in Egyjit. See the articles Hieroglyphics (in which the reader will find an account, also, of Egyjitian mythol- ogy ), Mummies, Pyram ids, Nile, Esneh, Dt nderah, Rosdla Stunt, 6cc; also the note at the end ol" Constitution. Respecting the present state of the Egyjitian institutions, which are founded, in part, on the an- cient division into castes, L. Reynier, who served in Egyjit under Bonajiarte, has published an instructive statistical Avork, which does not, however, treat of the an- cient history ofthe country—De VEconomie pvblique et rurale des Egyptiens et des Cartluiginois (Paris, 1823). For informa- tion concerning the modern history and administration of Egyjit, see Felix Men- gin's Histoire de I'Egypte sous le Gouverne- »m nt de Mohammed Aiy; Paris, 1823,2 vols., with engravings and maps.) Landing and Campaign of the French in Egypt. By the two campaigns of 179t> and 1797, general Bonaparte had compelled the continental poAvers of Eu- rojie to make peace Avith France—a re- sult ardently desired by the French, to allow their country time to recover from the deep wounds which she had suffered during the convulsions of the revolution, and from the worthless administrations that had preceded it The next object Avas to force England, also, to a peace, as she inflexibly opposed the general wish of Europe, and Bonaparte Avas appointed commander in chief of an army destined for the invasion of England. In Febru- ary, 1798, he visited in person the coasts of the Channel, and all Euiojic was ex- pecting the commencement of the expe- dition, when, in May of the same year, the general appeared as commander in chief at Toulon, where an cxjiedition had been fitting out, of the destination of which the public knew nothing—a cir- cumstance highly remarkable, as so many persons, military and civU, were acquaint- ed with it. It was the expedition to Egypt. It also appears, from a letter Avrit- ten by general Bonaparte to the minister Talleyrand, dated Passcriano, 27th Fructi- dor, year V (September 13,1797), that one of the main objects of this great under- taking Avas to put the French in possession of part ofthe East India trade, then entirely in the hands of England, by the conquest of Egypt—a plan by no means chimerical. It was intended to establish French col- onies on the Nile, and thus to recompense the republic for the loss of St. Domingo, and of the sugar islands, and to open a channel for the French manufactures into Africa, Arabia and Syria, where they might be exchanged for commodities wanted in France. Napoleon's vieAvs were, in fact, similar to those which, it is said, have now led the French to under- take the conquest and colonization of Al- giers—an object Avhich seems to be gen- erally ajijilaudcd. It seems, also, to have been intended to make Egypt a military position, from Avhich a French army could inarch into India, raise the Mahrattas against the English, and injure the poAV- er of the latter there. On this jioint, Ave refer the reader to the count St. Leu's (Louis Bonaparte's) Reponse a Sir J falter Scott, Paris, 1829, page 33. The directo- ry probably encouraged the enterprise Avith the further object of getting rid of a general whose victories and rapidly in- creasing popularity it feared. It has, in- deed, been said, that it was, at first, deci- dedly opjiosed to the jilan; but this is very improbable. March 5, Bonaparte received the decree ofthe directory, relative to the expedition against Egypt* He had full * Leibnitj endeavored to turn Louis XIV's attention to the conquest of Egvpt, in order to deliver Germany and Holland from his attacks. Under Louis XV, this project was again-discussed, at the time when all the French possessions in America were in danger; and it was again renew- ed, when the alliance of Joseph II and Catharine II threatened the partition of Prussia, campaign OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. 425 poAver to conduct the business as he saw fit The ministers in aU the departments, were ordered to give him whatever assist- ance he should require; and he had full powers to act according to his discretion in Egypt, to return whenever he saAV fit, and to appoint his successor. Napoleon now collected all the information neces- sary for his own direction ; engaged some of the most distinguished savants and ar- tists of France to accompany him, dreAV up questions and jirobleins to be resolved in Egyjit, and informed himself accurate- ly respecting the commercial connexions which it Avas. proposed to establish. In fact, he seems to have always viewed this expedition in the double light of a nrih- tary and a scientific enterprise. The be- ginning of Iris proclamation, before land- ing in Egypt, is remarkable: " Bona- jiarte, member ofthe national institute of France, and general in chief of the army of Egypt" 11 is brother Joseph (count de Survilliers) still possesses the jiajiers of general Bonaparte relating to these prepa- rations ; and we hojie that such imjiortant and interesting documents will not be for- ever withheld from the public, as they must give a great insight into Napoleon's views. The number of these papers is very great. Bonaparte was to leave Paris in April, for the purpose of embarking; but despatches from Rastadt, and from the French ambassador at Vienna, Berna- dotte, made a new rupture with Austria robable. Bonaparte, however, left Paris lay 3, and Avent on board of the Orient the 19th. The fleet set sail the same day, commanded by admiral Brueys.* Bona- parte's proclamation issued before sailing, and several others, either prove how much he himself Avas animated by the military feme of ancient Rome, or that he thought it the strongest stimulus to the French sol- diers. Reports had been carefully spread to divert the attention ofthe English to oth- er points; and the admiral, lord St. Vincent sent rear-admiral Nelson, with only three vessels of the line, four frigates and one corvette, to watch the gulf of Lyons, and to prevent the French from leaving it. But Nelson arrived too late. He also suf- fered severely from a gale, so that the * The fleet consisted of 10 74's, with 1 ship of 120 and 2 of 80 guns, 2 Venetian vessels of 64 guns, 14 frigates, 72 corvettes, &c, and 400 transports, from Toulon, Genoa, Ajaccio, Civita Veccnia,—one ofthe greatest naval armaments that ever sailed, containing 40,000 soldiers, and 10.000 sailors. The fleet which sailed for Algiers in April, 1830, consisted of 11 ships of the line, 12 frigates of 60. and as many of 50 guns, with cor- vettes, &c.; in the whole, 97 men-of-war, Frencli fleet was not molested. Bona- parte had an assurance from the directo- ry, that the minister of foreign affairs should go to Constantinople, still retaining his office, for the purpose of negotiating with the Porte, and preventing it from interfering in favor of the Mamelukes. Talleyrand, however, never went. This omission, and the defeat at Aboukir, prov- ed fatal to the exjiedition. About 2000 savants, artists, physicians, surgeons, me- chanics and laborers of all descriptions, accompanied the army. The flower of the troops was that ItaUan army, whose valor had effected the peace of Campo- Formio. The principal officers were Bertlrier (who Avas averse to going to Egypt, because in love with the marchio- ness Visconti), Desaix, Regnicr, Menou, Kleber, Dumas, Caffarelli, Murat, Junot Marmont, Belliard, Davoust Lannes, Du- roc, Louis Bonaparte, Eugene Beauhar- nois, and others. June 9, the armament appeared before Malta. Bonaparte solicit- ed of baron von Hompesch, the grand mas- ter, permission to procure a supply of fresh Avater from the island. His refusal afforded a pretext for the conquest of the island, which had been long contemjilat- ed. The next morning, the French had landed on all points, and at evening, notAvithstanding a brisk cannonade, were masters of the island, which was surren- dered at midnight, with all its fortresses. The victors left a garrison of 4000 men, and, on the 19th, sailed for Alexandria. July 1, die minarets of Alexandria Avere seen, and Bonaparte issued an Order on board the fleet in which he exhorted his army to endure with patience the diffi- culties before them, to respect the reUgion of Mohammed, and the customs of the Egyptians, not to plunder, to imitate the Roman legions in protecting all religions. Nelson had been here a short time be- fore in search of the French. The ap- prehension that he might soon return induced the general to hasten the disem- barkation of the troops. This Avas ac^ complished, without interruption, July 2, at Marabout, an anchorage to the east of Alexandria, notwithstanding the wind and Avaves were unfavorable. The French army marched, without cannons or horses, towards Alexandria. Bonaparte Avas him- self on foot. Some Arabs attacked the French; general Kleber Avas severely wounded. On the 5th, Alexandria was taken, and immediately fortified. Rosette was taken at the same time, by general Marmont, and, July 6, the whole fleet was moored in the roads before Aboukir, 426 CAMPAIGN OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. Garrisons Avere left in Alexandria (where Kleber Avas made governor), Rosetta and Aboukir, and the army, now 30,000 strong, inarched in 5 divisions towards Cairo, the capital of Egypt. Not far from it, near die pyramids of Gizeh, a decisive battle was fought. Murad Bey had en- trenched himself there, Avith about 20,000 Mameluke infantry, several thousand Mameluke cavalry, and 40 pieces of can- non. The Avell-directed fire of die French, and the resolution with which they used dieir bayonets, frustrated all the attacks of the Mamelukes, who fled to the con- tiguous deserts, as soon as the camp and village of Embabey were taken by storm. All the cannon and 400 camels fell into ti>e hands of the French; 3000 ofthe en- emy lay dead on the field; the French lost feAV men in comparison. This happened on the 23d, and Bonaparte entered Cairo on the 24th ; for Ibrahim Bey, who was to cover it after the unfortunate issue of the battle of the pyramids, was driven by De- saix over the deserts to Upper Egypt Na- poleon established a government here, con- sisting of seven members, summoned the sheiks, mollas and sheriffs, Avho promised to acknowledge the French republic, and, on his side, pledged himself to respect the Mohammedan reUgion, and the property of the inhabitants. July 25, general Bo- naparte left Cairo to pursue the Mam- elukes, and, after many combats with them, returned to the capital, leaving Regnier as commandant of the province of Charquich. On his return to Cairo, an aid of Kleber brought him the news ofthe defeat ofthe French fleet at Abou- kir (q. v.) by Nelson. The defeat was in part owing to the negligence of admiral Brueys and vice-admiral ViUeneuve, who allowed themselves to be surprised, when the whole fleet was taking in water, and not ready for battle, and who have always been said to have acted against the express orders of general Bonaparte, who had directed them to enter the harbor of Alexandria, or to sail for Corfu, before he left the shore to penetrate into the coun- try. Bourienne, however, in his Memoires (Paris, 1829), asserts that Bonaparte never gave such orders.* General Bonaparte saAv his communication with France threatened, and himself exposed to the greatest of all enemies, want. Exaspe- rated by the transformation of so impor- tant a dependency as Egypt into a French * Bonaparte wrote an affectionate letter to the widow of admiral Brueys, who had been killed in the battle of Aboukir, gave her a pension after he became consul, and educated her sons. province, the Porte declared war against France, September 2, 1798, and menaced an attack from the side of Asia. The in- habitants of Cairo rebeUed. Many of the French, especially the savants, artists and mechanics, were murdered; but, after a bloody conflict in the city, September 23 and 25, die insurgents, who had fled to the principal mosque, were compelled to surrender unconditionally. After the res- toration of quiet Bonaparte, having or- ganized a system ofgovernnient for Egypt, on French principles, marched, February 27, 1799, Avith about 18,000 men, from Cairo to Syria, took the fort of El-Arish, in the desert, then Jaffa, and, having con- quered the inhabitants of Naplous, at Zeta, procured there a supply of provisions, which he greatly needed, in order to be able to undertake the siege of St. Jean d'Acre, and Avas again victorious at Jafet In die mean Avhile, the English, who had appeared before St. Jean d'Acre under sir Sidney Smith, had succeeded in reinforc- ing the Turkish garrison of this place with seA-eral hundred infimtry and artillery, and introducing ammunition. This enabled the Turks to repel several assaults, and, notwithstanding the most violent fire from the French batteries, to sustain the attack so long, that Bonaparte Avas obliged to raise the siege. During this siege, general Bonaparte marcjied, with 25,000 men, towards the plain of Fiuli, av here 40,000 of the enemy had assembled. On the 16th and 17th of April, they were beaten in the memorable battle of mount Tabor, near the Jordan. It was on the retreat from St. Jean d'Acre, that the Turkish prisoners Avere said to have been put to death at Jaffa, and the Frencli soldiers, sick of the plague in the hospitals, poi- soned. (For some remarks on this sub- ject, see the article Jaffa.) A third of the army had become the victims of war and the plague. After a fatiguing march of 26 days, the teoops arrived at Cairo. A Turkish fleet soon after landed 18,000 men at Aboukir, who took the fort there. Bonaparte quickly led his best troops thither, stationed himself near the foun- tain between Alexandria and Aboukir, and offered battle to the Turks, July 25. Mustapha Pacha, with all his retinue and artillery, was taken ; 2000 Turks perished in the waves or in battle, and the remain- der of the army, which had thrown itself into the fort of Aboukir, Avas compelled to surrender unconditionally Aug. 2. By this victory, general Bonajiarte's power in Egypt was again confirmed. At this pe- riod, the French had experienced consid- uAiur/uiiix Ur THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. 427 erable reverses in Europe. The battle of the Trebia hail been lost die French had evacuated the Genoese territory, Massena, in Switzerland, was in great danger. General Bonaparte saw the dan- ger of his country, and the loss of his conquests in Italy, and resolved to return, having from the beginning permission to do so whenever he chose. But how could he have known the state of things in Europe ? It has been often asserted, that he obtained his information from English papers, which the French officers had received from the English, when engaged in the exchange of prisoners. But Avould the general have undertaken so important a step merely on the authority of the English papers, which were known to contain many misrepresentations? The fact is, that his brother Joseph sent a Greek of Cejihalonia, named Bombachi, to induce him to return. The order which gave the command to Kleber was dated August 22, 1799, and contained wise directions resjiecting the army and coun- try. The instructions contain two keys of ciphers, one to be used in communica- tions to the directoiy, and the other in those made to himself. The conclusion, also, shows, that it did not escape him how necessaiy it might become, in some future time, to have the army personally attached to him. By the time his de- parture Avas known to the army, Bona- parte's frigate had weighed anchor. Au- gust 23, he left Aboukir in the Muiron, a Venetian vessel, commanded by rear-ad- miral Gantheaume. The situation of the troops under Kleber's command became more critical every day. General Verdier repelled a new disembarkation of the Turks, in November, 1799; but, for an army that could not be recruited, the smallest loss was serious.' The advices from Europe were not encouraging; and, at this juncture, Kleber, having been in- formed that the grand vizier was march- ing from Syria to Egypt, with a large ar- my, concluded, January 24, 1800, the treaty of El-Arish, with the vizier and sir Sidney Smith. By this treaty it was provided, that a truce should be granted to the Frencli for three months, till the ratification of the teeaty, when they should evacuate Egypt. But the letter of Kleber to the directory, in which he set forth the miserable state of the army, and urged the ratification of tlie treaty, fell into the hands of the EngUsh admiral Keith, and was sent to England. It was now demanded tiiat the whole French army should be made prisoners of war, Kleber immediately resumed his arms, and defeated the vizier at HeliopoUs, March 18, exacted a tax for the payment of his soldiers, formed new regiments of the Copts and Greeks, gave security to the coasts, and founded magazines. In the midst of his untiring activity, he Avas murdered in Cairo by a Turk, June 14, and tlie command devolved on Abdallah Menou. Meantime the English govern- ment had resolved to wrest Egypt from the French. March l,die English fleet arrived before Alexandria, and, on the 13th, the disembarkation was accomplish- ed at Aboukir. The French, about 4000 men strong, gave battle on the next day, but were forced to retire. Aboukir sur- rendered on the 18th, and the English entrenched themselves there. On the 21st, Menou commenced an attack, Avith 10,000 men, was beaten, and threw him- self into Alexandria. But the English general Abercrombie was mortally wound- ed, and died on the 28th; Hutchinson succeeded him in die command. On the 28th, reinforcements were brought by a Turkish fleet and the vizier was now ap- proaching from Syria. On the 19th of April, Rosetta surrendered to the com- bined forces of the EngUsh and Turks. A French corps of 4000 men was defeated at Ramanieh, by 8000 English and 6000 Turks. 5000 French were obliged to re- treat, at Elmenayer, May 16, by the vizier, who was pressing forward to Cairo, with 20,000 men ; and the whole Frencli army was now blocked up in Cairo and Alexan- dria. June 20, the siege of Cairo was for- mally commenced. There Avere but 7000 men to defend the city against 40,000. It capiftilated, June 27, to the English and Turks, on condition that general Belliard and his troops should evacuate the city and country, should be transported to France at the expense of England, and that the native Egyptians should be per- mitted to accompany him. August 17, they embarked at Rosetta, and arrived at Toulon in September, 1801, about 13,000 in number, of whom hardly 4000 Avere armed. General Menou still remained in Alexandria. Admiral Gantheaume had sailed, before Belliard's arrival, with sev- eral ships of the line, and from 3 to 4000 troops, from France, and arrived before Alexandria, but Avas compelled to hasten back to Toulon, with a loss of 4 corvettes. On the other hand, the English had re- ceived 5000 fresh troops from England, and now attacked Alexandria. They were already masters of castle Marabout, when Menou requested a truce; to which 428 CAMPAIGN OF THE FRENCH IN EGYPT. he was impelled by a Avant of provisions, and a new reinforcement which had joined the British, consisting of 6000 men under general Baird, from the East Indies. Menou cajiitulated September 2. Alex- andria, with all the artiUery and ammuni- tion, 6 French shijis of war, and many merchantmen, together with all the Ara- bian manuscripts, all the maps of Egypt and other coUections made for the French rcpubUc, Avere given up. The French army Avas Uansjiorted, Avith its arms and baggage, to a French harbor, which they reached at the end of November. The gar- rison of Alexandria had comprised above 8000 soldiers, and 1307 marines. Three years and six months had elapsed since the first embarkation at Toulon. Four weeks after the loss of Egypt the prelim- inaries of peace were signed at London, October 1,1801.*—This expedition to the valley of the Nile, as far as Philae, on the frontiersof Nubia—the island which served as the extreme frontier post ofthe Roman emjiire in the south (a German, named Waldeck, however, pretends to have dis- covered a pillar, erected by Vespasian's Avarriors, at the foot of the Mountains of the Moon)—was attended with imjiortant consequences for the higher interests of humanity; because science and art, in this expedition, went hand in hand with Avar. Those who say that Napoleon was not a friend to the arts and sciences will find it difficult to name any expedition, in which such ample provision was made for their advancement. These campaigns revealed to scientific Europe treasures which had been too long concealed by tyranny and barbarism. The ancient Denderah, Thebes, Latopolis and Edfu Avere disclosed, Avith their temples, pala- ces, ruins, obelisks and catacombs, to the vievv of the learned men Avho accompanied the exjiedition to Egypt Secrets which neither Herodotus, Strabo nor Diodorus had been able entirely to penetrate, and * In R. R. Madden's Travels in Egypt, Nu- bia, Turkey and Palestine, in tHe years 1821, 25, 26 and 27, London, 1819, reprinted in Philadel- phia, it is stated, that the French were much re- gretted by the Egyptians, and extolled as bene- lactors j that, " for. tlie short period they remain- ed, they left manifold traces of amelioration;" and that, if they could have established their ower, Eijypt would now be comparatively civi- zed. This reminds us of the regret which most intelligent Spaniards now express at the failure of the French to establish their power in Spain; and we have heard Hessians lament the loss of many institutions established in the kingdom of Westphalia, though nobody can deny that Jerome's government was defective in a high degree, which had remained closely hidden from die view of all modern travellers, were noAV unfolded. The so long misunderstood Egyptian architecture was noAV disjilayed in all its grandeur; and the veil was rais- ed, Avhich had formerly covered a ,-reat portion of the history, the manners, the science and geography of this country. In one and the same spirit, this people inscribed on the walls of its palaces, tem- ples and sepulchres, the images of its gods and kings, the forms of its celestial ob- servations, of its sacred usages and do- mestic Ufe. These monuments of stone are the oldest traces of the human mind, shoAving to us the customs of nations in the ages reputed fabulous. The study of. antiquities and legislation, as avcII as the history of Egypt, teaches aneAV the great truth, that all progress in the arts and sciences has an intimate connexion vrith the spirit of the political constitution and government of a country, and the ne- cessity of a careful obseirance of justice and right. We noAV know, that, of all civilized nations, the Egyjitians were the first to observe the course of the stars; since Europe has become acquainted, by means of the French, with the sculpture and architecture in which the Egyptians imbodied in stone their astronomical knowledge. Thus the zodiac of Dende- rah (see Denderah), now in Paris, and oth- er monuments, show the progress which this people had made in astronomy. Previously, no one suspected the exist- ence ofthe store of pajiyrus manuscripts, which were found in the catacombs of Thebes. The rich decorations of tliese catacombs, including paintings almost un- injured by time, give us a glimpse of the habits and domestic life of the generation by whom they were built; and the dis- covery of the famous stone of Rosetta has done much towards affording the long- desired clue to the hieroglyphics. (See Spohn.) The monuments of Egypt Avit- nessed the rise and fall of Tyre, Carthage, Athens and Rome, and yet exist. When Plato lived, they Avere venerable for their antiquity, and will command the admira- tion of future generations, Avhen, perhaps, every trace of our cities shall have van- ished. In the Egyjitian nation, every thing that concerned religion and govern- ment partook of the character of eternity, in a climate where all animal and vegeta- ble life rises speedily to perfection, and as speedily decays. The permanence ofthe institutions of the country was certainly influenced by the sight ofthe public mon- uments, on which time had tried its cor* EGYPT—EICHHORN. 429 roding power in vain. While beholding these stupendous works, we reflect with awe on the generations that have passed aAvay since they arose, and the ages that must elapse before the pyramids shall bow their heads to the dust Eveiy thing that zeal in die cause of science, combined with the most extensive knoAvl- edge, has been able to collect in a land rich as Egypt is in monuments of every kind, and in the rarest curiosities, is com- prised in a Avork, compiled at the cost of tlie French government, by the commit- tee for Egyptian antiquities. This Avork corresponds, in the grandeur of its propor- tions, to the edifices which it describes. The Description de I'Egypte, ou Recueil des Observations et des Recherckes pendant VExpedition de I'Armee Frangaise, 25 vols., with more than 900 engravings and 3000 sketches (the last number apjieared in 1826), contains all the transactions of the institute of Cairo. The first of tlie three great divisions contains the antiquities, the second the modem condition, and the third the natural history of Egypt. In compliance with the wishes of Napoleon, only a few cojiies were printed. Of these, a small number were sent to foreign courts. None of the essays were re- ceived till after a previous examination by a committee consisting of the savants and artists who had accomjianied the ar- my under Bonaparte to Egypt. Among these Avere Berthollet, Costar, Degenettes, Fourier, Girard, Monge, Conte and Lau- rent The place of the two last, who died during the progress ofthe Avork, was supjilied by Jomard and Jallois, to whom were afterwards added DeliUe and De- Afilliers. Louis XVIII and Charles X caused the pubUcation of this valuable work to be continued, and, in 1821, Panckoucke, a bookseller in Paris, Avas permitted to undertake a neAV edition, and make use of the Araluable copperplates of the former edition. Jacotin's splendid map of Egypt, constructed by the French engineers on the spot, is annexed to the Atlas of Egyjit The discoveries of Champollion (q. v.), and the prevalent zeal for investigating the "country of wonders," may be said to have had their origin in the French expedition to Egypt. Tlie cha|itcr on this expedition, in sir Walter Scott's Life of Napoleon Bona- parte, is very deficient and incorrect. The account of this expedition and ofthe motives which prompted it, given in the third and eighth chapters of the second volume of Buchholz's Gesckichte Napoleon Bonaparte's (History of N. Bonaparte), Berlin, 1829,3 vols., is better. See also the memoirs of the duke of Rovigo (Savary). There has been pubUshed, quite recently, die first livraison of L'Histoire scientifique et militaire de I'Expedition Francaise en Egypte (Paris, 1830), under the direction of X. 13. Saintine, with an atlas, preceded by a history of Egyjit from the earliest times, and with an account of the administration of AU Pacha, and likewise Campagne d'Egypte, suite de I'Histoire. de France, par Anquetil, 3d vol. by F. Fayot, Paris, 1830. Egyptian Mythology. (See Cemetery, Charon, and Hieroglyphics.) Ehrenbreitstein ; an imjiortant for- tress, on a rock upon the Rhine, opposite Coblentz, in the former archbishopric of Treves. The French continued to block- ade it in 1798 and 1799, during the ne- gotiations for peace, till at length it was obliged to surrender for want of provis- ions, January 29, and, in 1801, was blown up. At the bottom of the rock, near the little town of Thal-Ehrenbreitstein, is the castle of die elector, which, however, Avas in great jiart destroyed during the siege. In 1802, the dilapidated fortress, the vil- lage, and the jurisdiction appertaining to it were bestowed upon the prince of Nassau- Wcilberg, by way of indemnity. They Avere subsequently ceded to Prussia, and now belong to the Prussian grand-duchy of the Lower Rhine (the province of Cleves-Berg). The fortress has been late- ly rebuilt on the newest and most ap- proved princijiles, so that it is considered one of the finest fortresses in die world. (See Coblentz.) Ehrexstriem ; a Swedish officer, one of the principal persons engaged in die consjiiracy against the regency, 1793. At the death of Gustavus III, from whom he had received several marks of honor and trust, he joined a conspiracy, headed by baron Armfelt (q. v.), to overturn the re- gency, and raise the young king to the throne, before the time ajijioiuted by law, and the will of Gustavus III. The plot was accidentally discovered. Armfelt es- caped, and the Avhole Aveight of vengeance fell upon his accomplices. Ehrenstrcem defended himself with eloquence and abil- ity on his trial, but Avas sentenced to die. He Avent with calmness and resolution to the scaffold ; and the executioner was on the point of giving the death stroke, when it was announced that his sentence was commuted to perpetual imprisonment. On the accession of Gustavus IV, he Avas released, and withdreAv into retirement, with a pension from the king. Eichhorn, John Godfrey, one of the 430 EICHHORN—EICHSTAEDT. greatest scholars of Germany in Oriental literature, biblical criticism, and literary and general history, born 1752, at Dorren- zimmern, in the principality Hohenlohe- Ohringen, was at first rector ofthe school at Ohrdruf, in the principality of Gotha; in 1775, was made professor at Jena, Avhere he remained till 1788, AA-hen he became professor in Gottingen. He gave the first eA'idence of his knowledge of Oriental lit- erature and history in his History of the Commerce of the East Indies before Mo- hammed (Gotha, 1775). At Gottingen, he devoted himself chiefly to biblical crit- icism. The results of his inquiries were published in his Allgemeine Bibliothek der biblischen Literatur, from 1788 to 1801, closnig with the tenth Aolume. This work is connected with a previous Avork published by him, fi-om 1777 to 1786, in 18 parts, called Repertorium fur biblische und morgenlandische Literatur. He also published an Introduction to the Old and New Testaments (the former went through a fourth edition in 1824); also, the Apoc- ryphal Writings. These last works Avere published afterwards together, under the title of Critical Writings, in a revised edition (Leipsic, 7 vols., 1804—1814). TUese works contributed much to spread a sound criticism ofthe Scriptures, ground- ed on a knowledge of sacred antiquities, and the Oriental modes of thinking. To diese works may be added his Primitive History (Urgeschichte), published at Nu- remberg, 1790—93, Avith an introduction and notes, by Gabler, in which he criti- cally examines the Mosaic records. Eich- hom afterwards turned his attention to history. He formed the plan of a history of the arts and sciences, from their revi- val to the end of the 18th century, of which particular parts have appeared un- der different titles (e. g., The History of Poetry and Eloquence, by Bouterwek; The History of Military Science, by Hoyer), and form sejiarate works. Eichhorn wrote, with this view, two volumes of a Gene- ral History of European Civilization and Literature in modern Times. He did not finish it and afterwards gave up the direc- tion of this undertaking. He began, in 1799, a survey of the whole history of lit- erauire, but did not finish the 2d volume till 1814 (containing the history of lite- rature for the three last centuries). He has composed several valuable historical Avorks, of which, among others, his Ancient History of the Greeks and Romans, con- sisting entirely of extracts from the origi- nal historians, are in high repute (An- tiqua Historia ex ipsis vderum Script. Ro- man. Narratwnabus contexta, Gottingen, 1811, 2 vols. ; Antiqua Historia ex ipsis vet. Script. Graec. Narrut. contexta, Leip- sic, 1(^12, 4 vols.). In 1H04, he published the first edition of his History of the three last Centuries, considered in a gen- eral view, and in relation to the changes that have occurred in the particular coun- tries of Europe, Asia, Africa and Ameri- ca. In 1818 appeared a 3d edition in six volumes, Avhich brings down the history to the latest period. His last historical work is the Early History of the Illustrious House ofthe Guelphs (Hanover, 1817), in which he traces back the history of that family to the earliest times which afford any notices of it. Several sejiarate treatis- es of his are to be found in the commenta- ries of the Gottingen society of science, and in the Fundgruben des Orients. Since 1813, he has conducted the Gottin- gen Literary Gazette. Eichhorn, Frederic Charles, a distin- guished student of German history and law, son of the preceding, was born at Je- na, 1781. He studied at Gottingen, was an instructor there a considerable time, and, in 1805, was appointed professor of law in Frankfort on the Oder; after that at Berlin, 1811, where he remained till 1817, when he removed to the same office in Gottingen. He distinguished himself in the campaign of 1813 against the French, and received the iron cross. His History of the German Politics and Ju- risprudence first appeared 1808—18 ; 3d edition, Gottingen, 1821—23, 4 vols. In company with Savigny and Goschen, he has published, since 1816, A Historical Journal of Jurisprudence, in wlrich is to be found his treatise on the origin of the German cities, which serves as a further exposition of his views given in the work mentioned above. Eichstaedt, Henry Charles Abraham, a distinguished philologist of modern times, was born Aug. 8, 1770, at Oschatz, where he was partly educated by his fa- ther, a clergyman. He is now professor in the university of Jena, and editor of the Je- naische Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung (Jena Universal Literary Gazette). His works are some editions ofthe classics (Diodorus Siculus, Halle, 1800—2,2 vols., and Lucre- tius, Leijisic, 1801), critical treatises, illus- trating the genuine princijiles of interpre- tation (De dramate Gratcorum comico-sa- tyrico, Leipsic, 1793, and on Tibullus,Pha- drus, &c), also translations of histories, re- lating principally to Greek or Roman antiq- uity, e. g. Mitford's History of Greece, from the English, Leipsic, 1802—8, 6 vols. EICH STAEDT-EISEN ACH. 431 Eichstaedt is distinguished for the ele* gance, force and ease of his Latin style. Eider Duck (anas mollissima, Lin., Wilson ;fvligula, Bon.) This valuable bird is found from 45° north to the highest latitudes yet visited, both in Europe and America. Its favorite haunts are soUtery rocky shores and islands. In Greenland and Iceland, they occur in great quanti- ties. In particular spots, their nests are so abundant, that a person can scarcely walk without treading on them. The eider duck is about tAvice the size of the com- mon duck. Their nests are usually formed of drift grass, dry sea-weed, fined Avith a large quantity of down, Avhich the female plucks from her own breast In this soft bed she lays five eggs, which she covers over with a layer of down; then the natives, Avho watch her operations, take away both the eggs and the down: the duck lays a second time, and again has recourse to the feathers of her body to protect her off- sjiring: even this, with the eggs, is general- ly taken away; and it is said, that, in this extremity, her own stock being exhausted, the drake furnishes the third quantity of down: if the robbery should be repeated, however, they abandon the place. One female generally furnishes about half a pound of down, which is worth about two dollars. This down, from its superior warmth, lightness and elasticity, is pre- ferred by the luxurious, to every other ar- ticle for beds and coverlets; and, from the great demand for it those districts in Nor- way and lceland,Avhere these birds abound, are regarded as the most valuable proper- ty, and are guarded with the greatest vigi- lance. Each projirietor endeavors, by ev- ery means in his power, to draw those birds from his neighbor's ground to his own, and Avhen they settle in an island off the, shore, the cattle and herdsmen are re- moved to allow them to breed undisturb- ed. Very little of the eider down remains in the countries where it is collected. As found in commerce, this down is in balls of the size of a man's fist, and weighing from three to four pounds. It is so fine and elastic, that when a ball is opened, and the down cautiously held over hot coals to expand, it wiU completely fill a quilt five feet square. The down from dead birds is little esteemed, having lost its elasticity. The length of this duck is two feet three inches, extent ofthe wings three feet, weight from six to seven pounds: die head is large, and the bill of singular structure, being three inches in length, forked in a remarkable manner, running high up in the forehead, between which the plumage descends nearly to the nos- trils : the whole of the bill is of a dull yellowish horn color, somewhat dusky in the middle. The male is black, head and back white, widi a black croAvn. The female is wholly reddish drab, spotted with black, with two white bands across the wings. The young of both sexes are the same, being covered with a kind of hairy down, throat and breast whitish, and a cinereous line from die bill through the eyes to the hind head. These birds asso- ciate in flocks, generally in deep water, diving to great depths for shell fish, which constitute their principal food. They fre- quently retire to the rocky shores to rest particularly on the appearance of an ap- proaching storm. Their flesh is eaten by the Greenlanders, but tastes strongly of fish. The eggs, however, are esteemed. These and the down are both frequently obtained at the hazard of life by peojile let down by ropes from craggy steeps. With five pounds of the best eider down, a Avhole bed may be well filled. The Greenlanders likewise use the skin, taken offj feathers and all, for their under dress- es. The doAvn is divided into two sorts; sea-weed down, and grass doAvn. The former kind is the heaviest; but the labor of cleaning is greater. Much of the down is lost in cleaning. Iceland furnishes an- nuaUy from 200 to 300 pounds cleaned, and from 1500 to 2000 jiounds impure. Eifel ; a district rich in monuments of the Romans, and of the middle ages, ly- ing between the Moselle, the Rhine and the Roer. Schannat's Eiflia illustrata was published by Barsch in Latin, with anno- tations (Cologne, 1824, 2 vols.). Eisenach (anciently Isenacum); a town in Germany, and capital of a principality of the same name, belonging to the grand- duchy of Saxe-Weimar, on the Nesse; 26 miles west Erfurt, 40 Avest Weimar ; lon. 10° 2C E.; lat. 50° 59' N; popula- tion, 7845. It is a AveU built town, and contains five churches, a gymnasium with a library, and has some manufactures, chiefly of coarse woollen. It is most agree- ably situated, near the mountains of Thu- ringia. Half a league from this town lies the Wartburg, an ancient mountain cas- tle, to which the elector, Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, "ordered Luther to be carried, after the latter had been placed under the bann of the empire, by the diet at Worms. Luther Uved here as the chevalier George, from May 4,1521, to March 6,1522, and labored zealously in the translation of the Bible. The view from this castie over an ocean of leaves is charming. In 1817, 432 EISENACH—EJECTMENT. many German students assembled here, and celebrated the anniversary of the bat- tle of Leijisic (Oct 18, 1813). The zeal which they evinced for the union of their divided and lacerated country, together with the burning of various bookf, the political character of which was offensive to them, displeased the German govern- ments, and gave rise to the prosecution of many students supjiosed to be disaffected. The War on the Wartburg is an ancient German poem, of great interest in the his- tory of German literature. Mr. Zeune pubUshed it in 1818. Ejectment, in law, is an action by which a person ousted from the jiosses- sion of an estate for years, in lands or ten- ements, may recover that jiossession. But, though the action is intended only for the recovery of a term for years, it is, in fact, used, in England and the state of New York, to try the title to an estate of inher- itance or for life. In the early periods of the English law, the tenant, or jierson dis- possessed of his estate for years, could not recover the possession of it in this action, in the courts of law; he could only recov- er damages for the injury sustained by be- ing driven from the jiossession; but the disposscssor kept possession of the term, just as is the case at jiresent in the action of trover and conversion, in respect to a chattel, in which the owner does not re- cover the chattel itself, but damages for being dejirived of it But the court of equity, in this case, as in many otiiers, led the way in ameliorating the law, and en- larged the remedy, so that the plaintiff might recoA'er the term itself; and the courts of law, following those of equity, as early as Edward IV, adopted the same remedy, and aAvarded execution for put- ting the plaintiff into repossession of his estate, though no such thing was warrant- ed by the Avrit or prayed for by the dec- laration. After taking this step, the next one was to adopt the same form of action for trying the title to the lands. This ap- plication of the action of ejectment was made as early as the time of Henry VII. To do this, the person who claimed an es- tate of inheritance, of which another was in possession, entered upon it, and then made a lease, and the lessee took posses- sion, and remained upon the land in virtue of the lease, until the person claiming un- der an adverse title put him out; or, if no such person appeared to expel him from the land, he pretended to be driven off by the first person who happened to pass that wav, and who Avas thence called the casu- al ejector, who Avas, in fact, no ejector at all. Being dius ejected in fact or by fic- tion, he brought his action of ejectment or the party claiming die title brought it in his name, and in this suit the title was ne- cessarily brought into question; for, in or- der to get possession, he must proA'e that he had a good and A-alid lease, which he would endeavor to do by showing that tho lessor had the right to make such a lease, that is, that he had the title and right of possession. Besides proving the title of his lessor, he must also jirove the lease, his entry under it, and his ouster, or being driven out of possession. When the ob- ject was to try the title, the lease, entry and ouster were a mere ceremony, and might as well be supposed or imagined as actu- ally to take place. The courts, according- ly, allowed a fiction of the lease, entry and ouster; the plaintiff stated them to have taken place, though there had, in fact, been no such thing, nor was there any such person as the one named as being the lessee, avIio, in England, is always John Doe, and in New York, Jackson. Thus the action of Doe or Jackson ex dem. [demisso] Johnson, against Samjison, means the action of Doe or Jackson, the lessee of Johnson, against Sampson. If the nomi- nal plaintiff, Doe or Jackson, were liable to be called upon to show himself to the court, there would be an end of the suit, as there would be no such person to be found. Nor would the demandant succeed any better, were he called upon to jirove that there had been any such lease, entry or ouster; as all this is a fiction. Former- ly, the defendant also, the casual ejector, as well as the plaintiff, was a man of straw, or little better; for he was frequently a per- son who accidentally came in sight at the time of making the lease, if there was any in fact made, and who would not be dis- posed to trouble himself to prevent the demandant from getting possession of land, in which he himself had no interest or concern ; or he might be a friend of the demandant, who had come upon the land at his request, to act as ejector, and would be very Avilling that the demandant should recover it. The tenant, therefore, who is in actual possession of the estate, unless his right is defended by some other person than the indifferent defendant whosename appears on the docket of the court, is like- ly to lose his inheritance. To prevent this, the court alloAVS him to appear himself, and defend against the claim and the court: always requires that notice shall be served upon him, to give him an opportunity to appear. But before the court will permit him to appear for this purpose, they re- EJECTMENT—ELASTICITY. 433 quire of him to admit all these fictions of a lease to John Doe, his entry and ouster, wlrich he is willing to do rather than lose his land. These being admitted by him, he may then proceed to defend the action, and uy the question, whether he has a bet- ter right to continue in possession, than this supposed John Doe has to recover the possession, upon his supjiosed lease. The titles of the demandant and tenant are thus brought into comparison, and decided upon. But when the object is, in fact, to recover a term fo/ years, of Avhich the de- mandant has be«n dispossessed, the lease, entry and ouster are of importance, and must be proved. El, or Al ; the only article of the Ara- bian language. It is contained in ma- ny geographical names; for instance, Al- djezair (Algiers), the islands; El-Arisch, the cradle. This syllable has remained in many names of places in Spain and Por- tugal, as Alcantara, the bridge; Alcazar, the palace; Algarve, the west. Elain; the oily principle of fat, ob- tained by submitting fat to the action of boiling alcohol, allowing the stearin to crystallize, and then evaporating the alco- hoUc solution ; or, by the simple process of pressing any oily or fatty substance be- tween folds of bibulous paper, the oily matter or elain is absorbed, while the stearin remains. The paper being then soaked in water, and pressed, yields up the elain. It possesses much the appearance and properties of vegetable oil, is liquid at the temperature of 60° Fahr., and has an odor derived from the solid fats from which it has been extracted. It is readily soluble in alcohol, and forms soaps with alkalies; in doing which, however, it undergoes de- composition, and is converted, according to Chevreul, into a peculiar acid, called by him oldc acid, which combines with the alkali employed. This acid is obtained by submitting the soap formed by the action of potash on hog's lard to the action of boiling water; the solution, on cooling, de- posites a sediment, consisting of the mar- garate of jiotash, while the oleate of pot- ash remains in solution. The oleate of potash is decomposed by tartaric acid, again combined with potash, and again decomposed by tartaric acid, when the oleic acid rises to the top in the condition of an oily-like fluid. It is insoluble in wa- ter, soluble in alcohol, reddens litmus, and combines Avith the different salifiable bases, forming compounds somewhat analogous to soaps. At a temperature of 35° Fahr., it congeals into crystalline needles. Elastic Gum. (See Caoutdiouc.) vol. iv. 37 Elalia; a town of Africa, in Tunis, near the eastern coast hi a large extent of ruins, on the borders of a fertile plain; 90 S. S. E. Tunis; lon. 11° 2' E.; lat 35° & N. Besides such ruins as it has in com- mon with other places, there are several cisterns with large paved areas built over them, in order to receive the rain water, that, in the rainy season, is to fill and re- plenish them. Several conveniences of the like nature are dispersed all over this dry country. Elalia seems to be the Acolla or Acilla of the ancients. Elasticity ; the peculiar property of bodies, by virtue of which, the particles of which they are composed, when moved out of their positions by an external force, or pressed into a narrower space, tend to return to their former position, as soon as the external force ceases to act. A bow, bent by the tension of the string, recovers its previous form when the tension is re- laxed. Let an ivory ball fall upon a plate of marble, it is partially flattened by the impulse, but becomes immediately round again as soon as the force of the blow is destroyed. Here we see the cause of its rebounding from the hard surface. Feath- ers are in a high degree elastic. This prop- erty of elasticity is particularly observa- ble in atmospheric air. If it is enclosed in a vessel, and pressed with a piston, as soon as the force is removed from the pis- ton, the air throws it up violently. This is the principle of the air-gun. There is an imjiortant difference between the elas- ticity of solids and fluids; the former tend to recover their previous form; the latter to exjiand into a greater space, whence the term expansibility is applied to them. For the sake of distinction, the elasticity of solid bodies may be termed attractive, and diat of fluids, expansive. The degree of it is veiy different in different bodies, and in many it is increased by art. Those bodies in which it cannot be perceived at all are called unelastic. The elasticity of a solid body is greater the more its par- ticles are expanded. If all the jiarti- cles of a body are so far exjianded that their elasticity is just equal to the expan- sive power, the expansion can be carried no further without separating the particles. The weights, necessary to produce a giv- en degree of extension, must be projior- tionate to the extension already existing. If three cords, of the same size and sub- stance, stretched in proportion to the num- bers 1,2,3, are to receive each a given amount of additional extension, the weights necessary to produce this extension are as 1,2,3. The laAvs of elasticity in fluids are 434 ELASTICITY-ELBA. different from those in solids. In heavy elastic fluids, the inferior layers support the weight ofthe superior; in a cylindrical ves- sel,therefore,the bottom suffers the pressure of the whole mass of elastic fluid, and the lower strata are sensibly denser than the upper. A difference is made, too, be- tween absolute and specific elasticity. By the former is understood the pecuUar property of bodies to repel a pressing force, in itself, and without regard to tem- perature and density. This must be al- ways equal to the pressing force. But as different kinds of matter may press with equal force under unequal densities and temperatures, that is called specifically most elastic, which with a less density presses with a force equally strong, and with an equal density stronger. In all elastic fluids, the specific elasticity increas- es with the temperature; it is likewise augmented by greater density: if air is confined, and made more dense, its specif- ic elasticity is greater in proportion to its increase of density. Elater ; the name of an insect re- markable for a singular apjiaratus betAveen the thorax and abdomen, by Avhich it is enabled to throAv itself to a considerable height in the air, Avhen placed on its back. It thus regains its proper position when accidentally overturned. The arrange- ment by which this is effected is so curious, that we cannot sujipose it intended solely for this purpose, and deem it most proba- ble that other and more valuable services are rendered to the insect by it. A sjiine is produced from the centre of the breast or sternum, and enters a socket in the an- te-pectus or breast The force and elas- ticity with which the spine enters its ap- propriate receptacle, aided by the form of the thorax, produces a jar or concussion sufficient to throw the insect several inch- es into the air. When alarmed, the elater draws its limbs close to the body, and, falling to the earth quite motionless, coun- terfeits death. Flowers, grass, and decaying wood, are the proper habitations of these animals, which are almost always found singly, and not in numbers collected to- gether, as in the case of many other beetles. One species is accused of depredations on the roots of wheat—the E. striatus of Fab- ricius, an inhabitant of Europe. The da- ter nodUucus possesses lurrrinous proper- ties, which are unlike those of the glow- worm, &c, being seated near the head. In South America, where they abound, the natives term them cucuyos, and the Spanish residents, cucujo. Color, dark brown, with an ash-colored down; tho- rax on each side, with a convex round spot, from which the light is emitted; elytra with lines of impressed punctures. The Ught emitted by several of these Insects, enclosed in a glass vase, is *uifi- cient to read by without much difficulty. As ornaments for die hair and evening dresses of the Spanish ladies, tbey are said to be in great request; but it is proba- ble that the feeble light which they pro- duce would be entirely eclipsed by the glare of artificial light. It has been as- serted, that the luminous quality ofthe cu- cujo is not confined to the spots upon the thorax, but that the whole interior of the animal possesses the property of afford- ing light. This is considered doubtful. Some years since, numbers of this insect were taken in Phdadelplria, having been imported in vessels from South Ameriea. In confinement, they were beautifully lu- minous, and the character of the Ught was observed to be similar to that of the glow-worm. They survived but a short time in captivity, for want of propernour- ishment The luminous phenomena ex- hibited by certain insects are exceedingly curious and beautiful. Every one is ac- quainted Avith the Ughtning-bug, so com- mon in this country, and the female lam- pyis, or glow-worm. (q. v.) The light is a pale, greenish-yellow, phosphorescent em- anation, subject to the will of the animal, who kindles or extinguishes it at pleasure. In day-light, the luminous organs are sim- ply yeUow. Elba (anciently Ilva); a small island in the Mediterranean, near the coast of Tus- cany, to which, at present, it belongs, and from which it is separated by the channel of Piombino. The island is about eight miles in length, and two in breadth ; was known to the Greeks by the name of Aithalai, and to the Romans by that of Ilva, or El- va, and has been renowned for its mines from a period beyond the reach of history. PUny gives it a circuit of 100 miles; late geographers allow only 60 to its circuit. The difference might be accounted for by the encroachments of the sea, and by the tumbling in of rocks, which are in many places of a mouldering contexture. Be- ing extremely mountainous, Elba affords but scanty room for cultivation, and pro- duces Uttle more than six months' provis- ion of corn for its inhabitants. The cU- mate is much milder than that of the ad- jacent continent Elba contains two grand ports—Porto Ferraio, with 3000 inhabi- tants, and Porto Longone, with 1500 in- habitants, both defended by fortifications and garrisons. Lon. 10° 261 E.; lat. 42° ELBA—ELDER. 435 53r N.; population, 13,750; square nriles, 153. It produces annually near 36000 cwt of iron ore, which yield, at least 50 per cent of metal. It is rich in silver, marble and loadstone; 600,000 bags of salt are annually produced. In 1814, Elba was granted to Napoleon, with all the rights of sovereignty. He took possession of it May 4, and left it February 26, 1815, to undertake his memorable march to Paris. Elbe (anciently Albis); one ofthe larg- est rivers of Germany, which rises in the Riesengebirge mountains, about 4260 feet above the level of the sea; takes a south- erly course through a part of Bohemia to Pardubitz, where it turns towards the W. and N. W. At Melneck, having received the Moldau, it becomes navigable; after which it enters Saxony, passes by Konig- stein, Pirnau, Dresden, Meissen, Belgern, enters Prussia, and passes Torgau, Wit- tenberg, Coswick, Dessau, Barby, Magde- burg, Tangermunde, runs between Meck- lenburg and Hanover, passes Lauenburg, Hamburg, Gluckstadt, &c, and runs into the German ocean, about lon. 8° E., lat. 54° 3' N., near Cuxhaven, after a course of more than 500 miles. In a miUtary point of view, the Elbe is ofthe highest impor- tance, and has always been a line of ope- ration. In regard to commerce, it gives to Hamburg its command of the naviga- tion far into the interior, which is sur- passed only by the situation of New York. The circumstance, however, that this no- ble river passes through so many king- doms, dukedoms, and petty states, has rendered the navigation of it a point of much contest which, in spite of the prom- ise of the congress of Vienna to make the navigation of all the German rivers free, has not yet been settled. Elbee, Gigot d', generalissimo of the Vendean royalists, a man of distinguished courage and character, was born at Dres- den, 1752. He served in the electoral army of Saxony, and entered the French army as lieutenant of cavalry. At the be- ginning of the revolution, he retired to his estate in Anjou, where the insurgent peas- ants of La Vendee, in 1793, chose him their leader. He alternately conquered and was conquered; and was at last wounded and taken prisoner, in the island of Noirmoutier, brought before a court- martial, and shot, January 2,1794. Elberfeld ; a commercial city, and capital of the district of Dusseldorf, in the Prussian province of Cleves-Berg, con- taining 1941 houses, and 24,500 inhabitants. Two centuries ago, the population was scarcely 800. The pure mountain stream of theWiipper, particularly adapted to bleaching, first led to the establishment ot linen bleacheries there. The undressed yarn comes from Hesse, Brunswick, Hil- desheim and Hanover. The manufac- tures of Unen and woollen ribands, and ot lace, were the first established. France, Italy, Spain, Russia, America, &c, con- sume vast quantities of these goods. Frin- ges, bed-tickings, thread, thread-lace, &c. employ a large number of workmen.— When the EngUsh process of spinning yarn became knoAvn, the manufacture of cotton articles was highly improved. Dye- ing with Turkish red has been another very important branch of business in El- berfeld since 1780. The silk manufac- ture, since 1760, has been of great impor- tance. The annual amount of the silk stuffs made in the province of Berg is upwards of $2,000,000, and the amount of all the manufactures in Elberfeld and Bar- men is about $9,000,000. Large quanti- ties of manufactures from this place are sent, by way of Hamburg and Antwerp, to Mexico, Buenos Ayres, Chile, Peru and the East Indies. Here is the seat of the Rhenish East India company. In 1824, a mining company Avas established in El- berfeld, with a capital of $375,000, to work mines in Mexico. Elbecf, or Elboeuf ; a town in France, important for its cloth manufacto- ries, in the department of the Lower Seine, four leagues S. S. W. of Rouen.— It has 9090 inhabitants; 7000 of whom manufacture annually from 28 to 30,000 pieces of cloth, most of which is consum- ed in France; the rest is sent to Spain, Italy, and the Levant Elbing ; a town in West Prussia, on the river Elbing, near its entrance into the Frische-Haff; 30 miles S. E. of Dantzic; lon. 19° 22' E.; lat. 54° 8' N; population, 19,434; houses, 2040. It is divided into the old and new towns, exclusive of the sub- urbs, and contains five Lutheran church- es, one Reformed, one Catholic, and one Mennonist five hospitals, and a gymna- sium. In former times, it was an impor- tant commercial place for the exportation of grain, but it has since sunk very much. Elder ; a name given to the different , species ofthe genus sambucus. These are small trees or shrubs, with opposite and pinnated leaves, bearing smaU white flow- ers, in large and conspicuous corymbs.__ The berries are small, and of a black or red color. The leaves are bitter and nau- seous to the taste, and possess purgative and emetic properties. The bark, flowers and berries are sometimes used in medi- 436 ELDER—ELDON. cine, particularly in cases of dropsy. The wood of the young shoots contains a very larjre proportion ot pith. Two species in- habit North America—& Canadensis, a common plant, from the 49th to the 30th parallel of latitude, and found even among the Rocky mountains, the berries of which are black, anil have a sweet taste; and S. pubescens, which bears red berries, and inhabits Canada, the northern parts of New England, and the Alleghany moun- tains. The species called sambucus nigra, common in England, is a wild shrub, dis- tinguishable by its winged leaves, with serrated and somewhat oval leaflets; its clusters of small white flowers, divided into five princijial branches, and the small black berries, by which these are succeed- ed. The uses of the elder are more nu- merous than those of most other shrubs. There is scarcely any part of it which has not been advantageously employed in some way or other. The wood is yellow, and, in old trees, becomes so hard, that it vv ill receive a polish almost as well as box, and indeed is often used as a substitute for box-wood. Its toughness also is such that it is made into skewers for butchers, tops for fishing rods, and needles for the Aveaving of nets. It is likewise employed by turners. Sir J. E. Smith has remark- ed that this tree is, as it were, a whole magazine of jihysic to rustic practitioners, and that it is not quite neglected even by professional men. Ointments have been made of the green inner bark, and of the leaves. The dried floAvers, infused in wa- ter, are used in fomentations or as tea, and, mixed Avith buttermilk, have some- times beeu used as a wash for the face. An infusion of the leaves is sometimes sprinkled by gardeners over the buds of such flowers as they wish to preserve from cater) tillars. Eidc- flowers have an agreeable flavor, which they impart in dis- tillation to water; they are likewise used to give a flavor to vinegar. The berries are poisonous to poultry, but their juice, properly fermented, makes a pleasant and wholesome wine; and, in Germany, a very pure and strong spirit is distilled from them. The juice of elder berries is some- , times employed to give a red color to rai- sin or other sweet wine. The young shoots of this shrub are filled with an ex- ceedingly light pith, which is cut into baUs, for electrical experiments; and is also made into toys for the amusement of children. The elder will thrive in almost any soil and situation; and every part of it has an unpleasant narcotic smell, which ought to render people cautious not to sleep under its shade, since, in such case, it might prove of serious injury to them. Elders. We find among almost all na- tions, in the infancy of civilization, that the oldest men of the tribe, being consid- ered as the most experienced, and the least liable, to be influenced by passion, admin- ister justice, discuss the welfare of the people, &c Many names for the highest officers, in various countries, convey the idea of old age, as senator, which is con- nected with senex. With the ancient Jews, the dders Avere persons the most considerable for age, wisdom and experi- ence. Of this sort were the 70 men whom Moses associated with himself in the gov- ernment. In the modern Presbyterian churches, elders are officers, who, with the pastors or ministers, and deacons, compose the consistories or kirk-sessions, with au- thority to inspect and regulate matters of religion and discipline. In the first churches of New England, the pastors or ministers were called elders, or teaching dders. Eldon, John Scott, earl of, bom 1750, at Newcastle upon Tyne, in Northum- berland, is the third son of a respectable proprietor of coal mines near that town, whose second son was William Scott, the present lord Stowell, better known as sir William Scott. In 1767, John Scott Avas entered at Oxford. His maniage, in 1772, with a lady with whom he elojied to Scotland, prevented Iris promotion in the university. Both families were offended at this rash step; and, after consultation with his brother William, it was determined diat the lost young man, as his brother called him, should enter as a student of the Middle Temple, Avhere he lived in very straitened circumstances. After trav- elling three years in the northern circuit without a single brief, he made his debut at York, with great success. He then re- turned, hoAvever, to London, and devoted himself to the business of the equity courts. Lord Thurlow, avIio had just as- sumed the presidency of the chancery court, became favorable to him, and his success now seemed certain. In 1793, he became attorney-general and sir John Scott. At this critical time, he had to bring numerous charges of high treason against the London corresponding socie- ty, and the acquittal of the accused brought great odium upon the accuser. Just be- fore this period, he had been elected mem- ber of parliament for Weobly. Within three years, he succeeded sir James Eyre, as lord chief justice of the common pleas. He was now made a peer, with the title of ELDON—ELECTION. 437 baron Eldon; and in two years more (1801), he succeeded the earl of Rosslyn as lord chancellor. Five years after, Pitt died, and Fox obliged Irim to surrender the great seal to lord Erskine; and, when the lat- ter retired, in 1807, in consequence of the change of the ministry, he became once more lord high chanceUor, and retained this post until the administration of Can- ning (q. v.), when he joined the opposition, and was one of the warmest opjionents of the Cntholic emancipation bill. (See Cath- olic Emancipation.) He Avas succeeded by lord Lynahurst (See Copley.) Opinions are divided respecting him. lie is accused of unnecessary delay in giving his de- cisions, of obstinate adherence to old forms, and of having thereby retarded the imjirovement of the law. His read- ing is, undoubtedly, very extensive; but he has not distinguished himself by that plrilosoplrical spirit, which discovers gen- eral princijiles in individual cases, and rests on the broad and immutable grounds of general truth. His decisions, however, are greatly respected, and he is one ofthe ablest lawyers that ever sat on the wool- sack. In politics, he is a thorough tory, and one of the most distinguished leaders of his party. His long continuance in office is not to be ascribed solely to his talents, but is owing, in part, to die ac- commodating spirit which has led him to adapt himself to the measures of succes- sive administrations. Eldorado ; a fabulous country, in wlrich gold and precious stones are as common as rocks or sand in other coun- tries. Francis Orellana, a companion of Pizarro, first spread the account of this fabulous region in Europe ; and an Eng- lishman even published, at the end of the 16th century, a description of this favor- ed country, with a map. The German Scldaraffenland, where roasted pigeons fly into one's mouth, or where, as Gothe has it, the vines are tied by sausages to the stocks, is something similar, as is likewise the French pays de cocagne. (See Co- cagna.) Elevtic A Grecian philosophical sect, so called because three of its most cele- brated teachers, Parmenides, Zeno and Leucijijius, were natives of EXta (in Latin, Velia) a town in Magna Grsecia, built by a colon\ of Phocieans, in the time of Cyrus. The founder was Xenophanes. (q. v.) "The sect included two parties, one approving the other rejecting appeals to observation and exjieriment. The latter class main- tained the eternity and immutability of the world, that all which existed was only 37* one being, without generation or corrup- tion, and this was God. The apparent changes in the universe they considered as mere Ulusions of sense. Some learned men have supposed that they understood, by the one being, not the material world, but the originating principle of all things, or the true God, whom they expressly af- firm to be incorporeal. The other branch of the Eleatic sect were die Atomic plri- losophers, who formed their system from attention to the phenomena of nature. Accordingly, Xenophanes maintained that the earth consisted of air and fire ; that all things were produced out ofthe earth, and the sun and stars out of the clouds; and that there were four elements. (For fur- ther information, see CudAvoith's Intellec- tual System, and Brucker's History of Phi- losophy, translated by Enfield.) Elecampane (inula helenium) ; a plant, inhabiting the Eastern continent and now naturalized and frequent in some parts of the U. States, where it grows along road sides, in waste places, &c. It belongs to the natural order compositai. The stem is three or four feet high, thick, pubescent and branching above ; the radical leaves are often two feet and more in length; the floAvers are large and yellow; the root is perennial, possesses a bitter aromatic and somewhat acrimonious taste, and has been celebrated in disorders of the breast and lungs ; it is useful to promote expectora- tion, and is also sudorific. Election, in poUtics. To give an ac- curate description of the elections of pub- lic officers, as they have existed in the various periods of history, would almost be to give the history of poUtics, for which many valuable materials exist, but which, it is much to be regretted, has never yet been fully treated. The subject is worthy of the deepest study of a plrilosoplrical mind; and an enlightened citizen of the U. States would have many advantages were he to undertake the execution of it. It would far exceed our limits, if we should venture to give only a sketch of the vari- ous forms of election which have existed; and we are obliged to limit ourselves to an account of those of the most important modern governments. (For the manner of election of the officers, in the ancient states, Ave refer to the separate articles: for instance, the article Consul describes how that magistrate Avas elected in Rome.) Elections are one of the vital elements of aU free nations; they have, therefore, always occupied much ofthe attention of lawgivers, and may, to a certain degree, be considered as a standard to measure 438 ELECTION. the degree of national liberty. The forms of election may be divided into two kinds: 1. those which have grown up, in the course of time, under the various in- fluences which have contributed to mod- ify the political constitution of the coun- try, such as civil war, or internal troubles, conquest particular laws, &c, as in the case of England; and, 2. those established by a Avritten constitution, of a certain date, as in the U. States and in France. Elec- tions, also, may be divided, like constitu- tions (q. v.), into aristocratic and demo- cratic ; in the former, the person elected representing a much larger number and more classes of citizens than are com- prised in the body of his immediate elec- tors ; in the latter, representing his constit- uents only. Elections, also, may be direct or indirect; in the latter case, the people at large choose electors, who elect the rep- resentative or magistrate, as is the form of elections in Bavaria. The election of the president of the U. States is, in form, indi- rect but is not practically so, because the candidates for the presidency are before the nation, and electors known vy be in favor of a particular candidate are chosen by his partisans, and give their vote accordingly. The princijial advantage gained, therefore, in this case, by intermediate electors, isvhat of order and convenience in baUoting. In England, the election of the members of the house of commons is a subject of the greatest interest to the peojile. The qual- ifications of electors are very different in different parts of the kingdom. Even the county elections, which have been estab- lishes in England by a uniform law, are attended with great inequaUties of repre- sentation ; thus the two members of the county of York represent more than a million of people, whUst the two members for Rutland represent hardly 20,000. Be- sides, die number of freeholders is so small in some counties (the land being OAvneil by a few families, and cultivated by their tenants), and the influence of the great landholders so predominant that the election depends almost entirely upon the richest families in the county. In order to avoid the expenses of a contested election, the famiUes and the other voters sometimes make a compromise;—one member being chosen by die most influ- ential family, the other by the other free- holders ; or, where two very influential families exist they divide the election be- tween them. Thus, in Buckinghamshire, one member is returned by the duke of Portland, the other by the marquis of Buckingham; in Cambridgeshire, the duke of Rutland and the earl of Hard- wicke return the two members. 12 coun- ties are considered quite independent; the other 28 are more or less influenced by the rich families. In what manner this influence is sometimes exerted, was re- cently shown, by the duke of Newcas- tle's turning out all his tenants in New- ark, for no other reason, than that they would not elect a Mr. Sadler, the duke's candidate. The public was indignant at this degree of borough-^mongering, as it was called, though an almost overwhelm- ing influence is exercised, wherever the most powerful famiUes exist The case alluded to can be found in all the princi- pal newspapers of England, jiublished in October, 1829 ; among others, in the Atlas, October 11, 1829. In some cases, a great influence is exerted by families who do not belong to the class of princely land- holders, but who, having been long settled in the county, and comprising numerous branches, collectively jiossess much wealth and official consequence, and combine to effect a common end. Very often, in- deed, the whole election contest is to de- termine which family shall carry its can- didate. The qualifications of electors, in cities, differ according to their charters; and it is well known that whilst hundreds of boroughs, where there are only a few families, or none at all (see Rotten Bor- oughs), send members to parliament pop- ulous places, Uke Manchester, Birming- ham, &<•.., have no rejiresentative. Each county sends two members, the universi- ties of Oxford and Cambridge each two, London, including Westminster and Southwark, eight, and other places return one or two. The members are distributed in the whole United Kingdom as follows: For England, .... 489 members. Ireland,.....100 " Scotland, .... 45 " r Wales,...... 24 " Total . . . 658, of whom 186 are returned from 117 coun- ties, 60 from 32 cities, 396 (called bur- gesses) from 222 boroughs and 3 univer- sities, 16 from 8 cinque ports, &c. (caUed barons),—total 658. If the corruption of the elections in Great Britain is so great how is it that the English nation is yet the freest in Europe ? The cause is one of superior efficacy to any formal constitution—the public spirit diffused through the nation; a spirit which, in the instance of other countries, has often set limits to the power ELECTION. 439 of monarchs nominally absolute. Bribery in elections is extremely common and open in England, notwithstanding the laws against it which have sometimes been enforced. The laws intended to prevent government from influencing the elections are AveU meant, but ridiculous, when we see hundreds of boroughs bought by government Any person who gives or promises any thing to any voter, in order to influence his vote, as well as every voter avIio accepts a bribe, is subject to a fine of £500, and is for ever disabled from voting, and holding any office in any corporation, unless, before conviction, he discover some other offender, when he escajies the punishment of his own of- fence. No officer of the excise, customs, stamps, or certain branches of revenue, is allowed to interfere in elections, by per- suading any voter, or dissuading him, under jienalty of £100, and incapacity for office. All persons are eligible to the house of commons, avIio are not, 1. aliens nor mi- nois; 2. among the 12 judges; 3. clergy- men ; 4. sheriffs, mayors, and bailiffs of boroughs (these are not eligible in their respective jurisdictions ; all members ought in strictness, to be inhabitants of the places for which they are chosen ; but diis rule has always been disregarded, and was entirely abolished under George III). 5. No person is eligible, who is con- cerned in the management of any duties or taxes levied since 1692, except the commissioners of the treasury, nor any excise officers, army and navy agents, governors of plantations, &c, nor any person who holds any office under the crown, created since 1705. 6. No person having a pension under the crown, during pleasure, or for any term of years, is ca- pable of being elected. If any member accejits an office under the crown, except an officer in the army or navy accepting a new commission, his seat is vacated; but such member is capable of being re- elected. Every member returned by a county, or knight of a shire, as he is styled, must have a clear freehold estate of the value of £600 per annum, and every mem- ber returned by a city or borough must have one of the value of £300, except the eldest sons of peers, and of persons quali- fied to be knights ofthe shire, and except the members of the two universities. The mode of election is as follows:—The crown in chancery issues writs to the sheriff of every county, for the election of all the members of the county, and of the cities and boroughs therein. Within three days, the sheriffs must summon the different places to elect the members. The election must begin withni eight days. The election of members for the county is conducted under the presidency of the sheriff himself. Soldiers must be removed, at least one day before the elec- tion, to the distance of at least two miles from the place of election. The lord-war- den of the cinque-ports, lord-lieutenants of counties, and the lords of parliament are prohibited by statute from interfering Avith the elections. We have already shown how all the most essential of these laws are ojienly disregarded. Any native English subject, avIio possesses a freehold of 40 shillings a year, has a right to vote for the members to be chosen by his county. We have before stated that the elective franchise differs in different cities and boroughs, according to their charters. In France, before the revolution, the members of the general representative bo- dy of the realm were chosen by the three estates—the clergy, nobility (including all possessors of noble fiefs), and the third estate (including all possessore of taxable estates). The number was determined by the government, but was not import- ant, because the representatives of" the different estates voted separately, and each body had only an aggregate vote. When the states general were convoked, in 1789, the old rule was followed, with few ex- ceptions. The three estates of each bait- lage prinripal, or senechaussee prinripale, formed the general assembly of the baili- wic, Avbose duty it was to elect the dep- uties of the states general of the king- dom, and to draw up the cakier de doli- ances, or libellus graviminum et desiderio- rum (the list of grievances and Avants). But, even in the letters by which the last assembly of the states was convened, it was intimated, that the form of election should be better adapted to the wants of the nation. In 1791,1792, and 1795, the principle became more and more settled, that the Avhole people have the elective right, excepting those who were immedi- ately dependent on some other persons. When Bonajiarte became first consul, the nation at large only chose names for lists, from which government selected officers, and even the deputies and senators com- posing the legislative body. The charte constitutvonndle (q. a\) conferred the right of election on the electoral colleges (article 35), but with very considerable Umitations. The charte (art 40) allows only diose Frenchmen (30 years old), who pay annu- aUy at least 300 francs direct taxes, to be 440 ELECTION. electors. In 1820, it Avas estimated, that there were not more than 90,000 persons having the qualifications of electors ; and since that time, the number has been di- minished by the reduction of direct taxes. There are not at present more than 80,000 electors; and, according to the most re- cent computation (January 1,1829), France is believed to contain 32,000,000 inhab- itants. A citizen, to be eligible, must be as much as 40 years of age, and pay 1000 francs direct taxes a year, either in his oaati person, or by delegation for his mother, grandmother, or mother-in-law. If, hoAvever, there are not 50 persons of this descrijition in a department, the 50 who pay the highest taxes under 1000 francs are eligible. Each elector receives a carte electorate from the prefect; but it is the inscription on the list of voters Avhich gives the right of voting, and de- cides in case of any dispute. The pres- idents of the electoral colleges are, er offi- cio, members of the college, but cannot vote, unless they have the legal qualifica- tions of voters. They are appointed by government No armed force is allowed to be near the jilace of session, unless the president requires it. No one except an elector, whatever may be his station, can demand admission into a meeting of an electoral college. The electoral college is provisionally organized by the presi- dent who names the members of the bu- reau provisoire, that is, the four inspec- tors (scridatcurs) and the secretary. This is merely jireparatory to the final organ- ization (bureau definitif) of the college by the voters, who elect four inspectors and a secretary. Absolute secrecy in A'oting is required by the law of June 29, 1820. Previously to voting, each elector sepa- rately takes the following oath: " I swear allegiance to the king, obedience to the constitutional charter, and to the laws of the kingdom" (ordinance of October 11, 1820). The bureau d/finitifhe'mg organ- ized, the college proceeds to the election of the deputy. On the first and second ballots, the candidate who has a majority of all the votes given in (provided it be one more than one third of the whole number of electors of the college) is de- clared chosen. If no choice is made on the second ballot, a list is made by the bureau (of double the number of deputies to be chosen), from the candidates who had the greatest number of votes on the second ballot and the electors cannot vote for any candidate whose name is not on the list After the second ballot, only a pluraUty of votes is necessary to a choice. If any candidates have an equal number of votes, the oldest is considered as elect- ed. After the election is terminated, me journal of proceedings (proces-verbat) is read in the presence of the electors, that any error may be corrected. Ibese proces-verbaux are remitted to the cham- ber of deputies, which decides on the right of its members to a seat. The elect- ors must then separate on the command ofthe president, who is previously obliged to destroy all the ballots in their jiresence. Since 1815, the laws of election have been changed three times—in 1817, under Decazes (q. v.), when it was thought ne- cessary to counterbalance the influence of the emigrants; in 1820, when the murder of the duke of Berri was seized upon by tlie ultras, as a pretext to over- throw the party of Decazes, and the law of June 29, 1820, increased the number of deputies from 258 to 430: the old num- ber were to be chosen as before, by all the voteis of the dejiartment; the other 172 by the richest electors (one quarter of all the voters, consisting of those who pay the highest taxes), who, after having voted Avith the whole body of electors of the department, elect separately the num- ber of deputies assigned to their depart- ment, out of the additional 172. (See Constant, Benjamin.) By the law of June 9, 1824, the deputies, instead of being elected for 5 years, one fifth of the cham- ber being renewed every year (as was jiro- vided by the charte, art. 34), are elected for 7 years, the whole chamber at once. The prefect of the department directs the elec- tion, the government appoints the presi- dent of the electoral colleges, and, in this way, as well as by the eligibility of its officers, it exercises a very great influence on the character of the representative bodies. This influence has been exerted several times: for instance, under Villele, in a revolting way; he turned out every officer who did not vote for his candi- dates, and alloAved people to vote Avho had no right to. The law also directs that the votes should be given in such a Avay that the name ofthe voter should not be known; but, under Villele's adminis- tration, it Avas contrived that people should vote openly, which mduced many, in a dependent situation, or of timid charac- ter, to vote for the government In fact, the elections are so much in the hands of the government mat it costs the nation the greatest effort to elect deputies of their own choice, whenever they are opposed to the ministers. The ordinance of the king of France, of May 17, 1830, by ELECTION. 441 which the chamber was dissolved, and the election of a new one ordered, is a highly interesting document because it contains the dates of all the most important laws of election in France. We have seen how much French poUtics are influenced by the circumstance ofthe richest tax-payers being liberal or ultra ; and the celebrated statistical writer, M. C. Dupin, has lately made the folloAving calculation, Avith the purpose of showing the state and distri- bution of the electoral franchise. From his statements, the liberal party in France seem to have a very great majority in num- bers, as weU as superiority in wealth. M. Dujiin divides the departments into three classes. The first class includes the de- partments which return liberal members; they contain together 45,000 electors, and pay taxes to the amount of 151,500,000 francs. The second class includes the dejiartments which return absolutists, or ministerialists; these contain 31,900 elec- tors, and pay in taxes 46,000,000 francs. The third class, designated neutral, com- prises those departments which return deputies, part of whom are of the liberal side, and part of the ministerial. The amount of taxes paid by these depart- ments is 19,200,000 francs. By this ex- position it would seem, that the Uberals possess two thirds of the heritable prop- erty, and in numbers exceed the ministe- rial party about as 4 to 3. In the U. States, the democratic princi- ple of election by the majority of polls is carried to a great extent, though generally slightly modified by quaUfications required of the electors. The municipal and state elections, as they recur more frequently, and have a more immediate bearing upon tlie interests ofthe citizens, are, perhaps, of more jiractical importance than the fede- ral elections, particularly in those portions of the union where each toAvn is a little democracy. In the federal elections, the choice is indirect, as in that of the presi- dent; or made by the state legislatures, as in that of the senate; or made by a large district, as in that of the federal repre- sentatives. In the other elections, the voters decide upon individuals with whose character they are, in general, personally acquainted. (See Constitutions.) Of the two houses of the federal congress, the senate is chosen by the state legislatures, and the house of representatives by the people. Each state, without regard to difference of extent, population or wealth, chooses two senators, who hold their pla- cn for six years. The senate is divided into three classes, one of which is re- newed every second year. Whether the choice shall be made by a joint or con- current vote of the branches of the state legislatures, is not decided by the consti- tution, and the usage differs in different states. The representatives are chosen biennially, by the peojile of the several states, who are qualified electors of the most numerous branch of the legislature of the state to which they belong. The qualifications, therefore, of electors of the federal representatives, differ in different states; but, in general, they are, that they be of the age of 21 years, free resident citizens of the state in which they vote, and that they have paid taxes; in some states, they are required to possess prop- erty, and to be free white citizens. This descrijition is so comprehensive, that the house of representatives may be consid- ered to represent the whole body of the peojile. Some of the state constitutions prescribe certain qualifications as to prop- erty in the elected, and some require a religious test. But the federal constitu- tion only provides, that no person shall be a representative who has not attain- ed to the age of 25 years, and been 7 years a citizen of the U. States, and who is not, at the time of the election, an inhabitant of the state in which he is chosen. The representatives are appor- tioned among the states according to num- bers, wlrich are determined by adding to the number of free persons three fifths of the slaves. The constitution provides, that there shall not be more than one rejire- sentative for every 30,000 persons, but that every state shall have at least one. By the act of March 7, 1822, the apportionment was one for every 40,000 persons (based on the 4th census), and the whole num- ber was 213, which, with the 3 delegates, comjiose the present house of rejiresenta- tives. After the ratio of ajijiortioninent is determined, each state is divided into dis- tricts, equal in number to the representa- tives to which it is entitled, and each district chooses one representative; or the repre- sentatives are chosen by a general ticket The only quaUfications required by the constitution for a president of the U. States, are, that he should be a natural born citizen, have attained the age of 35 years, and have been 14 years a resident within the U. States. The election of a supreme executive magistrate has hitherto, in other countries, lieen a scene of in- trigue, corruption and violence. To avoid the excitement of popular jiassions, die election of. president has been confided, by the constitution, to a college of electors, 442 ELECTION—ELECTOR. appointed in each state, under the direc- tion of the legislature. Congress has die power to determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall Arote; this day, however, must be the same throughout the U. States. The number of electors in each state must be equal to the whole number of senators and representatives of the state in con- gress ; there are now, therefore, 261 elec- tors, in 24 colleges. As the manner of choosing the electors is left to the discre- tion of the state legislatures, it differs in the different states, and at different times in the same state. The choice is some- times made by the legislatures, sometimes the whole coUege is chosen through the Btete at large, by a general ticket and sometimes the election is made in such a way, that each representative district chooses one elector, and the other elec- tors are choser by a general vote. To prevent the person in office at the time of the election from exercising any influ- ence by executive patronage, the consti- tution provides that no member of con- gress, nor any person holding any office under the U. States, shall be an elector. The colleges assemble in the respective states, on the first Wednesday in Decem- ber, in every fourth year succeeding the last election, and vote by ballot for the president and vice-president, one of whom shall not lie an inhabitant of the same state with the electors. A Ust of persons voted for, with the number of votes for each, is made out by each college, and sent to the seat of government, directed to the president of the senate, to whom, by the law of March 1,1792, it must be de- Uvered before the first Wednesday in the next January. On the second Wednes- day in February, that officer opens the votes in the presence of the two houses of congress. The constitution does not declare by whom the votes shaU be count- ed, but it is done by the president of the senate. A majority of the whole number of votes is necessary to constitute a choice. If no person have such majority, then the house of representatives proceeds to choose by baUot one of the three persons having the highest number of votes. In this case, the vote is taken by states, the rep- resentation from each state having one vote. A quorum for this purpose must consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a majority of aU the states is necessary to a choice. If no choice is made before the fourth day of March, the vice-president acts as pres- ident According to the original plan of the constitution, die votes of the electors were given in for two persons; the per- son having the majority of all the votes was president and the person having the next greatest number after him was vice- president The present plan was substi- tuted, in consequence of the contested election of 1800, when, the number of votes given in for Jefferson and Burr being equal, the choice devolved on the house. After six days of balloting, Mr. Jefferson was elected on the 36th ballot. The number of states was then 16; neces- sary to a choice, 9. The first ballot gave Mr. Jefferson 8, Mr. Burr 6, 2 divided. The 36th ballot gave Mr. Jefferson 8, and the 2 divided states went for him by blank votes. The following is a table of the votes since the retirement of Washington. On the old system, in 1796 Adams 71 Jefferson 68 1800 Jefferson 73 Burr 73 On the present system : 1804 Jefferson 162 Pinckney 14 1808 Madison 122 Pinckney 47 1812 Madison 128 Clinton 89 1816 Monroe 183 King 34 1820 Monroe 231 1 vote in op- position. (Jackson 99 1824 Adams 84 \ Crawford 41 VClay 37 The election, therefore, devolved on the house of representatives, and Adams had 13 states, Jackson 7, and Crawford 4. 1828 Jackson 178 Adams 83 ■ (For more information respecting the election of the former German emperor, see Elector; of the pope, see Cardinal, and Conclave; of the former king of Po- land, see Poland.) Elective Affinity. (See Affinity.) Elector (Latin); he Avho chooses, or has the right to choose; a title given to certain members of the German em- pire, called, in German, Kurfiirsten, from Fiirst, prince, and Kur, an old word for election. When we hear the ancient Ger- man empire called an dedive government, we must not connect with this phrase the idea of election, such as it exists in modern governments. The election to the sovereignty ofthe German empire was, as indeed might easily be supposed, ill- defined, during the middle ages, until the right of election was arrogated by a few members of the empire. This elec- tive constitution was a thousand times more injurious to the empire than a hereditary succession would have been, because Ae main object of the electors seemed to Be, ELECTOR. 443 to extort concessions from the emperor, and diminish his authority as much as possible, by the unfortunate, to use the mildest term, elective capitulation (Wahlcapitulation; see Capitulation). In fact h ia chiefly owing to the defective constitution of the empire, that whilst France and England rose in power by the union of their sev- eral parts under one government the Ger- man empire sunk in authority, being split into a host of sovereignties of every de- gree of consequence, some very impor- tant others very insignificant. In the most ancient times of the Ger- man empire, under the Carlovingian race, die empire was hereditary; but with Con- rad I (chosen in 911) it became elective. The elections, however, became almost confined to one powerful family; and the glory Avhich the German empire acquired was owing, in no small measure, to this circumstance, that the imperial authority remained for generations within the same family. Unity, strength, and internal peace, are essential to the beneficial opera- tion of any poUtical constitution; and if they cannot be attained by good laws, and the spirit of the nation, as is the case, for instance, in the U. States, it is much better that they should be secured by a hereditary monarchy, than that the main objects of a political organization should Ik; lost in the confusion of anarchy, and die struggles of petty ambition. With the fall of the Hohenstaufen family, the an- cient great duchies of Bavaria, Saxony, Suabia, Franconia and Lorraine were di- vided into parts, yet their claims were not extinguished. Thus originated, from 1245 to 1256, the 7 electors, who are found taking part in the election of the emperor Richard of Cornwall, in 1258. The 7 electors were diose of, 1. Mentz; 2. Treves; 3. Co- logne (who were archbishops, and chan- cellors of the empire, and therefore called spiritual electors); 4. the Palatinate; 5. Brandenburg; 6. Saxony; and 7. Bohe- mia, which received its electoral authori- ty, in 1290, from Bavaria, which had not appeared in the diet for several elections, having been represented by Bohemia. The other members ofthe empire, indeed, protested against this authority arrogated by the electors, which was, however, at last, acknowledged, in 1338, by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and confirmed by Charles IV (who died in 1378), by the law called the golden bull. Frederic V, elector of the Palatinate (who died in 1632), was declared an outlaw by the empire, and his electoral privilege conferred on Bavaria; and when it was attempted, in the peace of Westphalia, to settle the contests in the empire, an eighth electorate was created, and given to the Palatinate. Leopold I, in 1692, made Brunswick-Liineburg the ninth electorate, which, after much opposition on the part of the states of the empire, and the body of electors, was acknowledged as such in 1710. When, in 1777, the house of Bavaria became extinct, and the dukedom fell to the Palatinate, the Bava- rian electorship expired likewise, and the number of electors was again 8; of whom Mentz, Treves and Cologne were ecclesi- astical, and elective by the chapter of their archbishopric; the others secular and he- reditary. There were 5 CathoUc and 3 Protestant electors; Saxony was a Prot- estant electorate, though the ruling house was Catholic. The chief privileges, common to all the electors, were, 1. the right to elect the emperor; 2. to draw uji the elective capitulation (see Capit- ulation); 3. to possess the great offices of the empire ; 4. to form a separate college in the diets; 5. to hold electoral diets (Kurtage), for the election of the emperor, and for consulting on the affairs of the empire, &c.; 6. the exemption of their courts from the appellate jurisdic- tion of the imperial courts (privUegium de non appellando); 7. to possess the regal dignity, yet not the title of majesty; 8. to possess several electorates at once; 9. to acquire imperial fiefs, and allodial es- tates in the empire, without the special permission of the emperor. With each electorate there were also special privi- leges connected, too many to be enume- rated here at length. The elector of Mentz, for instance, was president of the electoral college, director of the diet and in the corpus Catholicorum (q. v.), with the right to crown the emperor, which right, however, was exercised by him al- ternately with the elector of Treves, after 1656, Avho was arch-chanceUor in Gaul and Aries (a nominal dignity). The elec- tor of Cologne was arch-chancellor in Italy, and legatus natus, that is, ex offirio, representative of die pope. The elector of Bohemia was arch-cupbearer, and the first of the secular electors. The elector of the Palatinate Avas arch-sewer, vicar of the empire on the Rlrine, and had more than one voice in the diet. The elector of Saxony was arch-marshal, imperial vicar ofthe empire, in the countries under the Saxon law, and director of the corpus evangdicorum. The elector of Branden- burg was arch-chamberlain, and had sev- eral votes in the imperial colleges. The elector of Brunswick-Luneburg was arch- 444 ELECTOR—ELECTRICITY. treasurer, alternately with the bishop of Osnabriick. By the peace of Luneville, in 1801, the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France, and die ecclesiastical electors lost their territory. Several chan- ges took place. In 1802, the elector of Mentz was declared elector-arch-chancel- lor, the two other ecclesiastical electors set aside, and Baden, Wurtemberg, Hesse- Cassel and Salzburg declared electorates; so that there then existed 10 electors. August 6, 1806, the emperor abdicated the imjierial dignity, and the electors grad- ually adopted other titles. The elector of Hesse-Cassel fled from h is domains, against the advice of Louis Bonaparte (see his Reponse, 1829), and was declared by Na- poleon to have abdicated his authority. Whim the elector, after die peace of Paris, in 1814, again took possession of his coun- try, he retained the title of elector, which, however, in the new constitution of the German confederacy, has no meaning. Electra ; daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. Her step-father, JEgls- dius, wished her not to marry any of the princes who were her suitors, lest her children should avenge the death of Aga- memnon ; he married her, however, to a man of humble rank in Argos, who left her a virgin. At the time of her fatiier's death, she saved her brother Orestes; and when, afterwards, he was tortured by the furies, on account of the murder of his mother, to which his sister had instigated him, and she was informed by the oracle of Delphi that he was slain in Tauria, by a priestess of Diana, she was upon the foint of killing with a fire-brand her sister phigenia, avIio had just entered the tem- ple as a jiriestess of Diana, when Orestes came and prevented the deed. Electra afterwards married Pylades, the intimate friend of her brother Orestes. Electric Calamine. (See Zinc.) Electrical Eel. A fish possessing the exftaordinary property of communi- cating a sensation similar to an electrical shock, Avhen touched with the hand, or an electric conductor. Body nearly of equal thickness throughout; head and tail obtuse; length five or six feet. The seat of the organs which produce this curious effect is along the under side of the tail. They are composed of four bundles of parallel membranaceous lami- na?, placed very near each other, and nearly horizontally, extending from the skin to the central medial plane of the body, connected together by numerous vertical lamina?, arranged transversely. The little cells, or rather the small pris- matic and transverse canals, intercejited by tliese two kinds of lamina?, are, ac- cording to Cuvier, fiUed with a gelatinoiis substance; and die whole apparatus is abundantly supplied Avith nerves. Elec- trical eels are of several species, the most famous of wlrich is the gymnotus dectricus, found in the rivers of Soudi America. It is said to possess power, when in full vig- or, sufficient to knock down a man, and benumb the limb affected, in the most painful manner, for several hours after communicating die shock. By frequent use of this faculty it becomes impaired, and a considerable interval of rest is re- quired to recruit its electrical properties. Through the medium of water, it is able to destroy small fishes at a considerable distance, directing the power at pleasure. Some authors aver, that the gymnotus is found so large and powerful as to benumb a horse, and to drown men whUe bathing, by the violence of the shock. A speci- men of the gymnotus, which was con- veyed alive to England some years since, afforded the curious an opportunity of ver- ifying the reports of travellers as to its electric property. Since tiiat period, nu- merous specimens have been examined, and die preceding observations confirmed. The jiroperty of communicating electrical shocks is common to some other fishes, of the same subdivision. Specimens of the gymnotus electricus are reported to at- tain the length of six or seven feet but ordinarily they are about three and a half or four feet long. The flesh is eatable, and, in appearance and flavor, said to re- semble tiiat of an eel. Electricity ; a branch of natural phi- losophy, which investigates the attractions and rejiulsions, the production of light, and the elevation of temperature, as well as the exjilosions and other phenomena attending the friction of vitreous, resinous and metalUc surfaces, and the heating, cooling, evaporation and mutual contact of a great number of bodies. Its name is derived from the Greek word ?X«rpo», (amber), in which substance its phenome- na Avere first observed. The knowledge which the ancients were possessed of con- cerning this interesting and now very ex- tensive branch of science, consisted in lit- tle more than the fact diat amber acquir- ed the power of attracting to itself light bodies, on being rubbed, ascribed, by Thales of Miletus, to an inherent soul or essence, wlrich, awakened by friction, went forth, and brought back the Ught particles floating around. In the year 1600, Dr. Gilbert, an EngUsh physician, ELECTRICITY. 445 published a treatise upon the magnet hi which he remarked, that several odier bodies besides amber can, by friction, be made to attract light bodies. The obser- vations of Boyle, Otto von Guericke, Newton, and a few other philosophers of the same period, contributed somewhat to the extension of our knowledge of electricity; but it was not before the commencement of the 18th century, that the most important discoveries and gene- ralizations ofthe phenomena before known upon this subject were made. (See Priest- ley's Histoiy of Eledricity.) The order we shall adopt in the present article will be the following: 1. A gene- ral statement, of dedricalphenomena, inde- pendent of all theory. 2. The tiieorics which nave been proposed for explaining these phe- nomena. 3. Eleetrical machines. 4. Effects of dedrical attraction and repulsion. 5. Distribution of dedricity. 6. Transfer- ence of dedricity. 7. Laws of Induction. 8. Motion of eleetririty. 9. Chemical ef- fects of dedricity. 10. Effects of electrici- ty upon limng bodies. 11. Electricity de- veloped by changes of temperature and of form, from contact, compression and other changes in bodies. 12. Electricity of the atmosphere. I. A dry glass rod, a piece of amber or sealing-wax, when rubbed briskly with a dry woollen cloth, and immediately pre- sented to light bodies, such as fragments of paper, thread, cork, straw, cotton or gold leaf, wiU first attract and then repel them. The bodies which have thus ac- quired this attractive and repulsive power are said to be excited. All substances, however, are not capable of becoming ex- cited ; hence the distinction of bodies into classes—electrics, or such as become ex- cited by friction, and non-electrics, or those which, when rubbed, do not display electric phenomena. The principal elec- tric substances in nature are the folloAving: viz. amber, gum-lac, resin, sulphur, glass, the precious stones, silk, the fur of most quadrupeds, and almost all vegetable sub- stances which have been thoroughly de- prived of moisture, as baked wood, and dry paper. If the Ught bodies which have been repelled from an excited electric be again presented to it they wUl, provided they have touched no other body, contin- ue to be driven off. Some substances re- main in contact with the electric longer than others; fibres of cotton adhere some time, Avhile metalUc bodies are repelled the instant after contact Two bodies, which have both been in contact with the same electric, mutually repel each other. vol. rv. 38 If a glass tube of considerable diameter, and two or three feet in length, be em- ployed for the experiment, we notice in a dark room, during the friction, flashes of Ught of a bluish tinge, extending OA'er every part of the tube; and sparks, at- tended with a sharp snapping sound, will be seen to dart out in every direction. If we present to it, after vigorous rubbing, a round metallic ball, sparks will be obtain- ed as the ball approaches the tube; and if die knuckle be presented instead ofthe ball, the same effect takes place, accom- panied with a pricking sensation. If a metallic ball be suspended in the air by- silk, thread, or fibres of Avorsted or hair, or a rod of glass, and rubbed while in this situation by an electric, it will exhibit the same properties of attraction and repul- sion, as if it had been itself an electric.— Tiiat the ball should thus be cut off from contact with any substance, except the air and the electric which sustains it, is essen- tial to the success of the experiment. If an excited electric be placed near a rush- pith ball suspended by silk, the ball wiU in the first place approach the electric, but after contact will recede from it. If now, uncovering the electric, we present to the ball Avhich has thus touched it a second ball, similarly suspended, but which has had no previous communication with any electric, we shall find that these tAVO balls will attract one another, and come into im- mediate contact. The same results are repeated betAveen this second ball and a third, which may be presented to it, and so on in succession, with a continued diminution, however, in the rapidity ofthe movements, indicative of a diminished power, in consequence, as it Avould seem, of its being distributed among a number of bodies. From these facts we infer that the electric imparts to the balls, suspended as above, properties exactly similar to those which had been excited in itself by fric- tion. By repeated contact with a number of bodies, an excited electric is found to lose its electrical powers, in the same de- gree as these powers have been acquired by the bodies themselves; and fresh exci- tation alone can renew them. It is evident, therefore, that electricity is capable of being transferred, in the same sense as ca- loric, of which we speak, as being commu- nicable, and, like caloric, it is weakened by diffusion among a number of bodies. If an electrified ball be touched with the fin- ger or by a rod of metal, it will be de- prived of die whole of its electricity, wlrich wiU pass to die finger or rod touch- ing it; the bad being left in its original or 446 ELECTRICITY natural state, and again becoming suscep- tible of being attracted, either by an ex- cited electric, or by another body, to Avhich electricity has previously been communi- cated. If a rod of glass be applied instead of the finger or metallic rod as above, the body touched remains unaffected, uotwidi- standing the contact We are thus led to conclude that some substances, such as glass, are incapable of conducting elec- tricity ; while others, such as metals and the human body, readily conduct it. And it is found that all dednes are non-conduc- tors, while, on tho contraiy, conductors are non-electrics. The permanence of electri- city in metallic bodies, suspended in die air by silken thread, proves that the air, as well as silk, is a non-conductor; from which circumstance bodies surrounded by it, ex- cept on one side, and this side being in contact Avith a non-conductor, are said to be insulated. If this condition be not ob- served, that is, if a body be in contact with conducting substances wlrich com- municate Avith the earth, its electricity will escape dirough diem to the earth, Avhich may be regarded as the great reser- voir, both for the absorption and supply of this fluid. The insulating power of the aunosphere depends upon its density and its dryness. In proportion as the air is rarefied by the removal of the superin- cumbent pressure, its power of confining electricity diminishes, till, at length, when the rarefaction is very great, it opposes scarcely any resistance to the passage of electricity. The presence of moisture in the air also diminishes its insulating pow- er. Water is a good conductor of elec- tricity ; accordingly, any portion of it sus- pended in the air tends to carry off elec- tricity from bodies charged with it, and which are immersed in such an atmo- sphere. Moisture also easily attaches it- self to glass and other electrics, depriving them of the power of insulation. Hence Ave discover the reason why experiments which succeed in a clear, dry day, will of- ten fail in damp weather; and the utiUty of drying all the instruments employed in electrical experiments, in order to exclude, as much as possible, the interference aris- ing from the presence of condensed mois- ture. The conducting powers of most bodies are influenced by changes of tem- perature, and also of form. Thus water, in its liquid state, is a ood conductor; but when in the state of ice, at a temperature of 13° Fahr., it is a non-conductor, and ca- pable of being excited by friction like any other electric. Reducing substances to powder has an effect upon their powers of conducting electricity. Snow conducts less readily than ice at the same tempera- ture ; but glass, as Avell as sulphur, on the contraiy, acquire some conducting power by beiiiff pulverized. Vegetable and ani- mal substances lose their conducting pow- ers when made thoroughly dry. No sub- stance with which we are acquainted can be said to be wholly impervious to elec- tricity ; nor, on the other hand, is there any body Avhich opposes no resistance to the U-ansniission of electricity. The follow- ing table presents a Aiew' of the principal classes of bodies, arranged in a series, be- ginning with those possessed of the great- est conducting power, and terminating with those that have the least. The order in which they possess the power of insu- lating, is, of course, the reverse of this:— The perfect, or least oxidable metals. The more oxidable metals. Charcoal prepared from the harder woods, and re- cently ignited. Plumbago. The concentrated mineral acids. Dilute acids. Solutions of metal- Uc salts. Dry metalUc oxides. Oils. Vegetable ashes. Animal ashes. Ice below 13° Fahr. Phosphorus. Lime. Dry chalk. Caoutchouc. Camphor. SiUcious and argU- laceous stones, in proportion to their hardness. Porcelain. Baked wood. Dry atmospheric air, Metallic ores. Animal fluids. Water. Snow. Living vegetables. Living animals. Smoke. Steam. Rarefied air. Earths and stones in their natural state. Pulverized glass. Flowers of sulphur. and other gases. White sugar. Dry parchment. Cotton. Feathers. Hair, especially that of a Uving cat. Silk. Transparent gems. Diamond. Glass. Fat. Wax. Sulphur. Resins. Amber. Gum-lac. Although the exact point in the above scale, Avhich forms the separation between conducting and insulating bodies, cannot be precisely marked, yet we have indicated it by a division. The laws which regulate the gradual dissipation of electricity from imperfectly insulated bodies, have been carefully investigated by M. Coulomb.— The causes which operate in these cir- ELECTRICITY. 447 cumstances, are, 1. die imperfection of the insulating property in the solids by which they are supported; 2. the contact of successive portions of air, every parti- cle of which carries off a certain quanti- ty of electricity; 3. the deposition of moisture upon the surface of the insulat- ing bodies, which establishes communi- cations between their opposite ends, and may be considered as virtually increasing their conducting power. Still another circumstance, which materially affects the dissipation of electricity, is the shape of the body in Avhich it is accumulated. The form most favorable for its retention is that of a sphere ; next, a cylinder termi- nated at both extremities by a hemisphere. On the other hand, electricity escapes most readily from bodies of a pointed figure, especially if the point projects to a distance from the surface. In such bodies, it is scarcely possible to retain any accu- mulation of the electric fluid; whereas, pointed bodies receive electricity more readily than those of any other form.— Electric excitation in different bodies ex- hibits different phenomena. We have seen that light substances excited by glass repel one another, and are likewise repelled by the excited glass. The same thing also happens with respect to bodies which have received their electricity from excited sulphur, or sealing-wax. But on examin- ing the action of any of the bodies of the former class upon any of those belonging to the latter, we find that, instead of repel- ling, they attract each other; and what is Btill more remarkable, the instant these bodies come in contact, provided they have both been electrified in an equal de- gree, they cease at once to exhibit any signs of electrical excitement; the elec- tricity in the one appearing to neutralize that in the other. Thus we seem to have evidence of two kinds of electricity; and as these were first noticed, the one in glass and the other in resinous bodies, they were named vitreous and resinous electricity. Their mode of action on matter has been expressed by the folloAV- ing general law, viz.: Bodies charged with either species of dedricity, repel bodies charged with the same spedes,but attract bodies charged with the other species; and at equal distances, the attractive power in the one case is exactly equal to the repuldve pow- er in the other. Accordingly, we learn the kind of electricity with which a given body is charged, by approaching it to an insulated pith ball, which has previously been touched either with excited glass, or with excited seaUng-wax, It is known, moreover, that, when two electrics are rubbed against one another, the one ac- quires, always, one kind of electricity, the other the opposite; and both are produced in equal degrees. Thus, when glass is rubbed by silk or flannel, just as much res- inous electricity is produced m the silk or flannel, as there is vitreous electricity pro- duced in the glass ; and, consequently, as they are endowed with opposite electrici- ties, there should be an attraction existing between the excited surfaces of the bodies rubbed. This fact is easily proved by the simple and familiar experiment ofthe rib- bons. If a white and a black ribbon, of two or three feet long, and perfectly dry, be applied to each other by their smooth surfaces, and are then drawn repeatedly between the finger and thumb, so as to rub against each other, they avUI be found to adhere together, and, if pulled asunder at one end, will rush together with great quickness ; while united, they exhibit no sign of electricity, because the operation of the one is just the reverse of that of the other, and their power is neutraUzed and inoperative. If completely separat- ed, hoAvever, each will manifest a strong electrical poAver, the one attracting those bodies wlrich the other repels. The caus- es that determine the species of electricity excited in the respective bodies, of which the surfaces are made to rub against each other, have not been satisfactorily ascer- tained. The mechanical configuration of the surfaces appears to have more influence in the result, than the nature of the sub- stances themselves. Thus smooth glass acquires vitreous electricity by friction with almost every substance, except the back of a cat, which induces the resinous electricity; but roughened glass, if rubbed with the same substances, becomes charg- ed with resinous electricity, while the rub- bing bodies acquire the vitreous. Silk, rubbed by resin, takes the vitreous, but with polished glass, the resinous electricity. The following is a Ust of several substan- ces, which acquire vitreous electricity, when rubbed with any of those which follow it, in the order in which they are set down; and resinous electricity, if rub- bed with any of those which precede:— The back of a cat. Paper. Polished glass. Silk. Woollen cloth. Gum-lac. Feathers. Roughened glass. Wood. In the experiment above mentioned of the silk ribbons, the black ribbon exhibit- ed the vitreous, and the white one the res- 448 ELECTRICITY. inous electricity. But when the ribbons are differently excited, as the one being drawn lengthwise and at right angles over a part of die other, the one which has suffered friction in its whole length ac- quires vitreous, and the other resinous electricity. Indeed, die slightest difference in the conditions of these and similar ex- periments, or the species of electricity arising from friction, will be often suffi- cient to produce opposite results. Another important observation, widi regard to elec- trical phenomena, requires to be stated previous to our conclusion of the present head. Whenever a body is charged with electricity, although it lie perfectly insula- ted, it tends to produce an opposite elec- trical state in all the bodies in its Aicinity, and diis Avith greater energy in proportion as the distance is smaller. This effect is termed the induction of electricity. In consequence of this Uvw, if an electrified body, charged with either species of elec- tricity, be presented to an unelectrified or neutral body, the electrical condition of the different parts of the neutral body is disturbed. The electrified body induces a state of electricity contrary to its own, in that part of the neutral body which is nearest to it and consequently a state of electricity similar to its own in the remote part Hence the neutrality of the second body is destroyed by the action of the first; and the adjacent parts of the two bodies, having now opposite electricities, will at- tract each other. It dius apjiears, that the attraction which is observed to take place between electrified bodies and those that are unelectrified, is merely a consequence of the altered state of those bodies, result- ing directly from the law of induction. II. The hypothesis which naturally sug- gests itself for the explanation of the phe- nomena above stated, is that of a very subtile, imponderable and highly elastic fluid, pervading all material bodies, and capable of moving with various degrees of facUity through the pores or actual substance of different kinds of matter. In some, as in those we call conductors or non-electrics, it moves without any appa- rent obstruction; while in others, as in those we call non-conductors or electrics, it moves with difficulty. Moreover, as the phenomena appear to indicate the agency of two kinds of fluid, we shall, for the present assume the existence of two species, and shaU speak of these under tlie names of the vitreous and the rednous dectricities. They must each have, when separate, the same general properties as have already been enumerated above; while, in relation to each other, there must be a complete contrariety in their nature, so that, when combined together, their ac- tion on the bodies in their immediate vi- cinity shall cease. And it is when exist- ing in this state of union or neutrality, that bodies are said to be ill their natural state as respects electricity. We shall now jiroceed to compare the suppositions we have made with the facts, as presented to us by nature, and developed by experi- ment—a. Facts connected with excitation. From various causes (of which the fric- tion of surfaces is one), the state of muon in which the two electricities naturally exist in bodies is disturbed: the vitreous electricity is impelled in one direction, Avhile the resinous is transferred to the opposite ; and each manifests its peculiar powers. When accumulated in any body, each fluid acts in proportion to its relative quantity, i. e., to the quantity which is in excess above that which is still retained, in a state of inactivity, by its union with electricity of the opposite kind. Thus, Avhen glass is rubbed with a metalUc amalgam, a portion only of the electrici- ties at the two surfaces is decomposed: the vitreous electricity resulting from this decomposition attaches itself to the glass ; the resinous to the amalgam. What re- mains in each surface undecomposed, continues to be quite inert—b. Facts con- nected Avith distribution. Both of these fluids, being highly elastic, their particles repel one another with a force which in- creases in proportion as their distance is less; and this force acts at all distances, and is not impeded by the interposition of bodies of any kind, provided they are not themselves in an active electrical state. It has been deduced, from the most care- ful analysis, that this force follows the same laAV with that of gravitation: viz. that its intensity is inversely as the square of the distance. The mode in Avhich the electricity imjiarted to a conducting body, or to a system of conductors, is distribu- ted among their different parts, is in exact conformity with the results of this law, as deduced by mathematical investigation. While the particles of each fluid repel those of the same kind, they exert an equal- ly strong attraction for the particles of the other species of electric fluid. This attrac- tion, in like manner, increases with a dimi- nution of distance, and follows the same law as to its intensity: viz. that of the in- verse ratio of the square of the distance. This force, also, is not affected by the pres- ence of any intervening bod)'.—c. Facts connected Avith transferrence. Since the ELECTRICITY. 449 two electricities have this powerful attrac- tion for each other, they would always flow towards one another, and coalesce, were it not for the obstacles thrown in their way by non-conductors. When, instead of these, conducting substances are interpos- ed, they enter into union with great ve- locity, producing, in their transit and con- fluence, several remarkable effects. When once united, their powers remain dormant, until again called into action by the re- newed separation of the fluids.—d. Facts relating to attraetion and repulrion. The repulsion which is observed to take place between bodies that are insulated, and charged with any one species of electrici- ty, and other bodies similarly charged, is derived from the repulsive power which the particles of this fluid exert towards those of their own species; and the at- tractions between bodies differently elec- trified, is derived from the attractive pow- er of the vitreous particles for those ofthe opposite kind. In all cases, the move- ments of electrified bodies represent the forces themselves which actuate the parti- cles of the developed electricities they contain.—e. Facts relating to induction. Wherever one of the electricities exists in an active state, it must repel all the parti- cles of the same electricity in all surround- ing bodies, and attract those of the oppo- site species. Thus the law of induction is seen to be a direct consequence of the hypothesis we are considering.—Thus far we have proceeded upon the hyjiothesis of two distinct electric fluids. It was, however, discovered by Franklin, that it is equally easy to account for all the phe- nomena, on the supposition of their result- ing from the agency of a single electric fluid. This theory supposes, that the sin- gle agent in question, and which we shall call the electric fluid, is highly elastic or repulsive of its OAvn particles,—the repul- sion taking place with a force varying in- versely as the square ofthe distance; that its jiarticles attract and are attracted by the particles of all other matter, follow- ing the same law of the inverse square of the distance ; that this fluid is dispersed through the pores of bodies, and moves through them Avith various degrees of fa- cility, according as they are conductors or non-conductors. Bodies are said to be in their natural state, Avith regard to diis fluid, Avhen the repulsion ofthe fluid they contain of a particle of fluid at a dis- tance, is exactly balanced by the attrac- tion of the matter in the body for the same particle; and, under these circumstances, thev exhibit no electrical phenomena.— 38* But if subjected to certain operations, as friction, the equiUbrium is destroyed, and they acquire more or less than when in their natural state. Whenever they ac- quire a quantity of fluid greater than in their natural state, they are said to be pos- itively electrified, or to be electrified plus, and present the phenomena ascribed to what was called vitreous electricity.— When, on the other hand, there is a quan- tity less than what is required in order to be in their natural state, they are said to be negatively electrified, or to be elec- trified minus; in Avhich case they corre- spond with the state of resinous electrici- ty. The state of positive electricity, then, consists in a redundance of the electric fluid, or in matter over-saturated Avith this fluid; that of negative electricity, in a deficiency of fluid, or in matter under- saturated, or, what may be considered the same thing, in redundant matter. In con- sidering the mutual electrical actions of bodies, the portions in Avhich the matter and the fluid mutually saturate each other, need not be taken into account, since their actions, as we have seen, are perfectly neutralized ; and we need only attend to those of the redundant fluid and the re- dundant matter. When a body contains more than its natural proportion of elec- tric fluid, the surplus will, by the repul- sive tendency of its particles, overflow and escape, unless prevented by insulation, until the body is reduced to its neutral state. When under-saturated, the redun- dant matter will attract fluid from all quarters, from which it can receive, until it is again brought to its natural state. The mutual recession of two positively electrified bodies is a direct consequence of the redundance of the electric fluid contained in each, this fluid being attract- ed to the matter by its attraction for it in both bodies; and the fluid in one being repulsive of the fluid in the other, the bodies are necessarily impelled in the di- rection of the repulsion. In the same manner, the mutual attraction between two bodies, one of which is electrified plus, and the other minus, is the immedi- ate effect of the attraction of the redun- dant fluid in one for the redundant matter in the other, and vice versa; for this at- traction is mutual. The mutual recession of two bodies, negatively electrified, does not appear to l>e accounted for upon the Franklinian theory. In order to do this, therefore, it has been found necessary to append to it the following provision: that jiarticles of simple matter, or bodies unsat- urated with the electric fluid, are mutually 450 ELECTRICITY. repulsive. Without this provision, indeed, Ave are unable to explain the want of ac- tion between two neutral bodies; for, the repulsion of the fluids in both bodies be- ing balanced by the attraction of the fluid in the one for the matter in the other, die remaining attraction of the fluid in the second body for the matter in the first, would be uncompensated by any repul- sion ; and the forces would not be held in equilibrium, as we find they really are.- The law of electrical induction is an im- mediate consequence of the FrankUnian theory. When a body charged with elec- tricity is presented to a neutral body, the redundant fluid of the former exerts a repulsive action on the fluid in the latter body; and if this happens to be a con- ductor, it impels a certain portion of that fluid to the remote end of this body, which becomes at that part positively electrified; while its nearer end, which the same fluid has quitted, is consequently in the state of negative electricity. If the first body had been negatively electrified, its unsaturated matter would have exerted an attractive force on the fluid in the second body, and would have drawn it nearer to itself; pro- ducing an accumulation or redundance of fluid at the adjacent end, and a corre- sponding deficiency at the remote end; that is, the former would have been render- ed positive, and the latter negative. All this is exactly conformable to observation. The facts with respect to transferrence are easily expUcable upon this hypothesis, and they arise from the destruction of the equilibrium of forces, which confined the fluid to a particular situation or mode of dis- tribution. Indeed, there is no fact which is exjilained on the hypothesis of two fluids, which is not equally expUcable on the Franklinian theory ; and the explanations by the first are easily converted into those of die second by substituting the expressions of positive and negative for those of mtreous and rednous electricities. The principal ad- vantage of Franklin's system is, its superior simplicity. On the other hand, the phe- nomena of galvanism prove that the two electricities, whatever may be their nature, exert very different chemical agencies, and hence, whichever theory we may choose to adopt h is necessary, in their chemical history, always to preserve the distinction between them. When viewed, howeA'er, as a mere hypothesis, calculated to facili- tate our comprehension of the phenomena and of dieir connexions, it is a matter of indifference which we employ, since they wiU either of them ansAver the purpose. For the future, however, we shaU more generally employ die language of the Franklurian theory, on account of its greater convenience. III. Electrical Machines. The essential parts of an instrument for procuring large sujiplies of electricity for the purposes of experiment are the electric, the rubber, the prime conductor, the insulator, and the machinery for setting the electric in mo- tion. The electric, by the excitation of which the electricity is to be developed, may be made of various substances. Polished glass has, however, received the preference. Its form is that of a hollow cylinder, or of a flat circular plate, revolv- ing upon a horizontal axis. The cushion is usually made of soft leather, generally basil skin, stuffed Avith hair or wool, so as to be as hard as the bottom of a chair, but yet sufficiently yielding to accommo- date itself, Avithout much pressure, to the surface of the glass to Avhich it is apjilied. The prime conductor is a cylindrical tube, each end terminating in a hemisphere. There is no advantage in its being made solid, for the electricity is only contained at the surfaces. It may be made of thin sheet brass or copper, or tin, or of paste- board covered with gold leaf or tin foil. Care must be taken that its surface be free from all points and asperities; and the perforations Avhich are made in it, and which should be about the size of a quill, for the purpose of attaching wires and other kbids of fixtures, should have their edges well rounded and smoothed off In order to render the arrangement of these parts more intelligible, we will des- cribe one of the simplest and best of the cylindric machines. The glass cylinder is from 8 to 16 inches in diameter, and from 1 to 2 feet long, supported, for the purpose of insulation, on two upright pillars of glass, Avhich are fixed to a firm wooden stand. Two hollow metallic con- ductors, equal in length to the cylinder, and about one fourth of its diameter, are placed parallel to it one on each side, up- on two insulating pillars of glass, which are cemented into tAvo sejiarate pieces of wood, that slide across the base so as to allow of their being brought within dif- ferent distances from the cylinder. To one of these conductors the cushion is at- tached, which is of the same length with the conductor. Its jiressure against the cylinder is regulated by an adjusting screw adapted to the wooden base, on which the glass pillar that supports the conductor is fixed. From the upper edge of the cushion there proceeds a flap of thin oUed sdk, which is sewed on the ELECTRICITY. 451 cushion about a quarter of an inch from its upper edge. It extends over the upper surface of the glass cylinder to within an inch of a row of metallic points, proceed- ing, like die teeth of a rake, from a hori- zontal rod, which is fixed to the adjacent side of the opposite conductor. The mo- tion of the cylinder, which is given by a single handle or by a multiplying wheel, must abvays be given in the direction of the silk flap. That part of the cushion which conies in contact with the glass cylinder, should be coated with an amal- gam of tin, zinc and mercury, applied by means of hog's lard. The amalgam should be placed uniformly over the cush- ion, until level with the line formed by the seam which joins the silk flap to the face of the cushion. No amalgam should be placed over this line, nor on the silk flap; and it is even requisite to wipe the silk flap clean whenever the continued motion of the machine should have soiled it by dejiositing dust or amalgam on its surface. The best amalgam is formed by melting together one ounce of tin and two ounces of zinc, Avhich are to be mixed, while fluid, with six ounces of mercury, and agitated in an iron or thick wooden box until cold. It is then to be reduced to very fine pow- der iu a mortar, and mixed with a suffi- cient quantity of hog's lard to form it into a paste. The mode in which the electri- cal machine just described acts, will read- ily be understood. The friction of the cushion against the glass cylinder produ- ces a transfer of electric fluid from the former to the latter; that is, the cushion becomes negatively and the glass positive- ly electrified. The fluid, which thus ad- heres to the glass, is carried round by the revolution of the cylinder, and its escape is at first prevented by the silk flap which coveis the cylinder, until it comes to the immediate vicinity of the metallic points, Avhich, being placed at a small distance from die cylinder, absorb nearly the whole of the electricity as it passes near them, and transfers it to the prime conductor. Positive electricity is thus accumulated in the prime conductor, while the conductor connected with the cushion, being depriv- ed of this electricity, is negatively electri- fied. If both these conductors are in- sulated, this action will soon have reached its limit; for when the cushion and its conductor have been exhausted of their fluid to a certain degree, they cannot, by the same force of excitation, supply any further quantity to the glass. In order to enable it to do so, we must replenish it, or restore to it a quantity equal to what it has lost. This is done by destroying the insulation of the cushion through the means of a metallic chain or wire, extend- ing from it to the earth, wlrich is the great reservoir of the electric fluid. The prime conductor wUl now be supplied with a constant stream of positive electricity. If it be our object on the other hand, to ac- cumulate negative electricity by the same instrument, Ave have only to insulate the conductor to which the cushion is attach- ed, and to connect die prime conductor with the ground, in order to allow the fluid to escape from it as soon as it is collected from the cylinder. The fluid will thus continue to be drawn, without interruption, from the negative conductor, as it now meets with no impediment to its discharge on the opposite side of the machine. That the quantity of positive electricity produced in one conductor is exactly equal to that of the negative elec- tricity in the other, is proved by the fact, that, if the two conductors are connected by a wire, no signs of electricity are ob- tained in any of the conductors on turn- ing the machine. A person standing on a stool with glass legs is thereby insulated ; and if, in this situation, he touch the prime conductor, either with his handorthrough the medium of a metalUc rod or chain, he may be considered as forming part of the same system of conductors. When the machine is worked, therefore, he will par- take, with die conductor, of its charge of electricity, and sparks may be drawn from any jiart of his body by the knuckle of any other person who is in communica- tion with the ground. IV. The effects of electrical attraction and repulsion may now be exhibited much more distinctly widi the aid of those considerable accumulations of electricity which we are enabled to form by the electrical machine. A pith ball, or a frag- ment of gold leaf, is veiy strongly and im- mediately attracted by the electrified con- ductor ; and the instant after it has come into contact with it it is repelled; but it is now attracted by the other bodies in its neighborhood, to which it communicates its own electricity, and then is again in a state to be influenced by the conductor, and to be again attracted; and this alter- nation of effects will continue as long as the conductor remains charged. This al- ternation of attractions and repulsions ac- companying the transferring electricity by movable conductors, is also illustrated by the motions of a ball suspended by a silk thread, and placed between two bells, of which the one is electrified, and the other 452 ELECTRICITY. communicates with the ground. The al- ternate motion of the ball between the two bells will keep up a continual ringing. This amusing experiment has been ap- pUed to give notice of changes taking place in die electrical state of the atmos- phere. The mutual repulsion of bodies diat are similarly electrified gives rise to many interesting experiments. A smaU figure in die shape of a human head cov- ered with hair, when placed upon the conductor and electrified, wiU exhibit the appearance of terror from the bristling up and divergence of the ban'. Advantage is taken of the repulsive property of electri- fied bodies for the construction of an in- strument adapted to measure the intensity of the electricity they may contain. This instrument is called an electrometer. That invented by Henley consists of a slender rod of very light wood, serving as an in- dex, terminated by a small pith ball, and suspended from die upper jiart of a stem of wood, which is fitted to a hole in the upper surface of the conductor. An ivory semicircle or quadrant is affixed to the stem, having its centre coinciding with the axis of motion ofthe rod, for the purpose of measuring the angle of deviation from the perpendicular, which the repulsion of the ball from the stem produces in the movable rod. The number of degrees which is described by the index affords some evidence of the quantity of elec- tricity with which the apparatus is charg- ed, though the instrument cannot be view- ed as affording an exact measure of its intensity. The gold leaf electrometer of Bennet or rather electroscope, which is one of the most delicate instruments ever in- vented for detecting the presence of elec- tricity, consists of two narrow slips of gold leaf suspended parallel to each other, in a glass cyUnder (which secures them from disturbance by the air), and attached to the end of a small metallic tube, ter- minating above either in a flat surface of metal or a metallic ball. Two slips of tin- foU are pasted to the inside ofthe cylinder, on opposite sides, in a A'ertical position, and so placed as that die gold leaAes may come in contact with these, Avhen their mutual repulsion is sufficiently pow- erful to make them diverge to that extent. These slips of tin-foil terminate in the foot of the instrument and thus are in com- munication with the earth. A very mi- nute charge of electricity, communicated to the upper end of the tube, is immedi- ately transmitted to the gold leaves, which are thus made to repel each other; but if the repulsion is such as to make them strike against die tin-foil, dieir insulation ceases, and their electricity is carried oft, and becoming neutral, they resume their original position. The most perfect elec- trometer, however, is that invented by Coulomb, and called by him the torsum balance. It consists of a cylindrical glass jar, covered at the top by a circular glass plate, with a hole in its centre, through Avhich descends nearly to the bottom of the jar, a single fibre of the web of the silk- Avorm, Avith a needle of gum-lac or a piece of straw coated by sealing-wax, affixed to its lower extremity. The nee- dle is terminated at one end by a small pith ball, and at the other by a disc of varnished paper, to serve as a counter- poise to the ball. The upjier end of the silk fibre is attached to a kind of button, having a small index, and capable of being turned round upon a circular plate divided into degrees. One side of the jar is per- forated towards its bottom to allow of the insertion of a short horizontal bar, having a small metallic sjihere at each of its ends, the one being Avithin, and the other upon the outside of the jar; and the former be- ing so situated as just to allow the ball of the suspended needle to come in contact with it in the course of its revolution. By turning the button or the index, the nee- dle may be brought into this or any other required position with regard to the baU It is found by experiment, that the angle of torsion ofthe silk fibre is, within a cer- tain range of distance, very nearly in the direct ratio of the force Avhich acts in producing the torsion ; and, therefore, if the two balls be placed in contact by tinn- ing the button, and then similarly electri- fied, the distance to which they are re- pelled by the angular motion of die sus- pended ball affords a measure of the re- pulsive force exerted. In Uke manner, the distance which the suspended ball is made to move, when it is attracted by the fixed ball, when the two have opposite electri- cities, gives accurate measures of the at- tractive forces. V. It had long been observed, that the quantity of electricity which bodies are capable of receiving, does not follow the proportion of their bulk, but dejiends chiefly upon the extent of their surface. It was found, for example, that a metallic conductor, in the form of a globe or cyl- inder, contains just as much electricity when hollow,as it does when solid; from Avhich it was inferred, that electricity does not extend throughout the mass of a body, but resides altogether at its surface. By the appUcation of mathematical calcula- ELECTRICITY. 453 tions to the theory, the most exact infor* mation with regard to the distribution of the electric fluid in bodies of different shapes has been obtained; and whenever a comparison has been instituted, even in the cases of the most complicated kind, between the results of experiment and of theory, the most perfect agreement has been observed between them. For the purpose of measuring the proportional quantities of electricity, with which dif- ferent parts of the same or of different bodies are charged, no instrument is so well fitted as the balance of Coulomb. Such is its extreme sensibility, that a force only equal to the 270th of a grain is sufficient to make the needle perform an entire revolution; the 360th part of this force, therefore, or less than the 100,000th of a grain, is capable of being estimated by each degree of its angular motion. It would be inconsistent with tlie limits of the present article to go into a detail of the delicate methods of re- search adopted in the investigation of this subject. The following are among some ofthe most interesting results deduced from them. In a solid body, having the form of a perfect sphere, and charged with positive electricity, the Avhole of the fluid is, in consequence of the repulsion of its own particles, which is every where di- rected from the centre outwards, accu- mulated in a thin stratum, at the very surface of the sphere. If the body be charged with negative electricity, the de- ficiency of fluid will take place only in the superficial stratum of matter. If, instead of being spherical, the body have any other form, the electricity will be chiefly con- fined to the surface; and if it have an elongated form, there will be a greater charge in the remoter parts than in those nearer to the middle. This result of the- ory, respecting the limitation of electricity to the mere surface, is confirmed, in the most decisive manner, by the experiments of Coulomb. A conducting body, of a spheroidal shape, with small pits in va- rious jiarts of its surface, half an inch in diameter, and one tenth of an inch in depth, was electrified, and examined by the torsion balance. The bottoms of these pits afforded no indications of having received any electricity, while the even surface exhibited strong electrical excite- ment We may conclude, both from theory and experiment, therefore, that although, strictly speaking, the electricity must reside within the substance of con- ducting bodies, it extends, in fact to a depth so smaU as to be inappreciable by any known methods of observation. The effect of an expansion of surface, in les- sening the intensity of electricity, while its absolute quantity remains the same, is illustrated by the following experiment: around an insulated cylinder, movable on a horizontal axis, and turned by an insulating handle, is wound a thin lamina of any metal, the end of which is semi- circular, and has attached to it a silk thread. The Avhole apparatus communi- cates with an electrometer, formed of two linen threads, each terminating in a pith ball. On communicating a charge of electricity to the cyUnder, the threads and balls of the electrometer attached to it diverge. Upon taking hold of the silk thread, and unrolUng the metallic lamina from the cylinder, the balls gradually col- lapse, thus indicating a diminution in the intensity of electrical repulsion. But, on winding up the lamina, by turning the insulating handle, the electricity is re- stored, and the balls diverge to the same extent as before, allowance being made for the small dissipation of electricity, from the contact of the air during the ex- periment. In the case of along and slen- der lamina of conducting matter, charged with electricity, Coulomb found that its intensity continued nearly uniform, from the* middle ofthe lamina to within a short distance from the ends; at that part it rapidly increased; and at the very ex- tremity, it became twice as much as at the middle part. He also found, that in a cylinder 30 inches long and 2 in diame- ter, the intensity of the electricity at the ends was to its intensity in the middle, or at any part more than 2 inches from die extremity, as 2.3 to 1. From which in- stances we infer, that if a conducting sub- stance be drawn out into a point, the in- tensity of the electricity at that point will be exceedingly great; and that the point will, accordingly, absorb and draw into it- self nearly the whole of the electricity that is contained in the body. This great concentration of electricity is found actu- ally to take place in all points that project beyond the general surface. The pres- sure excited by the electric fluid against a non-conducting medium, such as the air, which opposes an obstacle to its es- cape, is in a ratio compounded of the repulsive force of its own particles at the surface of the stratum of fluid, and of the thickness of that stratum; but as one of these elements is always proportional to the other, the total pressure must in every point, be proportional to the square of the thickness. If this pressure be less 454 ELECTRICITY. than the resistance, or coerdve force, as it has been called, of the air, the electricity is retained ; but the moment it exceeds that force, in any one point die electricity suddenly escapes, just as a fluid confined in a vessel would rush out 'f it were to burst open a hole in the side of the vessel. The irruption of the electric fluid is marked by several very striking phenom- ena. A sharp snap is heard, accompa- nied by a vivid spark, and there are evi- dences of an intense heat being evolved in the line which the electricity takes. Its passage through a perfect conductor is unattended with light. Light appears only where there are obstacles in its path, by the interposition of imperfect conduct- ors ; and such is the velocity with which it is transmitted, that the sparks appear to take place at the very same instant, along the whole line of its course. Thus, if a row of small fragments of tin-foil be past- ed so as to be nearly in contact, on a piece of glass, and electricity be sent through them, by connecting one of its ends with the conductor of an electrical machine, while the other end communi- cates with the ground, it will not be pos- sible to detect any difference of time in the occurrence of the light in the differ- ent parts. If the tin-foil be arranged so as to represent a chain, it will appear lu- minous at each link, while conveying a charge of electricity. The longest and most vivid sparks are obtained betAveen two conductors having a rounded form, as may be exemplified in a common elec- trical machine, by presenting a metallic ball to that side of the prime conductor which is furthest from the cylinder of the machine; a spark is immediately seen, of considerable length, resembling a long streak of fire, extending from the con- ductor to the ball. Often, when the spark is very long, it is seen to have an angular or zigzag course, exactly like that of a flash of lightning. This irregularity is probably occasioned by the fluid darting obUquely in its course to minute conduct- ing particles, as those of moisture, that are floating in the air, a little removed from the direct line of passage. Elec- nical light differs in no respect from the light obtained from other sources. Its brilliancy depends upon the conducting power of the bodies between which it passes. When dry Avood is employed, it appears in the form of faint red streams; but metals afford a light of greater brill- iancy. Its color is subject to variations, from a great number of different circum- stances. Sparks passed through balls of Avood or ivory are of a crimson color; but this depends upon their position with regard to the surface. Electric sparks, passing from one polished metallic surface to another, are white ; but if the finger be presented to an electrified conductor, the sparks obtained are violet. They are green, when taken from the surface of silvered leather; yellow, when taken from finely powdered charcoal; and of a purple color, when taken from the greater number of imperfect conductors. In exceedingly rarefied air, the color of the spark is green; in denser air, it acquires a blue tint and passes to a violet and purple as the condensation of the air is increased. In making these experiments, it is found that in proportion as the medium is more rare, its conducting power increases, and a smaller intensity of electricity is required for the production of light. In the ordi- nary vacuum of the air-pump, the pas- sage of electricity is rendered sensible by streams or columns of diffused light oc- casionally varying in their breadth and in- tensity, and exhibiting movements Avhich give them a marked resemblance to the coruscations of the aurora boreaUs. It was at first imagined, that the light which appears during the passage of electricity was actually the electric fluid itself, be- come luminous from its high degree of accumulation. But, since we know that common atmospheric air becomes lumi- nous by violent compression, and we must also presume that electricity exerts a very sudden and powerful pressure upon the air, by its passage through that resisting medium, we are certainly justi- fied in drawing the inference, that the same phenomena proceed, in both cases, from the same cause. The sound, which accompanies the various modes of trans- ferrence, is subject to modifications de- pendent upon the degree and suddenness of the impulses given to the air. The full, short and undivided spark is attended with a loud explosion ; the more length- ened spark, with a sharper snap, which becomes more broken and rattling in pro- portion to the distance it has to traverse. The great increase of intensity wlrich the electric fluid acquires at the extremities of all elongated conducting bodies, and especially the indefinite augmentation of this intensity at the apex of all projecting points, has been alluded to above. This intensity will necessarily be accompanied with a powerful disposition in the fluid to escape—a circumstance which furnish- es a natural and exact explanation of the rapid dissipation of electricity, Avhich i ELECTRICITY. 455 takes place from all bodies of a slender and pointed form. The illustration of these positions is seen in bringing metallic rods of different forms near tlie prime conductor of a machine charged with either species of electricity, die conductor being furnished with a pair of pith balls, suspended by a fine wire, whose diver- gence indicates the presence and degree of die electricity in the conductor : if the metallic rod have a bell at the end which is brought near the charged conductor, the pith balls will be but slightly affected ; Avhereas, if it terminate in a sharp point, and the point be presented to the con- ductor at the same distance as the ball was in the former case, the divergence of the balls will immediately cease, showing that the electrical charge has wholly disap- peared. Currents of air ahvays accom- pany the discharge of electricity from pointed bodies; for each particle of air, as soon as it has received its electricity from the point, is immediately repelled by the body. Many amusing experi- ments are founded on this principle. Let two cross wires, bent at right angles near Uie ends, which terminate in points, and pointing in a simUar direction with re- spect to the axis, be supported at their centre upon a fine point, and electrified by being placed upon the prime con- ductor of a machine; each of the points Avill give off a stream of electricity, and the wires will revolve backward with considerable rapidity. An apparatus con- sisting of wires terminating in points, and having balls annexed to them, to repre- sent the planets, may be constructed so as to revolve when electrified, and thus to imitate the planetary motions. Such an apjiaratus has been called an dedrical orrery. When the transfer of electricity takes place between smooth surfaces of a certain extent, no difference can be per- ceived in the nature and appearance of the spark, whichever be the jiosition of the negative surface. But in the passage of electricity through points, the effect is considerably modified by the sjiecies of electricity with which the bodies are charged; or, in other words, by the di- rection in which the fluid moves. When the electric fluid is escaping out of a pointed conductor, the luminous appear- ance is that of diverging streams, forming what is termed a pencil of light, and re- sembling the filaments of a brush. When, on the contrary, the electric fluid is en- tering into the pointed body, die light is much more concentrated at the point it- self, having a resemblance to a star, in which, if any streams appear, they are disposed like radii, and equally so in all directions. This difference in these two appearances may be employed, on many occasions, as a useful criterion of the spe- cies of electricity, at least, which is pass- ing from one conductor to another, if not ofthe absolute direction of its motion. For if a needle be presented to an electrified body, the appearance of a star on the needle will show that the electricity of tiiat body is positive; while, on die con- trary, a luminous brush on the needle will indicate that the body is negative. These observations seem to indicate the emana- tion of some material fluid from the pos- itive, and its reception by the negative point. It has, accordingly, been urged, as an argument in favor of the Frank- linian theory. The diverging lines on one side, and their inflections on the oth- er, represent exactly the paths of particles flowing out as from a pipe, and urged forward by a force which gives them such a projectile velocity as to prevent their spreading out beyond a certain dis- tance from the direct line of projection. But this very velocity will carry the par- ticles, that happen to have deviated most, somewhat beyond the point to which they are attracted; while the attraction to this latter point will tend to deflect them from the line of their path, and gradually turn them back, so that they will arrive at the jioint of attraction by very different paths, and some even by a retrograde motion. Hence, while, in the first case, they form a diverging cone of rays, in the latter they must be distributed on all sides of the jioint, like the rays of a star. VI. Active electricity, existing in any substance, tends always to induce the op- posite electrical state in the bodies that are near it Now, it is impossible to in- duce one electrical state in any body, without, at the same time, producing the opposite state in the same body, or in the one which is immediately contiguous. It follows, therefore, that if the bodies sub- jected to the inductive influence are non- conductors, although the tendency to pro- duce the opposite electricity exists, yet, in consequence of the immobility of the fluid, it can produce no visible change. In proportion as the body opposes less resistance to the passage of electricity, the operation of the disturbing force be- comes sensible. For example, in the case of a positively charged electric, acting by induction on an insulated conducting body, the redundant fluid in the former must tend to repel aU die fluid contained « • 456 ELECTRICITY. in the latter; a portion of this fluid must therefore, be driven from the side adja- cent to the first body, toAvards the remoter side. The adjacent side wUl dius be ren- dered negative ; the remoter side, positive. But this will take place to a certain ex- tent only; for there is a Umit at which the repulsion of the fluid accumulated at the remote end will just balance the re- pulsion of the fluid in die electric, added to the attraction of the under-saturated matter, in the near end; and Avhen the Umit has been attained, the flow of elec- tric fluid from the near to the remote end ofthe body will cease, and an equilibrium will be established. Experiment fully confirms this theory, as may be seen by bringing a cylinder of metal of some length, with rounded ends, near an elec- trified globe of glass, taking care that it be not sufficiently near to receive any quantity of electricity by transferrence. By means of the electrometer of Cou- lomb, Ave perceive that the jiart of the conductor nearest to the electric is nega- tive, and the part most remote is positive ; while, about the middle of the cylinder, the body is in a neutral state. The elec- tricity is found to diminish as we jiroceed from either extremity toAvards this point of neutrality. These remarkable effects are solely the result of the action of elec- tricity at a distance; for they take place in an equal degree, whatever non-con- ducting substance may be interposed be- tween the bodies exerting this influence on one another. But in an experiment, where the acting body, instead of being an electric, is a conducting body, the elec- trical state Avhich the globe induces on the cylinder must react upon its own elec- tricity. The negative electricity, that is, the under-saturated matter at the nearer end of the cyUnder, must exert a ten- dency to induce positive electricity in the globe, and more especiaUy upon the side next, the cyUnder; that is, it wiU tend, by its attraction for the fluid, to draw it to that side, and thus render it stiU more highly positive than it was before. This can only be done at the expense of the other side, from Avhich the fluid must be taken, and which is therefore rendered less charged with fluid, that is, less posi- tive than before. But this new distribu- tion of the electric fluid in the globe, by increasing the positive state of the side next the cylinder, tends to augment its inductive influence on the fluid in the cyUnder; that is, to drive an additional quantity of fluid from the negative to the positive end. This must be followed in turn by a corresponding reaction on tho globe, and so on, constituting a nerics ot smaller adjustments, until a perfect equi- librium is established in every part. This reasoning is fully established by expen- ment AU that is required for its illustra- tion is simply to furnish the metallic globe, insulated and charged Avith positive electricity, with electroscopes upon its opposite surfaces. No sooner do Ave bring near to it a conducting body, than the balls of the electroscope, at the side most distant from that body, begin to col- lapse, while those at the nearer side di- verge to a greater degree than before; thus showing the nature of the reflex op- eration of the induced electricity of the conductor upon the body from which the induction originated. In all die changes thus alluded to, there has been no trans- fer of electricity from either of the bodies to the other, as is most satisfactorily proved from the circumstance, that the mere removal of the bodies to a distance from one another is sufficient to restore each of them to their original state. The globe remains as perfectly electrified as before; the cylinder returns to its condi- tion of perfect neutrality ; and the exper- iment may be repeated as often as we please, Avithout any variation in the phe- nomena. This would not be the case, however, if the cylinder were divided in the middle, and one or both of the parts Avere removed separately, while they still remained under the influence ofthe globe. The return of the electric fluid from the positive to the negative end being thus prevented, each part will retain, after its separation, the elecnicity which had been induced upon it; the nearer portion wiU remain negative, the remoter one positive. If the division had been in three parts, the middle part only would have been neutral. It is found by experiment, that the effects of induction on a conductor are augmented by increasing its length; and they become as great as possible, by placing the conductor in communication with the earth, which carries off all tbe fluid the electrified body is capable of expelling from the nearest end. A con- ductor under the influence of induction, between which and the earth a commu- nication has been made, by touching the remote end with a metallic rod held in the band, possesses but one kind of elec- tricity, namely, the one opposite to that of the electrified body which is acting upon it The part touched is brought into a state in which it appears to be neutral, as long as it remains in the vicin- ELECTRICITY. 457 ity of the electrified body; but it reauy contains less fluid than its natural share ; and this will immediately become appa- rent if the conductor that has been touched be again insulated, and then re- moved from the influence of the body producing the induction. This peculiar condition of a body, in which its parts are really undercharged or overcharged with fluid, although, from the action of electric forces derived from bodies in its vicinity, a state of equilibrium is established, and no visible effect results, has been denom- inated by Biot disguised electricity. We have hitherto sujijiosed the acting body to be positively electrified; but precisely the same effects would happen with re- gard to the degree, although opposite as to the sjiccies of electricity, if it had been negatively electrified. Our knowl- edge of the induction of electricity ena- bles us to understand Avhy bodies, be- tween which it takes place, should attract one another. For the action of the adja- cent sides, which are brought into opjio- site electrical states, is greater than the action of those sides which are in the same electrical states, and which are more distant; hence the attractive force always exceeds the repulsive. The most con- venient mode of obtaining an accumula- tion of electricity arising from induction, is by the employment of coated glass, that is, of a plate of glass, ou each side of which is pasted a sheet or coating of tin-foil. Care must be taken to leave a sufficient margin of glass uncovered by the metal, for preventing the transfer of electricity fi-om one coating to the other, round the edge of the glass; and all siiarp angles, or ragged edges in the coat- ings, should be avoided, as they have a great tendency to dissijiate the charge. The form of coated glass best adapted to experiments is that of a cylindric jar; this is coated, within and without, nearly to the top. The cover consists of baked wood, and is inserted with sealing-wax, to exclude moisture and dust. A metallic rod, rising two or three inches above the jar, and terminated at the top in a brass knob, is made to descend through the cover till it touches the interior coating. The name of the Lyden phial, or jar, is applied to this instrument. It is used in the following manner: the outer coating being made to communicate with die ground, by holding it in the hand, the knob of the jar is presented to the prime conductor when the machine is in motion; a succession of sparks will pass between them, Avhile, at the same time, nearly an equal quantity vol. iv. 39 of electricity will be passing out from the exterior coating, through the body of the person who holds it, to the ground. The jar, on being removed, is said to be charged; and if a communication is made between the two coatings, by a me- tallic Avire, extending from the external one to the knob, the electric fluid which was accumulated in the positive coating rushes, with a sudden and violent impe- tus, along the conductor, and passes into the negative coating ; thus at once re- storing an almost complete equilibrium. This sudden transfer of* a large quantity of accumulated electricity is a real ex- plosion ; and it gives rise to a vivid flash of light, corresponding in intensity to the magnitude of the charge. The effect of its transmission is much greater than that of the simjile charge of the prime con- ductor of the machine; and it imparts a sensation, when passing through any jiart of the body, of a peculiar kind, which is called the electric shock. In the construc- tion of the Leyden jar, the thickness of the glass is an important consideration. The thinner the glass, the greater will be the power of taking a charge; but the power of retaining it will be less, on ac- count of the diminished resistance which the glass will oppose to the electricity through it If the charge be higher than what the jar will bear, the glass will be broken by the violence with which the electric fluid forces a passage through its substance. Another limit to the charge which a jar is capable of retaining, arises from the liability of the electricity to pass from one coating to the other, round the edges of the glass. The deposition of moisture, also, on the glass, will occasion a S|iontaneous discharge, since it forms a chain of conducting particles, in the very line which the electricity has a tendency to take. Hence, in order to preserve the uncoated jiart of the glass in as thy a state as possible, it is usually covered with a layer of sealing-wax, or some other res- inous varnish. By uniting together a sufficient number of jars, we are able to accumulate an enormous quantity of elec- tricity : for this purpose, all the interior coatings of the jars must be made to communicate by metallic rods, and a sim- ilar union must be estabUshed among the exterior coatings. When thus arranged, the whole series may be charged, as if they formed but one jar; and the whole of the accumulated electricity may be transferred from one system of coatings to the other, by a general and simulta- neous discharge. Such a combination 458 ELECTRICITY. of jars is caUed an electrical battery. For the purpose of making the direct com- munication between the inner and outer coating of a jar or battery, by Avhich a discharge is effected, an instrument called the discharging rod is employed. It con- sists of two bent metallic rods, terminated at one end by brass balls, and connected at the other by a joint, Avhich is fixed to the end of a glass handle, and which, acting like a pair of compasses, allows of the baUs being separated at different dis- tances. When opened to the proper de- gree, one of the balls is made to touch the exterior coating, and the other ball is then quickly brought into contact with the knob of the jar, and thus a discharge is effected, Avhile the glass handle secures the person holding it from the effects of the shock. If we wish to send the whole charge of electticity through any partic- ular substance, which may be the subject of exjieriment, we must so arrange the connecting conductors, as that the sub- stance shall form a necessaiy part of the circuit of the electricity, as it is termed. With diis view, we must jilace it be- tween two good conductors, one of wlrich is in communication Avith the outer coat- ing; and the circuit may then be com- pleted by connecting the other conductor with the inner coating, by means of a dis- charging rod, to one branch of which, if necessaiy, a flexible chain may be added. VII. In forming arrangements for di- recting the passage of accumulated elec- tricity, it should be borne in mind, that the electric fluid will, on these occasions, ahvays pass through the best conductors, although they may be more circuitous, in preference to those which are more direct, but have inferior conducting power; and it must also be recollected, that when dif- ferent paths are open for its transmission along conductors of equal power, the electricity wiU always take that which is the shortest. Thus, if a person, holding a wire between his hands, discharges a jar by means of it, the whole of the fluid wiU pass through the wire, without affect- ing him; but if a piece of dry wood be substituted for the wire, he will feel a shock; for, the wood being a worse con- ductor than his own body, the charge will pass through the latter, as being the easiest, although the longest circuit. Dur- ing its transit through the human body, in like manner, the shock is felt only in the parts situated in the direct line of com- munication ; and if the charge be made to pass through a number of persons, who take one another by the hand, and form part of the circuit between the inner and outer coatings of the jar, each will teel the electric shock in the same manner, and at the same instant; the sensation reaching from hand to hand, directly across the breast. By varying the points of contact, however, the shock may be made to pass in other directions, and may either be confined to a small part of a limb, or be made to traverse the whole length of the body, from head to foot By accurate experiments it ap- pears, that the force of the electric shock is weakened, i. e. its effects are dimin- ished, by emjiloying a conductor of great length for making the discharge. But it is difficult to assign a limit to the number of persons through whom even a small charge of electricity may be sent, so that all shall experience the shock ; or to the distance along which it may be con- veyed by good conductors. The abbe Nollet passed an electrical shock through 180 ofthe French guards, in the jiresence of the king; and the sensation was felt at the same moment by aU the persona composing the circuit. An experiment was made near London, at a time Avhen the ground was remarkably dry, to as- certain if any loss of time accompanied the passage ofthe fluid, when transmitted through considerable distances. It was made to perform a circuit of four miles; being conducted for two miles along wires sujijiorted on baked sticks, and for the re- maining distance through the dry ground. As far as could be ascertained by the most careful observation, the time in which the discharge was transmitted along that immense circuit was perfectly instantaneous. A retardation in the pas- sage of electricity, however, does take place, if the conductor be not of a suffi- cient size; and Avhen this is the case, as well as in those instances where the con- ductor is not a good one, the discharge wiU not be effected so instantaneously or so completely. Under these circumstan- ces, also, there is a tendency in the fluid to diverge from the direct line of its course, and to fly off to different objects in the vicinity, as is often exemplified in the case of lightning, which, on striking a building, is apt to take a very irregular and seemingly capricious route, darting towards conducting bodies which may happen to attract it, althougn at some dis- tance from the immediate direction it was pursuing. The motion of electrici- ty through perfect conductors is attend- ed with no perceptible alteration in the mechanical properties of the conducting ELECTRICITY. 459 bodies, provided they be of sufficient size for the charge of the electric fluid trans- mitted. On the contrary, very considera- ble effects are produced Avhen a poAverful charge is sent through a Avire, which is too small to allow the whole quantity to pass with perfect freedom; or through an imperfect conductor, though of a large size, as is proved when a tree is struck by lightning. A piece of dry writing paper, as well as pieces of dry, porous wood, are easily torn in pieces by an electric charge. VIII. Electricity exerts a most extensive and imjiortant influence in effecting chan- ges in the temperature and chemical com- position of bodies. The ignition and fusion of metals by the electric discharge, are phenomena which have been long ob- served. Thus, by passing a strong charge through slender iron wires, or the finest flatted steel, called pendulum wire, they are ignited, and partly melted into glob- ules, and at the same time partially oxi- dated. If a slip of gold or silver leaf be placed on white paper, and a strong shock passed through it, the metal will disap- pear with a bright flash, and the impulse with Avhich its particles are driven against the paper will jiroduce a permanent stain of a purple or gray color. The colors produced in tiris way have been appUed to impress letters or ornamental devices on silk and on paper. For this purpose, the outline of the required figure should be first traced on thick drawing paper, and afterwards cut out in the manner of stencil plates. The drawing-paper is then placed on die silk or paper intended to be marked; a leaf of gold is laid upon it, and a card over that; the whole is then placed in a press or under a weight and a charge from a battery sent through the gold leaf. The stain is confined, by the interposition of the drawing-paper, to the limit of the design, and in this way a profile, a flower, or any other outline figure, may be very neatly impressed. The heat evolved by electricity, like most other of its effects, is in jirojiortion to the resistances ojiposed to its jiassage. A rod of wood, of consider- able thickness, being made jiait of the circuit, has its temperature sensibly raised by a very few discharges. Most combus- tible bodies are Capable of being inflamed by electricity. Thus alcohol, ether, cam- phor, jiowdered resin, phosphorus or gun- powder may be set on fire. And the sparks taken from a jiiece of ice are as capable of inflaming bodies as those from a piece of red-hot iron. The oxidation of metals, through which accumulated electricity lias been passed, is rather to be ascribed to the tendency which they are known to possess of combining with the oxygen of the atmosphere when heated, than to any pecuUar agency of electricity. A reverse process, however, is found to attend electrical discharges through me- tallic oxides, extricating their oxygen, and restoring them to the metallic state. When a succession of electric discharges from a powerful electric machine are sent through water, a decomposition of that fluid takes place, and it is resolved into its tAvo elements of oxygen and hydrogen, which immediately assume the gaseous form. When this experiment is conduct- ed in a suitable apparatus, and a shock is transmitted through the mixed gases thus obtained, they are instantly kindled ; a re- union of the elements takes place; and precisely the same quantity of water is re- jiroduced as was decomposed to furnish the gases. It may appear somewhat paradox- ical that the same agent should, in the course of the same experiment produce at one time decomposition, and at another combination, of the same elements. The simplest way of reconciling this apparent discordance, is to suppose that the combi- nation ofthe gases is the effect ofthe heat evolved during its forcible transit through an aeriform fluid that opposes considerable resistance to its passage; while die de- composition of the liquid is the direct consequence of the agency of electricity when not interfered with by heat. When a solution of sulphate of copper is subject- ed to the action of electricity by means of slender conducting wires terminating in the vessel containing the solution, the cop- per is revived, or precipitated in a metallic state, around the negative wire; but, upon reversing the direction of the current of electricity, so that the same wire now be- comes positively electrified, the copper which has collected around it is redis- solved, and a similar deposit takes place on the opposite wire, which now becomes the negative one. SimUar experiments, made with other metallic solutions, are attended with similar results; and solutions of neutral salts with alkaline and earthy bases obey the same law, being separated into their constituent parts, the ingredi- ent containing oxygen always ajijiearing at the positive Avire, and the base at the negative wire ; but as these are a class of effects which have been more particularly investigated by that mode of agency de- nominated galvanism, we shall reserve a more full account of them for that article. EX. Having seen the effects of electricity on manimate matter, we now proceed to 460 ELECTRICITY. describe the agency it exerts over living bodies. 1 ts passage through living plants immediately destroys the vitality of the parts through Avlrich it jiasses. A very small shock, sent through the stem of a balsam, causes its leaves to droop in a few minutes, and finally extinguishes its vital- ity. The approach of an electrified con- ductor to the sensitive jilant (mimosa pu- dica) produces no effect upon it; but when sparks are taken from it, the leaves col- lapse, just as they are accustomed to do from concussions of a mechanical nature. When the energetic effects of the shock from the Leyden vial upon the animal system Avere first made known, high ex- pectations were raised that electricity would prove a remedial agent of extraor- dinary power. It was sujiposed that, as a stimulant, it would have many advan- tages over other remedies; for it can be administered in various degrees of intensi- ty, Avhich may be regulated with great ex- actness ; and its application can be direct- ed especially to the organ we wish to affect. Accordingly, we find, at one period, it was employed in a great number of cases; but at present it is confined to a very few ; such as palsy, contractions of the limbs, rheumatism, St. Virus's dance, some kinds of deafness, and impaired vision. Al- though the effects of ordinaiy shocks ujion living animals are familiar to most per- sons, still a short account of tliese shocks, as they have been administered out ofthe common course may not be uninteresting. If a person who is standing receive a charge through the spine, he loses his jiower over the muscles to such a degree, that he either drojis on his knees, or falls jirostrate on the ground. A strong charge passed through the head gives the sensa- tion of a violent but universal IiIoav, and is followed by a transient loss of memory and indistinctness of vision. If the dia- jihragm be included in the circuit of a coated surface of two feet in extent, fully charged, the sudden contraction of the muscles of respiration will act so violently ujion the air in the lungs, as to occasion a loud and involuntary shout; but if the charge lie small, a fit of convulsive laugh- ter is induced, producing a most ludicrous scene to the by-stander. Small animals,such as mice and sjiarroAvs, are instantly killed by a shock from 30 square inches of glass. X. There are seAeral mineral bodies, which, from being in a neutral state at or- dinary temperatures, acquire electricity simply by being heated or cooled. This property is confined to crystallized mine- rals ; and of diese the most remarkable are the tourmaline and boracite. (q- v.) In the former of these, it is best observed in the regularly terminated crystals, "hen one of these is heated from 100 to eilJr Fahr., the extremity terminated by the greatest number of planes becomes charged Avith positive electricity, vvlnle the other exu-emity is negative. When the crystal is of considerable size, flashes of light may be seen along its surface. A large number of substances become elec- trified on passing from the liquid to the solid form. This happens to sulphur, gum-lac, bees-wax, and, in general, all res- inous bodies. The conversion of bodies into the state of vapor, as well as the con- densation of vapor, is generally attended by some alteration of their electrical con- dition. Thus, if an ignited platina cruci- ble be placed upon the gold leaf electrom- eter, and water be drojiped into it, at the moment the vajior rises, the leaves of the electrometer diverge with negative elec- tricity. Electricity is evolved by the con- tact of different metals. Thus, if two discs, the one of copper, the other of zinc, rather more than two inches in diameter, and furnished with insulating handles, be brought into contact, and then separated and examined by an electroscope, the copper disc is found to be charged with negative, and the zinc disc with positive electricity. While the contact of the metals is preserved, neither of them gives any indication of its electrical state, the electricity being disguised until the sepa- ration takes place. This observation has an important relation to the theory of that mode of electrical excitement called gal- vanism, under which head it will be re- sumed. There are some bodies which are rendered electrical by jiressure. Thus, if a ciystal of calcareous spar orarragonite be jiressed for a few moments between the fingers, it exhibits a decided attrac- tion. The same thing happens with re- gard to cork, pajier and wood. Many mineral substances, Avhen reduced to pow- der, exhibit electricity, if made to fall upon an insulated metallic plate, a mode of excitation Avhich is to be considered as a species of friction. The most important circumstance in this inquiry is the con- nexion betAveen electricity and the chem- ical properties of matter, first pointed out by sir H. Davy. Most of the substances that act distinctly upon each other electri- cally, are likewise such as act chemically, when their particles have freedom of mo- tion. This is the case with the different metals, with sulphur and the metals, with acids and the alkaline substances. Of two ELECTRICITY. 461 metals in contact, the one which has the greatest chemical attraction for oxygen acquires positive electricity, and the other the negative. In the contact of acids with bases, as of crystals of oxalic acid Avith dry quicklime, the former "is neg- ative, the latter is jiositive. All acid crys- tals, when covered by a jilate of metal, render it positive, the crystals themselves becoming negative. XI. The resemblance between the elec- tric spark, and more esjiecially the explo- sive discharge ofthe Leyden jar, and at- mosjiheric lightning and thunder, struck the mind of doctor Franklin with so much force, that he was determined, if jiossible, to' verify their identity by exjieriment. Having constructed a kite, by stretching a large silk handkerchief over two sticks in the form of a cross, on the ajijiearance of an approaching storm, he went into a field in the vicinity of Philadelphia, and raised it, taking care to insulate it by a silken cord attached to a key, with wlrich the hemjien string terminated. No sooner had a dense cloud, ajiparcntly charged with lightning, jiassed over the sjiot on which he stood, than his attention was ar- rested by the bristling up of some loose fibres on the hemjien string: he imme- diately presented his knuckle to the key, and received an electric sjiark. The rain now fell in torrents, and, wetting the string, rendered it conducting in its Avhole lengdi; so that electric sjiarks were now collected from it in great abundance. This grand experiment was made in June, 1752; and although the same idea which led Frank- lin to institute it had occurred to other philosojihers, yet to him belongs exclu- sively the glory of the discovery. The discovery of Franklin immediately en- gaged the attention of European philoso- jihers ; one of whom, jirofessor Richmann of St. Petersburg, fell a victim to his at- tctnjit to draw down the electric fluid from the clouds. He had constructed an apjiaratus for observations on atmospher- ical electricity, and Avas attending a meet- ing ofthe academy of sciences, when the sound of distant thunder caught his ear. lie immediately hastened home, taking with him his engraver, Sokolow, in order that he might delineate the appearances that should jiresent themselves. While intent ujion examining the electrometer, a large globe of fire flashed from the con- ducting rod, wlrich was insulated, to the head of Richmann, and, passing through his body, instantly deprived him of life, A red spot Avas found on his forehead, where the electricity had entered ; his 39* shoe was burst open, and part of his clothes singed. His companion was struck down, and remained senseless for sometime; the door-case of the room was split, and the door itself torn off its hinges. —The atmosphere is very generally in an electrical state. This is ascertained by employing a metalUc rod, insulated at its lower end, elevated at some height above the ground, and communicating with an electroscope. In order to collect the elec- tricity of the higher regions of the air, a kite may be raised, in the string of vyhich a slender metallic wire should be inter- woven. The atmosphere is almost inva- riably found to be positively electrified ; and its electricity is stronger in the Avinter than in the summer, and during the day than in the night. From the time of sun- rise, it increases for two or three hours, and then decreases towards the middle of the day, being generally the weakest be- tween noon and four o'clock. As the sun declines, its intensity is again augmented, till about the time of sunset, after which it diminishes, and continues feeble during the night. In cloudy weather, the elec- trical state is much more uncertain; and when there are several strata of clouds, moving in different directions,it is subject to great and rapid variations, changing backAvards and forwards in the couise of a veiy few minutes. On the first ajipear- ance of fog, rain, shoav, hail or sleet, the electricity of the air is generally negative, and often highly so; but it afterwards undergoes frequent transitions to opposite states. On the ajijiroach of a thunder- storm, these alternations ofthe electric con- dition of the air succeed one another with remarkable rapidity. Strong sjiarks are sent out in great abundance from the con- ductor ; and it becomes dangerous to pros- ecute experiments with it in its, insulated state. Thunder is merely the noise pro- duced by the motion of the lightning.*—■ The protection of buildings from the destructive effects of lightning is the most important practical ajiplication of the the- ory of electricity. The conductors, for this purpose, should be formed of metallic rods, pointed at the upper extremity, and placed so as to project a few feet above the highest jiart of the building they are intended to secure; they should be con- tinued without interruption till they de-. scend into the ground below the founda- tion of the house. Copper is preferable to iron as the material for their construc- tion, being less Uable to destruction by * The air of close rooms, vitiated by respira-i tion, is found to be negatively electrified. 462 ELECTRICITY—ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. rust or by fusion, and possessing also a greater conducting power. The size of die rods should be from half an inch to an inch in diameter, and the point should be gilt, or made of platina, that it may be more effectually preserved from corro- sion. An important condition in the pro- tecting conductor is, that no interruption should exist in its continuity from top to bottom; and advantage AviU result from connecting together by strips of metal all the leaden water-pipes, or other consider- able masses of metal in or about the building, so as to form one continuous system of conductors, for carrying the electricity by different channels to the ground. The lower end of the conductors should be carried doAvn into the earth, till it reaches either Avater, or at least a moist stratum. For the protection of ships, chains, made of a series of iron rods Unked together, are most convenient, on account of their flexibility. They should extend from the highest point ofthe mast some way into the sea, and the lower part should be removed to some distance from the side of the ship, by a wooden spar or outrigger. Electro-Dynamics ; the science which treats of electricity in motion through a system of conductors; a name used in contradistinction to electro-statics, or the science of electricity in equilibrio. (For the fdc:< belonging to this science, see Electro- Magnetism, Electricity, and Galvanism.) Electro-Magnetism ; the name ap- pUed to a veiy interesting class of facts, jirincipally developed by professor Oer- sted, of Copenhagen, in the year 1819. The poAver of lightning in destroying and reversing the polarity of a magnet, and of communicating magnetic influence to iron previously not magnetic, had long been observed, and had led to the supjiosition that similar effects might be produced by the common electrical or galvanic appara- tus. The first observation of professor Oersted was, that an electrical current, such as is supposed to pass from the posi- tive to the negative pole of a voltaic bat- tery, along a wire which connects them, causes a magnetic needle, placed near it, to deviate from its natural position, and to assume a new one, the direction of which depends upon the mode of conducting the experiment. The metallic wire to be made use of, in this experiment, should be two or three feet in length, in order to allow of its being bent or turned by the hands in various directions, and is called the conjunctive wire. When the Avire is extended horizontally in the line of the magnetic meridian,with a freely suspended compass needle, whose centre is directly under the Avire, the needle instantly de- viates from tlie magnetic meridian, and declines towards the west, under that part of the conjunctive Avire Avlrich is nearest the negative electric pole, or the copper end of the voltaic, apjiaratus, the amount of declination dejiending upon the strength ofthe electticity, and the sensibility ofthe needle. If Ave change the direction of the conjunctive wire out of the magnetic me- ridian towards the east or the Avest, no change in the above result takes place, except that of its amount. But if the wire be disposed horizontally beneath the nee- dle, the effects take place in an inverse manner; i.e.the pole ofthe needle,under which is placed the portion of the con- junctive wire, which receives the negative electricity ofthe battery, declines towards the east. When the conjunctive wire is stretched alongside of the needle in the same horizontal jilane, it occasions no decUnation, either to the east or west; but it causes it merely to incline in a ver- tical line, so that the pole adjoining the negative influence of the battery on the wire, dijis when the wire is on its Avest side, and rises AA'hen it is on the east. If Ave stretch the conjunctive wire, either above or beneath the needle, in a plane perpendicular to the magnetic meridian, it remains at rest, unless the wire be A'ery near the pole of the needle; in which case it rises when the entrance takes jilace by the west part of the wire, and sinks when it takes place by the east part. When Ave dispose the conjunctiAe wire in a vertical line opposite the pole of the needle, and make the upper extremity of die Avire receive the electricity of the negative end of the battery, , the pole of the needle moves towards the east; but if Ave place the wire opposite a point betAvixt the pole and the middle of the needle, it moves to the west. The phenomena are presented in an inverse order, Avhen the upper extremity of the conjunctive wire receives the electricity of the positive side of the ajiparatus.— The foregoing observations induced pro- fessor Oersted to believe that the electric action is not enclosed within the conduct- ing Avire, but that it has a jiretty extensive sphere of activity around it. He also con- cluded that this influence acts by revolu- tion ; for, without such a supposition, it is impossible to conceive how the same por- tion of wire, which, placed beneath the magnetic pole, carries the needle towards the east, should, when placed above this pole, carry it towards the west. Such ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 463 was the nature of the first discovery in electro-magnetism. It was no sooner an- nounced, than the experiments were re- peated and varied by phUosophers in all parts of die world; and a multitude of new facts were soon brought to light through the labors of MM. Ampere, Ara- go and Biot, in France, and sir H. Davy and Mr. Faraday, in England. Two very imjiortant facts were ascertained by Am- jiere and Davy,—that the conjunctive Avire becomes itself a magnet, and that magnetic jiroperties might be communi- cated to a steel needle not previously pos- sessing them, by placing it in the electric current. The former of tliese facts is jiroved by throwing some iron filings on paper, and bringing them under the wire, when they will immediately adhere to it, forming a tuft around it ten or twelve times the diameter ofthe wire: on break- ing the connexion Avith die battery, how- ever, they immediately fall off, proving that the magnetic effect depends entirely on the passage of the electricity through the wire. The degree of force of this magnetic property thus communicated to the uniting wire was imagined, by sir H. Davy, to be proportional to the quantity of electricity transmitted through it Hence the finer the wire, the more powerfully magnetic was it rendered; and hence, al- so, a battery of veiy large plates, such as is used for producing intense heat and light, was found to give the strongest mag- netism to the wire connecting its poles. Accordingly we find that the calorimotor of doctor Hare (see Galvanism), a galvan- ic arrangement, in wlrich the plates are nearly two feet square, exhibits the strong- est magnetic effects, and this notwith- standing the powerful heating effects that accompany its action; the heat excited not diminishing or interfering widi the magnetism, but apparently increasing it; for a fine jilatina wire, so intensely ignited as to be near the point of fusion, is ob- served to attract larger quantities of iron filings than when at a lower temperature. To communicate magnetic properties to steel needles, which before did not exhibit them, it is necessaiy merely to place them in contact with, or near to the conjunctive wire. The jiosition in which they are to be placed, with regard to the Avire, is im- portant, as the permanence of their mag- netic quality depends upon it. If diey are jilaced parallel Avith it, diey lose their magnetism when the connexion with the battery is broken, which shows that their magnetism arose only from their forming part of the electric circuit, Uke the con- necting wire itself. But if diey are placed across the wire, they become permanent- ly magnetized, and retain their power equally with needles prepared in the ordi- nary way. The polarity is different how- ever, according as the needle is placed above or below the wire. When a needle is placed under the uniting wire, the posi- tive end of the battery being on the right hand of the operator, the end ofthe needle next to him becomes the north pole, and the other end the south pole. On the contrary, when a needle is held above the wire, the reverse of this takes place ; the end next to the observer becomes the south, and the other the north pole. Even the same opposition is observed Avhen needles are placed in a perpendicu- lar position, on different sides of the Avire: in those on one side, aU the lower ends are found to be north poles, while, in those on the opposite side of the wire, the upper ends are all north poles, and the lower ex- tremities aU south poles. Direct contact ofthe steel needles with die conjunctive wire is not necessaiy, for they become in- stantly magnetic when brought near, it, even though thick plates of glass are inter- posed. As was remarked with regard to the connecting wire, galvanic batteries, consisting of large plates, are most poAverfol in communicating the magnetic influence. When the conjunctive Avires of two dis- tinct galvanic arrangements are made to approach each other, we observe magnetic attractions and repulsions. Two wires of copper, silver, or any other metal, con- necting the extremities of two galvanic troughs, being placed jiarallel to each oth- er, and suspended so as to move freely, immediately attract and repel each other, according as the directions of the cur- rents of electricity floAving through them, are the same or different. When both the negative or both the positive extremities of the troughs are turned to the same quarter, so that die electric cmrent passes along each wire in the same direction, the two wires attract each other; but Avhen the position of one of the troughs is re- versed, so that the electric currents in the two wires flow in opposite directions, the wires repel each other. Upon this exper- iment is founded the most plausible theo- ry of magnetism, viz., that it arises from the attractions and repulsions of currents of electricity, constantly circulating round every magnet. This is conceived to ex- plain the reason whv the magnetic needle places itself at right'angles to a wire con- ducting electricity, namely, that the electric current passing along die Avire may coin- 464 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. cide with that circulating round the mag- net The magnetic effects produced by galvanic arrangements are obtained also by electricity evoked from the common machine, and stiU more from this jioAver concentrated in the Leyden jar; the magnetism communicated agreeing in every respect as to the permanence of the polarity, die variations when the needle is placed above or below the wire, &c, with that produced by the voltaic jiile. Mag- netism is communicated to needles in a different manner from that of placing them across the conjunctive wire. The wire is formed into a hollow screw, or heUx, by rolling it round a solid rod, and the needle to be magnetized,'wrapped in a paper, or put into a glass tube, is jilaced in the centre of it, and the communica- tion with the galvanic battery established. This arrangement (according to the theoiy of M. Ampere) conveys the electric current by the spiral convolutions, round and round the needle, and communicates to it, or develojies in it, the electric circulation constituting magnetism. By this contri- A'ance, it is found that a maximum effect is obtained in a shorter time than by any other method. The position of the north and south pole varies according as either end of the helix is connected with the jiositive or the negative jiole, which shows tiiat the electric current Aoavs along the uniting Avire from the jiositive or zinc ex- tremity to the negative or cojijier end of the jiile. The electricity of a common machine produces the same effect. Hav- ing alluded to the principal facts relating to electro-magnetic phenomena, the in- genious theory of M. Ampere, by wlrich they are explained more extensively and with more precision than by any other hitherto advanced, deserves to be stated. It is the more deserving of attention, as having led its author to the discovery of some ofthe most remarkable facts detail- ed above; and, if future researches shall continue to increase its probability, it will no doubt be regarded as one of the finest instances of correct induction, supported by minute experiment which tlie history of any science can exhibit. The first principle of this theory has been already stated ;—that two currents of electricity attract when they move parallel to each other and in the same direction, and re- pel when they moA-e parallel to each other in contraiy directions. This fact is di- rectly the reverse of the usually observed phenomena of electricity; for it is well known that bodies in the same state of electricity repel each other, and in oppo- site states attract. Hence M. Ampere in- fers, tilth these results are not produced by electricity in its known and common state of tension, but are dependent on jiroper- ties belonging to electricity, previously unsuspected, and peculiar to it when in motion, or flowing in currents. Elec- tricity, av hen accumulated, has the power of causing certain effects, particularly at- tractions and repulsions, which are familiar to us, and are called electrical; but Avhen moving in currents, it exerts neAV poAyers, and these constitute magnetism. Review- ing the various experiments which have been enumerated, we find, that tlie con- necting wires of two batteries attract and repel each other, according to the direc- tions of the electric currents flowing through them; that the magnetic needle is, exactly in the same manner, attracted and repelled by a connecting wire, according to die direction ofthe current of electrici- ty moving through the wire; that the po- sition of the needle may be varied, in al- most any degree, by changing the position ofthe connecting wire; that whenever the electric circuit is broken, this influence on the needle ceases, and is renewed when- ever the communication betAveen the poles of the battery is restored ; that the connecting wire, of whatever metal it may consist, becomes a perfect magnet as long as the current flows along it, so as to attract iron filings and small steel needles, without attracting copper filings, or any other metal but iron; that steel needles may be converted into permanent mag- nets, by simply placing them across the connecting wire ; that the electric currents having this magnetizing power are not, like accumulated electricity, confined by glass, or other non-conductors, but pass through all bodies with facility, as magnet- ism was before knoAvn to do; that the magnetizing power is exerted by elec- tricity, whether procured by a galvan- ic ajiparatus, or a common machine ; that powerful magnets may be formed, by conducting electric currents round steel wires, as in the helix, and that the position ofthe north and south poles of these mag- nets depends upon the direction in which the currents are made to move round them. These, and a great number of other facts, it is conceived, clearly demonstrate the perfect resemblance, or rather identity, of electricity and magnetism. Magnetic phe- nomena are thus, in fact, a series of elec- trical phenomena ; and magnetism may, with propriety, form a branch of elec- tricity, under the head of Electrical Cur* rents. Though this intimate relation or ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 465 identity be admitted, it is not so obvious how, by it, the properties of the common magnet are explained. Currents of elec- tricity, according to the theory, are essential to the production of magnetic phenome- na ; but these are not obvious in a com- mon magnet. M. Ampere has suggested their existence, however, and has so ar- ranged them theoretically, as to account for a great proportion of magnetic ajipear- ances. A magnet he conceives to be an assemblage of as many electric currents, mov ing round it in planes perpendicular to its axis, as there may be imagined fines, which, without cutting one another, form closed curves round it. Magnetization, he sa3-s, is an operation by which there is given to the particles of steel (which, of the more common metals, appears to be die only one cajiable of being permanently imjiressed with this power) an electro- motive energy, which causes a circulation of these currents to be continued round them. The excitation and continuance of this electro-motive action is rendered less improbable, when we consider the electric power developed in the tourma- line and boracite by heat alone, and when we find, as in the electrical columns of De Luc and Zamboni, that electricity may be generated for years without ceas- ing or diminishing, by a small and simple ajiparatus. Such, then, is the constitu- tion of a magnet It is a mass of iron or steel, round the axis of which electric cur- rents are constantly circulating, and these currents attract all other electric currents flowing in the same direction, and repel all others Avhich are moving in an opposite direction. From these attractions and repulsions another effect follows, that the currents of one magnet have always a tendency to move any other magnet near it, till the currents in the second shall co- incide in direction with those of the first. It is from tiris cause, as will presently be explained, that the magnetic needle always turns to the meridian, and that the needle in Oersted's exjieriments became at right angles to the connecting wire. One im- portant circumstance is always to be kept iu view, that the electric currents flow round every magnet in the same direction in reference to its jioles. If, for instance, we place a magnet with its north pole pointing to the north, in the usual jiosition of the magnetic needle, the current of electricity flows round it from west to east; or, on the eastern side ofthe magnet, it is moving downwards, and on die west- ern side ujiwards; on the upper side, from west to east, and on the lower side, from east to west. This, it is found, is a uniform law. On these principles the phenomena of magnetism are easily accounted for. Thus, to take one ofthe most obvious and well known facts, that of two magnets attracting when their opposite poles are approached to one another, as the north of one to the south pole of the other. Let us suppose a magnet in the position which has just been stated, with its north pole directed to the north; and let a sec- ond magnet be placed beyond it, and in a line with it, with its north pole also jioint- ed to the north. Then, it is obvious that the south pole ofthe second magnet wiU be next to the north pole ofthe first; and from their position it follows, that the electric currents must be flowing in the same direction, or, in both of them, from Avest to east: hence, as currents moving in the same direction attract, these oppo- site poles, if within a certain distance, ought to attract each other, which, ac- cordingly, will be found to be the case. Now, let the second magnet be reversed ; let its south pole be directed to the north, and its north pole approached to the north pole ofthe first magnet; the electric cur- rents will flow round the magnet in the same manner as before; but in reference to the first magnet and to the meridian, their direction wiU be reversed: their di- rection will now be from east to Avest, up- wards on the eastern side, and downwards on the western; consequently, the cur- rents in the two magnets, being now ojijio- site, will repel, or the two north poles will repel each other.—In the experiments of professor Oersted, it Avas found, as has been stated, that when the extraneous in- fluence of the magnetism of the earth was counterbalanced, the tendency of a mag- netic needle always was to place itself at right angles to the wire connecting the poles of the galvanic battery. The reason of this is easily explained upon the jires- ent hypothesis. In the needle, the currents flow round its axis from end to end ; but in the connecting wire there is no circu- lation round the axis, but a constant stream from one end, namely, the negative, to the other, the positive extremity : hence, for the current along the Avire to coincide with the current across and round the magnet, it is necessary that the latter shall stand across the former; and as it appears, that from the attractions and re- jiulsions Avhich these electric currents exert, they are able to move one or both of the magnetic bodies (according as they are light and mobile), till they coincide, the needle moves if the wire is fixed tiU it stands at 466 ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. right angles to the wire; and if the magnet is fixed, and the wire movable, the re- verse hajipens. The other phenomena, \ of the needle turning to the west when placed below the wire, to the east Avhen jilaced above it, &c, may with facility be explained in the same manner by the prin- ciples, that currents flowing in the same direction attract; and that in every mag- net they move in a constant current, which is, when the north pole is turned to the north, from Avest to east or upwards on the Avest side, and downwards on the east side. The developement of permanent magnetism in steel needles when pla- ced across the Avire, while it is only temporaiy when they are fastened parallel Avith it, depends on the same cause : in the latter case, it arises merely from the transmission of electricity from end to end, Avhile, in die former, the electro-motive energy of the particles is developed and called into action, which, Avhen set in mo- tion, seems to have the power of continu- ing itself. These electric currents have the power, Avlrich accumulated electricity has not °f penetrating all substances, as Avas before known respecting magnetism. This is probably owing to their low state of tension ; and, in conformity Avith this, large plates, which evolve electricity in but a slight intensity, produce magnetic effects most distinctly. The agency of galvanism, and that of common electricity, are equally capable of giving rise to mag- netism when flowing in currents, which adds another to the proof that these are the same power. To complete the view of Ampere's doctrine, it remains only to explain the influence of the earth on the magnet by Avhich the needle is kept al- ways in one position, nearly coinciding with the meridian. He asserts, that cur- rents of electricity, analogous to those which circulate round eA-ery magnet, are constantly flowing round the globe, as the current of electricity in a galvanic apjia- ratus moves in an unbroken circuit from the negative to the positive pole, and from it, by the connecting wire, round again to the negative pole. The direction of these currents he infers to be the same as has been stated with artificial magnets; and it is simply by the attractions and repul- sions of these terrestrial currents, bringing the currents round the needle to coincide Avith them, that the latter always points to the north. To detect these currents, and to exhibit their influence Avithout the aid of any common magnet, M. Ampere con- trived a small electric apparatus, which was distinctly affected by the magnetic influence of the globe. It consisted mere- ly of a copper wire bent into a circle, with the tAvo extremities brought near to each other. It was eujiported so as to move with the greatest facility ; and the points were immersed in basins of mercu- ry, with which the wires of a galvanic battery were connected. When the com- munication was estabUshed so as to cause a current of electricity to pass through the circle, it immediately began to move, and, after some oscillations, placed itself nearly at right angles to die meridian, or east and west, or so that the electric current passed downwards on the eastern side, and up- wards on the western side. This, it has been stated, is exactly the direction in which the currents in every magnet move (supposing it placed with its north pole to the north). The circle may, therefore, be regarded as a section across the axis of a magnet or as representing one of the currents flowing round it; and if a num- ber of these circles Avere placed one be- yond another, the farthest Avould point, like the end of the needle, to the north pole, and the nearest to the south pole. However the experiment was varied, the circle always placed itself east and Avest: if the galvanic current was, by reversing the connecting Avires, made to flow in an opposite direction, the circle turned round a semicircle, and still stood east and west and so that the electric current should always flow downwards on the eastern side, and upwards on the western side. Here, then, are distinct marks of magnet- ism, particularly that most characteristic one of the axes pointing always to the north, which can be attributed only to the combined influence of electric currents moving round the earth. This result is very much in favor of the new theory; and there appears to be only one Unk now wanting, to connect magnetism and elec- tricity, and to establish their identity. This is, by some combination of wires and magnets, to produce an undoubted electric effect s»ch as the decomposi- tion of water. This has been attempted in a number of ways ; and in some ofthe arrangements, the desired effects appeared to be produced; but no result has yet been obtained wholly free from doubt. All the phenomena of magnetism, it has been found, may be produced by electricity. If, then, any ofthe phenomena occasioned by electricity alone can be produced by magnetism, we shall have no hesitation in pronouncing them to be the same power, according to the doctrine of Ampere. Should this theory be finally estabUshed, ELECTRO-MAGNETISM—ELEEMOSYNARY CORPORATION. 467 an important addition will be made to the objects of chemical science. The depart- ment of magnetic phenomena, which, while included under natural philosophy, has been regarded as obscure, almost be- yond the hope of elucidation, will be transferred to form a branch ofthe former science, and, divested in a great measure of its mystery and difficulty, will come in for consideration among the other agencies of the electric fluid. Additional proba- bility will also be given to the opinion, that not only electricity and magnetism, but caloric and light along with them, are merely modifications of one another, or of one common agent—In conclusion, with regard to the cause of the electric currents inferred to be constantly circu- lating round the globe, it is as yet in obscu- rity. They are supposed to move at right angles to the magnetic meridian, or nearly parallel with the equator, on the eastern side of the earth moving from us, and on the western side flowing towards us. These currents may be compared to that which flows from the negative pole of a voltaic battery in action, to the positive pole, and, by the medium of the uniting wire, round again to the negative pole. It is conjectured, that the arrangement ofthe materials of the globe may be such as to constitute a battery, existing Uke a girdle round the earth, which, though composed of conijiaratively Aveak elements, may be sufficiently extensive to produce the ef- fects of terrestrial magnetism. Its irregu- larity, and the changes which it may accidentally or periodically suffer, may explain the jihenomenon of the variation of the compass; or the general action producing the currents of elecuicity may be affected by different causes, as the earth's motions, currents of the atmos- phere, evaporation, or the solar heat. It is supjiosed that much of the variation depends on the progress of oxidation in the continental regions of the globe. What is called the diurnal variation may be conceived to be produced by the diur- nal change of temperature in the super- ficial layers of the earth, which possess electro-motive energy.* * To those who are desirous of extending their knowledge respecting electro-magnetism, the fol- lowing sources of information may be recommend- ed:—Tlie original memoirs of Oersted (Ann of Phil, xiii, and X. S. iil; Arago (Ann. de Chimie, and Recueil d'Observations Electro- dynamiques); Ampere (Ann. de Chim. et Phvs xv. 59); Sir H. Davy (Phil. Trans. 1821); Faraday (Quart. Journ. xii, 47, 416); Barlow and others ; also Manual of Electm-Dynamics' by J. F. Demon/errand, with notes by professor Electrometer. (See Eledririty.) Electrofhorus. (See Electricity.) Electro-Statics ; the science which treats of electricity in equilibrio, as dis- tinguished from electro-dynamics, which relates to the effects of electricity in mo- tion through a continued system of con- ductors. (For the principal fects belonging to electro-statics, see Electricity.) Electrum (Lat; jjWpov, Greek), ac- cording to Ovid, was that resinous sub- stance now called amber (q. v.) ; also, ac- cording to Pliny (lib. 30, cap. 4), a mixture of gold and silver, of which the fifth part was silver: he observes that it is more brilliant than pure gold. According to other ancient writers, three varieties of substances called dectrum were used in the arts; namely, glass, a compound met- al, and succinum. In the Homeric poems, electrum is often mentioned, which seems to have been succinum, the yellow or white amber. According to Eustathius, the ancients used sometimes to call gold by this name, probably from its brillian- cy, the word Wktuo signifying the sun. Pliny thinks that the compound metal or alloy mentioned above is the same that Homer mentions in the fourth book ofthe Odyssey, in describing the palace ofMen- elaus, which he says was ornamented with gold, dedrum (rjXtKTpov), silver and ivory. But there is reason to believe, says Millin, that if the electrum of Homer was a metallic alloy or compound metal, Ho- mer would not have omitted it in his de- scription of the shield of Achilles. It is more probable that electrum was yellow amber, which has a resplendent, sunny brilliancy, according with its Greek name; and Herodotus mentions that succinum or amber was known to the ancients.— Pliny's account of the compound metal of gold with a fifth part of silver, wlrich he calls dedrum, is corroborated by Isido- rus, except in respect to the quantities; the latter giving two parts of gold to one of silver to his electrum. There are many ancient coins of this rich alloy, the principal of which are some of the kings of Bosphorus, some small ones of Syra- cuse, and many Celtic and of ancient Gaul. Gold alloyed with silver was caU- ed dedrum; with copper, aurichalcum or chalcolibanos. Eleemosynary Corporation. An eleemosynary corporation is a charity con- stituted for the perpetual distribution ofthe alms and bounty of the founder. In this class are ranked hospitals for the reUef of Cumming, Cambridge, England, 1827; and aa article in the Encyctopcudia Metropolitan. • 468 ELE EMOSYNARY CORPORATION—ELEPHANT. {loor, sick, and impotent persons, and col- eges and academies established for the promotion of learning and piety, and en- dowed with property by public or private donations. They are eitiier public or pri- vate. Thus an hospital created anil en- doAved by the government, for its oaati purposes, and exclusively owned by the government, is a public corporation ; but an hospital founded by a private benefac- tor, is, in point of law, a private corpora- tion, though dedicated by its charter to general charity. A college founded and endowed in the same manner is a private charity ; though, from its general objects, it may acquire the character of a public institution. A mere act of incorporation will not change a charity from a jirivate to a public one. To make a public char- ity, it is essential tiiat the express object of its creation be of a public character. A charity may he public, though adminis- tered by a private coqioration. Thus a devise for the benefit of the poor of a par- isli, is a public charity. The charity of almost every hospital and coUege is public, while the corporations are private. Elegy ; commonly a mournful and plaintive poem, as is implied by the sig- nification of the Greek name. It signi- fies to cry alas! alas! (E ! E ! Myav). But the Greeks and Romans had elegies, which were so called only from the measure of the verse, and were on various subjects. The elegiac measure of the ancients was the distich (q. v.), consisting of the manly hexameter alternating wi th the delicate pentameter. In this verse, not only sor- row breathes soft lamentations, but joy and love pour themselves forth in its flow- ing numbers. Even the war-songs of Tyrtseus and Call in us AVere in elegiac verse, as Avere also the didactic and heroic poems and moral maxims of the ancients. A historical examination will best show how plaintive melancholy came to be the characteristic of this sort of verse. We must first go back to the origin of the pentameter. In the first volume of Wie- land's Attic Museeum,it is proved by Bot- tiger, that the pentameter verse arose from the use of the military Lydian flute. The oldest poets, who composed in diis meas- ure, confined it to warlike songs. The second period of the pentameter begins with Mimnermus of Colophon, who, in the spirit of his effeminate age, breathed soft feeUngs into his flute and his pentam- eters, and sung love-elegies to Nanno. He Avas therefore regarded by antiquity as the founder of the tender and complain- ing elegy. With Simonides begins the third period; as the distich was his favor- ite measure for epitaphs and inscrqiuons on tombs, a little poem of this soil was called an elegy. The distich, however, was never used exclusively for mournful poems, and hence it is well to distinguish poems in elegiac verse from elegy itself. Among the modern European languages, it is well known, none but the German have a rigid, estabUshed prosody ; hence this language alone can produce elegies, in the ancient sense of the word. Gothe and Voss, like die ancients, have happily applied this measure to joyful subjects. In the other modern languages, elegy al- ways signifies a mournful poem: The characteristic of true elegy is a calm and meditative contemplation of grief, not the wild agony of suffering. Jacobi says of it —" If I Avere to give a sensible image of Elegy, I should not paint her as many have done, in long robes of soitoav, with dishevelled hair and a veiled broAV, weep- ing over a coffin. I would rather rejire- sent her as a nymph seated placidly, with her head upon her hand, full of feeling and contemplation. On her neglected locks should hang a torn garland, and in her lap should lie a wreath of faded flowers. A tomb should appear in the distance, half concealed by a dark grove of cyjiress. Behind should rise a hill, full of building roses, and illumined with the rays cf the rising sun." Element ; a term applied in chemis- try to a body which has not yet been de- composed. The elements ofthe ancients were bodies Avhich they sujiposed to lie absolutely simjile, and capable of forming all other bodies by their mutual combina- tion ; whereas the elements of the mod- erns arc regarded as simple, merely in respect to the present state of the art of analyzing bodies. The progress of chem- ical science, for several centuries jiast, has mainly consisted in carrying still fur- ther the analysis of bodies, and in proving those to be compound, which had before been thought elementary. (See Chemistry.) Elephant. This well known and sa- gacious animal belongs to tlie order of pachydermata, or thick-skinned animals. Desmarest recognises two recent species, the Asiatic (E. Indicus), and the African, (E. Africanus); of which the former is the iargest, most readily domesticated, and best known. There are also several ex- tinct species, whose remains are met with in almost every part of the world. Few quadrupeds have attracted more attention from mankind than the elephant Form- ed as it were for the service of man in • ELEPHANT. 469 wann climates, it possesses every attribute that can render it useful. It is strong, active and persevering, and so docile and sagacious as to be trained to almost any service. It is not easy to convey in words a distinct idea of the form of any animal. Words, it is true, may assist the imagina- tion in recalling forms with Avhich it is already familiar; but no description, how- ever clear and precise, eau give the mind that strong and distinct iinjiression of a new image, Avhich is made by the reality, or even by a representation. This diffi- culty is peculiary felt in attempting to de- scribe the elephant His eyes are ex- tremely small, his ears very large and pendulous. The whole form is awkward, the head being large, the body thick, and the back much arched; the legs are very clumsy and shapeless, the feet slightly divided into, or, more jirojierly, edged with, five rounded hoofs; the tail is some- what like that of a hog, and fringed at the extremity by a few very thick, long, black hairs. The skin is generally of a deep ash-brown, approaching to black, though it is sometimes white or cream-colored ; skins of this last sort are highly prized, be- ing one ofthe attributes of royalty in Siam, one of the titles of whose king is, lord of the white elcpluint. The tusks are not visible in young animals, but in a more advanced stage of growth, they are emi- nently conspicuous, and in the full grown animal they jiroject, in some instances, seven or eight feet. Elejihants sometimes attain the height of fifteen feet, but their general height is about nine or ten. Their Aveight is sometimes enormous, being from four to nine thousand pounds. The female seldom produces more than one at a birth : this, when first born, is about three feet high, and continues to grow till it is sixteen or eighteen years of age. It is said they live to the age of one hundred years and upwards. They feed on vege- tables, the young shoots of trees, grain and fruit The most singular part of the structure of the elephant is his trunk, which is jieculiar to this animal, though the long and flexible snout of the tapir bears some resemblance to it It apjiears to be an extension of the canals of the nose ; it is cartilaginous, and composed of numerous rings, divided through its whole length by a septum, and terminates m a kind of movable finger. It is of such strength as to be capable of breaking off large branches from trees, whilst, at the same time, it is endowed with such ex- quisite sensibility, that it can grasp the smallest object The disposition of the vol. IV. 40 elephant is gende, and his manners social; hence they are seldom seen except in troops. The wild elephants of Ceylon, which are much esteemed, live in small troojis or famiUes. In Avandering from place to place, the males, Avho are fur- nished with tlie largest tusks, put them- selves at the head, and are the first to face every danger. In swimming over any large river, they lead the van, and seek a projier landing place: next follow the young elephants, clinging to each other by means of their trunks, whilst the remain- der of the full grown bring up the rear. These animals have, in all ages, been ea- gerly hunted. Some of the arts which have been employed to kill them or take them merit attention. The Hottentots in South Africa shoot them with tin balls: this chase is attended Avith considerable danger; for, with every precaution that can be used, the sagacity of the elephant often detects the approach of the hunter, who, in this case, will, in all probability, fall a victim to the rage of die animal, un- less he can instantly disable him. Spar- man.—In the island of Sumatra, the inhab- itants split sugar canes, of which food the elephant is veiy fond, and impregnate them with poison. Marsden.—In Abys- sinia, they are jiursued by hunters on horseback, in the following manner: Two men, perfectly naked, mount the same horse, the hindermost is armed with a broadsword, the lower jiart of which is covered with cord, and the remainder is exceedingly sharp. In this manner they pursue the elephants, and, having singled out one, they irritate him to attack them, when they ride up close to him, and the armed man slips from the horse on the off side, and, whilst the elephant's atten- tion is engaged with the horse, he divides the tendons of his foot Avith a single IiIoav, and thus disables him, when he is de- spatched by lances. Bruce.—They are also taken alive in pitfalls, or are driven into enclosures ; in either case they are fed scantily, though regularly, for a few days, when tame elephants are employed to engage their attention till they can be tied fast to a tree ; after they have become somewhat dispirited, they are led aAvay between two tame ones, and put under the care of keepers, who gradually bring them into subjection, more, however, by caresses and soothing than by coercion. When tamed, they become the most gen- tle and obedient of all domestic animals, and, in most cases, are exceedingly fond of their keepers, and soon learn to distin- guish the various tones of the human 470 ELEPHANT—ELEPHANTIASIS. voice, as expressive of anger, approbation or command. The domestic elephant performs more work than six horses, but at the same time, requires much care, and a plentiful supply of food. He is gen- erally fed with rice, either raw or boiled, and mixed with water. To keep him in fuU vigor, a hundred pounds of this food is said to be required daily, besides fresh herbage to cool him, and he must be led to the water twice or thrice a day to bathe. His daily consumption of water as drink is about forty gallons. To enumerate all the services of these useful animals would be incompatible Avith the design of this work. They are employed in carrying burdens on their bodies, necks, and even in their mouths, by means of a rope, the end of which they hold fast with their teeth ; they load a boat with amazing dex- terity, carefully keeping all the articles dry, and disposing them where they ought to be placed. In propelling wheel car- riages heavily laden up a declivity, they push them forward Avith their forehead, and support them with their knees. In dragging beams of wood along the ground, they remoA-e obstacles or eleArate the ends of the beams so as to clear them. Before the invention of fire arms, they were used in war by many nations of antiquity; they are still employed in the East in dragging artillery over mountains. Dur- ing the rutting season, this animal is often seized with a madness which deprives him of all tractability, and renders him so dangerous, that it is often necessaiy to kill him. In many parts of India, elephants are made the executioners of justice; for they AviU with their trunks either break the limbs of a criminal, trample him to death, or pierce him with their tusks, as they may be directed. In the island of Ceylon, the general value of an elephant is about $250; but if there is any blemish, as a want of tail, &c, very considerable deductions are made. They are taken at certain stated periods, and generally a great number are sold together by auction. Elephants appear to be veiy susceptible to the power of music, variations in the character of the sounds producing cor- responding changes in the emotions of the animals. The tusks of the elephant haA-e long been applied, under the denom- ination of ivory, to a variety of important uses in the arts. From the fossil remains which have been discovered, it is apparent that they must have been abundantly dis- tributed OA'er the earth ; and some of them appear to have been adapted to a much more northern climate than is now inhabited by the elephant The specimen which was, some years since, fouim im- bedded in ice in Siberia, was covered with a long and coarse hair, ami Avith a finer and woolly covering, which Avas short, and closely applied to the surface, thus pro- tecting it against the seA'ere cold of those latitudes. The accounts of the manners and intelligence of the elephant as given by Avriters, although in many cases evi- dently exaggerated, stiU afford proof of a surprising degree of sagacity, and fully entitle him to the rank of "Wisest of brutes, with gentle might endowed; Though powerful, not destructive. ' Elephanta, or Elephant Isle ; called by the natives Gharipoor; an island between Bombay and the west coast of Hindostan, 5 mdes in circuit; with about 100 inhab- itants ; 5 miles E. Bombay. It was nam- ed Elephanta by the Portuguese, from a colossal statue of an elephant formed out of black rock, which stands in the open plain opposite to the landing place. The island owes its celebrity to its wonderful cave and mythological inscriptions. This cave is nearly 60 feet square, and 18 high, supported by pillars cut out of the rock; and in the sides there are numerous com- partments, containing various representa- tions of Hindoo deities. Elephantiasis (from IMepas, an ele- phant); a disease so called from the legs of people affected Avith it growing scaly, rough, and wonderfully large, at an ad- vanced period, Uke the legs of an elephant. The disease attacks the whole body, but mostly .affects the feet, which appear someAvhat like those of the elephant. It is knoAvn by the skin being thick, rough, wrinkly, unctuous, and void of hair, and mostly without the sense of feeling. It is said to be contagious. Cullen makes it a genus of disease in the class cachexia', and order impetigines. Elephantiasis has gen- erally been supposed to arise in conse- quence of some slight attack of fever, on the cessation of Avhich the morbid matter falls on the leg, and occasions a distension and tumefaction of the limb, AA-hich is af- terwards overspread Avith uneven lumps, and deep fissures. By some authors it lias been considered as a species of leprosy; but it often subsists for many years Avith- out being accompanied with any of the symptoms which characterize that dis- ease. It sometimes comes on gradually, without much previous indisposition; but more generally, the person is seized Avith a coldness and shivering, pains in the head, back and loins, and some degree of nausea. A sUght fever then ensues, and ELEPHANTIASIS—ELEUSIS. 471 a severe pain is felt in one of the inguinal glands, which, after a short time, becomes hard, swelled and inflamed. No suppu- ration, however, ensues ; but a red streak may be observed running down the thigh from the swelled gland to the leg. As the inflammation increases in aU the parts, the fever gradually aliates, and, perhaps, after two or three days' continuance, goes off. It however, returns again at uncer- tain periods, leaving the leg greatly swelled with varicose, turgid veins, the skin rough and rugged, and a thickened membrana cellulosa. Scales appear also on the sur- face, which do not fall off, but are en- larged by the increasing thickness of the membranes; uneven lumjis, with deep fissures, are formed, and the leg and foot become at last of an enormous size. A pei-son may labor under this disease many years without finding much alteration in his general health, excejit during the con- tinuance of the attacks; and perhaps the chief inconvenience he will exjierience is the enormous bulky leg which he drags about with him. The incumbrance has, indeed, induced many who have labored under this disease to submit to an ampu- tation ; but the operation seldom proves a radical cure, as the other leg frequently becomes affected. Hilary observes, that he never saw both legs swelled at the same time. Instances where they have alike acquired a frightful and prodigious size, have, however, frequently fallen un- der the observation of other jihysicians. Elephant's River, in Africa, rises in the country of the Hottentots, and runs into the Atlantic, lat. 31° S. Elephantina, or El Sag ; a small isl- and on the Nile, opjiosite to Syene; re- markable for the ruins with which it is covered. The northern part is low, the southern elevated and rocky. The Nile, for nearly a mile above, is interrupted by numerous small rocks of that fine red gra- nite, wlrich characterizes tiris island, and which produced so many portals, columns and obelisks, to adorn the chief cities of antiquity. The island is covered with ruins, piled upon each other—Egyptian, Roman, Saracen and Arabic. Of these the Egyptian, though the most ancient are in the best state of preservation. It is supjiosed that there was once a great tem- ple here, dedicated to the god Cnuphis, all traces of which are now obliterated; but there remains a jiyranridal portal of red granite, supposed to have formed the entrance. There are two small temples, one of which is beUeved by Denon to be- long to the earUest ages of Egypt. It is covered within and without with hiero- glyphics, executed in a style of pecuUar excellence. On the eastern side of the island are remains of a high Avail, of Avhich the masonry is admirable. Eleusis (now Lepdna, a village), next to Athens, was the principal city of At- tica. The mysteries of Ceres and Proser- pine were celebrated there, and were thence caUed Eleudnia. Neither the founder of these mysteries nor the time of their origin is known; they were the oldest and the most venerable in Greece: originally they were only a public festi- val, a harvest-home, to express the grati- tude of men to Ceres for her bounties ; to recall their former condition, and enjoy their present blessings; to banish unkind feelings, and perhaps, also, to form new laws and project new enterprises. We have no information of the manner in which the proper mysteries arose from these rude games and festivities. They were celebrated at the temple of Ceres at Eleusis, in a court surrounded by walls. Behind the temple was an elevation in the rock upon which it stood, 8 or 9 feet high, 270 feet long, and in some places 44 feet broad: on die northern end of this rock the ruins of a chapel are stUl visible. The persons who presided at the Eleusinian mysteries were:—1. The Hierojihant (q. v.). He Avas the type of the Creator of the world, and appeared with emblems of Omnipotence. 2. The torch-bearer. HeAvas the typeof the sun. His business was to purify those who wrere to be ini- tiated, and, on the fifth night, when die wanderings of Ceres on iEtna were rep- resented, to lead the other torch-bearers. 3. The sacred herald, Avho enjoined si- lence upon those who were to be initiated, and commanded the profane to AvithdraAV. 4. He who served at the altar, and bore the emblem of the moon. Besides these persons, the archon or basileus attended to the preservation of order, offered prayers and sacrifices, and obliged the un- initiated and the criminal to retire. He judged and punished any Avho disturbed the solemnities. Ancient authors also mention priestesses, but we have not been informed of their office. The mysteries were commonly distinguished into the greater and less. Most authors give the following account of them. Hercules, being at Athens, desired to be initiated into the mysteries; but, by the laAvs, no stranger could be admitted: that they might not offend the hero whom they respected and feared, nor yet violate the ancient laws, the Athenians instituted the 472 ELEUSIS—ELGIN. lesser mysteries, to the celebration of which he was admitted. These were af- terwards preparatory to the greater; for which the candidate was obUged to fit himself by religious ceremonies, symboli- cal rites, and various acts of devotion, the desiim of Avhich was to withdraAV his at- tention, at least for a time, from business and pleasure, to keep him jiure, chaste and unpolluted, and to excite his curiosity in relation to the expected revelations. The period of purification continued a year; and no one could be admitted to the mysteries without purification, on pain of death. The ceremony of admission Avas performed by night : the candidates, crowned with myrtle, Avere obliged to Avash their hands at the sacred threshold with holyAvater: public proclamation was also made, that the mysteries should be apjiroached only with pure hands and pure hearts. Pure Greek only Avas to be spoken. The celebration ofthe mysteries commenced on the 15th day ofthe month Bocdromion, and continued nine days. It consisted principally of representations of the history of Ceres and Proserpine, the tortures of Tartarus, and the joys of Elys- ium, Avhich were exhibited in the most suiking manner. The chief design was, by sensible means, to sjiread among the people a conviction of the immortality of the soul, and of a future state of rewards and punishments. The initiated were under the peculiar protection of the gods, and they alone were certain of the joys of immortality. Very different from tliese lessor were the greater mysteries, which contained the secret doctrines that were die chief object of the institution, and were communicated only to a few (the Ejioptae), in the recesses of the sanctuary. Secrecy was enjoined under the most dreadful penalties. Divine vengeance and death were the punishment of those who dis- closed diem. These doctrines jirobably aimed at the explanation of the popular superstition and mythology, and the inter- jiretation of their true meaning. The mys- teries inculcated the doctrine of one God, and the dignity and destiny of the soul of man: they instructed the people in the knowledge of nature and of the universe, and pointed out the traces of the Deity in the beauty and majesty, the splendor and regularity ofthe visible world. (See Pot- ter's Antiquities, ii, 20.) Eleuthera, or Alabaster Island ; one of the Bahama islands. The cUmate is healthy, and the soil is fertile. It has a fort and small garrison. The largest set- dement is at Harbor island, at the northern extremity, containing, in 1803, 890 inhab- itants ; and the settlement of >v reck sound, on the west side, contained about 400. Lon. 76° 31' W.; lat 25° 14' N. Elevation of a Place. (See Altitude.) Elevation, in the ceremony of the mass, is the raising, first of the host and then ofthe cup, to receive the homage of the peojile, as the body and the blood of Jesus Christ: the priest himself previously per- forms the act of adoration by a deep gen- uflection. This ceremony Avas introduced into the Latin church in the beginning of the 12th centuiy, in consequence of the heresy of Berengarius, in order to render the profession of die belief in the real presence and the transubstantiation as decided and striking as possible. In the Greek Catholic church, the elevation of the host does not take place immediately after the consecration, as in the Roman church, but before the communion, when the priest says sanda Sanctis (the holy for the holy). Elf, in the ancient northern mytholo- gy ; certain beings, sometimes visible, at other times invisible ; either bright, beau- tiful and good (Liosalfar), dwelling in heaven (Alfhrim), or black, ugly and ma- licious (Schwartalfar), living under the ground. "The former," says the Edda (q. v.), " are brighter than the sun; the latter, blacker than pitch." To the latter belongs die nightmare (in German, Alp) The fairies, nixies, brownies, robin-good- felloAVs, &c, all belong to this family. The elf-knots are known to eveiy body. How delightfully Shakspeare has availed him- self of these shadowy creations of a play- ful imagination, we aU remember. Elgin, lord, born 1769, an English nobleman of an ancient family, has de- voted himself particularly to the study of antiquities and the arts. In 1792, he Avaa sent as English ambassador to the Aus- trian court in the Netherlands; and, in 1799, in the same capacity, to Constanti- nople, where he received from the sultan the order of the crescent. Being recalled in 1800, he travelled through Greece. The English government not comjilying with his request to cause drawings of the ancient monuments to be made, he en- gaged several cUstinguished artists at his own expense, viz., Tita Lusiori, Balestra, Ittar, and the famous Calmuck, Feodor Ivanovitsch. In 1811, the result of his travels and investigations appeared, in a work called Pursuits in Greece; and, in 1814, he removed many splendid remains of antiquity to England, at a great ex- pense. The English nation afterwards ELGIN—ELIO. 473 bought them for £35,000, and they are now to be seen in the British Museum, London. The Elgin marbles are some of the finest remains of ancient art, and offer die richest field for study. In the Vatican are casts in plaster of these su- perb relics. Casts have been made, also, for Wiirtcmberg, Russia and other states. The largest part of them (92 pieces) are from the Parthenon of Athens, and were, perhaps, executed from designs by Phid- ias. Such an important collection of an- tiques has, of course, drawn forth nu- merous jmblications. The learned Vis- conti wrote a Avork on the Elgin marbles (London, l^Ki), and an official report was draAvn uji from the notes of this accom- plished scholar, Avhich contains the opin- ions of most of the first sculptors and painters of our age, respecting these stat- ues, expressed in tlie strongest terms of admiration. Lord Elgin, on his return from Turkey, passed through France, and was one ofthe jiersons detained by Bona- jiarte, on the rujiture of die peace of Amiens, as hostages for the security of the French who had been seized by the Brit- ish cruisers. He was not liberated till 1806. The jiurchase of the famous mar- bles brought to England by lord Elgin, is said to have been made at the suggestion of Mr. Hamilton, then his secretary, and since undcr-secretary of state. El-Harib ; a territory in the north-west of Africa, to the south of Morocco, to which it is uibutary, important as the stopjiing- place of caravans passing from Timbuc- too (ij. v.), through the desert, to the north-west of Africa. This passage was performed in two months by the caravan of CaiUe. (q. v.) El-Harib is two days' journey west from the territory of El- Drab, and one to the east of the tribe of the Trajaeants, and is situated between two chains of mountains, wlrich extend from east to west, and sejiarate it, towards the north, from the emjiire of Morocco. The jiiincipal wealth of the inhabitants consists in the great quantity of camels which they breed, and which, in the wet season, jiroduce abundance of milk for their sustenance. The Moors of El-Ha- rib carry goods for the merchants of Tafi- let, El-Drah, &c, on their camels, to Timbuctoo and other places. They re- turn with gold and slaves, which they sell in Morocco. The inhabitants of El- Harib consist of 11 tribes of Mohamme- dans, filthy to excess, and are much op- pressed and despised by the Avandering Berliers and their other neighbors. (See Rend Caille's Travels through Central Afri- ca to Timbuctoo, &c, Paris and London, 1830, 2 vols.) Elianus. (See Mlianus.) ' Elias. (See Elijah.) Elijah; a prophet, who Uved in die reign of Ahab, king of Israel, and Jeho- shajihat, king of Judah. The prophet rebuked both these kings for their idola- try, and at last succeeded, by his miracles, in abolishing it. Instead of dying in the common way, he ascended to heaven in a fiery chariot. His successor AA'as Eli- sha. His history is related in the First and Second Books of Kings. According to some passages of the Scriptures, the Jews expected Elijah to ajipear before the Messiah, and Christians have main- tained that he will appear on earth before the end of the world. Many le- gends are related of this prophet by Christians ami Mohammedans. The cu- rious wril find specimens of these in Bayle. (For information ofthe views ofthe Cath- olics respecting this prophet, we refer the reader to the Didionnaire de Thtologie, Toulouse, 1817.) Elio, Francisco Xavier, having dis- tinguished himself in the Sjianish Avar against Napoleon, Avas appointed by the regency to be captain-general of the prov- inces of Rio de la Plata, during the early jiart of the revolution in South America. He had to contend with Liniers and Arti- gas (q. v.) particularly; and was attacked and besieged by the latter in Monte Video. The siege being prosecuted by Rondo with eveiy prospect of success, Elio im- plored the assistance of the Brazilian gov- eniment An auxiliary force of 4000 Portuguese was preparing to reUeve him, when the fear of their approach induced the patriots to close with the propositions for peace made by Elio. This was in 1811; but Elio was again besieged the next year. Meanwhile he Avas succeeded by don Gaspar Vigodet, and returned to Europe. Upon the return of Ferdinand VII, Elio Avas one of the first to declare in favor of absolute monarchy, and con- tributed efficaciously to the revolution Avhich overthrew the regency and the cortes of Cadiz. He was rewarded Avith the appointment of captain-general ofthe kingdom of Valencia, which he governed with all the extremity of fanatical rigor. A disturbance in the city of Valencia gave him occasion to inflict upon the friends of Uberal institutions, indiscriminately, a series of cruelties shocking to humanity. His career of atrocity lasted upvrards of a year, when it was cut short by the revival of the constitution of Cadiz, in March, 474 ELIO—ELIOTT. 1820. ETio proclaimed the new order of things, and prepared to submit to it yet would haye been killed by the populace, but for the intercession of the count of Almodavar. He was imprisoned in die cit- adel, where he remained until May, 1822, without a conclusion of his trial. At that time, he Avas implicated in a movement of part of the garrison in favor of ab- solutism. He was immediately brought to trial before a military commission, for this new crime, and unanimously sen- tenced to the punishment of death, which was inflicted Sept. 3, 1822. When the invasion of the French restored Ferdi- nand to absolute power, the greatest hon- ors Avere paid to the memory of general Elio. His eldest son received the title of marquis of Fidelity, and his full pay as gen- eral was continued to his Avidow and chil- dren. The judges, also, who condemned him to death, were among the exceptions from the decree of amnesty of 1824. Eliot, John, styled the apostle to the Indians, was born in England, in 1604, and educated at the university of Cam- bridge. After pursuing the occupation of a teacher in England, he emigrated, in 1631, to Massachusetts. He became min- ister of the church in Roxbury, and soon conceived a strong passion for Chris- tianizing and improving the condition of the Indians, of whom there were nearly twenty tribes within the limits of the English plantations. He acquired their language, and pubUshed a grammar and a translation of the Bible in it. The merit is claimed for him of having been the first Protestant clergyman avIio preached the gospel to the North Amer- ican savages. His evangelical labors, and personal sufferings, his influence among them, his zeal, courage and expo- sure in protecting them from wrong and violence, are celebrated in a number ofthe publications on New England history and biographv. This indefatigable missionary died May 20, 1690, aged about 86 years. He left four sons, AA-hom he had educated at Harvard college, and who were classed with " the best preachers of their genera- tion." His extreme antipathy to Avigs and the use of tobacco is specially no- ticed by all his biographers. He Avas eccentric, besides, in his ascetic habits, and in several of his main theological opinions. His printed Avorks are volu- minous. In 1660, he issued a tract, in which he attempted to prove that the Indians are descendants of the JeAvs. His poUtical theories Avere fully democratic. Hutchinson relates, iu his History of Mas- sachusetts, diat in 1660, the governor and council of Massachusetts pronounced the Christian Commonwealth, of which Eliot was die author, to be "full of seditious principles and notions, in relation to aU established governments in the Christian world, especially against the government established in their native country." I Jion consultation Avith the elders, their formal censure Avas deferred, in order to afford the heretical rejiublican an opportunity of making a public recantation. He did this in a paper, which he delivered to the general court, at its next session, and which was posted up, by its order, in the princi- pal towns of the colony. He acknowl- edges that " such e.xjiressions as do mani- festly scandalize the government of Eng- land, by king, lords and commons, are antichristian, and that all form of civil government, deduced from Scripture, is of God, and to be subjected to, for con- science' sake; and whatsoever is in the whole ejiistle or book inconsistent herewith he does, at once, most cordially disown." Eliott, George Augustus (lord Heath- field) ; the defender of Gibraltar; born at Stubbs, in Scotland, 1718, of an ancient family. He was educated at home, by a private tutor, and afterward sent to the university of Leyden. He studied milita- ry science at the French military school at La Fere, travelled through several parts of the continent, and served in the Prus- sian army as a volunteer. In 1733, he joined the engineer corps at Woolwich, where he continued till he was made adjutant of the second corps of horse grenadiers. He accompanied George II to Germany in May, 1743, Avhen that monarch assisted Maria Theresa against France, and Avas wounded in the battle of Dettingen, and rose to the rank of lieu- tenant-colonel. In the seven years' Avar, he fought under the command of the duke of Cumberland, prince Ferdinand, and the croAvn-prince of* BrunsAvick, from 1757, as commander in chief of a regi- ment of light cavalry, which he had him- self raised. He was called from the con- tinent to be made second in command at Havanna. In 1775, he was made com- mander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland, and, in the same year, received the gov- ernorship of Gibraltar. Spain, in con- nexion Avith France, took part, in 1779, in the war between England and America, and, even before the declaration of war, laid siege to Gibraltar, by sea and by land. In the course of three years, all the prepa- rations had been made for a siege, which is one of the most extraordinary in history. ELIOTT—ST. ELIZABETH. 475 In June, 1782, the duke of Crillon, com- mander-in-chief of the Spanish army, who had recently taken the island of Mi- norca from the EngUsh, arrived at Gibral- tar, Avith a reinforcement All the French princes royal were in the camp. An army of 30,000 Frenchmen and Sjianiards were at the foot of the liiU. Floating batteries were constructed to attack the fortifications, with two roofs, so carefully and strongly built, that neither balls nor bombs could injure them: there were ten of them, Avhich, together, had 397 can- nons, each cannon being served by 36 men. Sept. 13, 1782, they dreAv near to the fortress, and the crews (consisting of criminals, to whom, if they did their duty, a pension of 200 livres per annum had been promised) commenced the attack. Eliott Avished to assail the batteries with red-hot shot, but knew no means of pre- paring them in sufficient quantity. A German smith, however, named Schwan Rendiek, constructed an oven for the pur- 11 Iiose, and more than 4000 hot shot were now showered on the batteries. The same afternoon, smoke was seen to rise *18 from the principal battery and two others. "T The enemy in vain attempted to subdue ti the flames and close the holes; at one is o'clock at night three of the batteries wl' were completely in flames, and some of pa tho others were beginning to burn. The f' crews in vain made signals to the Spanish ; fleet of their condition; they could do noth- ing for the batteries, and only attempted to :- rescue the crews ; but 12 gunboats, wlrich left the fortress, commanded by captain Curtis, prevented the boats of the besiegers from ajiproaching, and, at the same time, continued to fire on the floating fortresses. At break of day, the crews were seen on :'■ the burning batteries, crying for help. The ;-. besieged now hastened to assist them, if; dangerous as it was, on account of die & balls from the heated cannons and the ja pieces of wood from the bursting struc- in tures, which flew against them. Curtis, |jj at the risk of his own life and those of his ,9 people, saved 13 officers and 344 soldiers. jj! An attack by land was also frustrated by tf Eliott, and, at die same time, a tempest ^ greatly injuring the Spanish fleet, the * siege, from the middle of November, 0 1782, was changed into a close blockade, |jj to which the peace, concluded at Ver- ^ sailles, Jan. 20, 1783, put an end. The g king of England sent EUott the order of the Bath, which was presented to him on the spot on which he had most ex- posed himself to the fire of the enemy. EUott himself, widi the consent of the king, ordered medals to be struck, one of which was presented to every soldier en- gaged in the defence. After die conclusion of peace, he went to England, and was created lord HeathfieEL In 1790, he was obliged to visit the baths of Aix-la-Cba- pelle for his health. In Kalkofen, a place near that city, and his favorite residence, he died of an apoplexy, July 6, the same year. His corpse Avas canied to England, and the king himself prejiared the plan of a monument erected in honor of him at Gibraltar. One of the most famous pictures of Copley (q. v.), representing the siege and relief of Gibraltar, and full of portraits, is placed in the council-chamber of Guildhall, London, having been painted for the city. General Eliott was one of the most abstemious men of his age. His diet consisted of vegetables and water. He slept only four hours at a time, and inured himself to habits of order and watchfulness. Elis ; a country in the west of the Pelojionnesus (q. v.), where Olympia was situated. (See Olympic Games.) It was bounded on the east by Arcadia, on the south by Messenia, and ran along the coast watered by the river Aljiheus. Elis was the cajiital of the country. Eleus, one of its kings in early times, is said to have given origin to the name of the country. Elixir (from the Arabic al ecsir, a chemical medicine, or from dX^fu), I help, or 2Akcd, I draw out, or from eligere, to choose, or rather from elixare, to boil). It is the name of several medicines, consisting of wine or spirits of wine and various resin- ous, bitter, vegetable substances. The word, however, is almost goite out of use, and its place supjilied by tincture. Elix- irs, indeed, differ from tinctures, by having a thicker and more opaque consistence, and by containing less spirit. The stom- ach elixirs of Frederic Hoffmann and Stoughton are well known. The former (elix. viscerate, Fr. Hoffmanni) is jirepared by dissolving in Malaga or Hungary wine the extract of card, ben., cent, nrin., cort. aurant, cort. China?., myrrh, aq., and add- ing to the solution a little tinct. caryophyll. aromat. and tinct. croci. Stoughton's eHxir consists of absynth., gentian, rubr., rhabarb, cascarilla and cort. aurant., steep- ed in spirits of wine. Eliza Bonaparte (See Bacciocchi). Elizabeth, St., of Thuringia, distin- guished for her piety and virtue, the daughter of Andrew II, king of Hungary, was born at Presburg, 1207, and, in 1211, was married to Louis, landgrave of Thu- ringia, who was then 11 years, pld, and 476 SAINT ELIZABETH—ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND. was educated at Wartburg, in all the ele- gance ofthe court of Hermann, the abode of music and the arts. Louis began to govern in 1215, and the marriage Avas completed in 1221. While the husband devoted himself to knightly exploits, the wife was distinguished by the mild virtues of her sex. W hen Germany, and espe- cially Thuringia, was oppressed with fam- ine and pestilence, she caused many hos- pitals to be erected, fed a multitude of the poor from her own table, and supplied their wants with money and clothing. She Avandered about, in an humble dress, reUeAing the sorroAvs of the wretched. Louis died on a crusade, and her oavii life terminated Nov. 19,1231, in an hos- pital which she had herself established. She was regarded as a saint by her ad- miring contemporaries, and, four years after her death, this canonization was approved by pope Gregoiy IX. A beau- tiful church and a costly monument were erected over her tomb. The latter is iioav one of the most splendid remains of Goth- ic architecture in Germany. Elizabeth, queen of England, and one of its most celebrated sovereigns, was the daughter of Henry VIII, by his queen, Anne Boleyn. She was born in 1533, and educated in the jirinciples of the reforma- tion, and also in those classical studies in- to which it had then become customary to initiate females of distinction in Eng- land. In her father's testament, she was jilaced the third in the order of succes- sion ; but the duke of Northumberland induced her brother, Edward VI, to set her aside, as well as her sister Mary, to make room for Jane Grey. In the reign of Mary, she Avas placed under circum- stances of great difficulty, from her known attachment to Protestantism; and notwith- standing her great prudence, but for the politic interference of her brother-in-law, Philip of Spain, she might have been in great personal danger. On the death of Mary, in 1558, she was immediately pro- claimed queen, and received in the me- tropolis with the loudest acclamations. She consigned to oblivion aU the affronts she had received during the late reign, and prudently assumed the gracious de- meanor of the common sovereign of all her subjects. PhiUp of Spain soon made her proposals of marriage, but she knew die aversion borne him by the nation too well to think of accepting them. She proceeded with considerable prudence and moderation to the arduous task of settling religion, which Avas, in a great degree, effected by the first parUament she sum- moned. It was not long before Elizabeth began that interference in die affairs of Scotland, which produced some of the most singular events of her reign. Mary, the young queen of Scots, was not only the next heir in blood to the English croAvn, but Avas regarded by the Roman- ists, who deemed Elizabeth illegitimate, as the true sovereign of England. By the marriage of that princess with the dau- phin, and her relationship to die Guises, Scotland was also drawn into a closer union with France than ever. Thus great political causes of enmity abounded, in addition to the female rivalry, which was the most conspicuous foible of Eliza- beth. The first step she took in Scottish affairs was to send a fleet and an army to aid the party which supported the refor- mation ; and this interference, in 1560, effected a treaty, by which the French were obliged to quit Scotland. On the return of Mary from France, after the death of her husband, attemjits were made to procure Elizabeth's recognition of her title as presumptive successor to the crown of England; but, although unat- tended to, and A'ery disagreeable to the lat- ter, the two queens lived for some time in apjiarent amity. In the mean time, Eliz- abeth acquired great reputation by her vigorous conduct and jiolitical sagacity, and had many suitors among the jirinces of Europe, whom, consistent with her early resolution to live single, she con- standy refused. Being regarded as the head of the Protestant party in Europp, she made a treaty of alliance Avith the French Huguenots in that capacity, and gave them aids in men and money. Her government at home also gradually grew more rigorous against the Catholics—one of the mischievous consequences of the incessant intrigue of the popish party, both at home and abroad, to overthrow her government. She did aU in her pow- er to thwart the attempts to unite Mary in a second marriage, and, besides a weak jealousy of the personal charms of the queen of Scotland, she discovered another weakness in a propensity to adopt court favorites, Avith a view to exterior accom- plishments rather than to merit as in the well knoAvn instance of Dudley, earl of Leicester. The political dissensions in Scotland, which gave Mary so much dis- quiet, were fomented by Elizabeth and her ministers, but it was her own miscon- duct that threw her into the hands of her rival. The manner in which Elizabeth detained the unhappy queen in captivity, the secret negotiations ofthe latter with ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND. 477 the duke of Norfolk, the rebellions in the north, and the treasonable engagements made by the earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland with the duke of Orleans, in the Low Countries, are affairs rather of history than biography. In the midst of these events, the Puritanical party gave much uneasiness to the queen, who was warmly attached to the ceremonials of religion, and to the hierarchy of which she had become the head. Inheriting, too, all the maxims of royal authority maintained by her father, the spirit of civil liberty, by which the Puritans be- came early distinguished, was very offen- sive to her. EUzabeth, however, under- stood the art of making practical conces- sions, while she maintained her dignity in language ; and such was the general pru- dence and frugality of her administration, that she retained the affections even of those whom she governed with a rigorous hand. Almost the only cause of com- plaint in regard to jiecuniary matters, in this reign, arose from the injurious grant of monopolies, which formed a frequent subject of parliamentary complaint, and Avere often, in consequence, revoked. The assistance given by Elizabeth to the Prot- estants of the Low Countries induced Spain, in 1572, to promote a consjiiracy, which was chiefly conducted by a Flor- entine merchant and the bishop of Ross, the Scottish resident in England. The duke of Norfolk, allowing himself to be drawn into a participation of this plot, on its discovery, Avas tried and executed. The massacre of St. BartholomeAv, in the same year, alarmed all Protestant rulers, and especially Elizabeth, who put herself and court into mourning on the occasion, and received in silence the French ambassador sent over to ajiologize for that execrable deed. She, however, maintained external amity with the French court, and even suffered negotiations to be commenced for her marriage with the duke of Alen- con, the king's brother, Avhich brought that prince to England. An expectation that the union Avould take place now be- came general. In 1575, she received the offer of the sovereignty of the revolted Dutch provinces; but, from prudential reasons, she declined to accept it; and it was not until 1578 that she signed with them a treaty of alliance. In 1585, Elizabeth ventured openly to defy the hostility of Sjiain, by entering into a treaty Avith the revolted jirovinces, by which she bound herself to assist diem Avidi a con- siderable force, the command of which she intrusted to Leicester, who did Utde honor to her choice. She also sent an armament, under Drake, against the Span- ish settlements in the West Indies, and made a league of mutual defence with James, king of Scotland, whose friendship she courted, while she detained his moth- er in prison. In 1586, that conspiracy took place, die object of wlrich was her assassination by Anthony Babington. As Elizabeth's principal counsellors, as well as the nation at large, were of opinion that the safety of the state demanded the life of Mary, Avhatever may be thought of the injustice of her treatment, it was clearly the result of strong political cir- cumstances. Elizabeth, however, con- scious of the invidious light in wlrich the execution of a queen and relation would appear to Europe, practised all the arts of dissimulation to remove as much of the odium from herself as possible. She even wished Mary to be taken off pri- vately; and it Avas only on the refusal of sir Amias Paulet and sir Drue Drury, her keepers, to be concerned in so odious an affair, that the curious transaction of fur- thering the warrant by secretary Davison took place, the consequence of which was the execution of Mary on Feb. 8, 1587. The dissembled grief of Elizabeth, when informed of this catastrophe, deceived no one, although the imputed mistake of Davison, and the sacrifice of him to her assumed resentment, afforded the king of Scotland a pretext for resuming an ami- cable correspondence with the English court. The year 1588 was rendered memorable by the defeat of the Spanish armada, on which meditated invasion Elizabeth displayed all the confidence and energy of her character. Soon after this event, Elizabeth became the ally of Henry IV of France, in order to Aindi- cate his title to that throne; and, for some years, English auxiliaries served in France, and naval exjieditions were un- dertaken, in which none more distin- guished themselves than the celebrated earl of Essex, who, on the death of Leices- ter, succeeded to his jilace in the queen's favor. In 1601, she held a conference with the marquis de Rosni (afterwards the celebrated Sully), avIio came over, on the part of Henry IV, to concert, in con- currence with England, a new balance of Eurojiean power, to control the pre- ponderance ofthe house of Austria. Eliz- abeth readily gave in to the project, and the minister quitted England in admira- tion ofthe solidity and enlargement of her political views. Having suppressed an insurrection in Ireland, and obUged aUthe 478 EUZABETH OF ENGLAND—ELIZABETH CHARLOTTE. Spanish troops, sent to aid in it to quit the island, she turned her thoughts towards relieving die burdens of her subjects, and gamed much additional popularity by sup- pressing a great number of unpopular monojiolies. The execution of the earl of Essex (see Devereux, Robert), however, gave a fatal blow to her happiness; and, on learning from the dying countess of Nottingham, that he had really transmitted the ring, which imphed his request of par- don, she became furious Avith rage, and, when her anger subsided, fell into an incurable melancholy. At length nature began to sink, and, as her end manifestly approached, she was urged by her coun- cil to declare her successor. She an- swered, " Who but her kinsman, the king of Scots?" and Soon after, sinking into a lethargy, she exjiired, without further struggle or convulsion, on March 24,1602, in the 70th year of her age, and 45di of her reign.—Estimating the character and conduct of Elizabeth from the events of her reign, she Avill justly rank high among sovereigns. Under her auspices, the Prot- estant religion, as opposed to popery, Avas firmly established. Factions Avere re- strained, government strengthened, the vast jiower of Spain nobly opposed, op- pressed neighbors supported, a naAy cre- ated, commerce rendered flourishing, and the national character aggrandized. She did not merely lend a name to a con- sjiicuous jieriod of history; her own pru- dence, judgment, fortitude, firmness, vigor and industry materially contributed to the prosjierity of her administration. She Avas frugal to the borders of avarice ; but being as economical of the people's money as of her own, her prudent atten- tion to national expenditure contributed materially to the public good. The se- verity of ElizabetU to Catholic emissaries, Jesuits, aud others, Avhether native or for- eign, has latterly been deemed scarcely defensible, nor, on a religious ground, is it so; but it is never to be forgotten, that most of those who suffered really sought the overthrow of the state, and, in addi- tion, acted under the direction of a foreign influence of the most baleful description. The treatment of the queen of Scots can never be defended, but AviU always re- main one of those cases which neither policy, nor even personal danger, can sufficiently justify. It may be questioned, however, if the dissimulation of Elizabeth has not injured her memory in respect to this transaction, more than the deed it- self, which was certainly deemed neces- sary both by her ministers and a vast majority of the people. Her principal defects were violence and haughtiness of temper, impatience of contradiction, and insatiable fondness for admiration and flattery. It is to be remarked, however, that capricious as she was in her affec- tions, and petty in her feminine jealous- ies, she always made even her favorites feel that she was their sovereign, when they Avere disposed to forget it. Although fond of literature, and substantially learn- ed, she was no veiy munificent jiatroness, and made very poor returns for the excess of incense so lavishly bestowed ujion her. She was skilled in the Greek, and spoke the Latin language with considerable flu- ency. She translated from the former into Latin a dialogue of Xenophon, two orations of Isocrates, and a play of Eurip- ides, and also wrote a commentary on Plato. From the Latin she translated Boethius's Consolations of Philosophy, Sallust's Jugurthine War, and a part of Horace's Art of Poetiy. In the Royal and Noble Authors of lord Orforri, may also be found a catalogue of translations from the French, prayers, meditations, speeches in parliament, letters, &c. Elizabeth Charlotte, duchess of Or- leans, only daughter of the elector Charles Louis, of the Palatinate, was born at Heidelberg, 1652. She was a princess of distinguished talents and character, and lived half a century in the court of Louis XIV without changing her German habits for French manners. She Avas educated with the greatest care, at the court of her aunt, afterwards the electoress Sophia of Hanover, and, at the age of 19, she mar- ried duke Philip of Orleans, from reasons of state policy. She Avas Avithout person- al charms, but her understanding was strong, and her character unaffected, and she was characterized by liveliness and wit. It is to be regretted, that she exer- cised no more influence on the education of her children. Her second son was af- terwards known as regent. Madame de Maintenon was her implacable enemy, but Louis XIV was attracted by her in- tegrity and frankness, her vivacity and wit. She often attended him to the chase. She preserved the highest respect for the Uterary men of Germany, particu- larly for Leibnitz, whose correspondence with the French Uterati she promoted. She died at St Cloud, in 1722. She has described herself and her situation with a natural humor, perfectly original, in her German letters, which form an interest- ing addition to the accounts of the court of Louis XIV. The most valuable of her ELIZABETH CHARLOTTE—ELIZABETH PETROWNA. 479 letters are contained in the Life and Char- acter of the Duchess Elizabeth Charlotte of Orleans, by professor Schiitz, Leipsic, 1820. Elizabeth Petrowna, empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine I, was bom 1709, at the time of her father's greatest prosperity and glory. After her accession to the throne, in 1741, it was asserted, that Cadiarine I had, by her will, ajipointed her eldest daughter, Anne (wife of the duke of Holstein), suc- cessor of Peter II, and, after Anne, her younger sister, Elizabeth; but this is not proved, and it is not probable that prince Menzikoff Avould have permitted such a will. The nobles and the senate, after the death of Peter II, chose Anne, duchess dowager of Courland, daughter of Ivan, and niece of Peter I. She settled the succession to the throne in favor of the young prince Ivan, son of her niece, Anne, Avho was married to Antony Ulrich, duke of Brunswick, and who, after the death of the empress, caused herself to be pro- claimed regent, during the minority of her son. Elizabeth, naturaUy inactive, ami more prone to pleasure than ambi- tion, ajipeared alike indifferent to all po- litical jirojects. She endeavored, how- ever, to conciliate the guards, and chose her favorites among their officers. Nei- ther the regent nor her husband, who had the command of the troops, took measures against a revolution. A party was, therefore, formed for Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, to whose name so many glorious recollections were attached. The princess did not opjiose the attempt made to place her on the throne, and submitted to the advice of Les- tocq, a surgeon, who was eager to distin- guish himself. The marquis of Chetar- die, the French ambassador, whose person and manners had prepossessed Elizabeth in Iris favor, saw in the proposed revolu- tion only an opportunity of securing to France an ally. Sweden, dissatisfied with the cabinet of Petersburg, was persuaded to declare war against Russia. The con- spiracy, however, might easily have been discovered. Lestocq was incautious. The regent was warned of the plot; but the natural goodness of her disposition gave admission to no suspicion. EUzabeth easily succeeded in quieting her Avith prot- estations and tears. The conspirators, however, were not without anxiety, and Lestocq urged the immediate execution of the project. Observing a card on Elizabeth's table, he drew upon it a wheel and a croAvn, saying to the princess," This or that madame; one for you, or the other for me!" This decided Elizabeth; the conspirators were immediately inform- ed of it and in a few hours the conspiracy was ready to break out. The husband of the regent, being informed of the dan- ger, urged her to take measures for their safety; but Anne would not credit the reports. They were both seized while asleep, December 6, 1741, and, with their son, were carried to the palace of Eliza- beth ; at the same time Munich, father and son, Ostermann, Golofkin and others were thrown into prison. Anne and the prince Antony Ulrich were afterwards transferred to an island in the Dwina, near the White sea, and Ivan to the castle of Schlusselburg. Elizabeth caused herself to be proclaimed empress. Munich, Os- termann and others were condemned to death; but Elizabeth made a display of her clemency, by commuting their pun- ishment for exile to Siberia. Lestocq was made first physician of the court, and jiresident of the medical college, with the title of privy counsellor; but he afterwards fell under her displeasure. Bestuscheff, Avho had been minister under Anne, and whom Lestocq had caused to be apjioint- ed chancellor, enjoyed great influence. Peace was concluded witii Sweden, at Abo, in 1743, by the interjiosition of France. In 1748, Elizabeth sent aid to Maria Theresa, in Germany, by wlrich she hastened the conclusion of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. In the mean time, a conspiracy was formed against her, in which, among others, Lapoukin and his wife (distinguished for her wit and beauty) were engaged ; but the plot was discover- ed, and the wife of Lapoukin, in whom the empress saw a dangerous rival, with her husband and son, and the wife of Bestuscheff received the punishment of the knout; the ends of their tongues were cut off, and they themselves Avere exiled to Siberia. Elizabeth took part in the seven years' war, on account of some rail- lery of Frederic the Great respecting her person. The grand prince Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp, nephew of the empress, and her acknoAvledged succes- sor, was, on the other hand, much attached to Frederic. The war was not, there- fore, prosecuted Avith much vigor by the Russian generals, who desired to secure the favor of the heir to the throne. But diis was soon perceived; the general, Apraxin, was removed, and his place sup- pUed by Fermor, and the chanceller Bes- tuscheff was exUed to Siberia. The Rus- sians now advanced into Germany. Sol- 480 ELIZABETH PETROWNA—ELIZABETH OF FRANCE. tikoff afterwards succeeded Ferrnor, and defeated Frederic at Kunnersdorf. Ber- Un and Colberg were taken; but, notwith- standing this, no decisive result followed. After languishing for several years, Eliza- beth died, December 29, 1761, at the age of 52, after a reign of 20 years. She founded the university at Moscoav, and the academy of fine arts at Petersburg. She also paid much attention to the com- pletion of a code of laws, which Avas be- gun under Peter I. It was not however, finished. She had promised to aboUsh capital punishments under her reign ; but punishments more cruel than death were, nevertheless, aUowed to be inflicted. She shed tears at the miseries of war, yet during her reign, the fields of battle were drench- ed with the blood of her subjects. Mild, gentle, sometimes generous, she was too indolent to prevent the arbitrary conduct of her ministers. Her ruling passion was love; and she used to say to her confi- dants, * I am only happy when I am in love." She wished to be considered the greatest beauty in the empire, and this vanity, like that of Elizabeth of England, often jiroduced terrible consequences. Her licentious indulgences Avere some- times disturbed by superstitious fears, Avhich she endeaAored to quiet by devo- tional jiractices. By the field-marshal Razumofsky, she became the mother of two sons and a daughter (the princess Tarakanoff).—(See Leclerc's Histoire de la Russie moderne.) Elizabeth, Christina, Avife of Fred- eric II of Prussia, princess of BrunsAvick- Wolfenbiittel. She was born 1715, at Brunswick, married 1733, and died 1797. Being compelled to the marriage, Fred- eric lived separate from her till his fa- ther's death, in 1740. After ascending the throne, however, he gave her proofs of his esteem, and, on his death, ordered her annual revenue of 40,000 crowns to be increased to 50,000 ; " for," said be," dur- ing my whole reign, she has never given me the slightest cause of dissatisfaction, and her inflexible virtue deserves resjiect and love." Half of her annual income she appropriated to benevolent purposes. She partook of Frederic's taste for liter- ature, and was herself an author. She translated several German works into French, and wrote in French La sage Revolution; Meditation a VOccasion du Renouvcllenuint de I'Annee sur les Soins que la Providence a pour les Humains, &c.; Re- flexions pour tous les Jours de la Semaine; Reflexions sur VEtat des Affaires publiques en 1778, addresses aux Personnes craintives. Elizabeth (PhiUppine Marie H6'e"®i of France, Madame), sister of Louis XVI, was born at Versailles, May 23, 1764, and perished by the guillotine, May 10, 1794. Her life is an image of die tender- est affection, the loveUest virtues, gentle- ness and feminine dignity. She was the youngest child of the dauphin Louis and his second wife, Josephine of Saxony, who died while Elizabeth was but three years old. She was attached to her broth- er with the warmest affection. She re- ceived an excellent education from the countess of Mackau, under-governess of the children of France, and her acquire- ments were considerable, particularly in history and mathematics. Her proposed union with the duke of Aosta, infant of Spain, second son of the king ofthe Two Sicilies, Avas not concluded. When Louis XVI caused himself to be inoculated for the small pox, Elizabeth did the same; she also caused 60 poor girls to be inoc- ulated at the same time, and to receive the same care as herself. When her pri- vate establishment Avas fixed, 25,000 francs annually were assigned her for the pur- chase of diamonds ; but she requested that this sum should be paid, during six years, to a young favorite, whose poverty prevented her marriage. On an (state, which the king had purchased for her, Elizabeth spent the happiest hours of her life, 'engaged in rural occupations, io benevolent offices, and the enjoyment of the beauties of nature. The revolution destroyed her happiness. The assembly of the states general filled her with ter- ror ; from that moment she was devoted to her unhappy brother. She inspired him with firmness on the 6th of October- She attended him the next morning to Paris, and to the assembly. When Louis fled from Paris, she accompanied him; and she was brought back with him from Varennes. It was she who Avas taken for the queen, June 20, 1792; and when the ciy was raised, "The Austrian! down Avith her!" and an officer of the guard hastened to correct the mistake, she ex- claimed, "Why undeceive them? You might have spared them a greater crime." August 10, nothing, not even the king's earnest request could induce her to leave him. She followed him into the assem- bly. There she heard her brother's abdi- cation of the throne, and for tAvo days listened to the debates relative to the safest place of confinement for the royal family, vrith which she was carried into the Temple. Here she totally forgot herself, and seemed to five only for oth- ELIZABETH OF FRANCE—ELLENBOROUGH. ers. All modesty and goodness at court, she was here all patience and submission. May 9,1794, at 7 o'clock in the evening, Elizabeth was led from the Temple to the Conciergerie, because it had been discov- ered that she had corresponded with the princes, her brothers. She Avas tried with closed doors. The next morning, she Avas carried before the revolutionary tribunal, and, when asked her name and rank, she replied witii dignity, "I am Elizabeth of France, and the aunt of your king." This bold answer filled the judges with astonishment, and interrupted the trial. Twenty-four other victims were sentenced with her; but she Avas reduced to the horrible necessity of witnessing the execution of all her companions. She met death with calmness and submission; not a complaint escaped her against her judges and executioners. Without being handsome, Elizabeth was pleasing and lively. Her hair was of a chestnut color; her blue eye had a trace of melancholy in it; her mouth was delicate, her teeth beau- tiful, and her complexion of a dazzling Avhiteness; she was modest and almost timid, in the midst of splendor and great- ness, courageous in adversity, pious and virtuous, and her character was spotless. Elizabeth Islands; small islands near the coast of Massachusetts, between Mar- tha's Vineyard and the continent, includ- ed within the township of Clrilmark; lon. 70° 2& to 70° 56^ W.; lat 41° 24' to 41°32' N. They are about 16 in number; the jiiincipal of which are Nashawn, Pasqui, Nashawenua, Pinequese, and Chatahunk. Elizabethtown; a borough and post- town of New Jersey, in Essex county, 5 miles S. Newark, 14 S. S. W. New York, 76 N. E. Philadelphia; lon. 74° 7' W.; lat 40° 3& N.; population in 1820, 3515. It is situated on a small creek, which flows into Arthur Kull sound, and is a hand- some, pleasant and flourishing town, con- taining a bank, an academy, a printing- office, and 4 houses of public worship. The Presbyterian and Episcopal churches are large and handsome brick buildings. The town is situated in a very fertile tract of country, and has considerable trade, and some manufactures. Vessels of 20 or 30 tons come up to the town, and those of 200 or 300 come as far as Elizabeth- town point '~ miles distant; and a steam- boat plies between New York and the Joint This is the oklest town in New ersey : the ground was purchased of the Indians in Hilil, and settled, soon after, by emigrants from Long Island. VOL. IV. 41 Elk. (See Deer.) Ell ; a measure which obtains, under different denominations, in most countries, whereby cloths, stuffs, Unens, silks, &c, are usually measured. The eU English is 5 quarters, or 45 inches; the eU Flem- ish, 3 quarters, or 27 inches. In Scotland, an ell contains 37 2-10 inches English. Ellenborough (EdAvard LaW), lord, born in 1748, at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, lord chief justice of the king's bench, was a distinguished lawyer. His father, doctor Edmund Law, bishop of Carlisle, placed him at the charter house, London. He afterwards entered the uni- versity at Cambridge, where, in 1771, he obtained a prize medal, given by the chancellor, and, in 1773, a prize. He studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and soon be- came distinguished in his profession, in Avhich he began his career at the same time with Eldon (q. v.) and Erskine (q. v.) By the patronage of sir Francis Buller, one of the judges of the king's bench, he early obtained a silk gown. On the trial of Warren Hastings, in 1785, Erskine having refused to undertake the defence, Law served as leading counsel. It requir- ed no little courage to encounter such op- ponents as Burke, Fox, Sheridan, and other eminent men of the time, who conducted the impeachment. Law was assisted by Plomer and Dallas, and, as is well known, obtained the victory. (See Hastings.) The defence did not come on until the fifth year of the trial. To the briUiant eloquence of his adversaries, Law oppos- ed simple, logical, and clear statements. After eight years, in which the trial had occupied 148 days, at an expense of £71,080, Hastings was acquitted. Law's success was hoav certain. In 1801, he was made attorney-general, and, in 1802, on the death of lord Kenyon, he became lord chief justice of the king's bench, and was created baron. He adopted the title Ellenborough from a small fishing vUlage of that name, where his ancestors had lived for a long time. Under lord Gren- ville's administration, he became a mem- ber of the privy council (1806), which, by many, is considered as unconstitutional. In parliament he was opposed to the emancipation of the Catholics. (See Cath- olic Emancipation.) He held the office of chief justice for fifteen years, when his health sunk under the duties of the office. The bookseller Hone, having pubUshed three well known parodies on the Chris- tian religion, was tried on the indictment for the first before Abbot, for the two others before EUenborough. Both j udges, 482 ELLENBOROUGH—ELLIPSIS. in their charges to the jury, declared the publications to be libels; yet the jury re- turned a verdict of not guilty, and the spectators manifested their satisfaction by applause. This event had an unfavorable effect on lord Ellenborough's already feeble health, and, after a long sickness, he resigned his office in 1818. He died December 13 of the same year, at the age of seventy years. Lord EUenborough enjoys a high reputation for legal ability. Ellert, William, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Avas born at Newport, Rhode Island, December 22, 1727. He entered Harvard college at the age of 16, and left it in his 20th year, with the reputation of a sound scholar. After studying the law for the regular term, he began the practice, and continued it suc- cessfully during 20 years. The part which he took Avith his native state, in promoting resistance to the mother coun- try, occasioned his election to the con- gress of 1776. Of this body he was a zealous, spirited and most serviceable member. His dwelling-house at NeAvport, and other portions of his property, were destroyed by the British army, under gene- ral Pigot Mr. Ellery continued a member of congress until the year 1785. Soon after this period, he accepted the office of chief justice of the superior court of Rhode Island. When the present federal gov- ernment was organized, he accepted from general Washington the collectorship of the customs for the town of Newport—a post which he filled during the remainder of his estimable Ufe. This venerable man died at the age of 92, February 15,1820. He expired without sickness or pain, reading Cicero De Offidis, in his arm- chair. Elliott, Stephen, an eminent Ameri- can botanist and man of letters, was born at Beaufort, in South Carolina, November 11, 1771. He was first placed at the grammar school in Beaufort, whence he was transferred to Yale college, in 1787. Here he was distinguished for scholarship and good character. On his return home, he apjilied himself to the improvement of his paternal estate, which, though impair- ed by the casualties of the revolution, was stiU ample. His leisure hours, at this period, were given to history and poetry. His devotion to natural history began some time after. At the age of 22, Mr. Elliott was returned by his district as a member of the state legislature of South Carolina. In this sphere he soon obtained consider- able influence by his zeal, urbanity, knowledge, and powers of argument. As a member of the senate, he introduced and carried A'arious important bills, im- proving the public economy, and particu- larly die plan ofthe state bank, which was adopted by the legislature in the year 1812. Of this bank Mr. Elliott was chosen president, and discharged his of- fice with great ability until the time of his death. Although the care of the bank rested mainly on him, he found time to complete his two volumes of the botany of South CaroUna, which are held in high estimation, and to make consider- able contributions to the Uterary and sci- entific societies of which he became a member. He was president of the liter- ary society of Charleston, and of the lit- erary and philosophical society, and pro- fessor of natural history and botany in the medical college. His learned and elegant papers and lectures obtained uni- versal ajiplause. Mr. Elliott Was well ac- quainted with French and Italian litera- ture, and the scientific works of the French school, particularly in geology, mineralogy, conchology, and botany. He has left a collection in the several branches of natural history, scientifically arranged, which is said to be scarcely excelled by any private one in the United States. He was the chief editor of the Southern Re- view, and author of ten of the longest and most admired articles of that periodi- cal work. The degree of LL. D. was conferred on him by Yale college, and again by Harvard university. Few of his American contemporaries equalled him in variety of talents, attainments and la- bors. None possessed a more amiable temper, or honorable spirit. Mr. Elliott was above six feet in height with a robust frame and noble countenance. He died in the early part of 1830. Most of his productions remain in manuscript. Such of them as have been pubUshed will per- petuate his name creditably for his coun- try Ellipsis ; 1. in grammar and rhetoric; the omission of one or more words, which may be easily supplied by the imagination. It is used to express passion, or for the sake of conciseness. The latter is par- ticularly the case in familiar phrases. 2. In mathematics; one of the conic sec- tions. (See Cone.) Kepler discovered that the planets describe such a curve in revolving about the sun. It presents to the eye, at once, variety and regularity, and is, therefore, preferred by painters to the circle for the outline of their pictures. Two points in the longest diameter have this peculiarity r the sum of two straight ELLIPSIS—ELLSWORTH. 483 fines drawn from them to any point in the circumference is always the same, to whatever point they are drawn. An el- Upsis may, therefore, be formed by taking two points upon a plane, attaching to them a ring of thread, and following it round with a pencil, keeping it extended in the fonn of a triangle. The points where the thread is fixed are caUed the-foci. Elupticitt of the Terrestrial Spheroid. (See Degree, Measurement of.) Ellis, George, an ingenious writer, a native of London, was educated at West- minster school and Trinity college, Cam- bridge, He obtained an oflice under gov- ernment during the administration of Mr. Pitt, and was secretary to lord Malmes- bury, in his embassy to Lisle, in 1797. He was one of the junto of Avits concern- ed in the well known poUtical satire, The Rolliad, and wrote a preface, notes and appendix to Way's translation from the French of Le Grand's Fabliaux; besides wlrich, he published Specimens of the early English Poets, with an Historical Sketch of die Rise and Progress of Eng- Ush Poetry and Language, 3 volumes 8vo.; and Specimens of early English Metrical Romances, 3 vols. 8vo. The two latter works have passed through several edi- tions ; and they display much ingenuity, and a general, though not a profound ac- quaintance with English literature. Mr. Ellis, who was a fellow of the royal so- ciety, and the society of antiquaries, died in 1815, aged 70. Ellora. (See Elora.) Ellsworth, Oliver, an American judge and statesman, Avas born at Windsor, in Connecticut, April 29th, 1745. His father was a farmer, and his own youth was pass- ed alternately in agricultural labors and lib- eral studies. At the age of 1 /, he entered Yale college, which he subsequently left for the college of Nassau hall, at Prince- ton. After completing his academic course at Princeton, in 1766, he studied law, and was admitted to the bar, in 1771, in the county of Hartford, Connecticut, when; he commenced the practice, and acquired in a few years a high profes- sional rejiutation, that occasioned his ap- pointment as state's attorney. From the commencement ofthe revolutionary strug- gle, Mr. Ellsworth sided with the colonies; he went into actual service against the enemy, with the militia of Connecticut and, as a member of the general assembly of that state, took a large share in aU the political discussions and measures. In 1777, he was chosen a delegate to the congress of the United States, in which body he continued for three years. In 1780, he became a member ofthe council of Connecticut and, in 1784, was appomt- ed a judge of the superior court of the state—an office which he filled for several years with great reputation. In 1787, he was chosen, by the legislature, one of the delegates of Connecticut to the convention for framing a federal constitution, to be held in Philadelphia. In this illustrious assembly, he obtained much influence and distinction. It is believed, that the present organization and mode of appointment of the senate were suggested by him. As he was called away by other duties, his name is not among those of the signers of the constitution which was adopted, but he approved the work, and warmly sup- ported it in the state convention. Tavo of his very able speeches in its defence are preserved in the third volume of Ca- rey's American Museum. When the constitution was ratified, judge Ellsworth was elected a senator in the first congress, which met at New York, in 1789; and he retained his seat till 1796, during almost the whole of president Washington's ad- ministration. The bill for organizing the judiciary department was drawn up by him, and the part which he took in most ofthe great questions of politics or pubUc economy, raised him to a lofty eminence in the eyes of the country. In 1796, Avhen Mr. Jay resigned the office of chief justice of the supreme court ofthe United States, president Washington appointed Mr. Ellsworth his successor. To this trust he proved folly equal, though he had been long estranged from the jiractice of his jirofession. All his habits and facul- ties were specially adapted to the discharge of judicial functions. At the close of the year 1799, he AA'as selected to be one of the three envoys to France, governor Davie, of North Carolina, and the honora- ble William Vans Murray, being his col- leagues, in order to adjust those differences which had assumed the character of war. For this errand he was not so well quaU- fied as for the career which he had pre- viously run; but the convention, which was concluded by the envoys with the French government, obtained the assent of the president and the senate. His health Avas so much impaired by a long and temjiestuous sea voyage, that he was obliged to pass over to England from France, in order, chiefly, to try the effica- cy of the British mineral waters. The same cause induced him to transmit from England, to president Washington, his re- signation of the office of chief justice. Aa 484 ELLSWORTH—ELM. soon as he acquired some fresh strength, he returned to his native country, and re- tired to his family residence at Windsor, in Connecticut In 1802, he entered again into the council of the state, and, in 1807, was elected the chief justice of the state, but declined this station. The nephritic comjilaints, to which he had been long subject, attained a fatal violence this year, and caused his death, in the 63d year of his age. Oliver Ellsworth was one of the most distinguished of the revolutionary patriots of America, of her statesmen and her lawyers. He filled a large space in the eyes of his countrymen. His person- al character and domestic life were ex- emplary. His friend, doctor Dwight has commemorated his merits in his Travels in New England. Ellwood, Thomas, an early writer among the Quakers, was born in 1639, at Crowell, near Thame, in Oxfordshire, where he received such an education as the humble circumstances of his parents would afford. In his 21st year, he was induced to join the society of Friends, by the preaching of one Edward Burroughs, and he soon after published his first piece, entitled An Alarm to the Priests, or a Message from Heaven to warn them. He subsequently became reader to Milton, with whom he improved himself in the learned languages, but was soon obliged to quit London on account of his health. In the year 1665, he procured a lodging for Milton at Chalfont, Bucks, and Avas the occasion of his writing Paradise Regain- ed, by the following observation made on the return of the Paradise Lost, Avhich the poet had lent him to read in manuscript: " Thou hast said much of paradise lost, but Avhat hast thou to say of paradise found ?" In 1705, he pubUshed the first part of Sacred Histoiy, or the Historical Parts of the Old Testament, and, in 1709, Sacred History, &c. of the NeAv Testa- ment ; which production was well received, and is still held in some estimation. His other works are numerous; among them, Davideis, the Life of David, King of Is- rael, a poem, Avhich is more distinguished for piety than poetiy. He died in 1713, aged 74. His lite, written by himself, affords many interesting particulars of the history of his sect. Elm. The species of elm (ulmus) are trees or shrubs, with alternate rough and simple leaves, and fascicles of small, incon- spicuous flowers, which appear before the foUage. About twenty 6pecies are known, aU inhabiting the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, and three of them natives of the United States:—1. U. Ameri- cana (American or white elm) is found from the forty-ninth to the thirtieth jiaral- lel of latitude, is abundant in the Western States, and extends beyond tin; Mississippi, but attains its loftiest* stature between lat. 42° and 46°; here it reaches the height of 100 feet, Avith a trunk four or five feet in diameter, rising sometimes 60 or 70 feet, when it separates into a feAV primary limbs, which are at first apjiroximate, or cross each other, but gradually diverge, diffusing on all sides long, arched, jiendu- lous branches, Avhich float in the air. It has been pronounced by Micbaux "the most magnificent vegetable of the tem- perate zone." Its wood is not much es- teemed, but has been used for the naves of wheels in the state of New York, for chair-bottoms, and sometimes, in Maine, for the keels of vessels. 2. U. fulva (red or slippery elm) is common in the West, but comparatively rare in the Atlantic states; it is also found over a great extent of country in Canada, Missouri, and as far south as latitude 31°; it attains the height of fifty or sixty feet, with a trunk 15 or 20 inches in diameter; the wood is stronger and of a better quality than that of the white elm, is employed in the West in constructing houses, and is the best in the United States for blocks, but its scarci- ty in the Atlantic states prevents its being much used for that purpose. The leaves and bark yield an abundant mucilage, to which it owes its name, and which is a valuable remedy in coughs, and especially in dysentery and other bowel complaints. This, as well as every other kind of do- mestic medicine, is prejiared and put up, with most singular nicety and care, at the Shaker establishment, at Canterbury, N. II. 3. U. alata (wahoo) inhabits from lat 37° to Florida, Louisiana, and Arkan- sas, and is a small tree, sometimes 30 feet high, remarkable from the branches being furnished, on two opjiosite sides, with wings of cork, two or three lines wide; the wood is fine-grained, compact and heavy, and has been used in the South for the naves of coach Avheels. The Avood of the U. campestris of die eastern conti- nent is superior to that of either of the American species, and, indeed, is one of the most useful in the mechanic arts, be- ing employed for gun-carriages, blocks of ships, gunwales, &c, and is every where preferred by wheelwrights for the naves and felloes of wheels. The lower classes in England use it almost exclusively for coffins, probably on account of its dura- biUty in moist situations. This tree might ELM—ELORA. 485 be advantageously introduced into the United States. Elmina, or La Mina, or Oddena, or St. George del Mina ; a toAvn in Africa, on the Gold coast, situated in a low, flat peninsula, near the two forts St. George d'Elmina and Conradsburg ; lon. 1° 5C W.; lat 5° 1C N.; pojiulation about 15,000. It is the capital of the Dutch seulements in Western Africa, and the most resiiectable fortress on the Gold coast The town is large, and remarkably dirty; some of the houses are built of stone, but they are huddled together in a confused manner. The country around is for the most part open and flat, the soil generally light The inhabitants of the town are traders, fishermen, and persons employed as servants to traders. The citadel of Elmina, standing in the centre of the Gold coast, is very commodiously situated for the jnnjioscs of trade, and the protection and security of the trader. Its situation is upon a rock, bounded on one side by the ocean, and also defended by strong bastions. Elmo's Fire, St. ; an ajipearance caused by riery meteors in the atmosphere. It is often seen playing about the masts and rigging of ships. If two flames are visi- ble (Castor and Pollux), the sailors con- sider it a good omen ; if only one, which they call Helene, they regard it as a bad one. Elmsley, Peter, D. D., an eminent schol- ar and philologist, was born in 1773, and educated at Oxford. Having inherited a fortune from his uncle, he devoted the re- mainder of his life to literature. In 1802, being then resident in Edinburgh, he be- came one of the original contributors to the Edinburgh Review, in which the articles on Heyne's Homer, Schweig- hauser's Athenseus, Bloomfield's Prome- theus, and Poison's Hecuba, are from his pen. He also Avrote occasionally, at a sulisequent period, in the Quarterly Re- view. In the pursuit of his philological studies, Mr. Elmsley afterwards visited most of the jiiincipal libraries on die con- tinent, and sjient the whole of the winter of 1818 in the Laurentian Library at Flor- ence. The year following, he accepted a commission from the government to su- perintend, in conjunction with sir Hum- jihrey Davy, the unrolling of the Her- culanean papyri; in which the selec- tion of the manuscripts Avas left to his judgment On his return to England, he Bottled at Oxford, and, having taken the degree of doctor of divinity, obtained soon after the headship of Alban haU, and the Camden professorship in 1823. He died 41* in 1825. He published an edition of the following tragedies of Sophocles and Euripides: Acarnanes, in 1809; ffidi- pus Tyrannus, 1811; Heraclidse, 1815; Medea, 1818; Baccha3, 1821; and Oedi- pus Coloneus, 1823. Elongation, in astronomy, the angle under which we see a planet from the sun, when reduced to the ecliptic; or it is the angle formed by two lines drawn from the earth to the sun and planet, Avhen reduced as above. Elopement is Avhen a manied woman, of her own accord, departs from her hus- band, and dwells Avilh an adulterer; for Avhich, without voluntary reconciliation to the husband, she shall lose her dower. By eloping and living apart from the hus- band, he is discharged ofthe future debts, and no longer Uable to support her. Elora; a town in Hindostan, in the province of Dowlatabad; lon. 75° 23'E.; lat. 19° 58' N. ; about 18 miles N. E. of Aurungabad, 260 miles from Bombay, 650 from Madras, and more than 1000 from Calcutta ; inhabited by Bramins on- ly. About a mile west of the place is a chain of mountains, of reddish granite, out of which the famous temples of Elora are excavated. These temples must be counted among the most stupendous works ever executed by man. The cir- cuit of the excavations is about two leagues. The temples are 100 feet high, 145 feet long, and 62 feet wide. They contain thousands of figures, appearing, from the style of their sculpture, to be of ancient Hindoo origin. Every tiring about them, in fact indicates the most persever- ing industry in executing one "of the boldest plans. Their origin is prior to the period of history. A tradition says that Visvacarma was the architect of the chief temple, and that Vishnoo and the San- thones were his assistants. The chief temple still bears the name of Visvacarma. The vault is supported by several rows of columns, which form three gaUeries, one above the other. 24 colossal monolithe3, representing Indian gods, are placed in separate divisions, the sculpture of which, though, on the whole, it may be caUed rude, shows, in some parts, an advanced period of art, and a certain developement of taste. On each side of the colonnades of the great temple are hewn out sphinxes, quite in the Egyptian style. These re- markable works, which will probably per- ish from exposure to air and moisture, if nothing is done for their preservation, were first described by the EngUsh cap- tain T. B. Seely, in his Wonders of Elora 486 ELORA—EMANATION. (London, 1824). Seely relates the follow- ing remarkable circumstance: that Indian soldiers, in the English army in Egypt in 1799, exclaimed, while gazing at several of the Egyptian images with astonish- ment, diat Hindoos must have inhabited Egypt! Future ages will perhaps trace the Egyptian ciAalization to India, as Cham- pollion is at present tracing Grecian civili- zation to Egypt, (q. v.) Elsinore, Elsuneur, or Helsingoer ; a seaport of Denmark, on the E. coast of the island of Zealand, 20 miles N. Copen- hagen; lon. ^SS'E. ; lat. 56° 2? N. ; population, 7000. It is well built, and stands on the west side of the Sound, nearly opposite to Helsinberg, in Sweden, at the narrowest place of the Sound, which is here l»ssdian four miles Avide. It has no harbor, but an excellent roadstead, generally crowded with vessels going up or down the Baltic, and anchoring here, either to pay toll or take in stores, the sup- ply of which forms the chief business of die place. The aggregate number of ves- sels of aU nations passing the Sound is nearly 10,000. The toll paid for English, French, Dutch and SAvedish vessels is 1 jier cent on the value of their cargoes, and li per cent, for vessels of other na- tions. Tlie annual amount of toll varies from £120,000 to £150,000 sterling. At Elsinore, the fortress of Cronberg, situ- ated on the edge of a promontory, is pro- vided with powerful batteries. Elysium, Elysian Fields ; 1, the name of certain regions, which the an- cients supposed to be the residence ofthe blessed after death. They are described sometimes as delightful meadows, some- times as islands situated on the western confines of the earth. But they gradually receded as this portion of the earth was explored. The happiness of the blessed consisted in a life of tranquil enjoyment The images by wlrich die happiness of a residence there is described, were taken partly fi-om Olympus, and partly from descriptions of the golden age. The most beautiful meadows alternated with pleasant groves; a serene and cloudless sky was spread over them, and a soft, celestial light shed a magical brilhancy over eA-ery object; the heroes diere re- newed their favorite sports ; they exer- cised themselves in wrestling and other contests, danced to the sound of the lyre, from which Orpheus drew the most en- chanting tones, or wandered through odoriferous laurel-groves, on the smiling banks ofthe Eridanus, in deUghtful vales or in meadows watered by limpid foun- tains, amid the Avarbling of birds, some- times alone and sometimes in company; a perpetual spring reigned there ; the earth teemed three times a year; and all cares, pains and infirmities a\ ere banished from those happy seats. , (For the origin of the fable, see Cemetery.) The voluptuous descrijition of the gardens of Armida, m Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered, is an imita- tion of the-ancient ideas of the Elysian fields.—2. The Parisians have called one of their favorite gardens and^ princijial places of amusement Champs-Elis6es. Elzevir, or Elzvier. This family of printers, residing at Amsterdam and Ley- den, is celebrated for beautiful editions, jirincipally published from 1595 to 1680. The best known are Louis, Matthew, Isaac (associated with Buonaventura), John and Daniel, at Amsterdam and Ley- den. Besides these was Peter Elzevir, at Utrecht, avIio has done less for the art Louis was the first printer who made a distinction between the consonant v and tlie vowel u. Abraham and Buonaven- tura prepared the small editions of die classics, in 12mo. and 16mo., Avhich are still valued for their beauty and correct- ness. Daniel Avas one of the most active of this family. Although the Elzevirs were surjiassed in learning, and in Greek and Hebrew editions, by the Stephen- ses (Etiennes, printers and booksellers at Paris), they were unequalled in their choice of works and in the elegance of their typography. Their editions of Virgil, Terence, the New Testament, the Psalter, &c, executed with red letters, are masterpieces of typography, both for cor- rectness and beauty. Several catalogues of their editions have been pubUshed: the last is by Daniel (1674,12mo.),in seven parts, much increased by the admission of for- eign works. (See Brunei's Notice de la Colled. d'Auteurs, etc. p. les Elzev. in the 4th vol. of the Manuel du Libraire.) Emanation, Efflux (from the Latin emanare, to issue, to flow out, to emanate). Philosophical systems Avhich, Uke most of the ancient, do not adopt a sjiontaneous creation of the universe by a Supreme Being, frequently explain the universe by an eternal emanation from the Su- preme Being. This doctrine came from the East. Traces of it are found in the Indian mythology, and in the old Persian or Bactro-Median doctrine of Zorouster. (q. v.) It had a powerful influence on the ancient Greek philosophy, as may be seen in Pythagoras.—In theology, the doc- trine of emanation is the doctrine of the Trinity, Avhich regards the Son and Holy EMANATION—EMBEZZLEMENT. 487 Ghost, &c, as effluxes from the Deity him- self. Emancipation. (See Catholic Eman- dpation.) Emanuel the Great, king of Portu- gal, ascended the throne in 1495. During his reign Avere performed the voyages of discovery of Vasco da Gama (1497), of Ca- bral (1500), of Aniericus Vespucius (1501 and 1503), and die heroic exploits of Albu- querque, by av hose exertions a passage was found to the East Indies (for wlrich the Avay was prepared by the discovery ofthe cape of Good Hope, in 1486, by Bartholo- mew Diaz), the Portuguese dominion in Goa was established, tlie Brazils, the Mo- luccas, &c, were discovered. The com- merce of Portugal, under Emanuel, was more prosperous than at any former pe- riod. The treasures of America flowed into Lisbon, and the reign of Emanuel was justly called "the golden age of Portugal." He died Dec' 13, 1521, aged 52, deejily lamented by his subjects, but hated by the Moors, whom he had expelled, and by the Jews, whom he had compelled to sub- mit to baptism. As a monument of his dis- coveries, Emanuel built the monastery at Belem (q. v.), where he was buried. He was a friend to the sciences and to learn- ed men. He left Memoirs on the Indies. Embalming; to embalm, to fill and surround with aromatic and desiccative substances any bodies, particularly corpses, in order to preserve them from corruption. The ancient Egyjitians were the inventors of this art. Other people, for example, the Assyrians, Scythians and Persians, followed them, but by no means equalled them in it The art has degenerated very much from the high degree of per- fection at which it stood among the an- cients; perhaps because the change in religious opinions and customs has made the embalming of the dead less frequent. In modern times, only distinguished indi- viduals are occasionally embalmed; but this process does not prevent corruption. —The intestines are taken out of the body, and die brains out of the head, and the cavities filled up with a mixture of bal- samic herbs, myrrh and others of the same kind; the large blood-vessels and other vessels are injected with balsams dissolved in spirits of wine; the body is rubbed hard with spirits of the same kind, &c. (See Mummies.) The ancient Egyptians removed the viscera from the large cavi- ties, and replaced them Avidi aromatic, saline and bituminous substances, and also enAelojied the outside of the body in clotlis impregnated Avith similar materials. These were useful in preventing decom- position and excluding insects, until per- fect dryness took place. In later times, bodies have been jireserved a long time by embalming, especiaUy Avhen they have remained at a low and uniform tempera- ture, and have been protected from the air. The body of Edward I was buried m Westminster abbey, in 1307, and in 1770 was found entire. Canute died in 1036; his body was found veiy fresh in 1776, in Winchester cathedral. The bodies of William the Conqueror and of Matilda his Avife were found entire at Caen, in die 16th century. Similar cases are not un- frequent In many instances, bodies not embalmed have been preserved from de- cay merely by the exclusion ofthe air and the fewness ofthe temperature. Impreg- nation of the animal body with corrosive sublimate appears to be the most effectual means of preserving it, excepting immer- sion in spirits. The impregnation is per- formed by the injection of a strong solu- tion, consisting of about four ounces of bichloride of mercury to a pint of alco- hol, into the blood-vessels, and, after the viscera are removed, the body is immersed, for three months, in the same solution, after Avhich it dries easily, and is almost imperishable. Wet preparations, or those immersed in alcohol or oil of turpentine, last for an indefinite time. Embargo, in commerce; an arrest on ships or merchandise, by jiublic authority; or a prohibition of state, commonly on foreign ships, in time of war, to prevent their going out of jiort; sometimes to prevent their coming in; and sometimes both for a limited time. Embassador. (See Ambassador, and Ministers, Foreign.) Embayed ; the situation of a ship when she is enclosed between two capes or pro- montories. It is particularly applied when the Avind, by blowing strong into any bay or gulf, makes it extremely difficult, and perhaps impracticable, for the vessel thus enclosed to draw off from the shore, so as to weather die capes and gain the offing. Ember Weeks or Days, in the Chris- tian church, are certain seasons of the year set apart for the imploring God's blessing, by prayer and fasting, upon the ordinations performed in the church at such times. The ember weeks were for- merly observed in different churches with some A'ariety, but were at last settled as they are noAV observed, by the council at Placentia, in 1095. Embezzlement is the appropriation, by a person, to himself, of money or prop- 4S8 EMBEZZLEM ENT—EMBRYO. erty put into his hands in trust. An em- bezzlement is both a theft and breach of trust; yet by the general law, it is only a ground for an action for the value of the property. But there are many special provisions in relation to particular embezzlements and breaches of trust By the law of England, a clerk guilty of em- bezzlement is liable to transportation not exceeding 14 years ; and a public servant or agent committing the like offence is declared guilty of a misdemeanor, and punishable at the discretion of die court. Still more severe provisions are made in the case of embezzlement by the officers and clerks of banks. The laws of the U. States contain numerous provisions on this subject. The embezzlement of wines or odier spirits deposited in the public stores, renders the jiarty liable to the same penalty as for fraudulently landing die same goods with intention to evade the revenue; and special provisions are made respecting embezzlements in the post- office, the army and navy, and in relation to the U. States bank in particular. It is provided by the act of March 3, 1825, "that if any person employed as presi- dent cashier, clerk or servant in the bank, shall feloniously take, steal and carry away any money, goods, bond, bill, bank- note, or other note, check, draft, treasury- note, or other valuable security or effects belonging to, or deposited in, the bank; or shall fraudulently embezzle, secrete or make aAvay with any money, goods, bond, bill, bank-note, or other valuable security or effects, which he shall have received, or Avhich shall come to his possession or custody by virtue of such employment; he shall be deemed guilty of felony, and, on conviction, shall be punished by fine not exceeding $5000, and imprisonment and confinement to hard labor not exceed- ing ten years." The EngUsh law con- tains provisions in relation to embezzle- ment by servants and others. But the provisions on this subject are not so nu- merous, either by the English or Ameri- can laAvs, as they ought to be, considering that embezzlement nivohes the guilt of a larceny with the fraud of a breach of trust. This is mosdy a subject of state legisla- tion in the U. States, and the laws of the states contain some provisions in relation to it By the general marine law, a mari- ner forfeits his wages by the embezzle- ment of any part of the cargo ofthe ship; and so he also forfeits his share of the jirize money by embezzling any part of the cap- tured property. Emblem (Gr. v/JA^a, from trfaWt,, to cast in, to insert); properly, inlay; ul- layed or mosaic work; something in- serted in the body of another; a picture representing one thing to the eye, and another to the understanding; a painted enigma, or a figure representing some well-known historical event, instructing us in some moral truth ; a typical desig- nation: thus a balance is an emblem of justice; a crown, an emblem of royalty. Embonpoint; a moderate and agree- able fulness of figure. (See Corpuleiwy.) Embossing, or Imbossing, in architec- ture and sculpture ; die forming or fash- ioning works in reUevo, whether cut Avith a chisel or otherwise. Embracery ; an attempt to corrupt or influence a jury, or any way incline them to be more favorable to the one side than the other, by money, promises, letters, threats or persuasions, whether the jury give a verdict or not, or whether the verdict given be true or false; which is punished by fine and imprisonment. Embroidery ; figured work in gold, or silver, or sdk thread, wrought by the needle, upon cloths, stuffs or muslins. In embroidering stuffs, a kind of loom is used, because the more the piece is stretched, the easier is it worked. Muslin is spread upon a pattern, ready designed, and sometimes, before it is stretched upon the pattern, it is starched to make it more easy to handle. The art of embroidery was invented in the East, jirobably by the Phrygians. In Moses' time, Aholiab, of* the tribe of Dan, Avas noted for skill in embroidery, and the women of Sidon, before the Trojan Avar, excelled in the same art. Though the Greeks attributed the invention of the art to Minerva, yet it is certain that it came through the Per- sians to Greece. The king of Pergamus (Attalus), in the year of Rome 621, in- vented the mode of embroidering with gold thread. In modern times, the art has been much extended. In 1782, three German ladies, in Hanover, named Wyl- lich, invented a mode of embroidering vrith human hair. Beads, &c, also have been used. Embryo ; the first rudiments of the ani- mal in the womb, before the several mem- bers are distinctly formed, after which it is called the fetus, (q. v.) The time ne- cessary to produce this is different in different species. The human embryo is visible in three weeks: at the end of four, a pulsation is perceptible, Avhich is known to be the beating of the heart. It is now about the size of an ant or fly, and retains its transparency, which, EMBRYO-EMERY. 489 however, graduaUy diminishes, and, at the end of two months, disappears: the eyes, nose, mouth, ears, and all the members, are distinguishable: it is as large as a bee. In three months, every thing becomes more distinct; the sex becomes evident, and the foetus grows until it is ushered into the world as a child. Emden; a city at the mouth of the river Ems, in the principality of East Friesland, the first commercial city of Hanover, with 11,000 inhabitants, a Latin school, a learned society, &c. It is a free port. It has much trade in herrings. It is expected that its commerce will be much benefited by the junction of the Ems and the Rhine. Emerald is a well-known gem of pure freen color, somewhat harder than quartz. ts natural form is either rounded or that of a short six-sided prism. By the an- cients the emerald was in great request, particularly for engraving upon. They are said to have procured it from Ethio- pia and Egypt The most intensely col- ored and valuable emeralds that we are acquainted with are brought from Peru. They are found in clefts and veins of granite, and odier primitive rocks, and oftentimes grouped with the crystals of quartz, felspar and mica. The emerald is one of the softest of the precious stones, and is almost exclusively indebted for its value to its charming color. In value it is rated next to the ruby, -and, when of good color, is set without foil, and upon a black ground, like brilliant diamonds. Emeralds of inferior lustre are generally set upon a green gold foU. These gems are considered to appear to greatest ad- vantage Avhen table-cut and surrounded by brilliants, the lustre of which forms an agreeable contrast Avith the quiet hue of die emerald. They are sometimes formed into pear-shaped ear-drops; but the most valuable stones are generally set in rings. A favorite mode of setting emeralds, among the opulent inhabitants of South America, is to make them up into clusters of artificial flowers on gold stems. The largest emerald that has been mentioned, is one said to have been possessed by the inhabitants of the Valley of Mania, in Peru, at the time when the Spaniards first arrived there. It is recorded to have been as big as an ostrich's egg, and to have been Avorshipped by the Peruvians, under the name of the goddess or mother of emeralds. They brought smaUer ones as offerings to it which the priests distin- guished by the appellation of daughters. Many flue emeralds are stated to have formerly been bequeathed to different monasteries on the continent; but the greatest part of them are said to have been sold by the monks, and to have had their place supplied with colored glass imita- tions. Tliese stones are seldom seen of large size, and at the same time entirely free from flaws. The emerald, if heated to a certain degree, assumes a blue color, but it recovers its oavii proper tint when cold. When the heat is carried much beyond this, it melts into an opaque, colored mass. The Oriental emerald is a variety of the ruby, of a green color, and is an extremely rare gem. (See Beryl.) Emerson, William, an eminent Eng- lish mathematician, was born at Hur- worth, near Darlington, in the year 1701. Having derived from his parents a mod- erate competence, he devoted himself to a life of studious retirement From the strength of his mind and the closeness of his application, he acquired a deep knowl- edge of mathematics and physics, upon all parts of which he wrote sound trea- tises, although with few pretensions to originality of invention, and in a rough and unpolished style. He died in 1782, in his 81st year. Emery, John, an actor of eminence, was born at Sunderland, in the palati- nate of Durham, December 22, 1777, and educated at Ecclesfield in Yorkshire, where he acquired tiiat knowledge of the provincial dialect which afterwards con- tributed so much to his celebrity. In the unsophisticated rustic or the stupid dolt he was excellent; while in some parts, written purposely for him, such as Tyke in the School of* Reform, and Giles in the Miller's Maid, his acting Avas truly terrific and appalling. The portraying of rough nature, fine simplicity, and strong passion, was his forte; and in the latter, especially, he ever excited the apjirobation of the best critics. In private life, he Avas much esteemed; he died in January, 1822. Emery, a very hard mineral, of black- ish or bluish-gray color, is chiefly found in shapeless masses, and mixed with oth- er minerals. It contains about 80 parts in 100 of alumine, and a small jiortion of iron, is usually opaque, and about four times as heavy as water. The best emery is brought from the Levant, and chiefly from Naxos, and other islands of the Grecian archipelago. It is also found in some parts of Spain, and is obtained from a few of the iron mines in Great Britain. In hardness, it is nearly equal to adaman- tine spar, and this property has rendered it an object of great request in various arts. 490 EMERY—EMIGRATION. It is employed by lapidaries in the cutting and polishing of precious stones; by op- ticians, in smoothing the surface of the finer kinds of glass, preparatory to their being polished ; by cullers and other man- ufacturers of iron and steel instruments ; by masons, in the polishing of marble; and, in their respective businesses, by locksmiths, glaziers, and numerous other artisans. For all these purposes, it is pul- verized in large iron mortars, or in steel mills; and die powder, which is rough and shaiii, is carefully washed, and sorted into five or six different degrees of fine- ness, according to the description of work in which it is to be employed. (See Co- rundum.) Emetic (emeticus; from cjitv>, to vomit); that which is capable of exciting vomiting, independently of any effect arising from the mere quantity of matter introduced into the stomach, or of any nauseous taste or flavor. The susceptibility of vomiting is very different in different individuals, and is often considerably varied by dis- ease. Emetics are employed in many diseases. When any morbid affection depends upon, or is connected Avith over- distention of the stomach, or the presence of acrid, indigestible matters, vomiting gives speedy relief. Hence its utiUty in impaired appetite, acidity in the stomach, in intoxication, and where poisons have been swallowed. In the different varie- ties of febrile affections, much advantage is derived from exciting vomiting, esjie- cially in the very commencement of the disease. In high inflammatory fever, it is considered as dangerous, and in the ad- vanced stage of typhus, it is prejudicial. Emetics, given in such doses as only to excite nausea, have been found useful in restraining haemorrhage. Different sjiecies of drojisy have been cured by vomiting, from its having excited absorption. To the same effect, perhaps, is owing the dis- persion of various swellings, wlrich has occasionally resulted from this operation. The operation of vomiting is dangerous or hurtful in the folloAving cases : where there is determination of the blood to the head, especially in plethoric habits; in visceral inflammation; in the advanced stage of pregnancy ; in hernia and prolap- sus uteri; and wherever there exists ex- treme general debility. The frequent use of emetics weakens the tone of the stom- aoh. An emetic should always be ad- ministered in the fluid form. Its opera- tion may be promoted by drinking any tepid diluent or bitter infusion. Emetine is a peculiar vegetable princi- ple, obtained from die ipecacuan root, of whose emetic properties it is conceived to be die sole cause. It is obtained by di- gesting the root first in ether and then in alcohol. The alcoholic infusion is evapo- rated to dryness ; and to the residuum, re- dissolved in water, acetate of lead is added, wlrich produces a precipitate. The pre- cipitate is washed, diffused in water, and decomposed by a current of suljihureted hydrogen gas. Sulphuret of lead falls to die bottom, and the emetine remains in solution. By evaporating the superna- tant fluid, this substance is obtained pure. It forms transparent, brownish-red scales: it is destitute of smell, but has a bitter, acrid taste. At a heat somewhat above that of boiling water, it is resolved into carbonic acid, oil and vinegar. In a dose of half a grain, it acts as a powerful emetic, followed by sleep: six grains jiro- duce violent vomiting, stupor and death. Emeu, or New Holland Cassowary. (See Cassowary.) Emigration. Removal from one coun- try to another, for the purpose of perma- nent residence. Every man born free, cr Avho had obtained his freedom, formerly had the right of emigrating. But as cap- ital and power were lost to a state by the remoAal of its inhabitants, it Avas consider- ed, that emigration ought to be forbidden, and the people only alloAved to remove from one place to another Avithin the limits of the State. Experience, however, prov- ed that such prohibitions were fruitless, and the only Avay to guard against emi- grations Avas by the fullest protection of property; by granting freedom of con- science, and the undisturbed exercise of religion; and by not banishing subjects from their country on account of their reli- gious opinions, as was once done (e. g., in France and Saltzburg); by allowing them, under the protection of judicious laws, with the assurance of freedom in trade and commerce, the undisturbed enjoyment of the fruits of their industry; by not expos- ing them to the oppression of magistrates; and by delivering them from the fear of unreasonable or arbitraiy taxes. When we consider how much resolution is re- quired to abandon forever the home to which man is bound by the strongest tics of recollection, language and habit, to seek an uncertain fortune in a land of strangers, there is no reason to believe, that large masses will ever emigrate with- out the most urgent motives. Wherever emigration is common, it is not an evil it- self, but only the consequence and symp- tom of an evil arising from the dissatisfac- EMIGRATION. 491 tion' of the people with their condition. If things have come to such a state, that men think they cannot obey the laws of their country without violence to their consciences, they ought to be at liberty to seek in other countries religious and polit- ical freedom. Besides, hi the abstract, em- igration is a right inherent in man. Every person does as much as can be required of him, if he obeys the laws of that coun- try in which he chooses to reside, and only very peculiar circumstances can jus- tify the checking of emigration. The most cruel tyranny was exercised by Louis XIV, when he deprived the Protestants of their religious privUeges, and endeav- ored to prevent their emigration. The end of government is the welfare of the citizens, and they are at liberty to retire from the state when their welfare is no longer provided for by the state. In America, the right of emigration is as in- disputable as the right of eating and drink- ing. It is one of the fundamental privi- leges of the English nation, also, to leave tlie country without special permission, which is limited only in regard to those who stand in some particular relations to tlie state, such as magistrates or soldiers; and, in certain cases, it may be taken away by the writ ne exeat regno, under the great or privy seal. Acts of parliament have often been passed, by the English govern- ment to jireventits citizens from engaging in foreign military service ; for instance, in that of the South American insurgents, in 1819; but these were not directed against emigration. The emigration of manufac- turers of wool, silk, iron, &c, has been forbidden by separate laws (by those of 1719, 5 Geo. I, cap. 27; 1740, 23 Geo. II, cap. 13, and 1782, 22 Geo. Ill, cap. 60). The only punishment however, for i •migrants of this class, decUning to return un receiving a summons to that effect, is the loss of citizenship. Those who insti- gate them to quit the country are liable to fine and imprisonment. The French code also, at least since 1789, has permitted un- limited emigration; and the laws since made against emigrants were only owing to the hostile spirit of most of those who emigrated; for the emigrants were un- willing to give up their right of citizen- ship in France, and attacked the new government in the ranks of its foreign invaders. By the act of the German con- federation, article 13, the right of emigra- tion is allowed to all the members of the confederacy. Well founded information in regard to the dangers that threaten em- igrants in foreign countries, measures for increasing the means of labor, the removal of the artificial restraints, by which the great mass of wealth is kept in a few hands, freedom of trade,—these are the means by which a spirit of emigration may lie checked, and the love of home revived. Prohibitions of emigration are unjust, as well as impolitic, and always prove, that a government which allows them has an incorrect idea of its rights. If a dense population is the cause of emigration, let the government estebUsh colonies. The British government have taken means for aiding the settlement of emigrants in Canada, the cape of Good Hope, and New Holland. StiU more was done in Russia, for the support of those who had emigrated thither, after disease and want had carried off a multi- tude of those unhappy men in the un- healthy steppes of Odessa. Emigrants to the United States have often been deceived in their expectations, have fallen, on their arrival, into the hands of sharpers, or have wasted the Uttle resources which they brought with them, for want of informa- tion respecting the best way to proceed. To remedy these inconveniences, by giving information and advice to newly arrived emigrants, a society in New York establish- ed the free emigrant's office, a very use- ful institution, and worthy to be imitated in all the large seaports of the United States. It might be well for this society to distribute handbills, in the language of the emigrants, among them before they land, containing a feAv rules and directions. It might even be useful to transmit information of the real state of things in this country, and of the best course for emigrants to pursue, to those countries from which emigration is most common: this object might be easily ef- fected by means of newspapers. The principal countries from which emigration at present takes place to the United States, are Great Britain, Ireland, Switzerland, Alsace, Wiirtemberg. From England and Ireland, a large emigration takes place, also, to Canada, New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, &c.; from Wiirtemberg and Prussia to Russia and Poland, which, however, has been less extensive of late; from the Eastern and Northern States of the U. S. to the Wes- tern States; of colored persons from the United States to Liberia in Africa, and to Hayti (very few, however, in number, par- ticularly to the latter country.) A society has lately been formed at Washington for instructing people of color in the elements of science and the mechanical arts, to 493 EMIGRATION—EMIGRES. make them useful members of the colony in Africa. From official returns, ordered to be printed by the house of commons, Ave learn, that the whole number of passen- gers, which embarked from the year 1812 to 1821, bodi years inclusiA'e, for the Uni- ted States, from Ireland, was 30,653 ; from England, 33,608; from Scotland, 4727; whole number, 68,988: for the British dominions in North America, from Ire- land, 47,223; from England, 23,783, and from Scotland, 19,971; total, 90,972. Thus the whole number of emigrants from the United Kingdom for North Amer- ica, from the year 1812 to the year 1821, both years included, was 159,960. But the number of emigrants from Ireland has since very much increased. In the begin- ning of July, 1830, it was calculated, that about 12,300 Irish emigrants had arrived at Quebec during the season ; and it was estimated, that, during the year 1830, there would be not less than 50,000 emigrants from Ireland to Canada and the United States. The general goveniment of the United States has not as yet adopted any measures to check this accession to their population, diough by no means always of the most desirable kind; but should it often happen (as has already taken place), that paupers, infirm and poor peo- ple are sent out, merely for the purpose of getting rid of them in Ireland or England, it would become necessary to take meas- ures of prevention against such a breach of hospitality. In some of the states, laAvs have lieen made imposing some re- straints upon tlie landing of emigrants. A late Quebec newspaper states, that the accession of population which the British North American provinces and the Uni- ted States have received from Europe since 1816, cannot be less, on an average, than 35,000 a year, or 490,000. It may, indeed, fairly be estimated at 500,000. Al- lowing each family of 5 persons, to have brought out money, clothes and other property, valued at 20 sovereigns, they would have added a capital of £2,000,000 sterfing. Supposing their labor worth $90, or 20 sovereigns a year, their produc- tive industry will now be worth, at a very low estimate, £2,000,000 annually. The emigrants from Germany, Alsace and Swit- zerland are very numerous, and are among the most valuable additions to the Ameri- can population, as the great body of them are sober, industrious, and orderly people, and good farmers. A singular circum- stance, to which the history of no other nation affords a parallel, is the emigration ofthe Americans from the east constantly AvestAVard. It would almost seem thai they had no pleasure in the fruits of their labor, but that the labor itself Avas their enjoyment. After partially clearing up the wilderness, and surrounding him- self with the comforts of civilized life, the enterprizing pioneer of civdization often moves still farther into the depdis of the forest and his place is suppli- ed by the less restless emigrant from Europe. Among these, the German is not unfrequent who is deUghted with the prospect of becoming an ovATier of land in fee simple, and of being able to save something which he can truly call his own. He converts his land into a fine productive form. But his ignorance of the language of the people about him prevents him from partaking fully in their advantages, and confines him to a com- paratively Umited sphere of action; he, therefore, remains far behind his Ameri- can brethren in all that regards moral and intellectual education, as for instance, in schools, instruction, &c. This, at least ^ the case where the German settlers are so numerous as not to be obliged to mingle much with Americans, as in some counties in Pennsylvania. (For the French emi- gres, see the following article.) Emigres (emigrants). We meet in his- tory with many instances of large bodies of men being obliged to leave their coun- try on account of religious persecutions, as did the Huguenots, for instance, in the 17th century, or for some other cause* (See Emigration and Refugees.) The ap- pellation of hnigres (the French for emi- grants), hoAvever, is noAV applied to those persons particularly, Avho left France at the commencement ofthe French revolu- tion. These persons, some from enmity to the new order of things, others to escape political persecution, removed into the neighboring countries, some with a little property, Avhich they had found means to carry off, others entirely destitute. They Avere from all ranks, and of aU ages and conditions; men and women, chUdren and old men, priests and nobles. Most of them hoped to see the restoration of the old order, by which they might be ena- bled to return to their country, and there- fore remained at first on the frontiers Among them were seen examples of the basest profligacy and the most heroic selfc denial. Persons who had been accustom- ed to all the luxuries of life, and the re- finements of rank, earned a scanty sub- sistence in petty employments, and bore their privations with dignity and resigna- EMIGRES—EMLYN. 493 tion. Several counts are said to have been employed as boot-blacks. It would be unjust to call all those who left their coun- try to its fate in the time of its greatest peril, weak and timid; for where anarchy rules, tlie innocent is not secure. The emigra- tion, however, of the royal princes, partic- ularly the count of Provence, afterwards Louis XVIILcan hardly be justified. Then- presence was of great importance to the state, and their example contributed not a little to the extensive emigration which followed, and the injurious consequences which attended it Many of the emigres, however, were persons of loose, idle and profligate habits, whose conduct brought a reproach upon the whole body. This, but more particularly the fear of provok- ing the vengeance of the French govern- ment was the cause of their being re- fused a refuge in some countries, and of their being received under certain restric- tions in others. At the head of the emi- grants stood the royal princes of Conde, Provence and Artois, the first of whom collected a part of the fugitives to coop- erate with the allied armies in Germany for the restoration of the monarchy. At Coblentz, a particular court of justice was established to settle causes relating to the French emigres. As a body, they are described by contemporary authors as haughty in their deportment towards foreigners, and acting as if they consti- tuted the French nation, and as if the rest of Europe did nothing more than its duty in assisting them to recover their estates and feudal rights. But the invasion of the Netherlands by Dumouriez drove them from these provinces in mid-winter, in a deplorable condition, while their number was daily increased by the system of violence and terror carried on in France ; e, g. by the bloody tragedies of Lyons and Toulon. The corps of Conde Avas finally taken into the Russian service, and was disbanded in the Russian-Aus- trian campaign of 1799. When Napoleon became emperor, it was one of his first acts of grace to grant permission to all but a few of the emigrants to return to their country. Many, however, who by this time had settled in foreign places, did not choose to avail themselves of the indul- gence. The charte of Louis XVIII con- tains an express declaration, that the emi- grants have no claim upon their former possessions; but this did not prevent them from bringing forward their demands for indemnification, which have often occa- sioned a good deal of excitement in the public. The chambers granted in 1825, vol. iv. 42 on the proposition of ViUele, the income of a capital of 1000 milUons of francs, as an indemnification for the estates of the emigrants, which had been sold. (See France.) Emilius. (See JEmilius.) Eminence (from the Latin eminentia); an honorary title, like excellency, and given to cardinals. They were formerly called Ulustrisrimi and reverendisdmi; but pope Urban VIII (of the Barberini family), in 1630, established the above as their title of honor. Popes John VIII and Gregory VII gave this title to the kings of France. The emperors have Ukewise borne it. It has gradually sunk, as titles always do. Emir (i. e. noble, princdy); a tide of honor, given in Turkey to those who claim descent from Mohammed and his daughter Fatima. These emirs are found 1. In Arabia, where they are the chieftains of the wandering tribes, or Bedouins. (q. v.) Their origin, however, is doubtful. 2. In Turkey itself, they form a kind of hereditary nobility, and wear as a badge a green turban, as Mohammed is said to have done. They have certain privileges, but otherwise no higher claims to civil offices than other Mussulmen, and five for the most part in great indigence, as they are idle and extravagant. The word emir is also applied to certain offices and employments, e. g., emtr hadschi, conduc- tor of the pilgrims in caravans. Emlyn, Thomas, an EngUsh dissenting divine, was born at Stamford, in Lincoln- shire, 1663; and, after studying at the uni- versity of Cambridge, he finished his education at an academy in London. In 1683, he became chaplain to the countess of Donegal. He left this situation in 1688, and went to London, and, the fol- lowing year, became pastor of a congrega- tion at Lowestoff, in Suffolk. In 1691, he accepted an invitation to become assistant to the reverend Joseph Boyse, at DubUn. Mr. Emlyn had adopted sentiments ap- proaching to Arianism, and, the circum- stance being suspected, an inquisitorial examination Avas set on foot by his breth- ren, the dissenting ministers of Dublin, who, as he would not disavow Avhathe conceiv- ed to be the truth, restricted him from con- tinuing his pastoral duties. Finding himself the object of public odium, he published his Humble Inquiry into the Scripture Account of Jesus Christ, or a short Argu- ment concerning his Deity and Glory, according to the Gospel. Immediately after this work appeared, he was arrested on the charge of blasphemy, tried before the chief justice ofthe queen's bench, and 494 EMLYN—EMMET. sentenced to a year's imprisonment, a fine of £1000, and detention in jirison till it should be paid. The fine was reduced to £70, through the interjiosition ofthe duke of Ormond, and other humane persons; and, after somewhat more than a year's confinement Mr. Emlyn was set at liberty. He removed to London, where he preach- ed for some time to a small congrega- tion, and occupied himself in writing controversial tracts. He enjoyed the friendship of doctor Samuel Clarke, Wil- liam Whiston, and other individuals dis- tinguished for their learning and liberali- ty, and was generally resjiected for the exceUence of his character and amiable disposition. He died July 30th, 1743. A collection of his works Avas published in 1746, 2 volumes 8vo., with an account of his life. Emmet, Thomas Addis, an eminent Irish laAvyer and patriot, was born in the city of Cork, in Ireland, in 1765. His parents Avere highly respectable inhabit- ants of that city, in easy circumstances. The son was jilaced, in his boyhood, at the university of Dublin, and designed by his fadier for the profession of medicine. He was educated accordingly, and pursu- ed his medical studies at Edinburgh. The death of his elder brother, a member of the Irish bar, occasioned him to jiass from the practice of medicine to the study of the law, at the desire of his parents. He went to London, read two years in the Temple, and attended the courts at West- minster. On his return to Dublin, he commenced practice, and soon obtained distinction and business. The celebrat- ed Curran was one of his circuit and term companions. Beuig of an ardent charac- ter, and enthusiastically Irish, he imbibed deeply the resentment and antipathy of the majority of his countrymen against the British rule and connexion. When the societies of united Irishmen were re- vived in the year 1795, Emmet joined the association, and soon became a leader. Their object was revolution, and an inde- pendent government for Ireland. Emmet acted as one of the grand executive com- mittee of the societies, who consisted of at least 500,000 men. March 12,1798, he was arrested, and committed to prison at DubUn, as a conspirator, by the vice- regal government along with Oliver Bond, doctor Macneven, and other chiefs of the disaffected party. In July, after a severe confinement, an interview took place be- tween Emmet and lord Castlereagh, atDub- lin castle, and it was agreed, that he and the other state prisoners should be permitted to go to the United States, as soon as they had made certain disclosures of their plans of revolution, and the projected alliance between the united Irishmen and France. These disclosures were made in a memoir, delivered August 4, but without the con- fession of any names, which were inflex- ibly refused by the writers. They were, soon after, examined in person before the secret committees of both houses of the Irish parliament Instead, however, of being sent to the United States, Emmet and nineteen more Avere, early in 1799, landed in Scotland, and consigned to fort George, a fortress in the county of Nairn. Here they Avere liberally treated, but their detention lasted three years. At the ex- piration of that period, the list of pardons arrived, including the name of every prisoner except Emmet. The governor of the fortress released him notwithstand- ing, taking all the responsibility. Em- met, and his exemplary wife, who had shared unremittingly his imprisonment, both in Ireland and Scotland, were landed at Cuxhaven from a British frigate, spent the winter of the year 1802 in Brussels, and that of 1803 in Paris. In October, 1804, they sailed from Bordeaux for the United States, and arrived in New York on the 11th of the next month. Emmet, then about 40 years of age, at first hesi- tated between the professions of the law and medicine; but his friends determined him to undertake the former. George Clinton, then goA'ernor of the state of New York, induced him to abandon his original plan of settling in Ohio, and to remain in the city of New York. He was admitted to the bar at once, by special dispensation, and reached the first ranks of the profes- sion in a short time, by indefatigable in- dustry and fervid eloquence. In the course of a few years, he rivalled in busi- ness and fame the most eminent of the American lawyers. Occasionally the ardor of his temperament and the vivacity of his recollections betrayed him into party poUtics; but his general career and character were those of a laborious, able and most successful pleader, an en- ergetic and florid orator, a sound repub- lican citizen, and a courteous gentleman. In 1812, he was appointed to the office of attorney-general of the state of New York. His death took place in the 63d year of his age, in a remarkable way. November 14, 1827, whUe attending the trial of an important cause at New York, in the circuit court of the United States, he was seized with an apoplectic fit which put an end to his existence the following EMMET-EMPEROR. 495 night It was only on the 13th, that he had delivered a most animated and pow- erful address to a jury in a cause of the greatest importance and difficulty. An am- ple and deserved tribute of public respect was paid to his memory. Mr. Emmet was a thorough classical scholar, and con- versant with the physical sciences. Dur- ing his detention at the fortress in Scot- land, he wrote part of an Essay towards the History of Ireland, which was printed in New York, in 1807. His jirivate life was irreproachable, his countenance strong and regular, and his frame manly and healthy. Empecinado, the. (See Diez.) Empedocles, a Greek philosopher, whose doctrines, in many respects, resem- bled those of Pythagoras, was born 460 B. C. at Agrigentum, in Sicily. His felloAV citizens esteemed him so highly, that they wished to make him king; but, being an enemy to all opjiression, and elevation of a few above the rest, he refused the offer, and prevailed on them to abolish aristocracy, and introduce a democratical form of gov- ernment The Agrigentines regarded him with the highest veneration, as the restorer and preserver of their liberty, the public benefactor, the great jioet, orator and physician, the favorite of the gods, the predictor of future events, and the mighty magician who could stop the course of nature, and overrule the jiower of death itself. He is said to have thrown himself into the crater of mount Etna, in order to make it believed, by his sudden disappearance, that he was of divine origin. According to others, he was a victim to his rash curiosity, when, in order to examine more accurately the nature of the mountain, and of its fiery eruptions, he went too near the edge of the chasm, and fell in. But it is probable that this is a fiction, as well as the story of Lucian about him, that his sandals were thrown out from the volcano, and thus the man- ner of Iris death ascertained, and the peo- ple undeceived as to his pretended divin- ity. Others assert, that he was drowned in his old age. Empedocles presented his philosophy in a poetical dress. His verses are marked by bold and glowing imagery, as well as by harmony and softness. Lu- cretius was his imitator. The iambic jioem on the spheres, formerly ascribed to him, is now considered spurious. The fioems of his yet extant have been pub- ished together, Avith a treatise on his life and philosophy, by F. W. Sturz (Leipsic, 1H06). Empedocles holds the four ele- ments—earth, water, fire, air—as the fundamental and indestructible principles, from whose union and separation every thing that exists is formed. To these material principles are added the ideal principles of friendship and hatred. Do- menico Scina has written Memoirs on the Life and Philosophy of Empedocles (Pa- lermo, 1825). Emperor (from the Latin imperator; in German, Kaiser, from Caesar*); the title of the highest rank of sovereigns. The word imperator, from imperare, to com- mand, had very different meanings among the Romans at different periods. In the most general sense, it signified the com- mander of an army, as imperium did the command itself. In early times, consuls were called imperatores before they enter- ed on their office. The soldiers after- wards conferred the title on their general, after a victory, by hailing him imperator; the senate also called a victorious general imperator until he had celebrated his tri- umjih. At a still later period, no one was honored with this title, who had not de- feated a hostile army of at least 10,000 men. After the overthrow of the re- public, imperator became the title of the rulers, or emperors, and indicated the su- preme power; the word rex being too odious to be assumed. Victorious gene- rals were still, however, sometimes saluted with the title imperator, in its original sense. In the time of the republic, the title was jiut after the name, as Cicero im- perator ; when it came to signify emperor, it was put before the name, as imperator Claudius. With the destruction of the Roman emjiire, the title was lost; but it was renewed in 800 A. D., when Charle- magne Avas crowned emperor of the West For a long time, the title was considered as belonging to the sovereignty of Rome; hence, on the division of the empire among the sons of Louis-le-Debonnaire, Lothaire, king of Italy, received the title. Charles the Bald, and several princes of Italy, bore it, until Otho I, in 962 A. D., finally united the imperial crown with that of the German kings. Yet it was for many centuries considered necessary to be crowned at Rome in order to be for- maUy invested with the title of emperor. * Derived from the title of dignity Caesar, which in the last ages of the Roman dominion, denoted only the assistants and successors of the actual emperor. The name Ccesar, it is well known, was adopted by the successors of Julius Caesar, as a title of honor, as the brothers of Na- poleon were called Napoleon, after having as- cended thrones, as Joseph Napoleon, Jerome Napoleon. The Russian Czar (q. v.) is not de- rived from Caesar, but is of Slavonic origin. 496 EMPEROR—EMPIRIC. For reasons too many to be enumerated here, the idea that the bishop of Rome was the highest spiritual ruler, and the emperor of the holy Roman empire (or of Germany), the highest temporal sove- reign, was gradually developed. One reason undoubtedly was, that the Gennan or Teutonic tribes were actually, in the beginning of the middle ages, the ruling people in most countries of Europe ; but many other reasons, particularly a strange confusion of the universal empire of Rome with the universal empire of Christendom, and the idea of a universal church, as an organized society, to be sup- ported, of course, by a temporal power, contributed much to give this idea cur- rency. The impartial historian cannot doubt that m the barbarous period of the middle ages, the authority ofthe pope was beneficial to Europe, and almost the sole support of civilization; but it would be hard to say what advantage Germany de- rived from taking part, ex officio, in all the quarrels of Europe, and from that-unfor- tunate desire of possessing temporal autho- rity over Italy, which has been one ofthe chief causes of her inferiority to some other state? cf Europe, in respect to the devel- opement of her political institutions. As the emperor Avas considered the highest temporal officer in Christendom, all the other states were regarded as dependent upon him; some of these, therefore, to shoAV their independence, made claim to the imperial dignity, although they did not assume the title; as, for instance, the sov- ereigns of Castile, France and England. The eastern empire having been finally overthrown by the conquest of Constanti- nople, in 1453, the imperial dignity in the East became extinct The sultans, who succeeded the emperors, have never re- ceived, in official language, the title of emperor. This title was adopted in Rus- sia by Peter I, in 1721, but the right ofthe Russian sovereign to its possession was not acknowledged by the German empire until 1747—by France in 1745, and by Spain in 1759. Napoleon adopted the old idea of an empire, as a general union of states under the protection, or at least po- Utical preponderance, of one powerful state ; the political system of a balance of poAver, had proved insufficient to maintain a general peace, and Henry IV's plan of a great European confederacy held out no prospect of permanent tranquillity. Na- poleon crowned himself as emperor in 1804. In 1806, the German empire, 1000 years old, became extinct ftnd the German emperor, Francis II, adopted the tide of Francis I, emperor of Austria. The French empire was destroved i" 1814, by the peace of Paris. Great" Britain is con- sidered as an empire, the crown is impe- rial, and the parliament is styled the Im- perial Parliament of Great Britain and Irdand; but the king himself has never adopted the imperial title, though this measure was proposed in parliament in 1804. The empire of Mexico, or Ana- huac, established by Iturbide, was only momentary in its duration; but the em- pire ofthe Brazils, founded in 1822, seems to be firmly established. The sovereigns of Siam, China, Japan, and of Fez and Morocco, are often, though Avidi little pro- priety, called emperors. At the coronation of the German emperors, princes and kings appeared as servants; the emperor promised to do justice, to be an upright sovereign, to consult the good of his sub- jects, to protect the church, to defend the empire, to be the guardian of widows and orphans; and not until the assembled people had replied to the question, " Will you submit to this sovereign and prince, and obey him ?" with shouts of Yes, Yes (Fiat,flat, flat), were the unction and coro- nation (of which Gothe gives a description in his account of his life) performed. Formerly, it was only the coronation of the sovereign as German king, that took place at Frankfort, in Germany. This was folloAved by the imposition of the crown of Lombardy, an iron circle, made of a nail reputed to be from the cross of Christ, set in gold; and finaUy by the coronation as Roman emperor, performed by the pope in Rome. But from the time of" Maximilian I, the German emperors Avere croAvned in Germany only. After the fall of the Frencli empire, a large number of persons in Germany, without organization or settled plan, desired the restoration of the German empire. The Germans, from a Avant of practical knowl- edge, then lost an o|ijiortunity of taking one step towards securing personal liberty, by wasting die time in vague declama- tion. That party, particularly, Avho wish- ed for the restoration of the emjiire, talked of a glory, poAver and hapjiiness which had never existed; they were actuated by indistinct historical recollections, and phantoms of their OAvn creation, and, not a few, by their aristocratical predilections. A worse model of government, and a more perplexed political system, than the late German empire, cannot be con- trived. Empiric, in medical history (from the Greek word ipiuioia, experience; an appel- EMPIRIC—ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 497 lation assumed by a sect of physicians, who contended, that all hypothetical rea- soning respecting the operations of the animal economy Avas useless, and that ob- servation and experience alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. Em- piric, in modern medicine, is applied to a person who sells or administers a jiar- ticular drug, or compound, as a remedy for a given disorder, Avithout any consid- eration of its different stages, or degrees of violence, in different constitutions, cli- mates or seasons. (For empiric philoso- phy, see Experimental Philosophy.) Ems ; a celebrated watering-place in the duchy of Nassau, on the river Lahn. The environs are beautiful. As early as 1583, it was used as a Avatering-jilace. The mineral waters at Ems are warm— from 70° to 118° Fahr.; they are of the saline class, containing large quantities of carbonic acid gas, and are used with much effect in chronic catarrhs, pulmo- nary complaints, diseases of the stomach, arising from phlegm and acjdity, gout, and some diseases of the urinary vessels. (See Die Heilquellen zu Ems, Coblentz, 1821, by Vogler.) Near Ems is a grotto, similar to the grotto dd cane, near Naples, the vapors from which cause asphyxia. About 50,000 bottles of the water of Ems are sent away annually. Emulsions ; a term applied to the im- perfect solutions of the fixed vegetable oils in water. They are obtained by rubbing the seeds affording these oils with water, to which a Uttle sugar has been added. Enameling (from enamel, formed by a junction of the inseparable particle en—borroAved by us from the French, Avho had taken it from the Latin in— and the old English word amel, taken from the email of the French, both sig- nifying the material used in overlaying the variegated works which we call en- ameled) ; the art of variegating with colors laid upon or into another body; also, a mode of painting, with vitrified colors, on gold, silver, copper, &c, and of melting these at the fire, or of making curious works in them at a lamp. This art is of so great antiquity, as to render it difficult or imjiossihle to trace it to its origin. It was evidently jiractiscd by the Egyptians, from the remains that have been observed on the ornamented envelopes of mummies. From Egypt it passed into Greece, and afterwards into Rome and its provinces, whence it was probably introduced into Great Britain, as various Roman antiqui- ties have been dug up in different parts 42* of the island, particularly in the Barrows, in which enamels have formed portions of the ornaments. The gold cup given by king John to the corporation of Lynn, in Norfolk, proves that the art was known among the Normans, as the sides of the cup are embellished widi various figures, whose garments are partly composed of colored enamels. Enamels are vitrifiable substances, and are usually arranged into three classes; namely, the transparent, the semitransparent and opaque. The basis of all kinds of enamel is a perfectiy transparent and fusible glass, which is rendered either semitransparent or opaque, by the admixture of metallic oxides. The art of coloring glass seems to be of near- ly the same antiquity as the invention of making it; which is proved, not only from written documents, but likewise by the variously colored glass corals, with which several of the Egyptian mummies are decorated. White enamels are com- posed by melting the oxide of tin with glass, and adding a small quantity of manganese, to increase the brilliancy of the color. The addition of the oxide of lead, or antimony, produces a yellow en- amel ; but a more beautiful yellow may be obtained from the oxide of silver. Reds are formed by an intermixture of the oxides of gold and iron, that composed of the former being the most beautiful and permanent. Greens, violets and blues are formed from the oxides of copper, co- balt and iron; and these, when intermix- ed in different proportions, afford a great variety of intermediate colore. Some- times the oxides are mixed before they are united to the vitreous bases. AU the colors may be produced by the metallic oxides. The principal quality of good enamel, and that which renders it fit for being appUed on baked earthen ware, or on metals, is the facility Avith which it acquires lustre by a moderate heat, or cherry-red heat, more or less, according to the nature of the enamel, without en- tering into comjilete fusion. Enamels applied to earthen ware and metals pos- sess this quality. Enamels are executed upon the surface of copper and other metals, by a method similar to painting. Enameling on plates of metal, and paint- ing with vitrified colors on glass, are prac- tised with great success in England. Encaustic Painting (encausticus, Lat.; ivKavariK}), Gr.). Painting in encaustic is executed with the operation of fire. Ancient authors often mention this spe- cies of painting, which, if it had been described simply by the word encaustic, 498 ENCAUSTIC PAINTING—ENCLAVE. which signifies executed by fire, might be supposed to have been a species of en- amel painting. But the expressions en- causto pingere, pictura encaustica, ceris pingere, ptcturam inurere, by Pliny and other ancient writers, show that another sjiecies of painting is meant We have no ancient pictures of this descrijition, and, therefore, the precise manner adojit- ed by the ancients is not completely de- veloped, though many modems have closely investigated die subject, and de- scribed their jirocesses. This species of painting appears to have been practised in the 4th and 5th centuries.* Count Caylus and M. Bachelier, a painter, were the first of modern times avIio made ex- periments in this branch of art, about the year 1749. Pliny, in a passage relating to encaustic painting, distinguishes three species: 1. that in Avhich the artists used a style, and painted on ivory or polished wood (cestro in ebore), for which purpose they drew die outUnes on a piece of the aforesaid wood or ivory, previously soak- ed or imbued with some color; the point of the style or stigma served for this operation, and the broad end to scrape off the small filaments that arose from the outlines; and they continued forming outhnes with the point till they were finished. 2. The next manner appears to have been one in wlrich die wax, previously impregnated with color, was spread over the surface of the picture with the style, and the colors thus prepared were formed into smaU cylinders for use. By the side of the painter Avas a brasier for keeping the styles continually hot,'with the points of wlrich they laid on the colors when the outUnes were finish- ed, and spread them smooth with the broad end ; and thus they proceeded till the picture was finished. 3. The third manner of painting was with a pencil, in wax liquefied by fire. By this method the colors acquired a considerable hard- ness, and could not be damaged, either by the heat of the sun or the effects of Bea-Avater. In this manner shijis were painted, with emblems and other pic- tures, and therefore it obtained the name of ship painting. FeAv, of late years, have made more experiments in this mode of painting than an English lady, Mrs. Hooker, who, for her very successful ex- ertions in this branch of the poUte arts, was presented with a gold palette by * Vicenzo Requeno has treated the subject in a very masterly and scientific manner, in a work called Saggjsvl Ristabilimento dell' antica Arte dp' Greci e Komani Pittori, published at Parma 1787 o..ma, the Societv for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. "of London. Her account is printed in the 10th volume ofthe society s Transactions, for 1792, when she was miss Emma Jane Greenland. This sub- ject has also been deeply investigated by the chevalier Lorgna, in a small but val- uable tract, called Un Discorso sulla Cera Punka. As the thing chiefly regarded in encaustic painting Avas the securing of jiermanence and duraliility, by the apjili- cation of fire, the word encaustic has been applied, in a very general sense, to other processes, in which both the material and the mode of applying the heat are entirely different from the ancient materials anil modes. The word has been used, not only of wax-painting on wood, stone and ivory, but also of painting on earthen vessels, of works in metal, where gold and silver were inlaid, melted, or laid on, and of every thing which was gilt or silvered by fire; which was called gold or silver en- caustic. The modems have also used the term for painting on porcelain, and work in enamel; and in the same way it waa given to the painting on glass of the mid- dle ages, such as is now seen in the win- dows of some Gothic churches. It is evident, that all tliese have nothing to do with the wax-painting ofthe ancients. Enchasing. (See Chadng.) Enchorial, or Enchoric (from the Greek iv, in, and y' The doctrines of the church of England are contained in the durty-nine articles: the form of worship is directed by a litur- gy. The first steps to the establishment of the English church were slow. It re- tained at first many of the features of the Roman church, both in regard to doctnne and rites. After the parUament had de- clared Henry VIII the only supreme head ofthe church, and the convocation of die clergy had voted that the bishop of Rome had no more jurisdiction in England than any other foreign bishop, the articles of faith ofthe neAV church Avere declared to consist in the Scriptures and the three creeds, the Apostolic, the Nicene and the Athanasian (see Creeds); the real pres- ence, the use of images, the invocation of saints, &c, were still maintained. Under Edward, the new liturgy Avas composed in EngUsh, and took the place ofthe old mass; the doctrines were also stated in forty-two articles. With the reign of Mary, the old religion Avas reestablished ; and it Avas not till that of Elizabeth that the church of England was finally instituted. As no change was made in the episcopal form of government a°d some rites and cere- monies were retained, Avhich many ofthe reformed considered as superstitious, diis circumstance gave rise to many future dissensions. The controversy concerning the ceremonial part of divine worship commenced with those exiles, who, in 1554, fled from the persecutions of queen Mary, and took refuge in Germany. On the accession of Elizabeth, they returned, and renewed the contest at home, which had begun abroad. These were called Pu- ritans, and, at one time, comprised many distinguished members of the English clergy. (See Puritans.) On the accession of James, the Puritans hoped for some re- lief; but an Episcopal hierarchy was more favorable to his views than the Presbyte- rian form of government, and he publicly adopted the maxim " No bishop, no king." When the English divines returned from the synod of Dort, the king and the ma- jority of the Episcopal clergy discovered an inclination to the sentiments of Armin- ius, which have since prevailed over Cal- vinism among the English clergy. Under Charles I, the attempts made, through the instrumentality of Laud, to reduce all the churches of Great Britain under the juris- diction of bishops, and the suppression of the opinions and institutions that were pe- cuUar to Calvinism, cost the archbishop of Canterbury his head, and had no Utde effect in imbittering the civil contest be« CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 513 tween the throne and the parliament. After the death of Laud, the parliament abolished the Episcopal government ana< condemned every thing in the ecclesias- tical establishment that was contrary to the doctrine, worslrijiand discipline ofthe church of Geneva. As soon as Charles II was restored to the throne, the ancient fonns of ecclesiastical government and public worship were restored; and, in 1662, a public law, entitled the ad of uni- formity, was enacted, by which all who re- fused to observe the rites and subscribe the doctrines of the church of England, were entirely excluded from its dominion. In the reifm of William III, and particu- larly in 1689, the divisions among the friends of Episcopacy gave rise to the two parties called the high-churchmen, or non-ju- rors, and low-churchmen. The former main- tained the doctrine of passive obedience, or non-resistance to the sovereign under any circumstance whatever; tiiat the he- reditary succession to the throne is of divine institution, and cannot be interrupt- ed; that the church is subject to the juris- diction of God alone; and, consequently, that certain bishops deposed by king William, remained, notwithstanding, true bishops; and that diose who had been ap- pointed in their places were rebels and schismatics, and all who held communion with them Avere guilty of rebellion and schism. The gradual progress of civil and religious Uberty, during the last 150 years, has settled practically many such controversies. The great increase of the dissenters in recent times (they are es- timated to be more numerous than the members of the estabUshed church) has led to new concessions in dieir favor; the repeal of the corporation and test acts !q. v.), and the Catholic emandpation q. v.), as it is called, are among the im- portant events of the late reign. We have said, that the doctrines of the church of England are contained in the thirty-nine articles; we are not ignorant that the most eminent English divines have doubt- ed whether they are Calvinistic or Lu- theran, that some have denominated them articles of peace, and that not a few have written in direct opposition to them. But they are the established confession of the English church, and, as such, deserve a short analysis. The 5 first articles con- tain a jirofession of faith in the Trinity; the incarnation of Jesus Christ, his de- scent to hell, and his resurrection; the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The 3 fol- lowing relate to the canon of the Scrip- ture. The 8th article declares a beUef in the Aposdes', Nicene and Athanasian creeds. The 9th and following articles contain the doctrine of original sin, of justification by faith alone, of predestina- tion, &c. The 19th, 20th and 21st de- clare the church to be the assembly of the faithful; that it can decide nothing except by the Scriptures. The 22d rejects die doctrine of purgatory, indulgences, the adoration of images, and the invocation of saints. The 23d decides that only those lawfully called shall preach or administer the sacraments. The 24th requires the hturgy to be in English. The 25th and 26th declare the sacraments effectual signs of grace (though administered by evil men), by which God excites and confirms our faith. They are two; baptism and the Lord's supper. Baptism, according to the 27th article, is a sign of regeneration, the seal of our adoption, by which faith is confirmed and grace increased. In the Lord's supper, according to article 28th, the bread is the communion of the body of Christ, the wine the communion of his blood, but only through faith (art 29th); and the communion must be ad- ministered in both kinds (art. 30). The 28th article condemns the doctrine of transubstantiation, and the elevation and adoration of the host; the 31st rejects the sacrifice of the mass as blasphemous; the 32d permits the marriage of the clergy; the 33ri maintains the efficacy of excommunication. The remaining articles relate to the supremacy of the king, the condemnation of Anabaptists (q. v.), &c. In the U. States, the members of the church of England, or Episcopalians, form a large and respectable denomination. When the revolutionary war began, there were only about eighty parochial clergy- men of this church to the northward and eastward of Maryland; and they derived the greater part of their subsistence from the English society for the propagation of die gospel in foreign parts. In Maryland and Virginia, the Episcopal church was much more numerous, and had legal es- tablishments for its support. The incon- venience of depending on the mother church for ordination, and the Avant of an internal Episcopacy, was long severely felt by the American Episcopalians. But "their petitions for an Episcopate of their own Avere long resisted by their superiors in England; and their opponents in the U. States objected to the measure from an apprehension that bishops from England would bring with diem an authority which would interfere with the civil institutions 514 GLENDOWER—GLOBE. claimed prince of Wales, September 20, 1400. To this, measure he is said to have been incited by some traditionary prophe- cies of Merlin ; and certain it is, that many of his countrymen of consideration were induced, by the same motives, to join his standard. He defeated the king's troops under sir Edward Mortimer, and Henry jiut in motion against him three grand divisions of his army ; but Owen, retiring to the mountains, foiled all attempts to bring him to action; and, the rebelUon of the Percys breaking out, he joined the coalition, causing himself, at the same time, to be formally crowned, at Machynlaeth, in Montgomeryshire, " sovereign of Wales." The rashness of Henry Percy brought on the fatal battle of Shrewsbury, before all his Welsh auxiUaries had come up. Their prince, however, is said to have been so near as to have reconnoitred die action from the top of a lofty tree ; but, seeing all was lost, directly retreated, and continued his marauding warfare. This he kept up with various success, occasionally assisted by Charles VI of France, with whom a u-eaty of his is yet extant, dated 1404, in which he is styled " Owenus, Dei Gratia Princeps WalUse." Finding it impossible to subdue him, Henry, in 1415, conde- scended to treat with him; but Owen died during the negotiation, which was, however, continued and ratified by his son, Meredyd ap Owen, February 24,1416. Globe, in geometry; a round, solid body,, which may be conceived to be generated by the revolution of a semi- circle about its diameter. (See Sphere.) Globe, or Artifirial Globe, in geography and astronomy, is more particularly used to denote a globe of metal, plaster, paper, pasteboard, &c, on the surface of wlrich is drawn a map, or representation of either the heavens or the earth, with the several circles which are: conceived upon them ; die former being called the terrestrial globe, and the latter the celestial globe. The Celestial Globe is an inverted representa- tion of the heavens, on which the stars are marked according to their several situ- ations. The diurnal motion of this globe is from east to west, to represent the appa- rent diurnal motion of the sun and stars. The eye is supposed to be placed in the centre of this globe, but, in fact, it is beyond the stars. The Terrestrial Globe is an arti- ficial representation of the earth, exhibit- ing its great divisions. The diurnal mo- tion of this globe is from west to east.— The axis ofthe earth is an imaginary line passing dirough its centre ; and the Avire on which the artificial globe turns, repre- sents this line. The poles of the earth are the extremities of this axis; that on the north is called the arctic, that on the south, the antardic pole. The celestial poles are imaginary points in the heavens, exactly above the terrestrial poles. The brazen meridian is the circle in which the artifi- cial globe turns, divided into 360 degrees. Every circle is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts, called degrees, each degree into 60 equal parts, called minutes, each minute into 60 equal parts, called seconds, &c.; a degree is therefore only a relative idea, and not an absolute quantity, except when applied to t a great circle of the earth, as to the equator or to a merid- ian, in which cases it is 60 geographical mdes, or 69£ English miles. A degree of a great circle in the heavens is a space nearly equal to twice the apparent diame- ter of the sun; or to twice that of the moon, when considerably elevated above the horizon. Degrees are marked Avith a small cipher, minutes with one dash, sec- onds Avith two, thirds with three, &c.; thus, 25° 14' 22" 35"' are 25 degrees, 14 minutes, 22 seconds, 35 thirds. In the upper semicircle of the brass meridian, these degrees are numbered 10, 20, &c, to 90, from the equator towards the poles, and are used for finding the latitudes of places. On the lower semicircle of the brass meridian, they are numbered 10,20, &c, to 90, from the poles towards the equator, and are used in the elevation of the poles. (See Degree.) Great circles, as the equator, ecliptic, and the colures, divide the globe into two equal parts. Small circles, as the tropics, polar circles, parallels of latitude, &c, divide the globe into two unequal parts. Meridians, or lines of longitude, are semicircles, extend- ing from the north to the south pole, and cutting the equator at right angles. Eve- ry place upon the globe is supposed to have a meridian passing through it though there be only 24 drawn upon the terres- trial globe; the deficiency is supplied by the brass meridian. When the sun comes to the meridian of any place (not within the polar circles), it is noon or mid-day at that place. The first meridian is that from which geographers begin to reckon the longitudes of places. In English maps and globes, the first meridian is a semi- circle, supposed to pass through London, or the royal observatory at Greenwich. The equator (q. v.), a great circle of the earth, equidistant from the poles, divides the globe into two hemispheres, northern and southern. The latitudes of places are reckoned from the equator northward and. GLOBE. 515 southward, and the longitudes are reck- oned upon it eastward and westward. The equator, when referred to the heav- ens, is called the equinoctial, because, when the sun appears in it, the days and nights are equal all over the world, viz., 12 hours each. The declination ofthe sun, stars, and planets, is counted from the equi- noctial nortliAvard and southward; and their right ascensions are reckoned upon it eastward round the celestial globe, from 0 to 360 degrees. The ecliptic (q. v.) is a great circle in which the sun makes Iris apparent annual progress among the fixed stars. It is the real path of the earth round the sun. The points at which the ecliptic intersects the equator, at an angle of 23° 28', are called the equinoctial points: the ecliptic is situated in the middle of the zodiac. The apparent path of the sun is either in the equinoctial, or in lines nearly parallel to it, and his apparent an- nual path may be traced in the heavens, by observing what particular constella- tion in the zodiac is on the meridian at midnight; the opposite constellation Avill show, very nearly, the sun's place at noon on the same day. The zodiac (q. v.), on the celestial globe, is a space which extends about 8° on either side of the ecliptic. Within this belt the mo- tions of the planets are performed.— Signs of the Zodiac. The ecliptic and zodiac are divided into 12 equal parts, caUed signs, each containing 30°; and the sun makes his apparent annual prog- ress through the ecliptic, at the rate of nearly a degree in a day. The names of the signs, and the days on Avhich the sun enters them, are given in the article Eclip- tic. The colures, two great circles pass- ing, one through the points Aries and Libra and the poles of the vvorid, the other through Cancer and Capricorn and the jioles of the world, have their uses in mechanical geography. That passing through Aries and Libra is called the equinoctial colure; that passing through Cancer and Capricorn, the solstitial colure. The tropics are two smaller circles, each 23° 28' from the equator, with which they are parallel ; the northern is called the tropic of Cancer, the southern the tropic of Capricorn. The tropics are the limits of the torrid zone, nortliAvard and south- Avard; and within these boundaries alone is the sun ever seen vertical. The polar circles are two small circles, parallel to the equator (or equinoctial), at the dis- tance of 66° 32' from it,, and 23° 28' from the poles. The northern is called the arctic, the southern, the antarctic circle. Parallels of latitude are small circles drawn through every ten degrees of lati- tude, on the terrestrial globe, parallel to the equator. Every place on the globe is supposed to have a parallel of latitude drawn through it, though there are gen- erally only 16 parallels of latitude drawn on the terrestrial globe. The hour circle, on the artificial globe, is a small circle of brass, with an index or pointer fixed to the north pole. The hour circle is divid- ed into 24 equal parts, corresponding to the hours of the day; and these are again subdivided into halves and quarters. The horizon (q. v.) is a great circle, which sep- arates the visible half of the heavens from the invisible; the earth being considered as a point in the centre of the sphere of the fixed stars. Horizon, when appUed to the earth, is either sensible or rational. The sen- sible or visible horizon is the circle which bounds our view, Avhere the sky appears to touch the earth or sea The sensible horizon extends only a few miles; for example, if a man of six feet high were to stand on a large plane, or on the surface of the sea, the utmost extent of his view, upon the earth or the sea, Avould be only a very few miles. The rational or true horizon, is an imaginary plane, passing through the centre of the earth, parallel to the sensible horizon. It determines the rising and setting of the sun, stars and planets. The Avooden horizon, circum- scribing the artificial globe, represents the rational horizon on the earth. This hori- zon is divided into several concentric cir- cles, arranged in the foUowing order: One contains the 32 points of the compass, divided into half and quarter points. The degrees in each point are to be found in the amplitude circle. Another contains the 12 signs ofthe zodiac, with the figure and character of each sign ; and another contains the days of the month, ansAver- ing to each degree of the sun's place in the ecliptic, and the 12 calendar months. The cardinal points of the horizon are east, Avest, north and south. The cardi- nal points in the heavens are the zenith, the nadir, and the points where the sun rises and sets. The cardinal points of the ecliptic are the equinoctial and solstitial points, which mark out the four seasons of the year; and the cardinal signs are, "V0 Aries, £5 Cancer, £± Libra, and VJ Cap- ricorn. The zenith is a point in the heav- ens exactly over head, and is the elevated pole of our horizon. The nadir is a point in the heavens exactly under our feet, being the depressed pole of our horizon, and the zenith, or elevated pole, of the horizon of 516 ENGLISH LANGUAGE. good English; and this disproportion be- tween two nations, closely united as they are by a regular and established inter- course, must be princijially caused by the strangely whimsical jironunciation of the language of the English." (vol. i, p. 143.) " Yet, notwithstanding the indistinctness of their vowels, and their masses of conso- nants, they lay claim to harmony of lan- guage ; and we will allow it to them, if, in return, they will admit that this harmo- ny can be felt by themselves alone. They have, too, some advantages which, I think, we cannot deny them. Inversion of language is allowed in their poetry al- most to as great an extent as in Italian, that is, much less than in Latin and Greek. Their constructions and poetical forms are bolder, and yet more manage- able than ours. They can also employ rhyme, or not as diey please, and can in- dulge more than Ave can in the formation of neAV words." Observations of this kind must however, be taken with much allowance. Another French Avriter, cited by Mr. Mitford in his Harmony of the English Language, says—" The English speak so much between their teeth, that the French cannot understand them;" and adds—" I'Anglois est la seule langue pour laqudle il nefaut pas une langue. " It is impossible (says Mr. Mitford) not to ac- knowledge that there is much justice in this imjiutation." In our article Ameri- canism (q. v.), we directed the reader's attention to the important fact, that Eng- land and the U. States of America offer the first instance in history of two great, independent and active nations, having a common language, but situated at a great distance from each other, and daily devel- oping neAV and characteristic features. These relations must, sooner or later, ex- ert a powerful influence upon the com- mon language ; for no language is so sta- ble as not to undergo continual changes, if spoken by a people in the full vigor of social and political life. This state of things has already produced some effect on the English language, as we have ob- served in that article. But, from the deep and natural interest felt by Americans in the Uterature of England, which must be a part of their oaati as long as Shakspeare and Milton shall Uve in their works, the effect has hitherto been iuconsiderable, and not greater than we should expect from the mere circumstance of so dif- ferent and remote local situations. The most material difference, probably, has been in the pronunciation of the lan- guage, Avhich, hoAvever important m our daily conversation, is of secondary im- portance hi relation to the literature and written language of the two countries. It has often been observed by English trav- ellers and others, that the pronunciation ofthe U. States is far more uniform than that of England; and so nearly alike eve- ry where, that the people of any one town or district are perfectly understood in eve- ry other part ofthe country ; wlrich is not the case in England. When considered more minutely, however, there has for a long time existed a marked distinction be- tween the pronunciation of the New Eng- land and Southern States. In New Eng- land, it is supposed by some, that the pro- nunciation has been, till lately, very nearly Avhat it was in the mother country a cen- tury ago or more. However this may be, it is a well-knoAvn fact that the New Eng- land pronunciation has been materially changed since the publication and general use of Walker's Pronouncing Dictionary, or vrithin the last thirty years. That Avhich prevailed before that period, Avas probably much influenced by the very gen- eral use of a small dictionary published by Perry. (See Worcester's edit, of Johnson, Prefi, p. ix.) The pronunciation of some ofthe Southern and Middle States Avas more affected by the instruction of Scot- tish and Irish teachers, who, besides pe- culiarities of pronunciation, have taught the people of these states to confound the established idiomatic distinction between shall and will, and should and would.—The orthography of our language has undergone no material change in the U. States, it being the general inclination to follow that of the best EngUsh Avriters of the age. But English orthography is so irregular, par- ticularly in the use of the vowels, as to make our language more difficult than any other to the European nations. The signs ofthe sounds are so inconstant, thai they do not, when first heard by a foreign- er, impress themselves on the memory so distinctly as those of the other European languages do, and, of course, cannot be so easily remembered for future use. To this embarrassment is to be added our custom of throwing back the accent to the first syllables of words, wlrich necessarily produces that hurried and indistinct utter- ance, of which foreigners so justly com- jilain. We may here add a general re- mark or two of an intelligent German, vvho has had much experience in writing EngUsh, and whose observations are con- firmed by our own experience, so far as ENGLISH LANGUAGE—NEW ENGLAND. 517 we have had occasion to consider diis subject. The EngUsh language is pe- culiarly adapted to exact discussions of all practical matters in society, and to po- litical inquiries. It has also more force than the European languages generally, in descrijitive writing, whether prose or jio- etry ; and in poetry, it has more power in epic than in lyric composition; the latter requiring that more metajihysical character of language which is found in the highest degree, probably, in the German. The scholars of Germany, who have studied our language more thoroughly than any other nation has done, remark, that Eng- lish is much less abstract than their own ; and that we admit new formations of words much more reluctantly and ca- priciously than the Germans do. It is also to be observed, that we adojit new terms from the French, with more facility than from the German, notwithstanding the close affinity of the latter to our own language. This tendency to introduce Gallicisms led doctor Johnson to appre- hend, that unless some check Avere inter- posed, the English nation would one day " Ik; reduced to babble a dialect of France." (For further information respecting the English language, see the article Anglo- Saxon. For further information respect- in^ English history, see Great Britain.) England, Little, beyond Wales, is a portion of country lying along the south- western coast of South Wales, remarkable for being inhabited by the descendants of a colony of Flemings, who came over from Flanders under king Henry I. England, New ; the name of the North- eastern States of the North American Union ; bounded N. by Canada, E. by New Brunswick and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic and Long Island sound, and W. by New York. This division comprises the states of Maine, Vermont, New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. Lon. 66° 49' to 73° 157 W • lat. 41° to 48° 12 N. Population in 1810,' 1,271,971; in 1820,1,659,793. For its pop- ulation, according to the census of 1830, now hi progress, see the article United States. This census will probably give a population of about two millions in New England, of whom three fourths are farmers. The remainder are engaged in commerce, manufactures, &c. Some of die farmers are, of course, partly engaged in commerce also. The face ofthe country is generally uneven, and agreeably diversi- fied. A jiart of it is mountainous. The soil is various, from barren sand to the richest clays and loams. It is generaUy vol. iv. 44 better fitted for grazing than tillage. The most important production is grass. Beef, mutton, pork, butter and cheese are abun- dant. Indian corn, rye, wheat, barley and oats are extensively cultivated. New Eng- land is the most populous part of the U. States. The inhabitants are mostly of English descent. There is no country in the world Avhere education is so generally diffused among all classes of people. It is the most manufacturing part of North America. (See, among other articles, Cotton Manufacture.) The statement of the secretary of the treasury, of the commerce of the U. States for the year ending Sept. 30,1829, gives die folloAving results: Imports. Exports. New England States, #14,382,155 10,754,739 Middle States, Ohio, ~) District olColumbia & > #50,667,191 29,9.58,729 Michigan Territory, } SFloridafU!e^U.d }89,MS,Wl 31,645,003 #74,492,527 72;358,671 The inhabitants of New England have several jieculiarities, distinguishing them from the inhabitants of the other U. States, owing to their descent from the Puritans, and other causes. In the other states, they are familiarly called Yankees (q. v.), which name, in Europe, is given to the citizens of all the U. States. The Notions of aTrav- eUing Bachelor, by Mr. Cooper, contains some good remarks on New England. The name of New England was once official. Thus a charter was granted to the first settlers at Salem, by the name of "governor and company of Massachusetts bay, in New England." The country wa^ at first called North Virginia; but after captain Smith had surveyed it, and presented the map to Charles I, then prince of Wales, he gave it the name of New England. Sebastian Cabot (q. v.) dis- covered the coast of this region, and Plym- outh, then called New Plymouth, in Mas- sachusetts, was the first settlement here. The first settlers landed Dec. 11 (old style), 1620. Before landing, they signed a solemn covenant, forming themselves into a body politic for the purpose of making equal laws for the general good. They were repubUcans before they landed, and have virtually remained so ever since—a circumstance always to be considered in comparing the American revolution with that of other countries. This republican spirit showed itself early at several periods. Charles II, after his restoration, sent com- missioners to New England (in 1664) to inquire into and examine the state of the 518 NEW ENGLAND—ENGRAVING. colonies, and to reform the administration of affairs there. A report was made by the commissioners about 1665, which will be found in Hutchinson's Collection of State-Papers, &c, p. 412, &c, in which they give an account of the state of the colonies, and are particularly severe in their animadA-ersions upon the colony of Massachusetts. Before tiiat period, die judicial and other processes issued in some of the colonies of NeAV England, at least in Massachusetts, had been in the name or under the authority of the colony, and not in the name of the king. The commis- sioners remark (p. 417), that " the colony ofthe Massachusetts Avas the last and the hardliest to use his majesty's name in the forms of justice."* They also added (p. 417), that they " visited all other colonies before this, hoping that the submission and condescension of the other colonies to his majesty's desires would have abated the refractoriness of this colony, which they much feared." " They (the Massa- chusetts colony) proclaimed by sound of trumpet diat the general court (ofthe col- ony) was the supremest judicatory in the jirovince; that the commissioners pre- tending to hear appeals was a breach of their privileges granted to them by the king's royal father, and confirmed to them by his majesty's own letter, and that they should not permit it." (p. 418.) " They say that king Charles the First gave them poAver to make laws, and to execute them, and granted them a charter as a warrant against himself and his successors, and that so long as they pay the fifth part of all gold and silver ore, Avhich they shall get, they shaU be free to use the privileges granted them; and they are not obliged to tlie king, but by dvility." (p. 420.) They further added—That " they (the Massa- chusetts colony) did solicit Cromwell, by one Mr. Winslow, to be declared a free state, and many times in their laAvs styling themselves ' this state! f this common- wealth,' and now bdieve themselves to be so." (p. 420.) They close by remarking, "Their Avay of government is commonwealth-like; their AA'ay of worship is rude, and caUed Congregational; they are zealous in it, for they persecute aU other forms." (p. 422.) The declaration of the general court (of the colony) of their rights under the char- ter in 1661, strongly sujiports the views which the commissioners gave of the claims of Massachusetts. (1 Hutch. Hist. Mass. supplement, vol. 13, p. 529.) Tliese documents abundantly prove how early * See 1 Hutchin. Hist, of Mass.. 223, 233, note. the colony aspired to substantial indejien- dence, and how slowly it allowed the in- terposition of die king in any of its in- ternal concerns, and how jinlous it was of every exercise of prerogative. A jieo- ple so alive to their own rights, and so jicrsevering in maintaining them, could not fail of being involved in disputes with the government of Great Britain from a very early period in their history. Down to the annulling of their first charter, and the grant of their new charter by William and Mary in 1692, there was scarcely any har- mony between die government in Eng- land and that in the Massachusetts colony. In 1643, four of the New England colo- nics, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Plym- outh and New Haven, on account of the dangers from the Indians, from the Dutch at New York, and from the French in Canada and Acadia, entered into a league offensive and defensive. By the articles of this confederacy, each colony was to appoint two commissioners, who were to assemble alternately in the respective colonies, and were empowered to enact ordinances of general concern; and, in case of invasion, each colony Avas bound to furnish a certain quota of nirn and money. (See Hubbard's Hist, of New England; Hist, of New England, by Han- nah Adams; Hutchinson's Hist, of Mas- sachusetts ; Prince's New England Chro- nology; Tudor's Letters on the Eastern States; See also article New England.) Engraving is the art of representing, by means of lines and ,points produced on a metalUc surface by cutting or corrosion, the figures, lights and shades of objects, in order to multiply them by means of print- ing. The engraver is to the painter what the translator is to the author. As it is impossible to give a spirited translation of a work of genius Avithout a portion of the author's fire, so it is essential to a good engraver that he should feel and under- stand the character of his original, and be initiated into the secrets of drawing, that his copy may be at once correct and spir- ited. The art of engraving on copper was invented in Europe in the first half of the 15th century. The Chinese seem to have been acquainted Avith it long before. The Dutch, the Italians and the Germans compete for the honor of its invention in Europe. It is knoAvn that the art was ex- ercised by the ItaUan Finiguerra as early as 1460. The inventors of it Avere the gold- smiths, who were in the habit of making devices on their Avares; and these, being often executed with much elegance, ex- cited the desire to multiply copies by ENGRAVING. 519 transferring them to paper. Engraving differs from printing in having its subjects cut into a hard surface, instead of being raised above it, as is the case with types and wood cuts. Many metals and alloys have been employed for the purpose of engraving. The most common is copper, which is soft enough to be cut when cold, and hard enough to resist the action ofthe press.—We shall now proceed to explain the methods of executing different de- scrijitions of engravimr. The graver, an instrument of steel, is principally used in engraving on copjier; it is square for cutting of broad lines, and lozenge for the finest, and must be tempered to that exact state, which will prevent the jioint from breaking or wearing by its action on the metal.. The graver is inserted in a handle of hard wood, resembling a pear with a longitudinal slice cut off, which is to ena- ble the artist to use it as flat on the plate as his fingers and thumb will permit This instrument is used for removing the imper- fections discoverable in etchings, and ex- clusively in engraving writing. In working, this instrument is held in the palm of the hand, and pushed forward so as to cut out a portion ofthe cojijier. The scraper is a long, triangular piece of steel, tapering gradually from the handle to the point; the three edges produced by this form, being sharpened on the oU-stone, are used for scraping off die roughness occasioned by the graver, and erasing erroneous lines. The burnisher is a third instru- ment of steel, hard, round, and highly polished, for rubbing out punctures or scratches in the cojiper. The oil-stone has been already mentioned. To these may be added the needle, or dry point, for etching, and making those extremely fine linos, which cannot be made with the graver. It is held in the fingers in the same way as a jien or jiencil. Various kinds of varnish, resin, wax, charcoal and mineral acids are also employed in differ- ent parts of the ojieration, according to the subject, and the style of engraving which is adopted. The first which Ave shall describe is Line Engraving. To trace die design intended for engraA'ing accurately on the plate, it is usual to heat the latter suf- ficiently to melt Avhite wax, with which it must be covered equally and thin, and suffered to cool ; the drawing is then copied in outlines, with a black-lead pencil, on jia|ier, which is laid Avith the pencilled side upon the wax, and die back rubbed gently with the burnisher, which will transfer the lead to the wax. The design must next be traced, with an etching-nee- dle, through the wax on the copper, when, ou wiping it clean, it will exhibit aU the outlines ready for die graver. The table intended for engraving on should be per- fectly steady. Great care is necessaiy to carry the hand Avith such steadiness and skill, as to prevent the end of the Une from being stronger and deeper than the commencement; and sufficient space must be left between the lines to enable the artist to make those stronger, gradual- ly, Avhich require it. The roughness or buiT occasioned by the graver must be removed by the scraper, the lines filled by the oil-rubber, and the surface of the cop- per cleansed, in order that the progress of the work may be ascertained. If any accident should occur, by the slipping of the graver beyond the boundaiy required, or lines are found to be placed erroneous- ly, they are to be effaced by the burnisher, wlrich leaving deep indentings, these must be levelled by the scraper, nibbed with char- coal and water, and finally pofished lightly with the burnisher. As the unintereupted light of the day causes a glare upon the sur- face of the copper, hurtful and dazzling to tlie eyes, it is customary to engrave beneath the shade of silk paper, stretched on a square frame, which is placed rechning towards the room, near the sill of a win- dow. Such are the directions and means to be employed in engraving historical subjects : indeed, the graver is equally necessaiy for the remedying of imperfec- tions in etching; to wlrich must be added the use of the dry point in both, for mak- ing the faintest shades in the sky, archi- tecture, drapery, Avater, &c, &c. Stippling. The second mode of en- graving is that called stippling, or engrav- ing in dots. This resembles the last men- tioned method in its processes, except that, instead of lines, it is finished by minute points or excavations in the copper. These punctures, Avhen made with the dry point, are circular: when made with the graver, they are rhomboidal or trian- gular. The variations and progressive magnitude of these dots give the Avhole effect to stippled engraving. This style of work is always more slow, laborious, and, of course, more expensive, than en- graving in lines. It has, however, some advantages in the softness and delicacy of its Ughts and shades, and ajiproaches nearer to the effect of painting than die preceding method. A more expeditious way of multiplying the dots has been con- trived in the instrument called a roulette, a toothed wheel, fixed to a handle, which, 520 ENGRAVING. by being rolled forcibly along the copper, produces a row of indentations. This method, however, is less manageable than die other, and generaUy produces a stiff effect Engraving of Mezzotintos differs entirely from tbe manner above described. This method of producing prints Avhich resem- ble drawings in India-ink, is said by Eve- lyn, in his history of chalcography, to have been discovered by jiiince Rupert. Some accounts say that he learned the art from an officer named Siegen or Si- chem, in the service of Hesse-Cassel. It was, some years past, a very favorite way of engraving jiortraits and historical sub- jects ; of the fonner, the large heads of Fry are of superior excellence. The tools required for this easy and rapid mode of proceeding are, the grounding-tool, the scraper and the burnisher. The copper- plate should be prepared as if intended for the graver, and laid flat upon a table, with a piece of flannel spread under it, to pre- vent the plate from slipping; the ground- ing-tool is then held perpendicularly on it, and rocked with moderate jiressure backwards and forwards, till the teeth of the tool have equally and regularly mark- ed the copper from side to side; the ope- ration is afterwards rejieated from end to end, and from each corner to the oppo- site ; but it is necessary to observe, that the tool must never be permitted to cut twice in the same place; by this means the sur- face is converted into a rough chaos of in- tersections, which, if covered Avith ink and printed, would present a perfectly black imjiression upon the paper. This is the most tedious part of the jirocess. The rest, to a skilful artist, is much easier than line engraving or stippling. It con- sists in jiressing down or rubbing out the roughness of the plate, by means of the burnisher and scraper, to the extent of the intended figure, obliterating the ground for lights, and leaving it for shades. Where a strong light is required, the whole ground is erased. For a medium light, it is mod- erately burnished, or partially erased. For the deepest shades, the ground is left en- tire. Care is taken to preserve the insen- sible gradations of light and shade, upon which the effect and harmony of the piece essentially depend. Engraving in mezzo- tinto approaches more nearly to the effect of oU-jiaintings than any other species. It is AveU calculated for the representation of obscure pieces, such as night scenes, &c. The principal objection to the method is, that the plates wear out speedi- ly under the press, and, of course, yield a comparatively smaU number of im- pressions. Etching. Of engravings Avhich re- quire the aid of aquafortis, the pnncqial is etching. He thnt Avould excel in this branch of the arts must be thoroughly acquainted with drawing. The ground used in etching is a combination of as- phaltum, gum mastic and virgin wax. The projiortions of the ingredients should be obtained by experiment The cojijier- plate is hammered to a considerable de- gree of hardness, polished as if intended for the graver, and heated over a charcoal fire; the ground is dien rubbed over it, till every part is thinly and equally var- nished. The varnish is then blackened by the smoke of a lamp, that the operator may see the progress and state of his work. The next object is to transfer the design to the ground, which may be done by draAving it on thin white jiaper with a black-lead pencil, and having it jiassed through the copper-plate printer's rolling press; the lead will be conveyed firmly to the ground, which will ajipear in per- fect outlines on removing the pajier. Another method is, to draw the design re- versed from the original; rub the back with powdered white chalk, and, laying it on the ground, trace the lines through with a blunt point: this ojieration requires much pre- caution, or the point will cut the ground. After the jilate is prepared, the ojierator, supporting his hand on a ruler, begins his drawing, taking care always to reach the cojiper. Eveiy Une must be kept distinct, throughout the plate, and the most distant should be closer and more regular than those in the fore ground, and the greater the depth of shade, the broader and deep- er must the lines be made. When the etching of the plate is completely finished, the edges of it must be surrounded by a high border of wax, so well secured that water will not penetrate between the plate and it. The best spirits of aquafortis must then be diluted with water, and poured upon the plate, which undergoes a chemical action Avherever it has been laid bare by the needle, Avhile the remain- der of the surface is defended by the var- nish. The bubbles of fixed air, and the saturated portions of metal, are carefully brushed away with a feather. After the operator thinks the acid has acted long enough, he pours it off, and examines die plate. If the Ught shades are found to be sufficiently bit in, they are covered with varnish, or stopped out. The biting is then continued for the second shades, which are next stopped out: and so on. After ENGRAVING. 521 the process is completed, the varnish is melted and wiped off, the plate cleaned Avith oil of turjientine, and any deficien- cies in the lines remedied with the graver. As the acid cannot lie made to act with jicrfeet regularity, etchings will always be rough in comparison with line engravings. This very circumstance, hoAvever, fits etching for the rejiresentation of coarse objects in nature, such as trunks of trees, broken ground, &c, especially on a large scale. In landscape engraving, we gene- rally find a mixture of methods, the coarser parts being etched, the more deli- cate cut with the graver. Letters and Avritten characters are mostly cut and s°l" dom etched. (For the mode of engraving inaquatin- ta, see Aqmtinta). Sl'-el Engramng Avas introduced by our celebrated countryman, Mr. Perkins. The steel jilate is softened by being deprived of a part of its carbon; the engraving is then made, and the jilate hardened again by the restoration of the carbon. The great advantage of steel plates consists in their hardness, by which they are made to yield an indefinite number of impres- sions ; whereas a copper plate wears out after 2 or 3000 impressions, and even much sooner if the engraving be fine. An engraving on a steel jilate may be transferred, in relief, to a softened steel cylinder by pressure; this cylinder, after being hardened, may again transfer the design, by being rolled upon a fresh steel jilate: thus the design may be multiplied at pleasure. Steel plates may also be etched. Engraving on precious Stones is accom- plished with the diamond or emery. The diamond possesses the peculiar property of resisting every liody in nature, and, though the hardest of all stones, it may be cut by a jiart of itself, and polished by its own particles. In order to render this splendid sulistance fit to perform the ope- rations of the tool, two rough diamonds are cemented fast to the ends of the same number of sticks, and nibbed together till die form is obtained for which they are intended ; die powder thus produced is presented, and used for polishing them in a kind of mill furnished with a wheel of iron; the diamond is then secured in a brazen dish, and the dust, mixed with oUve- oU, applied ; the wheel is set in motion, and the friction occasions the polished sur- face so necessary to give their lustre due effect. Other stones, as rubies, topazes and sapphires, are cut into various angles on a wheel of copper; and the material 44* for poUshing those is tripoli diluted with water. A leaden wheel, covered with emery mixed with water, is preferred for the cutting of emeralds, amethysts, hya- cinths, agates, granites, &c. &c; and they are jiolished on a pewter wheel with trip- oli : opal, lapis lazuli, &c, are polished on a Avheel made of wood. Contraiy to the method used by persons who turn metals, in wlrich the substance to be wrought is fixed in the lathe, turned by it and the tool held to the substance, the engraver of the crystal, lapis lazuli, &c, fixes his tools in the lathe, and holds the precious stone to them, thus forming vases, or any other shape, by interposing dia- mond dust mixed with oil, or emery and water, between the tool and the sub- stance, as often as it is dispersed by the rotary motion of the former. The en- graving of armorial bearings, single fig- ures, devices, &c, on any of the above stones, after they are poUshed, is perform- ed tiirough the means of a small iron wheel, the ends of the axis of which are received within tAVo pieces of iron, in a perjiendicular position, that may be clos- ed, or otherwise, as the operation re- quires; the tools are fixed to one end of the axis, and screwed firm ; the stone to be engraved is then held to the tool, the wheel set in motion by the foot, and the figure gradually formed. The material of which the tools are made is generally non, and sometimes brass: some are flat, like chisels, gouges, ferules, and others haA'e circular heads. After the work is finished, the polishing is done with hair brushes fixed on wheels and tripoli. Engraving in Wood has been practised for seA-eral centuries, and originally with tolerable success; it languished for a great part of the 18th century, but revived towards the close, and is still practised in a manner Avhich reflects credit on the ingenuity of the age. The lines, instead of being cut into the substance, are raised, like the letters of printing types, and printed in the same manner. The wood used for this purpose is box, which is preferred for the hardness and closeness of its texture. It is cut across the grain, into pieces of the height of com- mon types, that the engraving may be made upon the end of the grain, for the sake of strength and durability. The sur- face must be planed smooth, and the design drawn on it with a black-lead pencil; the graver is then used, the finer excavations from which are intended for white interstices between the black lines produced by leaving the box untouched, 522 ENGRAVING. and the greatest lights are made by cut- ting away tbe Avood entirely, of the in- tended form, length and breadth; but die deepest shades require no engraving. Much of the beauty of this kind of engraving depends upon the printing. A recent improvement has been made in wood engraAing, which is this: The blocks are prepared as before, and then covered with flake white. The drawing is then made on this, and the wood engraver has only to cut out the lights. The beautiful wood cuts, executed by Branston and Wright, for the Tower menagerie and zoological gardens (after designs by Harvey), recently pubUshed in London, are executed in this manner. Wood engraA'ings have this advantage, that they may be inserted in a page of common types, and printed without sepa- rate expense. They are very durable, and may be multiplied by the process of stereotyping. Colored Engradngs. Colored engrav- ings are variously executed. The most common are printed in black outline, and aftenvards jiainted separately in water- colors. Sometimes a surface is produced by aquatinta, or stippling, and different colors applied in printing to different parts, care being taken to wipe off the colors in opposite directions, that they may not in- terfere with each other. But the most perfect as well as most elaborate produc- tions, are those which are first printed in colors, and afterwards painted by hand. Engravers, modern. Among modern nations, the Italians, French, Germans, and English have rivalled each other in pro- ducing great works in the department of engraving; but, on the whole, the superior- ity seems to belong to the Italians and French, both for the number and the value of their productions; and more particu- larly for the excellence of tlieir impres- sions. Many great works, executed in Germany, are sent to Paris to be struck off. In Germany, Frederic von MiiUer, whose Madonna di S. Sisto is stiU a jewel in collections, died too early for the art. C. Rahl distinguished himself by his en- graving of Fra Bartolomeo's Presentation of Christ in the Temple, and of Raphael's St. Margaret K. Hess, Reindel, Umer (lately deceased), Leybold, Lutz and A. Kessler have produced fine cabinet-pieces. John in Vienna, Kobell in Munich, Barth, Amsler and Rushweyh in Rome, are dis- tinguished in different branches. Chodo- wiecki, Bause, Bolt Clemens, GmeUn, and many others, have contributed much to advance the art of engraving. In gene- ral, it may be mentioned as a favorable sign of the times, that all the first artists in Germany apjily dieir talents to great Avorks, Avhilst die taste for souvenir en- gravings seems rapidly dying aAvay. Those engravers who have jiroduced the best plates for scientific Avorks, so very imjior- tant a branch of the art, and those in tho department of geograjiby, would deserve to be mentioned, if we bad room. France has maintained her early fame, in the art of engraving, down to tlie most recent times. The engravings of A. Boucher- Desnoyers (for instance, the Madonna di Foligno, LaVierge, dite La Belle Jardiniere, Francis I, and Margaret of Navanv, Pha> dre and Hijipolyte, the jiortrait of the Prince de Benevento) are acknowledged masterpieces. Lignon's St. Ciecilia from Domenichino, his Atala, his portrait of Mademoiselle Mars; Massard's St. Cecil- ia of Rajihael, and Apollo with the Muses of Giulio Romano ; Richonime's, Dien's, Girodet's, Gudin's, Audouin's jilates, no less magnificently than carefully executed; Jazet's large jiieces in aquatinta (for in- stance, from the jiaintings of Vernet)—all manifest how rich France is in great en- gravers. Neither ought Ave to forget the magnificent literaiy works, almost con- stantly published in France, which owe their ornaments to the skill of French en- gravers. In the most recent jiroductions of the French engravers, an imitation of the school of Morghen is observable; whilst some young Italian and German artists have aimed at something higher than even Morghen's productions. Since the art of painting has ceased to produce many works worthy of niultijilication by the burin of the first engravers, these have occupied themselves chiefly Avith ancient masterjiieces, and engraving has taken a higher station among the fine arts. Morg- hen, the pupil of Voljiato, and those who have followed him, have produced works before unequalled. Tbe Milanese; school of engravers, in particular, has reached a degree of perfection, through Anderloni and Longlri, which no other country can probably equal. Longhi's Sjiosalizio is as yet the greatest production in the art of engraving. Toschi, of Parma, has ac- quired immortaUty by his Entrance of Henry IV into Paris (from Gerard), in 1826; Schiavone, by his Ascension of the Holy Virgin (from the painting of Titian), which may be called perfect, in regard to its picture-like effect. Bettelini, Bonato, Gandolffi, Garavagfia, Fontana Rosaspi- na, Benoglio, Giberti, Palmerini, Poporati, Pavon (by birth a Spaniard, however), ENGRAVING-ENHARMONIC. 523 Rainaldi and Rampoldi have produced lieautifully finished engravings; and Luigi Rossini and PinelU have etched scenes full of life. Splendid works, in which typography and chalcography unite their attractions, have apjieared at Florence, Venice, Rome and Milan. But England is richer in such works, as the sceneries there form a peculiar and very important branch of the productions of the art Sonic of these Avorks, however, exliibit an exaggerated delicacy, bordering on affec- tation ; while others neglect details, and betray too much effort for effect But the jiroductions of Earlom, Pether, Dixon, Green, &c, must not be confounded with the works just referred to. The plates of Raphael's cartoons, in Hampton court, on which Thomas Holloway and Webber have been engaged, are praised as the highest specimens of the art. In tliese engravings, the masterly etching, which often permits them to allow the etchings diemselves to remain, is Avorthy of admi- ration. Smith, Middiman, Byrne, James Mason, James and Charles Heath, William Woollet, William Sharp, John Burnet, and John Browne are known to all collec- tors. Their works are, comparatively, seldom seen on the Eurojiean continent, because of their high prices. What La- sinio is for Italy, Moses aims to be for England, by his delicate sketches: among his other productions are his imitations of Retsch's illustrations of Gothe's Faust. But his copies of foreign masters are often deficient in correctness. C. Rolles and E. Finday also deserve mention among distinguished English engravers. The neatness, so much esteemed in England, has been jiromoted by the new art of sid- erography, wlrich has not yet been applied to the execution of great works; Avhilst, in France and Germany, lithography, an in- vention of the latter country, has been preferred. With the Dutch, die burin is, at present, not very successful, if we com- pare dieir present artists to the former school of Pontius and Edelinck. But for picturesque etchings and productions by die needle, the skill formerly displayed has been preserved by TroostAvyk, Van Os, Overbeck, Jansen, Chalon, and others. For more highly finished productions, in which the burin and needle must unite, in order to produce a tone, as in the engra- vings of Rembrandt's pictures, Claessens and De Frey are acknowledged masters. What Russia, Denmark and the Nether- lands have produced in this branch, is not unworthy of notice. The engravings of Switzerland, mostly in AberU's manner, form a class by themselves. In the U. States, engraving has been cultivated with more success than any other department of the fine arts, though it cannot be ex- pected that a country so young, and so dis- tant from the numerous jiroductions of former ages, should rival the great works of the art in Europe. But small engra- vings, particularly on steel, for souvenirs, have been produced, which may bear comparison with European jiroductions of the kind. Among American engrav- ers, Longacre, Kelly, Durandt Danforth (now in London), Cheney, Gailaudet Ellis, Hatch, and others, well deserve to be engaged on subjects of more perma- nent interest than souvenir engravings. Of the European artists who have been most distinguished in wood engraving, we Avould mention the names of the Sueurs, Jackson, Moretti, Canossa, Roger, Caron, Papillon, Beugnet, Dugoure. Among the most famous of the living artists, in this line, in England, are Thomjison, Brans- ton, Wright Bonner, Slader, Sears, Nes- bit, Hughes. In the U. States, Anderson, Adams, Mason, Fairchild, Hartwell, and others, are distinguished. After the art of engraving in mezzotinto was intro- duced into England, by prince Rupert, it was carried to much perfection there. John Smith, who lived towards the end of the 17th century, has left more than 500 pieces in this style. He and George White formed a new epoch iu the art which the latter jiarticularly imjiroved, by first etching the plates, w hereby they ac- quired more spirit. Of late years, many artists in England have devoted themselves to this branch: among these are McAr- dell, Houston, Earlom, Pether, Green, Watson, Dickinson, Dixon, Hudson, J. Smith, &c. (For a list of the most dis- tinguished engraveis, from the earliest times, see Elmes, Didionaiy of the Fine Arts, article Engradng.) Engrossing, in law, denotes the wri- ting a deed over fair, and in proper, legible characters; also, the getting into one's possession, or buying up large quantities of corn, or other provisions, with the in- tention of selling them again. Enharmonic ; the epithet given, by the ancient Greeks,to that of their three genera, which consisted of quarter tones and ma- jor thirds. They, however, had original- ly another kind of enharmonic, more sim- ple, and easier of execution than this, and upon which the quarter tones or dieses were considered, by the theorists of the old school, as innovations too refined and artificial, 524 ENNEPER—ENTAIL. Enneper or Emper Roao (in German, Enneper Strasse) extends about 9 miles from Hagen to Gevelsberg, in the Prussian pro- vince of Westphalia (formerly the county of Mark), along the river Enneper or Em- jier, the banks of which are completely oc- cujiied with water-works. All sorts of iron- work are manufactured here. It is one of the most industrious parts of Germany, and may be compared to Sheffield or Birmingham, in England. Iron and steel manufactures are the chief. Sythes and blades for cutting straw are here made annuaUy to the number of 30,000 doz- ens. Ennics, Quintus; a celebrated Latin poet of the earlier times of the republic, bom at Rudiae, in Calabria, 239 B. C. Cato the Censor became acquainted AAith him in Sardinia, was his pupil, and brought him to Rome, Avhere he soon gained the friendship of the most distin- guished mcrf (Scipio Africanus the Elder and others), and instructed the young men of rank in Greek. With an extensive knowledge of the Greek language and literature, he united a thorough acquaint- ance with the Oscan and Latin tongues, and AAas thereby enabled to exert a great influence on the last. The rough and unpolished style, which is to be attributed to the time in Avhich he lived, was more than comjiensated by the energy of his expression and the fire of his language. Quintilian extols him highly, and Virgil shows how much he esteemed him by inteoducing whole verses from his poems into his own works. He attempted every sjiecies of poetry, sometimes more, some- times less, after the Greek manner. He Avrote an epic, " Scipio," in hexameters; Roman annals, from the most ancient times, to his oaati; tragedies and come- dies, of which we have some fragments; satires and epigrams ; and translations. He was presented with the citizenship for his services to the Latin language and poetry, of which the Romans regarded him as the father. The fragments of his works have been collected by Hesselius (Amsterdam, 1707, 4to.). Enoch ; one of the patriarchs, who lived before the deluge. He became the father of Methuselah at the age of 65 years ; and, at the age of 365 years, " God took him." The words quoted are generally understood to mean that Enoch did not die a natural death, but was re- moved as Elijah was. Paul (Heb. xi.) is of the same opinion. Enoch, the Prophecy of, is an apocry- phal book, ascribed to Enoch, by a mis- understanding of a passage in the Epistle of Jude, v. 14. Several fathers of the church have testified their respect for it, but the Catholic church never has adopted it as canonical. The Abyssinians are said to receive it into the canon. It was for a long time lost, but Joseph Scaliger dis- covered a part of it Scaliger, Voseius and others attribute it to a Jew who lived between the Babylonian captivity and Christ's birth. St. Augustine, TertuUian and Origen quote it Enos, the son of Scth and father of Cainan; one of the patriarchs, who lived to the age of 905 years.' This family pre- served the worship of God, whilst that of Cain Avas plunged in all kinds of impiety. Ensemble (French, the Avhole) is used in the fine arts to denote the general effect of a whole work, without reference to the jiarts. Thus Ave speak of the ensemble of a picture, when we consider the effect of the Avhole representation on the mind of the spectator. A thing may he excel- lent in its parts, as, for instance, a comedy, if the different characters are Avell drawn; yet it may be deficient in its ensemble, that is, as a whole. Rousseau uses this word, in the same meaning, in music; but, at present, ensemble is used for a composi- tion of several voices, in Avhich the chief voices are independent of each other, as the quintetts and finales in operas and ora- torios. Ensign (from the Latin insigne, stand- ard). Enrign bearer, commonly called ensign, is the lowest commissioned officer in the English army, and that of the V. States. In the French army, under Na- jioleon, the oldest and most distinguished sergeants bore the colors. Napoleon or- dered that those sergeants who could not write, and who had distinguished them- selves, should be preferred, " because they could not be properly promoted farther, and yet deserved some distinction on account of their bravery." (See Las Cases.)—In naval language, ensign is a large standard or banner, hoisted on a long pole, erected over the poop, and called the ensign-staff. It is more com- monly called fiag. (q. v.) Entablature. The horizontal, contin- uous work, which rests upon a row of col- umns. (See Architecture, vol. i., p. 338, right column.) Entail, or Tail (from entailler, French, to mortise or cut into a piece of wood, so as to fit another piece into it and make a joint), is, in law, an estate cut or carved out of the fees, so that the remaining estates, that is, the remainder or reversion, ENTAIL—ENTOMOLOGY. 525 together with the estate tail, or aU the estates tail, will constitute the entail fee. It is, accordingly, always a lesser estate than a fee simple. (See Estate.) Enteritis (from Ivrtaov, an intestine); inflammation of the intestines. It is known by the presence of fever, fixed pain in the abdomen, costiveness, and vomiting. The causes are acrid sub- stances, indurated faeces, long-continued and obstinate costiveness, spasmodic colic, and a strangulation of any part of the in- testinal canal; but another very general cause is the ajiplication of cold to the lower extremities, or to the belly itself. It is a disease which is most ajit to occur at an advanced jieriod of life, and is A'ery liable to a relapse. It comes on with an acute jiain, extending, in general, over the Avhole of the abdomen, but more especial- ly round the navel, accompanied with eructations, sickness at the stomach, a vomiting of bilious matter, obstinate cos- tiveness, thirst, heat great anxiety, and a quick and hard, small pulse. After a short time, the pain becomes more severe, the bowels seem drawn together by a kind of sjiasm, the whole region of the abdo- men is highly painful to the touch, and seems drawn together in lumpy contrac- tions ; invincible costiveness prevails, and the urine is voided with great difficulty and jiain. The inflammation, continuing to proceed with violence, terminates at last in gangrene; or, abating gradually, it goes off by resolution. Enteritis is always attended with considerable danger, as it often terminates in gangrene, in the space of a few hours from its commence- ment The treatment must be begun by taking blood freely from the arm, as far as die strength ofthe patient will allow; but, the disease occurring more frequently in persons rather advanced in years, and of a constitution somewhat impaired, it be- comes more important to Umit this evacu- ation, and rely, in a great measure, on the effects of a number of leeches, applied to the abdomen. Another very useful step is to put the patient into a hot bath, which may jiresently induce faintness; or, where this cannot be procured, fomenting the abdomen assiduously. When the symp- toms are thus materially reUeved, an am- pie blister should be applied. It becomes, also, of the first importance to clear out tlie bowels. After the disease is removed, care should be takeu to guard against ac- cumulation of firces, exposure to cold, or any thing else likely to occasion a relajise. Entomology (from Ivto?*, insects, and Xfyof, doctruie) is that branch of zoology which treats of the structure, habits and consequent arrangement of the third class of articulated animals called inseda or in- sects, which may be briefly characterized as articulated animals, furnished with ar- ticulated feet and a dorsal vessel or rudi- mental vestige of a heart, respiring by means of two principal parallel tracheae, and provided with two movable antenna? and a distinct head. The observation of this numerous, diversified and interesting class of beings, and, consequently, the or- igin of entomological science, must neces- sarily have been coeval with the creation of man. Without, however, insisting up- on this, or referring to the sacred volume in proof thereof, we shall content our- selves with dating it in the 80th Olympi- ad, or five hundred years before Christ, as, according to Pliny, it was about that period when Hippocrates wrote upon in- sects. Aristotle (nepc tuv Uros Kopeeav rail/ tv- toimv) describes them as consisting of three parts—head, trunk and abdomen; he then speaks of what he calls tribes of insects, dividing them, from their mode of progression, into those that Avalk and those that fly, noticing and commenting on their wings, proboscis, antennae and feet, care- fully observing the latter, and exhibiting in this, as in every other department of zoology, that accuracy which so eminent- ly distinguished the philosophical jirecep- tor of Alexander the Great. PUny is the next author of any note Avhose attention seems to have been directed to the study in question, for, in his 11th book, he speaks of various bees, Avasps, &c. From this period, down to 1519, when the Avork of Albertus Magnus upon insects Avas pub- lished, the science made a silent but cer- tain progress. Its advance in the suc- ceeding 30 years is visible in the efficient attempt at a better system of classification than had hitherto preA-ailed, in the De Animantibus Subterraneis of the last men- tioned author, in 1549. He there divides insects into three classes—those that walk, those that fly, and those that swim, de- scribing seA-eral species of each class. In 1552, Wotton published his De Differen- tiis Animalium, and Avas followed by nu- merous writers on the subject of insects, whose books possessed more or less merit: some of them were illustrated Avith figures, and all tended to render the study more worthy of the name of a science. To par- ticularize them Avithin the limited bounds of an article of this nature, is impossible. We must, therefore, be permitted to pass them over with this general notice, the foUo of the learned and Uberal Aldrovan- 526 ENTOMOLOGY. dus, 1602, and Mouffet's Insedorum Thea- trum, excejited, which richly merit distinc- tion. The Experimenta, &c. of Redi, 1671, deserves especial attention for its triumph- ant refutation of the then popular error of equivocal generation—an error whose origin is buried in the remotest antiquity, upheld by the ancient philosophers, and not even yet eradicated from the minds of tlie common people. Redi demonstrated the fact, that every living animal is derived from an egg, deposited by a parent every way similar to itself. Previous to this, in 1669, the great Avork of Swammerdam— Historia Insedorum Generalis—was given to the public, but was utterly neglected until the death of the author, in 1680, when it was instantly discovered to be of such value as to demand a translation. No bookseller could be found who would risk the expense of printing the Biblia Nature, a second work from the same pen, until it accidentally fell into die pos- session of the learned Boerhaave, who published it together with the life of Swammerdam, in 1738. In that book, which is still considered as one of the most valuable we possess on the anatomy of insects, he divides them into the four foUowing classes:—1. those whose char- acters are constant undergoing no change whatever, and which preserve for life the form in which they leave the ovum; spi- ders, &c.: 2. diose which, on their liber- ation from the ovum, have the appearance of an insect without wings, but otherwise completely formed, and that pass into the state of a nymph or chrysaUs, fi-om which they issue provided with wings, and fitted for continuing the species; dragon-flies, &c.: 3. those which, having existed in the ovum in a disguised form, leave it un- der the appearance of an insect (caterpU- lar), which feeds and increases in size, Avhile the A-arious parts of the new ani- mal, into which it is to be converted, are forming under its skin, and finally be- comes a nymph ; moths, butterflies, &c.: 4. those which, having arrived at maturi- ty, do not divest themselves of their skin, but pass into the chrysalis state under it remaining there till the metamorjihosis is completely effected, when, quitting both skins at once, they come forth in their fi- nal and perfect form; ichneumons, &c— Malpiglri and Vallisnieri also enriched the science with the results of their observa- tions, in common with others of less note. The Memoires, &c, of Perrault (Paris 1671), Lister's book on spiders, the Histo- ria Animalium Anglie, &c. (1678), and those of Ferrand, Mollerus and Berelio, all tended to the same result. In 1685, a Latin edition of tlie works of Gocdart atos published by doctor Lister, just named, a learned entomologist of that period, and physician to queen Anne, who gave a iicav arrangement to the materials collected by his industrious though not veiy acute au- thor, who was more of a collector and painter of insects than a scientific observ- er. In that work, Lister establishes 10 classes of insects:—1. moths with erect wings, or diurnal butterflies; 2. moths with horizontal wings, the jierfect insect of the caterpillar, called the geomdra by Goedart; 3. moths with deflected wings; 4. libelluhe ; 5. bees ; 6. beetles ; 7. grass- hoppers ; 8. dipterous flies; 9. millepedes; and, 10. sjiiders. There is nothing, how- ever, in this mode of division, which mer- its any peculiar praise, or that should pre- vent us from passing immediately to the microscopical discoveries of the celebrated Leuwenhoeck, from whose inventive ge- nius and patient observations the science received such essential benefit, not more by what he himself discovered, than by the foundation he laid for that system of close and minute observation wlrich alone leads to truth. Our limits wiU only per- mit us to designate Blankaart and Geyer- us, as occupying a similar rank Avith Goe- dart. Ray, however, deserves more par- ticular notice. His descrijitions are very exact and detailed, and his various Avorks, Synopsis Mdhodica Animalium, &c. (Lond., 1683), Synopsis Methodica Avium et Pisci- um (Lond., 1713), and the Historia Insec- torum (Lond., 1710), sufficiently demon- strate his claim to the title ofthe first true systematist His was the glory of serving as a zoological guide to the illustrious Swedish reformer, of whom we shall soon have to speak. Ray divides insects into tAVo great classes—those which undergo a metamorjihosis after having been pro- duced, and those which do not. He again subdivides each of these classes in- to orders, characterized by the feet, or by their absence; by their habitations; hy the size or conformation of the various parts of the body; by their larvae, &c. In this arrangement were included cer- tain tribes of vermes, subsequently sepa- rated by Linnaeus. The voluminous jiro- ductions, upon this subject, of the inde- fatigable Reaumur, who directed his re- searches into every department of science, appeared in Paris in 6 vols., 4to., 1734— 1742. His Memoires pour servir a VHis- toire des Insedes—for such is its modest title—is an admirable work, both with re- spect to the number and value of the ob- ENTOMOLOGY. 527 serrations it contains. It is to be lament- ed that the 7th volume, which iscompleted, remains unpublished. The intended re- maining ones were not commenced when Reaumur died, in 1757.—But a greater name than any we have yet mentioned is that of the illustrious reformer of the nom- enclature of the natural sciences. Not- withstanding the labors of so many in- genious, learned and acute observers of nature, the history of animals, and that of insects in particular, remained in a con- fused state until the iUustrious Linnaeus reduced the chaotic pile to order. Direct- ing all the energies of Iris clear and com- prehensive mind to the subject, he pro- duced, in his well known Systema Nature, 17:i.i, the first truly methodical work. In a final edition of the same book, we find an arrangement of insects differing from that contained in the former; and, as that is the one always referred to at the pres- ent day, and as his divisions are, to a cer- tain extent, still retained, we deem it projier to notice it here. He divides in- sects into coleoptera, hemiptera, lepidoptera, neuroptera, hymenoptera, diptera and ap- tera. In this class were also included the Crustacea and aracknides, now forming the' first and second classes of the third great division of the animal kingdom, or the animalia articidata. The system of Lin- nams, though not a natural one, was well adapted to the limited number of animals then known, and which, with respect to insects, did not exceed 800 or 900. Its subsequent alterations necessarily arose from the immense number of new ones Avhich the increasing zeal of observers de- tected in every part of tlie globe. L'Ad- miral, Dctharding, Lesser, Degcer, Roesel, Scojioli and G.oft'roy, all contributed, and some of them greatly, to multijily facts and detect errors. Lyonnet, however, mer- its something more than the bare mention of his name. Animated by a zeal that no disajijiointment couM damp, and armed with a jiatience that set obstacles at defi- ance, this untiring inquirer devoted seven years of his life to the anatomy of a sin- gle insect—the larva of a species of cossus that inhabits the willow. The jilates of his work, the Traite Anatomique de la Chenille du Saule (4to., 1762), 18 in num- ber, were all engraved by his own hand, with a minuteness, fidelity and elegance that have seldom, if ever, been equalled. The ensemble is pronounced, by the greatest authority of our age, a chefd'auvre both of anatomy and engraving. We cannot stop to notice particularly the labors of Sehaeffer, Scba, Forster and Drury, each of whom added something to the general fond of knowledge. With respect to those of Fabricius, it is otherwise. This celebrated entomologist, and pupil of Lin- naeus, published numerous and valuable works on his favorite science, of which we Avill only cite the Entomologia System- atica, emendata et auda (4 vols., 8vo., 1792 —1794), the Supplementum Eidomologie Systematice (1798), and the Systema Eleu- theratorum, Rhyngotorum, &c. (from 1801 to 1805). He Avas the first who had re- course to the parts ofthe mouth, or organs of manducation, as a basis of distribution; and a vast number of new species of in- sects were described by him, in his re- markably concise but clear manner, with which Gmelin, a naturalist, or ratiier edi- tor, of a very different class, enriched the Systema of Linnaeus. The career of this distinguished man, whose love of truth in matters of science is strongly exemplified in his weU knoAvn emphatic epitajih on John Hill, Avas prematurely arrested by death in 1807, just as he Avas preparing to publish his Systema Glossidorum, an ex- tract fi-om which is given by Illiger in his Magazin fur Insedenkunde. The splen- did and costly works of Olivier (5 vols., fol., Paris, 1789—1808), Donovan (Lond., 1778—1805), Palisot de Beauvois (Paris, fol., 1805 et seq.), Cramer (4 vols., 4to., with 400 colored plates, Amsterdam, 1779, continued by Stoll, in 1 vol., 4to., 1790 et seq.), together with a multitude of others of a less magnificent descrijition, bring our sketch down to a period in the annals of the natural sciences which is graced by the name of Cuvier. It is to him that we are indebted for what is termed the natu- ral method, or an arrangement in which, to use his oavu words, " all beings of the same genus are placed nearer to each other than to those of all other genera, the genera of the same order similarly disposed with respect to those of all other orders, &c." The energy and discrimi- nation of this modem oracle ofthe natural sciences, as he has jusdy been styled, aid- ed by untiring industry, have fixed the foundations of zoology upon the immuta- ble basis of comparative anatomy. From the moment his Tableau eiementaire de VHistoire naturelle des Animaux, and his Legons d'Anatomie Compane, made their appearance, the entomologist, in common with the cultivators of every other branch of zoology, was sensible diat he at last held the clew by which he could hope to traverse the hitherto impracticable laby- rinth. The study now became a greater object of interest than ever. Lamarck pro- 528 ENTOMOLOGY. duced his work upon iiivertebral animals, and Latreille, guided by CuAier, soon gave to die world Iris famous entomological sys- tem, an exposition of which will close this necessarily limited, and consequently im- perfect sketch. Among the modern writers of eminence on the subject of insects, Mac- Leay, Leach and Kirby stand preeminent in England. Prussia boasts of her Klug and Illiger; Germany of her Knoch, Mannerheim and Gerinar; Russia of her Fischer; Sweden of her Paykull, Gyllen- hal and Schoenhcrr; and France, that favorite seat of science, of the greatest en- tomologist of the age—the venerable La- treille. There, too, count Dejean is at this moment busied with his admirable work on coleopterous insects, 4 volumes of which are already published, and which, when comjileted, will leave noth- ing to be desired widi respect to that or- der. Leon Dufour, of the same country, by his various memoirs on the anatomy of a new species of brachinus, on that of the coleoptera, of the cicadarie, of the cica- ddla, of the forficule, &c, has given am- ple jiroofs of his devotion to the science, and of his tide to the rank of the first en- tomological anatomist of the age. Sa- vigny, also, who sacrificed his sight to his anatomical investigations, and was one of the savants who accomjianied the expe- dition to Egyjit, has rendered the most imjiortant services to this branch of zool- ogy, by his work on the mouths of insects. But while we willingly render justice to these distinguished foreigners, let us not forget what is due to ourselves. Mel- sheimer (av1io furnished Knoch with the E-eater part of his species), Say, Hentz, e Conte, Harris, and many others, have successfully exerted themselves in detect- ing and describing die insects of die U. States; and, at tins moment, a valuable work on the lepidoptera of North Ameri- ca, by Messrs. Boisduval and Le Conte, is publishing in Paris.—The history of the first and second classes of articulated ani- mals, or the Crustacea (crabs, lobsters, &c) and aracknidcs (spiders), is so involved with that ofthe third, or the insecta or in- sects, properly so called, that but little sep- arate allusion has been made to it. In all the systems of which we have spoken, these two classes were considered as in- sects. Brisson was the first who sepa- rated them; and his class of the Crustacea, which he placed before that of insects, contains an those animals which have more than six feet, or the apiropodes of M. Savigny. It is only, however, within a few years, that a rigorous application of anatomical observations has enabled the French naturalists to arrange them in their natural order. They now form three distinct classes of the third great division of the animal kingdom, which comprises the animalia articulata, or artic- ulated animals. The Crustacea and arach- nides, being the most perfect of the three, so far as their organization is concerned, are placed first an(l die insects last. The subjoined tabular Aiew shows the manner in which they are arranged and divided by Latreille, the great entomologist of the day. Synoptical View of the Entomological System of Latreille. Class I. CRUSTACEA. First General Division. MALACOSTRACA. a. Eyes on a. movable ped- icle. Order I. DECAPODA. First Familt. BRACHYURA. Cancer, L. Pinnipedes. Arcuata. Quadrilatera. Orbiculata. Trigona. Crvptopoda. Notopoda. Sub-genera, 62. Pecond Family. MACROURA. Astacus, Lat. Anomala. Locusta. Astacini. Carides. Sub-genera, 42. Order II. STOMAPODA. First Familt. UMPELTATA. Squilla, Pah. Sub-genera, 5. Second Familt. BIPELTATA. Phyllosoma, Leach. b. Eyes fixed and sessile. Order III. AMPHIPODA. Gammarus, Fab. Sub-genera, 25. Order IV. LiEMODIPODA. Cyamus, Lat. Sub-genera, 4. Order V. ISOPODA. Oniscus, L. Epicarides. Cymothoada. Spheeromides. Iaoteides. Asellota. Oniscides. Sub-genera, 35. ENTOMOLOGY. 529 Second General Division. ENTOMOSTRACA. Order I. BRvNCHIOPODA. Monoculus, L. Lophyropa. Phyllopa. .■Sub-genera, 18, Order II, PjECILOPODA. First Familt. XYPHOSURA. Limulus, Fab. Tachyjileus, Leach, Second Familt. S1PHONOSTOMA. Caligides, Leet. Lerneiformes, id. Genera and sub-genera, 9. TRILOBITES. Genera, 5. Class II. ARACHMDES. Order I. rUUION'ARLE. First Familt. ARANEIDES. Mygale, Walck. Aranea, L. Tubiteles. Ineauiteles. Orbileles. Laterigrades. Citigrades. Saltigrades. Sub-genera, 33. Second Familt. PEDIPALPI. Tarantula, Fab. Scorjiio, L. Sub-genera, 4. QtRDER II. TRACHEARLE. First Familt. PSEUDO-SCORPIONES. Galeodes, Oliv. Chelifer, Geoff SrruND Familt. I'YCNOGONIDES. Pycnogonum, Brun. Pho.vichilus, Lat. Nymphon, Fab. Third Familt. HOLETRA. vol. iv. 45 First Tribe. PHALANGITA. Phalangium, L. Gonoleptes. Siro. Macrocheles. Trogulus. Second Tribe. ACARIDES. Acarus, L. Sub-gpjiera, 19. Class III. INSECTA. Order I. MYRIOPODA. First Familt. CHILOGNATHA. lulus, L. Sub-genera, 5. Second Familt. CHILOPODA. Scolopendra, L. Sub-genera, 2. Order II. THYSANOURA. First Familt. LEPISMENjE. Lepisma, L. Sub-genera, 2. Second Familt. PODURELLiE. Podura, L. Sub-genera, 2. Order III. PARASITA. Pediculus, L. Sub-genera, 8. Order IV. SUCTORIA. Pulex, L. Order V. COLEOPTERA. First Great Division. Pentamera. FinsT Familt. CARNIVORA. First Tribe. CICINDELITjE. Cicindela, L. Sub-genera, 9. Second Tribe. CARABICI. Carabus, L. Truncatipenncs. Bipartiti. Quadrimani. Simplicimani. Patellimani. Grandipalpi. Subulipalpi. Sub-genera, 123. Third Tribe. HYDROCANTHARI Dytiscus, Geoff. Gyrinus, L. Sub-genera, 6. Second Familt. BRACHELYTRA. StaphyUnus, L. Fissilabra. Longipalpi. Dentierura. Depressa. Microcephala. Sub-genera, 24 Third Familt. SERR1CORNES. Section I. BTERXOXI. First Tribe. BUPRESTIDE& Buprestis, L. Sub-genera, 4. Second Tribe. ELATERIDES. Elater, L. Sub-genera, 14. Section II. MALACODERMES First Tribe. CEBRIONITES. Cebrio, L. Sub-genera, 12. Second Tribe. LAMPYRTDES Lampyris, L. Sub-genera, 11. Third Tribe. MELYRIDES. Melyris, Fab. Sub-genera, 6. Fourth Tribe. CLERII. Cleru's, Geoff. Sub-genera, 10 Fifth Tribe. PTINIORES. Ptinus, L. Sub-genera, 6. 590 ENTOMOLOGY. Section III. XYLOTROGI. Lymexylon, Fab. Sub-genera, 4. Fourth Familt. CLAVICORNES. Section I. First Tribe. PALPATORES. Mastigus, Hoff. Sub-genera, 2. Second Tribe. HISTEROIDES. Hister, L. Sub-genera, 6. Third Tribe. SILPHALES. SUpha, L. Sub-genera, 9. Fourth Tribe. SCAPHIDITES. Scaphidium, Olh). Sub-genera, 2. Fifth Tribe. NITIDULARIiE. Nitidula, Fab. Sub-genera, 6. Sixth Tribe. ENGIDITES. Dacne, Lat. Sub-genera, 2. Seventh Tribe. DERMESTINI, Dermestes, L. Sub-genera, 6. Eighth Tribe. BIRRHII. Byrrhus, L. Sub-genera, 2. Section II. First Tribe. ACANTHOPODA. Heterocerus, Bosc. Second Tribe. MACRODACTYLA. Dryops, Oliv. Sub-genera, 4. Fifth Family. PALPICORNES. First Tribe. HYDROPHILII. HydrophUus, Geoff. Sub-genera, 9. Second Tribe. SPHiERIDIOTA. Sphaeridium, Fab. Sub-genus, 1. Sixth Familt. LAMELLICORNES. First Tribe. SCARAB. vous plait mieux, etle n'est assez bonne. Epigraph ; the inscription (q. v.), e. g., on a temple, or prefixed to a book (mot- to).— Epigraphy; the study or knowledge of inscriptions, a science auxiliary to his- tory. The ejiigraphic side of a coin is that on which the image and the inscrip- tion are impressed: monepigraphic is the name giA'en to it, if it has only an inscrip- tion ; anepigraphic, if it has only an image. (For the origin of the Avord, see Epi- gram.) Epilepsy (in Latin, epilepsia, from the Greek hi\eipfiavu>, to seize upon); a nervous disease, depending on various causes, often exceedingly complicated, and incapable of being removed ; hence so often an incurable periodical disease, ap- jiearing in single paroxysms. It, for the most part, is preceded by a cold A'apor (aura epileptica), creeping up from the foot or hand to the breast and head ; but sometimes there are no precursive symp- toms. The patient suddenly falls, com- monly Avith a cry, the thumbs are con- vulsed, other parts are agitated more or less, entire insensibility succeeds, the breath is short and quick, broken, and accomjianied with groans, the mouth foams, the face is convulsed, the teeth gnash together, the eyes are distorted, die urine and other evacuations are dischar- ged involuntarily, the eyes are wide open and staring, and insensible to die light. The paroxysm is usually over in 10 or 20 minutes. The patient awakes as from a deep sleep, entirely unconscious of what has past; he feels nothing unpleasant, excejit fatigue, and a little pain in his limbs. Sometimes the paroxysms occur 9 or 10 times in an hour, or oftener; sometimes only once a month, at the change ofthe moon, or every six months, or at still longer periods. During the paroxysm, all that is to be attended to is to prevent the patient from injuring him^ self. All other attempts, such as forcing open the thumbs, and the like, are of no avail, except to terminate the paroxysm sooner, but, at the same time, occasion a quicker return of it, and render the dis- ease more difficult to cure. Epilogue (from the Greek hi and Uyoi, word, speech); the closing address to the audience at the end of a play. The epilogue is the opposite of the pro- logue, or opening address. Many of 544 EPILOGUE—EPINAY. Shakspeare's plays have an epilogue as well as prologue, in which the poet some- times craves the indulgence of the spec- tators for the faults of his jiiece and the performance, and sometimes intimates in what light his work is to be considered. The epilogue is sometimes a necessary apjiendage, to tell us something of a com- position, Avhich cannot be gathered from the composition itself. As it is very diffi- cult to jirevent prologues and epilogues from sinking into mere common-places, and from injuring rather than aiding the play, they afford an opportunity for real genius to shoAV its jiowers. Epimexides ; a celebrated philoso- pher and poet of antiquity, born in Crete, in the 6th century before Christ. By some he is reckoned among the seven AA'ise men, instead of Periander. He is represented as favored with divine com- munications, and as an infallible prophet When the Athenians were visited with war and pestilence, and the oracle de- clared that they had drawn on themselves the divine anger by the jirofanation of the temple, in which the followers of Cylon had been put to death, and must expiate their offence, they sent for Epi- menides who was renoAvned for his wis- dom and piety, from Crete, to reconcile tbem to the gods. He gratified their wishes, and introduced various useful in- stitutions. On his departure, he refused to accept any presents, and asked no other reAvard than a branch from the olive consecrated to Minerva. There is a story of his having slept in a cavern, according to some, 40 years, and according to others, a still longer period. On awaking, he found, to his astonishment, every thing changed in his native town. He died in his native country, at an advanced age. This story is the ground-work of Gothe's poem, the Waking of Ejiimeni- des, for the anniversary of the battle of Leipsic. Epimetheus, in Greek mythology: a son of Japetus and Clymene; he mar- ried Pandora, by whom he had Pyrrha, the Avife of Deucalion. (Apollod. i, 7, 2.) It Avas Epimetheus Avho had the curios- ity to open the box which Pandora had brought with her, and from which issued a train of evils, that have ever since afflict- ed the human race. Hope alone remain- ed in the bottom of the box, Pandora haA-ing shut it before she could escape, that she might comfort mortals after they had expiated their sins. It is to be re- marked, that in this Greek tradition, cu- riosity and disobedience are made the origin of evil, as in the Mosaic account ofthe fall. (See Pandora.) f . Epinay, Louise (madame d'). This accomphshed lady, celebrated for her connexion Avith Rousseau, was the daugh- ter of M. Tardieu Dcsclavelles, Avho hist his life in Flanders, in the service of Louis XV, and left his family, in very moderate circumstances. This, and the favor which Desclavelles had enjoyed at court, excited an interest for the daughter, and she Avas married to M. Delalive de Bellegarde, who received the office of fanner-general. But the extravagance of the young man soon disturbed the happiness which had been exjiected from this union. During the earlier part of her life, she formed an acquaintance Avith the philosopher of Geneva, who, quick and susceptible in all his feelings, devoted himself to the fascinating and accomplished woman with an ardor, the dejith and strength of which he describes himself in his Con- fessions. She was not insensible to the homage of her bear, as she used to call him, on account of his eccentricities. She did all that was in her poAver to place him in a situation corresponding to hie wishes. She gave him a cottage (the hermitage, since so famous) in her jiark of Chevrette, in the vale of Montmorency. Here the author of the Nouvelle Hiloist passed many days, rendered hapjiy hy hia romantic attachment to madame d'Epi- nay; until he became jealous of baron Grimm, whom he had himself introduced to his mistress; and in consequence of this feeling, which he took no pains tc conceal, a coolness, and finally an aver- sion took place between him and the lady, which is but too plainly expressed in his Confessions. A defence of the later conduct of madame d'Epinay to- wards Rousseau may be found in Grimm's Correspondence, where an account is also given of some works Avritten by her, of which the most celebrated is Les Conver- sations d'Emilie. In this the authoress, in a rather cold, but neat style, sets forth the principles of moral instruction fer children, with equal elegance and depth of thought It obtained, in 1783, the prize offered by Monthion (then chan- cellor to the count d'Artois) for useful works of this kind, in preference to the Adde d Theodore of madame de Genlis. She also wrote Lettres a mon FUs, and Mes Moments heureux. An abridgment of her highly interesting memoirs, and her correspondence, shoAving her relations with Duclos, Rousseau, Grimm, Holbach, Lambert, &c, appeared in Paris, in 3 EPINAY—EPISODE. 545 vols,, 1818. They give a true picture of die refined but corrupt manners Avhich prevailed among the higher clas- hes in France during the goveniment of Louis XV. Madame d'Ejiinay died in 17H3. Epiphany ; a festival, otherAvise called the manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, observed on the 6th of January, in honor of the appearance of our Savior to the three magi, or Aviso men, who came to adore him, and bring him presents. The kings of England and Spain offer gold, frankincense and myrrh, on Epiphany, or twelfth day, in memory ofthe offerings of the aviso met) to the infant Jesus. The festival of Ejiiphany is called by the Greeks, the ft ust of lights, because our Savior is said to have been bajitized on this day; the baptism is by them called illumination. The feast of Epijihany is also called, in Germany, the festival of the time holy k!n