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ENCYCLOPAEDIA   AMERICANA./^,"*"


                       A


        POPULAR  DICTIONARY

                       OF


ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND

                   BIOGRAPHY,


          BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME;


                     INCLUDING


    A COPIOUS COLLECTION OF  ORIGINAL ARTICLES

                       IN


           AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY;

                       ON

THE  BASIS OF THE SEVENTH EDITION  OF THE  GERMAN


       CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON.

                     EDITED BY


            FRANCIS  LIEBER,

                    ASSISTED BY


                E. WIGGLESWORTH.
Vol. II.
                 IDIjUatfCLpijia:

             CAREY  AND LEA.
SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART—IN NEW YORK
         BY G. & C. & H. CARVILL—IN BOSTON BY
               CARTER & HEN DEE.

                    1830. 
\.U
                        EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit .-

  8k  it remembered, that on the tenth day of August, in the fifty-fourth year of tho Independence of the
United States of America, A. D. 1829, Carey, Lea & Carey, of the said district, have deposited in this office
the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as proprietors, in the words following, to wit:
  " Encyclopedia  Americana.  A  Popular Dictionary of Arts, Sciences,  Literature,  History, Politics  and
Biography, brought down to the present Time; including a copious Collection of Original Articles in American
Biography; on the Basis of the seventh Edition of the German Conversations-Lexicon.  Edited by Francis Liebur,
assisted by E. Wigglesworth '
  In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act  for the encouragement  of
learning,  by securing the copies of maps, charts and books to the authors and  proprietors of such copies,
during the times therein mentioned:"  and also to the act, entitled,  " An Act supplementary to an act, entitled,
' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts  and books to the authors
and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein  mentioned;' and extending the benefits thereof to the
arts of designing  engraving and etching historical and other prints."
                                                                   D. CALDWELL,
                                                        Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania,
5
EM


 V.I 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA   AMERICANA.
   JL»attle-Axe ; a weapon much used in
the early part of the middle ages, particu-
larly by the people who  fought  on  foot.
It was not uncommon, however, among
the knights, who used also the  mace, a
species of iron club  or  hammer.  Both
are to be seen in the  different collections
of old arms in Europe.   Both  these
weapons,  and  another kind, called,  in
German, Morgenstern (morning star), con-
sisting of a staff, having an iron ball at
the end, with cross iron spikes, served  to
give stunning  blows, whose force  was
felt through the iron armor of the  knights.
Knights  used  chiefly the  Morgenstern
and the mace.  The Greeks and Romans
did not employ the battle-axe, though it
was found among contemporary  nations.
In fact, the  axe is one  of the  earliest
weapons, its use, as an instrument of do-
mestic industry, naturally suggesting its
application for purposes  of  offence ; but,
at the  same time, it will always be aban-
doned  as  soon  as the art of fencing, at-
tacking and  guarding is  the least culti-
vated ;  because the  heavier the  blow
given with this  instrument, the more will
it  expose  the fighter.   It  is a  weapon
which  affords hardly any guard, and it
never would have remained so  long in
use in  the middle ages, had it not been
for the iron armor, which protected the
body from  every thing but heavy blows.
In England,  Ireland and Scotland, the
battle-axe  was much  employed.  At the
battle of Bannockburn, king Robert Bruce
clave an English champion  down to the
chine with one blow of his axe.   A blow
of equal force was given by a Suabian
knight, in  the Levant, in presence of the
German emperor.   The  Lochaber  axe
remained a formidable implement of de-
struction in the hands of the Highlanders
nearly to the present period, and is still
used, by the city-guard of Edinburgh, in
quelling riots, &e.
  Battle-Piece ;  a painting which rep-
resents a battle, exhibiting large masses
of men in action.   The armor of the an-
cients, and the whole array and action of
their battles, afford subjects much more
favorable to the artist than the straight
lines, or condensed columns, and the fire-
arms of the moderns.   A painter of bat-
tle-pieces  ought to  have  an   accurate
knowledge  of the  appearance of horses
and men, and, if possible, to have seen a
battle, as few  persons are able  to form
from hearsay an accurate idea of such a
scene.  Some  of the  greatest pieces  of
this kind are,  the battle of Constantine,
of which  the  cartoons were drawn  by
Raphael, and  which  was  executed  by
Giulio Romano; Lebrun's battles of Al-
exander, and the battles of the Amazons,
by Rubens.  From these may be distin-
guished the skirmishes,  surprises,  &c,
which are  represented with so much
skill  by Antonio Tempesta, John Snel-
link, Jos. van der Velde, John  Asselyn,
Peter Sneyers, Robert von Hoek,  Ful-
cone, called oracolo delle battaglie, James
Courtois, Francis van der Meulen, Philip
Wouvermann,  Charles Breydel, Henry
Verschuuring and George Philip Rugen-
das.
  Battoges, Battacks ; two thin sticks,
with  which  criminals in Russia were
formerly beaten upon their naked backs.
The criminal was laid upon the ground,
and one of the executioners sat upon his
head, another upon his feet. By the code
of Catherine II,  this  punishment was
abolished. 
4                        BATTUECAS—BAUTZEN.
  Battuecas, Las;  two valleys, enclosed
by high mountains, in the Spanish king-
dom of Leon, 50 miles  from Salamanca,
about a Spanish mile long, and so inac-
cessible that the  inhabitants are  said to
have been unknown to the Spaniards for
several centuries.  However, a convent of
Carmelites was built in the Battuecas val-
leys as early as 1559.  They are situated
so low, that, in the longest days, the  sun
only shines there for four hours. The com-
mon account, that these valleys  were dis-
covered in the 16th century, by two lovers,
who fled there to escape the pursuit of
their families, has been declared by father
Feyjoo  to  be  unfounded.  Madame  de
Genlis has founded upon this  story her
romance Las  Battuecas  (Paris, 1816, 2
vols.);  but  she  labors under a mistake
when she asserts  that M. de Bourgoing,
in his Travels through Spain, has quoted,
as a historical fact, what she relates of
the Battuecas.
  Baucis ; a Phrygian woman; the wife
of Philemon.  They received Jupiter and
Mercury hospitably, after  these gods had
been  denied hospitality  in the whole
country, while travelling in disguise.  A
deluge destroyed  the remainder  of the
people,  but  Philemon and  Baucis, with
their cottage, were saved.  They  begged
the gods to make their cottage a temple,
in which they could officiate as priest and
priestess, and that they  might die  togeth-
er;  which was  granted.  Philemon and
Baucis are therefore  names  often  used to
indicate faithful  and attached married
people.
  Bauman Islands ;  a cluster of islands
in the South Pacific  ocean, discovered, in
1722, by Bauman, in his voyage round
the world with  Roggewein.  All  the in-
habitants, says a writer, are  white; some
of them burned  by  the  sun:  they are
numerous, and armed with bows and ar-
rows, but represented as of a gentle and
humane disposition, and friendly to stran-
gers.  The largest island is about 21 or
22 miles in circumference, with good an-
chorage.  Lon.  173° W.;  lat. 12° S.
  Batjmann's Cavern (in German, Bau-
mannshdhle); an interesting natural cavern
in the Harz, in the principality of Blan-
kenburg, on the left bank of the  Bode,
about five miles from Blankenburg, in a
limestone  mountain,  consisting  of six
principal apartments, besides many small-
er ones, every where covered with stalac-
tites.   The  earthy ingredients of these
petrifactions are held in solution  by the
water, which penetrates  the  rock,  and
deposits a  calcarious stone. The name
of this cavern is derived from a  miner
who entered it, in 1672, with the view of
finding ore, but lost his way, and wander-
ed about for two days before he could find
the entrance.   He soon after died.
  Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb,born,
in 1714,  at Berlin,  an acute and clear
thinker, of the school of Wolf, studied at
Halle, and was, for a time, professor ex-
traordinary there.  In 1740, he was made
professor of philosophy at Frankfort on the
Oder, and died there in 1762.  He is the
founder of aesthetics as  a science,  and
the inventor  of this  name.  He derived
the rules of art from the works of art and
their effects.   Hereby he distinguished
himself advantageously from the theorists
of his time. (See JEsthetics.)  His ideas of
this science he first developed in his aca-
demical discussion, DeNonnullisadPoema
pertinentibus (Halle, 1735,4to). George Fr.
Meier's Principles of all  Liberal Sciences
(3 vols., Halle, 1748—50) originated  from
his suggestions.  Eight  years  later, B.
published his JEsthetica (Frankfort on the
Oder, 1750—58, 2 vols.), a work  which
death prevented him from completing.
  Bause, John Frederic, a distinguished
German engraver, born at Halle, in 1738,
died at Weimar, 1814. He resided chief-
ly at Leipsic, where he  executed many
highly esteemed engravings. He was  a
member of several academies of fine arts.
  Bautzen, or Budessin; capital of Up-
per Lusatia, in the part belonging to the
king of Saxony, upon a height defended
on the west side by steep rocks, the foot
of which is watered by the Spree. Among
the 11,500 inhabitants, who are  princi-
pally Lutherans, there are a great number
of Wendes,or descendants of the Vandals,
who worship  in  a Lutheran and  in  a
Catholic church, in  their own language.
The German  part of the population, both
Catholic and Protestant, worship together
in the cathedral: the former are in  pos-
session of the third  part  of  it, including
the high altar, sufficiently large  for the
small Catholic congregation; the  nave
serves the Lutheran community as  their
parish church, and  the  mutual spirit of
toleration  in  both parties has, in recent
times, prevented  trouble from  such an
arrangement.—Here  was fought,  on the
20th and 21st of May, 1813, the  second
great battle in the campaign  of the Prus-
sians and Russians against  the French.
The allies had been compelled, after the
battle of Liitzen (May 2,  1813), to retreat
to the right bank of the  Elbe, and  pre-
pared themselves, near Bautzen  on the
Spree, for a new engagement.  Although 
BAUTZEN—BAVARIA.
5
 the army of Napoleon was far superior in
 number, being  strengthened  by  rein-
 forcements from  France, Italy and the
 troops of the confederation of the Rhine,
 so as  to amount to about 148,000 men,
 yet the allies  determined to risk a battle,
 that Prussia might gain time for its levies
 in Silesia, and Napoleon be checked in his
 advance as much as possible.  It was also
 desirable that the wavering cabinet of Aus-
 tria should be convinced that the army was
 able to make  a stand against the enemy,
 and that the courage of the new Prussian
 recruits should not be damped by contin-
 ual  retreat, but,  on the contrary,  their
 wish for battle gratified.  On the morning
 of May 20, Napoleon disclosed  his  plan
 of attack.  In the  evening, the French
 had  gained the city of Bautzen.  On the
 21st, the fight continued until 4 o'clock
 in the  afternoon, when the allies resolved
 on a retreat, which was performed in such
 order,  that Napoleon was not able to gain
 any immediate advantage from his victo-
 ry.  The field of battle was covered  with
 the dead, and was lighted  by 30 burning
 villages.   The French  loss was about
 8000 men  killed, and 18,000 wounded;
 that of the allies, between 8 and 12,000.
 Napoleon, to encourage his troops, assign-
 ed 25,000,000 francs tor the erection of a
 monument upon mount Cenis, as a token
 of his  gratitude towards the French and
 Italian troops.  The rear  of the  allies
 repulsed two serious attacks, and, contrary
 to the expectations of  Napoleon,  they
 marched to the intrenched camp of  Piil-
 zen.    But  Lauriston occupied  Breslau.
 The position of the allies, threatening the
 right wing of the  French army, the great
 loss which the French had suffered, and
 the detached  corps, which cut off Napo-
 leon's  communication with Saxony, in-
 duced  him to  accede to a suspension of
 arms on the 4th of June, near the city of
 Jauer.  (See  War of 1812—1815.)
  Bavaria.  At the time of the general
 migration  of  the  barbarians, the regions
 formerly inhabited by the Boii, the Celts
 of the  Danube, were taken possession of
 by some German tribes.   This  country,
 in the time of Caesar, had  been  a waste,
 and, in the time  of Augustus, a Roman
 province  (Vindelicia and Noricum).   At
 the end of the fifth century, these tribes—
 the Heruli, the Rugians, the Turcilingians
 and the Skyres—formed  a confederacy,
 like  those of the  Franks and the Mar-
comanni,  under  the name Baioarians.
 They spread from Noricum westward to
the Lech.   Ratisbon was their chief seat.
This country  was then called Noricum,
 and,  according  to  Mannert, was  never
 subjected to the Ostrogoths.  When the
 Franks took possession of Rhoetia, the
 Baioarians became subject to them.  The
 people, however, still retained the liberty
 of choosuig their own rulers.  After the
 division of the empire  of Charlemagne,
 this region was disturbed, like the rest of
 Europe, by the conflicting claims of rival
 dukes,  till the  time of Otho the Great,
 count palatine of Wittelsbach.  Otho, the
 ancestor of the present dynasty, died in
 1183.   His successor, Louis I,  enlarged
 the Bavarian territory, and acquired the
 palatinate of the Rhine.  He was mur-
 dered in 1231, probably at the instigation
 of Henry, whose  rebellion against  his
 father, the emperor Frederic II, the duke
 had censured.  He was succeeded by his
 son Otho, the Illustrious, palatine  of" the
 Rhine.   Under  his reign, the bishops
 made themselves independent.  His do-
 minions, however, were considerably in-
 creased.  His attachment to the  emperor
 involved  him in the excommunication
 pronounced against that prince.  He died
 in 1253.  His  sons, Louis and  Henry,
 reigned for two years in conjunction.  In
 1255,  they divided the territories, Louis
 receiving  Upper and Heiwy Lower Ba-
 varia.  The line  of the latter  became
 extinct a few years afterwards.  The in-
 heritance  of the unhappy Conradin of
 Hohenstaufen fell into the hands of these
 princes.  One of the two sons of Louis
 was  raised to the  imperial dignity, in
 1314,  under the title  of Louis IV (q. v.),
 called the Bavarian.  He entered into an
 agreement with the sons of his brother
 (Pavia, 1329) for the  division of the do-
 minions of the  family.   In  consequence
 of this agreement,  king Maximilian Jo-
 seph  united all  the dominions of the
 Wittelsbach dynasty in 1799.  After the
 extinction of the Lower Bavarian line,
 the emperor Louis,  by the desire of his
 states, united Lower with Upper Bavaria.
 The emperor introduced a new code of
 laws for Upper Bavaria, a new organiza-
 tion of the courts for Lower Bavaria, con-
 ferred the privileges of a city on Munich,
 and reduced to order the internal admin-
 istration.  He died Oct. 11, 1347, leaving
 six sons by two marriages.  His domin-
 ions included Bavaria, Brandenburg, the
 provinces  of Holland and Zealand, Tyrol,
 &c.   These provinces were soon lost by
the divisions and dissensions of the dif-
ferent lines.  Most of the lines founded
by the six brothers early became extinct.
In 1506, a diet of the states of Upper and
Lower Bavaria  was assembled by duke 
6
BAVARIA.
Albert II, who, with the consent of his
brother Wolfgang,  and of  the  estates,
published a pragmatic  sanction, intro-
ducing  the  law of primogeniture,  and
fixing the allowance of the younger sons.
Albert died in 1508.  Of his three sons,
William IV, Louis and Ernest, William
ought, accordingly, to have been  his sole
heir.  The authority  was, however, di-
vided, after much contest, between Wil-
liam IV and Louis, until the  death of the
latter, in 1534.  These princes were both
opposed to  the reformation.   Luther's
most violent opponent, John Eck, lived at
Ingolstadt, under their protection, which
they also extended to the Jesuits.  Wil-
liam died in 1550 ; his son Albert V, the
Generous, succeeded  him.   He  also fa-
vored the Jesuits, but was a liberal patron
of the arts and sciences.  The states re-
ceived  from him great  privileges.   He
died in 1579.  Of three sons, the eldest,
William V, the Pious, succeeded  him,
and, in 1596, resigned the  government to
his eldest son, Maximilian I, and retired
to a monastery.  Maximilian, a prince of
distinguished abilities, was the soul of the
league  formed  against  the  Protestant
union.  In  the  course of the 30 years'
war, which had just broken out, Maxi-
milian was invested, by the emperor Fer-
dinand II (1623),  with the dignity of
elector palatine.  The peace of West-
phalia confirmed Maximilian in  the elec-
toral dignity and the possession of the
upper palatinate, in return for the renun-
ciation of Upper Austria, which had been
pledged to him for 13,000,000 florins, ex-
penses of war;  and, on the other hand,
a new electorate, the eighth, was estab-
lished for the palatinate fine, and its suc-
cession to the  title and territory of the
original electorate was settled, in case of
the failure of the line of William.  Max-
imilian died Sept. 27, 1651, after a reign
of 55 years.  He was succeeded by his
son Ferdinand  Maria, who was  succeed-
 ed, in 1679, by his eldest son, Maximilian
 Emanuel.   In the war of the Spanish suc-
 cession, the elector declared for France.
 After the unfortunate battle  at Blenheim,
 Bavaria was treated by  the  emperor
 as a  conquered country.   The elector
 was put under the ban of the empire in
 1706, and was  not reinstated in his gov-
 ernment till the peace of Baden (1714).
 After his death, in 1726, Charles Albert
 succeeded  him in the  electoral dignity.
 Although  he had signed the pragmatic
 sanction of the emperor Charles VI, yet,
 after the death of the emperor, and the
 beginning of the  first Silesian war, so
fortunate  for  the king of  Prussia,  he
claimed  the  whole Austrian  territory,
subjected all Upper Austria, assumed the
title of archduke of Austria, after the cap-
ture of Prague in the same year received
homage as king of Bohemia, and was
elected emperor of Germany, at  Frank-
fort, 1742, under the title of Charles VII.
But  here  his  fortune began to decline.
As he had received the homage of Aus-
tria and  Bohemia,  so, after the  sudden
change in the  fortune of the war (1743),
Maria Theresa obliged the states of Bava-
ria, and of the upper palatinate, to swear
allegiance to  her.  Notwithstanding his
alliance  with  the landgrave of  Hcsse-
Cassel and Frederic II (1744), and the
progress  of the Prussian arms, Charles
was compelled, by the superior talent of
the Austrian general, Charles of Lorraine,
to expose Bavaria.  He  did not  live to
see the end of the war, but died Jan. 20,
1745. His son and successor, Maximilian
Joseph III, who also assumed, at first,
the title  of archduke of Austria, made
peace with Austria soon after, at  Fussen
(April 22,1745), became one of the guar-
antees of the  pragmatic  sanction, prom-
ised the archduke Francis his vote in the
election of emperor, and received, in  re-
turn,  all  the  Bavarian territories which
had  been conquered by Austria.   Maxi-
milian Joseph devoted himself entirely to
the good of his country.  He encouraged
agriculture, manufactures, mining; regu-
lated the judicial establishments, the po-
lice,  the  finances, and  institutions  for
instruction ; the sciences were promoted
by the foundation of the academy of sci-
ences at Munich, in 1759, and the fine
arts found in him a liberal protector.  He,
himself without  children,  confirmed all
the contracts relating to  the inheritance,
which had been made with  the electoral
line  of the palatinate since the treaty of
Pa via (1329).   In  compliance with the
treaties  of the house of Wittelsbach, as
well as with  the terms of the peace  of
Westphalia,  the right of succession  in
Bavaria reverted, undeniably, to the elec-
tor of the palatinate, since  the Wittels-
bach-Bavarian line became extinct  on
the death of  Maximilian  Joseph, 30th of
Dec, 1777.  Austria then laid claim to
Lower Bavaria, and attempted to  support
her demands by arms, without any previ-
ous  declaration of war.   Charles Theo-
dore, being without children,  was per-
suaded  to sign a treaty (Jan.  3  and  14,
 1778), formally renouncing the Bavarian
 succession. But the duke of Deux-Ponts,
 uncle of the reigning king, the nearest 
BAVARIA.                               7
agnate and presumptive heir, encouraged
by Frederic II, refused  to  acknowledge
that  renunciation.   This  was the origin
of the war of the  Bavarian succession,
which was terminated, without bloodshed
(owing chiefly to the Russian declaration
of war against Austria), by the peace of
Teschen, May 13, 17/9.   The possession
of Bavaria, from which Austria  obtained
only  the lnnviertel, with Braunau  (800
square miles), was secured to the elector
palatine of Bavaria, according to the fam-
ily compacts.  By this union of the Ba-
varian dominions,  the eighth  electorate
became extinct,  according  to the terms
of the peace  of Westphalia.   In  1784,
however, the possession of Bavaria again
became an object  of desire at  Vienna,
and  an exchange was proposed, which
had been already a subject of negotiation
in the beginning of the century.   The
emperor Joseph II proposed to  the elec-
tor to exchange Bavaria for the Austrian
Netherlands (excluding Luxemburg and
Namur), and  the sum of 3,000,000 flor-
ins for himself and the  duke  of Deux-
Ponts, with the title of king of Burgundy.
This  project, though favored by Russia,
was  disappointed by the  firmness of the
duke  of Deux-Ponts, who, encouraged
by the  protection  of Prussia,  declared
" that he would never consent to barter
away the inheritance of his ancestors."
The zeal with which Frederic II adopted
the cause of Bavaria, induced the cabinet
of Vienna to relinquish  the plan, and to
declare, at the same time,  "that there
never had been and never would be any
intention of  a forced exchange."   (See
League of the Princes.)  The  reign  of
Charles Theodore  was  remarkable for
the rise of the llluminati  (q. v.) in Bava-
ria, for  the processes against them, and
the revival of Jesuitism.  During these
troubles, the liberty  of the press was  con-
tinually more and more restrained, and  a
period of intellectual darkness appeared
to be about to commence.  In  the war
of the French revolution, the elector sent
his contingent to the army of the empire.
The   palatinate suffered  much,  and,  in
1796, Bavaria itself became the theatre
of war.  At  this crisis (Feb. 16, 1799),
Charles Theodore died without issue, and
the Sulzbach  branch of the line of the
palatinate became extinct with him.  The
duke  Maximilian Joseph of Deux-Ponts
came into possession of  all  the Bavarian
territories.  The peace of Luneville (Feb.
9, 1801) put an end  to the renewed war,
and its most important article—the cession
of the left bank of the Rhine to France—
essentially affected  Bavaria.  Whilst it
lost all its possessions on the left bank of
the Rhine, and also  the lands of the  pa-
latinate on the right bank, it obtained, on
the other hand, by an imperial  edict, an
indemnification, by which it gained, in
addition  to the amount lost, a surplus of
2109 square miles,and 216,000 inhabitants.
The political importance of Bavaria, with
respect to Austria as well as to France, was
more fully displayed in the war of 1805.
When Austria resumed hostilities against
France, she required the elector of Bava-
ria to  unite his troops with the  Austrian
army, and refused to allow him to remain
neutral, "which  (as the  emperor Fran-
cis wrote to  the  elector, Sept.  3,  1804)
France herself would only suffer as long
as she should find it expedient."  Bava-
ria, however, did not  find it accordant
with its own  interests  to  place itself en-
tirely in  the  power of Austria.  At  the
beginning of the war, the elector joined
the French with about 30,000 troops, and
the peace of Presburg  annexed  to  his
dominions  10,595  square  miles,  and
1,000,000 inhabitants,  and conferred on
him the  dignity of king ; in return for
which, he ceded  Wiirzburg, which was
erected into an electorate, in the place of
Salzburg.  The king of Bavaria, like the
rulers  of Wiirtemberg and  Baden, now
assumed  sovereignty over the  lands of
the nobility of the empire within his bor-
ders.   The political connexion  recently
formed with  France was  confirmed by
the marriage of  the  princess Augusta,
daughter of the king, with Eugene Na-
poleon, viceroy of Italy, son-in-law of the
French emperor.  An immediate conse-
quence of this alliance was the exchange
of Berg, which Bavaria  surrendered to
Napoleon, for Anspach,  which  Prussia
had given up to France in exchange  for
Hanover, and finally, what was most im-
portant, the signing  of the confederation
of the Rhine (July 12, 1806), hi which
Bavaria promised  to bring into  the field
30,000 troops, and  to  fortify Augsburg
and  Lindau.  Thereupon, the  king of
Bavaria was  Obliged to take part in  the
war against Prussia, in 1806, and  in  the
war against Austria, in 1809, one of  the
consequences of which was the revolution
of Tyrol.  After  its termination, Bavaria
received important additions, partly at the
expense of Austria, partly by treaties of
exchange with Wiirtemberg  and Wiirz-
burg.—When, in  1812, the war  between
France and  Russia broke out, Bavaria
sent anew its  whole proportion of troops
to the French army.   Insignificant  re- 
8                                BAVARIA.
mains only of the 30,000  Bavarians re-
turned in the spring of 1813.  Maximil-
ian Joseph, notwithstanding this sacrifice,
placed fresh troops under  the command
of Napoleon as the protector of the con-
federation of the  Rhine, when the new
campaign was opened, near the close of
April.   This army also  suffered great
losses,  but distinguished  itself with its
wonted bravery, under the command of
marshal Oudinot.  It suffered particularly
in the battles of Luckau and Grossbeeren
(1813).  At this time, the whole political
system of Bavaria was suddenly changed.
Whilst the French  army of observation
was  formed at Wurzburg,  under  Au-
gereau, a Bavarian corps of observation
was  placed  on the Inn,  over against a
division of the Austrian  army.   For a
long time, both corps remained inactive.
The  departure of  the corps of Augereau,
by which Bavaria was exposed in its most
vulnerable point,  accelerated the  resolu-
tion  of its king.  The Bavarian general
Wrede concluded an armistice with the
Austrian  general  Frimont, October 8, at
Ried, which was followed by a proclama-
tion, October 15,  by which the king of
Bavaria abandoned the  confederation of
the Rhine, and turned his  forces  against
France.  In this convention, his present
territories, with  full sovereignty, were
assured  to the king, and a  sufficient
indemnification for  those  lands  which
should be made over to Austria.  At the
same time,  Wrede,  as  commander-in-
chief, united the Austrian  corps with his
own,  and  turned the Bavarian  arms
against the  French,  in the battle of Ha-
nau.   In 1815, at the breaking out of the
new  war, the present king, then crown-
prince, took the command of the national
army.  Meanwhile, the congress  of  Vi-
enna, and, more particularly, the prepara-
tion  of the statutes  of the German diet
(as well as the different interests originat-
ing from the new European, and espe-
cially the new German system of states),
had  given sufficient opportunity  to  the
Bavarian government for the develope-
ment of its system of diplomacy.   Bava-
ria has jealously maintained its station as
an independent sovereign  state.   Since
1825, Bavaria has been under the govern-
ment of Louis I, the most liberal of the
German princes.  He has hitherto acted
with much energy.—Bavaria was erected
into  a kingdom in 1805, and  is now one
of the most considerable of the secondary
states of Europe.  It is composed of the
greater part of the circles of Bavaria and
Franconia,  part of  Suabia, and, on  the
 west side  of the  Rhine, embraces  the
 greater part of that portion of the circle
 of Upper  Rhine  included  in  the  late
 French department of  Mont Tonnerre.
 Exclusive  of the part west of the Rhine,
 it is bounded N. by  Hesse-Darmstadt,
 Hesse-Cassel, and the Saxon principalities
 of Mciningen, Hildburghausen, Coburg
 and  Reuss, and the kingdom of Saxony ;
 E. and S.  by Austria, and W.  by Wiir-
 temberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt.—
 The kingdom of Bavaria is divided into the
 8 following circles:—Iser, Upper Maine,
 Lower Maine, Rezat, Regen, Upper Dan-
 ube, Lower Danube, Rhine.  The  last is
 on the west side  of the river  Rhine.—
 This  kingdom  contains  32,000 square
 miles  and  3,800,000 inhabitants.  Its ar-
 my  is 53,900 strong,  of whom 35,800
 form the seventh corps d'armee of the
 German confederacy.   Its  public debt
 amounted,  in  Sept., 1824, to 103,157,859
 florins; the income was, at the same time,
 29,132,260   florins.   The present king,
 Louis, endeavors, with  much zeal, to in-
 troduce economy into  the expenses of
 the government: he has diminished  the
 standing army, and discharged many offi-
 cers from  the civil government.—The
 various inhabitants of this country differ
 very much  in their character, the Bava-
 rian, from the highlands near Tyrol, and
 the Franconian, in  the north part of the
 kingdom, being as unlike as any  two Ger-
 mans probably can be ;  and the different
 parts of this young kingdom have been so
 recently united, that it is not possible to
 speak of any character as common to its
 inhabitants.  The native of Upper Bava-
 ria is hardy, laborious,  short in stature.
 Many portions of the population are dis-
tinguished  by mechanical talent.  The
 excellence  of Frauenhofer's  telescopes
and Bader's rail-road is generally known.
Munich and Nuremberg have, in recent
times, produced more philosophical instru-
ments than any other two cities of Ger-
many.  (See Munich.)  The manufactures
 of Bavaria include linen, woollen and cot-
 ton cloths, iron, fire-arms, and other arti-
 cles, designed chiefly for the supply of
 domestic wants.  Glass, paper, clocks and
 hard ware are also made in several of  the
principal towns.  The common language
of Bavaria,  of course, is German; but  the
 dialects vary much, from the strong Fran-
 conian spoken in Wurzburg to the broad
 Swiss dialect in Lindau.   At the head of
 each of the circles, into which the kingdom
 is divided, stands a general commissioner
 (General Krdscommissair), with great pow-
 er, chiefly of an executive character.   All 
BAVARIA.                               9
the lower courts, municipal magistrates,
village officers, &c, are under his control.
The judiciary consists of a high court of
appeal (Ober Appellations Gericht) at Mu-
nich ;  also a  court of  appeal for  each
circle, and the inferior courts.  The Codex
juris  Bavarici  has been in force since
Jan. 1, 1811.   The  penal code is  now
under revision.  A complete code is also
in preparation.  (See Feuerbach.)   The
executive consists  of a  privy  council,
called Geheime Rath, composed of 4 min-
isters  of state, the 4 crown-officers, and
from  12 to 16 other members, who delib-
erate  in  3 sections on the affairs of the
kingdom.  The affairs  of the Catholics
in the kingdom are regulated by the con-
cordat concluded with Pius VII,  Jan. 5,
1817, which, in 1821, was promulgated
as the law  of the land.   Those of the
Protestants are under the  direction of a
general consistory.  The two sects live
without  contention.   The circumstance
that the queen  of the  late king was a
Protestant (as is also the present queen,
if we are not  greatly mistaken) had a
most  beneficial influence.   In the smaller
council of the  German diet, Bavaria has
the third place, and  in  the plenum has
Tour votes.  (See  German Confederacy.)
Education made  much progress under
the government of the  late  Maximilian
Joseph, and it is to be expected  that the
present king, who  has manifested liberal
views, on many occasions, more openly
than  any prince of the continent now
living, will continue to give it the aid of
the government.  Many seminaries  for
the  training of instructers  have  been
erected,  and the academy of sciences at
Munich, with  the three universities at
Munich, Wurzburg  and Erlangen, pro-
duce   the  best results.   (See  Munich,
 Wurzburg and Erlangen.)  The  first of
these  universities  contains nearly  2000
students, whilst the  medical department
of Wurzburg is considered one of the
first in Europe.  Agriculture and indus-
try in general have received, since the
reign  of Maximilian,  much attention.
Several  institutions for promoting  them
have  been established, including agricul-
tural  seminaries, in  which those young
men  who prepare themselves for village
school-masters learn  gardening, &c.  A
festival  was  instituted  by Maximilian,
generally called the  October festival, at
which prizes  are  assigned, by order of
the king, for the best specimens of agri-
cultural  produce, the  best cattle, &c.
There are also races connected with this
celebration.    The  present king, when
crown-prince, was a liberal patron of the
fine  arts,  and still  affords them much
encouragement.   As Bavaria is  entirely
an inland  country, and has no great river
crossing it, its commercial resources could
be fully developed only in case of a  per-
fectly free intercourse between  all  the
German states; to obtain which, efforts
have  several times  been made,  but, un-
happily, in  vain.   A great  canal,  near
Nuremberg, has been sometimes spoken
of, to unite, by means of small rivers, the
Rhine and  Danube, a work  begun by
Charlemagne: the traces of his work, still
remaining,  are called fossa  Carolina:
but the expense would be great for so
small a kingdom, and it is very doubtful
whether the commerce carried on in this
way would be considerable,  depending,
as it would, upon so many governments,
from the Turkish to that  of the  Nether-
lands.—According to Rudhart,  Bavaria
contains 1384 noble families.  Agriculture
is the chief branch of industry. Bavarian
beer is excellent.
  Bavaria, constitution of. Like  most of
the states  of the middle ages, Bavaria had
its constitution.  No other state  of  Ger-
many has so  complete  a collection of
works relating to its ancient form of gov-
ernment.  The estates consisted, as usual,
of the three classes—the prelates, among
whom the university had  the first rank;
the nobility, and the burgesses.  Their
privileges were great, but early lost by
dissension among themselves.  The last
diet was holden in 1669. A  committee
of the estates arrogated the privileges be-
longing to the whole body; the seculari-
zation of the ecclesiastical establishments,
in 1803, made the old constitution still
more inefficient,  and, in  1808,  the  sys-
tem of the estates was abolished;  but
an order was issued, May 1 of the same
year, instituting a new constitution.  The
king of Bavaria was the first among the
sovereigns of Germany to fulfil the prom-
ise contained in the thirteenth article of
the ordinances of the German confedera-
tion,  which assures the people that they
shall receive constitutional forms of gov-
ernment.    The  king promulgated the
new  representative  constitution  May 26,
1818.  The system  of the two chambers
has  been adopted.  The chamber of
peers, or, as they are called  in  Bavaria,
Rrichs Rathe (counsellors of  the realm),
consists of the princes, the crown-officers,
2 archbishops, the 16 seniors of the fami-
lies which were formerly members of the
German  empire,  1  bishop, appointed by
the king, the president of the Protestant 
10                         BAVARIA—BAXTER.
 consistory, besides  15 hereditary peers,
 and 12 who hold their stations  for life,
 chosen by the king.  The lower cham-
 ber  consists  of  14  representatives of
 the lower  nobility, 1  representative of
 each of the three universities of the king-
 dom, 9 representatives of the Catholic, and
 5 of the Protestant clergy, 2 of Munich,
 1 of Augsburg, 1 of Nuremberg, 24 of all
 the other  cities and market-places,  and
 56 of the  land-owners (not noblemen).
 The elections in the cities are badly con-
 ducted, as they are in the  hands of the
 city councils, the mayors, &e.   Another
 great fault is, that the amount of property
 required in a representative is so great,
 that whole districts are excluded from
 representation.  The  rights which  the
 representatives have are  not altogether
 insignificant;  yet tliere arc many other
 things wanted, as,  a  perfectly free press,
 and many real guarantees of freedom, be-
 fore we can speak of it as actually existing
 in Bavaria.  The ministers  are  responsi-
 ble, and yet their power is unconstitution-
 ally great.   It would not be very difficult
 for the Bavarian government to do  any
 thing they pleased, without encountering
 many constitutional obstacles.   The  first
 meeting of the representatives was held
 Feb. 4, 1819.   There is 1 representative
 for about 35,000  souls.  The  constitu-
 tion is a granted one, viz., given by the
 king, not a compact between two parties,
 the  people  and the ruler.   It  promises
 liberty and  equal rights to all religions,
 and also freedom of  the press, which,
 however, no American or  Englishman
 would call  truly free.  Bond-service is
 abolished.  The king appoints the presi-
 dent of the representatives.
  Bavius, Marcus, and Mavius ; still  no-
 torious as two miserable poets and pre-
 sumptuous  critics, satirized by Virgil.
  Bawdy-House ;  a  house of ill fame, to
 which  persons of  both sexes resort  for
 sexual  intercourse.  Such houses, under
 the name of brothels or stews, are licensed
 by  the laws of some  countries.  They
 were formerly licensed in England, from
 the reign of Henry II to the last year of
 Henry  VIII, when they were suppressed
 by sound of trumpet, with as great cere-
 mony as the religious houses.  The laws
of most civilized  countries prohibit the
keeping of  bawdy-houses, as tending not
only to the corruption of morals and
manners, but also to a breach of the peace,
by bringing together disorderly and  vi-
cious people.  The  keeping of such a
house is indictable at the common law,
and so is the frequenting of it; but these
  offences are, most generally, the subjects
  of positive  statutes.   In some parts of
  Europe, such houses are  licensed,  and
  under the care of the medical police.
   Baxter, Andrew; an ingenious philos-
  opher and metaphysician.   He was a na-
  tive  of Aberdeen, and  was educated at
  King's college in  that city; after  which
  he was employed as  a  private  tutor.
  About 1730, he published an Enquiry into
  the Nature of the Human Soul; wherein
  the Immateriality of the Soul is evinced
  from the Principles of Reason and Phi-
  losophy.  This work was applauded  by
  Warburton, and obtained for the author a
  high  reputation;  though his arguments,
  which are founded on the  vis inertiee of
  matter, have since been controverted by
  Hume and Colin Maclaurin.  In 1741, he
 went abroad with  one of his pupils, and
 remained for some years at Utrecht, where
 he contracted an acquaintance with some
 of the Dutch  literati.   He returned to
 Scotland in 1747, and resided at Whit-
 tingham, in East Lothian, where he died
 hi 1750, aged 63.   He  was the author  of
 a Latin treatise, entitled  Matho sive  Cos-
 motheoria puerilis Dialogus, which he af-
 terwards translated into English, and pub-
 lished in 2 vols. 12mo.
   Baxter,  Richard,  the most  eminent
 of the English nonconforming  divines
 of the 17th  century, was bom ill the vil-
 lage of llowton in 1615.  The  example
 of his father, who was accused of  Puri-
 tanism, gave him a serious turn very early
 in life.  After receiving his education, he
 was sent to London, under the patronage
 of sir Henry Herbert, master of the revels:
 but he soon returned  into the country
 with a view to study divinity, and, in 1638,
 received ordination in the church of Eng-
 land.   The imposition of the oath of uni-
 versal approbation  of  the  doctrine  and
 discipline of the church of England, usu-
 ally termed the et ccetera oath, detached
 him and many others from the establish-
 ment.  When the civil war broke out, he
 sided  with the parliament, and, after the
 battle  of Naseby, accepted the appointment
 of chaplain to colonel Whalley's regiment.
 He is  said to have been, the whole of this
time, a friend to the establishment, accord-
ing to his own notions, and to have re-
pressed sectaries as much as he was  able.
In 1647, he retired, in consequence of ill-
health, from his military chaplainship, and,
when  he recovered, opposed the measures
of those in power, and preached urgently
against the covenant.  He even endeav-
ored to persuade the soldiery not to en-
counter the Scottish troops who came 
BAXTER—BAYARD.
11
into the  kingdom with Charles II, and
hesitated not to express an open dislike
to the usurpation of* Cromwell, whom he
told, in a conference very characteristic
of both parties, that the people of England
deemed the ancient monarchy a blessing.
The fact is, that  B.,  with  many more
zealous reUgious partisans, held civil lib-
erty to be of secondary consequence  to
what he esteemed true religion, and ap-
pears, from the tenor of a  sermon which
he  preached before  Cromwell, to have
deemed the toleration of separatists and
sectaries the grand evil of his government.
After the restoration, he was made one
of the  king's chaplains, and a  commis-
sioner  of the Savoy conference, to draw
up  the reformed  liturgy.   The active
persecution  of the Nonconformists soon
followed; and, upon the  passing of the
act against conventicles, he retired, and
preached more or less openly, as the act
was more or less rigidly enforced.  After
the accession of James II, in  1685, he
was arrested for some passages in his
Commentary on the New Testament, sup-
posed  hostile to  Episcopacy,  and  was
tried for sedition.  The violence of Jef-
feries, who  would neither hear the ac-
cused nor his counsel, produced a verdict
of guilty on the  most frivolous grounds.
He was sentenced to two years' imprison-
ment and a heavy penalty, which, after
a short confinement,  the  king  remitted,
probably with some degree of compunc-
tion for the manner of  its  infliction.
Henceforward,  B.  lived  in a  retired
manner till his death, in 1691.   His wife
cheerfully shared all his sufferings on the
score of conscience,  both  in and out of
prison.  The character of  B. was formed
by  his age;  his failing was  subtle and
controversial theology;  his excellence,
practical piety.  In divinity, he sought to
establish a resting-place between strict
Calvinism and high-church Arminianism,
by the  admission of election, and the re-
jection of reprobation.  Christ died for
some especially,  and for  all generally;
that is to say, all possess  the means of
salvation. A body called Baxtcrians long
acknowledged these distinctions, and the
nonconformist clergy, after the revolu-
tion, were divided between this body, the
pure Calvinists, and the high-church pas-
sive-obedient Arminians.  B. was a vo-
luminous writer: his  Saints' Everlasting
Rest, and the Call to the Unconverted,
hive been extraordinarily popular.
  Bayadeer, iu the East Indies; young
girls, from 10 to 17 years of age, who are
instructed in dancing-, singing, and acting
little plays.   They are under the care of
matrons, who are experienced in all female
arts, and particularly in that of pleasing.
These  select from the lowest classes of
the people the most beautiful girls, of
seven or eight years of age, secure them,
by inoculation, from the disfiguring conse-
quences of  the small-pox, and  instruct
them  in all the arts of* their profession,
the object of which is to amuse the rich,
and minister to their  passions.   Their
presence is considered necessary, even at
the smallest entertainments. If any of the
spectators desires to become  better  ac-
quainted with the talents of a bayadeer,
only a  hint is needed.  For a girl of the
greatest attractions, the matron to whom
she belongs receives a hundred rupees for
an  evening,  and as much for a night,
besides a present for the girl.  After their
17th year, when their first charms have
faded, they retire to a pagoda (the temple
of their idols), under the protection of the
Bramins, but not, like public girls in  Eu-
rope, to become devotees. They continue
to exercise their profession in the temple,
and what they gain  belongs to the Bra-
mins,  who  give them food and shelter.
Their profession is not thought infamous
in India.
  Bayamo, or St. Salvador ; a town of
Cuba, on a river which forms a port on
the S.  E. coast; 520 miles E. S. E.  Ha
vannah; Ion. 76° 55'  W.; lat 20° 46' N.;
population  estimated at  12,000.  The
town is about 20  miles distant from the
port. It gives name to a channel situated
between the main land  of Cuba and  the
islands called the Qween's Gardens.
  Bayard,  Pierre du Terrail, chevalier
de, called the knight without fear and with-
out reproach, born in 1476, in the castle of
Bayard, near Grenoble, was one of the
most spotless characters of the  middle
ages.   He was simple and modest; a true
friend and tender lover;  pious, humane
and magnanimous.  The family of Ter-
rail, to which he belonged, was one of the
most ancient  in Dauphine, and was cele-
brated  for nobility and valor.  Young B.,
educated under the  eyes of  his uncle
George of  Terrail, bishop  of Grenoble,
early imbibed, in  the school of this wor-
thy prelate, the virtues which distinguish-
ed him afterwards.  At the age of 13, he
was  received among the pages of  the
duke  of Savoy,  the  ally  of France.
Charles VIII, who saw him at Lyons, in
the suite of this prince, was struck with
the dexterity with which the youth man-
aged his horse: he  begged him  of the
duke, and committed him to the care of 
12
BAYARD.
Paul of  Luxemburg, count de Ligny.
The tournaments were his first field of
glory.  At the age of 18, he accompanied
Charles VIII to Italy, and distinguished
himself greatly  in  the battle at Verona,
where he took a standard.  At the begin-
ning of the reign of Louis XII, in a battle
near Milan, he pursued the fugitives with
such eagerness,  that he entered the  city
with them, and was taken prisoner.   Lu-
dovico Sforza returned him his arms and
his horse, and dismissed him without ran-
som.  Whilst the French  were in Apu-
lia, B. defeated a Spanish  corps,  and
made their  leader, don Alonzo de Soto-
mayor, prisoner.  He treated him  with
generosity. Sotomayor, however, not only
violated his parole by flight, but calum-
niated B., who,  according to  the custom
of that time, challenged him, and killed
him.  Afterwards,  like Horatius Codes,
he defended a bridge over the Garigliano
singly against the  Spaniards, and saved
the French army by checking the advance
of the victorious enemy.  For this exploit,
he received as a coat of arms a porcupine,
with the motto  Vires agminis unus habet.
He distinguished himself equally against
the Genoese and the Venetians. When
Julius II declared himself against France,
B. went to the assistance of the duke of
Ferrara.   He did not succeed in his plan
of taking the pope prisoner; but he re-
fused, with indignation, an offer made to
betray him.  Being severely wounded at
the assault of Brescia, he was carried into
the house of a nobleman, who had fled,
and left his wife and two daughters ex-
posed to the insolence of the soldiers. B.
protected the family, refused the reward
of 2500 ducats, which they offered to him,
and returned, as soon as he was cured,
into the camp of Gaston de Foix, before
Ravenna.   In  an  engagement, which
shortly after ensued, he took two stand-
ards from the Spaniards, and pursued the
fugitives.   Gaston, the hope of France,
perished through his neglect of the advice
of B.  In the retreat from Pavia, B. was
again wounded. He was carried to Gre-
noble ; his life was in danger.  " I grieve
not for death," he said," but to die on my
bed, like a  woman." In  the war  com-
menced  by  Ferdinand the Catholic, he
displayed beyond the Pyrenees the same
talents, the same heroism, which had dis-
tinguished him beyond  the  Alps.   The
fatal reverses which imbittered the last
years of Louis XII only added a brighter
splendor  to the  personal glory of B.
Henry VIII of England, in alliance with
Ferdinand  and Maximilian, threatened
Picardy in 1513, and besieged Terouanc.
The French army disgracefully took to
flight.  B., with his accustomed intrepid-
ity, made an ineffectual resistance to  the
enemy: overpowered by superior num-
bers, nis troop was on the point of laying
down their arms, when B., perceiving an
English officer at some distance from
him, immediately galloped towards him,
presented his  sword to  his breast, and
cried, " Yield, or die !"  The Englishman
surrendered  his sword: B. immediately
gave him his own, saying, " I am Bayard,
and your captive, as you are mine." The
boldness and  ingenuity  of this action
pleased the emperor and the king of Eng-
land, who decided that B. needed no ran-
som, and that both captives were released
from their parole.   When Francis I  as-
cended the throne, he sent B.  into Dau-
phine, to open for his army a passage over
the Alps, and through Piedmont.  Pros-
per Colonna lay in  wait  for him on  his
march, expecting  to surprise him, but B.
made him prisoner.  This brilliant exploit
was the prelude to the battle of  Marigna-
no, in which B., at the side of the king,
performed wonders of bravery, and deci-
ded the victory.  After this glorious day,
Francis was knighted with the sword of B.
When Charles V invaded Champagne,
with a large army, and threatened to pene-
trate into the heart of France, B. defended
the  weakly-fortified town  of  Mezieres
against every assault, until the dissensions
of the hostile  leaders compelled them to
retreat. B. was saluted in Paris as the sav-
ior of his country: the  king bestowed on
him the order of St. Michael, and a compa-
ny of 100 men, which he was to command
in his own name—an  honor which, till
then, had only been conferred on princes
of  tbe  blood.  Soon afterwards, Genoa
revolted from France: B's presence  re-
duced it to obedience.  But, after the sur-
render of Lodi, fortune changed, and the
French troops were expelled from their
conquests.  Bonnivet was obliged to  re-
treat through the valley of Aosta; his rear
was beaten, and himself"severely wounded,
when  the safety of the army was com-
mitted to B.  It was necessary to pass the
Sesia in the presence of a superior enemy,
and B., always the last in  retreat, vigor-
ously  attacked the  Spaniards, when a
stone, from a blunderbuss, struck his right
side, and shattered  his back-bone. The
hero fell, exclaiming, "Jesus, my God, I
am a dead man!"  They hastened towards
him. " Place me under yon tree," he said,
" that I may see the enemy."   For want
of a crucifix, he  kissed the cross of his 
BAYARD.
13
    sword, confessed to his squire, consoled
    his servants and his friends, bade farewell
    to his king and his  country,  and died,
    April 30,1524, surrounded by friends and
    enemies, who all shed tears of admiration
    and grief.  His body, which remained in
    the hands of his enemies, was embalmed
    by them, given to the French, and interred
    in a church of the Minorites, near Greno-
    ble.  His monument consists of a simple
    bust, with a Latin inscription. (See Hist.
    de P. Terrail, dit le  Chevalier Bayard
fc   sans Peur et sans Reproche, by Gayard
    de Berville, new edition, Paris, 1824).
      Bayard, James A., an eminent Ameri-
    can lawyer and politician, was born in
    Philadelphia,  in 1767.   His classical edu-
    cation was completed  at Princeton col-
    lege. In the year 1784, he engaged in the
    study of the law, and,  on his admission
    to the bar, settled in the state of Delaware,
    where he soon acquired considerable prac-
    tice and reputation.  A few years after
    he reached his majority, he was elected a
    representative of Delaware in  congress.
    The  first occasion, on which he particu-
    larly distinguished  himself, was the im-
    peachment of William Blount,  a senator
    of the U. States.  Mr. B. was chairman of
    the committee of eleven, who were  se-
    lected, by the house of representatives, to
    conduct that impeachment.  He took the
    chief and a very brilliant  part in the dis-
    cussion of the  constitutional questions
 ,   which arose out of the successful plea of
    the accused to the jurisdiction of the senate.
    At an early period of his political career,
    president Adams offered him the post of
'   envoy to the French republic, which pru-
    dential reasons induced him to decline.
    Mr. B. was one of the leaders of the fed-
    eral party in congress at the epoch of the
    election of Mr. Jefferson to the  office of
    president.   In the memorable contest in
    the house  of representatives, which was
     Jroduced by the equality of votes for Mr.
     efferson  and colonel  Burr, he finally
    prevailed upon his political coadjutors to
    adopt the mode of proceeding which ena-
    bled the friends of Mr. Jefferson  to tri-
    umph.   Hostile as he was to that, states-
    man, and  much as he had reason  to
    expect of personal advantage from a dif-
    ferent issue, he sacrificed party feeling
    and ambitious hope, when he perceived
    that the peace of the country and  the
    stability of the constitution might be en-
    dangered by continuing the struggle.  In
    no debate of the house did Mr. B. display
    his genius  more than in that which pre-
    ceded the repeal, in March, 1802, of the
    judiciary bill.  A volume of the speeches
      VOL. II.          2
 which were delivered in this famous con-
 troversy  has been  published.  It was
 almost universally conceded that he was
 the ablest advocate of the system  or or-
 ganization which was  destroyed.   He
 continued in the house of representatives
 after the change of administration, always
 conspicuous for his sound principles, con-
 stant acuteness,extensive knowledge, and
 manly, copious eloquence. Elected  to the
 senate of the U. States by the legislature
 of Delaware, he displayed, for several
 years, in that assembly, the same talents
 and patriotism.  In 1812, he strenuously
 opposed the declaration of war with Great
 Britain.  President Madison selected him
 as one of the commissioners to treat for
 peace under  the proffered mediation  of
 the  emperor Alexander of Russia.  He
 embarked  on  this important  mission,
 which had not been sought nor expected
 by himself or his friends  for him, from
 the  port  of Philadelphia, May 8, 1813,
 and arrived at St. Petersburg in July of
 that year.  The absence of the emperor
 prevented the transaction of any business,
 and, when all hope of advancing the main
 object seemed  idle, Mr.  B. proceeded
 (January,  1814) by  land to  Holland.
 There he learned the willingness of the
 British court  to treat directly  with  the
 American envoys. Previously to the arri-
 val of his colleagues, who, in consequence
 of this annunciation, were despatched by
 the  American government,  he visited
 England.   At the proper period, he re-
 paired to Ghent, which was ultimately
 chosen as the scene of the negotiations
 which terminated in the treaty that bears
 the name of that place.  His share in the
 oral discussions and the  written corre-
 spondence with the British plenipotentia-
 ries was such as might have been expect-
 ed from his peculiar fitness for the task
 of negotiation.  On the conclusion of this
 business,  he made a journey to Paris,
 where he remained until he heard of the
 ratification of the treaty, and of his ap-
 pointment as envoy  to the court of St.
 Petersburg.   This he promptly declined.
 It was his intention, however, to  go  to
 England,  in  order  to co-operate in the
 formation of a commercial treaty with the
 British cabinet, as he was included in the
 commission sent for that purpose; but an
 alarming  illness  put an  end  to every
plan, except that of reaching his home as
early as possible.  He embarked at Havre
in May, 1815, in a state of the most pain-
ful debility, suffered unfortunate delays
in the voyage, and arrived in the U. States
only to die in  the arms  of his family.— 
14                          BAYARD—BAYLE.
Mr. B. was a logician of the first order,
possessed a rich and ready elocution, and
commanded attention as well  by his fine
countenance and manly person as  his
cogent  reasoning  and  comprehensive
views. He acquired a reputation, both as
a lawyer and political orator, scarcely
inferior to that of any one of his American
contemporaries.
  Bayle, Pierre, born  at  Carlat, in  the
county of Foix (Languedoc), in  1647,
received  his first  instruction from  his
father, a Calvinistic preacher.  He gave
early  proofs of an astonishing memory,
and of a singular vivacity of mind.   At
the age of 19 years, he entered the college
of Puy-Laurens, to finish  his studies.
The ardor with which  he devoted him-
self to them weakened his  constitution.
All books were eagerly devoured by him;
his taste for logic led him particularly to
study religious controversies, but Amyot's
Plutarch and Montaigne were his favorite
works.  The  latter  encouraged, without
doubt, his inclination to scepticism ; per-
haps both contributed to give to his style
that vivacity, that boldness of expression
and antique coloring, so observable in it.
In Toulouse, he  studied philosophy with
the Jesuits.  The arguments  of his pro-
fessor, and, still more, his friendly discus-
sions  with a  Catholic  priest, who  dwelt
near  him, confirmed  his doubts  of the
orthodoxy of Protestantism, so that he re-
solved to change his religion.  His con-
version was a  triumph  to the Catholics.
His family, however, tried all means to
regain him, and, after 17 months, he re-
turned to his  old  faith.  In  order to
escape from the punishment of perpetual
excommunication,  which  the Catholic
church then pronounced against apostates,
he went to Geneva, and thence to Copet,
where count Dohna intrusted him with
uie eaitcation of  his  sons,  and  where
he studied the philosophy of Des Cartes.
But,  after some  years, he   returned to
France, and settled  in  Rouen, where he
was employed in teaching.  From thence
he went to Paris, where the society of
learned men indemnified him for the fa-
tigues of an occupation to which he  was
obliged to submit  for  a third time.  In
1675, he obtained the  philosophical chair
at Sedan, where he taught with distinc-
tion until the  suppression of this acade-
my in 1681.  He was  afterwards invited
to discharge the same  duties at Rotter-
dam.   The  appearance of  a comet,  in
1680, which occasioned an almost univer-
sal alarm, induced him to publish, in 1682,
his Pensies diverses sur la Comete, a work
full of learning,  in  which  he discussed
various subjects of metaphysics, morals,
theology,  history,  and politics.  It was
followed by his Critique generale de VHis-
toire du Calvinisme de Maimbourg.   This
work, received with equal approbation by
the Catholics and  Protestants, and  es-
teemed by Maimbourg  himself, excited
the jealousy of his colleague, the theolo-
gian Jurieu,  whose  Refutation  du  P.
Maimbourg had not succeeded, and  in-
volved B.  in many  disputes.  He after-
ward undertook a periodical work, Nou-
velles de la Republique des Lettres, in 1684.
A letter from  Rome, published  in this
work, excited the displeasure of the queen
Christina of Sweden, who caused two vi-
olent letters to be sent to him.  B.  apolo-
gized, and his excuses so perfectly satisfied
the queen, that from that time she kept
up a literary correspondence with him.
The death of his  father and of his two
brothers, together with the religious per-
secutions  in France, induced him to un-
dertake his Commentaire philosophique  sur
ces Paroles de VEvangile; Contrains-les
oVentrer; which, in  regard to style and
tone, is not worthy  of him.  B. himself
was unwilling to  acknowledge it;  but
Jurieu, who probably recognised its  au-
thor by the zeal  with which toleration is
defended  in  this work, attacked  it with
violence.   His hatred only waited  for a
pretence  to  break  out  against B.;  he
found it in the Avis aux Refugies, a work
in which the  Protestants are treated with
little ceremony.  Jurieu not only accused
B. of being the author of this work (which
certainly is not his), but also of being the
soul of a  party devoted to France, in  op-
position  to the Protestants  and   allied
powers.   B. repelled these charges in two
publications; but the calumny prevailed.
In 1693,  the magistrates  of Rotterdam
removed him from his office, and forbade
him to give private instruction.  He now
devoted all his attention to the composi-
tion of his Dictionnaire historique et  cri-
tique, which  he first published in  1696,
in 2 vols. fol.   This was  the first work
which appeared under his name.   Jurieu
opposed him anew,  and  caused the con-
sistory, in which he  had the  greatest in-
fluence, to make  a severe attack  upon
him.  B. promised to remove every thing
which the consistory deemed offensive;
but, finding the  public had other  views,
and preferring rather the satisfaction of his
readers than that of his judges, he left the
work, with the exception of a few trifles,
 unaltered.  He  found two new enemies
in Jacquelot and Le Clerc, who both at- 
BAYLE—BAYLEN.
15
tacked his religion:  others  persecuted
him as the enemy of his sect and his new
country.   These  contests increased  his
bodily infirmities.  His lungs became in-
flamed ; but he was unwilling to use any
medical applications against  a  disorder
which he considered as hereditary and
incurable.  He died, so to speak, with the
pen in his hand,  in 1706, at the age of 59
years.  " Bayle," says  Voltaire, "is  the
first of logicians and sceptics.   His great-
est enemies must confess that there is not
a line in  his  works which contains  an
open  aspersion of Christianity; but his
warmest  apologists  must  acknowledge,
that there is not  a page in his controver-
sial writings  which does  not  lead  the
reader to doubt,  and often to scepticism."
He compares  himself to Homer's cloud-
compelling Jupiter. " My talent," he says,
" consists  in raising doubts; but they are
only doubts."  The confidence of most
theologians induced him to undertake to
prove that several points are not so certain
and so evident as they imagined.  But he
gradually  passed these limits: his pene-
tration caused him to doubt  even the
most universally  acknowledged facts.  Yet
he never attacked the great principles of
morality.  Though an admirable logician,
he was so little acquainted with physics,
that even  the discoveries of Newton were
unknown to   him.   His style  is natural
and clear, but often prolix, careless and
incorrect.  He himself calls his Diction-
naire  "une compilation informe des pas-
sages cousus a la queue les uns des autres."
Without assenting implicitly to this mod-
est judgment, we must  confess that the
articles,  in  themselves,  are  of  little
value, and that they serve only as  a  pre-
text  for the  notes, in  which the author
displays,  at the same  time, his learning,
and the power of his logic.  The charac-
ter of B.  was gentle, amiable, disinterest-
ed, highly modest and peaceable:  he de-
voted himself entirely to literature.   The
most esteemed edition of his Dictionnaire
historique is  that of 1740, in 4 vols. fol.
(an  edition was  also printed   at  Bale,
the same  year).   At the  Hague appeared
the CEuvres diverses de P. Bayle (also 4
vols,  fol.)  An edition  of his Diet, histor.,
in 16 vols., printed with  great typograph-
ical  beauty,  was  published,  in 1820, by
Desoer, in Paris: it contains notes, and
the life of the author.   In  the  Disc, pre-
limin., the editor, Beuchot, reviews the 11
former editions.   Gottsched has translated
the Diet,  into German (Leipsic, 1741—44,
4 vols, fol.)  An English translation, with
considerable  additions,  by  Th.  Birch,
Lockman  and others,  was published,
1734—41, 10 vols. fol.
  Baylen, capitulation of general Dupont
at;  an event which, in July, 1808, raised
the courage  of Spain,  and hastened  a
general  insurrection.  Joseph Bonaparte
had entered Madrid as king; the prov-
inces  Leon, Valencia, Valladolid, Zamo-
ra  and  Salamanca  had been  subdued
and disarmed.  In the south alone, on the
Guadalquivir,  in  the naturally  fortified
Andalusia, in Cordova, Grenada, Jaen,
the spirit  of insurrection still prevailed,
and was excited as much  as possible by
the junta of  Seville.  Thither  general
Dupont directed his march, at the end of
May,  with three divisions.   Cordova and
Jaen  were  taken by  assault, after  the
most  terrible resistance.    The  monks
promised  the joys of heaven,  without
purgatory, to  every one who should kill
three  Frenchmen.  The corps of Casta-
nos soon  increased to 30,000 men.  The
able manoeuvres of this general, together
with  famine and  sickness in the French
army, augmented by the total want of
hospitals,  prepared the way for the over-
throw of general  Dupont.  3000 Span-
iards  had  possession of the Sierra Morena,
in the rear of his  army.  In order to re-
establish  his  communication with  the
capital,  he occupied the cities of B. and
Carolina  with  detachments,  while he
himself took a position near Andujar, on
the Gimdalquivir.  But, on the 14th of
July,  18,000 men, with some pieces of
heavy artillery, marched against the front
of  the  French position near  Andujar;
while 3000 men came through the defiles
of  the Sierra Morena upon the rear, and
6000  men attacked Dupont's left wing.
He defended himself, for three days, with.
skill  and courage; but the 18th of July
decided  the contest.  The  Spanish gen-
erals  Reding  and Compigny attacked B.
Pefias and Jones overawed the main body,
under Dupont.  He was  compelled  to
evacuate Andujar, after B. had been taken
by the Spaniards.  The action continued
nine  hours, when  Dupont requested a
suspension  of arms, but was told that he
must surrender at discretion. Meanwhile
the division of Vedel, not acquainted with
the proceedings of Dupont, had attacked
the Spaniards anew, and taken  the regi-
ment of Cordova prisoners, together with
two  pieces of artillery, but were finally
overpowered by superior numbers.  On
the 23d of July, the whole French army,
 17,000  men strong,  being  surrounded,
 was  obliged  to  capitulate, having lost
 3000 men on the field of battle.   The di- 
16
B A YLEN—B A VONET.
 visions of Dupont and Vedel were made
 prisoners of war:  the latter was to  be
 permitted to embark at Cadiz for Roche-
 fort :  the same terms were afterwards
 promised to the division of Dupont, but
 not fulfilled.  General Dupont returned,
 with his staff, to France, and was arrested
 at  Toulon, and  subjected to trial.  But,
 before a decision, he was delivered  by
 the capture of Paris, March 30, 1814.
 He was afterwards appointed, by Louis
 XVIII, minister of war; but was super-
 seded by Soult, in December, 1814.
   Bayley, Richard, M. D., was born at
 Fairfield, Connecticut, in the year 1745.
 Having completed his medical studies, he
 went to London,  to attend the lectures
 and hospitals.   After little  more  than a
 year's residence  in that city, he returned
 to  New York, and commenced practice
 there in 1772.   At this period, his atten-
 tion was first drawn to the then prevalent
 and fatal croup, which had been  treated
 as the putrid sore throat.  Observing how
 fatal was the use of stimulants and anti-
 septics, he  examined the nature of the
 disease, and became convinced that it was
 of  an  inflammatory character.   He ac-
 cordingly treated it as such, with decided
 success, and, soon after the publication of
 his View of the Croup, his  opinions and
 treatment of it were universally adopted.
 In  the autumn of 1775, B. revisited Lon-
 don, where he spent a winter, and, in the
 following spring, returned to New York,
 in the capacity of surgeon in the English
 army under Howe.   He  resigned this
 post in 1777, and, during the rest of his
 life, continued the practice of his pro-
 fession  in  the  same  city.   In  1787,  he
 lectured on surgeiy.  In 1788, he lost his
 valuable  collection in morbid anatomy,
 and some  delicate  preparations,  by the
 \iolence of  the famous "doctors' mob,"
 who broke into his house, and carried off
 and burned his  cabinet.  In the spring
 of 1792, he  was appointed professor  of
 anatomy in  Columbia college,  and,  in
 1793, became professor of surgery, which
 was his  favorite  subject.   His  lectures
 were clear, precise and practical.  As an
 optician, he acquired great celebrity, and
 also as an experienced and successful  li-
 lliotomist.  When the yellow fever deso-
lated New York,  soon after the revolu-
tion, doctor B. devoted himself to personal
attention to the sick, and became  practi-
 cally familiar with  the  disease, and its
most successful  remedies.  He likewise
investigated  its cause, and  declared that
 it was the filth which polluted the docks
 and some of the streets, affirming, " that
 when a more  rigid police prevailed,  to
 free  the  city  from nuisances, no more
 would  be heard of particular diseases."
 In 1797, he published bis work On Yel-
 low Fever, wherein he proved the malady
 to be of local origin.   So strong was his
 belief on this point, and so clear  his per-
 ception of the cause of the fever, that he
 predicted the  very spot where it  after-
 wards appeared, in the year 1799.  In the
 year 1795 or 6, lie was appointed health
 physician for the port of New York, and,
 in  1798, published  Letters from the
 Health Office, submitted to the  New
 York Common Council, being a series of
 letters in the years '96-7-8.   One letter,
 dated  Dec.  4,  1798, assigns  the  reasons
 why the fever in  '98 was more exten-
 sively prevalent than in '95,6 or 7, which
 he considers to be the rains flooding large
 portions of the city, its low levels, new-
 made ground, and a hot sun.—In 1798, a
 correspondence took  place between the
 cities of New York and Philadelphia, in
 the  course of which  a proposition was
 made by the committee of the  latter to that
 of the former, soliciting their co-operation
 in a memorial to the general government
 for a quarantine law.   This  gave doctor
 B., who was on the New York commit-
 tee,  an opportunity of impressing  upon
 the general government the propriety of
 establishing a lazaretto, below and at a
 distance from the city or port of entry.
 He was the person to whom  the state of
 New York is, in fact, chiefly indebted for
 its  quarantine laws, although they have
 since been altered and amended.  In Au-
 gust, 1801, doctor B., in the discharge of
 his duty as health physician, enjoined the
 passengers and  crew of an Irish emigrant
 ship, afflicted with the ship fever, to go on
 shore to the rooms and tents appointed
 for them, leaving their luggage  behind.
 The next morning, on  going to the hospi-
 tal, he found that  both crew and passen-
gers, well, sick  and  dying, were huddled
together in  one apartment, where  they
had passed the night.  He inconsiderately
entered into this room before  it had been
properly ventilated, but remained  scarce-
ly a moment, being obliged to retire by a
most deadly sickness at the stomach, and
violent pain in the head, with which he
was suddenly seized.  He returned home,
and  retired  to  lus bed, from  which he
never  rose.   In the  afternoon   of  the
seventh day  following, he expired.
  Bayonet.  This  is  the name  of the
iron blade,  formed like  a dagger, and
placed upon the muzzle of the musket,
which is thus transformed into a thrusting 
BAYONET—BEAR.
17
weapon.  It was probably invented, about
1640, in  Bayonne, and was  used  in the
Netherlands, in 1647, but was not univer-
sally introduced until after the pike was
wholly laid aside, in the beginning of the
18th century. Since the general war in Eu-
rope, some officers have adopted the idea
of former  military writers (for instance,
Guibert), of increasing the  efficiency of
the bayonet by a more regular exercise of
the infantry in its use.  A Saxon captain,
von Selmnitz,  has  the merit of  having
first developed this idea in  a systematic
treatise. (See The Art of Fighting with the
Bayonet, by E. von Selmnitz, Dresden,
1825, with copperplates.)  As cavalry are
often counted by  horses,  infantry are
sometimes counted by  bayonets.
   Bayonne ;  a well-built, rich, commer-
 cial city, the  largest in the  French de-
 partment of the Lower Pyrenees, formerly
 capital of the district Labour, in Gascony
 (Ion. 1° 24' W.; lat. 43° 29/ N.), at the
 confluence of the Nive and the Adour,
 about two miles from the bay of Biscay.
 It has 13,600  inhabitants, 6000 of whom
 live in the suburbs.  The  Nive and the
 Adour (the former of which is navigable
 about 30,  and the latter 70  miles) form a
 harbor capable of admitting men of war
 from 40 to 50 guns, but it has a difficult
 access.  These two rivers serve to convey
 timber, tar and iron from the Pyrenees to
 B.  A  citadel, built by Vauban, on the
 summit of an eminence in the  suburb,
 commands the harbor and the city.  The
 bishop of B. is under the archbishop of
 Toulouse, and exercises spiritual jurisdic-
 tion over three departments.  The cathe-
 dral is  a  beautiful ancient  building.   B.
 has considerable commerce with Spain ;
 French and  foreign  goods being  ex-
 changed for  iron,  fruit, gold and silver.
 B. is much engaged in the cod and whale
 fishery, hi which, before the revolution,
 30—40 vessels of 250 tons burthen were
 employed.  Masts and  other timber for
 ship-building, from the Pyrenees, are ex-
 ported to  Brest and other ports of France.
 The hams of B. are famous.  Its wine
 and chocolate are shipped to the north of
 Europe.  Among the lower class, the an-
 cient Biscayan or Basque language  is
 spoken.   Catharine  of Medicis  had an
 important interview with the duke of Al-
 ba in B., June 1565.   The meeting of Na-
   foleon with  the king of Spain, Charles
   V, and the  prince of the  Asturias, also
 took place here  in May, 1808, in conse-
 quence of which the  two last signed (5th
 md 10th May) an agreement, by  which
  they, and all the children of  the king,
transferred  their rights  to  the Spanish
territories, in Europe and India, to the
French emperor.  Napoleon convened a
Spanish general junta at B., June 15th, to
draw up a constitution.  This constitution
was published July 6, and Joseph depart-
ed, on the 9th, from B. for Madrid.   The
convention of B., between the  Poles and
France, was signed on  the  10th  May,
1808.  (See ScholPs Traites de Paix, vol.
9, page 28.)  The transactions at  B. are
some of the most important  in Napoleon's
life, and disclose the wretched character
of the royal family of Spain.
   Bazar, Bazaar, or Basar; a market-
place in the East.   The word is Arabic,
and originally denotes sale or exchange.
Some are open, some covered with lofty
ceilings, or domes.   At  the  bazars, or in
the neighborhood of them, are the coffee-
houses, so much frequented in Turkey,
Persia, &c.; and, as the Orientals live al-
most entirely out of doors,  the bazars of
populous cities, besides their mercantile
importance, are of consequence as places
of social intercourse.  The bazar of Ispa-
 han is one of the finest places in Persia.
 That of Tauris is the largest known.  At
 Constantinople are  two bazars—the old
 and  new  one.  In the Oriental  tales,—
 for instance, in the Arabian Nights,—the
 bazars occupy a very conspicuous place.
 Since the system  of credit  is almost en-
 tirely unknown in Eastern trade, and all
 commercial transactions take place  in
 merchandise and   money,  the  places
 where this  merchandise is brought and
 changed from one owner to another are,
 of course,  very much  frequented.—The
 word bazar has been used, in recent times,
 also,  in Europe.  Thus there is the well-
 known bazar in Soho square, in London.
    Beacon.  (See Signals, and Lighthouse.)
    Beagle ; a species of the genus dog,
 kept  entirely for  hunting  hares.  They
 are small, and much inferior to the hare
 in swiftness, but  have a  very  delicate
 scent, and  seldom fail of  running her
 down.
    Bear (ursus, L.); a genus of carniv-
 orous, or, more accurately,  frugi-CAmiv-
 orous, mammiferous quadrupeds, be. ::,"-
 ing to the family plantigrada, which trvV^
 on the entire soles of the  [hind] fee..
 The  genus is characterized  by a heavy
 body, covered with a  thick, woolly coat,
 a large head, terminating in a prolonged
 snout, with  very  extensible lips.  The
  ears  are  of moderate size, and rather
  pointed, and the  tongue smooth. The
  limbs are large and  heavy, and all the
  feet  are  five-toed,  and furnished with 
18                            BEAR—BEARD.
 veiy strong, hooked claws, well suited
 for  burrowing.—Five species at present
 belong to this genus.  The Linnoean genus
 comprised the raccoon, badger, &c, now,
 properly, separated from it.  These spe-
 cies are, the brown bear of Europe (U.
 arctos);  the white or polar bear (U. mar-
 itimus); the American or black bear (U.
 Americanus);  the grisly bear (U. honib-
 ilis), also of America; and the Malay-
 an  or Asiatic bear  (U. labiatus).—The
 brown bear is chiefly an inhabitant of
 cold and elevated situations, and feeds on
 a great  variety of animal and vegetable
 substances. During winter, this  species,
 like some others, remains torpid in caves,
 whither it retires, in the autumn, very fat,
 and comes out,  in  the spring, extremely
 emaciated.  The brown  bear is remarka-
 ble for its sagacity, as well as the ferocity
 of its disposition, and it becomes espe-
 cially  sanguinary as it advances in  age.
 Besides the differences of color and  size
 which distinguish  this bear from those
 belonging to the old continent, it differs
 from the American bears,  by  having a
 convexity of front above  the eyes, which
 renders  its physiognomy strikingly  dis-
 similar to theirs.   Other distinctions, suffi-
 ciently obvious, present themselves when
 the species are compared.—The polar, or
 maritime bear, is  only  found  in high
 northern latitudes, along the borders of
 the  Icy  ocean and northern coasts of
 America in the vicinity of Hudson's  bay.
 It does not descend to the eastern coast
 of Siberia nor Kamtschatka; neither is it
 found in the islands lying between Sibe-
 ria and America.   It is uniformly white,
 attains a large size, is very powerful, fe-
 rocious and daring.  It  is an  excellent
 diver and swimmer, being apparently as
 much at  home in the ocean as on land.
 An individual of this species was seen, by
 the late northern explorers, in the mid-
 dle of Melville sound, swimming across,
 where the shores were at least 30 miles
 apart.  The polar bear is  the most exclu-
 sively carnivorous of the genus,  though
 equally capable  of living on vegetable
 food with the rest.  He preys upon seals,
the cubs of the whale, morse, &c, or the
 carcasses of whales left by whalers after
removing the  blubber.   Individuals  of
this species are sometimes, though rarely,
seen in caravans  of wild animals in the
U. States,  A large and beautiful one was
exhibited in New  York, in the spring of
 1826, and, notwithstanding the coolness
of the weather, it appeared to suffer  ex-
tremely from  heat,  as it bathed itself
frequently in water provided for the pur-
 pose.  When ice was placed in the cage,
 it rolled upon it with  great satisfaction,
 and showed every sign  of being gratified.
 —The black  bear  of America  is distin-
 guished by its color and a peculiarly con-
 vex facial outline.  It is found very gen-
 erally in mountainous  and forest lands,
 and subsists, in a great degree, on berries
 and vegetable substances, though it preys
 upon small animals, and bisects, which it
 searches for industriously, by turning over
 large logs of decayed timber.   It is rarely,
 if ever, known to attack man, unless in
 self-defence.  It  is very fond  of young
 corn and honey, which, being an expert
 climber, like the brown European bear, it
 obtains by plundering  the wild bees.—
 The grisly bear inhabits the country ad-
jacent to the  Rocky mountains, and is,
 of all the race, the most dreadful for size,
 strength and terrible  ferocity of nature.*
 —The Malay, Asiatic or long-lipped bear,
 is a native of the mountainous parts of
 India, and feeds on white ants, rice, honey,
the  fruit  of the  palm, &c.  The  spe-
cies is inoffensive and timid, burrows in
the ground, and  lives in pairs, together
with the young,  which, when  alarmed,
seek safety by mounting on the  backs of
the parents.
   Beard ;   the hair round the  chin, on
the cheeks and the upper  lip, which is a
distinction  of the male sex.   It  differs
from the hair  on the head by its greater
hardness and its form.   The beard begins
to grow at the  time of puberty.   The
connexion  between the beard and puber-
ty is evident from this,  among  other cir-
cumstances, that  it never  grows in  the
case of eunuchs who  have been  such
from childhood; but  the  castration of
adults  does not  cause the loss of the
beard.   According to  Caesar,  the Ger-
mans thought, and perhaps justly,  the
late growth of the beard favorable to the
developement of all the powers.  But there
are cases in which this circumstance is an
indication  of  feebleness.   It  frequently
takes place in men of tender constitution,
whose pale color indicates little power.
The beards of different  nations afford an
interesting   study.  Some have hardly
any, others a great profusion.   The latter
generally consider it as a great ornament;
the former  pluck  it out; as, for instance,
the American Indians.  The character
of the beard differs with that of the indi-
vidual, and, in the case of nations, varies

  * For the  detailed history of this and the two
preceding species, too extensive  to be introduced
into this work, see the first volume of the Ameri-
can Natural History, by the writer of this article. 
BEARD—BEATIFICATION.
19
 with the climate, food,  &c.  Thus the
 beard is generally dark, dry, hard  and
 thin in irritable persons  of full age: the
 same is the case with the  inhabitants of
 hot and dry countries, as  the Arabians,
 Ethiopians, East Indians, Italians, Span-
 iards.   But persons  of a very mild  dis-
 position have a light-colored, thick  and
 slightly  curling beard: the same  is the
 case with inhabitants of  cold and humid
 countries, as Holland, England, Sweden.
 The  difference  of circumstances causes
 all shades of variety.  The nature of the
 nourishment, likewise, causes a great va-
 riety in the beard.   Wholesome,  nutri-
 tious and digestible food  makes the beard
 soft; but poor, dry and indigestible food
 renders it hard and  bristly.  In general,
 the beard has  been  considered, with all
 nations, as an ornament, and often as a
 mark of the sage and the priest.  Moses
 forbade the Jews to shave their beards.
 With the ancient Germans, the cutting oft'
 another's beard was a high  offence ; with
 the East Indians, it is severely punished.
 Even  now, the beard is regarded as a
 mark of great  dignity among many na-
 tions in the East, as the Turks.  The
 custom of shaving is said  to have come
 into use during the reigns of Louis XIII
 and XIV of France, both  of whom as-
 cended  the  throne without  a beard.
 Courtiers and inhabitants of cities then
 began to shave, in order to look  like the
 king, and, as France soon took the lead
 in all matters of fashion on the continent
 of Europe, shaving became general;  but
 it is only since the beginning of the  last
 century, that   shaving  off  the  whole
 beard has become common. Till then,
 fashion had given divers forms to mus-
 tachioes and beards.  Much could  be
 said, and has been said, hi a medical point
 of view, on shaving  the  beard.   Such  a
 discussion would lead us, however, here
 too far.  It is not  to  be denied, that  the
 mouth, one  of the most  expressive parts
 of the  countenance,  is shown to much
 better advantage in consequence of shav-
 ing ; but, at the same time, old age  ap-
 pears to much  greater disadvantage, the
 beard  concealing  the loss  of the  teeth.
 Moreover,  the  eye  gains much  in  ex-
 pression by a  full  beard.    Every  one
knows the trouble of shaving; and who
 does not remember Byron's computa-
 tion  of  the amount of  this trouble in
 Don Juan?  Seume, a German author,
 says, in his journal, " To-day I threw  my
 powder  apparatus out of the window:
 when will come the  blessed  day, that I
shall send the shaving apparatus after it!"
 —Shaving, among many ancient nations,
 was the mark of mourning; with others,
 it,was the contrary.  Plutarch says that
 Alexander introduced shaving among the
 Greeks, by ordering  his soldiers to cut
 off their beards; but it appears that this
 custom had prevailed before among the
 Macedonians.   The  Romans  began  to
 shave  about 454  A. U., 296 B. C, when
 a certain  Ticinius Mcenas, a barber from
 Sicily, introduced this fashion.   Scipio
 Africanus was the first who shaved every
 day.   The day that  a young man first
 shaved was celebrated, and  the first hair
 cut off was sacrificed to a deity.   Adrian,
 in order to cover  some large warts on bis
 chin, renewed the fashion of long beards $
 but  it did not last long.  In mourning,
 the  Romans wore  a long beard some-
 times  for  years.  They used scissors, ra-
 zors, tweezers, &c, to remove the beard.
 The public barber shops (tonstrinee), where
 the  lower classes went, were  much re-
 sorted to ; rich people kept a shaver (ton-
 sor)  among their slaves.
   Bearn ; before the revolution, a prov-
 ince of France, at the foot of tbe Pyre-
 nees,  with the  title  of  a  principality ;
 about 42 miles long and 36 broad ; bound-
 ed E. by Bigorre, N. I.y Annagnac, Tur-
 san  and Chalosse, W. by Dax, a part of
 Soule, and the Lower Navarre, and S. I.y
 the Pyrenees.  It belonged, with Navarre,
 to  Henry IV, when  he obtained the
 crown. The plain country is very fertile,
 and  the mountains  are covered with fir-
 trees, while within are mines of copper,
 lead and  iron;  and  the little  hills  are
 planted with  vines, which  yield good
 wine.  It  is now included in the depart-
 ment of Lower Pyrenees.  Pau was the
 capital town.   Pop. about 220,000.
  Beatification, in the Roman Catholic
 church; an act by which the pope declares
 a person beatified or blessed after his death.
 It  is the first  step to  cauonization, i.  e.
 the raising one to the  honor and dignity
 of a saint.  No person can  be beatified
 till 50 years after  his or her death. All
 certificates or attestations of virtues and
miracles, the  necessary qualifications for
saintship,  are examined by the congrega-
tion  of rites.   This  examination  often
continues  for several  years; after which
his  holiness  decrees  the  beatification.
 The  corpse and relics  of the future saint
are from thenceforth exposed to the ven-
eration of all good Christians ; his image
is  crowned with  rays, and a particular
office is set apart  for him; but his body
and relics  are  not carried in procession
 Indulgences, likewise,  and remissions of 
20                    BEATIFICATION—BEATTIE.
sins, are granted on the day of his beatifi-
cation ; which, though not so pompous as
that of canonization,  is,  however, very
splendid.  Beatification differs from can-
onization in this, that the pope does not
act as a judge  in determining the state
of the beatified, but only grants a privi-
lege to certain persons to honor him by a
particular  religious worship, without  in-
curring the penalty of superstitious wor-
shippers ;  but, in  canonization, the pope
speaks as a judge, and determines, ex  ca-
thedra, upon the state of the canonized.
Beatification was introduced  when it was
thought proper  to delay the canonization
of saints, for the greater assurance of  the
truth of the steps taken in the procedure.
Some particular orders of monks have
assumed to themselves the power of  be-
atification.   Thus Octavia  Melchiorica
was beatified by the Dominicans.  (See
Canonization.)
  Beaton, David, archbishop of St. An-
drews, and cardinal, was  born  in 1494.
Pope Paul 11 i raised him to the rank of
cardinal in December,  1538; and, being
employed by James V in negotiating  his
marriage at the court of France, he was
tliere consecrated bishop of Mirepoix.
Soon after his instalment as archbishop,
he promoted a furious persecution of  the
reformers  in  Scotland; but the king's
death put a stop, for a time, to his arbi-
trary proceedings, he being then excluded
from affairs of government, and confined.
He raised, however, so strong a party,
that, upon the  coronation of the young
queen  Mary, he  was admitted into  the
council, made chancellor, and received a
commission as legate a latere from Rome.
He now began  to renew his persecution
of  heretics, and, among the rest, of  the
famous Protestant preacher George Wis-
hart, whose sufferings at the  stake he
viewed from  his window,  with  apparent
exultation.  B. was  murdered  in  his
chamber, May 29, 1546.  He united with
great talents  equally great vices, and  left
several children, the fruit of open concu-
binage.
   Beattie, James, LL. D., a  pleasing
poet and  miscellaneous writer, was born
at Lawrencekirk, in  the  county of Kin-
cardine, in 1735.  He lost his father when
he was only seven years of age, but was
placed early at the only school his birth-
place afforded, whence he was  removed
to Marischal college, Aberdeen.  He there
studied Greek, under the principal, Thom-
as Blackwell, and made a general profi-
ciency  in every  branch of education,
except  mathematics.   In 1753, he  ob-
tained the degree of A. M., and accepted
the office of school-master and  parish-
clerk to the parish of Fordoun,  looking
forward to the church of Scotland as his
principal prospect, for which reason he
still attended, during winter, the  divinity
lectures at Marischal college.  In June,
1758, these views were somewhat chang-
ed, by the attainment of the situation of
one of  the masters of  the  grammar-
school  of Aberdeen.  In 1761, he pub-
lished a volume of poems, which  were
received  favorably, but which  he subse-
quently thought very little of, and  en-
deavored  to buy up.  They nevertheless
procured  him some powerful  friends,
whose  patronage obtained him  the  ap-
pointment of professor of moral  philoso-
phy and logic at  Marischal college.  In
1765,  he  published  a  poem, the Judg-
ment of Paiis, (4to.), which proved a fail-
ure, although it was afterwards added to
a new edition of his poems, in 1766.  The
work  which  procured him the  greatest
fame  was his Essay on Truth, which
first appeared in 1770.  It was so  popular,
that, in four years, five large editions were
sold;  and it  was translated into several
foreign languages.   Among other marks
of respect, the university of Oxford  con-
ferred on the author the degree of LL. D.;
and George III honored him, on his visit
to London, with a private conference and
a pension. He was also solicited to enter
the church of England by flattering pro-
posals from the archbishop of York  and
the bishop of London; which proposals
he declined, lest his opponents should
attribute the change to self-interest.  The
popularity of this celebrated essay, which
was written in opposition to the prevalent
scepticism of Hume and others, was prin-
cipally owing to its easiness of style, and
to a mode of treating the subject, calcu-
lated for  the meridian of slight  scholar-
ship and medium intellect.  This is often
a  great source of immediate celebrity;
but, thus produced, it is usually as transi-
tory as spontaneous, which has proved
the case in the present instance.  A few
months after the appearance of the Essay
on Truth, B. published the first  book of
the Minstrel  (4to.), and, in 1774, the sec-
ond ;  which  pleasing poem is, indisputa-
bly, the work by which he will be the
longest remembered.  To a splendid  edi-
tion of his Essay on Truth, published, by
subscription, in 1776, he added some mis-
cellaneous dissertations  on  Poetry  and
Music, Laughter and Ludicrous Compo-
sition, &c.   In 1783, he published Dis-
sertations, Moral and Critical (4to.);  and 
BEATTIE—BEAUHARNAIS.
21
 in  1786, appeared his  Evidences of the
 Christian Religion  (2  vols., 12mo.)  In
 1790, he published the first volume of his
 Elements of Moral Science, the second
 of  which followed  in  1793; and to  the
 latter was appended a dissertation against
 the slave-trade.  His last publication was
 an  Account of the Life, Character and
 Writings of his eldest son, James  Henry
 Beattie, an amiable and promising young
 man, who died at the age of 22, in 1790.
 This great  affliction was followed, in
 1796, by the equally premature death of
 his youngest and only surviving son, in
 his 18th year; which losses, added to the
 melancholy  loss of reason by his wife,
 wholly  subdued  his constitution; and,
 after two paralytic  strokes, he died at
 Aberdeen, in  August,  1803.  B.  was a
 religious and an amiable man, but consti-
 tutionally more calculated for a poet than
 a philosopher, and for  a pleader than a
 controversialist.  He was, however, a re-
 spectable, if not a  strong writer,  and
 might  have been thought more  of at
 present, had he  been  thought less  of
 heretofore.
  Beaucaire ; a  small,  well-built, com-
 mercial  city of France, with 8000 inhab-
 itants (Ion. 4° 43' E.; lat. 43° 48' N.), in
 Lower Languedoc,  now in the  depart-
 ment of the Gard, on the right bank of
 the Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with which
 it communicates by a bridge of boats.  It
 has  a commodious  harbor  for  vessels
 which ascend the river from the Mediter-
 ranean, 7 leagues  distant, and is famous
 for  its great fair  (founded in  1217,  by
 Raymond II, count  of  Toulouse), held
 yearly, from the 22d July, during 10 days.
 In former times, this fair was frequented
 by  merchants and  manufacturers from
 most countries of Europe, the Levant,
 and even from Persia and Armenia, so
 that many thousand booths were erected
 for  foreigners in the  adjoining  valley.
 Before 1632, the  fair of B. was exempt
 from  all  taxis,  and the  annual sale
amounted to  several   million  dollars.
 [Since that time, B. has gradually declined,
and its trade, the articles of which are the
productions  of the vicinity, was valued,
in 1816, at 23,000,000 francs.
  Beaufort ; a seaport and post-town
in a district of the same name, in South
Carolina, on  Port Royal  island, at the
mouth of the  Coosawhatchie; 60 miles
N.  E. Savannah, 72 S. W. Charleston;
Ion.  80° 33' W.; lat.  32° 31' N.; popula-
tion about 1000.  It is  a  very pleasant
and healthy town, with an excellent har-
bor, though but little commerce.   It con-
tains 3 churches and a seminary, which
was incorporated as a college, endowed
with funds amounting to 60 or $70,000,
having a handsome edifice, and a library
of 700 volumes, but it  has hitherto as-
sumed only the form of an academy.
  Beaufort,  Henry, legitimate brother
of Henry IV, king of England, was made
bishop of Lincoln, whence he was trans-
lated to Winchester.  He was also nom-
inated chancellor of the  kingdom, and
sent ambassador to France.  In 1426, he
received  a cardinal's hat,  and was ap-
pointed legate in Germany.  In 1431, he
crowned Henry VI in the  great church
of Paris.  He died at Winchester, 1447.
He was a haughty, turbulent prelate, and
Shakspeare is  considered as giving a true
portrait of him, when he  describes his
last scene.
  Beauharnais,  Alexander,  viscount ;
born in 1760, in Martinique; served with
distinction, as major, in the French forces
under Rochambeau, which aided the U.
States in their revolutionary war;  married
Josephine Tascher de  la Pagerie, who
was afterwards the  wife of Napoleon.
At the breaking out of the French revo-
lution, he was chosen a member of the
national assembly,  of which he was, for
some time, president, and which he open-
ed, after the king's departure, with the
following  words:—Messieurs,  le roi est
parti cette nuit: passons a Vordre du jour>
In 1792, he was general of the army of
the Rhine, and, in 1793, was  appointed
minister of war. In consequence of the
decree removing men of noble birth from
the army, he retired to  his country-seat.
He was falsely accused of having pro-
moted  the surrender of Mentz, and was
sentenced to death, July 23, 1794, when
34 years old.  (For information respecting
his son Eugene,  viceroy  of  Italy, see
Eugene ;  respecting his daughter Hor-
teuse, see Louis Bonaparte ; and respect-
ing his elder brother, Francois Beauhar-
nais, see the next article.)
  Beauharnais, Francois,  marquis de;
born at La Rochelle, Aug. 12,1756; voted
with the right side in the national assem-
bly.   He  violently opposed the motion
of his younger brother,  the viscount Al-
exander, to take from the king the chief
command of the army, and would not
listen to  any  of the amendments pro-
posed, saying, II n'y a point d'amendement
avec Vhonneur.   He was  called, iu conse-
quence of this, le feal Beauharnais sctns
amendement.   In  1792,  with the count
d'Hervilly,  the baron de Viomenil  and
others, he formed  the project  of a new 
22
BEAUHARNAIS—BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER.
flight of the royal family; but the arrest
of his companion, the baron Chambon,
prevented the execution of the plan.  He
was appointed major-general in the army
of the prince  of Conde, and  wrote, in
1792, to the president of the national
assembly, protesting against their unlaw-
ful treatment of the king, and offering to
appear  himself  among  his  defenders.
When Bonaparte became first consul, the
marquis  sent him  a  letter, in which he
exhorted him, by the glory which he
would gain by such a course, to restore
the sceptre to the house  of  Bourbon.
The  empress  Josephine  married  her
niece,  the  daughter  of the  marquis, to
the emperor's  aid, Lavalette (q. v.), and
effected the recall  of the marquis.   Ap-
pointed senator, and ambassador to the
court of Spain, he united, in 1807, with
the prince of the Asturias (now Ferdinand
VII), against the prince of peace, and fell
into  disgrace with Napoleon, who ban-
ished him.  After  the restoration, he re-
turned to Paris, where he died, Jan. 10,
1819.
  Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron
de ; born at Paris, 1732 ; son of a watch-
maker, who destined  him for  his trade.
He early gave striking proofs of his  me-
chanical and also  of his musical talents.
He was  afterwards the teacher  on the
harp of the daughters of Louis XV, and
was  admitted  into their society.  By a
rich  marriage, he  laid the foundation of
his immense wealth.   He now aspired to
literary reputation.  His Eugenie appear-
ed in 1767 ; Les deux Amis in 1770.   The
first still holds  its place on the stage.  He
showed all his talent in his lawsuit against
Goesman and La Blache, when he wrote
against the former (who belonged to the
parlament Maupeou, so called, which  was
engaged  in a dispute  with the ministry)
his celebrated  Memoires  (Paris, 1774),
which entertained all France.   Had he
remained more quiet,  he probably would
have  gained his  process.  The fame of
his Memoires alarmed even Voltaire, who
was jealous of every kind of glory.   The
Barber of  Seville  and the Marriage of
Figaro have given him a permanent  rep-
utation.  Shortly before  the revolution,
he was involved  in the process against
the  banker Kornmann.   In  1792, he
wrote  La Mere coupable, but never re-
gained his former fame.   He was  once
more in his true element in  his memoir
Mes six  Epoques.   He relates,  in  that
work, the dangers to  which he was ex-
posed, in a revolution, where a celebrated
name, talent and  riches, were sufficient
causes of proscription.  He still possess-
ed, at the age of more than  sixty, all the
vigor of his youth, and had lost nothing
but his gayety.  His contract to supply
the U. States with military stores, during
their revolutionary war, had increased his
fortune, of which he always made a noble
use ; but he lost about a million livres by
his famous edition  of the works of Vol-
taire, the  very imperfect execution  of
which was not answerable to  the  im-
mense cost.  He lost still more, at the end
of 1792, by his attempt  to provide the
French army with 60,000 muskets.  Dis-
contented with the present, despairing of
the future, wearied with struggling against
the revolution and  his creditors for the
ruins of his wealth, he died, at the age of
69 years, without any particular disease,
in May, 1799.  His biography appeared
in 1802 ; and, in 1809,  an edition of his
works, in 7 vols.—B. was a singular in-
stance of versatility of talent,  being at
once an artist, politician,  projector, mer-
chant and  dramatist.   He  was passion-
ately attached to celebrity.  His Marriage
of Figaro excited  one  of those extraor-
dinary sensations,  for  which Paris has
always been  remarkable.   The English
modifications and versions of this comedy
convey  but a slight notion of the mis-
chievous subtlety and  deep spirit of in-
trigue in the original.  B. left to his heirs
a claim against the U. States of a million
of francs for supplies furnished during the
war, which has  been repeatedly presented
to congress, but always rejected on the
ground that B. acted only as the agent of
the French government, from whom he
received funds to that amount.
  Beaumont,  Francis, and Fletcher,
John; two dramatic writers.  The former
was  bom in 1585, studied at Oxford, and
died  in 1616; the latter was born at Lon-
don in 1576, and died there, in 1625, of
the plague.  Animated by  the same  in-
clination, they  both devoted themselves
to poetry.  Their  plays, about 50, ap-
peared under their  joint names (London,
1679, and  lately, 1812, in  14 volsA and it
is  impossible  now to determine their  re-
spective  shares in  these  productions.
According  to the testimony of some of
their  contemporaries, Fletcher was the
inventing genius, while Beaumont, though
the younger, was more  distinguished  for
maturity and  correctness of  judgment.
Shakspeare was their  model,  and,  like
him,  they intermix  pathetic  and  low
comic scenes; but their attempts to sur-
pass their  model  sometimes  lead them
into  extravagances.   The desire, also,'of 
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER—BEAVER.              23
pleasing the public at times induces them
to deviate  from a correct standard of
taste.  They succeed best in comic scenes.
Their  contemporaries  preferred   them
even to  Shakspeare, affirming that the
English drama reached its  perfection in
them.   Impartial posterity has reversed
this decision, and  adjudged the palm to
Shakspeare.  They are said to have fre-
quented taverns and alehouses, to  study
the human character, and to  have been
arrested, while disputing in such a place
respecting the conclusion of a  play. One
wished  to  have the king in  the  piece
assassinated,  the other opposed it; and,
being overheard, they were apprehended
on suspicion  of conspiring  the death of
their sovereign.
  Beaumont, madame Leprince de; born
at Rouen,  1711 ; died at Annecy, in Sa-
voy, 1780; lived partly in France,  partly
in England, where she devoted her tal-
ents to the  instruction of youth.  A sim-
ple and easy style, a pleasing moral, well
chosen  historical  passages,  and a happy
imagination, render her writings agreea-
ble, although much is too artificial, and
the theological views are no  longer of
value.   She  has  written a great  many
romances and works for children.  Her
Magazin des Enfans was  formerly the
manual of all governantes and French
boarding-schools.
  Beauty.  (See Philosophy.)
  Beaver  (castor, L.); a genus of clavic-
ulated, mammiferous quadrupeds, of the
order glires, L., rodentia, C, or gnawers.
—Having drawn up, witb great care, the
natural  history of this species in another
work (American Natural History,  vol. ii.,
p. 21),  we  shall avail ourselves of some
of the most  interesting statements, and
refer the reader thereto for more ample
details, as well as for the fabulous history
of the  animal.—It is only in  a state of
nature  that the beaver displays any of
those singular  modes  of acting,  which
have so  long rendered the species cele-
brated.   These may be summed up in a
statement of the  manner in which they
secure  a depth of water that cannot be
frozen to the bottom, and their mode of
constructing the huts in which they pass
the winter.   They are not particular as to
the site which they select for the establish-
ment of their dwellings, but if it  is in a
lake or pond, where a dam  is not  re-
quired,  they  are careful to build  where
the water is sufficiently deep.  In stand-
ing waters, however, they have not the
advantage  afforded by a current for the
transportation of their supplies of wood,
which, when  they build  on a running
stream, is always cut higher up than the
place of their residence, and floated down.
The materials  used for the construction
of their dams are the trunks and branches
of small birch, mulberry, willow and pop-
lar trees, &c.  They begin to  cut down
their timber for  building early in the
summer, but then  edifices are not com-
menced until about the middle or latter
part of August, and are not completed
until the beginning of the cold season.
The strength  of their teeth,  and their
perseverance in this work, may be fairly
estimated  by the size of the trees they
cut down.  Doctor Best informs us, that
he has seen a mulberry tree, eight inches
in  diameter, which had  been gnawed
down by the beaver.  We were shown,
while on the banks of the Little Miami
river, several stumps of trees, which had
evidently been felled by these animals,
of at least  five or six inches in diameter.
The trees are cut in such a way as to fall
into the water, and then floated towards
the site of the dam or dwellings.  Small
shrubs, &c, cut at a distance, they drag
with their teeth to the stream, and then
launch and tow them to the place of de-
posit.  At a short distance above a beaver
dam, the number  of trees which have
been cut down appears truly surprising,
and the regularity of the  stumps might
lead persons, unacquainted with the habits
of the animal, to believe that the clearing
was the result  of human industry.—The
figure of the dam varies according to cir-
cumstances.  Should the current be very
gentle, the dam is  carried  nearly straight
across; but when  the stream  is swift, it
is uniformly made with a considerable
curve, having the convex part opposed to
the current.  Along with the trunks and
branches of trees  they intermingle mud
and stones, to give greater  security; and,
when dams have been long undisturbed
and frequently repaired,  they acquire
great solidity, and  their  power of resist-
ing the pressure of water, ice, &c, is
greatly increased by the willow and birch
occasionally taking root, and  eventually
growing up into something like a regular
hedge.  The materials used in construct-
ing the dams  are  secured solely by the
resting of the  branches, &c. against the
bottom, and the subsequent accumulation
of mud and stones by the  force of the
stream, or by the industry of the beavers.
—The dwellings of the beavers are form-
ed  of the same materials  as their dams,
are very rude,  and adapted in  size to the
number of their inhabitants: seldom more 
24
BEAVER—BECCARIA.
 than four old, or six or eight young ones,
 are  found in one  of the lodges, though
 double that number have been sometimes
 seen.  In building their houses, they place
 most of the wood crosswise, and nearly
 horizontally, observing no otiier order than
 that of leaving a cavity in the middle.
 Branches projecting inwards are cut off
!with their teeth, and  thrown among the
 rest.  The houses are not of sticks, and
 then plastered, but of all the  materials
iused in the dams—sticks, mud and stones,
'if the latter can be procured.  This com-
 position is employed from the foundation
 to the summit.  The mud is  obtained
 from the adjacent banks or bottom of the
 stream or pond near the door of the hut.
 The beaver always carries mud or stones
 by holding them between his fore paws
 and  throat.  Their work is  all  perform-
 ed at night, and with much expedition.
 When straw or grass is mingled with the
 mud used in building, it is an accident
 owing to the nature  of the  spot whence
 the  mud  is obtained.   As soon as any
 portion of the  materials is placed, they
 turn round, and give it a smart blow with
 the tail.   The same sort of blow is struck
 by them  on the  surface of the  water
 when they are in the act of diving.   The
 outside of the hut is covered or plastered
 with mud, late  in the autumn, and after
 frost has begun to appear.   By freezing,
 it soon becomes almost as hard as stone,
 effectually excluding  their great enemy,
 the wolverene,  during the winter.  Their
 habit of walking over the work frequent-
 ly, has led to  the absurd idea of their
 using the tail as a trowel.  The houses
 are generally from four to six feet thick
at the apex of the cone: some have been
found as much  as eight feet  thick at top.
The door or entrance is always on the
side  farthest  from  land, and is near the
 foundation, or a considerable  depth under
water: this is the only opening into the
hut.  The large houses are sometimes
found to  have  projections of the  main
building thrown out, for the better sup-
port  of the roof, and this circumstance
has led to all  the stories of the  different
apartments in beaver huts.   These larger
edifices, so far from having several apart-
ments,  are double  or treble  houses, the
parts having no  communication except by
water.  It is  a  fact, that the muskrat is
sometimes found to have taken lodgings
in the  huts of the beaver.   The  otter,
also, occasionally intrudes: he, however,
is a  dangerous  guest, for, should provis-
ions  grow scarce, it is not uncommon for
him to devour his host.  All  the beavers
of a community do not co-operate in fab-
ricating houses for  the  common  use  of
the whole.   The only affair in which
they have a joint interest, and upon which
they labor in concert, is the dam.  Bea-
vers also make excavations in the adjacent
banks, at regular distances  from  each
other,  which  have been  called  washes.
These are so enlarged within, that the
beaver can raise his head above water to
breathe without being seen, and, when
disturbed at their huts, they immediately
swim under water  to these washes for
greater security,  where they  are easily
taken by the hunters.—The food of the
beaver consists chiefly of the bark of the
aspen, willow, birch, poplar, and, occa-
sionally, alder: to the  pine it rarely re-
sorts, unless from severe necessity.  They
provide a stock of wood from the  trees
first mentioned,  during  summer, and
place it in  the water, opposite the en-
trance into  their houses.—The  beaver
produces  from two to five  at a litter.  It
is a cleanly animal, and  always performs
its evacuations in the water, at a distance
from the hut:  hence no accumulation  of
filth is found near their dwellings.—The
beaver is  about  two feet in length;  its
body  thick  and  heavy; the head com-
pressed, and  somewhat arched  at the
front, the  upper part rather narrow; the
snout much so.  The eyes  are  placed
rather high  on the head, and the pupils
are rounded  ; the  ears are short, elliptical,
and almost  concealed by the  fur.  The
skin is covered by two sorts of hair,  of
which one is long, rather stiff, elastic, and
of a gray color for two thirds of its length
next the base, and terminated by shining,
reddish-brown points;  the other is short,
thick, tufted  and  soft, being of different
shades of silver-gray or light lead color.
The hair is shortest on the head and feet.
The hind  legs are longer  than the  fore,
and are completely webbed. The tail is
10 or 11  inches  long, and, except the
third nearest the  body, is  covered  with
hexagonal scales.  The third next the
body is covered with hair like that on the
back.   (See  Godman's  Am. Nat. Hist^
vol. ii, p. 19,  et seq.)
  Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marchese
di, bom at Milan, 1735, was  early excited,
by Montesquieu's  Lettres Persanes, to the
cultivation of his philosophical talents,
and afterwards favorably known as a phi-
losophical writer by his memorable work,
full of a noble philanthropy, Dei Delitti e
delle Pene (On Crimes and Punishments),
Naples, 1764, and several  others.  With
the eloquence of true feeling, and a lively 
BECCARIA—BECKET.
25
imagination, he opposes  capital  punish-
ments and the torture.  This work led to
the establishment  of more settled and
more correct principles of penal law, and
contributed to  excite a  general  horror
against inhuman punishments.   B. was a
true friend, a  good son, a tender husband
and a real  philanthropist  He is also
known, in Italy, as the author of a philo-
sophical  grammar and theory of style,
Ricerche  intorno alia Natura  dello Stilo
(Milan, 1770), and of several good trea-
tises on style, on rhetorical ornament, &c,
contained in  the  journal II Caffe, edited
by him, in conjunction with his friends
Visconti, Verri and others.  A fit of apo-
plexy put an  end  to his useful  life in No-
vember, 1793.
   Beccaria,  Giovanni  Battista;  bom,
1716, at Mondovi; went to Rome in 1732,
where he studied, and afterwards taught
grammar and rhetoric ; at the  same time,
he applied himself with success to math-
ematics.   He was appointed professor of
philosophy at Palermo, and afterwards at
Rome.  Charles  Emanuel, king of Sar-
dinia, invited him to Turin, in 1748, to fill
the professorship  of natural philosophy at
the university tliere.  Electricity had, at
that time, through  the  experiments of
Franklin and others, become an object of
universal interest.  He therefore published
his Dell' Elettricismo naturale ed artifiziale
(Turin, 4to).   The  experiments  which
this work contains on atinospherical elec-
tricity are so numerous and various, that
Priestley affirmed, in his History of Elec-
tricity, that Beccaria's labors  far surpass
all that  had been done, before and after
 him,  on this  subject.  The academies in
 London and  Bologna elected him a mem-
 ber.  He  wrote   many other  valuable
 works on this subject.  The most impor-
 tant, Dell' Elettricismo artifiziale (1772),
 contains all that was then known of elec-
 tricity.   Franklin,  who  esteemed   the
 works  of B.,  had  them translated  into
 English.   In 1759, the king employed
 him to measure a degree of the meridian
 in Piedmont.  He  began the measure-
 ment in 1760, together with the abbot
 Canonica, and published the result in
 1774.  The  doubts  expressed by Cassini
 of the exactness of  this measurement,
 drew from.him his Lettere eTun Italiano ad
 un Parigino, in which he showed the in-
 fluence  of the proximity of the Alps on
 the deviation of" the pendulum.  As his
 thoughts were entirely  absorbed by his
 studies, he often  neglected the nicer rules
 of good-breeding, without losing, however,
 the general esteem. HediedApril27,1781.
    VOL. II.           3
  Becher, John Joachim; author of the
first theory of chemistry ; bom at Spire, in
1635.  He finished his restless life at Lon-
don, in 1685, after having resided in many
parts of Germany.  He had  many  ene-
mies, and has been  accused, not entirely
without justice, of charlatanry ; yet his in-
fluence on the science of chemistry gives
him still a  claim to remembrance.   He
brought it into a nearer connexion  with
physics, and sought for the causes of ail
the phenomena of the inorganic universe
in these two   departments  of  science.
This is the object of his principal work,
Phydca subteiranea. At  the  same time,
he  began to form a theoiy of chemistry ;
and conceived the idea of a primitive  acid,
of which all the others were only modifi-
cations.  He also  made  researches  into
die  process of combustion.   He main-
tained that every metal consists of a com-
mon earthy matter, of a common com-
bustible principle, and of a peculiar  mer-
curial substance.  If we heat a metal so
that it changes its fonn, we disengage the
mercurial substance, and nothing remains
but the metallic calx.  This was the first
germ of the phlogistic theory, which was
further developed by Stahl, and prevailed
until the time  of Lavoisier.  The numer-
ous works of B. are, even now, not with-
out interest.
   Beck,  Christian  Daniel;  one of the
most active living philologists and histori-
ans, born in Leipsic, Jan. 22,1757.   He
is professor at the university in that city,
and has rendered  himself famous  by a
great  number of excellent  works.   His
editions of the classics are in high esteem.
Between 1787 and  1806  appeared the 4
volumes of his work, Introduction to a
Knowledge of the General History of the
World and of Nations, until the Discov-
ery of America.  He also translated Gold-
 smith's History of Greece, and Ferguson's
 History of the Roman Republic.  Of his
 theological works,  we may mention  his
 Commentarii historiri Decretorum Religio-
 nis Christiana', et Formula Luther (Leipsic,
 1800).   He has also edited a learned pe-
 riodical work.
   Becket, Thomas, the most celebrated
 Roman Catholic prelate in the English an-
 nals, was born in London, 1119.   He was
 the son of Gilbert, a London merchant.
 His mother is said to have been a Saracen
 lady, to whose father Gilbert was prisoner,
 in Jerusalem, being taken captive  in  one
 of the crusades.  The lady is said to have
 fallen in love with the prisoner, and to
 have followed him to London, where he
 married her.   After  studying at Oxford 
26
BECKET.
 and Paris, B. was sent, by the favor of
 Theobald, archbishop  of Canterbury, to
 study civil law at  Bononia, in Italy, and,
 on his  return, was made archdeacon of
 Canterbury and provost of Beverley.  His
 claim to the good opinion of Theobald was
 founded on his skill in  negotiation shown
 in a matter of the highest importance to
 England—the soliciting from the pope the
 orohibitory letters against the crowning of
 Eustace, the son of Stephen, by which
 *hat design was defeated.  This service
 not only raised Becket in the esteem of
 rhe archbishop, but in that of king Henry
 II, and was  the foundation of his high
 fortune.  In 1158, he was appointed high
 chancellor and preceptor to prince Henry,
 and at this time was  a  complete courtier,
 conforming, in every respect, to the  hu-
 mor of the king.  He was, in fact, his
 prime  companion, had the same  hours
 of eating and going to bed, held splendid
 levees, and courted popular applause.   In
 1159, he made a campaign with the king
 in Toulouse, having  in his  own pay 700
 knights and  1200 horsemen;  and it is
 said he  advised Henry to seize the person
 of  Louis,  king  of France,  shut up  in
 Toulouse without an army.  This  coun-
 sel, however, so indicative of the future
 martyr,  being too bold for the lay  coun-
 sellors of one of the  boldest monarchs of
 the age, was declined.  In the next year,
 he visited Paris, to treat of an alliance be-
 tween the eldest daughter of the king  of
 France  and' prince Henry, and returned
 with the young princess to England.  He
 had not enjoyed the  chancellorship more
 than four years, when  his patron Theo-
 bald died, and king Henry was so far mis-
 taken as to raise his favorite to the pri-
 macy, on the presumption that he would
 aid him in those political views, in respect
 to church power, which all the sovereigns
 of the Norman line embraced, and which,
 in fact, caused a continual struggle, until
 its termination by Henry VIII. It has
 been asserted, that B. told the king what
he was  to expect  from him;  but,  inde-
 pendent of the appointment itself, there
is evidence to prove his eagerness to ob-
tain the  dignity, and the disgust entertain-
ed by Henry at the first symptoms of the
real temper of the man whom he had been
so anxious to promote.  B. was consecra-
ted archbishop in 1162,  and immediately
affected  an austerity of character which
formed a very natural prelude to the part
which he meant to play. Pope Alexan-
der III held a general  council at Tours,
in 1163, at which B. attended, and  made
a formal complaint of the infringements
 by the laity on the rights and immunities
 of the church.  On his return to England,
 he began to act in the spirit of this repre-
 sentation, and to prosecute several  of the
 nobility and others, holding  church pos-
 sessions, whom he also proceeded  to ex-
 communicate.  Henry, an able and  politic
 monarch, was anxious to recall certain
 privileges of the clergy, which withdrew
 them from  the jurisdiction  of the civil
 courts; and it was not without a violent
 struggle, and the  mediation of the pope,
 that 13.  finally acquiesced.   The king
 soon  after  summoned a convocation or
 parliament at Clarendon, to the celebrated
 constitution of which, although the arch-
 bishop swore that he would never assent,
 he at length subscribed it, and, alleging
 something  like force for his excuse, by
 way of penance, suspended himself from
 his  archiepiscopal  functions until  the
 pope's absolution  could arrive.   Finding
 himself the object of the king's displeas-
 ure, he soon after attempted  to escape to
 France; but, being intercepted, Henry, in a
 parliament at Northampton, charged him
 with a violation of his allegiance, and all
 his goods were confiscated. A suit was al-
 so commenced against him for money lent
 him during his chancellorship, and for the
 proceeds of the benefices which he had
 held vacant while in that capacity.  In
 this desperate situation, he,  with great
 difficulty and danger, made his escape to
 Flanders, and, proceeding to the pope at
 Sens, humbly resigned his archbishopric,
 which was, however, restored.  He then
 took up his abode at the abbey of Pon-
 tigny, in Normandy, whence he issued ex-
 postulatory letters to the king and bishops
 of England, in which he excommunicated
 all  violators of the prerogatives  of the
 church, and included  in the censure the
 principal officers  of the crown.   Henry
 was so exasperated, that he banished all
 his relations, and  obliged the Cistercians
 to send him away from the abbey of Pon-
 tigny; from which  he removed, on  the
 recommendation of the king  of France,
to the abbey of Columbe, and spent four
years there  in  exile.   After much  nego-
tiation, a sort of reconciliation took place
in 1170, on the whole to the advantage of
Becket, who,  being restored  to his see,
 with all its former privileges, behaved, on
the occasion, with excessive haughtiness.
 After a triumphant entry into Canterbury,
the young king Henry,  crowned during
the life-time of his  father,  transmitted
him an order to restore the suspended and
excommunicated prelates, which he re-
fused to do, on the pretence that the pope 
BECKET—BEDE.                           27
 alone could grant the favor, although the
 latter had lodged the instruments of cen-
 sure in his hands.  The prelates immedi-
 ately appealed to Henry in  Normandy,
 who, in a state of extreme exasperation,
 exclaimed, " What an unhappy prince am
 I, who have not about me one man  of
 spirit enough to rid me of a single inso-
 lent prelate, the perpetual trouble of my
 life!"  These  rash and  too  significant
 words induced  four attendant barons,
 Reginald  Fitz-Urse,  William de  Tracy,
 Hugh de Morville and Richard  Breto, to
 resolve to wipe out the  king's  reproach.
 Having laid their plans, they  forthwith
 proceeded  to  Canterbuiy, and,  having
 formally  required the archbishop to re-
 store the suspended prelates, they return-
 ed in the evening of the  same day (Dec.
 29, 1170), and, placing  soldiers  in  the
 court-yard, rushed,  with their swords
 drawn,  into  the  cathedral,  where  the
 archbishop was at vespers, and, advan-
 cing towards him, threatened him with
 death if he still disobeyed the orders  of
 Henry.  B., without  the  least  token  of
 fear, replied, that he was  ready  to die for
 the rights of the church; and magnani-
 mously added, " I charge you, in the name
 of the Almighty, not to  hurt any other
 person here, for none of them have been
 concerned in the late  transactions."  The
 confederates then strove  to drag him out
 of the church ;  but,  not being able to do
 so, on account of his resolute deportment,
 they killed him on the spot with repeated
 wounds, all which he endured without a
 groan.—The conduct of Henry, and  the
 consequences of this assassination, form a
 part of English  history wherein the dis-
 cerning student will  perceive the subtle
 policy of the court of Rome, which eager-
 ly availed itself of this opportunity to ad-
 vance its  general object, with a  due
 regard to the power of  Henry and his
 strength of character.  The perpetrators
 of the deed, on talcing a voyage to Rome,
 were admitted to penance, and allowed to
 expiate their enormity in tbe Holy Land.—
 Thus perished Thomas  Becket,  in  his
 52d year, a martyr to the cause which he
 espoused,  and a man of unquestionable
 vigor of intellect.  He   was canonized
two years after his death, and miracles
abounded  at his tomb.   In the reign of
Henry III, his body  was taken up, and
placed in  a magnificent  shrine, erected
by archbishop  Stephen Langton; and of
the popularity of the pilgrimages to his
tomb, the  Canterbury Tales of Chaucer
will prove an enduring testimony.
  Beckman.n, John, for almost  45 years
 professor of philosophy, economy, policy,
 finance and commerce in Gottingen, was
 born at. Hoya in ] 739.  In 1763, he was ap-
 pointed, on Biisching's recommendation,
 professor of the Lutheran gymnasium in
 St. Petersburg.  In 1766, he became pro-
 fessor  in Gottingen,- where he  lectured
 with great success.  B. died in 1811, be-
 ing a member of most of the learned so-
 cieties of the north of Europe.  There
 are a number of text-books, in the differ-
 ent  sciences above-mentioned,  by  him.
 Among his  other works is a History of
 Inventions, Leipsic, 1780—1805, 5 vols.
   Bed, in  gunnery;  the  frame of tim-
 ber  or planks in which cannon, mortars,
 &c. are placed, to give them a steady and
 even position, necessary for aiming.
   Bed of Justice.  (See Lit de Justice.)
   Bede, or Beda, an eminent ecclesiastic
 of the eighth century, usually called the
 venerable Bede, was born in the year 672
 or 673, in  the neighborhood  of" Wear-
 mouth, in  the bishopric   of Durham.
 From the age of 7 to that of 19, he pursued
 his studies in the monastery of St. Peter,
 at  Wearmouth.   Being then  ordained
 deacon, he was employed  in the task of
 educating the youth who resorted to the
 monastery  for instruction,  and  pursued
 his own  studies with  unremitting ardor.
 In  his thirtieth year, he was ordained
 priest; and, his fame for zeal and erudi-
 tion reaching the ears of pope Sergius, he
 was invited to Rome, but, in consequence
 of the death of that  pontiff, never went
 there.  It is not even certain that he ever
 left Northumberland,  which, of course,
 reduces the incidents of his life to his lit-
 erary pursuits and domestic occupations,
 as he  accepted  no benefice, and never
 seems  to have interfered in civil transac-
 tions.  His church history was published
 in 731.  His last literary labor was a trans-
 lation of the Gospel of St. John into Sax-
 on, which he completed, with difficulty,
 on the very day and  hour  of his death.
 The writings of Bede were  numerous
 and  important, considering the  time  in
 which  they were  written,  and the  sub-
jects of which they treat, which extended
 to ecclesiastical affairs, religion and edu-
 cation  only.  His English  Ecclesiastical
 History is the greatest and  most popular
 of his works, and has acquired additional
 celebrity by the translation of king Alfred.
 The collections which he  made for it
 were the labor of many years.  Besides
 his own personal investigations,  he kept
 up a correspondence  with  the monaste-
 ries throughout the Heptarchy, to obtain
 archives and records for his purpose; and 
28
BEDE—BEDFORD.
thus nearly all the knowledge possessed
of the early state of Christianity in his
country is due to B.  There have been
several  editions  of the  original  Latin,
which is easy, although not elegant.  The
latest and best is that of Dr. Smith, Cam-
bridge, 1722.  There is a translation into
English by Thomas Stapylton, D. D., Ant-
werp, 1505, besides the Saxon version  of
Alfred.  B. was also the author of many
other works, a catalogue of which he sub-
joined to his  history.  Several of these
were printed early; but  the  first general
collection of his works was that of Paris,
1554, 3  vols. fol.  Some of his treatises
have been published by Mr. Wharton,
from MSS. in the library at Lambeth pal-
ace, London, 4to, 1693.  While the num-
ber and variety of the writings of B. show
the  extent  of his erudition, his probity,
moderation  and  modesty  insured  him
general respect;  and his disinterestedness
is proved by the  fact, that he  was never
any thing but  an unbeneficed  priest.  A
letter of advice, which he wrote,  late in
life, to Egbert, archbishop of York, proves,
at once, the purity of his morals, the lib-
erality of his  sentiments, and the excel-
lence of his discernment; his wish being
to curtail the number of monasteries, and
to increase the efficacy and respectability
of  the secular clergy.   Notwithstanding
the veneration with which he was regard-
ed, not  a  single  miracle  is  recorded  of
him; and, as monks were the great mira-
cle mongers, and his views of monastic
reform such as we have mentioned, this
is  not  surprising. The manner  of the
death of  this virtuous  ecclesiastic was
striking and characteristic.  He was dic-
tating a translation of the gospel of  St.
John to an amanuensis.   The young man
who wrote for him said, " There is  now,
master, but one sentence wanting;"  upon
which  he  bade him write quickly; and,
when the scribe said, " It is now done,"
the dying sage  ejaculated, "It is now
done," and a  few minutes afterwards ex-
pired, in the act of prayer, on the floor of
his cell, in the 63d year of his age, in the
month  of May, A. D. 735.
   Beddoes, Thomas;  a physician  and
 author; bom, 1760, at Shiffhal in Shrop-
 shire ; died 1808. He was  educated by
 his grandfather.  He made great progress
 at school, in classical studies, and dis-
 tinguished  himself  at  Oxford  by  his
 knowledge of ancient  and  modern lan-
 guages and literature.   The great discov-
 eries in physics, chemistry and physiology,
 irresistibly attracted  him.  He continued
 his studies with success  in London and
Edinburgh.  In  his 26th year, he took
his  doctor's degree, afterwards  visited
Paris, and formed  an acquaintance with
Lavoisier. On his return, he was appoint-
ed professor  of chemistry at  Oxford.
There he published some excellent chem-
ical treatises,  and Observations  on  the
Calculus, Sea-Scurvy, Consumption,  Ca-
tarrh  and Fever.  But, dazzled  by  the
splendid promises  of the French revolu-
tion, he offended some  of his former ad-
mirers, and excited such a clamor against
him  by the publication of his political
opinions, that he determined to resign his
professorship, and  retired to the house of
his friend Mr. Reynolds,  in  Shropshire.
There he composed his observations on
the nature of demonstrative evidence, in
which he endeavors to prove, that mathe-
matical reasoning proceeds on the  evi-
dence of the senses, and that  geometry is
founded on experiment.   He  also pub-
lished the History of Isaac Jenkins, which
was  intended to  impress  useful  moral
lessons on the laboring classes in an at-
tractive manner.  Above 40,000 copies of
this  popular work were sold  in  a short
time.  After he  had married, in 1794, he
formed the  plan of a pneumatic institu-
tion, for curing diseases, particularly con-
sumption, by means of factitious airs or
gases.  He succeeded, with the assistance
of the celebrated Wedgewood, in opening
this institution, in  1798.  He engaged, as
superintendent of the whole, a young man,
Humphrey Davy, the foundation of whose
future fame was  laid  here.  The chief
purpose of  the  institution, however, was
never realized, and B.'s zeal gradually re-
laxed, so that he relinquished it one  year
before his death, after having published a
number of  valuable works upon the ap-
plication of factitious airs.  In  the last
years of his life, he acquired the reputa-
tion  of the  best medical writer in Great
Britain, particularly by his Hygeia,  in 3
vols., a popular  work,  which contains
passages  of  extraordinary   eloquence.
His  political pamphlets, from  1795—97,
are forgotten.
   Bedford, John, duke  of; one of the
younger sons  of Henry IV, king of Eng-
land ; famous as a statesman and a war-
rior.   Shakspeare, who calls  him prince
John of Lancaster, introduces him, in his
plays of Henry IV, as distinguishing him-
self by his  youthful courage in the battle
 of Shrewsbury, hi 1403,  and  forming a
 kind of moral contrast to his more dissi-
 pated brother, the prince of Wales.  Du-
 ring the reign of Henry V, he participated
 in the fame acquired by the conquest of 
BEDFORD—BEDOUINS.                        29
 France;  but  his talents were fully dis-
  filayed when, after the death of that king,
  le became regent of France, having been
 appointed to  this post by Henry, in  his
 will.  At Verneuil, in 1424, he displayed
 his  military talents ; and  the  difficulties,
 which, from  various causes,  he experi-
 enced in endeavoring  to  maintain pos-
 session of  the conquered provinces in
 France,  afforded  frequent occasion  for
 the  manifestation of  his  ability.  The
 greatest  blemish in his character is  his
 cruel execution of the  maid of Orleans,
 in  1431.  He survived this event about
 four years, and dying, in 1435, at Rouen,
 was buried  in the cathedral of that city.
 The duke  deserves notice also for  his
 patronage of the arts.   A curious monu-
 ment of his taste still exists—the Bedford
 Missal.  Mr. Dibdin, in his Bibliomania,
 p. 253, gives an account  of it.  It was
 made for the duke and duchess, and con-
 tains 59 large, and more than 1000 small
 miniature  paintings.    In  1786, it was
 purchased, by Mr. Edwards, for 215 guin-
 eas, from the collection of the duchess
 of Portland; and, a  few years after, 500
 guineas were offered for it.  In a histori-
 cal point of view, it is interesting on ac-
 count* of several portraits of eminent per-
 sons ; some of which have been engraved
 by  Vertue, for his portraits to illustrate
 the history  of England.   For the  anti-
 quarian and the student of the fine arts,
 it is one  of the most interesting monu-
 ments  of that age.   Gough, the antiqua-
 rian, published a work in 8vo., describing
 the Bedford Missal.
  Bedford ;  a town  in  England, and
 capital of the county of Bedford, to which
 it gives name, situated  on the Ouse;  22
 miles S. E. of Northampton,  50 N.  of
 London;  Ion. 0° 27' W.;  lat.  52° & N.;
 pop. 4605.  It contains  5 churches, 3  on
 the north and 2 on the  south side of the
 river, 3 independent meeting-houses, and
 a free grammar school liberally endowed.
 The principal manufacture  is lace.  It is
 a place of considerable trade, which  is
 much assisted by the river, navigable  to
 Lynn,  and is the only market-town  of
 the county, on the north side of the Ouse.
 The soil about it is fertile,  particularly in
 excellent  wheat.   It sends two repre-
sentatives to  parliament.    It has  two
markets weekly.
  Bedford ; a borough town,  and capi-
tal of Bedford county, Pennsylvania;  91
miles E. by S. of Pittsburg, 190  W.  of
Philadelphia:  population of the borough,
789; including the township, 2116.  It is
finely situated  on a branch of the Juni-
                 3*
 atta, regularly laid out, and built on an em-
 inence enveloped by mountains.  Will's
 mountain, on the west side of the town,
 is 1300 feet  high, and Dunning's moun-
 tain, on the  east side, is 1100 feet high.
 A  mile and a  half south of the town,
 there  are mineral springs, which  were
 discovered in 1804, and are much resort-
 ed to, and  found useful  in cutaneous
 complaints, ulcers, rheumatisms, chronic
 complaints, &c.—Tliere are several other
 towns and counties of the same  name in
 the U. States: as, B. in the state of New
 York,  Westchester  county,  population
 nearly 2500; B. county in the south of
 Virginia; and another in West Tennessee.
   Bedford Level ; a large tract of land
 in England, in the counties of Cambridge,
 Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdon, Northamp-
 ton and Lincoln, formerly full of fens and
 marshes,  and, in rainy seasons, for the
 most part under water; but drained, at
 the  expense  of £400,000,  by the  noble
 family  of Russell, earls and dukes  of
 Bedford,  and others ; by  which means
 100,000 acres of  good land have  been
 brought into  use.
  Bedford,  New ; a seaport in Massa-
 chusetts.  (See New Bedford.)
  Bedouins, or Bedoweens (that is, in-
 habitants of the desert); a numerous Mo-
 hammedan  race,  which dwells in  the
 deserts of Arabia,  Egypt and Northern
 Africa. It is still doubtful  whether they
 belong to the same race with the Arabs,
 or differ from them in their descent, as
 they do in their manner of living.   The
 Bedouins  live at a distance  from  cities
 and villages, in families, under sheiks, or
 in tribes,  under  emirs.  Their dwellings
 are tents, huts, caverns and ruins.  With
 their herds and  beasts of burden, which
 carry their little property, they wander in
 quest of fresh water and pasture.  They
 are all  good horsemen, and  are generally
 fond of hunting.   The peaceful tribes
 exchange  horses (which they raise  with
 great care) and  fat cattle, for arms and
 cloth,  with  the  neighboring  nations.
 Other hordes are such open robbers, that
 it is dangerous  to  travel  through their
 country without a guard or  a passport,
 which  the different chiefs sell.  They not
 only plunder, but murder, even when the
 travellers  offer no resistance.  Notwith-
standing this barbarous custom, the  Bed-
ouins hold the rights of hospitality sa-
cred ; and the most defenceless enemy is
sure of their protection, if they have once
allowed him  shelter.  But  the Bedouin
considers  every  one his enemy  who is
not  his brother, kinsman or ally.  Always 
30                           BEDOUINS—BEE.
careful of his own safety, he attacks no
caravan or camp without being  sure of
his superiority. To superior numbers, and
a  bold resistance, he yields, and  saves
himself by a speedy flight.  A terror to
the neighboring  nations,  the  rapacious
Bedouin  lives in a state of continual
watchfulness;  poor,  ignorant, wild and
rude, but free, and proud of his liberty.
This people is remarkable for temperance
in regard to food, amounting ahnost to
abstinence.
   Bee (apis mellifica, L.) ; a species of
hymenopterous insect,  belonging to the
family apiaria.—The honey-bee is uni-
versally celebrated for its singular instincts,
and highly prized for the valuable prod-
ucts of its industry,  A vast number of
interesting facts  have consequently been
collected in relation to the  economy of
the species, for the detail of whose history
a volume  of considerable  size would be
required.  We shall therefore be able  to
present nothing  more than  a sketch of
the most striking generalities, obtained
from the admirable works of Huber, Cu-
vier, &c, and to these authentic sources
must refer the reader desirous of more
ample information.—Three sorts  of indi-
viduals are found to form a community
of honey-bees; the female, mother, or, as
she is commonly called, queen ; the males,
or drones; and the working bees,  improp-
erly termed neuters,  as they are  actually
females,  though, in a peculiar  respect,
imperfect.   A  hive commonly  consists
of one mother, or queen, from 6 to 800
males, and  from 15 to 20,000 working
bees.  The last  mentioned are the small-
est, have  12 joints to their antenna:, and
6 abdominal rings :   the first joint  or
square portion of the posterior  tard is
enlarged at the posterior angle of its base,
and shaped like  a pointed auricle, having
its internal  surface covered  with a fine,
short,  close, silky down.  They  are pro-
vided  with stings.   The mandibles are
spoon-shaped, and not dentated. There is,
on the outside of the hind legs, a smooth
hollow, edged with hairs, called  the bas-
ket : the silky brush of the  first  joint  of
the posterior tarsi has 7  or 8 transverse
stria.   The mother, or  queen,  has the
same characteristics, but is of larger size,
especially  in the abdomen: she  has  a
shorter sucker or trunk, and the mandi-
bles grooved and velvet-like beneath the
tip.  The males, or drones, differ from
both the preceding by having 13 joints to
 the antenna; a rounded head, with larger
 eyes, elongated and united at the summit;
 smaller and more velvety mandibles, and
shorter  anterior feet,  the  two first of
which are arched.  They have no auric-
ular  dilatation  nor silky brush on  the
square part of the posterior tard, and are
destitute of stings.   The  genitals consist
of two hom-shapcd bodies  of a reddish-
yellow color, with a broad-ended penis.—
When we examine the internal structure
of this insect, we find at the superior base
of the trunk or sucker,  below the labrum,
a considerable aperture, shut by a small,
triangular piece, which has been  called
tongue,  epipharynx, &c.   This  opening
receives the  food,  which is thence con-
veyed by a delicate asophagus, through
the  corselet, to the  anterior  stomach,
which contains the  honey; the  second
stomach receives the pollen of flowers,
and has, on its internal surface, a number
of transverse  and annular wrinkles.  The
abdominal cavity of the queen and work-
ing bees also contanis the little bag of
poison communicating with the sting.  In
the queen, tliere are, moreover,  two large
ovaries, consisting  of a great number of
small cavities, each containing  16 or 17
eggs.  These ovaries open  near the anus,
previous to which  they dilate into pouch-
es, where the egg  is delayed to receive a
viscous  coating from an adjacent  gland.
The inferior half-circles, except the  first
and  last,  on the  abdomens of working
bees, have each on their  inner surface
two  cavities,  where the wax is formed in
layers, and conies  out  from between the
abdominal rings.   Below  these cavities
is a particular membrane, formed of a
very small, hexagonally-meshed network,
which is  connected with the membrane
lining the walls of the abdominal cavity.
—Wax, of which the combs are formed,
is elaborated from honey.  The  pollen
collected  from  flowers, mixed with  a
small quantity  of wax, constitutes the
food  of bees and  tlieir larves; and this
food  appears to be modified in its com-
position, according to the sort of indi-
viduals  it is  intended for.  Another  subr
stance collected by bees from the opening
buds of poplar and other trees, and used
by them for lining their hives, stopping
holes,  &c,  is. called  propolis.—Besides
the distinctions remarked  in the female,
male and working bees, Huber regards
the  working bees as of two  sorts; one
devoted to the collection  of provisions,
and  all the materials necessary  to the
comb, as well as to its construction; these
 he calls cirieres.  The others  are more
 delicate, small and feeble, and  employed
 exclusively within the hive, in  feeding
 and taking care of the young.—The re- 
BEE—BEECH.                             31
semblance existing between the working
and female bees first  led to the idea that
they were of the same sex, and the in-
genious experiments  and  accurate obser-
vations  of Huber enabled him to estab-
lish  this fact in the most satisfactory
manner. Having deprived a hive of the
mother  or queen, he found that the work-
ing bees immediately began to prepare a
larve of their own class  to occupy this
important station.  This was effected by
enlarging the cell to the dimensions of a
maternal or royal  chamber, and feeding
the  selected  individual  on  food exclu-
sively destined for the  nourishment  of
the royal larves.   If merely fed upon this
food, without  an accompanying  enlarge-
ment of the  cell,  the maternal  faculties
were but  imperfectly acquired, as the
female did not attain the proper size, and
was  incapable of laying any eggs but
those which produced males.—The cells
of the comb compose two opposite ranges
of horizontal  hexagons, with pyramidal
bases: each layer of the comb is perpen-
dicular, and attached by the summit, and
separated from the rest by a space suffi-
cient for the  bees to pass  in  and out.
The  comb is always built  from above
downward.  The  cells, with the excep-
tion of those for  the female larve and
nymph, are nearly of equal size, some
containing the progeny,  and others the
honey  and pollen  of  flowers.    Some
honey  cells are left open,  others  are
closed for  future use by  a flat or slightly
convex covering of wax.  The maternal
or regal cells vary from 2 to 40  in num-
ber, are greatly  superior in size, nearly
cylindrical, and  somewhat larger at the
extremity.  They have small cavities  on
the outside, and  commonly depend  from
the comb like stalactites, so that the larve
has its  head downwards.—The season of
fecundation occurs about the beginning
of summer, and  the meeting between the
females and  males  takes place  high in
the air, whence the  female returns with
the sexual parts of the male attached to
the  extremity of the  abdomen. This one
fecundation is thought to be sufficient to
vivify the eggs which  the  mother may
lay in the course of two years.  The lay-
ing begins immediately  afterwards, and
continues until autumn.  Reaumur states
that  the female, in  the  spring, lays as
many as 12,000  eggs in  the  lapse of 24
days.   Each sort of egg  is deposited in
the  appropriate cell, unless  a sufficient
number of cells have not been prepared:
in this case, she places  several eggs in
one, and leaves  to the working  bees the
task of  subsequently  arranging them.
The eggs laid at the commencement of
fine weather all belong to the working
sort, and hatch at the end of 4 days.  The
larves are regularly fed by the workers
for 6 or  7 days, when  they are enclosed
in their cell, spin a cocoon, and become
nymphs,  and in about 12  days acquire
their perfect state.   The cells are  then
immediately fitted  up  for the reception
of new eggs.  The eggs for  producing
males are laid two months   later,  and
those  for the females immediately after-
wards.  This succession  of generations
forms so many particular  communities,
which, when increased beyond a certain
degree, leave the parent hive  to found a
new colony elsewhere. Three  or  four
swarms sometimes leave a  hive in a sea-
son.  A good swarm is said to weigh at
least six or eight pounds.  The life of the
bee, like  that of all the other  insects of
its class, does not continue long after the
great business of providing for the  con-
tinuance  of the species is  completed.—
The history  of the bee, as already stated,
is too extensive to allow us  to  attempt
more than this brief sketch-  But to such
as have leisure, and are desirous of in-
structive  amusement,  we   know of no
study which promises a greater degree
of satisfaction ; and there is no book bet-
ter adapted  for this  purpose, than the
excellent treatise  of Huber, which  may
almost be regarded as the ne plus ultra of
its kind.   A beautiful  little poem, called
The Bees, written  by the Florentine  Gi-
ovanni Rucellai, appeared in 1539.
   Beech.  The beech (fagus sylvatica),
one of our handsomest forest-trees, is
known by its waved and somewhat  oval
leaves, and its triangular fruit, consisting
of three cells, and enclosed, by pairs, in a
husk,  which  is  covered  with simple
prickles.—Beech woods are  very  com-
mon in almost all the New  England and
Middle  States, in  the states  of Maine,
Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c.  They are  very
luxuriant in  their growth.   These woods,
it has been  observed, .are peculiarly dry,
and pleasant to walk in, and,  under their
shade, afford to the botanist many inter-
esting  plants,  such as the bird's  nest
(monoiropa), winter-green   (pyrola),  and
some  rare  orchidea.   Beech-trees  bear
lopping well, and may be trained so  as to
form lofty hedges,  which are valuable for
shelter, since  the  leaves, though faded,
remain  through   the  winter, and  the
twisted branches  may be formed into a
very strong fence.  The wood is  hard
and brittle, and, if exposed to the air, is 
32                            BEECH—BEER.
 liable soon to decay.  It is, however, pe-
 culiarly  useful  to  cabinet-makers and
 turners: carpenters' planes, &c. are made
 of it.  When split  into thin layers, it is
 used to  make  scabbards for  swords.
 Chairs, bedsteads and other furniture are
 occasionally formed of beech.  The fruit
 of this tree, which has the name of beech-
 mast, and falls in September, is very pal-
 atable, but,  if eaten in  great quantity,
 it occasions  giddiness  and headaches;
 when, however, it is dried and powdered,
 it may be made into a wholesome bread.
 The inhabitants of Scio, one of the Ionian
 islands,  were once  enabled to endure a
 memorable  siege   by   the  beech-mast
 which tlieir island supplied.  This fruit
 has occasionally been roasted, and  used
 as a substitute for  coffee. When sub-
jected to pressure, it yields a sweet and
 palatable oil, which is equal in quality to
 the best olive-oil, and has  the advantage
 of continuing longer than  that without
 becoming rancid.  Beech-oil is manufac-
 tured in  several  parts of France,  and is
 used by  the lower classes of Silesia in-
 stead of butter.  The cakes which remain
 after the oil is extracted are a wholesome
 food, and may be  also advantageously
 employed for the   fattening  of  swine,
 poultry  and oxen.  In  some  countries,
 the leaves of the beech-tree are collected
 in the  autumn,  before  they have been
 injured by the frost, and are used instead
 of  feathers, for beds ;  and  mattresses
 formed  of them are said to be preferable
 to those either of straw or chaff*.
  Beef-Eaters (a  corruption from the
 French  buffetiers, from buffet, sideboard)
 are yeomen of the guard of the king of
 Great Britain. They are stationed by the
 sideboard at great royal dinners.   There
 are now 100 in service and 70 supernu-
 meraries.   They  are dressed  after the
 fashion of the time of Henry VIII.
  Beejapoor (Bija-pur, a corruption of
 Vijaya-puri, the city of victory, the orig-
 inal name of the capital); a large  prov-
 ince of Deccan, between  the  15th and
 18th degrees  of N. lat.; bounded N. and
 E.  by Aurungabad and  Beder,  S. by
 North Canara and the river Toombudra,
 and W. by the sea;  about 350 miles long,
 and  200 broad.   It is  watered  by the
 Crishna,  Toombudra, Beemah  and Gat-
 purba;  and is traversed by the  Ghaut
 mountains.  The soil is generally  fertile,
 and provisions plentiful.  The chief cities
 are Beejapoor, Boonah (the capital of the
 Mahrattas),  St.  Kuttany  and  Nubely.
 Four fifths of the country are subject to
 the Mahrattas, the  rest to the Nizam.
 The population is estimated at 7,000,000;
 one  twentieth  Mohammedans, the rest
 Hindoos.  The province is divided into
 15 territorial divisions,   hi the  southern
 part  of Concan, one of these divisions,
 Goa  (Gowah,  or, more  properly, Govay),
 the capital of the Portuguese  settlement?
 in the East, is situated.  (See Goa.)  The
 productions of B. are, in general,  similar
 to those of the rest of the Deccan.  One
 part—the neighborhood of the Beemah—
 is celebrated for its breed of horses, and
 supplies the best cavalry in the Maliratta
 armies.
   Beejapoor;  the former  capital  of the
 above province.  (See Bija-pur.)
   Beek, David, a portrait-painter of con-
 siderable merit, was born in 1621, at Arn-
 heim, in Guelderland; became a pupil of
 Vandyck; resided, for some time, at the
 court of Sweden, and died in 1656.  It is
 related  of him, that, on a journey through
 Germany, he  fell sick, and  became, to
 appearance, dead ; when one  of his  ser-
 vants pouring a glass of wine  into his
 throat,  to amuse his  companions,  B.
 opened his eyes, and, after a while, re-
 covered his health.
  Beelzebub  (in  Hebrew, the god of
fiies); an idol of the Moabites or Syrians.
 This  term is applied, in the Scriptures, to
 the chief of the evil spirits.  We must
 remember what  a terrible torment insects
 often are in the East, in order to conceive
 how this name came to be given to  one
 of the greatest of the imaginary spirits of
 evil.  We find  that almost all nations,
 who believe in evil spirits, represent them
 as the rulers of disgusting, tormenting or
 poisonous animals—flies, rats,  mice, rep-
 tiles,  &c.  The  Greeks worshipped sev-
 eral of their chief deities under the char-
 acter of protectors against these animals ;
 for instance, Apollo Tf,tv6tvs, the destroyer
 of rats.  Every  one knows, that  Christ
 was charged by  the'Jews with driving
 out demons by the power of Beelzebub.
 (Matt. xii. 24.)
  Beer.  (See Ale and  Brewing.) We
 have  evidence of the use of this liquor for
 more than 2000 years.  The Grecian poet
 and satirist Archilochus, who lived about
 700  B.  C, and the Grecian  tragedians
 iEschylus and Sophocles, who  lived more
 than 400 B. C, call it wine of barley.   Dio-
 dorus of Sicily, who lived about the time
 of Julius Caesar,  about 50 B. C, mentions
 beer in his History (lib. i. chap. 20).  Pliny
 also, about the middle of the first century
 after  Christ, speaks of this beverage in
 several places of his Natural History.  He
 says that it is prepared in different ways, 
BEER—BEET.
33
and that there is a species more intoxi-
cating than wine.  He says, further, that,
in Spain, it is called celia and cen'a;  but,
in Gaul and in other provinces of the
Roman empire, cerevisia; that it was in
general use among the ancient Germans,
who also called it cerevisia (from Ceres,
the goddess of grain,  and vis, power.)
The Egyptians, as the first  promoters of
agriculture, are said to have invented beer,
and to have prepared a kind, in later times,
at Pelusium, which  was  called by the
name of that city, and was much cele-
brated.  Beer was afterwards unknown
in Egypt, until the  French army intro-
duced it anew, since which it is said that
beer is still brewed tliere.   We are igno-
rant how far the beer of the ancients
resembled the modem article.  The word
beer may most naturally be derived from
bibere, to drink.
  Beer, Michael, sometimes  called Mi-
chael Berr, a learned Jew in Paris, bom at
Nancy, in 1784, was the first of his  reli-
gion who pursued the profession of an
advocate in  France.  His success in this
career  was  brilliant; but  he soon gave
himself up exclusively to  literature, and
received the honor, never before confer-
red on a Jew, of being admitted into the
learned academies of France.  He was
elected a member of the royal society of
antiquaries, of the  philotechnic society,
of  the academies of Nancy, Strasburg,
Nantes  and Gottingen.   Napoleon  in-
vited  him, in 1807,  to the assembly of
Jews,  who were  to advise  concerning
the amelioration of the condition of that
people; and the  general  sanhedrim for
France and Italy chose him their secre-
tary.  At the erection of the kingdom of
Westphalia, on account of his knowledge
of the language of the country, he receiv-
ed an appointment in the ministry of the
interior, and, afterwards, was appointed to
a corresponding office in die French min-
istry : he also delivered a course of lec-
tures on German literature in the athenae-
um of Paris. Among his numerous works
is an Eloge  de Charles Villers.
  Beering, Vitus, captain in the Russian
navy, born at Iiorseiis, in Jutland, being a
skilful  seaman, was  employed  by  Peter
the Great  in the navy  which he had
newly  established at Cronstadt.  His tal-
ents, and the undaunted courage display-
ed  by him  in the naval wars against the
Swedes, procured him the honor of being
chosen to command a voyage of discovery
iu the sea of Kamtschatka.  He set out
from Petersburg, Feb. 5,1725, for Siberia.
In the year 1728, he  examined the north-
ern coasts of Kamtschatka as far as lat
67° W N., and proved that  Asia is not
united to America. It remained, however,
to be determined whether the land oppo-
site to Kamtschatka was, in reality, the
coast of the American continent, or mere-
ly islands lying between Asia and Amer-
ica.  June 4,1741,  he sailed, with two
ships,  from Ochotsk,  and touched the
north-western coast of America, between
lat. 35° and 69° N.   Tempests and  sick-
ness prevented  him  from pursuing his
discoveries: he was cast on a desolate isl-
and, covered with snow and ice, where
he grew dangerously sick, and died  Dec.
8, 1741.  The straits between Asia and
America have received the name of Beer-
ing's straits (also called Anion), and the
island  on which he died that of Beering's
island.   (See Midler's Voyages et Decouv.
faites par les Russes, Amsterdam, 1766).
   Beering's  Island ; an island in N. Pa-
cific ocean, about 90 miles long, and  25 to
30 wide; Ion. 163° 12' to  164° 12' E.; lat.
54° 4S7 to 56° W N.  Neither thunder nor
the aurora borealis have ever been observ-
ed here. The island has springs of excel-
lent water, and beautiful cataracts.  No
animals are found here but ice-foxes, seals,
sea-bears, sea-lions,  sea-cows, &c.   No
wood  grows here, but several kinds of
plants are seen.  The island  is uninhab-
ited.  It was  discovered by Vitus Beering
(q. v.)  in 1741.  It  is sometimes classed
with the Aleutian chain.
   Beering's Straits ; the  narrow sea
between the north-west coast of N. Amer-
ica and the north-east coast of Asia; 39
miles  wide  in the narrowest part; Ion.
168° 15' to 169° 20' W.; lat. 65° 46' to 65°
52' N.   There is a remarkable similarity
in the  portions  of both continents  north
of the strait: both are without wood; the
coasts are low, but,  farther from the sea,
they rise and  form  considerable moun-
tains.   The depth,  in the middle of the
straits, is from 29 to 30 fathoms; towards
the land, the water on the Asiatic side  is
deeper. Captain Vancouver, who visited
these shores  in  1740, gave this name to
the  straits in  honor  of Vitus Beering
(q. v.), because he thinks that  he anchored
there.  Some have also called these straits
 Cook's straits.
   Beet (beta vulgaris) is a  well-known
 valuable succulent root, which is  culti-
 vated  in our kitchen gardens, and grows
 wild in several  countries of the south of
 Europe. There are two principal vari-
 eties of beet, one of which is of a deep
 red or purple color, and the other is white,
 crossed with bands of red.—Red beet is 
34
BEET—BEETHOVEN.
 principally used at table, in salad, boiled,
 and cut into slices, as a pickle, and some-
 times stewed with onions;  but, if eaten in
 great quantity, it is said to be injurious to
 the stomach.  The beet may be taken out
 of the  ground for use about the end of
 August, but it does not attain its full size
 and perfection till the month of  October.
 When good, it is large, and of a deep red
 color, and, when boiled,  is tender, sweet
 and palatable.  It  has lately been ascer-
 tained,  that beet roots may be substituted
 for malt, if deprived of the greater part of
 their juice by pressure,  then dried, and
 treated  in the same manner as the  grain
 intended  for brewing.  The beer made
 from the beet  has been  found perfectly
 wholesome and palatable,  and little infe-
 rior to  that prepared from malt.—From
 the  white beet the  French, during the
 late wars in Europe, endeavored to pre-
 pare  sugar, tliat article, as British  colo-
 nial produce, having been  prohibited in
 France.  For this purpose, the roots were
 boiled as soon as possible after they were
 taken from the earth.  When cold, they
 were sliced, and afterwards the juice was
 pressed out, and evaporated to the con-
 sistence of sirup.  The sugar was obtain-
 ed from this simp by crystallization.  110
 pounds weight of the  roots yielded 41i
 pounds of juice, which, on further evap-
 oration, afforded somewhat more than 4i
 pounds of brown sugar; and these,  by a
 subsequent operation, produced 4 pounds
 of well-grained white powder sugar.  The
 residuum, together with the sirup or mo-
 lasses which  remained,  produced,  after
 distillation, 3£  quarts of rectified spirit,
 somewhat similar to rum.  But many
 subsequent experiments, both in France
 and in Prussia, have tended to prove, that
 sugar can never be advantageously man-
 ufactured from the  beet  upon  a large
scale, it yielding,  upon  a  fair average,
 barely enough to defray the expenses of
making.   The leaves of the beet, when
raised in richly-manured  soil, have been
found to yield a considerable quantity of
pure nitre, proceeding, hi all probability,
from  the  decomposition  of the  animal
matter contained in the manure; but this,
like the sugar of the root, will probably
never pay the  expenses  of cultivation,
which will  also  increase  rather  than
diminish; so  that it may be  considered
valuable, at present, only as an esculent
plant.  The French, however, and other
European nations, still persevere in man-
ufacturing beet sugar,  and make great
quantities  of it, although  it  can never
supersede the use of common sugar, unless
 its production be encouraged by bounties
 and prohibitions.
   Beethoven, Louis von, born in Bonn,
 1772, was the son of a man who had been
 a tenor singer in that place (according to
 another account, in Fayolle's Dictionary
 of Musicians, a natural son of Frederic
 William II, king of Prussia).  His great
 talent for music was early cultivated.  He
 astonished, in  his  eighth year, all who
 heard him, by his execution on the violin,
 on which lie was in the habit of perform-
 ing, with great diligence, in a little garret
 In his 11th year, he played Bach's Wohl
 Temperirtes  clavier,  and, in  his  13th,
 composed some sonatas.  These promis-
 ing appearances of great talent induced
 the then reigning  elector of Cologne to
 send him, in 1792, in the character of his
 organist, and at his expense,  to Vieftna,
 that  he might accomplish himself there
 in composition, under the instruction  of
 Haydn.  Under Haydn and Albrechtsber-
 ger he made rapid progress, and became,
 likewise, a great player on the piano forte,
 astonishing every one by his extempore
 performances.  In  1809, he was invited
 to the new court of the king of Westpha-
 lia, at which several  men of distinction,
 and among them his pupil in music the
 archduke Rodolph, now bishop of Olmiitz,
 persuaded him to remain, by the promise
 of a yearly  salary.  He  composed  his
 principal works after 1801.  A few years
 before his death, a  cold,  which he had
 caught  by composing in the open  air,
 produced a deafness, which became,  by
 degrees, very great.  He lived, afterwards,
 very much retired, in the village of Mod-
 lingen, near Vienna. Instrumental music
 has received from his compositions a new
 character.  Beethoven united the humor
 of Haydn with the melancholy of Mozart.
 and  the  character of  his  music most
 resembles Clicrubini's.  His boldness  is
 remarkable.  Rcichhardt, in a comparison
 of Beethoven with Haydn and Mozart,
 says," The Quartett  of Haydn was the off-
 spring of his amiable and original charac-
 ter.   In  naivete and good humor he  is
 unrivalled.  The more  powerful nature
 and richer imagination of Mozart embra-
 ced a wider field, and many of his com-
 positions express the whole height and
depth of his character.   lie placed more
 value also on exquisite finish. Beethoven
early acquainted with  Mozart's composi-
tions, gave a still bolder cast to his ideas."
Besides his great symphonies and over-
tures, his quiutetts,  quartetts,  and trios
for stringed instruments,  his numerous
sonatas, variations, and  other pieces for 
BEETHOVEN—BEGLERBEG.
35
the piano forte,  in which he shows the
great richness of his imagination, he also
composed vocal music, but with less suc-
cess.   To  this  department  belongs his
opera Leonore (in its altered state, called
Fidelio), some masses, an oratorio (Christ
on the Mount of Olives), and  songs for
the piano forte, among which the compo-
sition of Matthison's Adelaide, called, by
the English, Rosalie, and some songs of
Goethe  are celebrated.   B. died March
26th, 1827, near Vienna, in the greatest
poverty.
  Beetle (scarabaus, L.); a tribe of co-
leopterous insects, belonging to the family
lamellicornua, C.  The beetle  tribe  com-
prises a large number of insects, among
which some are  very remarkable for pro-
jections or horns growing from the head
and corselet.  The species found in warm
climates are  generally of large size and
formidable appearance,  though  by no
means noxious.   They all are winged, fly-
ing with much rapidity and force ; when
on the ground, their movements are slow
and heavy. The body of the perfect insect
is oval, or nearly so, and the antenna are
composed of eight or ten  pieces, inserted
into a cavity under the  border of the head.
From the arrangement of  the  antenna,
which is peculiar to this family, its essen-
tial or  distinctive character  is formed.
The extremities of the antenna are club-
shaped, and composed of plates or joints,
either disposed like the leaves of a book, or
arranged perpendicularly to the axis, like
the teeth of a comb.  The two first  legs
of beetles, and even the  others, in some
instances,  are dentated  externally,  and
suited for burrowing. The trachea are all
vesicular.—The larves or young are  soft,
flexible, whitish, semi-cylhidric worms,
having  the body divided into 12 rings,
and  having a scaly head, armed  with
strong jaws.  They have nine stigmata, or
breathing holes, on each side; and the feet,
which are six,  are  scaly. The body is
thicker at the posterior than at the ante-
rior extremity, rounded, and almost  uni-
formly curved  downwards, so  that the
larve moves with difficulty over an  even
surface, and  frequently  tumbles down.
The period  during  which  the larves
remain in  the state of destructive worms
varies in different species; those of some
kinds becoming nymphs at  the end of
several months, and of others, not sooner
than in  three or four years.  During this
period, they live  in the earth, where they
feed upon the roots of vegetables, animal
matter in  a state of decomposition, &c.
It is in this stage of their existence  that
various species prove exceedingly injuri-
ous to fanners, from their great numbers
and  voracity.   When about to undergo
their change of form, they make an egg-
shaped cover  or cocoon from  fragments
gnawed off wood, &c, which  are  stuck
together by a peculiar glutinous fluid fur-
nished by their bodies.  The larves have
a cylindric stomach, surrounded by three
ranges of minute caca, a very short, small
intestine, an exceedingly large  colon, and
moderate-sized rectum.  In the perfect
insect, none of these inequalities exist, as
there is but one long intestine, of equal
size throughout.  All of the beetle tribe
are not destructive  or injurious in their
inceptive state, as many of them breed in
the dung-heap, or feed  upon the excre-
ment of animals, which  they  serve to
prepare more completely as manure. The
tumble-bug, which is well  known, forms
a ball of dung, in the centre of which the
egg is deposited, rolls it off to a distance,
and buries it in the ground. Great num-
bers, uniting in this work, speedily clear
away excrementitious matter, that might
otherwise soon prove offensive.  Among
the ancient Egyptians, a species of beetle
was held in great veneration, and Euse-
bius informs us (De Prap. Evang.) that it
was regarded as the  animated  image of
the sun.  We find it generally embalmed
with the Egyptian mummies, placed im-
mediately upon the root of the  nose.  A
number of mode Is of these insects, in clay
and stone, have been found in the places
already explored  in the ancient domin-
ion of the Pharaohs.   Linnaeus bestowed
tlie name  of  scarabaus  sacer  on  this
species, which is foimd in Africa and
Europe.
  Befana (Ital.; from Befania, which sig-
nifies Epiphany) is afigure, generally repre-
senting an old woman, wbich is exhibited,
in Italy, on  the day of Epiphany, by chil-
dren, or in shops, &c, where things  for
children are sold.  In Germany, presents
are given to children on Christmas-eve,
and in France, on new-year's evening, but
in Italy, on the day of Epiphany, and it is
said that the befana brings them to good
children.   Generally, a little bag is  hung
in the  chimney, and, next morning, the
children find the presents there.
  Beg (prince, or lord); the title of certain
Turkish  officers,  several of whom are
subject to a beglerbeg.  (See Bey.)
  Beggary.  (See Pauperism.)
  Beglerbeg  (prince of princes, or lord
of lords) is the title of a high officer among
the Turks, the governor of a  province,
called a beglerbeglic, who has under him 
36
BEGLERBEG—BEHN.
several  sangiacs,  begs, agas, &c.  The
governors of Sophia, Kintaha and Damas-
cus, in particular, have this title.
  Beguards,  or Beghards.   (See Be-
guines.)
  Beguines (begutta); females who,with-
out having taken  the monastic vows, or
bound themselves to obey the rules of an
order, unite for the  purpose of devotion
and charity,  and form  societies,  living
together  in  houses  called  beguinages
(which  have  been  frequently enriched
by donations), distinguishing themselves,
above others of the laity, by their industry,
tlieir retired life, and tlieir attention to the
education of  children.   These  societies
originatf 1, towards the end of the 11th
century, m Germany and the Netherlands,
and were very flourishing in the 12th and
13th centuries.  They still  exist hi con-
siderable numbers in the Netherlands.  In
imitation of them, males  formed similar
societies, under the name  of beghards.
These societies, whose names signify sup-
pliants, or beggars, underwent many per-
secutions from the jealousy of the clerical
orders, and were sometimes confounded
with  the Lollards.  (See Brotherlwods.)
There are, in some places of Germany, be-
guinages, which are, however, only elee-
mosynary institutions, where unmarried
females, of the lower class of people, have
a lodging free of expense, and enjoy some
other  advantages.
  Behaim,  Martin,  bom  at Nuremberg,
about  1430, is distinguished  as one of the
most learned mathematicians and astron-
omers of his  age.  He was engaged in
commerce, and travelled, for the purpose
of carrying on  his business, from  1455
to 1479;  but he also devoted himself to
the study of the mathematical and nauti-
cal sciences, in which Regiomontanus is
said to have been  his master.  He  went
from Antwerp to Lisbon,  in 1480, where
he was received with marks of distinction.
He sailed in the fleet of Diego Can, on a
voyage of discovery, and explored the
islands on the coast of Africa as far as the
river Zaire.  He is also said to have dis-
covered, or, at least, to have colonized, the
island of Fayal, where he  remained for
several years, and assisted in  the discovery
of the other Azores.   He was afterwards
knighted, and  returned to his native coun-
try, where he  constructed  a terrestrial
globe, hi 1492, which bears the marks of
the imperfect acquaintance  of that age
with the true  dimensions of  the earth.  B.
died, after many voyages, in  Lisbon, 1506.
Some ancient Spanish historians  assert
that he made  many discoveries, and that
he gave to his friend Columbus the idea
of another hemisphere. Robertson (in his
History of Amenca) and others contradict
this  statement.   It is also  rejected by
Irving.
  Beheading ;   a   capital   punishment,
wherein  the  head  is severed  from the
body by  the stroke of an axe, sword, or
other cutting instrument.  DecoUatio, or
beheading, was  a mifitary  punishment
among the Romans.  In early times, it
was  performed  with an axe,  and after-
wards with a sword.   It is worth remark-
ing, that, in all countries where  beheading
and  hanging are used as capital punish-
ments, the former is always considered
less  ignominious.   Thus,  in  England,
beheading  is often the punishment of
nobles, when commoners, for the same
crime,  are  hanged.   The crime of high
treason is there punished with beheading.
Commoners, however, are hanged before
the head  is cut off, and nobles also, unless
the king  remits that part of the punish-
ment.  In Prussia, formerly, a nobleman
could not be hanged, and, if his crime was
such that the law  required this punish-
ment, he  was degraded before the execu-
tion.   At present, hanging is not used in
that country, and, since so many instances
have occurred of extreme  suffering, on
the part  of the criminal, caused by the
unskilfulness of the executioner in behead-
ing with the sword,  this mode  of execu-
tion  has  been abolished.  Beheading,  in
Prussia, is now always performed with a
heavy  axe, the sufferer  being  previ-
ously tied to a block.  In France, during
the revolutionary government, beheading
by means of a  machine, the  guillotine
(q. v.), came  into  use, and still prevails
there, to the exclusion of all other modes
of capital punishment.  A person  who
has murdered his father or mother, how-
ever, has  his right arm cut off the moment
before he is guillotined.  In the middle
ages, it was, in some states, the duty of
the youngest magistrate to perform the
executions with the sword.   In China, it
is well known that beheading is practised,
sometimes  accompanied with  the most
studied torments.  In the U.  States of
America, beheading is unknown, the hal-
ter being the only instrument  of capital
punishment. Respecting the bad or good
consequences of public beheading, the
same remarks may be made, which are
applicable to public executions in general.
In many  European countries, beheading
with the sword still prevails.
  Behn,  Aphara, a lady of some celebrity
as a writer of plays  and  novels, was de- 
BEHN—BEKKER.
37
scended from a good family  in Canter-
bury, of the name of Johnson, and was
bom in the reign of Charles I.  Her father,
through the interest of his relation, lord
Willoughby, being appointed  lieutenant-
general of Surinam,  embarked with his
family for the West Indies, taking with
him Aphara, who  was then very young.
The  father died at sea;  but  his family
arrived safely  at  Surinam, and remain-
ed there some years, during which time
Aphara  became  acquainted  with the
American  prince  Oroonoko,  whom she
made the subject of a novel, subsequently
dramatized by Southern.   On her return
to England, she married Mr. Behn, a mer-
chant of London, of Dutch  extraction;
but was probably a widow when selected
by Charles II as a proper person to ac-
quire intelligence on the contiuent during
the Dutch war.  She accordingly took up
her residence at Antwerp, where she en-
gaged in gallantries for the good of her
country ; and it is said that, by means of
one of her admirers, she obtained advice
of the  intention of the Dutch to sail up
the  Thames, which  she  transmitted to
England. This intelligence, although true,
being discredited,  she gave up politics,
returned to England, and devoted herself
to intrigue and writing for support; and,
as she had a good  person and  mucb con-
versational talent, she became  fashionable
among the men of wit and pleasure of
the time.  She published three  volumes
of poems,  by Rochester, Etherege,  Crisp
and others, with some poetry of her  own;
and wrote  17  plays, the  heartless  licen-
tiousness of which was disgraceful both
to her sex and to the age which tolerated
the performance of them.   She was also
the author Qf a  couple  of  volumes of
novels, and of the celebrated  love-letters
between  a nobleman and his sister-in-
law (lord Gray and lady Henrietta Berke-
ley).  Pope, in his character  of women,
alludes to Mrs. Behn, under her poetical
name of Astrea:
   The stage how loosely does Astrea tread,
   Who fairly puts all characters to bed.
She  died  in 1689, between  40 and 50
years of age, and was buried in the  clois-
ters of Westminster abbey.
  Behring, Behring's Straits, Behr-
ing's Island.  (See Beering.)
  Beira ; a province of Portugal, bounded
chiefly by the river Douro on the north,
by Spain on the east,  by  the  Tagus and
Portuguese Estremadura on  the  south,
and  by the Atlantic on the west.  Its
extent is computed at 11,000 square  miles,
and  the  population at nearly  900,000,
  vol. ii.           4
which  is about 82 persons to a square
mile, or rather less than the average num-
ber for the whole kingdom.  B. contains
7 episcopal cities, and about 230 other
towns: the chief one is Coimbra.  (q. v.)
It is mountainous and well watered. The
produce of wine and olives is considera-
ble.  (See Portugal.)
  Beiram.  (See Bairam.)
  Bekker, Elizabeth; an ornament  of
Dutch literature in the department of the
belles-lettres.  Few female authors have
united with so great talents so much dig-
nity and purity of morals.  The influence
of her numerous works  was much in-
creased by her character, and  several  of
them are  considered classics in Dutch
literature, particularly her romances Wil-
lem Leevend, in 8 vols.; Letters  of  A.
Blankart to C. Wildschut, and the His-
tory of Sara Burgerhart.  She wrote her
most important works in conjunction with
her friend Agatha Deken  (q. v.), and the
share of each  in the composition of them
is  unknown.   Elizabeth  was  bom  at
Flushing, in 1738, and died at the Hague,
in  1604.  Her inseparable friend in fife
followed her nine days later in death.
  Bekker, Immanuel, member of the
academy of sciences, and professor in the
university  of Berlin,  is  known for  his
learning in the ancient languages, partic-
ularly the Greek, displayed in many val-
uable works.  He was born at Berlin,  in
1785.   He was a pupil of the famous phi-
lologer Wolf,  at Halle, who declared him
the person most capable of continuing
his researches in philology.   B. was ap-
pointed professor hi the new academy  of
Berlin,  and set out, May, 1810, for Paris,
where  he remained until Dec, 1812, and
made use of the manuscripts of the library,
principally collating  those of Plato, and
some rhetorical and grammatical writers.
The academy of sciences of Berlin elected
him a member in 1815, and sent him back
to  Paris to examine the papers of Four-
mont, for the  sake of a Corpus Inscriptio-
num Gracarum, which they intended to
publish.  He  returned the same year.  In
1817, he  was sent to  Italy, to examine,
with his colleague  Goschen, the Institu-
tions of Gaius at Verona, discovered  by
Niebuhr in a Codex rescriptus, and to pre-
pare an edition of Aristotle,  which the
academy  had in view.   He  spent two
winters in Rome, particularly favored in
the use of the libraries by means  of his
friend Niebuhr.  In 1819, he went through
Turin to Paris; spent the summer of 1820
in  England, principally in Oxford, Cam-
bridge and London; and returned through 
38                       BEKKER—BELGRADE.
Leyden and Heidelberg to Berlin.   With
what industry and talent he collected lit-
erary treasures, in all these places, can be
but imperfectly conceived from any thing
he has yet published.  It is sufficient to
cite here the Anecdota Graca, 3 vols., of a
grammatical character; editions of Apollo-
nius Dyscolus De Pronomine (never before
printed) and De Syntaxi of Theognis (aug-
mented with 150 verses);  of Coluthus,
Demosthenes, ^nd other Attic orators; of
the Bibliotheca of Photius;  of the Scholia
to the Iliad, &c.
  Bel.   (See Baal.)
  Belem (properly  Bethlehem); a  quar-
ter  of  Lisbon,  formerly  a market-town,
situated on the spot where, after Vasco
da Gama's first return from India, in 1499,
king Emanuel built a church in honor of
the nativity  of Christ, and founded  the
celebrated monastery belonging to the or-
der of St Jerome, whose walls  enclose
the magnificent burying-vault of the royal
family, adorned with white marble.  Af-
ter the earthquake  of 1755, the burial-
church, so called, was rebuilt in the Gothic
style.   B., at that time, became the resi-
dence of the  royal family ; but after the
palace there had been consumed by fire,
they resided in the castle of Quelus, two
leagues distant, in a retired situation, until
their departure for  Rio  Janeiro.  The
new royal palace in B. is not yet finished.
It has a beautiful situation, with  a view
of the harbor  and the sea.   Many persons
of distinction, and the greater part  of the
important officers of state, reside at B.
Here is also the church of Nossa Senhora
da Ajuda, in the neighborhood of which
lies the botanical garden, with a chemical
laboratory, and a cabinet of natural curi-
osities.  The  latter contains some curious
specimens of native copper from Brazil,
and a  large piece of elastic sand-stone,
interspersed  with crystals of calcarious
spar.  In B., the royal garden (a quinta da
raynha), with a menagerie, and many avi-
aries for rare birds, must likewise be no-
ticed, as well  as the great royal park, and,
above all, the old  tower, Torre de Belem,
which rises out of the river Tajo, and is
provided with batteries.  No ship is per-
mitted  to pass  by it without  being vis-
ited.
  Belfast ;  a royal borough and seaport
in Ireland, in Antrim,  at the entrance of
the river Lagan into Carrickfergus bay;
50 miles E.  S. E. Londonderry, 76 N.
Dublin.  Lon. 5° 46/ W.; lat 54° 3S7 N.
Population in 1821, including the suburbs,
35,084;  houses, 5,754.  It is commodi-
ously situated for trade, in a populous and
well-cultivated country, is connected with
Lough Neagh by a canal, and is the prin-
cipal seaport in the north of Ireland. The
bay  is a spacious estuary, affording safe
anchorage.  Vessels drawing  13  feet of
water can come up to the wharves at full
tide.  It is well  built, cliiefly of brick;
the streets are broad, straight, well paved
and  lighted.   It  contains  13  houses  of
public worship.   Belonging to the port
are above 50 vessels, amounting to more
than 8,330 tons.  The principal  exports
are linen, butter, beef, pork and oatmeal:
—total value,  in 1810, £2,904,520.  The
duties have, of late, amounted to £400,000
per  annum.  The manufactures  consist,
chiefly, of linens and cottons; the former
employing 723 looms.  It sends one mem-
ber to parliament.
  Belfast ; a seaport and post-town in
Waldo  county, Maine, 12 miles N. W.
Castine,  224 N. E.  Boston.  Lon. 69° 1'
W.;  lat. 44° 25' N.  Population in 1810,
1,274; in 1820, 2,026.  It  is delightfully
situated on Belfast bay, at the mouth of a
small river of the same name, and at the
N. W. part of Penobscot bay.  It has  a
good harbor and great maritime  advan-
tages, and is a flourishing town.
  Belgians  ; a collection of German and
Celtic tribes, who inhabited the country
extending from the Atlantic ocean to  the
Rhine, and from the Marne and Seine to
the southern mouth  of the Rhine, which
is united with the Meuse.  From time to
time, until the  period  of Caesar, German
nations pushed forward beyond the Rhine,
partly expelling the Celts from their seats,
partly uniting  with them; and from this
union sprung a mixed nation,  which, in
its language as well as in its manners, re-
sembled  the  Germans  more  than the
Celts.  According to the  testimony of
Caesar, they were the most valiant of the
Gauls, particularly that portion  which re-
sided on the northern frontiers of Ger-
many.
  Belgium ; the name of that part of the
Netherlands  which formerly belonged to
Austria,  but now makes  a  part  of the
kingdom of the  Netherlands.—Belgium,
a part of ancient  Gaul, was originally the
land  of the Bellovaci and Atrebates, who
lived in the neighborhood  of the  city of
Amiens, and perhaps of Senhs.
  Belgrade (the ancient Alba Gracorum;
in German, Griechisch Wdssenburg, which
name, however, is seldom used); a Turk-
ish commercial city and fortress in Ser-
via, at the confluence of the Save and the
Danube, with 30,000 inhabitants, consist-
ing of four parts, the citadel in the centre, 
BELGRADE—BE LISARIUS.
39
which commands the Danube, is  well
fortified, is the residence of the pacha of
Servia, and contains  the chief mosque.
The whole number of mosques in B. is
14.  Between the citadel and the other
3 parts of the  city there is an  empty
space, 400  yards  wide.  B.   is  badly
built; the streets are not paved. At the
mouth of the Save lies the island of the
Gipsies.  B., on account of its important
situation, plays a conspicuous part in al-
most  every war  between  Austria  and
Turkey.   After having been, at different
times, in the possession  of  the Greeks,
Hungarians, Bulgarians, Bosnians, Servi-
ans and  Austrians, it was, in 1442 and
1456,  besieged by the Turks, and, in 1521,
conquered by Solyman II.   In 1688, the
Austrians reconquered it, but lost it again
in 1690.   Prince  Eugene took it in 1717,
and the  peace of Passarowitz, in 1718,
left it in the hands of Austria, but it was
again lost in 1739.  The Porte retained it
by the terms of the peace of Belgrade, in
1739,  on  condition that the  fortifications
which Austria had erected should be de-
molished—a work which required almost
nine months.  General Laudon took  B.
in 1789, but it was restored to the Porte
at the peace of  Szistowe, in 1791.   In
1806,  it was taken by the revolutionary
Servians,  but, with their suppression, it
came  again into the hands of the  Turks.
Formerly, a bishop resided here, but his
seat is now in Semendria.
  Belgrano, Manuel, was born at Bue-
nos Ayres, of wealthy parents, who  emi-
grated from Italy.  After completing his
education at the university of Salamanca,
he was appointed secretary of the consu-
lado at Buenos Ayres, and thus came in
contact continually with the mercantile
classes, the most enlightened  and  im-
portant  portion  of the  population  of
that city.  His polished and amiable man-
ners,  and his taste for letters and the fine
arts, enabled him to improve the oppor-
tunity afforded him by his situation, so as
to acquire extensive  popularity.  When
the political troubles  in America com-
menced,  B. was  at first <lisposed to favor
the princess Carlota, sister of Ferdinand,
and establish an independent monarchy
in Buenos  Ayres. But  he soon adopt-
ed  the  plan of  erecting  a  perfectly
free government,  and  entered with zeal
and ability into the measures which pre-
pared and followed the deposition of the
viceroy Cisneros, in May, 1810.  In the
new order of things, B. entered on a  mili-
tary career, and was speedily raised to the
rank  of general,  in  which  capacity  he
commanded the expedition sent against
Paraguay, which, after advancing into the
heart of that  province, was  compelled,
by the skill of Yedros and Francia, to re-
turn to Buenos Ayres, without an engage-
ment, and leave the Paraguayans  unmo-
lested.  B.'s next  enterprise  was  more
successful.   September 24,1812, he gain-
ed a  complete victory over the royalist
general  D. Pio Tristan, at Tucuman, and
thus defeated the  intended expedition of
the latter against Buenos Ayres.  On the
13th of February following, he obtained
another signal victory over  Tristan  at
Salta.   But  these  brilliant  advantages
were soon  followed  by equally striking
reverses.  B. imprudently released Tris-
tan and his troops  upon. their  parole,
which the Spaniards, with that profligate
disregard of all conventions and engage-
ments, which has characterized their poli-
cy in the contest with the South Ameri-
cans, dishonorably violated.  The  conse-
quence  was, that general  Pezuela, with
the very same troops, added to others col-
lected in Peru, attacked and defeated B.
at Vilcapugio, Oct. 1, 1813, and again  at
Ayoma, Nov. 14, of the same year; and
San Martin was appointed to succeed him
in command.  In 1816, B. was reappoint-
ed to the command of the troops in Tu-
cuman,  and was making the most judi-
cious arrangements for acting against the
Spaniards in Upper Peru, when the spirit
of anarchy seized upon the army, and he
was deposed,  and the troops dispersed.
B. was  liberal,  upright and disinterested
to a degree not exceeded by any of his
compatriots, and faithful and exact in the
discharge of all his duties.  He displayed
considerable ardor as  an officer, and ap-
plied himself closely to the study  of tac-
tics ;  but had  neither the experience nor
the military capacity necessary to  consti-
tute a great general.   Regardless of his
occasional reverses of fortune, and of the
persecution which  he underwent from
some of the transitory factions of the day,
he continued to labor unremittingly for the
welfare  of his country until his death, in
1820, which was  very justly  deplored.
(See Memoirs of General Miller, in the Ser-
vice of the Republic of Peru, London, 1828.)
  Belial was, with the Hebrews, what
Pluto was with the Greeks—the ruler of
the infernal regions.  The word itself sig-
nifies the bad, the destructive.
  Belisarius ; one of the greatest gener-
als  of his time, to whom  the emperor
J ustinian chiefly owed the splendor of his
reign.   Sprung from  an  obscure  family
in Thrace, B. first  served in the body- 
40
BELISARIUS—BELL.
 guard of the emperor, soon after obtained
 the chief command of an army of 25,000
 men, stationed on the  Persian frontiers,
 and, in the year 530, gained a complete
 victory over a Persian  army of not less
 than 40,000 soldiers.  The next year, how-
 ever, he lost a battle against the same en-
 emy, who had forced his way into Syria—
 the only battle which he lost during his
 whole career.  He was recalled from the
 army, and soon became, at home, the sup-
 port of his master.   In the year 532, civil
 commotions,  proceeding from two  rival
 parties, who called themselves the green
 and the blue, and who caused great disor-
 ders in  Constantinople,  brought the life
 and reign of Justinian in the utmost peril,
 and  Hypatius was already chosen  empe-
 ror, when B., with a small body of faith-
 ful adherents, restored order.   Justinian,
 with a view of conquering the dominions
 of Gelinier, king of the Vandals, sent B.,
 with an army of 15,000 men, to Africa.
After two victories, he secured the person
and treasures of the Vandal king.   Geli-
mer  was led  in  triumph  through the
streets  of Constantinople, and Justinian
 ordered a medal to be struck, with the in-
scription Belisarius  gloria  Romanorum,
 which has descended to our times.  By
the dissentions existing in the royal fami-
ly of the Ostrogoths (see Goths) in Italy,
Justinian was induced to attempt to bring
 Italy and Rome under  his sceptre.  B.
vanquished  Vitiges, king of the Goths,
made him prisoner at Ravenna  (540), and
conducted him, together with many other
Goths,  to Constantinople.   The war in
Italy against  the Goths continued;  but
B.,  not  being sufficiently supplied with
money and troops by  the emperor, de-
manded his recall (548).  He afterwards
commanded in the war against the Bulga-
rians, whom he conquered in the year 559.
Upon his  return  to  Constantinople, he
was  accused  of having  taken  part in  a
conspiracy.  But Justinian was convinced
of his innocence, and is said to have re-
stored to him his property and dignities,
of which he had been deprived. B. died
in the year 565.  His history  has  been
much colored by the poets, and particu-
larly by Marmontel, in  his otherwise ad-
mirable  politico-philosophical  romance.
According to his narrative,  the emperor
 caused the eyes of the  hero to be struck
out,  and B.  was  compelled to beg his
bread hi the streets of Constantinople.
 Other writers say, that Justinian had him
 thrown into a prison, which is still shown
 under the appellation of the tower of Bel-
 isarius.  From this tower he is reported
to have let down a bag fastened to a rope,
and to have addressed the passengers in
these  words:—Date  Belisario  obolum,
queni virtus evexit, invidia depressit (Give
an obolus to Belisarius, whom virtue ex-
alted, and envy has oppressed).  Of this,
however,  no contemporary writer makes
any mention. Tzetzes, a slightly-esteemed
writer of the 12th century, was the first
who related this fable.  Certain it is, that,
through too great indulgence  towards  his
wife Aiitonina, B. was impelled to many
acts of injustice, and that he evinced a
servile  submissiveness to the detestable
Theodora, the wife of Justinian.
  Belknap, Jeremy ; an American cler-
gyman and author, of considerable repu-
tation.  He  was born in  June,  1744,
graduated at  Harvard college in  1762,
and ordained pastor of the church in Do-
ver, New Hampshire, in  1767.  Here he
spent 20 years in the diligent performance
of his  clerical duties, and the cultivation
of literature.  It  was during this period
that he composed his History of  New
Hampshire,  a work  by which he estab-
lished  himself as an  author in the  good
opinion of his countrymen.  In 1787,  he
took charge of a church in Boston, where
he continued to officiate  until his death,
in 1798.  Besides his History, he publish-
ed two volumes of his unfinished Ameri-
can Biography, and a number of political,
religious and literary tracts.  Doctor  B.
wrote with ease and correctness, though
not with elegance : he was more remark-
able for research and extensive informa-
tion, than  for brilliancy or originality of
talents.  The History of New Hampshire
and the American Biography, above men-
tioned, are often consulted.  His sermons,
and  many dissertations,  are  but   little
known. As a public preacher and citi-
zen, he enjoyed the highest  estimation.
He was one  of the founders of the Mas-
sachusetts  historical society, whose  Col-
lections are  important to the public an-
nals.
  Bell.  Church bells originated in Ita-
ly, being formed, by degrees, out of the
cymbals, small tinkling bells  and hand-
bells of the East, used, in religious cere-
monies, as a means of honoring the gods,
or of summoning them to the feast.   The
feast of Osiris, particularly, is known  to
have been announced by bells,  and,  in
Athens, the  priests of Cybele made use
of them at their sacrifices.   Pliny  says
that bells were invented long before his
time.   They were called  tintinnabula;
and  Suetonius  tells  us  that Augustus
caused one to be hung before the temple 
BELL—BELLA.                            41
of Jupiter.  Among Christians, they were
first employed to call together religious
congregations, for which purpose runners
had been employed before.  Afterwards,
the people were assembled by the sound
of little pieces of board struck together ;
hence called sacred boards.  To the pres-
ent day, the Catholics use such boards in
Passion-week and Lent, because the noise
of bells seems to them unsuited to the so-
lemnity of the season. On the first day of
Easter, the bells ring again, and the return
of the accustomed sound produces a very
cheerful effect.   Paulinus, bishop of Nola,
in Campania, is said to have first intro-
duced church bells, in the fourth century,
and thence  the Latin names of the bell,
campana and nola, are said to have origi-
nated.   In the sixth century, bells were
used in the convents; they were suspend-
ed on  the roof  of the church in  a frame.
Towards the end of this century, bells
were  placed on some  churches at the
expense of certain cities. About 550, they
were introduced into France.  Pope Se-
bastian, who died in 605, first ordered that
the hours of the day should be announced
by striking  the bell, that people  might
better  attend to the hora canonica, that is,
to the hours for singing and praying.   In
610, Clothair besieged Sens, when Lupus,
bishop of Orleans, ordered the bells of" St.
Stephen to be rung.  The sound so fright-
ened Clothair,  that he gave up the siege.
 In the eighth century, the custom of bap-
tizing and  naming bells  began.   (See
 Baptism.)   Church bells were  probably
 introduced into England soon after their
 invention.   They are first mentioned  by
 Bede, about the close of the seventh cen-
 tury.  In the East, they came into use in
 the ninth century; in Switzerland,  in
 1020; at what period they were brought
 into Germany  is uncertain.  In the 11th
 century, the cathedral  at Augsburg had
 two bells.  The same spirit which induced
 people to build immense minsters, and to
 apply their wealth in ornamenting the
 places of worship,  made them vie with
 each other in the size of their bells.  The
 great  bell of Moscow, cast in 1653, in the
 reign  of the empress Anne, is said, by Mr.
 Clarke, to be computed to weigh 443,772
 lbs.  A bell in the church of St. Ivan, in
 the same city, weighs 127,836 lbs.; anoth-
 er, 356 cwt.;  and  the  one  cast in  1819
 weighs 1600 cwt, the clapper alone weigh-
 ing 18 cwt.  On the cathedral of Paris a
 bell was placed, in 1680, which weighed
 340 cwt, and measured 25 feet in circum-
 ference. In Vienna, a bell  was cast, in
 1711, of 354 cwt.   In  Olmutz  is one of
                    4*
358 cwt   The famous bell at Erfurt,  in
Germany, which is considered to be of
the finest bell-metal, having the largest
proportion of silver in it, and is baptized
Susanne, weighs 275 cwt,  is more than
24 feet in circumference, and has a clap-
per of 4  feet, weighing 11 cwt. Great
Tom, of Christ church, Oxford,  weighs
17,000 lbs.; of Lincoln, 9894 lbs.; the bell
of St. Paul's, London, 8400 lbs.;  a bell at
Nankin, in China, is said to weigh 50,000
lbs.;  and seven at Pekin,  120,000 lbs.
each.  The inscriptions on old  bells are
curious,  and, in  some cases, have even
historical value; and, at this time, when
curiosities of all kinds are eagerly sought
for, a collection of these inscriptions would
not be uninteresting.  The  different uses
of bells have given rise to  many poems,
some of which are inscribed on  the bells
themselves.  One of the most common is
the following:
   Funera plango, fulgura frango, sabbata pango
   Excito leutos, dissipo ventos,paco cruentos.
Perhaps the finest poem which has ever
been written on  bells is Schiller's poem,
Die Glocke (The Bell),  in  which he de-
scribes the casting of the bell, and all  its
uses, in  a highly poetical manner.  This
has  been  translated  into many  lan-
guages, and lately into Greek and Latin,
by a professor at Liege.  (For  the metal
of which  bells are made, called  bell-
metal, see Copper.)  A bell is divided into
the body or barrel, the clapper, and the
ear or cannon.—The word bell is used in
many arts and  sciences for instruments
similar in form to church bells.
   Bell.  (See Lancaster.)
   Bell-Metal.   (See Copper.)
   Bell-Rock, sometimes called Inchcape;
a dangerous rock  of Scotland, about 12
miles from Arbroath, nearly opposite the
mouth of the river Tay;  lon. 2° 22' W.;
lat. 56° 29' N.   A light-house  has  been
erected on it, finished in 1811, 115 feet
high.  During high tides, the rock is en-
 tirely covered.   It is said that,  in former
 ages, the monks of Aberbrothock caused
 a bell to be suspended on this rock, which
 was rung by the waves, and warned  the
 mariners of this highly dangerous place.
 The Bell-rock light-house is famous for its
 construction.
   Bella, Stefano de la; an engraver, bom
 at Florence, in 1610.  He followed, at
 first, Callot's manner, but  soon adopted
 one of  his own.   In  1642, he  went to
 Paris, where he was employed  by cardi-
 nal Richelieu.   He returned to Florence,
 and became the teacher, in drawing, of
 Cosmo, the son of the  great  duke, and 
42
BELLA—BELLE-ISLE.
died in 1664.  It is said that he engraved
1400 plates.
  Bellamy, James, a Flemish poet, was
bom at Flushing, in the year 1757, and
died in 1796.   He was 25 years old, and
following the trade of a baker, when,  in
the year  1772, the second secular festival,
in commemoration of the foundation of
the republic, was celebrated throughout
Holland.  His genius, suddenly inflamed
by  the love of his native land, rendered
him a poet, and his first  productions met
with success.   He studied Latin, made
himself better acquainted with his mother
tongue, and  composed several pieces of
merit sufficient to induce the society of arts
at the Hague to incorporate them in their
collections.  He published his  patriotic
songs under the title Vaderlandse-Gezengen,
which secure him a place among the first
poets of his nation.  B. sung, likewise, the
praise of love.  The later works of this
poet betray a certain  melancholy, which
renders them still more  interesting.   A
biographical account of him has been
written by G. Kniper.  He may be placed
by the side of Bilderdyk, Helmers, Loots,
R. Feyth, &c, as one of the restorers of
modem Dutch poetry.
  Bellarmin, Robert,  a cardinal,  and
celebrated controversialist of the Roman
church, was born at  Monte Pulciano, in
Tuscany, in 1542.  At the age of 18, he
entered into the college of Jesuits, where
he soon  distinguished himself;  and his
reputation caused  him to be sent into the
Low Countries, to oppose the progress of
the  Reformers.  He was ordained a priest,
in 1569, by Jansenius, bishop of Ghent,
and placed in the theological chair of the
university of Louvain. After a residence
of seven  years, he returned to Italy, and
was sent  by Sixtus V to France,  as com-
panion to the  legate. He  was  made  a
cardinal,  on account  of his learning, by
Clement VIII, and, in 1602, created arch-
bishop  of Capua.  At the elections of
Leo XI and Paul V, he  was thought of
for the pontificate, and might have been
chosen, had he  not been a Jesuit.  Paul
V recalled him to Rome, on which he
resigned his archbishopric without retain-
ing  any pension on it, as he might have
done.  In 1621, he left his apartments in
the  Vatican, and returned to a house of
his order, where he died the same year,
at the age of 71.  So  impressed were the
people with the idea  of his sanctity, that
it was necessary to place guards to keep
off  the crowd,  which pressed round to
touch his body, or procure some relics of
bis  garments.  B. had the double merit,
with the court of Rome, of supporting her
temporal power and spiritual supremacy
to the utmost, and of strenuously opposing
the Reformers.  The talent he displayed
in  the  latter  controversy   called  forth
all the  similar ability on the  Protestant
side; and, for a number of  years, no em-
inent divine among the Reformers failed
to make his arguments a particular sub-
ject of refutation.  The great work which
he composed  in this  warfare  is entitled
A Body of Controversy, written in Latin,
the style of which is perspicuous and pre-
cise, without any pretension to purity or
elegance.  He displays a vast amount  of
Scriptural learning, and is  deeply versed
in the doctrine and practice of the church
in all ages,  as becomes one who deter-
mines every point by  authority.   To his
credit, he exhibits none of the lax moral-
ity of his order,  and, in respect to the
doctrinesof predestination and efficacious
grace, is more  a follower of St. Augustine
than a Jesuit.   His maxims on the  right
of pontiffs to  depose  princes caused his
work on the temporal  power of the popes
to be condemned at Paris.  On the other
hand, it did not satisfy the court of Rome,
because it asserted, not a  direct, but an
indirect, power in the  popes in temporal
matters;  which reservation so  offended
Sixtus V, that he placed it among the fist
of prohibited books.   These differences
among the  Catholics  necessarily  gave
strength to the Protestant side, and pro-
duced a work  from Mayer  in exposition
of them.  In  the rancor of controversy,
some malignant calumnies  were uttered
against the morals of B.; but it is evident,
that he  inclined to  superstition in faith,
and scrupulosity in practice.   At his death,
he bequeathed one half of his soul to the
Virgin, and the other to Jesus Christ. His
society thought so highly of his sanctity,
that proofs were collected to entitle him
to canonization; but  the fear of giving
offence to the sovereigns, whose rights he
oppugned, has always prevented a com-
pliance  with the  ardent  wishes  of the
Jesuits.  The  best edition of his contro-
versial  works  is that of Prague, 1721, 4
vols., folio.
  Belle Alliance.   (See  Waterloo.)
  Belle-Isle, or  Belle-Isle-en-Mer
(anciently  Vindilis); an island in the bay
of Biscay, 115 miles from the west coast
of France, about nine miles  long, and
from two  to four broad, surrounded by
sharp rocks,  which  leave only  three
fortified passages to  the  island.   The
soil is diverse, consisting  of rock  salt
marsh, and fertile  grounds.   Palais is the 
BELLE-ISLE—BELLES-LETTRES.
43
 capital.   It  contains  three  other small
 towns, and many villages.  Lon. 3° & W.;
 lat.47°18/N.  Pop., 5,569.
   Belle-Isle, or Bellisle ;  an  island
 N. E. of the gulf of St. Lawrence, about
 21 miles in circuit; on the north-west side
 has a small harbor,  fit  for  small craft,
. called Lark harbor, within a httle island
 which lies close to the shore.  At the east
 point, it has  another small harbor or
 cove, that will only admit fishing shallops;
 from whence it is about 16  miles to the
 coast of Labrador.  The narrow channel
 between Newfoundland and the coast of
 Labrador  is called the straits of Bellisle;
 15 miles N. Newfoundland.  Lon. 55° 15'
 W.;  lat. 52° N.
   Bellegarde, count, born atChamberry,
 in Savoy, in the  year 1760, of one of the
 oldest Savoyard families,  early entered
 the  Austrian service, and distinguished
 himself during the campaigns of 1793—96
 in such a manner as to become a member
 of the archduke Charles's counsel of war,
 and, in 1796, field-marshal lieutenant.  In
 this  capacity, he concluded, in 1797, an
 armistice, at Leoben, with Bonaparte, and,
 in 1799, commanded the corps that was
 to maintain the  connexion between Su-
 waroff and the archduke Charles.  After
 the campaign  in Italy, in 1800, he  was
 made privy counsellor of  the  archduke
 Frederic, who  commanded the army of
 Italy. In July, 1805, the chief command
 in the territories of Venice was committed
 to him.   In 1806, he was  created field-
 marshal, and appointed civil and military
 governor of both the Galicias.  In the
 campaign  of 1809, he distinguished him-
 self at Aspern. B. afterwards became pres-
 ident of the council of war at Vienna, act-
 ed in Italy against Murat, was appointed
 governor of Lombardy,  and  lives now
 retired from the  service on account of a
 disorder in liis  eyes.
   Bellegarde, Gabriel du Pac de; bom
 at the palace of  Bellegarde,  in the year
 1717; one of the most indefatigable com-
  Eilers of history, who has  thrown much
  ght on  the historical events of the 17th
 century.
   Belleisle  (Charles  Louis Auguste
 Fouquet), count  de,  marshal of France,
 born  at  Villefranche, Sept. 22, 1684, dis-
 tinguished  himself  during  the  famous
 siege of Lille,  and became brigadier in
 the royal forces.  After the conclusion of
 the war of the  Spanish succession, he
 went, with marshal  Villars, to Rastadt,
 where he displayed  diplomatic  talents.
 The  cession of  Lorraine to France, in
 1736, was principally his  work.  Cardinal
Fleury reposed confidence in him; Louis
XV made him governor of Metz and the
three bishoprics of Lorraine, which office
he held until his death.  Before the break-
ing out of the war, in 1741, he visited the
principal  courts of Germany with the
design of disposing them,  after the death
of Charles VI,  to choose  the elector of
Bavaria emperor of Germany;  and he
displayed so much address, on this occa-
sion, as to excite the admiration of Fred-
eric II.   After his return, he placed him-
self, together with BrogUo, at the head of
the French forces, to  oppose those of
Maria Theresa.  He took  Prague by as-
sault; but, the king of Prussia having made
a separate peace, he was compelled to a
retreat, which he performed with admi-
rable  skill.  In Dec, 1744, when on a
diplomatic  journey to  Berlin, he  was
arrested  at Elbingerode,  a Hanoverian
post, and sent to England, where he was
exchanged, however,  in 1746.  In the
following year, he forced general Browne,
who had entered the  south  of  France
from Italy, to raise the siege of Antibes,
and to retreat over the Var. In 1748, the
king made him a duke and peer of France,
and the department of war was committed
to his charge.  He reformed the army by
abolishing many abuses, enlarged the mil-
itary academy,  and  caused an order c-'
merit to be established.  The city of Met::
is indebted to him for an academy.  lie
died in 1761.
  Bellenden, William; a Scottish writer
of the 17th century, distinguished for the
elegance  of his Latin style. He was edu-
cated  at  Paris,  where he  was professor
of belles-lettres in  1602, and, though he
was made master of requests by James I,
he still continued to reside  in the  French
metropolis. In 1608, he published a work
entitled  Cicero Princeps, containing a se-
lection from the works of Cicero, consist-
ing of passages relating to the duties of a
prince, &c.  He afterwards republished
this work, with some other treatises, in his
Bellendenus de  Statu.   This  work was
published again, in 1787,  by  an  anony-
mous  editor, since known to  have been
doctor Samuel Parr, who added a Latin
preface on the  politics of that time.
  Bellerophon.  (See Hipponous.)
  Belles-Lettres (French) signifies the
same with polite literature.  It is impossi-
ble  to give a satisfactory explanation of
what is or has  been called belles-lettres:
in fact, the vaguest definition would be
the best, as almost eveiy branch of knowl-
edge has, at one time, been included in,
at another, excluded from, this denomina- 
44
BELLES-LETTRES—BELLONA.
tion.  The most correct definition, there-
fore, would be, perhaps, such as embraced
all  knowledge and  every science,  not
merely abstract, nor simply useful.  In
the division of the departments  at  the
lyceum  of arts, established  at  Paris  in
1792, the belles-lettres comprehended gen-
eral  grammar, languages, rhetoric,  geog-
raphy, history, antiquities and numismat-
ics ;  whilst philosophy, mathematics, &c,
were called, in contradistinction, sciences.
If the name of belles-lettres  ought to be
retained at all, it would seem proper to
include  under it poetry, rhetoric, and all
prose which has pretensions to elegance.
A historical work, therefore, would  fall
within the definition of belles-lettres, only
if its style was distinguished for elegance.
The same  would be the case with books
of travels, &c.  It is, however, to be hoped
that  this vague, unnecessary name will
soon be abandoned,  in imitation  of  the
example of the Germans, who, having
investigated the philosophy of the arts and
sciences more thoroughly than any other
nation, and critically analyzed their prin-
ciples, have rejected the term; so  that it
is known  in Germany only as matter of
history.  They class poetry with the fine
arts, and its history,  like the history of
any  other art,  science, nation  or  thing,
with the sciences.  Rhetoric, too, is called
a fine art   It was formerly said, that the
difference of belles-lettres and  beaux-arts
consisted in the difference of the  means
employed  by each respectively.  The for-
mer, it was  said, used arbitrary signs, by
which was  meant  language; the latter,
natural  signs, i. e.,  sounds and  visible
forms.  It is easy  to  see how untenable
this division is.
   Belle vue (Fr.  fine prospect).   This
name is given to several villas and palaces,
but  particularly to a beautiful country
palace in the neighborhood of Paris, situ-
ated  on  the ridge of those mountains
which stretch  from  St. Cloud towards
Meudon.   Mad. de  Pompadour  (q. v.)
built it  The building was  commenced
in July, 1748, and finished in November,
1750.  After the death of  Louis XV, the
use  of  it  was granted to the  aunts of
Louis XVI, mesdames de France. The
first Frencb artists of the time, Coustou,
Adam, Salu, Pigalle, Gragenard, Laprenue,
had exerted all tlieir talents in embellish-
ing  Bellevue ; so that this palace, at the
period when it was built, was considered
the most charming in  all  Europe.   After
the  revolution, the convention decreed
that Bellevue should be kept in repair at
the  expense of the  nation, and  that it
should be devoted to public amusements.
Nevertheless, it was publicly sold, during
the highest pitch of revolutionary excite-
ment, and the purchaser,  M. Lenchere,
a post-master in Paris, had it demolished,
quite in the spirit of the Bande noire.
(q. v.)   Its ruins are frequently visited, on
account of the beautiful view  of  Paris
from this spot.
   Bellini, James, and his two sons, Gen-
tile and Giovanni  (who surpassed their
father):  celebrated painters, who made a
new epoch in  the Venetian school.   Of
James's works nothing has been left;  but
several of Gentile's (e. g., a St. Mark) have
reached our times.   In  the  year  1479,
Gentile went to Constantinople,  Moham-
med II having sent to Venice for a skil-
ful painter.   He  is said to  have  there
copied the bass-reliefs of the column of
Theodosius, and to have  died at Venice,
in the year 1501.  The most distinguished
of the family was Giovanni B., who was
born at Venice, about 1424, and died about
1516.  He studied  nature diligently, and
his drawing was good.   He  contributed
much to make oil  painting popular, and
has left many excellent pictures, of which
one, the Savior pronouncing his Benedic-
tion, is to be found in the gallery of Dres-
den.  His own reputation was much in-
creased by that of his celebrated disciples,
namely, Titian and Giorgione.  As their
instructer,  he  is sometimes  called  the
founder of the  Venetian school.
   Bellisle.  (See Belle-Isle.)
   Bellmann, Charles Michael, the  most
original among the Swedish poets, was
born at Stockholm, in 1741, and grew up
in the quietude of domestic life.   The
first proofs  which  he  gave of his poetic
talents were religious and pious effusions.
The dissipated life of young men, at Stock-
holm, devoted to pleasure, was afterwards
the subject  of his poems. By these his
name was spread over all  Sweden.  Even
the attention of Gustavus III  was attract-
ed to him, and he received from the king
an appointment,  which  enabled him to
devote himself almost entirely to poetical
pursuits, in an easy independence, until
his death, in  1795.  His  songs  are truly
national, principally describing scenes of
revelry.
   Bellona ; the goddess of war; daugh-
ter of Phorcys and Ceto.   She was called
by the Greeks Enyo, and is often con-
founded with Minerva. She was anciently
called Duelliona, and  was the  sister of
Mars,  or, according to some, his daugh-
ter or his wife.  She prepared his chariot
when he was going to war, and drove his 
BELLONA—BELLOY.
45
steeds through the  tumult of the battle
with a bloody scourge, her hair dishevel-
led, and a torch in  her hand.  The Ro-
mans paid great adoration to her; but she
was held in the highest veneration by the
Cappadocians, chiefly at Comana, where
she had above 3000 priests.  Her temple
at Rome was near the Porta Carmentalis.
In it the senators gave audience to foreign
ambassadors and to generals returned from
war.   At the  gate was a small column,
called the  column of war,  against which
they  threw  a  spear, whenever war  was
declared.  The priests of this goddess
consecrated  themselves by making great
incisions in their bodies, and particularly
in the thigh, from which they  received
the blood in their hands to offer as a sac-
rifice to the goddess.   In their wild en-
thusiasm, they often predicted bloodshed
and  wars, the defeat of enemies, or the
besieging of towns.
  Bellows ; a machine so formed as  to
expire and  inspire  air by turns, by the
enlargement and  contraction of  the ca-
pacity.  As  soon as  men  began  to make
use of fire, the importance of bellows was
felt, since the natural bellows, if we  may
give  this name to the lungs, could not be
applied to any great extent.  The inven-
tion  of bellows is ascribed to Anacharsis
the Scythian.   Probably, this invention,
like so many others, took  place in differ-
ent countries, since  the want which oc-
casioned it is universal.  The first devia-
tion  from the ancient, and still common
form of the  bellows, was made by the
Germans, about 100 years ago, and the
forms at present are very various, as many
attempts have been made for the improve-
ment of this highly important machine,
which becomes  necessary  wherever a
powerful flame is required  in the  arts.
As mining  is carried  on  extensively  in
Germany, and great heat  is required  in
smelting the ores, and working the metals,
many new  kinds of bellows have been
invented in that  country, of which  we
only mention  that of Mr. von Baader, in
Munich (known as the inventor of a new
kind of rail-roads). It consists of an emp-
ty box,  which moves up and  down  in
another, partially filled with water.  Be-
tween the bottom of the empty box and
surface of the  water is a space filled  with
air, which is  driven out by the descent
of the enclosed box.   Bellows  of  very
great power are generally called Mowing-
machines.  One of the  largest is that re-
cently erected in  England, at the smith-
ery in the king's dock-yard, at Woolwich.
It is adequate  to the supply of air for  40
forge fires, amongst which are  several
for the forging of anchors, iron knees, and
many other heavy  pieces  of smithery.
The  common Chinese bellows consist of
a box of wood about two feet long, and
one  foot square, in which a thick, square
piece of board,  which  exactly  fits the
internal cavity of the box, is pushed back-
wards and forwards.  In the bottom of
the box, at each end, there is a small coni-
cal or plug valve to admit the air, and
valves above to discharge it.
  Belloy,  Pierre  Laurent Buirette de,
the first French dramatist who success-
fully introduced native heroes upon the
French stage, instead of those of Greece
and  Rome, or the great men of other na-
tions, was born at St. Flour, in Auvergne,
in 1727.  He went to Paris when a child,
lost  his father soon after, and was sup-
ported by his uncle, a distinguished ad-
vocate in the parliament of Paris, who
designed him  for the  same  profession.
He applied himself to this profession with
reluctance, while he showed much genius
for the drama.  His uncle opposed this
taste, and the young man secretly left
his house.  He now made his appearance
at several northern courts, as an actor,
under the name of Dormont de  Belloy.
Every where his character  gained him
love  and esteem.   He spent several years
in Petersburg, where the empress Elisa-
beth  showed him  much kindness.  In
1758, he returned to France, with the in-
tention of having his tragedy Titus rep-
resented.  His uncle obtained a warrant
of imprisonment against him, in  case he
should  appear  on  the stage.  B.  had
hoped to reconcile  his family to him by
tho success of Titus, but this hope was
disappointed by the failure of the piece;
and the author went once  more to Pe-
tersburg.  Shortly  after, his uncle  died,
and  B. returned again to France, where
he  brought out  his tragedy  Zelmire,
which was acted with the most complete
success.  In 1765 followed his Siege de
Calais, a tragedy which produced a great
sensation, and is still esteemed, though it
owes the applause bestowed  on it rather
to its subject than  to its poetical merit.
He received the  medal  promised by the
lung to those poets  who should produce
three successful  pieces, and  which has
been awarded only on this occasion.  On
account of the great applause with which
the Siege of Calais was received, it was
counted as two, it being, in fact, only the
second successful piece of B.   The city of
Calais sent him the freedom of the city, in
a gold box, with the inscription Lauream 
46
BELLOY—BELZONI.
tulit, dvicam reripit.   B. has written sun-
dry other dramatic pieces, of which Gas-
ton et Bayard procured his reception into
the Academic Francaise.  Upon the whole,
he was not happy in the  expression of
tragical pathos.  He died in 1775.
  Bell-Rock.  (See BELL-iJocA.)
  Beloochistan.  (See Belujistan.)
  Belt, the Great and Little; two straits
of Denmark, connecting the Baltic with
the Cattegat  The former runs between
the islands of Zealand and  Funen, and is
about 15 miles in width, where it is crossed
from Nyborg, hi  Funen, to Corsoer, in
Zealand.   The  greatest  breadth  of the
strait is 20 miles.  The navigation is very
dangerous, on account of the many small
islands and sand-banks, by which the
channel is  impeded.   Vessels  sailing
through this strait  pay tribute  at  Ny-
borg.  The  Little Belt  is  between the
island of Funen and the coast of Jutland,
and the narrowest part of the strait is not
more than a mile in width.   At this place
stands the fortress Fredericia, where the
tolls are paid.  The fortress commands
completely the entrance  from the Catte-
gat  The sound  between  Zealand  and
the Swedish coast  is preferred  for all
large vessels.
  Belujistan, or Beluchistan; a coun-
try in Asia, situated  on the north-west of
the peninsula of Hindostan, formerly be-
longing  to  Persia; now connected with
Cabulistan.  It comprehends, in its most
extensive acceptation, all the space be-
tween lon. 58°  and 67° E.; lat. 24° and
30° N.  It  extends from the country of
the Afghans on the north  to the Indian
ocean, and  from the provinces of Laristan
and Kerman on the  west to that of Sind
on the east.  It contains six principal di-
visions :—1. Jhalawan and Sarawan, with
the district of Kelat; 2. Macran and Les;
3. Kohistan, that is, the  mountainous re-
gion west of the Desert; 4.  the Desert ;  5.
Cach Gandavah and the district of Her-
rendDajel; 6. the province of Sind.   It
is very mountainous.  Many of the moun-
tains are of great height, covered with
snow.   In the  plains, the heat  is very
great; in  summer,  water is  generally
scarce.   The  rivers  are  the Pooralle
Muktoo, Dast, Nughor, Sinroo  and Sud-
gee.  The desert of Belujistan  is 300
miles long, and upwards  of 200 broad,
consisting of waves of  sand  extremely
difficult to be traversed.  The minerals
are  gold,  silver,  lead, iron, copper, tin,
rock  salt,  alum,  saltpetre and sulphur.
The soil produces grain, cotton, indigo,
madder and assafoetida.  The Belooches,
or Balojes, consist of three  tribes—the
Beluches, the  Brahuis,  the  Dehwars.
They are warlike and  semi-barbarous.
They five a pastoral life, and are of the
Mohammedan religion.  Little was known
of this  country, till  Mr. Pottinger, and
some other enterprising officers in  the
East India company's service, explored it
in 1809 and 1810.
  Belvedere (\\a\.fine sight.  See Belle-
vue.)  The name of buildings in Italy des-
tined for the  enjoyment of prospects.
The name is also given to the small cupolas
on houses, which are  ascended for  the
sake of fresh air, or of  the view which
they afford.  Many of the buildings in
Rome are furnished with such cupolas;
yet the term belvedere is generally applied
only to those  on the palaces  of the rich.
In France, the  name bellevue is given to
small country-seats, in  a  simple  style.
or to arched bowers at the end of a gar-
den or park,  intended for the enjoyment
of fresh air, or as places of shelter against
the burning sun.  This is the name, also,
of a part of the Vatican, where the famous
statue of Apollo is placed, which, on this
account,  is called Apollo Belvedere.
  Belzoni,  Giambattista,  that  is, John
Baptist;  bom at Padua, and  educated at
Rome. He was destined for the monastic
life, but left the city when it was occu-
pied by the French armies, and, in 1803,
went to  England, where  he acted  the
parts of Apollo and Hercules, at Astley's
amphitheatre.   Here he acquired, besides
an acquaintance with the  English  lan-
guage, much knowledge  of the science
of hydraulics, the study of  which  had
been his chief occupation in Rome, and
which afterwards carried  him to Egypt.
He left England, after a residence of nine
years, accompanied  by  his  wife  (who
faced the Arabs with the courage of an
Amazon), and  took his  way through
Portugal, Spain  and Malta to Egypt.
There  he lived, from 1815 to 1819, at
first as a  dancer, till he won the favor of
the pacha, who made use of his services.
B., though often alone amidst the mde
inhabitants of the country, kept them in
awe by  his  extraordinary stature  and
strength.  He succeeded in opening, not
only the pyramid of Ghiza,  which had
been already opened, in the 17th century,
by Pietro della  Valle, and to which  the
French, during  their expedition to Egypt,
could not find  the  entrance, but, also a
second, known by the name of Cephrenes,
and several catacombs near Thebes, es-
pecially  one, in a fine state of preserva
tion, in  the  valley of Biban el Molook, 
BELZONI—BEMBO.
47
which is considered to be the mausoleum
of Psammig (400 B. C).  The drawings
which  he has  furnished  of these an-
tiquities are the most  exact  which we
possess.  In the  year  1816,  his  perse-
verance and skill succeeded  in  trans-
porting  the bust of Jupiter Memnon, to-
gether  with a sarcophagus of alabaster,
found in the catacombs, from Thebes to
Alexandria,  from whence they came  to
the  British  museum.   On the 1st of
August, 1817, he opened the temple of
Ipsambul, near the second cataract of the
Nile, which two Frenchmen, Cailliaud and
Drovetti (the French consul-general), had
discovered the year before, but had not
succeeded in opening.  B. discovered a
subterraneous temple in its ruins, which,
until that time, had been unknown.  He
then visited the coasts of the Red sea, and
the  city of Berenice, and made an expe-
dition  into the Oasis of Jupiter Ammon.
His journey to Berenice was rewarded by
the discovery of the emerald mines of Zu-
bara. B. refuted Cailliaud's assertion, that
he had found the  famous Berenice, the
great emporium of Europe and India, by
subsequent investigations on the spot, and
by the actual discovery of the ruins  of
that great city, four days journey from the
place which Cailliaud had taken for Bere-
nice.  B.'s  Narrative of the Operations
and  recent Discoveries within the Pyra-
mids, Temples, Tombs and Excavations
in Egypt and Nubia; and of a Journey to
the  Coast of the Red  Sea, in Search of
Berenice; also of another to the Oasis of
Jupiter Ammon (London, 1820); accom-
 panied by a folio vol. of 44 copper-plates;
 was received  with general approbation.
 Padua, his native city, requited his present
of two Egyptian  statues from  Thebes,
with a medal by Manfredini. (Concerning
the models, which B. placed in Bullock's
museum, see Museum.)  In the year 1823,
this enterprising traveller had made prep-
arations for passing from Benin to Hous-
sa  and  Timbuctoo, when  he died, at
Gato, on his way to Benin, Dec. 3, 1823.
He believed the Nile and the Niger to be
different streams, and that the Niger emp-
ties its waters into the Atlantic ocean.
   Bembo, Pietro; one of the most cele-
brated of the Italian scholars, that adorned
the 16th century; bom at Venice, in 1470.
He very early learned  the Latin, and  af-
terwards,  at Messina, under the direction
of Lascaris,  the Greek  language; after
which he returned to his native country,
and  there published a small treatise  on
mount  Etna.  In compliance  with the
will  of his father, he entered upon the
career of public business, but, soon con-
ceiving a dislike  for it, he devoted him-
self to science and the theological pro-
fession.   At Ferrara, where he completed
his philosophical studies, he entered into
a connexion with Ercole Strozzi, Tibal-
deo, and particularly with Sadoleto. From
Ferrara he returned to Venice, where a
literary  society had been established, in
the house of the printer Aldus Manutius.
B. became one of its principal members,
and, for some time, took pleasure in cor-
recting the beautiful editions which pro-
ceeded from this celebrated press.  After
visiting Rome, he went, in 1506, to the
court of Urbino, at that time one of those
Italian courts where the sciences  stood
highest in esteem.   He lived there about
six years, and gained several powerful
friends.  In 1512, he went to Rome with
Giulio de' Medici, whose brother, pope
Leo X. made him his secretary, and gave
him  his friend Sadoleto for a colleague.
About this time, B. became  acquainted
with the young and  beautiful  Morosina,
with whom he lived, in the  most tender
union, during 22 years.  She presented
him with two sons and a daughter, whom
he educated with the  greatest care.  His
many labors, arising  from his office, as
well as his literary pursuits, and, perhaps,
too great an indulgence in pleasure, hav-
ing impaired his health, he was using the
baths of  Padua, when  he was apprized
of the death of Leo  X.  Being by this
time possessed of several church  bene-
fices, he resolved on withdrawing entirely
from business, and on passing his days at
Padua, (the air  of which he had found
very beneficial), occupied only with lit-
erature and science, and enjoying the so-
ciety of his friends.  The  learned mem-
bers of the famous university of this city
eagerly frequented his house, and  stran-
gers also flocked thither.  B. collected a
considerable library: he had a cabinet of
medals and  antiquities, which,  at that
time, passed for one of the richest in Ita-
ly, and a fine botanical garden.  He spent
the spring and autumn at a villa called
Bozza, which had always belonged to his
family.  He  devoted  the leisure of  a
country life principally to his literary pur-
suits.   In the year 1529, after the death
of Andreas Navagero, the office of histo-
riographer of the republic of Venice was
offered to him, which he accepted, after
some  hesitation, and declining the salary
 connected with it.  At the same time, he
 was nominated librarian of the library of
 St. Mark.  Pope Paul III, having re-
 solved upon a new promotion of cardinals, 
48
BEMBO—BENARES.
from the most distinguished men of his
time, conferred on him, in 1539, the hat
of a cardinal.  From  that time, B. re-
nounced the belles-lettres, and made the
fathers and the Holy Scriptures his chief
study.   Of his former labors, he continued
only the History of Venice.  Two years
.later, Paul III bestowed the bishopric of
iGubbio on him, and, soon after, the rich
bishopric  of Bergamo.   He  died, loaded
[with honors, 1547, in the 77th year of his
age.  B. united in his person, his charac-
ter and conversation, all that is amiable.
'lie was the restorer of a pure style, as
well  in  Latin  composition,  in  which
Cicero, Virgil and Julius Caesar were his
constant models, as in the Italian, in which
he chiefly imitated Petrarca.  He was so
rigorous with regard to purity of style,
that he is said to have had 40 different
partitions, through which  his writings, as
he polished them by degrees, successive-
ly passed; nor did  he publish them till
they had  sustained these 40 examinations.
A collection of all his works, which were
frequently printed singly, appeared, in
1729,  at  Venice, in 4 folio vols.  The
most important  of them  are, History of
Venice from 1487 to  1513, in 12 books,
which he wrote both in Latin and Italian;
Le Prose, dialogues, in which the rules
of the  Italian language are laid down;
 Gli  Asolani, dialogues on the nature of
 love:  Le Rime,  a collection  of beauti-
 ful  sonnets and canzonets; his letters,
 both in Latin and  Italian:  De  Virgilii
 Culice et  Terentii Fabulis  Liber ;  Carmi-
 na,  which are ingenious and elegant, but
 more  free than  the author's profession
 would  lead us to expect;  besides several
 others.
   Ben (Hebrew,  son); a prepositive  syl-
 lable,  found in many Jewish names; as,
 Bendavid, Benasser, &c, which, with the
 Jews in Germany, has been changed into
 the  German  Sohn (son),  e. g., Mendels-
 sohn, Jacobssohn, &c.  The origin of this
 manner of naming is  to be found in the
 ancient custom  of the Israelites' having
 no family names, which is still their usage
 in many countries.
   Benares ; a town and district in the
 province  of Allahabad, in Bengal.   It
 has an area of 12,000 square miles, 10,000
 of which are rich cultivated flats on each
 side of the Ganges.  The heat, in sum-
 mer, is excessive, but,  in winter, fires are
 requisite.  Garden-stuff, grain of differ-
 ent  kinds, flax for oil (no  linens are man-
 ufactured here), and sugar, are the prin-
 cipal objects  of cultivation.   The gross
 revenue,  in 1813, amounted to 4,562,707
rupees (£570,338).   Muslins,  silks and
gauzes, salt, indigo and opium are made
in this district  The principal towns are
Benares,   Mirza-pur,  Chunargarh  and
Ghazi-pur.   The  population   exceeds
3,000,000, and the  Hindoos are to the
Mussuhnans as 10 to 1 in the  town, and
as 20 to  1 in the villages. The rajah
Chet  Singh was  expelled  by  Mr.  Has-
tings in 1781.
  Benares (in Sanscrit,  Vara Nasi, from
the two streams,  Vara and Nasi) stands
in lat. 25° 30' N., and lon. 83° 1' E., on
the high  bank and northern side of the
Ganges.   The town rises like an amphi-
theatre.  The height of the houses and
narrowness of the streets give it all the
usual inconveniences of an Asiatic town.
Its inhabitants are more  than 600,000, of
whom 8000 are said to be Bramins; and,
at the great Hindoo festivals, the concourse
is immense; for Cast, or Cashi, the splendid,
as the Indians commonly call it, is one
of the most sacred places of pilgrimage in
all India.  To die at B. is the  greatest
happiness  for a Hindoo, because he is
then sure  of immediate admission into
heaven.   The number of pious founda-
tions  and temples is  exceedingly great.
Several of the Hindoo princes have agents
here to offer up sacrifices in their behalf.
The principal temple is called  Visweswar
or Bisesar, and  is dedicated  to  Siva,
whose sacred relic it contains.   Aurung-
zeb built a splendid mosque on the high-
est ground in the city, and on the  ruins
of a temple.  At the end of the 17th cen-
tury, an observatory was erected in this
city, which still exists; and a college for
the instruction of Hindoos in  their own
literature  was established by  the British
government in 1801; but it has not yet
done much for the revival of  learning
among the natives, owing to the  pride of
the Bramins.  B. has long been the great
mart  for  diamonds  and other  gems,
brought   principally from  the  Bundel-
cund.    The merchants  and  bankers
are numerous and wealthy.   There are
few English inhabitants, except  the gov-
ernment officers and the members of the
circuit court.  Casi was  ceded to the
East  India company by the  nabob  of
Aud'h (Oude), in 1775, and, since  1781,
has  enjoyed  uninterrupted tranquillity.
The inhabitants are better informed than
the  natives  of the  country  in general.
The  reader will find an  interesting ac-
count of  B. in bishop Heber's Narrative
of a  Journey through the Upper  Prov-
inces  of India,  in  1824—26;  London,
 1828, Philadelphia, 1829, vol.  1. 
BENAVIDES—BENCOOLEN.
49
  Benavides ;  an  outlaw and pirate,
who, for several years, proved the scourge
of the southern parts of Chile.  He was
a native of Quirihue, in the province  of
Concepcion, and entered the patriot army
as a common soldier at the commence-
ment of the revolution.  Having deserted
to the  Spaniards, and being made pris-
oner by  the  Chilians,  at  the  battle  of
Membrilla, in 1814, he was to have been
tried for desertion,  but effected his  es-
cape.  Being made  prisoner again at  the
battle of Maypu, in 1818, he was sen-
tenced to be shot, and was supposed to
have been killed; but, although shock-
ingly wounded, and left for  dead, he re-
covered, and, having  obtained a  com-
mission  from the  Spanish  commander
Sanchez, he  commenced a war upon  the
southern frontier of Chile, never surpass-
ed in savage  cruelty.  He laid waste  the
country  with fire and  sword, murdered
his prisoners, and perpetrated the most
horrid cruelties upon the unarmed peas-
ants, including women  and children, who
chanced to fall into his power.  Notwith-
standing repeated engagements with  the
Chilian forces of the province of Con-
cepcion, he sustained himself, for a long
time, in this atrocious course.  At length
he undertook to establish a navy, and, for
this purpose, piratically seized upon sev-
eral English and American vessels, which
unsuspectingly stopped for  refreshment
not  far  from the town  of  Arauco,  the
centre of his operations.  So intolerable
had the grievance become, that, in 1821,
the  Chilians  fitted out  an  expedition
against Arauco, and succeeded in break-
ing up the robber's  strong hold.  He at-
tempted to escape to Peru in a launch,
but, being captured, was condemned to
death, and executed Feb. 23,1822.—His-
tory of Rev. in Spanish  America.
   Benbow,  John;  an   English  naval
character of distinguished merit; born in
Shrewsbury, about 1650, and brought up
to the sea in the merchant service ; fought
so desperately against a pirate from Sal-
lee, in one of his trips to the Mediterra-
nean, about the year 1686, as to beat  her
off, though greatly his superior in men
and metal.   For this  gallant action, he
was promoted at once,  by James II, to
the command of a ship of war.  William
III employed him in protecting the Eng-
lish trade in the channel, which he did
with great effect.  His valor and activity
secured him the confidence of the nation,
and he was  soon promoted to the rank
of rear-admiral, and charged  with  the
blockade of Dunkirk.  But the squadron
   vol.  ii.          5
in that port, under the  command of Du
Bart, managed to slip out of port;  nor
could Benbow, though he sailed instantly
in pursuit, overtake it.   In 1701, he sailed
to the West  Indies with a  small fleet,
having accepted a command previously
declined  by several of his seniors, from
the supposed superiority of the  enemy's
force  in  that quarter.    In  August of
the following year, he fell in with the
French fleet  under Du  Casse,  and  for
five days maintained a running fight with
them,  when  he at length succeeded in
bringing  the  enemy's sternmost ship to
close  quarters.  In the heat of the action,
a chain-shot carried away one of his legs,
and  he was  taken below; but the  mo-
ment the dressing had been applied to
the wound,  he caused  himself  to be
brought  again  on deck, and continued
the action. At this critical instant, being
most  disgracefully abandoned by several
of the captains under his command, who
signed a paper expressing their opinion
that " nothing more was to be done," the
whole fleet effected  its escape.  B., on
his return to Jamaica, brought the delin-
quents to a court-martial, by which two
of them were convicted of cowardice and
disobedience  of orders, and condemned
to be shot; which sentence, on their  arri-
val in England, was carried into execution
at Plymouth.  B., who suffered equally
in mind  and body from this disgraceful
business, gradually sunk under  his  feel-
ings, and expired at Jamaica, Nov. 4,1702.
   Bencoolen, or Benkahule ; a seaport
of Sumatra, on the S. W. coast; lon.  102°
11' E.; lat. 3° 50' S.   The English set-
tled here in  1685, and, in 1690, the  East
India company built a fort here, calling it
fort York.  A convenient river on its N.
W. side brings the pepper out of the in-
land  country;  but there is great incon-
venience  in  shipping it, by reason  of  a
dangerous bar at the river's mouth.  The
place, which  is almost two miles in com-
pass, is known at sea by a high, slender
mountain, which rises  in the country, 20
miles  beyond it, called the  Sugar-Loaf.
It is  inhabited  by a mixed  population.
The medium heat throughout the year is
from 81° to 82°.  B. is the chief establish-
ment of the  East India company on the
island of Sumatra.  The settlement, lat-
terly, is of but little importance.  Pepper
is the only produce of the adjacent coun-
try,  which is  mountainous  and woody.
The  air is full of maUgnant vapors, and
the mountains always covered with  thick
 clouds, which burst in  storms of thunder,
 rain, &c. 
50                         BENDA—BENEDICT.
   Benda, George, director of the chapel
 at Gotha, bom at Jungbuntzlau, in Bo-
 hemia,  1721, received from Frederic  II
 the place of the  second vioUnist in the
 chapel at Berlin, but, in 1748, entered the
 service  of the duke of Gotha, as chapel-
 master, where  he constantly cultivated
 his talents for composition, particularly
 of sacred music.   His Ariadne, an opera,
 was received with enthusiastic  applause
 in Germany, and afterwards in all Europe,
 being distinguished for originality, sweet-
 ness and ingenious execution.  His com-
 positions are numerous; but his Ariadne
 is his best work.   He died in the neigh-
 borhood of Gotha, 1795.  His absence of
 mind has given  rise to  many  amusing
 anecdotes.   His elder brother, Francis,
 was a distinguished vioUnist.  Their fa-
 ther was a poor linen-weaver.
  Bender (in the Moldau language, Ti-
  S'no); the chief city of a district in the
  ussian  province  Bessarabia,  on the
 Dniester; lon. 24° 46' E.; lat. 46° 51' N.;
 population, 10,000.   It is built  in the
 shape of a crescent, is well fortified, has
 12  mosques  and  1  Armenian   church.
 The streets  are narrow and dark.  Its
 commerce is important, and it carries on
 some branches of manufacture.   Here
 resided Charles XII. (q. v.)   In 1771, the
 Russians took the place, and killed most of
 the troops  and citizens,  amounting  to
 nearly 30,000 persons.   The peace  of
 Cainardshi, in 1774, restored it to Turkey.
 In 1809, it was conquered by the Rus-
 sians, but again restored to the Turks by
 the peace of Jassy.  Since the peace of
 Bucharest, in 1812,  it has  belonged to
Russia.
  Benedict XIV (Prosper Lambertini),
 born at Bologna, in 1675, of a very respect-
 able family, distinguished himself, in his
youth, by a  rapid progress  in  all the
sciences.  His  favorite author  was St.
 Thomas.  He appUed himself with suc-
cess to  the canon and civil law, and be-
came advocate to the consistory at Rome.
Afterwards, he  was  appointed promotor
fidei, and wrote a valuable work on the
Ceremonies used in Beatifications (Bolog-
na, 1734,4 vols, fol.) He was passionately
fond of learning, of historical researches
and monuments of art, and also associated
with the distinguished  men of his time;
among  others, with  father Montfaucon,
who said of him, "Benedict has two
souls; one for science, and the other for
society."  He also made himself familiar
 with the best poetical works, whereby
 his mind became  elevated and his style
 animated.  Benedict XIII made him, in
 1727, bishop of Ancona; in 1728, cardinal,
 aud in 1732, archbishop of Bologna.  In
 every station, he  displayed great  talents,
 and fulfilled  his duties  with  the  most
 conscientious zeal.   He  opposed fanati-
 cism even at the risk of his  own safety,
 defended  the  oppressed,  and expressed
 himself with the greatest frankness to
 Clement XII, without losing hie favor.
 When, after the death of Clement XII,
 in 1740, the election of a new pope in
 the conclave was  retarded  by the in-
 trigues of cardinal  Tencin, and the car-
 dinals could not  agree, Lambertini, with
 his usual good nature, said to them, " If
 you want a saint, take  Gotti; if a poUti-
 cian,  Aldobrandi;  if a good old  man,
 myself."  These words, thrown out in  a
 humorous manner, operated on  the con-
 clave  like inspiration, and Lambertini,
 under the name of Benedict XIV, ascend-
 ed the papal throne.   His choice of the
 ministers and friends, whom he assembled
 around  him, does the  greatest  honor to
 his judgment.   The  condition  of the
 church,  and of the Roman court, had not
 escaped his  penetration.   Since the ref-
 ormation,  princes no longer trembled at
 the thunders of the  Vatican.  The popes
 had renounced their pretensions  to world-
 ly authority, and Lambertini knew that
 respect for the  papal authority  could be
 maintained only by a  wise moderation.
 He constantly regulated his measures by
 this principle, and thus succeeded, even
 in difficult circumstances, in satisfying,
 not only the Catholic, but even the Prot-
 estant  princes.    The  sciences were  a
special object of his care.   He established
 academies at Rome; promoted  the pros-
 perity of the academy at Bologna;  caused
a degree of the meridian to be measured;
the obelisk to be erected in the Campus
Martius; the church of St. Marcellino to
be built after a  plan projected  by  him-
self; the beautiful pictures in St.  Peter's
to be executed in mosaic;  the best Eng-
 lish and  French works to  be translated
 into Italian;  and commanded a catalogue
 of the manuscripts contained in  the Vati-
 can Ubrary (the  number of which  he had
 enlarged to 3300) to be printed.  His gov-
 ernment of the  papal  states did equal
 honor to his wisdom.  He enacted severe
laws against usury, favored commercial
liberty, and  diminished the number of
holydays.   His piety  was sincere, yet
enlightened and forbearing.  He strove
to maintain  purity  of doctrine and of
morals, giving, in his own character, the
most  praiseworthy  example.    He  died,
after a painful sickness, during which his 
BENEDICT—BENEDICTINES.
51
 cheerfulness and vivacity never deserted
 him, May 3,  1758.   The sole reproach
 brought against him by the Romans was,
 that he wrote too much,  and governed
 too  Uttle.   His works compose, in the
 Venice edition, 16 vols.  fol.  The  most
 important  of his  works  is that on the
 synods, in which we recognise the great
 canonist.
   Benedict, St.;  the founder of the first
 religious order in the West; bom at Nor-
 cia, in Spoleto (in the present Ecclesiasti-
 cal States), 480.  In the 14th year of his
 age, he retired to a cavern situated in the
 desert of Subiaco, 40 miles from Rome,
 and, in 515, drew up a rule for liis monks,
 which was first introduced into the mon-
 astery on Monte Cassino,inthe neighbor-
 hood of Naples, founded by him (529) in
 a grove of Apollo, after  the temple had
 been  demoUshed.  This  gradually be-
 came the rule of all the Western monks.
 The abbots of Monte Cassino afterwards
 acquired episcopal jurisdiction, and a cer-
 tain patriarchal authority over the whole
 order.  B., with the intention of banish-
 ing idleness, prescribed, in addition to the
 work of God (as he called prayer and the
 reading of religious writings), the instruc-
 tion of youth in reading, writing and ci-
 phering, in the doctrines  of Christianity,
 in manual labors (including mechanic arts
 of every kind), and in the management
 of the monastery.  With regard to dress
 and  food, the rule was  severe, but not
 extravagant   B.  caused  a library  to be
 founded, for which the aged and infirm
 brethren (ordo scriptoiius) were obhged to
 copy manuscripts.  By  this  means he
 contributed  to preserve  the  literary re-
 mains of antiquity from ruin; for, though
 he  had in view only the copying of reU-
 gious writings, yet the practice was after-
 wards  extended to classical works of
 eveiy  kind;  and the  learned world is
 indebted for  the  preservation  of great
 literary treasures to the order of St. Bene-
 dict   (See  Benedictines.)
  Benedictbeurn ;  formerly an abbey,
 situated in  the Bavarian  circle of the
 Iser, about 40 miles distant from the city
 of Munich, on the descent of the moun-
 tains towards the Tyrol.  The  convent
 was  founded  as early as  740.  In our
days, it is only remarkable for the manu-
factory of optical instruments belongmg
to Reichenbach and Liebherr, who have
furnished  instruments  to almost all the
observatories of Europe.
  Benedictines. From the 6th to the 10th
century, almost all monks, in the West,
might be so called, because they foUowed
 the rule of St. Benedict of Norcia. (See this
 article, Monastery and Order.)  The rules
 which, at that time, the monasteries, in
 Spain and France, received from their
 bishops, as well as the rule of the Irish St
 Columba (bom 560, died 615), were essen-
 tially the same as those of St. Benedict;
 and, in the progress of his order, the monas-
 teries in Spain and France, as well as those
 of the order of Columba, united themselves
 with it  Monte Cassino, the magnificent
 primitive monastery of the Benedictines,
 became the model of all others.  At that
 time, the monasteries, having no common
 superiors, were under the immediate con-
 trol of the bishops in their respective dio-
 ceses, and differed from one another in
 many qualifications of the primitive rule.
 Not even the color of their dress was the
 same.  The disciples of Columba wore
 white garments, Uke the first Benedictine
 nuns, who originated in France, in the 6th
 century.  After the unions which took place
 at a later period, aU the  members of this
 order wore black, as the  founder is said
 to have done.   The decline of monastic
 discipUne, after the 8th century, occasion-
 ed the reforms of Benedict  of Aniana, in
 France, the renewed inculcation  of the
 old rule, and the adoption  of new ordi-
 nances suited to the times, by the coun-
 cil of Aix-la-Chapelle (817), as well as the
 particular rules and fraternities of the cel-
 ebrated monasteries in France, Germany
 and England,  which, in those  barbarous
 times,  became seats of civilization; and,
 finally, the  institution of the Cluniacs, a
 new branch of the Benedictines,  which
 proceeded from the convent of Clugny, in
 Burgundy, founded in the year 910. The
 Benedictine monasteries, in the middle
 ages, were often asylums in  which sci-
 ence took refuge, and  found protection.
 In the place of the discordant and uncer-
 tain rules which had hitherto existed, the
 Cluniacs made fixed regulations concern-
 ing the hours of worship, the obedience,
 discipline and common government of all
 the monasteries belonging to their order,
 which  were soon imitated in all Europe.
 In the  12th century, their order contained
 2000 monasteries, whose luxury frequent-
 ly called for reforms, and finally became
 the chief cause of their decline.  There-
 mains of the Cluniacs united themselves,
in the 17th century, under the patronage
of RicheUeu, with the Benedictine frater-
nities of St. Vannes and St Maurus, the
latter of which, founded in 1618, had,  in
the  beginning of the  18th  century, 180
abbeys and priories in France, and ac-
 quired, by means of its learned members, 
52
BENEDICTINES—BENEFIT OF CLERGY.
such as Mabillon, Montfaucon, Martene,
merited distinction.   To this  famUy be-
long those new orders, established on the
foundation, and observing the rule of  St.
Benedict, which have originated since the
11th century, and are distinguished from
the proper Benedictines by their dress,
names and particular regulations; e. g., the
CamalduUans, the monks of Vallombrosa,
the Sylvestrians,the Grandimontenses, the
Carthusians, the Coelestines, the Cister-
cians and Bernardines, the Trappists, and
the monks of Fontevraud. (q. v.)  The
Benedictine monasteries never constituted
one society, constitutionally regulated and
governed under an aristocratical or mo-
narchical form: on the contrary, a great
many monasteries, which descended from
the old Benedictines,  were compelled, by
the council of Trent, to  unite  them-
selves gradually  into particular fraterni-
ties.   Among these, the Benedictines of
Monte Cassino, of Monte  Verginc, and
Monte 01iveto(who call themselves Oli-
vetanians), in Italy and Sicily, where they
have flourished uninterruptedly even to
the present time; those of Valladolid and
Montserrat,  in  Spain, where they are
among  the wealthiest  orders; those  of
Hirschau and Fulda,  together with  Burs-
feld, which have now ceased to exist, and
that of Moelk, in Germany, deserve par-
ticular notice, on account of the extent of
their  possessions, the  magnificence  of
their churches, and the mildness of their
rules.  To the fraternity of Moelk, which
still exists, but accommodated to the spirit
of the times (the government having or-
dered its revenues to be applied to the
pubUc service), the rest of the Benedictine
convents in Austria are joined.   Many
of the nunneries of this order are reserved
for the  nobility, because the places in
them  are equal to the most lucrative bene-
fices.   The Benedictines in Sicily, who
are, for the greater part, the  younger sons
of distinguished families, live under very
lax rules.   In  Modena, they have settled
again, and received a convent, with rev-
enues for their support.
  Benediction signifies the  act of con-
ferring  a  blessing (q. v.).—Benedictio be-
atica; the blessing bestowed on  the pen-
itent  sick.   It is also called  viaticum.—
Benedictio sacerdotalis is the nuptial ben-
ediction pronounced by the priest on the
occasion  of a wedding.—To  give  the
benediction, is  an expression used with
regard to the pope, the cardinals, bishops
or papal  nuncios, when they bestow  a
blessing, either in the church, or  in the
street, with the sign of the cross, on the
people, or some private  person.   The
pope  gives a solemn benediction three
times every year; viz. on Maundy-Thurs-
day, on Easter, and on Ascension-day.
  Benefit of Clergy was a privilege of
clergymen, which originated in a pious
regard for the church, whereby the clergy
of Roman Catholic countries were  either
partially or wholly exempted from the
jurisdiction of  the lay tribunals.  It ex-
tended, in England, only to the case of
felony; and, though it was intended to ap-
ply only to clerical felons or clerks, yet,
as every one  who could read was, by the
laws of England, considered to be a clerk,
when the rudiments of learning came to
be  diffused,  almost every  man in the
community became entitled to this privi-
lege.   Peers were entitled to it, whether
they  could read or not; and by the
statutes of 3 and 4 WilUam and Mary,
c. 9, and 4 and 5 William  and Mary,  c.
24,  it was extended to  women.  In the
earlier ages of the English Roman Catho-
lic church, the  clerk, on being convicted
of felony, and claiming the benefit of
clergy, was handed over to the ecclesias-
tical tribunal for a new trial or purgation,
the pretty uniform result of which was
his acquittal.  This  pretended trial or
purgation gave rise  to a  great deal of
abuse and perjury, so that, at length, the
secular judges, instead  of handing ovei
the culprit to the ecclesiastics for purga
tion, ordered him to be detained in prison
until he should be pardoned by the king
By the statute of 18 Elizabeth, c. 7, per-
sons convicted of felony, and entitled to
the benefit of clergy, were to be discharged
from  prison, being first branded in the
thumb, if laymen, it being left to the dis
cretion of the  judge to detain them in
prison  not exceeding one  year; and, by
the statute of 5 Anne, c. 6, it was enacted,
that it should no longer be requisite that
a person should be able to read, in order
to be entitled to the benefit of clergy, so
that,  from the passing of this act, a felon
was no more liable to be hanged on ac-
count of defect of learning.   The English
statutes formerly made specific provisions,
that, in particular cases, the culprit should
not be entitled to benefit  of clergy, but
the  statute of 7 and 8 George IV, c. 28,
provides, that "benefit of clergy, with re-
spect to persons convicted of felony, shall
be  abolished."—This privilege  has been
formally abolished in some of the United
States, and allowed only  in one or two
cases in others, while, in others again, it
does not appear to have been known  at
an.   By the act of congress of April 30 
BENEFIT OF  CLERGY—BENEZET.
53
 1790, it is enacted, "that benefit of clergy
 shall not be used  or allowed, upon con-
 viction of any crime, for which, by any
 statute of the  United States, the punish-
 ment  is, or  shall be, declared to  be
 death."
   Benevento ; a dukedom  in the  Nea-
 politan province  Principato  Oltra (86
 square miles, with  20,348  inhabitants),
 which, including a city and eight villages,
 belongs to the papal see.  In 1806, Napo-
 leon made a present of it to his minister
 TaUeyrand, who received thence the title
 of prince of Benevento.  In 1815, it was
 restored to the pope.  Cattle, grain, wine,
 oranges and  dead game are exported.
 The public revenue amounts to 6000 dol-
 lars.   In  1820,  the inhabitants revolted.
 In the most  remote times, the state of
 Benevento belonged to the country of the
 Samnites.  The Lombards, in 571, made
 it a dukedom, which, long  after the ex-
 tinction of the Lombard kingdom, re-
 mained independent.  At a later period,
 it fell into the  hands of the  Saracens and
 Normans.  The city, however, was not
 conquered by the latter, because Henry
 III had given it to the pope, Leo IX.   The
 city of B. (lon. 14° 38' E., lat 40° & N.),
 on a hill between the rivers Sabato  and
 Calore, has 13,900 inhabitants, 8 churches
 and 19 convents.  Since 969, it  has been
 the see of an archbishop.  It has several
 manufactories.   Few cities  in Italy de-
 serve  so much  attention, on account of
 the antiquities which they contain, as B.
 Almost every wall consists of fragments
 of altars, sepulchres, columns and entab-
 latures.  Among other things, the well-
 preserved,  magnificent triumphal  arch
 of Trajan, built in 114, deserves particu-
 lar mention.   It is now caUed porta au-
 rea (the golden gate), and is a gate of the
 city.   The cathedral is a gloomy build-
 ing, in the old Gothic style.
   Benezet, Anthony; a distinguished
 philanthropist,  born at St.  Quentin, in
 France, January 1713.   His  parents were
 opulent, and of noble descent On the rev-
 ocation of the edict of Nantes, the family
 associated  themselves  with the  Hugue-
 nots ; and,  on  this account, his father's
 estate was confiscated, in 1715, who there-
 upon sought temporary refuge in Holland,
 and afterwards in England, where An-
 thony  received  his education.   Of An-
 thony's juvenile habits and  dispositions,
 but an imperfect account is preserved: it
is only known  that he became a member
 of the society of Friends, about the 14th
year  of his age.  In  1731, four  years
subsequent,  he  arrived, along with his
parents, in Philadelphia.  His first em-
ployment was that of an instructer of
youth at Germantown—a calling which
led him  to prepare and pubUsh, several
elementary books for  the use of schools.
The leading  traits of his character—en-
thusiastic benevolence and profound pie-
ty—were developed at this period.  About
the year 1750, he was particularly struck
with the iniquity of the slave trade, and
the cruelty which was exercised by  too
many of those who purchased  and em-
ployed the negroes.   His voice and his
pen were now employed in behalf of this
oppressed  portion of his fellow-beings.
Finding  the blacks in Philadelphia nu-
merous, and miserably ignorant, he estab-
Ushed an evening school for them, and
taught  them  himself, gratuitously.  In
this office he was  signally successful,
and accomplished the additional good of
removing prejudices against the intellect
of the Negro by exhibiting the proficiency
of his pupils.   His first attempts to rouse
the public feeling, on the subject of Negro
slavery, consisted  in  short essays in al-
manacs and newspapers, which he was
indefatigable  in   circulating.  He  soon
published a variety of more elaborate and
extensive  tracts, among  which are the
following:—An Account of that Part of
Africa inhabited by the  Negroes, 1762:
a Caution and Warning to  Great Britain
and her  Colonies, on   the  calamitous
State of the  enslaved  Negroes,  1767:
an  Historical Account  of Guinea, its
Situation, Produce, and  the general  Dis-
position of its Inhabitants; with an En-
quiry into  the Rise and Progress of the
Slave-Trade,  its  Nature  and calamitous
Effects.  These  works  were printed at
his  own expense, and distributed, without
charge, wherever  he thought they would
make an impression.   He addressed them
directly, with suitable  letters, to most of
the crowned  heads of  Europe; and to
many of the most illustrious divines and
philosophers.   The fervor of his  style,
and the force of his  facts, obtained for
his  philanthropic efforts the notice which
he  sought  for the benefit  of his  cause.
Great personages, on both sides of the At-
lantic, corresponded with  him, and it is
certain that he gave the  original impulse
to dispositions and measures which in-
duced the abolition of the slave-trade by
England  and the  United States.  Clark-
son, the British philanthropist, whose la-
bors contributed so largely to the accom-
plishment of  that object, acknowledges,
that his understanding was  enlightened,
and his zeal kindled, by one of B.'s  books, 
54
BENEZET—BENGAL.
when he was about to treat the question
submitted to the  senior bachelors of aits
in the university of  Cambridge, Anne
liceat invitos in servitutem  dare'}—B. re-
garded  aU  mankind  as  his  brethren.
About the year 1763, the wrongs inflicted
on the aboriginal race of North America
excited his susceptible mind, and prompt-
ed him to publish a tract, entitled, Some
Observations on the Situation, Disposition
and  Character of the Indian  Natives of
this Continent  He addressed the British
governors and military  commanders, on
the effect of hostilities against the natives,
with characteristic boldness and pathos.
His various  philanthropical efforts, and
his excellent qualities, obtained for him
peculiar consideration in the  society of
Friends.—In 1780,  he  wrote and pub-
lished a Short Account  of the religious
Society  of  Friends,  commonly  called
Quakers; and, in 1782, a Dissertation on
the  Plainness  and  innocent  Simplicity
of the  Christian ReUgion.  About the
same time, he issued several tracts against
the use of ardent spirits.—The person of
B. was small, and his face far from hand-
some, though benignity  might be traced
in his animated  aspect, even by  those
who knew not how his  whole being and
small estate had been devoted.  His un-
derstanding  was  originally strong, and
much improved  by reading and observa-
tion.  His private habits, morals and pur-
suits were adapted to endear and dignify
his public career.  He died at Philadel-
phia, May 5, 1784, aged 71  years.   When
it was announced that he  was seriously
ill, a multitude of his fellow-citizens pre-
sented themselves at his  dwelling with
anxious inquiries; and he  conversed lu-
cidly with hundreds  after his case was
pronounced to be hopeless.  There is.ex-
tant  a full and interesting memoir of his
life,  by Roberts Vaux.
  Bengal ;  an  extensive   and  valuable
province of Hindostan, situated  between
the 21st and 27th degrees of N. lat, and
between the 86tb and 92d  degrees of E.
Ion., being in length about  400 miles, and
in breadth, 300.  On the north  and east,
it is defended by the mountains of Ne-
paul, Assam and Ava; on  the south, by
a Une of inhospitable and dangerous sea-
coast, containing but one harbor capable
of admitting  ships of any considerable
size, and even that  one guarded by innu-
merable shoals:  on the west, it joins Behr
and Oude;  and, although  rather exposed
to invasion on this frontier, it is, neverthe-
less, better defended  by nature than any
province  of sirmlar extent on the conti-
nent of Asia: and should the English be
ever driven from all the other parts of In-
dia, as long as they shall retain their mari-
time  pre-eminence,  they  will  find  in
B. a secure asylum  against their  ene-
mies.  Thus guarded from a foreign foe,
they are  equally safe from any insur-
rection of the natives, whose  mildness
of disposition  and  aversion to war are
such, that nothing short of the most atro-
cious cruelty, or religious persecution,
could induce them to  draw their swords
against their present rulers.—The fertile
soil  of B. produces every  thing requi-
site for the sustenance of Ufe, and in such
abundance, that the  crops of  one year
are sufficient for the consumption of its
inhabitants for two.  It abounds in fruits
and  animals of many varieties, and yields
every article essential to the comfort, or
even luxury, of man.  Its  ingenious in-
habitants  are well versed in all the arts
of useful industry ; and, whilst their deli-
cate and  valuable manufactures are ex-
ported to every part of the world, they re-
quire no assistance from  other countries.
In short,  it has been truly said of tiiis
province,  that it is the most valuable jewel
in  the  British  crown.  The  revenues
of B. consist  chiefly  of rents paid to
the  government for land.   In the year
1811—12, they amounted, including those
of Behar  and Orissa, to £2,590,000 ster-
ling, to  which  may be  added nearly
£200,000  for the monopolies of salt and
opium.  The  exports of  B. are  prin-
cipally rice, cotton and silk, both raw and
manufactured;  indigo,  sugar,  saltpetre,
ivory,  tobacco,  and  drugs of various
kinds: hemp and flax are also to be pro-
cured  in  great abundance.  Its imports
by sea are gold and silver, copper and
bar-iron,,woollen cloths of every descrip-
tion, tea, salt, glass and china ware, wines,
and other commodities, for the use  of its
European inhabitants, and a few Arabian
and EngUsh horses.  The  native breed
of these  animals being diminutive, B. is
chiefly suppUed with  them  from the
north-west provinces, although  the gov-
ernment  have  a stud of their own  in
Behar, and hold out great encouragement
to the zemindars, or landholders, to  breed
them. The south-east districts produce
fine elephants, which are not only in con-
siderable  demand, among the opulent
natives, for state or riding, but also used
for  carrying the camp equipage of the
army.  They vary  in price from £50 to
£1000:  a good  one should be from  8
to 10 feet high, and not  less than 30
 years of age.—B. is intersected by  the 
BENGAL.
55
Ganges, the Brahmapootra, Dummooda,
and several other rivers, so connected by
various streams, and the annual inunda-
tions, that there is scarcely a town which
does not enjoy the benefits  of an inland
navigation, the boats employed in which
are of various sizes and shapes, many of
them very handsome, and fitted both for
convenience and state.  The Delta of the
Ganges, the water of which is either salt
or brackish, exhibits a labyrinth of unin-
habited inland navigation;  and in other
parts of the country,  during the rainy
season, some hundred miles of rice fields
may be sailed over.  These inundations
are,  however, frequently the cause of
much injury, by carrying away the cattle,
stores of grain, and habitations of the poor
peasants.—The greater proportion of the
inhabitants of B. are Hindoos: they are
olive-colored, with black hair and  eyes.
They are small and delicate in their per-
sons, and, although very timid, are litigious;
humble to their superiors, and insolent to
their inferiors.  In youth, they are quick
and inquisitive,  and would probably be
much improved by their intercourse  with
Europeans, but  for the supreme  con-
tempt in which they hold other  nations,
from the notion of their being degraded
Hindoos.  The  indigent wear  scarcely
any clothing other than a rag round  their
waist: the rich, when out of doors,  dress
much like Mohammedans;  within the
house, they usually resume their old na-
tional costume, which  consists merely of
different pieces of cloth twisted round the
body, and  having  one end tucked into
 the  folds.  No small part of the population
 are Mohammedans; they are the descend-
 ants of the Afghan and Mogul conquer-
 ors, and Arabian merchants, softened, in
 the course of time, by an intermixture
 with Hindoo women, converts, and  chil-
 dren,  whom they purchased during  a
 scarcity,  and educated in  their own re-
 ligion.   There are also a number of the
 descendants of the Portuguese, and of
 various other nations;  and, in spite of the
 checks held out by the English against
 colonization, it  is probable,  that, in the
 course of another century, their descend-
 ants will  become so  numerous, that  it
 will be  necessary to permit  them to be-
 come cultivators of the soil.—The  ther-
 mometer,  part of the year,  in B.,  is as
 high as 100 degrees, and  the climate  is
 injurious to European constitutions.  The
 year is  there divided  into  three seasons,
 viz. the  hot, the rainy and the cold : the
 former begins in March, and ends in June;
 the rains then commence,  and  continue
till October; after which it becomes cool,
and the weather  continues pleasant  for
four months.—Of the ancient history of
B. we have no authentic information.   It
is said to have been sometimes an inde-
pendent  kingdom,  and at other times
tributary to Magadha (Behar).  In the in-
stitutes  of Akbar, a Ust of 61  Hindoo
kings is given ; but the number of years
assigned to many  of  the reigns  does
away its credibility.  B. was first invaded
and conquered by the Afghan Mohamme-
dans in A. D. 1203, and continued tribu-
tary to the emperor of Delhi till the year
1340, when Fakher Addeen, a confiden-
tial servant of the governor, murdered his
master, and, having  seized the reins of
government, threw off his allegiance, and
took the title of sultan Sekunder. From
this period till 1538,  B. remained an in-
dependent kingdom, when it was con-
quered by Shere  Shah, who shortly after
annexed it to Delhi.  From the descend-
ants of Shere Shah  it was conquered by
the emperor Akbar,  and continued sub-
ject to Delhi,  or nominally so, tiU  the
year 1757, when it fell  into the hands of
the English, who  have  gradually changed
its form of government, and introduced a
code of regulations, founded on the Hin-
doo, Mohammedan and English laws, by
which impartial justice is administered to
all the inhabitants, and toleration granted
to all religions, owing to which the coun-
try  improves,  and  the population  in-
creases.   The cities of Gour, Tonda, Ra-
jemahil, Dacca and Moorshedabad have
each,  at various  times, been the capital;
but, since the conquest of it by the Eng-
Ush, Calcutta is become the seat of gov-
ernment.—The government of this presi-
dency is vested in the supreme council,
 consisting of the governor-general and
three  counsellors.  The  former is  ap-
pointed by the king; the latter are chosen
by the court of directors from  the  civil
servants of at  least 12 years'  standing.
 For the administration of justice, there is
 1 supreme court at Calcutta,  6 courts
 of appeal and circuit, and 46 inferior ma-
 gistrates,  stationed in  as many  different
 towns or  districts.  The circuit courts are
 formed by 3 judges, with an assistant and
 native officers.  Criminal  cases  are tried
 by the Mohammedan  law, in form  and
 name, but so modified as to  approach
 nearly, in fact, to the English; and capi-
 tal sentences are confirmed by the nizam-
 at adalat, or supreme court at  Calcutta.
 The district magistrates or judges, as they
 are often called, have each a registrar and
 one or more of the junior civil servants, 
56
BENGAL—BENGUELA.
as assistants, with native lawyers, Mussul-
man and Hindoo.  An  appeal lies from
their sentence, in almost all cases, to the
provincial court.  The average size  of a
district  in this  presidency is about 6000
square  miles.   In  civil causes,  the  re-
spective codes of the Mohammedans and
Hindoos are generally followed.  In 1793,
regular  advocates, educated at the  Mo-
hammedan and Hindoo coUeges at  Cal-
cutta  and Benares, were appointed  to
plead in these  courts.  Their  fees are
regulated by law.  Written pleadings are
allowed, and written evidence must some-
times be admitted, on account of the dis-
inclination of the Asiatics to have women
appear  in public.—Domestic slavery  is
permitted by law, but the slaves are kind-
ly treated.  The number of these slaves
it has been thought unsafe to ascertain.
Their marriage  is  never  impeded;  but
eew children are sold, as it is reputed dis-
creditable  to seU them, and their manu-
mission  is  considered an act of piety.
Parents  themselves, who are  reduced by
famine,  &c, are usually the persons who
supply  the slave-market  Inability to
provide  for their children, not the desire
of gain, seems to be the real motive of
this horrid custom.   Slaves, Uke freemen,
are under the  protection  of law.—The
Mohammedans may be  estimated at one
seventh  of the whole  population.  Vari-
ous estimates of the population have been
made at different times, but rather from
conjecture than from  well-authenticated
documents.  The sum total  for  Bengal
appears  to be 25,306,0u0, and there  are
strong reasons  for beheving this number
to be short of the real amount.  The
number  of native troops, called seapoys
(ripahis) or soldiers, was, in 1811, 207.579,
besides 5875 invalids.  The non-commis-
sioned  officers  are natives,  those who
have commissions  are Europeans,  and
the number of the latter in this presiden-
cy,  at the  time above  mentioned, was
2024.  About 22,000 of the king's troops
are also  stationed in India, and occasion
an expense to  the company  of about
£160,000 per annum.—Before concluding
this article, it may  be  proper to observe,
that the  Dutch possess the town of Chin-
sura, the French, Chindunagore, and  the
Danes, Serampore, with  a small territory
adjoining each.  These  towns are situ-
ated on  the Hoogly river, from 15 to 25
miles above Calcutta.
  Bengel, John Albanus, a famous Ger-
man theologian, born in 1687, at Winne-
den, in Wurtemburg, studied at Stuttgart
and Tubingen,  and, in 1713, became  a
 preacher  and professor  at  Denkendorf.
 His chief studies were  the fathers of the
 church and  the  New Testament.   He
 died, after having been appointed to sev-
 eral offices, in 1752.  B. was the first Lu-
 theran  theologian who  appUed  to  the
 criticism of the  New Testament a com-
 prehensive spirit,  which embraced  the
 subject in its whole extent, and manifest-
 ed the power of patient  investigation
 which the study required.   His sugges-
 tions  for the correction  of  the text  are
 particularly  valuable.  In  some  of  his
 observations, his judgment  has been led
 astray by his inclination to mysticism.
 His explanation of  the Apocalypse has
 given him, with some  persons, the fame
 of an inspired prophet; with most people,
 that of  an enthusiast  He was esteemed
 for his private virtues.
  .Benger, Miss Elizabeth  Ogilvy,  was
 born in 1778, at Portsmouth, in England.
 She was the daughter of a purser in the
 navy, who died in 1796, and  left his wife
 and daughter with  a slender provision.
 In  1802, she removed  with her mother
 to London.  She soon attracted attention
 by  her  verses, and Miss Sarah  Wesley
 early became her patron.  She composed
 some  theatrical pieces, which did  not
 meet with success.   Mr. Bowyer, the en-
 graver, employed her to write a poem on
 the Slave-Trade, which, with two others,
 was pubUshed in quarto, with engravings,
 in  1812.   She  successively  published
 memoirs of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Hamilton,
 memoirs of John Tobin, the dramatist, and
 notices of Klopstock and his  friends, pre-
 fixed to a translation of their letters from
 the German.   These writings were fol-
 lowed  by the history of Anne Boleyn,
 which was translated into French,  and
 the memoirs  of EUzabeth, queen  of
 Bohemia.   She  undertook  to  compile
 memoirs of Henry  IV of France, but the
 progress of this work was prevented by
 her death, January 9, 1827.   By all who
 knew her, among whom the editor has
 the pleasure of counting himself, she was
 esteemed as a kind,  faithful and candid
friend, a most affectionate daughter, be-
loved  by all  ages and both sexes on ac-
count of her  fine talents, benevolent dis-
position, and pure heart.
  Benguela ; a country in Africa, bound-
ed N. by Angola, E.  by the  country of
Jaga Cassangi, S. by Mataman, and W. by
the sea.  Cape Negro  forms its S.  W.
extremity, whence mountains run north-
 ward, in which are contained the springs
 of many rivers.  The  productions  are
similar to  those of Angola and Congo; 
BENGUELA—BENJOWSKY.
57
one of the principal is  manioc;  divers
sorts of palms are found ;  dates grow in
great  abundance;  the  vines  naturally
form alleys and arbors; cassia and tama-
rinds  also flourish;  and,  from  the hu-
midity of the  soil, there  are two fruit
seasons in the year.  The air  of the
country  is  exceedingly  unwholesome.
The chief towns  are Old  Benguela, St.
Philip or New Benguela,  Man-kikondo,
and Kaschil.  Lon. 30° to 35° E.; lat. 13°
30' to 15° 30' S.
  Benin ; a kingdom in the west of Afri-
ca, the Umits of which are not well ascer-
tained ; but the name may be appUed to
that part of the coast extending from the
river  Lagos, the eastern limit of the Slave
coast, to the  Formosa, about 180 miles.
The  interior  limit   is  unknown.  The
whole coast presents a succession of estu-
aries, some of them very broad, and their
origin never explored.  Between the La-
gos and Cross rivers, the number of rivers
flowing into the gulf of Guinea is said to
exceed 20, some of them very broad and
deeji.   This tract, called the Delta of Be-
nin, is about  260 miles in extent. The
aspect of the coast, and the great body of
water flowing into the gulf, have  led to
the supposition that the waters of the Ni-
ger here find an entrance into the ocean.
This  region has been but  Uttle explored,
and is little known.   The  country is low
and flat, the soil on the banks of the riv-
ers veiy fertile, but the climate unhealthy.
The inhabitants are of a mild disposition ;
polygamy is practised ; almost all labor is
performed by females; the government is
despotic.  Chief towns, Benin,  Agatton,
Bododa, Ozebo and Meiberg, which are
situated on the  Formosa, the  principal
river.
   Benin; capital of the above kingdom,
on the Formosa; lon. 5° & E; lat 6° 12'
N.  This town, according to some, is 18
miles in circuit, the largest street 3 miles
long, and others nearly equal: according
to other statements, it is only 4 miles in
circuit  The streets are fiUed with vari-
ous articles of merchandise, and present
the  appearance  of  a crowded  market,
though  always  clean.  The houses  are
large, and, though their walls are of clay,
the reeds and leaves, with which they are
covered, give them a pleasing appearance.
The  king's  palace consists of a great
 number of square enclosures.
   Benjowsky, Maurice Augustus, count
 of, a man of indefatigable activity and
 extraordinary adventures, born  in 1741,
 at Werbowa, in  Hungary, where his fa-
 ther  was a general in the Austrian army,
entered the same service himself,  and
acted as lieutenant in the  seven years'
war till  1758.   He afterwards  studied
navigation in Hamburg, Amsterdam and
Plymouth.   He then  went  to  Poland,
joined the confederacy against the Rus-
sians, and  became colonel,  command-
er of cavalry and  quarter-master  general.
B. was taken prisoner by the Russians in
1769, and sent, the next year, to Kamt-
schatka.  On the voyage thither, he saved
the ship that carried him, when  in peril
from a storm.  This  circumstance  pro-
cured him  a  favorable reception  from
governor Niloff,  whose children he in-
structed in the German and French lan-
guages.  Aphanasia,  Niloff's  younger
daughter, fell in love with him.  B.  pre-
vailed on her father to set him at Uberty
and to betroth her to him.  He had, how-
ever, already conceived  the  project of
escaping  from  Kamtschatka,  together
with several other  conspirators.   Apha-
nasia  discovered  his  design, but   did
not forsake  him.   On the contrary,  she
warned him when  it was resolved to se-
cure his person.  Accompanied by Apha-
nasia, who  remained  invariably faithful
to him, though she  had now learned that
he was  married,  B., together with 96
other persons, left Kamtschatka in May,
1771, and sailed to Formosa; from thence
to  Macao,  where many  of his compan-
ions died, and among them the faithful
Aphanasia.   At  length  he  arrived in
France, where he was commissioned to
found a colony in Madagascar; an un-
dertaking of which he foresaw the  diffi-
culties, especially as the success depended
on the assistance  of  the officers in the
Isle of France, to whom he was referred
for the greater part of his equipment. In
June, 1774, B.  arrived  in Madagascar,
established  a  settlement at Foul point,
and gained the good will of several tribes,
 who, hi  1776, appointed him their  am-
pansacabe, or king; on  which occasion
the women also swore allegiance to his
wife.  Afterwards, he went  to  Europe,
 with the design  of obtaining  for the na-
 tion a powerful ally and some commer-
 cial advantages.  But, on his arrival in
 France, he  was compelled,  by the perse-
 cutions of the French ministry, to  enter
 into the Austrian service,  hi which he
 commanded against the Prussians in the
 battle of Habelschwerdt, 1778.  In  1783,
 he made an attempt in England  to fit out
 an expedition to  Madagascar.  He re-
 ceived assistance from private persons in
 London, and particularly from a commer-
 cial house at Baltimore, in America.  In 
58                     BENJOWSKY—BENSERADE.
October, 1784,  he set  out, leaving his
wife in America, and landed in Madagas-
car, 1785.   Having  there  commenced
hostiUties against the French, the author-
ities in  the  Isle of France sent troops
against him.  In  an action which took
place  May 23, 1786, he was mortally
wounded  in  the  breast by  a  ball.  B.
wrote an account of the events of his life
in French.  William Nicholson has pub-
lished an EngUsh translation of it, made
from the manuscript  His widow died at
her estate Vieska, near Betzko, Dec. 4,
1825.  Benjowsky's only son is said to have
been devoured by rats in Madagascar.
  Ben-Lawers ; a mountain of Scotland,
in the county of Perth, 4015 feet  above
the level of the sea; 11 miles S. George-
town.
  Ben-Lodi ; a mountain of Scotland, in
Perthshire, 3009  feet above the  sea;  4
miles  S. W. CaUander.
  Ben-Lomond ; a mountain of Scotland,
in Stirlingshire, 3240 feet above the sea;
26 miles W. Stirling.
  Ben-Macduie; a mountain  of Scot-
land,  on the western confines of Aber-
deensliire, 4300 feet high.  It is the sec-
ond highest mountain in Great Britain.
  Ben-More; a mountain of Scotland,
in the island of Mull, 3097 feet above the
 evel of the sea.
  Ben-More ; a  mountain  of Scotland,
in Perthshire, 3903 feet above the level of
the sea; 20 miles W. Crief.
  Ben-Nevis ; a  mountain  of Scotland,
in the county of Dumbarton, the highest
in the island of Great Britain.   It rises
4370 feet above the level of the sea.  A
great portion of this mountain consists of
porphyry of different shades, and  beauti-
ful red  granite.  It also contains a vein
of lead ore, richly impregnated  with sil-
ver.   The summit is generally  covered
with snow.
  Benningsen, Levin Augustus,  baron
of, Russian commander-in-chief, born at
Banteln, in Hanover, 1745, early entered
into the Russian service, and distinguish-
ed himself by great gallantry in the war
against Poland, under the empress Cath-
arine  II.  He acted a chief part in the
conspiracy of the palace against the em-
peror Paul I.  In 1806, he was appointed
to command the Russian anny which
hastened to the assistance of the Prus-
sians ; but, before his arrival, the Prussians
were  defeated  at Jena.  He afterwards
fought the  murderous  battle of  Eylau
(next to that of Mojaisk, perhaps, the
most bloody in  miUtary history), and the
battle of Friedland.  After the peace of
Tilsit, he retired to his estates   In 1813,
he led a Russian army, called the armyoj
Poland, into  Saxony, took  part  in the
battle of Leipsic, and blockaded Ham-
burg.  After commanding the  army m
the south of Russia, he  finally  settled
in his  native country, and died Oct. 3,
1826.  He is the author of Thoughts on
certain Points requisite for an Officer of
Light Cavalry to be acquainted with (Ri-
ga, 1794; Wilna, 1805).
  Bennington ; a post-town in  a county
of the  same name, in Vermont, watered
by a branch of the Hoosack;  37 miles
N. E. Albany, 68 S. W. Windsor,  115 S.
by W.  Montpelier, 132 W. N. W. Boston.
Lon. 73° W.; lat 42° 42' N.  Population
in 1810, 2524; in 1820, 2485.  It borders
on New York, is situated in a good farm-
ing country, and is a  place of considera-
ble trade and  manufactures.  The courts
for the county are held alternately at Ben-
nington and Manchester.  On mount An-
thony, in this town, there is a cave con-
taining  many beautiful   petrifactions.—
Two famous battles were fought here, on
the 16th of August, 1777, in which gen-
eral Stark, at the head of 1600 American
militia,  gained  a distinguished  victory
over the British.
  Benno, St., of the family of the counts of
Woldenberg, bom at Hildesheim, in 1010,
became (1028) a Benedictine monk, hi the
convent of St. Michael there.  Henry IV
(1066)  made him bishop  of Misnia, and
favored him  by repeated donations of
estates for his church.  Nevertheless, B.
took a secret part in the conspiracy of the
Saxon  nobles against the emperor, for
which  reason Henry led  him away pris-
oner, when he passed Misnia,  in 1075,
after the battle on the Unstrut  He was
afterwards set at Uberty, but Several times
proved faithless to the emperor.  He died
1107.  His bones began by degrees to
work miracles;  and pope Adrian VI, after
many entreaties from the Saxons, as well
as from the emperor Charles V, and hav-
ing received large sums of money, placed
him  among the  saints,  1523.   It was
thought that this canonization would tend
to the  promotion of the Catholic faith in
Saxony.   At present, the bones of St.
Benno are in the city of Munich, which
has chosen him for its patron.
   Benserade,  Isaac de,  a  poet  at the
court of Louis XIV, bom, 1612, at Lyons-
la-Foret, a smaU town  in  Normandy,
wrote for the stage, and composed  a great
number of ingenious verses for the king
and  many distinguished persons at court.
In the first half of the reign of Louis XIV, 
BENSERADE—BENTIVOGLIO.                   59
the court, and the foUowers of the court,
patronised songs of gallantry, rondeaux,
triolets, madrigals and sonnets, containing
saUies of wit, conceits and  effusions  of
gallantry, in the affected style then prev-
alent.  No one succeeded so well in this
art as B., who was therefore called,  by
way of eminence, le poete de la com:  He
received many pensions for his perform-
ances, and Uved at great expense. Wea-
ried, at last, with the Ufe which he led at
court, he retired to his country-seat, Gen-
tilly, and died 1691.
   Bensley, Thomas; a printer in Fleet
street, London.   He  and  Bulmer  are
among the first typographical artists in
England.  He distinguished himself first
by the edition  wliich he printed of the
English translation of Lavater's Physiog-
nomy, London, 1789, 5  vols., 4to.  The
most beautiful  productions  of his press
are MackUn's splendid edition of the Eng-
lish translation  of the Bible (1800—15, 7
vols., foUo), and that of Hume's History of
England (1806,10 vols., foUo), both adorn-
ed with excellent copper-plates.  Among
his impressions of a smaller size, the edi-
tions of Shakspeare (1803, 7  vols.}, and
Hume (1803,10 vols.), with masterly en-
gravings on wood, are distinguished.  He
has also furnished  several well-executed
impressions on parchment, and first used
the  printing-press  invented  by Koenig
and Bauer, for  Elliotson's EngUsh trans-
lation of Blumenbach's Physiology (Lon-
don, 1818).
   Bentham, Jeremy, an English lawyer,
bom in  1749, never appeared at the bar,
nor has he pubUshed his chief works him-
self.  They have been arranged and trans-
lated into French by his friend M. Du-
mont, and printed  partly in  Paris  and
partly in London.   Among  them  are
Traiies  de  Legislation,  civile et penale,
&c. (Paris, 1802, 3 vols.), and Theorie des
Peines et des Recompenses (London, 1801,
2 vols.).   B. is a friend of refonn in par-
liament,  and of a thorough correction  of
civil and criminal legislation.   His Frag-
ments on Government, in  opposition  to
Blackstone, appeared anonymously  in
1776, and with  his  name, London, 1823.
In  France,  his  literary labors found  a
better reception than in England or Ger-
many.  A small pamphlet on the liberty
of the press (London, 1821) was addressed
by him to the Spanish cortes, during their
discussion of this subject; and, in another
(Three Tracts relative  to the Spanish and
Portuguese  Affairs, London,  1821),   he
refuted  the idea of the necessity of a
house of peers in Spain, as weU as Mon-
tesquieu's proposition, that judicial forms
are the defence of innocence.  His latest
work is the Art of Packing (London,
1821); that is, of arranging juries so as to
obtain any verdict desired.  His previous
work, Essai sur la Tactique des Assem-
bUes legislatives, edited, from the author's
papers,  by  Etienne Dumont  (Geneva,
1815), and translated into German, con-
tains many useful observations.   His  In-
troduction to the Principles of Morals and
Legislation (London, 1823, 2 vols.) treats
of the principal objects of government in a
profound and comprehensive manner. Za-
nobelli has translated Bentham's Theory
of Legal Evidence into ItaUan (Bergamo,
1824, 2 vols.).  Among the earlier works
of B. was his Defence of Usury, showing
the  ImpoUcy  of the  present legal  Re-
straints  on the Terms of pecuniary Bar-
gains (1787).
  Bentivoglio, Comelio;  cardinal and
poet, bom at Ferrara,  1668, of a family
that held the highest offices in the former
republic  of Bologna.   He early distin-
guished himself by his progress in the
fine arts, Uterature,  philosophy, theology
and jurisprudence.  While at Ferrara, he
patronised the Uterary  institutions there.
Pope Clement XI made him his domes-
tic  prelate and secretary to the  apostolic
chamber, and sent him, in 1712, as nuncio
to Paris, where, during the last  years of
the reign of Louis XIV, he acted an im-
portant  part in the affair of the buU Uni-
genitus.  The duke  of Orleans,  regent
after the death of Louis, was not favora-
bly  disposed towards  him; the pope,
therefore, transferred him to Ferrara, and,
in 1719, bestowed on  him the  hat of a
cardinal, and employed him at first  in
Rome, near his own person, then as legate
a latere in  Romagna,  &c.  B.  died  in
Rome, 1732.  Poetry  had occupied the
leisure hours  of  the   learned  cardinal.
Some sonnets composed by him are to be
found in Gobbi's collection, vol. 3, and in
other collections of his  time.  Under the
name of Selvaggio Porpora, he translated
the Thebais of Statius  into Italian.  He
deUvered several addresses before socie-
ties for  the  promotion  of the fine arts.
His  discourse in defence of the utiUty
and moral influence of painting, sculpture
and architecture, delivered in the academy
of design, at Rome, 1707, was reprinted
by the academy of the Arcadians, in the
2d vol. of the Prose degli Arcadi.
  Bentivoglio, Guy or Guido, celebrated
as a cardinal and a historian, was bom at
Ferrara, in 1579.  He  studied at Padua
with great reputation, and afterwards, fix- 
60
BENTIVOGLIO—BENTLEY.
iog his residence at Rome, acquired gen-
eral esteem by his prudence and hitegrity.
He was nuncio in Flanders from 1607 to
1616, and afterwards in France till 1621.
His character stood  so high, that, on  the
death of Urban  VIII,  in 1644,  he was
generally thought to be the most likely
person to succeed him;  but, on entering
the conclave, in the  hottest and most  un-
healthy season of the year, he was seized
with a fever, of which he died,  aged 65
years.  He  had lived  in a magnificent
style, and was much embarrassed at the
time of his death—a circumstance attrib-
uted to his canvass for the papacy.  Car-
dinal B.  was an able pohtician,  and his
historical memoirs are such as we should
e\pect from such a man.  The most valu-
able of these are his History of the Civil
Wars in Flanders, written in ItaUan, and
first published at Cologne, 1630, a trans-
lation of which, by Henry earl  of Mon-
mouth, appeared in 1654 (London, folio);
an Account of Flanders, during  his lega-
tion, also translated by the earl  of Mon-
mouth (folio, 1652); his own Memoirs;
and a collection of letters, which are reck-
oned among the best specimens of epis-
tolary writing in the Italian  language (an
edition of which was published at Cam-
bridge, in 1727).  All these, except the
 Memoirs, have been published together at
 Paris, 1645—1648, folio, and at Venice,
 1668, 4to.
   Bentley, Richard,  a celebrated Eng-
 lish divine and classical scholar,  distin-
 guished as a polemical writer, in the lat-
 ter part of the 17th century, was bom  in
 1662.  His father is said to have been a
 blacksmith. To his mother, who was a
 woman of strong natural abiUties, he was
 indebted  for the first  rudiments  of his
 education.  At  the age of 14, he entered
 St.  John's college,  Cambridge.  In 1682,
 he  left the university, and became usher
 of a school at Spalding; and this situation
 lie relinquished, in the following year, for
 that of tutor to  the son of doctor Stilling-
 fleet, dean of St. Paul's.  He accompanied
 his  pupil to Oxford, where he availed
 himself  of the Uterary treasures of the
 Bodleian Ubrary,in the prosecution of his
 studies.   In 1684,  he took  the degree of
 A.M. at Cambridge, and, in 1689, obtained
 the same  honor at the sister university.
 His first pubUshed work  was a  Latin
 epistle to doctor John MiU, in an edition
 of the Chronicle of John Malela, which
 appeared in 1691.   It contained observa-
 tions on the writings of that Greek  histo-
  rian, and displayed so  much  profound
  learning  and critical acumen, as excited
the sanguine  anticipations  of classical
scholars  from the future labors  of  the
author.   Doctor Stillingfleet, having been
raised to the bishopric of Worcester, made
B. his chaplain, and, in 1692, collated him
to a prebend in his cathedral.  The rec-
ommendation of his patron and of bishop
Lloyd procured  him the  honor of being
chosen the first preacher of the  lecture
instituted by the celebrated Robert Boyle
for the defence of Christianity.  The dis-
courses against atheism, which he dehy-
ered on this occasion, were  published in
1694: they have since been often reprint-
ed, and  translated into  several  foreign
languages.  In 1693, he  was appointed
keeper of the royal library at St. James's
—a circumstance which  incidentally led
to his famous controversy with the hon.
Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery,
relative to the genuineness of the Greek
Epistles  of Phalaris, an edition of which
was pubUshed by the latter, then a stu-
dent  at  Christ-church, Oxford.  In this
dispute,  Bentley was  completely victo-
rious,  though opposed  by  the greatest
wits and critics of the age, including Pope,
Swift, Garth, Atterbury, Aldrich, DodweU,
and Conyers  Middleton, who advocated
the opinion of Boyle with  a degree of
warmth and  ilUberality  which  appears
very extraordinary.  But the  motives of
B.'s assailants were various.   Swift, in his
 Battle of the  Books, took up the  cudgels
 against  him in  defence  of  his friend sir
 William Temple; doctor Garth attacked
 him probably from mere wantonness, in
 the  well-known couplet in his  Dispen-
 sary—
      So  diamonds owe a lustre to their foil,
      And to a Bentley 'tis we owe a Boyle.
 Some were actuated by  personal consid-
 erations, among whom was Conyers Mid-
 dleton, whose persevering hostility to B.,
 during  a  long series of years, seems to
 have originated from the  latter having
 applied to the former, when a young stu-
 dent in  the university, the  contemptuous
 epithet  of fiddling Conyers,  because he
 played on the violin.  It does not appear
 who was the author of a punning carica-
 ture, which was produced on this occasion,
  representing  B. about to be thrust into the
  brazen  bull of  Phalaris, and exclaiming,
  " I had rather be roasted than Boyled.
  In 1699, B., who had three years before
  been created D. D., pubUshed his Disser-
  tation  on the  Epistles of  Phalaris,  in
  which  he satisfactorily  proved that they
  were not the compositions of the tyrant of
  Agrigentum, who  lived more than five
  centuries before the Christian era,  but 
BENTLEY—BENZOIC ACID.
61
were written by some sophist, under the
borrowed name of Phalaris, in the declin-
ing age of Greek literature.  Soon  after
this publication, doctor B. was presented
by the  crown to the mastership of Trinity
college, Cambridge, worth nearly £1000
a year.  He now resigned the prebend of
Worcester, and, in  1701, was collated to
the archdeaconry of Ely.  His conduct as
head of the college gave rise  to  accu-
sations against him  from the  vice-master
and some  of the  fellows, who, among
various offences, charged him  with em-
bezzling the college money.  The con-
test was much protracted, and occasioned
a lawsuit, which was decided in the doc-
tor's favor, about twenty years  after.  In
1711, he pubUshed an edition of Horace,
at Cambridge, in 4to., which was reprint-
ed at Amsterdam; and, in 1713, appeared
his remarks on Collins's Discourse  on
Free-thinking, under the form of a Letter
to F. II. [Francis Hare]  D. D., by Phile-
leutherus Lipsiensis.  He was appointed
regius professor of divinity in 1716, and,
in the  same year, issued proposals  for a
new edition of the Greek Testament—an
undertaking for which he was admirably
qualified, but which he was prevented from
executing, in consequence of the animad-
versions of his determined adversary, Mid-
dleton. In 1717, George I, visiting the uni-
versity, nominated by mandate, as is usual
on such occasions, several persons for the
doctor's degree  in  divinity.  It was the
duty of B., as professor, to  perforin the
ceremony  called creation;   previous to
which he made  a demand of four guineas
from each candidate  beyond the usual
fees, absolutely refusing to create any doc-
tor without payment.   Some submitted;
but others, among whom was Middleton,
withstood the demand, and commenced a
prosecution against the  professor before
the vice-chancellor, who, deciding in favor
of the complainants,  first suspended B.,
and subsequently degraded hiin from his
honors, rights and  offices in the univer-
sity.   These proceedings were, after con-
siderable litigation, annulled by the court
of king's bench; and the doctor, in  1728,
was restored to all his former honors and
emoluments.  In 1726, he published an
edition of Terence and  Phsedrus; and
his notes on the comedies of the former
involved  him in a dispute with bishop
Hare,  on the metres  of Terence, which
provoked the sarcastic observation of sir
Isaac  Newton, that "two dignified clergy-
men, instead of minding their duty, had
fallen  out about a  play-book."  The last
work  of doctor B. was an edition of Mil-
   vol. n.          6
ton's  Paradise  Lost,  with conjectural
emendations, which appeared in  1732.
This added nothing to his reputation, and
may, in one word, be characterized a fail-
ure.  He died at the master's lodge  at
Trinity, July 14, 1742, and was interred
in the college chapel.  As a scholar and
a critic, B.  was very distinguished.  The
best informed of his opponents respected
his talents, while they were loading him
with classical abuse, which he did not fail
to return with interest Now that the prej-
udices, excited apparently by his personal
conduct, have subsided, his preeminence
in that species of literature which he cul-
tivated, is universally acknowledged. The
celebrated German philologist J. A.  Wolf
wrote an excellent  biography of B. in the
Analecta, (vol. 1, Berlin.)
  Benzel-Sternau,  Charles  Christian,
count,  born at Mentz, 1750, was, in 1812,
president of the ministry for the depart-
ment of the interior in the former grand-
duchy  of Frankfort, and now Uves  in the
neighborhood of Hanau.  He  is one of
the most humorous writers of our time,
and, in the  character of  his writings,
resembles J. Paul Richter.  His fame was
established by the Golden Calf (a biogra-
phy, 1802—1804, 4 vols,  in the first edi-
tion).  B. has written much, and aU his
productions display wit, richness of im-
agery, and nice observation of character.
  Benzenberg, John Frederic,   born,
May 5,1777, at Scholler, a village between
Elberteld and Diisseldorf, studied theolo-
gy in Marburg, and, in Gottingen, mathe-
matics and natural philosophy.  He ren-
dered much service to the latter science,
by his  observations on the fall of bodies,
and  the  motion of the earth,  which he
began  by experiments in the steeple of
the church of St. Michael, in Hamburg,
and continued hi the shaft of a mine,  in
the county of Mark, having a depth of
266  feet.   He was appointed, in  1805,
professor of astronomy and natural phi-
losophy, by the then  elector of Bavaria,
in Diisseldorf.  At a later period, he has
written much in favor of the  Prussian
government; but  the influence of  his
political pieces has not been so great  as
that  of his scientific observations above-
mentioned.  B. Uves now retired, near
Crefeld,  in  the  neighborhood  of the
Rhine.
  Benzoic Acid is obtained by the  apph-
cation  of a moderate heat to the balsam
of Pern: it rises in vapor, and condenses
in slender  prisms, which are white and
brilliant. It has a peculiar aromatic odor.
When heated on burning fuel, it inflames 
62
BENZOIC ACID—BERBERS.
and bums with a clear yeUow light.   It
unites with alkaUes and earths, forming
salts called benzoates, which are unimpor-
tant, except the benzoate of iron, which,
from its  insolubility, affords  a conven-
ient means of separating iron from its solu-
tions,  so  as to ascertain its quantity, and
also of obtaining it free from manganese,
which forms with the acid  a  soluble salt
(See Benzoin.)
  Benzoin is a  solid,  fragile, vegetable
substance, of a reddish-brown color.  In
commerce, two varieties are distinguish-
ed,  viz.  the   common and  the amyg-
daloidal;  the latter containing whitish
tears,  of an  almond shape, diffused
through  its  substance.  It is imported
from  Sumatra, Siam  and Java, and  is
found, also, in South America.  Benzoin
is  obtained from the  tree called  styrox
benzoin, and perhaps from some others.
On malting incisions into the bark,  it
flows out in the form of a balsamic juice,
having a  pungent taste, and an agreeable
odor.   The pure balsam consists of two
principal substances, viz. a resin, and a
peculiar acid termed benzoic (q. v.), which
is procured from the mass by sublimation.
It is soluble in water.  This acid is found,
also, as a constituent principle in  storax
and the balsams of Tolu and Peru: it exists
in the urine of cows, camels, and even of
young children.   It is  sometimes found
in a crystalline form on the pods  of the
vanilla.  Benzoin is not soluble in water,
but is readily dissolved in alcohol, by the
aid of a  gentle heat  The tincture thus
made  is used in pharmacy.   A  small
quantity  of this  tincture, dropped  into
water, forms a white, milky fluid, which
is  used in France as a cosmetic, under
the name of lait virginal.  The gum is a
principal ingredient of the common court
plaster.  The acid, as well as  the gum, is
employed in medicine: they  are stimu-
lating, and  act  more particularly  upon
the pulmonary system ; whence they are
used in asthma and chronic catarrh.
  Beranger,  Pierre, Jean de ;  a lyric
poet, of that class which, in modern lite-
rature, is almost  pecuUar to the French,
called chansonnier; bom Aug. 19, 1780;
educated by bis grandfather, a poor tailor;
was destined  for the printing business,
when his talents for poetry excited atten-
tion.  Lucien Bonaparte became the pa-
tron of the amiable poet, who gave zest
to his social  songs by aUusions to the
politics of the day.  The imperial censors
spared him ;  the royal suppressed his
songs, which,  for this reason, were  read
and sung with the greater eagerness.  In
1822, he was condemned to imprisonmen
for  13 months, and deprived of a small
office in the royal university.  T his pro-
cess increased his reputation,  lhc  last
edition of the  Chansons de P. J. de  Be-
ranger,  (1 vol., Paris, 1829, 24mo.,) con-
tains  the happiest specimens  of   wit,
humor,  gayety,  satire, and flashes of
sublime poetry, which  place  nimby the
side of the most distinguished chanson-
niers of France—Blot,  Colle and Panard.
B. ascends with  singular ease  from  the
lower sphere  of poetry to a high  and
noble enthusiasm, and the rapidity of the
transition produces a striking effect.   We
would refer the  reader to his beautiful
verses entitled Mon Ame.  He was never
a flatterer of Napoleon when money or
titles were to  be  gained by flattery,  and
has never reviled him  since reviling  has
been  a  means of rising.  He is  a truly
national  poet, and Benjamin  Constant
has said of him, Beranger fait des  odes
sublimes, quand il ne croit faire que de
dmples  chansons  (Beranger makes sub-
lime odes, when he thinks  he is making
simple  songs).  Dec.  11,  1828, B.  was
sentenced, by the court of correctional
police, to pay  1,0,000 francs (about 1800
dollars), and to undergo nine months' im-
prisonment, for having  attacked the  dig-
nity of the church, and  of the king in his
poems the Guardian Angel,  Coronation
of Charles the Simple, and Gerontocracy.
His songs are at once a  storehouse of
gayety and satire, and  a  record of the
history  of his time; and happy is  that
nation which  can boast of so  excellent
and national a poet  He often sings of
wine, and  we recollect no other great
modern, poet who has written a series of
songs on this subject,  except Gothe, in
his  Buch des  Schenken, one of  the  12
books of the  West'dstlicher  Divan.  The
difference  between  them  is striking.
Gothe  mixes  philosophical  reflections
and praises of the liquor with a boldness
which borders on temerity, while B. is
gay almost to  extravagance.  We doubt
whether B.'s poems in  translation would
ever give a  fair  idea of the original, be-
cause their  beauty consists,  in a great
measure, in the deUcacy and pungency
of the expression, which could hardly be
transferred to another language.
  Berbers ; the name  of a people spread
over nearly the whole of Northern Africa.
From their name the appeflation of Bar-
bary  is derived.   (See Barbary  States.)
They are considered  the  most ancient
inhabitants of that country.  Their  dif-
ferent tribes are scattered over the whole 
BERBERS—BERCHTOLD.
63
space intervening between the shores of
the Atlantic and the  confines of Egypt;
but the different branches of mount Atlas
are their principal abode; while to the
south they are bounded by  die  Negro
states on the edge of the great Sahara, or
Desert.  For  most of what we know of
them, we are  indebted  to  Leo Africanus
and  the Arabian writers,  whose  state-
ments are  corroborated by Homemann
(q. v.) and captain Lyon, who have visited
them in our  own days. Much informa-
tion  concerning  them is yet wanted.
Where  they live by  themselves, and are
not spread among the Arabians and other
people of the Barbary states, they man-
ifest very little cultivation,—warlike nom-
ades, without  written laws,—and ex-
hibit the chief traits which characterize
all the  African  nations.   They  are ex-
tremely abstinent  Their  language is a
matter of much curiosity for the philolo-
gist.  It has many points of resemblance
with the Teutonic languages.  (See Ade-
lung's Mithridates, vol. 3., 5th part, page
42 et seq., and the article, in volume 2,
new series, p. 438 et seq.  of the Trans-
actions of Hie American Philosophical So-
ciety.)  We know, from trustworthy ac-
counts, that Mr. Hodgson, attached to the
American consulate-genera)  at Algiers,
has sent to an  eminent  scholar of the U.
States communications concerning the
Berber  language, which will  add much
to the knowledge  already  possessed of
that dialect.   (For further information re-
specting the Berbers, see Lyon's Travels
in Northern Africa,  Langle's translation
of Homemann s  Travels in Africa, and
almost all the works which treat of the
north of Africa.)  It appears from the
Berber language, that the first inhabitants
of the Canary islands were of the Berber
race.
  Berbice ; a district of Guiana, formerly
belonging to  the  Dutch,  but ceded to
Great Britain in 1814; watered by the
river Berbice,  the Canje, and others.  It
extends from  Abarry creek, on the west,
to Courantine river on the  east, along the
coast, about 150 miles. The towns are
New Amsterdam, the  capital, and Fort
Nassau. The productions are  sugar, rum,
cotton, coffee, cocoa and tobacco.  The
coast is marshy and the air damp.  Popu-
lation, in  1815, 29,959; of  whom 550
were whites, 240  people  of color, and
25,169 slaves.
  Berchtesgaden ;  a  market-town in
the Salzburg Alps, in the kingdom of Ba-
varia, with  3000 inhabitants ;  famous for
the salt mines in its neighborhood, the salt-
work Frauenreith,  and  the  aqueducts
which conduct the salt water to the works
called ReichenhaU.  The  rock-salt does
not appear here in large, solid masses,
but in small  pieces  mixed  with clay.
Fresh water  is let  into the mines, and,
having been saturated with salt, is carried
into large  reservoirs, from which,  at the
works of Frauenreith, 130,000  cwt. of salt
are annually obtained.  A large part of
the water is  conducted to ReichenhaU.
At this place a large salt-spring was dis-
covered in 1613, and, on account of a
deficiency in wood required in the prepa-
ration of the salt, the water was conveyed,
by means  of  an aqueduct, to Traunstein,
20 miles distant  Another aqueduct, 35
miles long, from ReichenhaU to Rosen-
heim, was completed  in  1809, and, in
1817, these  were  again  brought  into
communication with B. in a most admi-
rable  way.  The first machine,  which
raises the  brine coming from B. 50 feet
high,  is near this place.  From hence, it
runs in pipes 3500 feet, with a fall of 17
feet  only, into  the second reservoir.  A
hydraulic   machine,  invented  by  von
Reichenbach, here  lifts  the  salt  water
311 feet high, in iron pipes 934 feet long.
The water then runs  in pipes 7480 feet,
with 37 feet  fall, to a valley, over which
it is led in iron pipes, 1225 feet long, and,
after running 12,073 feet farther, it falls
into the third  reservoir.  Here is a second
hydraulic machine, which lifts the water
to a perpendicular height  of 1218 feet, in
pipes 3506 feet long; and hence it flows,
in pipes 73,000 feet long, to ReichenhaU.
The pipes running from  B. to Reichen-
haU  amount  to  104,140 feet.   From
ReichenhaU to Siegsdorf there is but one
aqueduct for  the salt water intended for
Traunstein and Rosenheim, 94,800 feet
long.  From Siegsdorf to Traunstein the
brine  flows without an  aqueduct.   In
Traunstein, 140,000 cwt. are annually
produced.   The other  part of the brine
flows in pipes, 78,000 feet long, to Rosen-
heim, which  produces annually 180,000
cwt of salt.  The water required to work
the numerous machines is brought from
places  many  of which are  16—19,000
feet distant
  Berchtold,  Leopold, count, bom in
1758, devoted his life to the relief of the
wretched.   He  spent  13  years in travel-
ling through Europe, and 4 in travelling
through Asia and Africa, to assuage hu-
man misery.  The results of  his experi-
ence are contained in his  Essay to direct
and  extend  the  Inquiries of  patriotic
Travellers (London, 1789, 2  vols.)  He 
64                     BERCHTOLD—BERESFORD.
   wrote several pamphlets on the means of
   reforming the  police, which he caused to
   be printed in  different European coun-
   tries, at Iris own expense, and to be dis-
   tributed gratis.  His prize-questions gave
   rise to  many pamphlets and treatises on
   the means of saving the drowned and the
   seemingly dead.  He offered a prize of
   1000 florins for the best treatise on  be-
,   neficent institutions, and was himself the
   founder of many.  From  1795 to 97, he
   travelled through Asiatic and  European
   Turkey, chiefly for the purpose  of coun-
   teracting the ravages of the plague.  At
   a later period,  he was engaged in making
   vaccination  more  extensively  known.
   During  the famine that raged in the Rie-
   sengebirge  (Giant mountains), from 1805
   to 1806, he procured corn and other pro-
   visions  from  distant regions.   lie  fitted
   up the  palace  Buchlowitz on  his estate
   Buchlau in Moravia, as  an hospital for
   the sick and wounded Austrian soldiers.
   Here this patriot and philanthropist was
   carried  off by a contagious nervous fever,
   July 26, 1809.
     Bercy ; a village on the Seine, at its con-
   fluence  with the Mame, in  the neighbor-
   hood of Paris.  The Parisian wine-mer-
   chants  have  here tlieir  stores of wine,
   wine-vinegar,  distilled  liquors, &c.; so
   that the intercourse  between B. and the
   capital is extremely active.   It is increased
   also by  several important tanneries, sugar-
   refineries and  paper-mills.  A  large pal-
   ace, Le grand  Bercy, was built by Levau
   at the close of the 17th century.   The
   park which belongs to it, containing  900
   acres, was planted by Lcnotre.  M. de
   Calonne was  for some time in possession
   of it.   The present possessor is 31. de
   Nicolai.
     Berkngarius, or BERENGER,of Tours,
   a teacher in the philosophical school in
   that city, and,  in 1C40, archdeacon of An-
   gers, is renowned for his philosophical
   acuteness as one of the scholastic writers,
   and also for the boldness with which, in
   1050, he declared  himself against  the
   doctrine of transubstantiation, and for his
   consequent persecutions.   He was several
   times compelled to  recant, but always
   returned to the same  opinion, that  the
   bread hi the  Lord's supper is merely  a
   symbol of the body of Christ, in which
   he agreed with  the Scotchman  John
   Erigena (called Scotus).   The Catholics
   ranked  him among the most  dangerous
   heretics.  He  was treated with forbear-
   ance by Gregory VII, but the scholastics
   belonging to the party of the great Lan-
   franc,  archbishop of Canterbury, were
irritated against  him to such  a degree,
that he retired to the isle of St. Cosmas,
in the neighborhood of Tours, in the year
1080, where he closed  his Ufe at a great
age, in pious exercises (1088).  On the
history of  this controversy, which has
been very much misrepresented by the
Benedictines, new light has been shed by
Lessing, hi his Berengar (1770), and by
Staudlin, who has likewise published the
work  of B. against Lanfranc.  This B.
must not be confounded with Peter Be-
renger of Poitiers, who wrote  a defence
of his instructer Abelard.
  Berenhorst,  Francis Leopold  von ;
one of the  first of the writers by whom
the military art has been founded on clear
and certain principles.  He was a natural
son of prince Leopold of Dessau, and
was born in 1733.   In  1760, he became
the  adjutant of Frederic II.   After the
seven years' war, he lived at Dessau.  He
died in 1814.
  Berenice (Greek, a bringer of victory).
1. This was the name of the wife of
Mithridates the  Great, king  of Pontus.
Her husband, when vanquished by Lu-
cullus, caused her  to  be put  to death
(about the year 71 B. C), lest she should
fall into the hands of his enemies.   Mo-
nima, his other wife, and his two sisters,
Roxana and Statira, experienced the same
fate.—2. The wife of Herod, brother to
the  great Agrippa, her father, at whose
request Herod  was made king of Chalcis,
by the emperor Claudius, but soon died.
In spite of her dissolute life, she insinu-
ated herself into the favor of the emperor
Vespasian and his son Titus.  The  latter
was, atone  time, on the  point of marrying
her.—3. The wife of Ptolemy Euergetes,
who loved her husband with rare tender-
ness, and, when he went to war in Syria,
made  a vow to devote her beautiful hair
to the  gods, if he  returned safe.  Upon
his return, B. performed  her vow in the
temple of Venus.  Soon after, the  hair
was missed, and the astronomer Conon
of Samos  declared  that the  gods had
transferred  it to the skies as a constella-
tion.  From this circumstance, the seven
stars near the tail of the Lion are called
coma Berenices (the hair of Berenice).
  Beresford, William, baron, duke of
Elvas and marquis of Carnpo Mayor, for
the ability  and  courage  which he dis-
played in the war of Portugal against
France, is ranked among the distinguish-
ed generals of  Great  Britain.  He or-
ganized the Portuguese army, and also
the militia of the country, in so excellent
a manner,  that they could vie with the 
BERESFORD—BERG.
65
best soldiers of the combined  armies in
the wars of the peninsula.  In 1810, B.
gained a victory over Soult, at Albufera.
In 1812, he commanded under Welling-
ton,  and took  an important  part in the
victories at Vittoria, Bayonne and  Tou-
louse.   He made his entrance  into Bor-
deaux, March 13, 1814, with the duke of
Angouleme.  May 6, he was raised to
the rank of baron by the king of Eng-
land, and,  soon after, sent  to Brazil,
whence he returned to England in 1815.
The prince regent of Portugal made him
generalissimo of the Portuguese armies.
He had scarcely arrived at Lisbon, when
he was sent, by the English government,
on an important mission to Rio Janeiro.
The rigor with which he punished a con-
spiracy of general Freyre  against the
British army and the regency, in Lisbon
(1817), rendered him odious  to the Por-
tuguese military.  He was, therefore, dis-
missed by the  cortes in  1820.   He then
went again to Brazil, afterwards to  Eng-
land, and, in  Dec, 1826, appeared anew
in Lisbon,  at the head  of the English
forces sent to aid in quelling the rebellion.
  Berezina ;  a river in  the Russian
province of Minsk,  rendered famous by
the passage of the  French army under
Napoleon, Nov. 26 and 27,1812.  Admi-
ral  Tschitschakoff, with the Moldavian
army, forced his way from the south, to
join the main army, which, after Borizoff
had been retaken, was to assist the army
led by  Witgenstein from the Dwina, and,
in this manner, cut off Napoleon  from
the  Vistula.  Napoleon was,  therefore,
obliged to make the greatest efforts, not-
withstanding immense difficulties occa-
sioned by the nature of the country, the
cUmate, and the critical situation  of his
troops, to reach Minsk, or, at  least, the
B., and to pass it earlier than the Rus-
sians.  To effect this, it was necessary to
sacrifice a great part of the baggage and
artillery, Nov. 25.  After the  advanced
guard  of the  Moldavian army had been
repelled to Borizoff, by Oudinot, and the
bridge  there burnt by them, early in the
morning of Nov. 26,  two bridges  were
built near Sembin, about two miles above
Borizoff, an undertaking the more diffi-
cult, because both  banks of  the  river
were bordered  by  extensive  morasses,
covered, Uke the river itself, with ice not
sufficiently strong to afford passage to the
army,  while other passes  were already
threatened  by  the Russians.    Scarcely
had  a  few corps effected their passage,
when the  greater part of the army, un-
armed  and in confusion, rushed in crowds
                   6*
upon the bridges.  DiscipUne had long
before disappeared.  The confusion in-
creased with every minute.  Those who
could not hope to escape over the bridges
sought their safety on the floating ice of
the Berezina, where most of them per-
ished, while many others were crowded
into the river by tlieir comrades.  In this
fatal retreat, the duke of Reggio (Oudi-
not)  led the advanced guard, with  the
Poles under Dombrowsky in  front; the
rear guard was formed by the corps of
the duke of Belluno.  Nov. 27, at noon,
the dear-bought end was gained, and the
army,  leaving  the road to Minsk, took
that  of Wilna to Warsaw, with the hope
of providing for their necessities in Wil-
na.—Besides the  multitudes who were
obliged to remain beyond the B., the di-
vision of Partouneaux, which formed the
rear guard, was also lost.   It was intrust-
ed with the charge of burning the bridges
in its rear, but it fell into the hands of the
enemy.  According to the French bulle-
tins, only a detachment of 2000 men, who
missed their way, was taken; according
to the Russian accounts, the whole corps,
7500 men and 5 generals.
  Berg ; a duchy of Germany; bounded
on the north by the duchy of Cleves, on
the east by the county of Mark and West-
phalia, on the south by the Westerwald,
and  on the  west  by the  Rhine.  It  be-
longed, formerly, to the elector of Bava-
ria, but has been included, since 1815, in
the grand-duchy of the  Lower  Rhine,
which  belongs  to Prussia.  It contains
1188 square miles, with 983,000 inhabit-
ants.  Tliere are  mines  of iron, copper,
lead  and quicksilver;  but the  principal
objects of attention are the manufactures,
which render it one of the most populous
and  flourishing countries in Germany:
of these, the priucipal  are iron, steel,
linen, woollen, cotton and sUk.  The  ex-
tent  of the manufactures of B. is, in  a
great measure, owing to the multitude of
skilful  workmen whom the fury of  the
Spaniards, in the war against the Nether-
lands, forced to leave their country. The
richest fled to London and Hamburg, the
poorer sort, which included a great pro-
portion of the manufacturers, to  the
neighboring  Berg.  At  a later  period,
when Louis XIV revoked the edict of
Nantes, many of the most industrious of
the French  Protestants fled also  to this
duchy, which thus became the most man-
ufacturing part  of Germany.  Elberfeld
is the most important of the manufactur-
ing places of B.  Another reason of the
great prosperity of this country is, that  it 
66
BERG—BERGEN.
has been under the government of rich
princes; and the smallness of its territory
has often enabled it to remain a long
time neutral, when aU the  other German
states were desolated by war.  The duchy
of B. continued in the  possession of the
electors of Bavaria until  1806,  when  it
was ceded to France, and bestowed  by
Napoleon  on his  brother-in-law Murat,
under the title of the grand-duchy of Berg.
There was at the  same time added to it
part of Cleves, the counties of Homburg,
Bentheim-Steinfurt, •Hortsmar,  Nassau-
Dietz, Dillenburg,  Hadamar, and a num-
ber of lordships and scattered bailiwicks
and towns.  On  Murat's  receiving the
kingdom of Naples, Napoleon named his
nephew Napoleon Louis,  eldest son  of
the king of Holland,  hereditary grand-
duke  of Berg,  with  the  condition that
the country should be under the immedi-
ate management of the French govern-
ment  until the  young prince should  be
of age.  At the same time, the  Prussian
part of Munster and the county of Mark
were annexed to  it, and the whole was
divided into the departments of the Rhine,
the Ems, the Roer and the Sieg, having
a population of 878,000 on 6908 square
miles.  At the congress of Vienna,  in
1815, the whole was given to the king of
Prussia.
  Berg, Book of. (See Symbolic Books.)
  Bergamo, capital of the district of Ber-
gamo (1150 square miles and 306,600  in-
habitants),  in  the  Lombardo-Venetian
kingdom, is situated on  hills between the
rivers  Brembo  and Serio, has a castle
within the city, and another, called la ca-
pella, without it, besides two  suburbs en-
circled by walls, and four others that are
open, containing together  30,680 inhabit-
ants.  Amongst many distinguished men
bom here, is the  famous Tiraboschi, the
historian of ItaUan literature.  B. export-
ed, formerly, more than 1200 bales of silk,
which produced, on an average, £150,000
sterling yearly.  In 1428, the Bergamese
put themselves under  the  republic  of
Venice.  In 1796, Bonaparte took B., and
it was  subsequently made  the capital  of
the department of the Serio, in the king-
dom of Italy.  Lon. 9° 38'  E.; lat. 45°
42' N.  The city  is the seat  of  a bishop
and of the authorities of the district   It
has an academy of painting and sculpture,
a museum, an athenaeum, a public libra-
ry, several academies,  many manufacto-
ries, especially of  silk.  There is, also, a
small Protestant congregation in this city.
—The  comic characters,  Arlechino, or
Truffaldino, and Brighella, in the ItaUan
masqued corned v, are Bergamese, or affect
the dialect of the country people m  the
neighborhood of this city.
  Bergamots are  a  variety of citron.
It is said to have been produced at first by
grafting a citron on the stock of a berga-
mot pear-tree.  The fruit has a fine taste
and smell, and  its essential oil is in high
esteem as a perfume.
  Bergasse, Nicholas; a statesman and
author, bom at Lyons, in 1750, where he
was an advocate.  He afterwards became
advocate to the parliament of Paris. Here
he showed his talents in the famous law-
suit of Beaumarchais  (q. v.)  with  the
banker  Kommann.  Upon the  breaking
out of the revolution,  he was chosen a
member of the states-general by the city
of Lyons, but abandoned  his seat, even
earlier than Mounier and Lally-Tollendal,
a step which, both in his case and theirs,
was universally condemned.  During the
reign  of terror,  his life was saved only
by  the events of the 9th  of Thermidor.
Since that time, B. has devoted himself to
metaphysical speculations.   He is distin-
guished among the modern French ideol-
ogists by a splendid  style and richness of
ideas.  He is the author of Morale religi-
euse, De VInfluence de la Volonte et sur VIn-
telligence, and De la Propriete (1807).  B.
was also one of the  most zealous adher-
ents to the doctrine of Mesmer respecting
animal magnetism.  During the abode of
the Russian emperor in Paris, 1815, this
monarch paid him a visit.
  Bergen ;  a bishopric in the kingdom
of Norway, that borders on Aggerhuus to
the east, Drontheim  to the north, Chris-
tiansand to  the  south, and the German
ocean to the west; lon. 4° 45/—6° 53  E.;
lat. 59° 34'—62° 39' N.  It contains about
13,900 square miles,  57  parishes, 180
churches  and chapels,  137,700  inhabit-
ants, or nearly 10 to a square mile.—Ber-
gen, the fortified capital,  with a citadel
(Bergenhuus), the largest city in Norway,
is situated in lon. 5°  21' E., lat. 60° W N.,
180 miles N. of Stavanger, 270 S. W. of
Drontheim, at the bottom  of the bay of
Waag, that stretches far into the country,
forming a safe  harbor,  surrounded  by
high  and  steep rocks.   The  entrance,
however, is dangerous.  The wall of rocks
also makes the access  to the city on  the
land side difficult  The climate  is com-
paratively mild, on  account  of the shel-
tered  situation  of the town.  It is re-
markable for frequent rains.  B. is well
built,  yet  several  streets are  crooked
and uneven, on account of the  rocks.
The  city  contains  2200 houses, 18,000 
BERGEN—BERGMANN.
67
inhabitants,  1  German and 3  Danish
churches:  it has  a bishop, a classical
school, a  seminary, founded by bishop
Pontoppidan, for 12 students, who are in-
structed gratis  in the higher branches of
Uterature, a naval academy, an hospital for
such  as  are infected  with  the  scurvy,
which is common among the fishermen,
arising from their food, principally smoked
or salt meat and fish; besides other use-
ful institutions.  The  inhabitants of the
middle  coast  of  Norway  bring  their
boards, masts, laths, fire-wood, tar,  train-
oil, hides, &c,, and particularly dried  fish
(stock-fish), to B., to exchange them for
corn  and  other  necessaries,  brought
thither  by the English, Dutch and Ger-
mans.  B. thus carries on its commerce
 with but 100 vessels of its own.—In the
year 1445, a  factory  and several  ware-
 nouses  were established here  by  the
 Hanseatic  cities of Germany,  and the
 German traders,  as they  called  them-
 selves, enjoyed,  for some time,  the pro-
tection  of the Hanseatic league.   The
German  factory  consisted  of about 60
warehouses.  The roads leading into the
interior  of the  country are frequented
only in the winter, when they are  passa-
ble in sleds.  B. is the native place of the
poet Holberg.—Bergen is also the name
of other places; amongst them is,  1, a town
in the Netherlands, a post of some  conse-
 quence in the wars of 1739 and 1814.—2.
 A town in the electorate of Hesse. A bloody
 battle was fought here, April 13,1759, be-
 tween the French and allies, in the seven
 years' war, in which the former were vic-
 torious.  It is three miles N.  E. Frankfort.
 —3. The capital of the island of Rugen, in
 the Baltic, now subject to Prussia.—4.  A
 small island in the Indian ocean, 60 miles
 W. of Sumatra; lat 3° 207 S.
   Berger, Louis von, was bom  in Ol-
 denburg, where he held a high  office  in
 the administration. When  the  Russians
 approached, in  1813, the  citizens  of Ol-
 denburg took up arms. The French ma-
 gistrates fled,  but not until  they had ap-
 pointed a committee of regency, of which
 von  Berger and  Fink  were members.
 This committee was afterwards summon-
ed before a court-martial in Bremen,  in
which general Vandamme presided, and
these two excellent men were condemned
to death, though their accuser had  only
 proposed their imprisonment  They were
shot, April 10,1813.  The clearness, firm-
ness and power of language, with which
 von  Berger exposed  this  mock-trial, is
well described  in the Murder  of Fink
and  Berger, written by Gildemeister  of
Bremen.   The remains of the two patri-
ots are deposited in Oldenburg.
  Bergerac ; a  town of France, in the
department of the Dordogne, 48 miles E.
of Bordeaux, which gives the name to an
agreeable French wine, cultivated on the
banks of the Dordogne.  There is a white
and a  red  sort.  In France, it  is some-
times also caUed petit Champagne.
  Berghem, Nicholas, born at Harlem, in
1624,  received  his  first  instruction  in
painting from his father, Peter of Harlem,
who was  a very indifferent  artist. He
then continued  his  studies  under van
Goyen, and the  elder Weenix.   It is re-
lated,  that once, when pursued by  his
father, he fled into the workshop of van
Goyen, who, to protect him, called to his
pupils, " Berg hem" (conceal him): this, it
is said, occasioned his new name.  Love
of his art, and the great demand for  his
paintings, as likewise  the  avarice of his
wife, prompted him to labor with extreme
assiduity.   To buy engravings,  of which
he was very fond, he was often compelled
to  borrow  money from  his  students,
which he could only refund by deceiving
his wife in regard to the price of his
paintings.  In this  manner  he obtain-
ed a rich  coUection.   B's. landscapes and
representations of animals adorn the most
celebrated galleries.   The  distinguishing
characters of the pictures  of B. are the
breadth and just distribution of the  Ughts,
the grandeur of his masses of light and
shadow, the  natural  ease  and simplicity
in the attitudes of his figures, the brillian-
cy and harmony as well as transparency
of his coloring, the correctness and true
perspective of his design, and the ele-
gance of his composition.  Although he
hardly ever left his workshop, yet he had
closely observed nature, during a long
residence in the palace of Benthem.  He
died at Harlem, 1683.  Charles Dujardin
and Glauber were among his  pupils.   At
the auction of P. de Smeth's collection of
paintings, Amsterdam, 1810, four of B.'s
were  sold for  800, 1000, 1625, 2500
Dutch guilders.
   Bergmann, Torbern Olof,  a  natural
philosopher and chemist, born at Catha-
rineberg,  in  the Swedish province  of
 West  Gothland, March  9, 1735, obtained,
after many difficulties, the  permission of
his family to devote himself entirely to
 the  sciences.  At  that time,  disciples
 flocked from all quarters  to  Linnaeus at
 Upsal.  They were joined by B., in 1752,
 who, by his acuteness and his discoveries,
 which were facilitated by his attainments
 in geometry and physics, excited the no- 
68
BERGMANN—BERKELEY.
 tice of this great man.  In 1758, he be-
 came doctor of philosophy and professor
 of physics at Upsal.   Upon the resigna-
 tion of the celebrated Wallerius, B. was a
 candidate for the professorship of chemis-
 try  and mineralogy.    His competitors
 charged him with ignorance of the sub-
 ject, because he had never  written on it
 To refute  them, he shut himself up for
 some time in a laboratory,  and prepared
 a  treatise on  the manufacture of alum,
 which  is still considered as a standard
 work.   In 1767, he became professor of
 chemistry, and devoted himself with ar-
 dor to  this science.   He  invented  the
 preparation of artificial mineral-waters,
 and discovered the sulphuretted  hydro-
 gen gas of mineral springs.  We are in-
 debted  to  him for  a  knowledge  of the
 characters which distinguish nickel from
 other metals.  On a number of minerals
 he made chemical experiments, with an
 accuracy  before  uncommon.  He pub-
 lished a classification   of  minerals,  in
 which the chief divisions  are  based on
 their chemical character, and the subdi-
 visions on  their  external fornL  In pre-
 paring this work, he was much aided by
 his former discovery of the geometrical
 relations between different crystals of the
 same substance, which may be deduced
 from one  primitive form,  and are pro-
 duced by the aggregation of similar par-
 ticles,  according  to fixed  and  obvious
 laws.  His theory of the chemical rela-
 tions is stiU esteemed, and, if it has re-
 ceived some new developements from the
 further researches of Berthollet, it has not
 been overthrown.  The order  of Gusta-
 vus Vasa  was bestowed on B.  He  de-
 clined the invitation of Frederic the Great
 to remove to Berlin.  He died, exhausted
 by his exertions, in 1784, in the 49th year
 of his age.  Among his works, the first
 place is due to Opuscula Phys. et Chem.
 (Stockholm, 1779, 3 vols.), and Physical
 Description of the Globe.
   Bergstrasse (Germ., mountain road);
 a fertile tract of land on the right of the
 Rhine, lying west of the Odenwald and
 Meliboeus, and forming  a beautiful road
 about 30 miles in  length,  planted with
 walnut and chestnut-trees and vines.   It
 extends from Darmstadt to the convent of
 Neuburg, about a mile distant from Hei-
 delberg.  All travellers  on the Rhine  are
deUghted with this road.
  Berkeley, doctor George; bishop of
 Cloyne, in  Ireland; celebrated  for  his
ideal theory.  He maintains that the be-
 lief in the existence of an exterior mate-
 rial world is false and inconsistent with
 itself; that those things which are called
 sensible material objects are not external,
 but exist in the mind, and are merely im-
 pressions made on our minds by  the im-
 mediate  act of God, according to certain
 rules termed  laws  of nature, from which
 he never deviates; and that the steady ad-
 herence  of the Supreme Spirit to these
 rules is  what constitutes the reality  of
 things to his creatures; and so effectually
 distinguishes  the ideas perceived by sense
 from such as are the work of the mind
 itself or of dreams, that there is no more
 danger of confounding them together on
 this hypothesis than on that  of  the ex-
 istence of matter.   He was born  at Kil-
 crin, Ireland, in 1684;  became fellow of
 Trinity college, Dublin, in 1707; travelled
 in Italy as  far as Leghorn, in 1713 and
 1714, and, at  a later period, accompanied
 Mr. Ashe, son of the bishop of Clogher,
 on a tour through Italy, Sicily and France.
 In 1721,  he was appointed chaplain to the
 lord  lieutenant of Ireland, the  duke  of
 Grafton.  He  appeared with much ap-
 plause as an author before he was  20
 years old.  His works on philosophy and
 mathematics  (among which his  Theory
 of Vision, published in  1709, is the most
 brilliant  proof of the author's acuteness)
 procured him a wide-spread fame.  By a
 legacy of Mrs. Vanhomrigh, the celebrat-
 ed Vanessa, who has become so generally
 known  through  her love to Swift, his
 fortune was considerably increased.   In
 1724, he  was  promoted to the deanery of
 Deny, and resigned his fellowship   He
 now published his Proposals for the Con-
 version of the American Savages to Chris-
 tianity by the Establishment of a  College
 in the Bermuda  Islands.  The   project
 was very favorably received, and persons
of the first rank raised considerable sums
by subscription to aid it; and B.,  having
 resigned his preferment, set sail for Rhode
 Island, with several other persons of sim-
ilar views, to make arrangements for car-
rying on his college.  The assistance of par-
liament, which had been promised, not be-
ing afforded, his undertaking miscarried,
after he had spent seven years and a con-
siderable part of his fortune in his efforts
to accomplish it.  He afterward wrote
numerous philosophical, religious and po-
litico-economical  works.   Towards his
60th year, he  was attacked by a nervous
colic, which he attempted to cure  by the
use of tar-water, whereby he was induced
to pubUsh two treatises on the utility  of
this water.  He died suddenly at Oxford,
in 1753.  B. is said to have been acquaint-
ed with  almost  all  branches of  human 
BERKELEY—BERLIN.
69
knowledge.   His character  commanded
the respect and love of all who knew him.
Pope, his constant friend, describes him as
possessed of " every virtue under heaven."
His most celebrated philosophical works
are, a Treatise on the Principles of Human
Knowledge (London, 1710); Three Dia-
logues between Hylasand Philonous (Lon-
don, 1713); Alciphron, or the Minute Phi-
losopher (London, 1732).  His Works ap-
peared in  London, 1784, 2 vols. 4to., pre-
ceded by abiography writtenby Arbuthnot.
  Berlichingen, Gotz, or Godfrey, von,
with  the iron hand; born at Jaxthausen,
in Suabia; a bold, restless,  warlike  and
honorable German knight, of the middle
ages.  He placed himself at the head of
the rebellious peasants, in the war which
they waged against tlieir oppressors  (see
Peasant War, in Germany), but was soon
made prisoner.  Before that time, he  had
lost  his right hand,  and therefore wore
one  made of iron.   He died July 23,
1562.  His biography, written by himself,
was printed at Nuremberg, in 1731  and
1775, and, for the third time, at Breslau,
in 1813.   This book contains an excellent
picture of the social life and customs of
the  middle  ages,  and  has  furnished
Gothe with the subject for  his beautiful
drama, G. von Berlichingen.
  Berlin; the  capital of the Prussian
dominions; principal  residence  of  the
king, and seat of the highest councils of
the kingdom; situated in the province of
Brandenburg, on the Spree, 127 feet above
the level of the sea; lon. 13° 22' E.;  lat.
52° 31' N.; one  of the largest and hand-
somest cities of Europe.  It is about 12
miles in circumference, and consists of 5
towns—Berlin Proper, Koln, or Cologne,
on the Spree, Friedrichswerder, Neu- or
Dorotheenstadt and Friedrichsstadt;  and
5 suburbs—Louisenstadt, the King's sub-
urb,  those of Spandau and Stralau, and,
outside of the walls, Oranienburg suburb.
B. has 22 squares and market-places, 15
gates, 27 parish churches,  37  bridges,
&c.  In  the year 1817,  there were 7133
houses,  including  the  churches,  the
other public buildings  (174), the manu-
factories (61), the stables and barns (483).
At the close of the year 1825, B. contain-
ed (the military included) 220,000 inhab-
itants, among  whom were  about 3700
Jews, 4000  Catholics, and  more than
10,000 Calvinists.—1. Berlin Proper,  con-
sisting of 39 streets, was built, in 1163, by
margrave Albert the Bear.   It  received
its name from the wildness of the countiy,
and was  settled by emigrants from Hol-
land.   It contains the royal post-office,
the town-house, the general military acad-
emy, the academy for cadets, the royal
school  of the gray convent, tbat of Joa-
chimsthal, the Lutheran parish church of
St. Nicholas (the oldest church in B.), the
Frederic orphan  asylum (established in
1818, for 1009 orphans), with a church, and
a royal institution for vaccination (where,
since 1802, 25,332 children, beside adults,
have been vaccinated gratuitously),  the
synagogue  of the Jews, the new market,
and many  other public buildings.  The
suburbs of B., taking the name in its most
limited sense, are, the King's suburb (K6-
nigsvorstadt), containing the new theatre,
where the famous MUe. Sontag  perform-
ed before she went to Paris;  the suburb of
Spandau, where are the royal palace Mon-
bijou, the  veterinary  college, the great
hospital La Charite, with which a cUnical
institution  is connected  (numbering, in
1816, 5144 patients, among whom were
419 with mental disorders), the new royal
mint, &c. and,  finally, Stralau.   Outside
of the  walls,  the Rosenthal-suburb, or
Neuvoigtland,  is situated.    Before  the
Oranienburg gate are the iron foundery,
where cast-iron ware, of every  description,
is made; the royal hospital of invalids,
which receives upwards of 1000 inmates,
officers, soldiers, women  and  children.—
2. Koln, or Cologne, on the  Spree, which
received this  name  when  it was built
from  the Kollnen (piles), on which  the
Vandals (Wenden), driven out by Albert
the Bear, had built their huts in the midst
of bogs and morasses, contains 25 streets,
enclosed by two branches of the Spree ;
a  bridge 100 feet long, of stone, resting
upon 5 arches, and adorned with a colos-
sal equestrian statue  of the great elector
Frederic William, in bronze,  planned by
Schliiter, and  cast by Jacobi; the royal
palace, 460 feet in length, 276 in breadth,
and 1014 in height, containing the gaUery
of paintings, the cabinet  of artificial  and
natural  curiosities, the collection of med-
als, &c.; the museum of art, a most mag-
nificent building, newly erected by Schin-
kel; the royal riding academy.   A part
of Koln is called Neu-Koln, and  con-
sists of 4 streets, built along the Spree.—
3. Friedrichswerder, including 19 streets,
was founded   by the elector  Frederic
William the Great.  Here  are situated
the  palace, inhabited  by  the present
king, originally intended for the crown-
prince ;  the splendid arsenal, in the yard
of which the 365 famous heads of dying
warriors, in relief, by Schliiter, serve as
key-stones in the arches of the windows ;
the royal foundery; the new guard-house, 
70
BERLIN.
 built by Schinkel, near which  are  the
 statues of Scharnhorst and  Billow, by
 Rauch, and three  pieces of ordnance of
 the  largest caUber, two of which were
 taken  from the  French; opposite to it
 stands the colossal statue of Bliicher, in
 bronze, a work of Rauch.—4. Neu- or
 Dorotheenstadt, likewise built by the elect-
 or Frederic William the Great, and named
 after his second wife, has but 5 regular
 streets, among which is  the stately street
 " beneath the limes," 2088 feet in length,
 and  170 in breadth, affording the most
 beautiful walk in the city, and a part of
 Frederic-street, which is  4250 paces in
 length.  The  principal  buildings in this
 quarter are, the university  edifice;  the
 CathoUc church, built on the plan of the
 Pantheon in Rome; the fine opera-house;
 the royal Ubrary, the style of which is bad;
 the academy building, destined for a mu-
 seum, with an observatory whose platform
 rises 84 feet  from the pavement of the
 street; the great singing-academy, erected
 by Schinkef, and devoted only to church
 music; the Paris-place,  &c.  The Bran-
 denburg gate, which is 195 feet in width,
 was  built, in 1789, by Langhans, in imi-
 tation  of the  Propylseum at Athens, but
 on a much larger scale.  Above it is the
 famous Victoria in  a quadriga, which was
 carried away by the French, in 1807, and,
 in 1814,  brought back from Paris by the
 Prussians:  before  it lies  the park, 880
 acres in  extent, containing, besides vari-
 ous  walks, the  royal palace Bellevue,
 and  several country-seats, belonging to
 wealthy  individuals.—5. Friedrichsstadt,
 founded, in 1688, by the elector Frederic
 III (king Frederic I), surpasses the four
 other divisions of the city in extent, and
 consists of 23 wide streets, among which
 the above-mentioned  Frederic-street  is
 distinguished.  Worthy of notice arc, the
 Gendarmes market; also William-place,
 a quadrangle 190 paces in length and 90 in
 breadth,  containing the marble statues of
 the generals Schwerin, Winterfeld, Seyd-
 Utz, Keith and Ziethen,  who, in the gro-
 tesque taste of the last century, are repre-
sented in Roman costume  and periwigs;
 the Leipsic-place;  the place of Belle-Al-
liance; the Bohemian church; the Trinity
church; the French and  the new church,
with two famous steeples; the royal porce-
lain manufactory; the academy of Freder-
ic William, with the Realschule (which be-
longs to the class of high schools, and con-
tained, in the year 1816,650 scholars); the
 Collegien or council-house, where the legis-
lative committee, the chief court of jus-
 tice, also the Kammergericht,ai\a\ council for
 minors,ho!d their sessions, and the archives
 of the Brandenburg fiefs are kept; the
 bank; the house of the society for foreign
 commerce; the theatre,  which,  in  1817,
 was consumed by fire, and was afterwards
 rebuilt under  the direction of Schinkel;
 several handsome  buildings  belonging
 to  private persons, &c.—Louisenstadt
 for the greater part, consists of fields and
 gardens.  Before the Cottbus gate, upon
 a rising ground covered with wood, called
 Hasenhaide, was the first  spot devoted to
 the new gymnastic exercises in Germany,
 invented by doctor Jahn.  On the top of
 the mountain of the cross, formerly  Tem-
pelliof mountain, before the Halle gate, is
 a monument of iron, erected, in 1820, in
 commemoration  of  the wars   against
 France.—B.  contains  upwards  of 100
 public and 50 private elementary schools:
 of burgher or intermediate schools, 10
 public, 60 private, and 13  special schools
 (schools  in  which  youth are  educated
 for particular employments): 5 gymnasia
 or  classical  schools, 7   higher  special
 schools or colleges,  and the university:
 also several academies and literary  soci-
 eties, as the royal academy of science (see
Academy); the academy of fine arts, me-
 chanical sciences and architecture, with
the schools of  art appertaining to this
 academy; the society for natural  histoiy
and natural philosophy;  the medico-chi-
 rurgical, the pharmaceutic, the philomath-
ic, the physico-medical societies; the soci-
ety for cultivating the German language;
the association of artists. There are also, in
this city, a museum of antiquities, estab-
lished in 1820;  the royal medico-chirur-
gical academy, for the military ; two royal
medico-chirurgical  seminaries,  intended
to educate surgeons  for  the army; the
royal  veterinary school;  two seminaries
for the education of town and  country
school-masters; the seminary for mission-
aries, destined to convert the heathens in
the western parts of Africa; several  insti-
tutions for the deaf and  dumb  and the
blind;  a free school for Jewish children;
an academy for foresters (an institution in
which the knowledge relating to the cul-
tivation of woods and forests is acquired);
a singing academy; a miUtary swimming-
school ; a Bible society; a society for the
advancement of Christianity among the
Jews; an association for the cultivation of
gardens; an institution for preparing arti-
ficial  mineral waters,  &c.   There are
many  charitable  institutions  in B., the
poor,  who cannot subsist without  help,
being about 12,000.  Among them, the
female charitable association, under 32 
BERLIN—BERMUDAS' ISLANDS.                  71
directresses, provided, December, 1816,
for 1200 poor persons, dispersed  in 180
families.  The most benevolent institution
is  that established,  in 1794, by  Kranz,
counsellor of war, for relieving impover-
ished citizens, and which has since num-
bered some of  its  former  beneficiaries
among its members.  B. has a consider-
able commerce and some important man-
ufactories ;  a royal bank; a royal  society
for foreign commerce; a wool-market;
upwards of 300  machines  for spinning
wool and  cotton, with 29,000 spindles,
4834 looms for weaving cloths, silk, wool-
len, cotton and  linen, carpets, &c; nu-
merous manufactories of silk,  woollen or
cotton ribands, 326 lace-makers, 44 man-
ufactories for coloring and printing stuffs,
66 dye-houses, 5 sugar refineries, 4 manu-
factories of ornamental tin-ware, porcelain
and stone-ware factories, the royal bronze
manufactories,  important manufactories
of gold and sdver ware, of fine  cabinet
work, of petinet, straw hats, artificial flow-
ers and feathers; about 25 printing houses,
8  powder mills, &c.; also  Mr. Jacobi's
valuable collection of works of art.  The
pavement of B. is extremely bad; the illu-
mination of the streets imperfect Though
some parts of this city are beautiful, yet,
on the other hand, its  flat and sandy envi-
rons are extremely unpleasant  The uni-
versity of B. was founded in 1809, when
Prussia was groaning  beneath  the heavy
yoke of the French.  It proceeded from
the  noble efforts of those  men who, at
that time, conducted the  pubhc concerns
of the kingdom  (Stein was one  of the
most distinguished among them), and
 were convinced that the only effectual
preparation for a future deliverance from
the French was a moral  regeneration  of
the people; at the same time thinking all
that diffuses knowledge and intellectual
Ught an exceUent means of producing this
moral  change—an idea which was real-
ized by the result  Although the  univer-
sity of B. is so young an establishment,
yet it ranks among the first in  the world,
and is, in one branch of science—in philol-
ogy—the very first  By means of this and
many other scientific institutions, a literary
spirit has been awakened among the citi-
zens, by which they are very advanta-
geously distinguished from the inhabitants
of other cities; but, on the other hand,
the society of B. has  neither the  refined
manners of a royal residence, nor the easy
manners of many other cities.   To the
nniversity  belong the botanical  garden
without  the city, near  Schonberg,  the
anatomical theatre, the  anatomical and
zoological museum, the theological and
philological seminary, the cabinet of min-
erals, the clinical institution, the lying-in
hospital,  &c.  In  the  year 1826,  there
were 1640 students in  the  university of
B.,  among whom  were 400  foreigners.
More than 90 professors are employed in
the  university.  In the year 1828, the an-
nual meeting of German naturaUsts, for
the promotion of natural science, was held
at B., under the direction of Alexander
von Humboldt.  It furnished  a splendid
array of talent, and many discourses of
great interest were  delivered.
  Bermudas'   Islands,  or   Somers'
Islands ;  a cluster of small  islands in
the  Atlantic ocean.  They are in number
about 400, but for the most part so  smaU
and so  barren, that they have  neither in-
habitants nor name.  They were first dis-
covered by Juan Bermudas, a Spaniard,
in 1522; in 1609, sir George Somers, an
Englishman,  was  wrecked  here,  and,
after his  shipwreck, formed the first set-
tlement  The most considerable of these
islands are St  George, St David, Cooper,
Ireland,  Somerset, Long  island,  Bird
island, and Nonesuch.   The first contains
a town (St. George's Town); the  two
following, some villages; the others, only
farms dispersed.—The air is  so healthy,
that sick people, from  the  continent of
America, frequently go thither for the re-
covery of their health.  The  winter is
hardly  perceptible ; it may be said  to be
perpetually spring: the trees  never lose
their verdure, and the  leaves only fall
when new ones begin to appear.  Birds
sing and breed without  intermission.—
But these advantages are counterbalanced
by frightful storms, accompanied  by for-
midable thunder, which are  announced
by a circle round the moon.  Some fertile
plains are seen, but, in general, the coun-
try is-mountainous. The soil  is of divers
colors,  brown, white and red, of which
the  first is the best; although light and
stony,  it  is, in general, rich and fertile.
The water is, in general, salt;  there is but
little fresh, except rain water, preserved
in cisterns.  The inhabitants  gather two
harvests of Indian  corn in a year, one in
July, and  the  other in December:  this
forms their principal  food.  They like-
wise cultivate tobacco, legumes, and fruit
sufficient for tlieir wants.  Their trees are
principaUy the cedar and palmetto.  Be-
sides these, they have orange-trees,  olive,
laurel,  pear-trees,  &c.   The  red-wood
is peculiar to  these islands:  its  colored
fruit feeds  worms, which become flies, a
Uttle larger than the cochineal bug, instead 
72
BERMUDAS' ISLANDS—BERN.
of which  they are used.  There  are  no
venomous reptiles.  Building of vessels is
the principal trade of  the  inhabitants.
These islands extend from N. E. to S. W.,
about 45 miles.  The whole shore is sur-
rounded with rocks, most of which are
dry at  low water, but covered at flood.
They are 230 leagues S. E. cape Fear, in
North Carolina.   The north point of these
islands lies in lon. 64° 28' W.; lat. 32° 22'
N. Pop. a few years since, 10,381;  whites,
5,462;  slaves, 4,919.
  Bern ; the largest canton of Switzer-
land (3667 square miles, 338,000 inhabit-
ants, among whom are 40,000 Catholics,
and 250,300 Calvinists), with a capital of
the same  name.  Cuno von Bubenberg,
in the  12th  century, enclosed  the small
place Bern, in the vicinity of the  fortress
of Nydeck, with  a moat and walls, and
the duke of Zahringen, to whom Nydeck
belonged, gave the new  city laws.   Its
population was much increased  in  the
13th century.  The lower nobility of the
adjacent country fled to it for protection
against the oppressions of the  higher,
and  were  joined by the countiy  people,
and  particularly by the citizens  of Fri-
burg and  Zurich.  The emperor Fred-
eric II  declared it a free city of the em-
pire, in 1218, and confirmed its privileges
by a charter, which is still  preserved in
the archives.  In 1288, B. was besieged
by Rodolph of Hapsburg, but not taken;
and, in 1291, the  citizens of B., under
Ulrich  von Bubenberg, made war against
their own nobility, commanded by Ulrich
von Erlach.  B. now became an  asylum
for all those who suffered under  the op-
pression of the  nobles  of  Austria, and
rose to a  height of power that  excited
the envy of other cities, as  well as of its
own nobility.  The latter, therefore, en-
tered into an  alliance with  the hostile
cities,  for the  purpose of destroying it
Their  army, consisting of 18,000  men,
headed by 700 of the higher nobility, with
1200 knights, was totally vanquished at
Laupen, June 21, 1339, by the  citizens
of B., led by Rodolph von Erlach, though
these were only one third of their number.
After this victory, the  city continued to
increase, and, in 1353,  entered into  the
perpetual league of the  Helvetic confed-
eracy,  in which  it held a  rank inferior
only to Zurich.  Until the close of that
century, B. enlarged its dominions, partly
by purchase, and partly by conquest.  In
1405, the greater part of the city was de-
stroyed by fire, but was afterwards regu-
larly rebuilt The long wars with Austria,
Milan, Burgundy and Savoy soon after
broke out, from all which the confederacy
came off victorious, and in which B. con-
quered Aargau.  In 1528, the citizens of
B. embraced the cause of the Reforma-
tion.  In the subsequent war with the duke
of Savoy, they  conquered the Pays de
Vaud.  The countries gained by conquest
were governed by baihffs, who resided in
mountain castles.  From  that  time to
March 5, 1798, the prosperity and wealth
of B. was constantly increasing, as may
be clearly perceived from the large  sums
spent for the public  administration.  At
that time, the canton  contained over 5000
square miles, and about 380,000 inhabit-
ants.  Upon  the day above-mentioned,
30,000 French troops marched against B.
It was again an  Erlach who led 18,000
citizens of B., together with 8000 auxilia-
ry troops of the confederate cantons, into
the field ; but the memory of Morgarten,
of Laupen and Murten, no longer inspired
them to victory:  the  troops of  the con-
federates, on their retreat, slew their own
commander.  B., for the first time, opened
its gates to an enemy, and lost about half
of its possessions.  The northern  part was
united with the present canton of Aar-
gau, and out of the south-western (Pays
de Vaud) the present canton of Vaud was
fonned.  By the decrees of the  congress
at Vienna, however,  the greater part of
the bishopric of Bale was joined  to  the
canton of B.  According to the new aris-
tocratic constitution  of the canton,  the
sovereign power is exercised by a bailiffj
and the great and lesser councils of the
city and republic of B., consisting of 200
members chosen from the city of B., and
99  from the  towns and   the  country.
The former are chosen from the citizens,
over 29 years old, by an elective  assembly
composed of the members of the  lesser
council,  and a committee  of the  great
The 99  members  from the  towns and
country are chosen partly from the towns,
by the municipal authorities;  partly from
each of the 22  districts, into which  the
country is divided, by elective assemblies;
and partly by the great council.  Two
bailiffs preside in turn, each for  the space
of a year, in the great and lesser councils.
The former has  the  legislative, the latter
the executive power.  The latter consists
of  the  two bailiffs, 23 members, and  2
secretaries, and  is chosen  by the former
from among its  own members.—The
northern part of the canton is hilly, with
beautiful plains and vaUeys, and  has a
 fertfle and highly cultivated soil, produc-
 ing com, wine and fruits.  Here is situated
 Emmenthal, one of the richest and most 
BERN—BERNARD.                          73
fertile valleys in Switzerland, where the
finest cattle are raised, and the well-known
Emmenthal cheese made.  Neat houses,
comfortable dresses, and cheerfulness, in-
dicate the prosperity of the inhabitants of
this  valley.   The  southern  part  of the
canton,  the  Oberland  (Upperland), (to
which the valleys  of Hash, Grindervald,
Lauterbrun, Cander, Frutingen, Adelbo-
den, Simmen and Saanen, with numerous
smaller  vaUeys, belong), begins  at the
foot of the high mountain chain towards
the Valais, and extends to its summit. The
lower valleys produce  good fruits, and
are fertile  and agreeable: higher up are
excellent Alpine pastures; then succeed
bare rocks, extensive  glaciers (the source
of magnificent water-falls), and the highest
mountains of Switzerland, as  the Finster-
aarhorn, the Schreck-horn and Wetter-
horn, the Eiger, the Jungfrau.  The in-
habitants of  the Oberland live,  principal-
ly, by raisiug cattle.—The chief trade  is
in Unen and  woollen manufactures, es-
pecially in Emmenthal. The  revenues
of the state amount to about 600,000 dol-
lars.  The canton furnishes 5824 men to
the army of the confederacy,  and con-
tributes 104,080 Swiss francs to  its sup-
port.—B. (1062 houses, with 17,620  in-
habitants), one of the best buflt cities in
Switzerland, is situated upon the decUvity
of a hill, on a peninsula, washed on three
sides by the Aar.  The streets are, for
the  greater part, straight, wide and well
paved, and the houses partly provided with
piazzas.  Among  the  public  buildings
 are the great Gothic cathedral, the church
 of the  Holy Spirit, the university build-
 ings, the handsomely built hospital, &c.
 B. has  an academy, and several  literary
 societies.  The economical  society, in
 particular, has  done much  for the im-
 provement of agriculture, as well as for
 the better knowledge of the  natural his-
 tory of Switzerland.  The historical  so-
 ciety of Switzerland, of which the mayor
 of B., von Miilinen, is president, has pub-
lished several chronicles relating to the
 former times of B., as  that  of Justinger
 (till 1421), 1819, that of Schachtlan, 1820,
 and that of Anshehn (tiU  1526), 1825.
 The gallery for native specimens of natu-
 ral history, founded in 1802, contains vi-
 viparous animals, birds, butterflies, insects
 and plants.  The pubhc library possesses
 great treasures, both of printed  books and
 manuscripts.   Several  private  persons
 have museums, which are generaUy open
 to strangers.   Trade and commerce are
 lively: the manufactories furnish  woollen
 cloth, printed Unen, silk stuffs, stockings,
   vol. n.           7
&c.   There are few cities  with finer
promenades, or where they are kept in
better repair.  One of the favorite walks,
for instance, is near the cathedral, raised
at great  expense, and planted with foui
rows of trees.  The side towards the Aar
is 108 feet above the river, which here
forms a beautiful cascade, equalling that
of the Rhine at Lauffen, if not in height,
at least in breadth.
  Bernadotte.  (See Charles XIV.)
  Bernard, Pierre Joseph; son of a stat-
uary, born at Grenoble, 1710;  died at
Choisy,  near Paris,  1775;  studied with
the Jesuits in Lyons,  and  entered as a
clerk into the service of a notary in Paris.
He was afterwards admitted into the ser-
vice of the marshal de Coigny as secreta-
ry, and,  by Louis XV, appointed treasurer
of the dragoons, and, afterwards, librarian
of Choisy.  In 1771, he lost his memoiy
by  the  apoplexy, and remained in this
condition till his death. Among the poets
who have sung in praise of pleasure, of
whom  the French nation  possesses so
many, B. is esteemed.  In 1737, he brought
the opera Castor and  Pollux on the stage,
which is a masterpiece of lyric-dramatic
poetry.   Rameau's music contributed to
heighten the general applause with which
it was received.  L'Art cVAimer was not
pubUshed until after his death, but bad
been before communicated to his friends:
it is, in part, an imitation of Ovid.  Voltaire
caUed B. le gentU.   The whole of his
works appeared at Paris, 1796.
  Bernard, duke of Weimar, general in
the thirty years' war, born Aug. 6, 1604,
the fourth son of duke John of Saxe-
Weimar, entered into the service of Hol-
land, at that time  the best school for a
soldier,  where prince Maurice of Nassau
(the creator of a better system of tactics),
liis brother Frederic  Henry, the  marquis
Spinola, and other great generals, were
opposed to one  another.  B. afterwards
entered  the Danish  army  employed in
Holstein against the troops of the empe-
ror, and commanded by the margrave of
Baden-Durlach,  and  was present at the
conference of Lubeck, 1629,  for negotia-
ting peace.   When  Gustavus Adolphus
entered Germany, B. joined him, and was
present at the attack  upon  Wallenstein's
camp, in the neighborhood of  Nuremberg,
Aug. 24, 1632.   In the battle of Lutzen,
Oct 6,1632, he commanded the left wing
of  the Swedish army, avenged the death
of Gustavus Adolphus, and, although him-
self severely wounded, put the right wing
of the  imperial troops to flight.   Chan-
ceUor  Oxenstiern, the Swedish director 
74                              BERNARD.
of the war in Germany, after the death of
the king, committed  the  command of
half the army to him.  B., in 1633, took
Bamberg, Cronach, Hochstadt and Aich-
stadt; but  his attempt upon Ingolstadt
miscarried.  He also brought the cities of
Ratisbon and Straubing into his power,
and  frustrated Wallenstein's intentions.
The king of Sweden made him duke of
Franconia.  His  impetuosity caused the
defeat at Nordlingen (q. v.), Aug. 24,1634.
He himself narrowly escaped being made
prisoner.   The prudence  of Oxenstiem
and the valor of B. soon  made amends
for this fault.  France, now entering into
a closer alhance with Sweden, concluded
a separate  treaty with  B., who went to
Paris, Oct. 16,  1634.   B.  promised, for
4,000,000 livres, to raise an anny of 18,000
men on the Rhine, to act against Austria.
He now carried on the war  in the country
adjoining to the  Rhine, took the fortress
of Zabern, in Alsace, spread his army over
Lorraine and Burgundy, and vanquished
the forces of the  emperor in several  bat-
tles.   At the commencement of the year
1638, he laid siege to Rheinfelden, not far
from Bale.  Here he  was unexpectedly
attacked in his camp, Feb. 18, by an Aus-
trian army that had advanced to raise the
siege. B. was obliged to retreat before su-
perior numbers; but, having soon collected
his forces,  he attacked the Austrians by
surprise, Feb. 21, and obtained a complete
victory.  Several Austrian generals were
made  prisoners, and the fortress of Rhein-
felden was obliged to surrender, May 13.
He then  undertook the siege of Brisach,
the possession of which  was necessary
for maintaining  himself in Alsace.  An
imperial  army, under the  command of
general Goetze, that approached with the
intention of raising the siege, was defeated
with a great loss by B., July 30. B. captur-
ed several  places of inferior  importance,
during the siege of Brisach, which, how-
ever, did not surrender until he had repeat-
edly defeated the Austrians,  and then upon
very moderate conditions, which B. sign-
ed in  his own name,  without  mention-
ing France.  The possession of Alsace,
which  he had before ceded to France
under certain conditions, was now secur-
ed ; but he also demanded  Brisach as an
appurtenance to  Alsace.  He garrisoned
all the conquered  places  with  German
troops, and ordered money to be coined
with the Saxon coat of arms and that of
Brisach.   In vain  were the efforts of
France to deprive the duke of the posses-
sion of Brisach, by proposing to place  a
French garrison in the fortress: the duke
 declined not only this  proposal, but also
 an invitation to Paris, and the offer of a
 maniage  with the  duchess  d'AiguiUon,
 niece of cardinal Richelieu.  Instead of
 that match,  he proposed  one  with tsa
 princess of Rohan,  to which,  howev«,r,
 the French court would not  accede, lest
 the party  of the Huguenots should be
 strengthened.  It is probable  that Riche-
 lieu had recourse to secret means, in order
 to rid  France of the duke, who was be-
 come formidable by his growing power.
 He was suddenly seized with a disorder,
 which terminated his  life, July 8, 1639.
 Most of the contemporary writers conjec-
 tured that Richelieu caused him to be
 poisoned: the duke himself had no doubt
 that he had swallowed poison.  Immedi-
 ately after his death, several French com-
 missioners appeared, who enlisted his
 troops into the French army:  the  com-
 mand of them was committed to marshal
 Guebriant  With B. fell one of the  chief
 supports of the Protestants.  His succes-
 sors, Baner and Torstensohn (q. v.), pur-
 sued  his  victorious  course, and France
 seriously exerted herself, in the war which
 continued, for the benefit of the Protest-
 ants.  In B. a graceful person, intelligence
 and valor were united with a  magnanim-
 ity which could not be shaken by adverse
 events: his only fault  was too great im-
 petuosity.
   Bernard of Clairvaux; one of the most
 influential ecclesiastics of the middle ages,
 born at Fontaines, in Burgundy, 1091, of
 a  noble family.   In  1113,  he became a
 monk at Citeaux; in 1115,  first abbot of
 Clairvaux,  near  Langres.   An austere
 manner of living, solitary studies, an in-
 spiring eloquence, boldness of language,
 and the reputation of a  prophet, rendered
 him an oracle  to all Christian Europe.
 He was named  the  honeyed teacher, and
 his writings  were styled a stream from
paradise.  The doctrine of the  immacu-
 late conception of Mary was rejected by
 him.  He principally promoted the cru-
 sade in 1146, and quieted  the fermenta-
 tion, caused  at that  time by a party of
 monks,  against the  Jews  in Germany.
 He declined  all promotion, and, in the
 rank of abbot of his beloved Jerusalem (as
 he  used to call Clairvaux),  he continued
 with all humiUty, but with great boldness,
 his censures of the clergy and his coun-
 sels to the popes.  Innocent  II owed to
 him the possession of the right of investi-
 ture in  Germany, and  Eugenius III his
 education.  He was, at the same time, the
 umpire  of princes and bishops, and his
 voice  in  the synods  was regarded as 
BERNARD—BERNARD!.
75
 livine.   By his rigid orthodoxy and his
mystical doctrines, which, though at times
enthusiastic,  were always  directed  to
the promotion  of practical  Christianity,
he refuted the subtleties and dialectics of
the scholastic philosophers, although his
severity  against Abelard and  Gilbert of
Poree can by no means be justified. Lu-
ther says of him,  " If there has ever been
a pious monk who feared God, it was St.
Bernard; whom  alone I hold in  much
higher esteem than all other monks and
priests throughout the globe."  B. died in
1153, and was canonized by  Alexander
III, in  1174.   (See Aug. Neander's St.
Bernard and his Times, Berlin,  1813.)  His
works have  been  translated  from  the
Latin, and published by professor Silbert
 Vienna, 1820).
  Bernard, Great St.;  a mountain  be-
tween the Valais  and the valley of Aosta,
11,006 feet high.   On its top is the boun-
dary between the Valais and  Piedmont.
The road from the lake of Geneva through
the Valais, into the valley of Aosta, passes
over it   The Little St. B., 7194 feet high,
separates Piedmont from Savoy.   Over
this Hannibal  directed his march.  Ber-
nard de  Menthon, a Savoyard  nobleman,
who lived from 923 to 1008,  built here,
in 962, two hospitia, for the  benefit of
those on a pilgrimage to Rome, one upon
mont  Joux, where a temple  of Jupiter
stood,  the  other  on the  road  that leads
over the Orison  Alps, at a place  called
Colonne Jou, from a pillar which was an
object of idolatrous worship.   Animated
by  a  pious zeal,  Bernard destroyed  the
pillar and temple, and, with their  ruins,
built the two hospitia on the  Great and
Little St. Bernard, so called  after him.
He committed the care  of both  these
establishments to  monks of the order of
St. Augustine, who, with an almost  unex-
ampled self-devotion, exercised the most
generous hospitality  towards  travellers,
down to the time  of Charles Emanuel III
of Sardinia.  This king, falling  into a
dispute with the cantons  of  Switzerland
about the nomination of a provost, seques-
trated the possessions of the monks, and
gave the admiristration of the  hospitia to
regular  canons of the Augustine  order,
who, with equal humanity and devotion,
discharge the duties of their pious calling.
Upon the barren height (7668 feet), where
the Iwspiiium of  the  Great St. Bernard
stands,  which  is  considered  to be  the
highest inhabited place  in  Europe, an
almost everlasting winter reigns; in vain
do we look for a tree or bush ; the glitter-
ing snow dazzles the eye of the wanderer.
 Assisted by the servants of the convent
 the  heroic ecclesiastics, provided  with
 wine and bread, devote themselves to the
 guidance of travellers; and,  in order to
 defend the poor against the cold, they lend
 or give them clothes, which are kept for
 that purpose.   Upwards of 9000 persons
 annually pass oyer the mountain, who are
 refreshed in the hospitium.  In the midst
 of tempests and snow-storms, the monks,
 accompanied by dogs (called morons), set
 out for the purpose of tracking those who
 have lost  tlieir way.  If they find  the
 body of a traveller who  has perished, they
 carry it into the vault of the dead, where
 it is wrapped in linen, and remains lying
 on a table till another victim occupies the
 place.   It is then set up against the wall,
 among the other dead bodies, which, on
 account of the  cold, decay so slowly, that
 they are often recognised by their friends
 after the lapse  of years. Adjoining this
 vault is a kind of burying-ground, where
 the bones are deposited, when they accu-
 mulate too much in the vault.  It is im-
 possible  to bury them, because there is
 nothing around the hospitium but naked
 rocks.   In the  church  is the  monument
 of general Dessaix, who fell in the  battle
 of Marengo.    The first consul ordered
 him to be embalmed, and assigned him a
 resting place on the summit of the Alps.
 The monument of marble represents Des-
 saix in relief, wounded, and sinking from
 his horse into  the arms of his  aid  Le
 Brun.  On the stairs of the convent stands
 his statue of marble.  Opposite to it there
 is a slab of marble, on which the republic
 of  Valais  commemorated  Napoleon's
 passage over the St. B., May 15, 1800,
 with an inscription  in letters of gold.  By
 means of a contribution raised through
 Europe, a short time ago, the  habitations
 of the 9 or  10 ecclesiastics  have been
 made more comfortable.
  Bernardi, Augustus  Frederic, a Ger-
 man scholar, bom in Berlin, in 1768, died
 there in 1820.   In his youth, his attention
 wa.i directed  to universal language (that
 is, t> language as far  as it is common
 to a?l rational  beings), to  the mystery
 of its construction, the mathematics, as it
 were, of language.  B., considering all
 different languagesas a whole, endeavored
 to discover a universal grammar common
 to them all.  The result of his researches
 appears in his  works, Reine Sprachlehre
 (Abstract   Grammar),   1801,  2  vols.;
 Angewandte Sprachlehre (Grammar in
 its  Application),  1803;  and  Anfangs-
gri'mde der Sprachwissenschafl (Elements
 of the  Science  of Language), in  which 
76
BERNARD!—BERNINI.
many philosophical principles of language
are laid down.  B. was  a man  of culti-
vated  mind  and extensive knowledge.
He was also a professor and director of a
classical school in Berlin.
   Bernardin de  St.  Pierre.   (See
Pierre, St.)
   Bernardine  Monks.   (See   Cister-
cians.)
  Bernburg, Anhalt; one of the three
dukedoms of Anhalt (253 square miles,
7 towns, 51 villages, with 38,400 inhabit-
ants.  The income  is valued at 450,000
guilders.  Its contingent to the  army of
the German  confederation is 370 men.
In  1820, the Lutheran and  Calvinistic
parts of the population were united.  The
capital of this dukedom is Bernburg, on
the Saale, with 4900 inhabitants.  The
public debt amounts to 1,034,500 guilders.
Napoleon made the princes of Bernburg
dukes.
   Berners,  or  Barnes,  Juliana;  an
English lady of  the 15th century, of
whom little more is known than that she
was prioress of the nunnery of Sopewell,
near St. Alban's, and has her  name pre-
fixed, as the wiiter or compiler, to one of
the earliest and most curious productions
of the  English  press.  The title  of the
second edition, printed in the abbey of St.
Alban's, in 1486, is, The Boke of Hawkyng
and Huntyng, with other  Pleasures dy-
verse, and also  Cootarmuri.es.   The first
edition (1481) does not treat of coat-armor
or heraldry.  This work, under the title of
the Book of St. Alban's, became a popu-
lar manual of sporting  science, and was
several times reprinted in the l6th centu-
ry.  As a typographical curiosity, a small
impression of it was published, in 1811,
by Mr. Haslewood.
  Berni,  Francesco (also Berna,  and
Bernia); a poet of the 16th century, born
at Lamporccchio, in the territory of Tus-
cany, towards the close of the  15th cen-
tury, of a noble but poor Florentine fami-
ly ; went to Florence, and, at the  age of
19, to Rome, where he  lived  under the
care of his  relation,  cardinal  Bibiena,
who, as he himself says, did him neither
good nor  harm, and  he was at  length
obliged to enter the service of the bishop
of Verona, Ghiberti, datary of the papal
chancery,  as  secretary.  In the hope of
promotion,he took orders; but,disgusted
with the duties of his  office,  he  sought
recreation in amusements, which dis-
pleased the prelate.  A society had been
estabhshed at Rome, consisting of young
ecclesiastics of a jovial temper, like B.,
and a poetical vein, who, in order to de-
note tlieir love for wine, and their care-
less gayety, called themselves t vignajuoli
(vine-dressers).  Mauro, Casa, Firenzuo-
la, Capilupi,  &c. were of the number.
They laughed at every thing, and made
sport, in verse, of the most serious, nay,
the most tragic matters.   B.'s verses were
the most successful, and  were written
in so peculiar a style, that his name has
been  given  to it (maniera  Bernesca, or
Berniesca).  When  Rome was sacked by
the troops of the constable Bourbon, 1527,
B. lost all that he  possessed.  He after-
wards made several journeys, with his
patron Ghiberti, to  Verona, Venice  and
Padua.   At length, wearied with serving,
and  satisfied  with  a canonship  in  the
cathedral at Florence, in the  possession
of which he had been for some years, he
retired to that place.  The favor of the
great,  however, which  he  was  weak
enough to court, brought him into diffi-
culties.   He  was required to commit a
crime, and his refusal cost him his  Ufe.
Alessandro de' Medici, at that  time duke
of Florence, Uved  in open  enmity with
the young cardinal   Ippolito de' Medici.
B. was so intimate  with both, that it  is
doubtful which first made him the pro-
posal to poison the other.   Certain it is,
that  the cardinal died by poison, in 1535.
B. died July 26,1536 ; and if, as is assert-
ed, his life was terminated by poison, then
the crime must be imputed to duke Ales-
sandro.—In the burlesque style of poetry,
B. is still considered the  best model.
His satire is often  very  bitter, and  fre-
quently unites the good humor of Horace
with the causticity of Juvenal.  The ex-
treme licentiousness of his writings is his
greatest fault.  It should, however, be con-
sidered that he wrote for his friends only,
and that his works were not printed until
after his death. The admirable ease, for
which his writings are distinguished, was
the result of great efforts, since he repeat-
edly amended and  corrected his verses.
The same is asserted of Ariosto; and yet
they are the  most distinguished, among
the ItaUan poets, for the ease and fluency
of their  style.   B.  also  wrote  Latin
verses very  correctly, and was weU ac-
quainted with  Greek.  His Rime Bur-
lesche (Burlesque Verses) have great merit
So has also his Orlando Innamorato, com-
posto gia dal Sig. Bojardo Conte di Scan-
diano, ed ora rifatto  tutto di nuovo da M.
Fr. Berni.—Another Berni (count Fran-
cesco B., who  was bom in 1610, and died
in 1673) has written 11 dramas, and  also
several lyric poems.
   Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, caUed  II 
BERNINI—BERNIS.
77
cavaliere Bernini, born in Naples, 1598,
is praised by his contemporaries as the
Michael Angelo of modem times, on ac-
count of his success as a painter, a statua-
ry, and an architect; but he deserves his
fame principally in the latter character.
Richly endowed by nature, and favored
by circumstances, he rose superior to the
rules of art, creating for himself an  easy
manner, the faults of which he knew how
to disguise by  its brilliancy.   From his
early youth, he manifested a great power
to excel in the arts of design,  and, at the
age of eight years, executed the head of a
child in marble, which was considered a
remarkable  production.  That  such rare
endowments might be suitably cultivated,
his father carried him to Rome.  One of
B.'s first works was the marble bust of the
prelate Montajo; after which he made the
bust of the pope, and of several cardinals;
also sundry figures  of the natural  size.
He was not yet 18,  when  he  produced
the Apollo and Daphne, in marble, a mas-
terpiece of grace and execution.  Looking
at this group near the close of his Ufe, he
declared that he had made very little prog-
ress since the time when that  was pro-
duced.  His  manner was indeed more
chaste and  less affected, in the early part
of his career, than at a later period.  After
the death of Gregory XV, cardinal Maf-
feo Barberini, his successor, employed B.
to prepare  plans for the embellishment
of the BasiUca of St. Peter, assigning to
him a monthly pension of 300 crowns,
which was afterwards augmented. With-
out  forsaking  sculpture, B.'s  genius em-
braced architecture, and he furnished the
design for the canopy and the  pulpit  of
St. Peter, as well as for the circular place
before the church.  Among his numerous
works, were the palace Barberini, the bel-
fry of St. Peter, the model of the monu-
ment of the countess Matilda, and  the
monument   of  Urban VIII, his benefac-
tor.—In the year 1644, cardinal Mazarin,
in the  name  of  the king  of France,
offered him a  salary of 12,000 crowns;
but he  declined the invitation.  Urban
had  scarcely closed  his eyes, and Inno-
cent X  ascended the papal throne, when
the envy engendered  by the  merits  of
the artist and the favor bestowed on him
broke  forth.  His enemies  triumphed;
but he regained the favor of the pope by
a model for a fountain.  About  the same
time, he erected the palace of Monte Ci-
torio.  Alexander VII, the successor  of
Innocent X, displayed much taste for the
arts, and favor to this artist, and required
of him a plan for the embellishment of
                7 *
the piazza di San Pietro.   The admirable
colonnade, which  is so beautifuUy pro-
portioned to the  Basilica, was built under
the direction of  B.  We may also men-
tion  the  palace  Odescalchi, the  rotunda
della Riccia, the house for novices, belong-
ing to the Jesuits, on Monte Cavallo, &c.
Louis XIV  having  invited  him,  in  the
most flattering terms, to Paris, he set out
from Rome, in 1665, at the age of 68, ac-
companied  by one of his sons,  and a
numerous retinue.  Never did an artist
travel with so great pomp, and under such
flattering circumstances.   The reception
which he met with  in  Paris was highly
honorable.   He was first occupied in pre-
paring plans for the restoration  of the
Louvre, which, however, were never exe-
cuted.  But, notwithstanding the esteem
which he enjoyed  in  Paris, some disa-
greeable  circumstances induced him to
return to  Rome:  he left Paris loaded with
presents.  Cardinal RospigUosi having be-
come pope, B. was  admitted to an inti-
mate intercourse with  him, and charged
with several works; among others, with
the decoration of the bridge of St. Angelo.
In his 70th year, this indefatigable artist
executed one of his most beautiful works,
the tomb of Alexander VII. He still con-
tinued to devote  himself to several works
of architecture,  as  well as  of statuary,
with such ardor, that,  exhausted  by his
labors, he died, Nov. 28,1680, at the age
of 82.  He  was  buried, with great mag-
nificence, in  the church of St. Maria Mag-
giore.  To his children he left a fortune
amounting to about 3,300,000 francs.  B.'s
favorite maxim was, Chi non esce talvolta
delta regola,  non passa mai.  Thus he was
of opinion, that, in order to excel in  the
arts,  one must rise  above  all rules, and
create a  manner peculiar to one's self
This B. has accomplished with a rare
good fortune, but the influence of his style
has been  transient  His  most  eminent
disciples are Pietro  Bernini, his brother,
a statuary, architect and mathematician;
Matthia  Rossi, Francois Duquesnoi, sur-
named the Fleming,  and Borromini.
  Bernis (Francois Joachim de Pierres,
comte de Lyon) cardinal de,  born  at
St. Marcel de l'Ardeche, in 1715, was de-
scended of an ancient fanuly,but httle fa-
vored by fortune, for  which  reason, his
parents destined him for the clerical pro
fession.  Me. de Pompadour, whom he
had  known  as Me. d'Etioles, presented
him to Louis.XV, who, being pleased with
liim,  assigned to him an apartment in the
Tuileries, with a pension of 1500 livres.
His wishes were  directed towards raising 
78
BERNIS—BERNOULLI.
his income to 6000 livres.  Not succeeding
however, in attaining this moderate for-
tune, he resolved to aim at a larger one.
He went as ambassador to  Venice, and
obtained  great  respect in this difficult
post.  After his  return, he   enjoyed the
highest favor at court, and soon became
minister of foreign affairs.  The poUtical
system of Europe was changed at that
time.  France and Austria, hitherto ene-
mies, united in an offensive and defensive
aUiance, which was succeeded by the sev-
en years' war, so unfortunate for France.
B. has been designated, by several writers,
as the chief author of this alliance.   Du-
el os, however, asserts, that it was the in-
tention of B. to  maintain the old system,
which, since the time of Henry IV, and
especially  since  the  time  of RicheUeu,
had made France the protectress of the
less powerful states of Germany, and the
rival of Austria.  Oppressed by the mis-
fortunes of his country, which, in part, at
least,  were ascribed  to him, B. sun-en-
dcred his post, and was soon after ban-
ished from court.   His disgrace lasted till
the year 1764, when  the king appointed
him archbishop of Alby, and, five  years
later, ambassador to Rome.   Here he re-
mained till  his  death.  In  the name of
his court, and against his own opinion,
he labored to effect  the abolition of the
order of the Jesuits.  When  the aunts of
Louis XVI left France, in 1791, they fled
to him for refuge, and lived in his house.
The revolution deprived  him of his for-
tune, and  the  means  of indulging his
generous  disposition. He  was reduced
to a state of poverty, from which he was
reheved by a pension from  the Spanish
court. B. died in Rome, Nov. 2,  1794,
nearly 80 years old.  The easy poetry of
his youth had procured him a place in
the French academy.  He himself is its
severest critic.  His verses have been re-
proached with affectation, negligence, and
an excess of ornament and  mythological
images.   Voltaire called him  Babet-la-
Bouquetiere, from a fat flower-woman, who
sold her nosegays before the  opera house.
Nevertheless, Voltaire had a great esteem
for his talents, his judgment, his criticisms,
and his character, as is evident from their
correspondence (published,  in  1799, by
 Bourgoing), which,  in every respect, is
 very honorable to B.   Another  corre-
 spondence, between B. and  Paris du Ver-
 ney,  appeared  in print in 1790.   After
 his death,  Azara published  his  poem
 La Religion vengee (ReUgion avenged),
 which, though  it contains many beautiful
 verses and sublime ideas, is deficient in
fire  and  animation.   A  collection of
B.'s  works  was pubUshed in  1797, by
Didot                    , .  ,  ,
  Bernouilli ; a family which has pro-
duced eight distinguished men, who have
all cultivated the mathematical sciences
with success.  The family, emigrating from
Antwerp on account of religious persecu-
tions, under the administration of the duke
of Alva, fled first to Frankfort, and after-
wards  removed to Bale, where  it was
elevated  to  the highest dignities  of the
republic—1. James B.,born at Bale, 1654,
became professor  of  mathematics there
1687, and died 1705.  The  differential
calculus, discovered by Leibnitz and New-
ton,  was applied by him to the most dif-
ficult questions of geometry and mechan-
ics:  he calculated  the loxodromic  and
catenary  curve, the  logarithmic  spirals,
the evolutes of several curved lines, and
discovered the numbers of Bernouilli, as
they are  called.—2. John B., bom  at
Bale, 1667, was one of the greatest mathe-
maticians of  his time, and the  worthy
rival of Newton and  Leibnitz.  He was
destined for commerce, but his incUna-
tion  led him to the sciences, and, from the
year 1683, he principally devoted himself
to medicine and mathematics.  To him,
and  his brother James, we are indebted
for an excellent treatise on the differential
calculus.  He also developed  the  method
of proceeding from infinitely  small num-
bers to the finite, of which  the  former
are the elements or differences, and caUed
this  method the  integral calculus.  In
1690—92, he made a  journey to France,
where  he  instructed  the marquis  de
PHopital  in mathematics.  At this time,
he discovered  the exponential calculus,
before Leibnitz had made any communi-
cations respecting it, and made it known
in 1697.   In 1694, he became doctor of
medicine at Bale, and, in 1695, went, as
professor of mathematics, to  Groningen,
where he discovered the mercurial phos-
phorus or luminous barometer, for which
he received,  from king  Frederic  I of
Prussia, a gold medal,  and was  made a
member of the academy in Berlin, after-
wards of that in Paris, &c. After the death
of his brother, in 1705, he received the
professorship of  mathematics at  Bale,
which  he held until his death, January
 1, 1748.—3, Nicholas B., nephew of the
former, born at Bale, in 1687, studied law,
but more particularly devoted himself to
 mathematics;  in 1705, went to  Gronin-
 gen, to John B.; returned, however, with
 him to Bale  towards  the close of the
 year, and  became  there professor of 
BERNOUILLI—BERRI.
79
mathematics. He travelled through Swit-
zerland, France, Holland  and England,
and, in  1713, became a member of the
academies of science in London and Ber-
lin.  On the recommendation of Leibnitz,
he went, as professor of mathematics, to
Padua, in 1716, but returned to his native
city, in  1722, as  professor of logic.  In
1731, he became professor of the Roman
and feudal law in that place, and died in
1759.  The three following were sons of
the above-mentioned John B.—4. Nicho-
las B., born at Bale, 1695, became profes-
sor of law there in 1723, and  died in
Petersburg,  ill  1726.—5.  Daniel B., born
at Groningen, Feb. 9, 1700.  He studied
medicine, in which he took the doctor's
degree, and, at the same time, was en-
gaged  in mathematical studies, in which
his  father  had been his  instructer.   He
visited Bale, Heidelberg, Strasburg, Ven-
ice and Padua.   At the age of 24, he was
offered  the presidency of an academy
about to be established at Genoa, but, in
the  following year, accepted an invita-
tion to Petersburg.  Accompanied by his
younger brother, John, he  returned to
Bale in 1733; became there professor of
anatomy and botany; in  1750, professor
of natural philosophy; resigned this place,
because of his advanced age, to his broth-
er's son, the younger Daniel B., in 1117, and
died in 1782.   He was one of the greatest
natural philosophers, as well as mathema-
ticians, of his time.  At 10 different times,
he received a prize from the academy of
Paris.   In 1734, he shared with his father
a double prize, given  by this academy,
for tlieir joint essay on the causes of the
different inclinations of the planetary or-
bits.  Most of his writings are contained
in the  transactions of the  Petersburg,
Paris, BerUn, &c. academies, of which he
was a  member.—6. John B.,  bom  at
Bale, in 1710, went to Petersburg in 1732,
became  professor of rhetoric at Bale in
1743, and, in  1748, professor of mathe-
matics.  He died in 1790.  The two fol-
lowing were his sons.—7. John B., licen-
tiate of law and royal astronomer  in
Berlin,  was  bora at Bale, in 1744, and
died, 1807, in Berlin, whither  he had
been invited in the 19th year of his age.
He  had travelled through aU the coun-
tries of Europe, and lived, after 1779, in
Berlin,  where  he  had become director
of the mathematical  department of the
academy.  He  is the author of numerous
works.—8. James B. was born at Bale, in
1759; went to Petersburg, where he be-
came professor of mathematics, married
a grand-daughter of Euler, but died in
1789, in the 30th year of his age, of an
apoplexy, while bathing in the Neva.
  Bernstorff ; the name of a Gennan
noble family,  many members  of which
have been  distinguished.  The most so
was  John Hartwig Ernst, count of  B.,
Danish secretary of foreign affairs.  He
was born in Hanover, May 13, 1713.  His
father was also secretary of state in Den-
mark.  In  1750, he was made member
of the council of state, after having served
for a long time as foreign minister.  He
soon became the most influential member
of the government, which distinguished
itself, under his direction, by a wise neu-
trality during  the seven years' war, and
other political disturbances in Europe; by
liberal measures for improving the condi-
tion  of the Danish peasantry, who were
even then in a state of bondage ; by pro-
moting science, and sending an expedi-
tion to Asia, which the famous traveller
Niebuhr accompanied.  He  himself  set
the example of manumitting the peasants,
and gave the fourth part of his income to
the  poor.   By his efforts, Denmark ac-
quired Holstein.  B. is described, by  all
historians, as a model of wisdom, benevo-
lence and intelligence.   Frederic V (q. v.),
whose government he directed so well,
died in 1766,  and he  continued in  his
office, under Christian VII, until 1770,
when Struensee (q. v.) contrived to dis-
place him.   After  the  fall of Struensee,
he was recalled, but died when preparing
for his return to Denmark from Hamburg,
in 1772, Feb. 19. Christian VII had made
him count.—Andrew Peter, count of B.,
his  cousin,  was also a very distinguished
statesman,  successor  of the preceding,
and  deserves  great praise, among other
things, for  his endeavors to emancipate
the peasantry.  He was born Aug.  28,
1735, and died June 21, 1797.  His son
is now Prussian minister of foreign affairs.
  Berri, or Berry, Charles Ferdinand,
duke of; second son of the  count d'Ar-
tois (now Charles X) and Maria Theresa
of  Savoy,  born at Versailles, Jan.  24,
1778.  Together with the duke of An-
gouleme, he received an inadequate edu-
cation under the duke  of Serent: never-
theless, in  his early youth,  he displayed
some talents and a good heart.  In 1792,
he fled with his father to Turin, served
under him  and Conde on the Rhine, and
early learned the art  of winning the love
of the soldiers.  With his family, he re-
paired to Russia, and, in 1801, to Eng-
land, where he  lived  alternately at Lon-
don and Hartwell, continually occupied
with plans  for the restoration of the Bour- 
80
BERRI—BERTHIER.
 bons.  April 13,1814, B. landed at Cher-
 bourg, and passed through the cities of
 Bajeux, Caen, Rouen, &c, gaining  over
 the soldiers and national  guards  to the
 cause of the Bourbons, distributing alms,
 aud delivering prisoners.  He made his
 entrance into Paris  April 21, where he
 gained  popularity by visiting the mer-
 chants, manufacturers and artists.  May
 15, he  was appointed colonel-general,
 receiving a civil list of 1,500,000 francs.
 Aug. 1, he set out on a visit to the de-
 partment of the North, and  the fortified
 places in Lonaine,  Franche-Comt6  and
 Alsace.  When  Napoleon  landed from
 Elba, the king committed to B. the chief
 command of all the troops in and round
 Paris.   All  his efforts  to secure their
 fidelity proving ineffectual, he was obliged
 to retreat, on the night of March 19,  with
 the troops of the household, to Ghent, and
 Alost,  where  the king  then was.  The
 battle of Waterloo enabled him to return
 to Paris, where he arrived July  8, and
 surrendered his command over the troops
 of the household into the hands  of the
 king.  In August, he was made president
 of the electoral college of the department
 of the North.  At  the  opening of the
 chambers in Paris, he  took the oath to
 maintain  the  constitution, and was ap-
 pointed president of the fourth bureau;
 but  he  soon retired from  public  life.
 Louvel (q. v.) had been, for several years,
 meditating the extirpation of  the house
 of Bourbon, by the assassination  of the
 duke.  Feb.  13, 1820, he  attacked  him
 just as he had left the opera-house, and
 was on the point of stepping into his car-
 riage, and gave him a mortal blow.  The
 duke showed the greatest firmness  and
 Christian resignation even to the moment
 of his  death (Feb. 14, at 6 o'clock  in the
 morning).  He had been carried into the
 saloon  of the opera-house.   Here he con-
 soled  his wife, and  said,  Menagez-vous
pour Venfant que vous portez dans votre
srin! (Take care of yourself, for the sake
of the  child  in your bosom!)  He then
caused  the children, whom he  had in
London before his marriage,  to be called,
and, after  recommending them to  his
wife, prepared himself for  death, forgave
his murderer, confessed  himself, and re-
ceived the sacrament Benevolence, grat-
itude and generosity were the best  fea-
tures in the character of this prince, by
whose death all France was plunged into
consternation.   (See Chateaubriand's Me-
moires touchant la Vie et  la Mort du  Due
de Berri, Paris, 182a)   The duke left by
his wife  Carolina Ferdinanda Louisa,
 eldest daughter of prince, afterwards king
 Francis I, ruler of the Two Sicilies, whom
 he married June 17,1816, only a daughter,
 Louisa  Maria Theresa of Artois, made-
 moiselle de France, born Feb. 21, 1819.
 Great  was the foy of the royal  family,
 when the duke's widow was delivered,
 Sept. 29, of a prince, who bears the name
 of  Henrv,  duke  of  Bordeaux  (Henri
 Charles  Ferdinand Dieudonne d'Artois,
 petit-fils de France).   (See Chambord.)—
 Although Louvel's deed had no connex-
 ion with a conspiracy, not the  slightest
 trace of an accomplice being discovered,
 yet the mutual denunciations to which it
 gave rise produced  much party excite-
 ment, and occasioned  some laws of ex-
 ception.  (See Fiance,  and  Exception,
 laws of.) The opera-house, near which
 the crime was committed, and in which
 the duke died, was pulled down, and a
 column  erected  on the spot.  A  new
 opera-house was built in another place.
  Berri, or Berry ;  before the revolu-
 tion of France, a province and dukedom
 of that  countiy, of which  Bourges was
 the capital, almost in the centre of France.
 (See Department.)
  Berserker, a descendant of the eight-
 handed Starkader and  the beautiful Alf-
 hilde, was, according to the Scandinavian
 mythology, a  famous wanior.  He dis-
 dained the protection of armor,  whence
 he  received  his  name,  which signifies,
 according to Hire, armorless.  He raged
 like a madman in battle.  He killed king
 Swafurlam, and married his daughter, by
 whom  he had 12 sons, as untameable as
 himself.  They were also called B., and,
 since their time, the name has been com-
monly given to men of headstrong violence.
  Berthier, Alexander;  prince of Neuf-
chatel and Wagram, marshal, vice-consta-
ble  of France, &c.; born in Paris, Dec.
30, 1753; son of a distinguished  officer;
was, while yet young, employed in the
general  staff,  served  in America,  and
fought  with  Lafayette for the  liberty of
the  U.  States.   In the  first years of the
revolution, he was  appointed major-gen-
eral in the national guard of Versailles,
and conducted himself in this  post with
uniform moderation.   Dec. 28, 1791, he
was  appointed chief  of the general staff
in the army of marshal Luckner, marched
against  La  Vendee in 1793, and joined
the army of Italy in 1796, with the rank
of general of division, where, as chief of
the general staff, he contributed much to
the success of the  campaign.  In Octo-
ber, 1797, general Bonaparte sent him to
 Paris to deliver to the directory the treaty 
BERTHIER—BERTHOLLET.
81
of Campo-Formio.  In January, 1798, he
received the chief command of the army
of Italy, and was ordered by the directory
to march  against the dominions of the
pope.  In the beginning of February, he
made his  entrance into Rome, abolished
the papal  government, and established a
consular one.  Being much attached to
general Bonaparte,  he followed him to
Egypt as chief of the general staff. After
the 18th of Brumaire, Bonaparte appoint-
ed him minister of war.  He  afterwards
became general-in-chief of the  army of
reserve, accompanied  Bonaparte to Italy,
in 1800, and contributed to the passage
of St Bernard and the victory at Maren-
go.  He signed the armistice of Alessan-
dria, formed the provisional government
of Piedmont, and went on  an extraordi-
nary mission to Spain.  He then received
again the department of war, which, in the
mean  time, had  been in the hands of
Cannot   He accompanied Napoleon to
Milan, June, 1805,  to be present at his
coronation, and, in October, was appoint-
ed chief of the general staff of the grand
army in Germany.   Oct.  19, he signed
the capitulation of Ulm, with Mack, and,
Dec. 6, the annistice of Austerlitz. Hav-
ing, in 1806, accompanied the emperor in
his campaign against  Prussia, he signed
the armistice of Tilsit, June, 1807.  He
afterwards resigned his  post as minister
of war, and, having been  appointed vice-
constable  of France, married,  in 1808,
Maria Elizabeth Amalia, daughter of duke
William of Bavaria-Birkenfeld,  and con-
tinued to be the companion of Napoleon
in all  his  expeditions.  In the campaign
against Austria, in 1809, he distinguished
himself at Wagram, and received the title
of prince of Wagram.  In 1810,  as proxy
of Napoleon, he  received  the  hand of
Maria Louisa, daughter of the  emperor
Francis I, and accompanied her to France.
Somewhat  later, Napoleon  made  him
colonel-general of the Swiss troops.  In
1812, he was with the army in Russia, as
chief of the general staff, which post he
also held in 1813.  After Napoleon's ab-
dication, he lost his  principality of Neuf-
chatel, but retained his other honors, and
possessed the favor and confidence of
Louis XVIII,  whom, after  Napoleon's
return, he accompanied  to the  Nether-
lands, whence he repaired to his family
at Bamberg, where he  arrived May 30.
After  his arrival at this  place, he  was
observed to  be sunk in a profound mel-
ancholy ;  and when, on the afternoon of
June 1, the music of the Russian troops,
on  tlieir   inarch to  die  French borders,
was heard at the gates of the city, he put
an end  to his life by throwing himself
from a window of the third story of his
palace.   (See Memoires d'Alexandre Ber-
thier,  Pr.  de Neufchatel et  de  Wagram,
Paris, 1826.)  He  left a son, Alexander
(born in 1810), and two daughters.
  Berthollet,  Claude  Louis,  count;
member  of the  scientific academies at
Paris, London, Turin, Haerlem, &c.; one
of the most eminent theoretical chemists
of our times; bom at Talloire, in Savoy,
Dec. 9, 1748; studied medicine at Turin;
went, in 1772, to Paris, where he became
connected with Lavoisier; was admitted,
in 1780,  a member of the  academy of
sciences in that city;  was made, in 1794,
professor in the normal school there, and
was sent to Italy, in 1796, in order to se-
lect the monuments that were to be  car-
ried to Paris.   He foUowed Bonaparte to
Egypt, and returned with him in 1799.
After the 18th of Brumaire, he was made
a member of the senat-conservateur; after-
wards, count and grand officer of the le-
gion of honor.  In 1804, Napoleon ap-
pointed  him senator for the district of
Montpellier.   In  1813, he  received the
grand cross of the order of  the Reunion.
April 1, 1814, however, he voted  for the
establishment  of  a  provisional  govern-
ment and the dethronement of Napoleon.
Louis XVIII  made him a peer; but Na-
poleon passed him by in  1815.   After
the restoration of Louis, he took his seat
again in the chamber of peers.  Among
the inventions and new processes  with
which the sciences and the arts were en-
riched by him, the most important are
those for the charring of vessels to  pre-
serve water in ships, for the stiffening and
glazing of linen, &c, but principally that
for the bleaching of vegetable substances
by  means  of  oxymuriatic  acid, which,
since 1786, has been in  general use in
France.  Besides different essays in the
collections of the academy and  the  insti-
tute, he has written several  larger works,
among which  his Essai de  Statique  Chi-
mique (1803,2 vols.; translated into  Eng-
lish, German and ItaUan) must be consid-
ered as the most important, and as one of
the finest productions of our times.   The
complicated phenomena of chemistry are
reduced, in this work, to the strict and
simple laws of mechanics.  He had also
a large  share  in the reformation of the
chemical nomenclature, as weU as in the
publication of the work that appeared on
this  subject in Paris, 1787—Methode de
Nomenclature  Chimique.    He  died in
Paris, Nov. 7,1822. 
82
BERTHOUD—BERVIC.
  Berthocd, Ferdinand,  celebrated  for
his marine chronometers, born at Plance-
mont,  in  the county of Neufchatel, in
1727, was destined for the church, but,
at the age of 16, conceived an irresistible
incUnation for mechanics.  His  father
caused him to be instructed in  the art of
watchmaking, and, to afford him an op-
portunity  of perfecting his knowledge,
sent him  to  Paris.  He resided in that
city from 1745, and there  made his first
marine  chronometers, which have been
used, by French navigators, on so many
occasions, for extending and correcting
geographical knowledge.   He left several
works  relating to  his  art.  He died in
1807.  His nephew, Louis  B., his pupil,
and the heir of his talents, has extended
his  improvements still further.  His chro-
nometers are in the hands  of almost all
navigators, and are even more convenient
than those of his  uncle.  They are  fa-
mous for accuracy.
  Bertoli,  Giovanni Domenico,  count
of;  bora, in 1676, at Moreto, in Friuli; the
patriarch  of Aquileia,  a  place where
many antiquities existed, of which nobody
had taken notice.  The inhabitants had
even been in  the  habit, for a long  time,
of building their houses with ruins and
remains of art.  To prevent further de-
struction,  B., in conjunction with  other
men of learning and taste, bought all the
ancient marbles  which were excavated.
Muratori and Apostolo Zeno encouraged
him in his  antiquarian researches and
publications.  B. died in 1758.  His most
important work is Le Antichita di Aquileja
profane  e sacre, Venice, 1739, fol.  Some
of his treatises are to be found in the col-
lection of P. Calogera; others in the me-
moirs of the Sorieta Columbaria at Flor-
ence.
  Berton, Henry Montan; son of Peter
Berton, who, when director of the opera
at Paris, induced Gluck and Piccini to
come to Paris.  B. was born Dec. 17,
1767, in Paris, and  formed himself under
the  great masters Gluck, Piccini, Paesi-
ello and Sacchini.   When 19 years old,
he  first appeared before the public, as a
composer, in the Concert spirituel. When
the  conservatory was established, he was
appointed professor of harmony.  In 1807,
he was made director of the Italian opera,
and afterwards leader of the choir  (chef
du chant) at the great imperial opera. He
was afterwards employed in Russia by the
emperor, but soon returned to France.
His most famous opera is Aline Reine de
Golconde.  His Montana and Stephanie,
also, are distinguished.
  Bertrand, Henri Gratien, count;  gen-
eral of division, aid-de-camp of Napoleon,
grand marshal of the palace, &c.; famous
for his attachment to Napoleon, whom he
and his family voluntarily accompanied
to St. Helena.  He was born of parents
in the middle  ranks  of life, entered the
military service, distinguished himself in
the corps of engineers, and rose to the
post of general of brigade.   In the camp
at Boulogne, in 1804, Napoleon had oc-
casion to become acquainted with his
worth.  From that time B. was with him
in all his campaigns, signalizing himself
every where,  especially  at Austerlitz,
where he was one of the emperor's aides-
de-camp.  In  1806, he  took Spandau, a
fortress about 6 or 7 miles from  Berlin,
after an  attack of a few days; and, in
1807, contributed to the victoiy over the
Russians at Friedland,  and excited the
admiration of the enemy by his masterly
conduct in building two bridges over the
Danube, after the  battle at Aspem, in the
war of 1809 against Austria.  He distin-
guished himself equally in the campaigns
of 1812 and 1813, particularly at Lutzen
and Bautzen.  In October, 1813, he de-
fended several important posts against
superior numbers, and, after jhe battle of
Leipsic, in which he  defended Lindenau
against Giulay, conducted the retreat in
good order.  After the battle of Hanau,
he covered Mentz till the army had passed
the Rhine.  He took part in the campaign
of 1814, by the side of Napoleon, whom
he  accompanied to Elba, returned  with
him, and finally shared  his residence in
StHelena.  After Napoleon's death (1821),
he returned from this island to France.
  Bertuch,  Frederic  Justin,  born  at
Weimar, in 1747, since 1785 counsellor
of  legation in the service of  the duke
of Weimar, has  done much in several
branches of literature and the arts, in the
study of which he has been engaged from
his early youth.   He is principally known,
in foreign countries, by the Geographical
Institute (Geographisches Institut) which
he  established at Weimar.  This society
has published  numerous maps,  and, in
connexion with the periodical paper Ge-
ographische Ephemeriden,  conducted by
B. and others, has been of much service
to geography.  B., together with Wieland
and Schiitz, also projected the Allgemeine
Literaturzeitung, which  now appears at
Halle on the Saale.  In  1817, he began
the Opporitionsblatt, which was suppressed
by government in 1820.
  Bervic, Charles Clement, one of the
most  distinguished  engravers   of   the 
BERVIC—BERYL.                          83
 French school,  born at Paris in  1756,
 studied his art under George Wille, and
 may  be considered his  most eminent
 pupil.  The works  of B. are among the
 best of the French school, but are not
 numerous.  The most celebrated of them
 is the full  length figure of Louis XVI,
 after a picture of Callot  The copies are
 very rare and dear,  because the plate was
 broken to  pieces in the revolutionary tu-
 mults of 1793.   The  exactness of his
 drawing, the firmness  and brilliancy  of
 his touch, the purity and correctness of
 his design, and the happiness with which
 he transferred to his plate the beauties of
 the original, give  a high character to his
 productions.  He died  in 1822.
   Berwick, James Fitz-James, duke  of,
 commanded  the   armies  of  England,
 France and Spain,  was a peer of Eng-
 land and France, as well as a grandee  of
 Spain, and was knighted by the sovereign
 of each  of these  countries.  He was
 the natural son of the duke of York, af-
 terwards  king James  II,  and Arabella
 Churchill,  sister of the  duke of Marlbor-
 ough ; was bora in  1670, and first went
 by the name of Fitz-James.  He received
 his education hi  France, and served his
 first campaigns in Hungary, under Charles
 duke of Lorraine, general of Leopold I.
 A short time after, the English revolution
 broke out.   B. followed his father in the
 expedition  against  Ireland,  and  was
 wounded  in a battle in 1689.  He after-
 wards served under Luxemburg, in Flan-
 ders ; in 1702 and 1703, under the duke
 of Burgundy; then under marshal Villeroi;
 and was naturalized in  France.' In 1706,
 he was made marshal of France, and was
 sent to Spain, where he gained the battle
 of Almanza, which rendered king Philip
 V again master of Valencia.  In 1718
 and 1719, however, he  was obliged  to
 serve against Philip V, who, from  grati-
 tude  to the marshal, had  taken  a son
 of his into his service.  On his entrance
 into the Spanish  dominions, he wrote  to
 his son, the duke of Liria, admonishing
 him to do  his duty to his sovereign.  At
 the siege of Philipsburg, in 1734, his life
 was terminated by a cannon ball.
   Berwick-upon-Tweed (anciently Tu-
 esis);  a town of England,  on the north
 or Scotch side of the Tweed, within half
 a nule of its confluence with the German
 ocean.  It is a county of itself, regularly
 fortified with walls, bastions and ditches;
 54 miles S. E. Edinburgh, 335 N. W.
 London; lon.2°W.; lat. 55° 47' N.; pop.
7746.   It exports corn, pork, eggs and
salmon.  The town has been, of late,
much  improved, and the streets are well
paved.  The bridge over the  Tweed is
1164  feet  long, and contains  6 arches.
The barracks can accommodate 600 men.
B. sends two members to parUament, and
has markets on Wednesday and Saturday.
It was formerly  the chief town in  the
county of  Berwick, and the theatre of
many  sanguinary conflicts between  the
English and Scottish armies.  Both  na-
tions considering it a fortress of great im-
portance, the town and its neighborhood
were a constant scene of bloodshed.  Af-
ter repeated sieges, it was finally ceded to
England in the year 1502; and, by a treaty
between Edward VI and Mary queen of
Scotland,  it was declared to-  be a free
town, independent of both states.   Upon
the death of EUzabeth, in 1603, James VI
of Scotland was  proclaimed at B. king
of England, France and  Ireland; and
when that monarch entered into his new
dominions, the constituted authorities of
the town received him with every  dem-
onstration of joy and respect.   In return,
the king confinned all their ancient  char-
ters, adding many privileges, which still
remain peculiar to the town and its Ub-
erties.   The peculiar privileges  of B., and
the circumstance that it was once  inde-
pendent of England and Scotland, are the
occasion why it was formerly the custom to
extend the  provisions of English statutes
to B. by name.  The statute 20 Geo. II,
c. 42, provides, that, where England only
is mentioned in an act of parliament, the
same shall be deemed to comprehend the
dominion of Wales and the town of B.
  Beryl,  or Emerald ; a well-known
species in mineralogy, sometimes massive
in its structure, though commonly found
crystallized  in regular,  six-sided prisms,
often deeply striated longitudinally, and
terminated  at one or both extremities  by
a rough, imperfect plane, or, more rarely,
by a very flat, six-sided pyramid, of which
the summit is replaced.  Its crystals are
of various dimensions, being from half an
inch to upwards of a foot in length, and
from a quarter  of an inch to 10 inches
in diameter.  The larger crystals,  how-
ever, are inferior to the smaller, in regard
to those quahties for wliich this  species is
esteemed.   The lustre  of the  beryl is
vitreous; its color,  green,  passing into
blue, yellow and white.   The brightest of
these colors is emerald green, which, as it
is rarely known to pass insensibly into
the paler hues, has been made the  basis
of a distinct species in those specimens in
which it occurs  under the name of  emer-
ald.  This  distinction of  species is not 
84
BERYL—BESSEL.
considered, at present, as well founded;
and the  beryl and  emerald are looked
upon as  identical by most mineralogists.
It is  translucent or transparent, and its
hardness enables it to scratch quartz.  Its
specific gravity is from 2.6 to 2.7.  It is
composed of silex, 68.35; alumine, 17.60;
glucine, 13.13; oxyde of iron, .72, with a
trace  of lime and oxyde of chrome.—The
beryl is widely diffused. It belongs to  the
iprimitive rocks, and is embedded in veins
iof  quartz and feldspar, which traverse
granite and mica slate.  It is also found in
great abundance in a compact ferruginous
clay in Daouria, and in fractured crystals
and rolled masses in secondary deposits,
where it is not supposed to have had its
origin.  Some of the  most remarkable
localities of beryl are  found in Siberia,
Limoges in France, and in Massachusetts,
Maine and New Hampshire in the  U.
States.  The deep-green variety, emerald,
so  much  valued as a  gem, comes from
Peru  and Upper  Egypt: a few fine crys-
tals have also been obtained from granite
veins at Topsham in Maine.
  Berzelius, James; bom at Linkioping,
in  East Gothland, in 1779.  As early as
1796, he began the study of medicine and
the natural sciences, particularly chemis-
try, for the prosecution  of which he  has
since made some scientific journeys.  He
is, at  present, professor  of chemistry and
pharmacy, secretary of the royal academy
of  sciences at Stockholm, &c.   Charles
XIV (Bernadotte) has made him a noble-
man.  He has done much towards estab-
lishing the electro-chemical system, which
at  present  prevails, and  according to
which no chemical  process can take
place without the intervention of electri-
city.   He has enriched chemistry, which,
in our times, has become a perfectly new
science, by tbe most important discoveries
and profound works.  In particular, he
has distinguished himself by researches
into the laws of definite proportions, dis-
covered by Richter, and has proved him-
self one of the best chemical analysts.  His
system of mineralogy is founded on  his
chemical principles.  Most of his works
have been translated into  EngUsh and
French.
  Besanqon  (in old German,  Bisanz);
lon. 6° 3' E.; lat. 47° 14' N.; 48 miles from
Paris; a large, old, well-built city, much
fortified  by Louis XIV; was transferred,
by  the peace of Nimwegen, with Franche-
Compte to France; at present, is the chief
place of the sixth miUtary division;  has
29,000 inhabitants, and is situated  in the
department Doubs.  There is  an arch-
bishop in B., under whom are the bishops
of Autun, Metz,  Nancy, Strasburg and
Dijon.  The academy of sciences at B.
was established in 1752: tliere is also here
an academy of fine arts, a school for artil-
lery, one for watch-makers, containing 200
pupils and a fine library, besides several
museums, a botanical garden, an agricul-
tural society, &c.   B. is a great manufac-
turing place.   It  was called, in ancient
times, Visontium, and was a fortified place
as early as the time of Caesar, who drove
from  hence the Sequani.  Here also he
conquered Ariovistus.   Several  streets
have  still the  old Roman names.  The
ruins  of a triumphal arch are  yet to be
seen.   The river  Doubs divides the city
into two parts, the upper and lower.  B.
contains 3300 houses, 8 churches, 8 hos-
pitals, a citadel, &c.  The fonner univer-
sity was changed, in 1801, into a lyceum.
It is the chief  place of an arrondissement,
which contains 93,211 inhabitants.
  Bessarabia ; since the peace of Bucha-
rest, in 1812, between Turkey and Russia,
a Russian province, between 45° and 48°
N. lat, and 28° and 31° E. lon.; containing
about 8800 square miles (according to some
accounts, more than double this  amount),
with 315,000 inhabitants; situated on the
Black sea, between the  northern arm of
the Danube, the Pruth and the  Dniester.
B. is a plain countiy,  fertile in grain, but
is mostly used for the pasturage  of sheep
and horses.  Most of the inhabitants are
Walachians, Gipsies  and Tartars.  The
capital is Chotzyni, a fortress.   Bender,
Ismail, Ackerman and Kilia Nova are also
fortresses. Kischenau, the seat of a Greek
bishop, has a large nursery of trees.  The
population has been much  increased by
colonists from Poland, Germany, France,
&c.    These   amount already  to 8300,
mostly Lutherans. A considerable num-
ber of troops are kept in B. to protect the
frontiers.   Many  mechanics are  thus
drawn there to supply the  wants of tlie
army.
   Bessel, Frederic William; considered
by many the best astronomical observer
of the present  age; has been professor of
astronomy in Konigsberg since 1810; was
bom in Minden, July 22,1784; entered, at
the age of 15  years, one of the first com-
mercial houses in Bremen.  The mari-
time intercourse of that place with foreign
countries excited in him an inclination for
geography, and afterwards for the science
of navigation, and induced him to attempt
the acquisition of mathematical knowl-
edge  from books.  He  soon passed  to
astronomy, and, as his days were other- 
BESSEL—BETHLEHEM.
85
 wise occupied, he devoted his nights to
 these  labors.   An  astronomical work
 which he wrote  procured  him  the ac-
 quaintance of Olbers  (q. v.), who, from
 that time,  became his  adviser.   In 1806,
 he joined  Scroter at Lilienthal, with rec-
 ommendations from  Olbers, and was em-
 ployed for four years as inspector of the
 instruments belonging to the university of
 Gottingen.  From thence he was invited
 to Konigsberg, where he built, in 1812—
 13, the observatory, which is a monument
 of the scientific enterprise of the north of
 Germany, since it was erected when Prus-
 sia was almost exhausted by  war,  and
 Konigsberg  was  situated on  the great
 theatre of Napoleon's  operations against
 Russia.  The observations, uninterrupted-
 ly continued at this  observatory, are con-
 tained in 5 vols., folio.  The observatory
 of Konigsberg was, till  1819, provided
 with English instruments, when the min-
 istry supplied it with the means  of pro-
 curing new instruments, made by Reich-
 enbach (q. v.), of the best workmanship.
 Besides  these observations and separate
 treatises,  B. published, in his work on
 the  comet of 1807,  a  theory of the dis-
 turbances  of these celestial bodies, and
 Fundamenta Astronomia pro an. 1755—a
 work in which he has reduced Bradley's
 observations, and given their results.  He
 treats also of the various subjects con-
 nected with these observations, namely,
 the instruments used and  the corrections
 to be made in them.   For the present
 period,  B. has endeavored, by his own
 observations and a strict criticism of meth-
 ods and instruments, to attain the necessary
 certainty.  Of his Astronomical Observa-
 tions at the Observatory of Konigsberg,
 the  10th No., from  Jan. 1 to  Dec.  31,
 1821, appeared at Konigsberg, 1826.
   Betel is the leaf of a climbing East
 Indian plant (piper-betel), which belongs
 to the same tribe as pepper, and, in shape
 and appearance, is not much unlike ivy,
 but  is more  tender, and full  of juice.
 There is an almost  incredible consump-
 tion of betel throughout India, and other
 parts of the East.   The inhabitants chew
 it almost incessantly,  and in such quantity
 that their lips become quite red, and their
 teeth black—a color greatly preferred by
 them to the whiteness which the Europe-
 ans so much affect.  They carry it, in lit-
 tle white boxes, about their persons, and
present it to each  other, by way of com-
pUment and civility,  in  the same manner
as Europeans do snuff.   This is done by
the women as well as by the men; and it
would be considered an offence, if those
  vol. ii. •          8
 to whom it is offered should refuse to ac-
 cept  of and chew it   The leaves are
 sometimes used alone, but much more
 commonly when covered with a kind of
 lime made of sea-shell, and wrapped round
 sUces of the areca nut,  the fruit  of the
 areca palm, of the size of a small egg, and
 resembling a nutmeg deprived of its husk.
  Bethania,oi- Bethany ; a viUage at the
 foot of mount Olivet,  on the west side,
 about two miles east of Jerusalem, where
 Lazarus dwelt, and was raised  from the
 dead, and where the ascension  of Christ
 is related  to  have  taken  place.   The
 house and  grave  of  Lazarus  and the
 house of Mary Magdalene are still shown
 to curious travellers.  The name of B.
 was sometimes  extended to the whole
 tract from the village itself to Bethphage.
  Bethesda ; a pool in Judea, the name
 of which signifies house of mercy.  In the
 five halls or porticos near it  many patients
 lay waiting, according  to the account  of
 John (ch. v), for the moving of the waters,
 to bathe in it.  According to the opinion
 of the Jews, an angel descended, at  a cer-
 tain time, into the pool, and  troubled the
 water, and  whoever first entered the wa-
 ter, after this agitation, was cured.   This
 pool seems to have been composed of a
 red-colored mineral water, which received
 its healing  power  from the red earth at
 the bottom.  If the healing fountain, after
 having been obstructed for  a time, began
 to bubble up anew, and the patient made
 use  of  it before the  motion ceased, it
 healed his  disease.—To lie at the pool of
 Bethesda,is used proverbially,in Germany,
 in speaking of the  theological candidates
 who are  waiting for a benefice.
  Bethlehem ; the birth-place of David
 and Christ; a village, formerly a town,  in
 Palestine, a part  of Syria, in the pachaUc
 of Damascus, five miles from Jerusalem,
 at the foot  of a  hill  covered with  vines
 and olive-trees, which, however, is not the
 mount of Olives mentioned in the Bible.
 An aqueduct conveys water from the hill
 to the vUlage.  It  has 300  houses, and
 2400  Greek and  Armenian inhabitants,
 who make  wooden rosaries and cruci-
 fixes, inlaid with mother of pearl, for pil-
 grims ; also excellent white wine.  In a
 rich  grotto, furnished  with silver and
 crystal lamps, under  the choir of the
 church  of  a convent  in this viUage, a
 trough of marble is shown,  which is said
 to be the manger in which Jesus was
 laid after his birth.  There are three con-
 vents there, for Catholics, Greeks and Ar-
menians. The greatest ornament of die
place is the  stately church erected by the 
86                    BETHLEHEM—BETTERTON.
empress Helena over the  place where
Christ  is said to have been born, and
bearing her name.  It is bunt in the form
of a cross, and the top commands a fine
view over the surrounding country. Sev-
eral spots  mentioned  in  the Bible  are
shown  there.
  Bethlehem.   There are  many places
in the U. States with this name.  One of
the most important is the borough and
post-town in Northampton county, Penn-
sylvania, on the Lehigh, 12 miles S. W.
Easton, 54 N. N. W. Philadelphia.  Pop-
ulation in 1810, 1436; in 1820, 1860.  It
is pleasantly situated, regularly laid out,
built chiefly of stone, and inhabited whol-
ly by Moravians, who have a bishop there.
B. contains two academies, one for young
ladies, and another for boys.
  Betrothment, in law; a mutual prom-
ise or  compact  between two  parties,  by
which  they bind themselves to marry.
The word  imports giving  one's  troth,
i. e., true faith or promise.  Betrothment
amounts to the same with  what is call-
ed, by  civilians and canonists, sponsalia
or  espousals,  sometimes  desponsation,
and, by the French, flangailles.  Betroth-
ment is either solemn (made in the face
of the  church), or private (made before
witnesses out of the church).  According
to the Roman law, betrothment  ought to
be made by a stipulation, i. e., a contract,
in which one binds himself, by an answer
to a question put to him, to the fulfilment
of a contract.  As betrothments are con-
tracts,  they are subject to the same rules
as other contracts; for instance, that they
are vaUd only between persons whose ca-
pacity  to contract is recognised by law;
and the use of fraud, violence or intimida-
tion vitiates the contract  The consent
of both parties, of course, is  required.
This may be expressed either verbally, or
by writing, or by action.   In Germany,
the consent of the parents is always ne-
cessary, if the parties are under age, not
yet sui juris. But if the parents withhold
their consent unreasonably, the permis-
sion of the judge  is allowed to sanction
the contract If the opinions of the pa-
rents are diverse, the law gives effect to
that of the father.  Some provincial laws
require the consent of the relations, and
the presence of witnesses.   Betrothments
 contracted thus, according  to  law,  are
caUed  sponsalia publico; others are called
iponsalia clandestina.  The latter  are, in
iiome places, utterly invaUd; in others, on-
ly punishable.  By the common German
law, however, they are valid in every case
 in which consummation or consecration
by the priest has taken place.   The pa-
rents, in these cases, are  not allowed to
apply for a dissolution of the contract, nor
can they refuse their consent, except for
highly important  reasons.   Public be-
trothment induces the obligation to marry.
In case of refusal to complete the contract
by marriage, the injured  party is allow-
ed an action at law to compel its perform-
ance ; but, since unhappy marriages are
among the greatest misfortunes, the means
of compulsion  applied by the  law are
never great, amounting only to a small
fine, or a short imprisonment.  If circum-
stances take  place which, if happening
before the betrothment, would have neces-
sarily prevented it, the party affected by
them is allowed to recede from the en-
gagement, and the modem laws  allow
only an action for damages.  In Germany,
betrothment generaUy takes place in a
smaU company of relations  and friends.
In Russia, it was once binding and  indis-
soluble, like marriage, but is now a mere
form  accompanying the  marriage cere-
mony.
  Betterment is  a term used, in some
of the U. States, to signify the  improve-
ments made on lands by the  occupant, in
building, fencing, draining, &c.; and the
statutes of some of the U. States provide,
that where a purchaser comes into posses-
sion under what he supposes to be a good
title, and the land is afterwards recovered
against him by virtue of  a better title, in
case he or those under whom he claims
have  been in  possession of it  a certain
number of years, he shall be entitled to
claim against the owner who so  recovers
possession of the land, the  value of the
improvements or betterments.  This is a
very  equitable provision  of the laws in
states where, as in  many  parts  of the U.
States, titles are not fully estabUshed and
confirmed by a long period of possession,
and where, in newly-settled territories, the
improvements  may,  in  a  few  years,
amount to more than the original value
of the land.
   Betterton, Thomas, a celebrated act-
or in the reign of Charles II, was bom in
Westminster,  in  1635,  and excelled in
Shakspeare's characters of Hamlet, Othel-
lo, Brutus and Hotspur.  In  1635, he
opened a new play-house in Lincoln's-
inn-fields, but did not succeed.   He died
 in 1710, and was buried in  Westminster
abbey.  He wrote  the  Woman made a
 Justice, a comedy; the Amorous Wid-
 ow, or the Wanton Wife;  Diocletian, a
 dramatic opera, &c.  The Unjust Judge,
 or Appius and Virginia, a  tragedy, was 
BETTERTON—BEZA.                         87
written originally by Mr. John Webster,
and altered by B.
  Bettinelli, Saverio, an Italian author,
bom at Mantua, in 1718, studied there and
at Bologna, under the Jesuits; entered, in
1736, the novitiate of  diis  order, and
taught, from 1739 to 44, belles-lettres at
Brescia, where he  made  himself known
by some poems composed for the use of
schools.  In Bologna, where he studied
theology,  he continued to cultivate his
poetical talents, and wrote for the theatre
of the college his tragedy of Jonathan.
In 1751, he was intrusted with the  direc-
tion  of the  college of nobles at Parma.
After having remained tliere eight years,
he travelled in France and Germany, and
returned to Verona, where he remained
till 1767, engaged in preaching and  in-
struction.  After the suppression of the
Jesuits, in 1773, he returned to his native
city,  where he  resumed  his literary  la-
bors  with renewed zeal.  He published
several  works, among which some were
intended for ladies; as,  his  Correspond-
ence between  two  Ladies, his Letters to
Lesbia  on Epigrams, and  likewise  his
Twenty-four Dialogues on Love.   He be-
gan, in  1799,  a  complete edition of  his
works (Venice, 1801,12 vols. 12mo.)   He
preserved the cheerfulness and  serenity
of Ins spirit to  the age of 90 years, and
died  in  1808, with the composure of a
philosopher, and the devotion of a Chris-
tian.  Besides his works already  men-
tioned, we cite his DelV  Entusiasmo delle
belle Arti, Risorgimento  negli Studj, nelle
Arti e ne' Costumi dopo  il Mille  (3 vols.),
a superficial work, which is, however, not
destitute  of new and just  views.  The
Lettere  died di  VirgUio agli Arcadi at-
tracted great  attention.  The ideas ex-
pressed in this  work of the  two  great
names of ItaUan poetry,  particularly of
Dante, involved him in  many  contests.
His Poesie (3  vols.) contain 7 poemetti, 16
letters in blank verse,  sonnets,  canzoni,
&c.  Although  this  collection does not
show any great  poetical power,  yet it is
always  elegant and ingenious.   It  is
preceded by  a treatise   on Italian po-
etry.
   Bey, among the Turks, signifies a gov-
ernor of a town, seaport or small district.
The  Turks  write  the  word beg.  (q. v.)
(See also Beglerbeg.)
  Beza (properly,de Beze), Theodore; next
to Calvin, the most distinguished for genius
and influence  among the preachers of the
Calvinistic  church in the 16th  century.
Bom of a noble family at Vczelay, in Bur-
gundy, June 24,1519; educated in Orleans,
under Melchior Volmar, a German philolo-
ger devoted to the reformation ; and early
familiar with the ancient classical literature,
he became known, at the age of 20 years,
as a Latin poet, by his petulant and witty
Juvenilia (a collection of poems of which
he was afterwards ashamed). In 1539, he
was made a Ucentiate of law, and, in  the
same year, invited by his family to Paris.
He received from his uncle the reversion
of  his  valuable  abbey Froidmond, and
lived on the income of two benefices and
the property which he had inherited from
a brother.  His habits, at this time, were
dissipated. His handsome figure, his  tal-
ents, amd his connexion with the most
distinguished famiUes, opened to him  the
most splendid prospects.   But a clandes-
tine marriage, in 1543, recalled him from
his excesses, and a dangerous Alness con-
firmed the intention, which he had formed
at Orleans, of devoting himself to the ser-
vice of the reformed church ; so that, after
his recovery, he forsook  all the advan-
tages of his situation in Paris, and repair-
ed, with  his  wife,  to Geneva, in  1547.
Soon after, he accepted a professorship of
the Greek language at Lausanne.  Dur-
ing the 10 years of his continuance in
this office, he  wrote a tragi-comic drama,
in French,—the Sacrifice of Abraham,—>
which was received with much approba-
tion ; delivered lectures (which were  nu-
merously attended) on the Epistle to the
Romans and  the Epistles of Peter (which
served as the basis  of his Latin transla-
tion of the New Testament, of which he
afterwards published several editions, al-
ways with improvements);  finished Ma-
rot's translation of the  Psalms in French
verse; and obtained to such a degree  the
confidence of the  Swiss Calvinists, that
he was sent,  in  1558, on  an embassy to
the Protestant princes of Germany, to ob-
tain their intercession at the French court
for the release of the Huguenots impris-
oned in Paris.  In the following year, he
went to Geneva as a preacher, and, soon
after, became a professor of theology,  and
the most active assistant of Calvin, to
whom he had already recommended him-
self by several works (on the punishment
of heretics by the magistrate, the  vindica-
tion of the burning of Servetus, and some
violent controversial writings on the doc-
trine of predestination and the commun-
ion, against Castalio, Westphal and Hess-
huss).   His talents for negotiation were
now often put in requisition by the Cal-
vinists.  He  was  sent  to the  court of
Anthony, king of Navarre, at Nerac, to
obtain die toleration of the French Hu- 
BEZA—BEZOAR.
 guenots, and, at his desire, he appeared,
 1561, at the religious conference at Pois-
 sy, where he spoke in behalf of his party
 with a  boldness, presence  of mind and
 energy, which gamed him the esteem  of
 the French court  He often preached in
 Paris before the queen of Navarre and
 the prince of Conde; also in the suburbs.
 At the conference of St. Germain, in 1562,
 he spoke strongly against the worship  of
 images, and, after the commencement  of
 the civil war, accompanied the prince  of
 Conde  as chaplain, and, on  the capture
 of the  prince, joined  the admiral Co-
 ligny.   After the restoration of peace,  he
 returned to Geneva, in 1563, where, be-
 sides discharging the duties of his offices,
 he continued  to engage  in theological
 controversies in support of the Calvinists;
 and, after Calvin's death, in 1564, became
 his successor, and was considered the first
 theologian of this church. He presided in
 the synods of the French Calvinists at La
 Rochelle (1571) and at Nismes (1572),
 where he opposed Morel's  proposal for
 the alteration of clerical discipline; was
 sent by  Cond6 (1574) to the  court of the
 elector palatine ; and, at the religious con-
 ference  at Montpellier (1586), opposed the
 theologians of Wiirtemberg, particularly
 James Andreas.  At the age of 69 years,
 he married  his  second  wife (1588), and
 still continued to repel, with the power
 of truth and wit, the attacks and calum-
 nies which his enemies, apostatized Cal-
 vinists (such as Volsec), Lutherans, and
 particularly the Jesuits, heaped upon him.
 They reported, in 1597, that he had died,
 and returned  before  his  death  to the
 Catholic faith.  B., now 78 years old, met
 his assailants in  a  poem full of youthful
 enthusiasm, and resisted, in the same year,
 the attempts of St. Francis de Sales  to
 convert him, and the  alluring offers of the
 pope.   In 1600,  he visited  Henry IV,  in
 the territory of Geneva, who presented
 him with 500 ducats.  After having en-
joyed  excellent health during almost his
 whole life, he died, Oct.  13,  1605, of old
 age.  By  a  rigorous  adherence  to the
 principles of Calvin,  in whose spirit he
 presided over the  church of Geneva, he
 had become the chief of his party, and
 enjoyed for 40 years  the reputation of a
 patriarch, without whose approbation no
 important step was taken.   In order  to
 preserve the unity and permanency  of
 bis church, he sacrificed his own opinions
 to the estabhshed dogmas of Calvin, and
 rendered the most  important services by
 his various  erudition, his constant zeal,
 his active spirit, his  brilUant eloquence,
and even by the impression of his person-
al appearance, which age made still more
Btriking.   He defended his doctrines with
ability and enthusiasm, and  often with
mercfless severity and obstinacy.  Among
his  many works,  his  exegetic writings,
and an able and correct History of Cal-
vinism in France, from 1521 to 63, which is
ascribed to him, are still much esteemed.
His correspondence with Calvin is to be
found  in the ducal library at Gotha.  A
catalogue of his works is given by Antho-
ny  la  Faye, who has written an account
of his Ufe.
  Bezant ;  round, flat  pieces  of pure
gold,  without  any impression, supposed
to have been the current coin  of Byzan-
tium.   This coin was probably introduced
into coat-armor by the crusaders.  Doc-
tor  Henry, in his History of England, es-
timates its value at 9s. 4£tf. sterling.  The
gold offered by the king of England on
the  altar, at the feast of the Epiphany and
the  Purification, is called bezant.
  Bezoar (Persian, pazar, a goat, or pa-
zachar, against  poison); a concretion or
calculus, of an  orbicular or oval form, met
with in the bodies of various animals.
These substances are found in the stom-
ach,  gall-bladder, salivary  ducts,  and
pineal gland, but especially in  the intes-
tines of certain animals of the order rumi-
nantia.  They were formerly  celebrated
for their supposed  medicinal virtues, and
distinguished  by the name  of the  coun-
tries from which they came, or the ani-
mals in which they were found.   They
were considered as highly alexipharmic ;
so much so, that other medicines, suppos-
ed to  possess the same virtues, obtained
the  name  of bezoardics.   So efficacious
were these once thought, that  they were
eagerly bought for 10 times their weight
in gold. Besides being taken  internally,
they were  worn around the neck, as pre-
servatives from contagion.   For this pur-
pose,  it is said, that in Portugal it was
customary to hire them at the price of
about 10 shillings per day.  On analysis,
these substances are found to contain, for
the  most part, bile and resin. It is almost
needless to add, that the accounts of their
extraordinary virtues must now be con-
sidered as totally fabulous.—A strange ori-
gin  was assigned  to the bezoar by some
of the old naturaUsts.   The Oriental stags,
when oppressed with  age and infirmity,
were said  to feed upon serpents, which
restored their youthful  vigor.   To  coun-
teract the  poison which by this  means
was absorbed  into their  system,  they
plunged into some running stream, leav- 
BEZOAR—BIAS.
89
ing their  heads only above  water.  In
this situation,  a viscous fluid distilled
from their eyes, which was  indurated by
the heat of the sun, and formed the be-
zoar.—The great value of the bezoar at
one time gave birth to  many imitations
of it, and various tests have been proposed
to detect the artificial stones.  The fol-
lowing cruel and absurd one is given by
Clusius:—Thread a needle, and draw the
thread through a leaf plucked from a yew-
tree ; then pass the needle through a dog's
foot, and leave the thread in the wound ;
when the  dog becomes convulsed, and
appears dying, mix some scrapings of be-
zoar with water, and moisten the animal's
mouth with it; if he recover, the stone is
genuine.  Simpler methods, perhaps, are,
immersion in warm water, which neither
loses  its own color, nor diminishes the
weight of the bezoar: or rubbing it over
paper smeared with chaUc or quick-Ume ;
the genuine stone leaves a yeUow hue on
the first, a green one on the last.
  Bia ; a name given by the  Siamese to
those small shells which are  caUed  cow-
rie* throughout almost all the other parts
of the East Indies.  (See Cowries.)
  Biagioli, Josaphat; a learned ItaUan
linguist at Paris.  Before the invasion of
Italy,  by the  joint  forces  of  Austria
and Russia,  hi 1798, he was professor of
Greek and Latin Uterature at the univer-
sity of Urbino.  As B. had shown  him-
self a  friend to the cause  of liberty, he
took refuge in Paris, and was appointed
professor of Italian Uterature at a pryta-
neum,  and delivered lectures before a
splendid audience.  He is the editor of
the Lettere del Card. Bentivoglio  (Paris,
1808—12), and author  of  a  Grammaire
raisonnee de la Langue Italienne a V Usage
des Frangois, suivie (Pun Traite de la Po-
ede Italienne (Paris, 1809), which obtained
the approbation of the  French institute,
and has passed through four editions. He
has also prepared a Grammatica ragionata
delta Lingua Francese all' Uso degl'  Itali-
ani (1812).  His edition of  the Divina
Commedia del Dante Alighieri (Paris, 1818,
3 vols.),  for the  correctness  of the text
and the excellence of the commentary, is
held in great esteem; but it has also con-
tributed to the propagation  of many new
errors relating to Dante, partly from the
editor's violent  spirit  of  opposition  to
Lombardi.  It obtained the honor of be-
ing reprinted in Italy (Milan, 1820,16mo.)
B. has pubUshed, at Paris,  Petrarca, and
the poems of Michael Angelo Buonarotti,
with  a commentary similar to  that  of
Dante,  and is now occupied with the
                   8*
composition of  an  ItaUan-French  and
French-ItaUan dictionary.
  Bianchini, Francesco, bora at Verona,
1662, studied mathematics, physics, anat-
omy and botany, at first under the Jesuits,
afterwards (1680) at Padua.  He was in-
tended for  the clerical profession, repair-
ed to Rome, and there appUed himself to
jurisprudence, but continued at the same
time the study  of experimental physics,
astronomy, &c, as well as of Greek, He-
brew, &c.  Antiquities also  became one
of his favorite studies.  He passed whole
days amidst ancient monuments,  was
present at all the excavations in search of
them, visited aU the museums,  and  made
drawings of the remains of antiquity with
as much taste as skill. At  the death  of
Innocent XI, cardinal Ottoboni ascend-
ed  the papal throne under the  name
of Alexander  VIII,  and bestowed on B. a
rich benefice, with the appointment of tu-
tor and librarian to his nephew, the cardi-
nal Pietro Ottoboni.  Pope  Clement XI
also patronised  him, and appointed him
secretary to the commission  employed in
the  correction of the calendar. B. was
commissioned to draw a meridian in the
church of St. Maria degli Angeli, and to
erect a sun-dial.  He successfully accom-
pUshed this difficult undertaking, with the
assistance of Maraldi.  Being  on a tour
through  France, Holland and  England,
he formed the idea of drawing a meridian
in Italy from one sea to the other, in imi-
tation  of that which Cassini had drawn
through  France.  He was occupied eight
years at his own expense in that work;
but other employments withdrew his at-
tention from it, and it remained unfinished.
He concluded his career with two impor-
tant works (1727), on the planet  Venus and
on the sepulchre of Augustus.  He died in
1729.  A monument was erected to his
memory in the  cathedral at Verona.  He
united the most extensive  learning with
modesty and the most amiable  manners.
   Bias ; son of Teutamus; bora at Priene,
one of the  principal cities of Ionia, about
570 B. C.  He  was a practical philoso-
pher, studied the laws of his country, and
employed his knowledge in the service
of his friends;  defending  them in the
courts of justice, or settling their disputes.
He made a noble use of his wealth.   His
advice, that the Ionians should  fly before
the victorious Cyrus to Sardinia, was not
followed, and the victory of  the army of
Cyrus confirmed the corcectness of his
opinion. The inhabitants of Priene, when
besieged by Mazares, resolved to abandon
the city with their property.  On this oc- 
90                            BIAS—BIBLE.
casion, B. repUed to one of his fellow-
citizens, who expressed his astonishment
that he made no preparations for his de-
 Sarture,—" I carry every thing with me."
 >. remained in his native country, where
he died at a very advanced age. His coun-
trymen buried him with splendor, and hon-
ored his memory. Some of his sayings and
precepts are yet preserved.  He was num-
bered among the seven sages of Greece.
  Bibbiena,  Fernando;  a painter and
architect.   His father,  Giovanni  Maria
GalU  (a less distinguished painter and
architect), named his son B. from his na-
tive town in Tuscany.  The son was born
at Bologna, 1657.  Carlo Cignani (q. v.)
directed his studies.  B. was afterwards
invited to Barcelona.  The duke of Par-
ma subsequently made him director of his
theatres.   Charles VI afterwards invited
him to Vienna.  Several beautiful build-
ings  were  erected in Austria from  his
plans.  In his theatrical paintings, he has
continued the vicious style of Borromini
and others.  His writings display extent
and accuracy of knowledge.   When con-
siderably advanced in life, his weak sight
prevented him from  painting, and  he
occupied himself with the revision of his
works, which he published anew at Bo-
logna, 1725 and 1731, in 2 vols.; the first,
under the  title Direzioni a' giovani Stu-
dcnti  nel Disegno dell Architettura civile:
in the second,  he  treats of perspective.
He finally became blind, and died 1743.
His three sons extended their father's art
through all Italy and Germany.  Antonio
succeeded to his father's place at the court
of the emperor Charles VI.   Giuseppe
died at Berlin, and Alessandro in the ser-
vice of the elector palatine.  A collection
of B.'s decorations has been published at
Augsburg.
   Bible ; a book, from the  Greek  0t(i\os,
which signifies the soft bark of a tree, on
which the ancients wrote. The collection
of the Sacred Writings, or Holy Scriptures
of the Christians, is called the Bible, or
the Book, by way  of excellence.   Some
of these writings, which are also received
by the Jews as  the records of their faith,
are caned the Old Testament, or writings
of the old covenant, because the Jewish
reUgion was represented as a compact or
covenant between God and the Jews, and
the Greek word for covenant (foaQfiKn) signi-
fies also last will, or testament.  The same
figure was applied to the Christian religion,
which was considered as an extension of
the old covenant, or a covenant between
God  and the whole human  race.  The
sacred writings pecuUar to the Christians
are, therefore, called the Scriptures of the
New Testament. (See  Testament.)  The
order of the books of the Old Testament,
as they are arranged in  the editions of the
Latin version, called the Vulgate (q. v.),
according to the decree of the council of
Trent (sess. 4), is  as follows:—Genesis,
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuterono-
mv, Joshua, Judges and Ruth; I Samuel,
or" I Kings;  II Samuel, or  II Kings;  I
Kings, otherwise called III Kings;  II
Kings, otherwise called IV Kings; I Es-
dras (as it is called in the Septuagint (q. v.)
and  Vulgate), or Ezra; II Esdras, or (as
we call it) Nehemiah; *Tobit, *Judith,
Esther, Job,  Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesi-
astes, Song of Solomon, *The Book of
Wisdom, *Ecclesiasticus, Isaiah, Jeremi-
ah and *Baruch; Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea,
Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Nahum (which, in
our editions,  is placed  after Micah and
before Habakkuk), Jonah (which we place
after Obadiah), Micah, Habakkuk, Zeph-
aniah,  Haggai, Zechariah,  Malachi, *I
Maccabees and *II Maccabees.  (Those
to which  an  asterisk is prefixed  are, by
Protestants, considered apocryphal,  q. v.)
The books received by the Jews were
divided by Ezra  into  three classes:—1.
The Law, contained in the  Pentateuch,
(q.v.) or five books  of Moses.  2.  The
Prophets, comprising Joshua, Judges and
Ruth, I and II Samuel, I and II Kings, I
and  II Chronicles, Isaiah, Jeremiah and
Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, the 12 mi-
nor prophets, Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther.
3. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, that is,
holy writings, containing the Psalms, the
Proverbs, Ecclesiastes  and the Song of
Solomon.  These books were written in
the Hebrew language (q. v.), while those
which are rejected  from the canon as
apocryphal by the  Protestants, are found
only in Greek  or Latin.  The books of
Moses were deposited,  according to the
Bible, after his death,  in the tabernacle,
near the ark: the other sacred writings,  it
is further said, were successively deposit-
ed in the same place, as they were written.
After the  building of  the temple,  they
were removed by Solomon to that edifice:
on  the capture of Jemsalem  by Nebu-
chadnezzar, die autographs probably per-
ished, but numerous copies were  preserv-
ed, as is inferred from allusions in writers
subsequent to  the Babylonish captivity.
It is generally admitted, that  the canon of
the Old Testament was settled soon after
the return from Babylon, and the reestab-
lishment  of the Jewish religion.   This
work was accomplished, according to the
traditions of the Jews, by Ezra, with the 
BIBLE.
91
assistance of the great synagogue, who
collected and compared as many copies
as could be found.  From this collation a
correct edition of the whole was prepared,
with the exception of the writings of Ezra,
Malachi and Nehemiah, which were add-
ed by Simon the Just.   When Judas
Maccabaeus  repaired the  temple,  which
had been destroyed by Antiochus Epipha-
nes, he placed in it a correct copy of the
Hebrew Scriptures, whether the autograph
of Ezra or not is not known.  This copy
was  carried  to Rome by  Titus.   The
division  into chapters  and verses is of
modern origin.  Cardinal Hugo de Sancto
Caro, who flourished in the 13th century,
having  divided  the  Vulgate into chap-
ters, for  convenience of reference, simi-
lar divisions were 'made  in the Hebrew
text by  rabbi Mordecai Nathan, in the
15th century. The present  division into
verses was made  by Athias, a  Jew of
Amsterdam, in his edition of 1661.  The
punctuation is also the work of modern
scholars.  Biblical critics divide the Scrip-
tures of the Old Testament into the Pen-
tateuch, or five books of Moses;  the his-
torical  books,  from  Joshua to  Esther
inclusive ; the doctrinal or poetical books
of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and
'the Song of Solomon; the prophetical
books.—The most esteemed manuscripts
of the  Hebrew  Bible are those of the
Spanish Jews.  The most ancient are not
more than seven  or eight centuries old:
the famous manuscript of the Samaritan
Pentateuch, in the possession of the Sa-
maritans of Sichem, is only 500 years old:
a manuscript in the Bodleian library is
thought to be 700 years old: one in the
Vatican is supposed to have been written
in 973.  In some manuscripts, the  Masora
(q. v.) is added.—The printed editions of
the  Hebrew Bible are very numerous.
The earliest were printed in Italy.  The
first edition  of the entire Hebrew Bible
was printed at Soncino, in 1488.  The
Brescian edition of 1494  was used by
Luther,  in making his German transla-
tion.   The editions of Athias, a Jew of
Amsterdam, 1661 and  1667,  are much
esteemed for their beauty and correctness.
Van der Hooght followed the latter. Doc-
tor Kennicott did more than any one of
his predecessors to settle the Hebrew text.
His Hebrew Bible appeared at Oxford, in
1776—1780, 2  vols.,  folio.  The text is
from that of Van der Hooght, with which
630 MSS. were collated.   De Rossi, who
published  a supplement to Kennicott's
edition (Parma,  1784—99, 5 vols.,  4to.),
coUated 958 MSS.   The German Orien-
talists, Gesenius, De Wette, &c, in recent
times, have done very much towards cor-
recting the Hebrew  text   The earUest
and most famous version of the Old Tes-
tament is the Septuagint, or Greek trans-
lation.   The Syriac version, called the
Peschito, was made early in the second
centuiy.  It is celebrated for its fidelity.
The Coptic version was made from the
Septuagint, some time before the  seventh
centuiy.  The Gothic version, by Ulphi-
las, was also made from the Septuagint,
in the  fourth century.  The most impor-
tant Latin version is the Vulgate.  (For an
account of the  principal  polyglots, see
Polyglot.)—The  books of the New  Tes-
tament were all written in Greek, unless
it be true, as some  critics suppose, that
the Gospel of St. Matthew was originally
written in  Hebrew.  Most  of these  wri-
tings have always been received as canon-
ical ; but the Epistle to the Hebrews, by
an uncertain author, that of St. Jude, the
second of Peter, the second and third of
John, and  the Apocalypse  (q.  v.) have
been doubted.   Eusebius  distinguishes
three sorts  of books  connected  with the
New Testament:—1. those  which have
always been unanimously received, name-
ly, the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apos-
tles, 13 Epistles of Paul, the first Epistle
of Peter, and the first of John: 2. those
which were not received,  at first, by all
the churches; of these, some which  have
been already mentioned, though at first
rejected  by some churches, have been
since universally received; others, such as
the  Books  of the Shepherd, the Letter of
St  Barnabas, the two  Epistles of St.
Clement, have not been generally acknowl-
edged as canonical:  3. books  forged by
heretics, to maintain their doctrines;  such
are the Gospels of St. Thomas, St. Peter,
&c.  The  division of the text of the  New
Testament into  chapters  and verses was
introduced earlier than that of the Old
Testament; but it is not precisely known
when, or by whom.  (For the numerous
translations of the Bible, in modern times,
see the article Bible Societies, and the annual
reports of these societies, particularly of the
British and foreign Bible society.) In Bib-
lical criticism, the Germans have, without
doubt, done more than any other nation;
and we should  far exceed our limits, if
we  were to attempt an enumeration of
their works  in this  department   (See
 Wette, Griesbach, Gesenius, Schleiermacher,
Michaelis,  &c.)—-The whole Bible was
translated  into  Saxon by  Bede, in the
beginning  of the eighth centuiy.   The
first English translation, by an unknown 
92
BIBLE—BIBLE SOCIETIES.
hand, is supposed  to  have been made
near the end of the 13th century. Wick-
liffe's translation of the entire Bible from
the Vulgate, 1380, was  first printed 1731.
The first printed edition of any part of the
Scriptures in English was a translation of
the New  Testament  from the original
Greek, pubUshed by Tindal, 1526.  The
whole  impression  was  bought up  and
burnt by the  bishop  of London.  The
authorized version now in use, hi England
and America, was made by the command
of James I, and is commonly caUed king
James's Bible.  Forty-seven distinguished
scholars were appointed for this purpose,
and divided into six classes.  Ten at West-
minster  were  to translate to the end of
II Kings;  eight at Cambridge  were to
finish the remaining historical books and
die Hagiographa: at Oxford, seven were
engaged on the Prophets: the four Gos-
pels, Acts of the Apostles and Apocalypse
were assigned to  another  company of
eight at Oxford;  and the Epistles were
allotted  to a company of seven at West-
minster : the apocryphal books were to be
translated  by a company at Cambridge.
Each individual translated all the books
allotted  to  his class.   The whole class
then compared all the translations,  and
adopted the readings agreed  on by the
majority.  The book, thus finished,  was
sent to  each of die other classes.  This
translation occupied three years.  Copies
were then  sent to London, one from each
of the above-named places.  Here a com-
mittee of six, one from each class, review-
ed the whole, which was last of all revised
by doctor Smith and doctor Bilson, bishop
of Winchester. It was printed  in 1611.
The latest  and most  complete  revision
was  made  by doctor Blayney, Oxford,
1769. (For an account of the  German
translation, see Luther,  and  Reformation.
As a general book of reference, relating to
the literature of the Bible, Home's Intro-
duction  to  the Study of the Scriptures
may be consulted.   See  also  Harris's
Natural History of the Bible.)
  Bible, Geography of, describes Palestine,
and gives an account of the Asiatic coun-
tries bordering on  Palestine, and of the
provinces of the Roman empire into which
Christianity was  introduced, during the
age of the apostles.  The sources of this
science are the Scriptures, the writings of
Josephus,  the geographical  authors  of
antiquity,—Strabo, Ptolemy and  Pompo-
nius Mela,—and tbe Onomaslicon Urbium
et Locorum Scriptura Sacra, written by
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, in the fourth
century, in Greek, and translated by Je-
rome into  Latin.   Among  the learned
moderns who have cultivated this sciencs,
so important for the interpreter of the
Holy Scriptures, are Bachiene, Wells, and
the  Dutchman Ysbrand of Hamelsfeld.
(See Geography.)
  Bible Societies.   A clergyman  of
Wales, whom the want of a Welsh Bible
led to London, occasioned the establish-
ment of the British  and foreign Bible
society, which  was founded in London.
March 7,1804.  It was called the Bible
society, because its object was the distri-
bution of the Bible; British, because  its
operations were first directed towards the
poor of Great  Britain;  and fordgn, be-
cause it proposed, as far as its means would
permit, to send  Bibles, in all languages, to
all parts of the world.   The Bibles dis-
tributed by the society were to be without
additions and  explanations, in order to
give them  a more universal circulation.
In the same year, the first general meet-
ing was held in London, which unani-
mously adopted the proposed plan.  Lord
Teignmouth was chosen president, and
many bishops, lords and members of par-
liament accepted the office of vice-presi-
dent  In  1815, 484  similar institutions
had  been  formed  in all parts of Great
Britain, and connected with the former as
a parent society, to support it with pe-
cuniary contributions,  and to receive,  in
return, a supply of Bibles.  There are,
besides, several Bible societies among the
lower class  of  people, the  members  of
which pay,  weekly, a penny or a  half-
penny to provide  themselves, their  chil-
dren or other poor persons with Bibles.
In Germany, Switzerland, Holland, Rus-
sia, Sweden, Denmark, America, similar
Bible societies have been  formed, and are
connected with the British.  The  24th
annual report of the British and foreign
Bible society in London, 1828, gives a list
of editions  of the  whole or parts of the
Scriptures, printed for the society, in the
following  languages:—English,  Welsh,
Gaelic,  Irish, Manks,  French, Basque,
Breton,  Flemish,  Spanish,  Portuguese,
Italian, Dutch, Danish, Hebrew, Swedish,
German, Polish, Greek (ancient and mod-
em), Armenian (ancient and  modem),
Arabic, Coptic, Indo-Portuguese, Syriac,
Carshun, Esquimaux, Mohawk, Ethiopic,
Malay, Turkish, Hindostanee, Greenland-
ish, Amharic, Persian, Bohemian, Latin,
Albanian.   The same report gives the
following summary of languages and di-
alects, in which the distribution, printing
or translation of the Scriptures, in whole
or in part, has been promoted by the so- 
BIBLE SOCIETIES.
93
ciety, directly or  indirectly:—Reprints,
42; retranslations,  5; languages and di-
alects in which the Scriptures had never
been printed before the institution of the
society, 58; new translations commenced
or completed,  38;  total, 143. The soci-
ety provides many translations of single
books of the Bible, or of the New Testa-
ment, in numerous languages and dialects
of the nations of Middle and Eastern Asia,
at Calcutta and Madras; as well as in the
languages of the Levant, North  Africa,
&c. (e. g., the Arabic, Tartar, Syriac, and
two dialects of the Ethiopic), at Smyrna,
Malta, and other depots of the Mediterra-
nean ; and aids all  the Bible societies of
the continent of Europe.   It has agents
in almost all parts of the inhabited globe,
who travel at its expense, to discover the
best means of diffusing the Bible, and to
procure able translators and manuscripts
of ancient translations for the use of the
society.  Pinkerton found, in Paris, trans-
lations of the Bible  in the dialects  of
Northern Asia and Thibet, with the char-
acters belonging to them, which had been
brought to France, under Napoleon, from
die archives of the propaganda at Rome.
The most difficult translation  was that
into  the Esquimaux language.  Accord-
ing to the 24th  report above-mentioned,
published in  1828, tliere were issued in
England, during the 24th year from the es-
tablishment of the society, Bibles, 137,162;
Testaments, 199,108; purchased  and  is-
sued  for the society, in foreign parts, du-
ring  the same period,  Bibles,  212,024;
Testaments, 818,834: total issued on ac-
count of the society, from its establish-
ment, Bibles,  2,248,182 ;  Testaments,
3,422,341 ; grand  total, 5,670,523.   In
addition to this, the society has granted
about £53,800 for  distributing, in various
parts of the European continent, French,
German, Swedish and Danish Bibles and
Testaments.  The number  of Bible so-
cieties throughout  the world, given in the
same report,  is as follows :—In  Great
Britain and Ireland, connected with  the
British  and foreign  Bible  society, 262
auxiliaries, 350 branches, and 1493 asso-
ciations ; in Ireland, connected with the
Hibernian Bible society, 70 auxiliaries, 38
branches,  and  18 associations;  on  the
European continent  and in the  Ionian
islands,  854 societies;  in  Asia,  13; in
Africa, 4; in America, 549 (there are, in
fact,  631  societies in America,  in  the
present year, 1829); total, 3733.—In Ger-
many, the following were the chief Bible
societies in 1817:—1 at Hanover, where
an edition of the Bible, of 10,000 copies,
has been  completed; 1 at Berlin;  1 at
Dresden, which, besides a stereotype edi-
tion of the German Bible, has also publish-
ed an edition, in the Wendish tongue, for
Lusatia; 1 at Frankfort on the Maine. In
Bavaria, the distribution of the Bible has
been confined to the efforts of individuals.
(180,000 copies of the  Catholic transla-
tions of the New Testament, by Gossner
and  van  Ess,  had been distributed  in
Germany  and Switzerland, up to 1821.
Many of these reached the Austrian prov-
inces, which at present are closed against
German Bibles.)  The  society at Stutt-
gart has printed an edition of  10,000 Bi-
bles and 2000  Testaments, which have
already been taken up.   Societies exist at
Hamburg, Baden, Weimar, Bremen, Lii-
bejck;  at  Schleswig-Holstein,  Schwerin,
Ratzeburg, Eutin, Brunswick,  &c. (each
of them having auxiliary societies).  Prot-
estant Switzerland has a Bible  society of
its  own ; so  has the  kingdom  of  the
Netherlands, which provides its colonies
with Bibles. In Paris, such a society was
instituted, Dec. 6,1818, for the Protestants
in France.  The  means of this society
were small (in 1820, not  more than 58,212
francs  had  been  received), and  it had
principally in view  the  supplying  of
schools, hospitals and prisons; but,  as
Catholics also have received the Bible, it
has met with  a strong  opposition from
the papal-jesuitical party in France.  In
Strasburg, an edition of 20,000 Bibles was
printed for Alsace.   In Sweden, the chief
society in Stockholm  have distributed a
large  number  of Bibles and Testaments.
In Norway and Denmark, editions have
been published with the same view, and
the Danish society has branches in Ice-
land and the West Indies.  The Russian
society in  Petersburg has vied with  the
English, and some years since had print-
ed the Bible in 31 languages and dialects
spoken in the Russian dominions, among
which is  one in the  modern Russian,
since the translation of the church is in
the Sclavonic, and unintelligible to lay-
men.   This new translation  has been
joyfully received by the countiy people,
and shows them the errors and many su-
perstitions which disfigure the ritual of
the Greek church.  On this  account, it
will probably give rise to contests, which
can hardly be terminated without a grad-
ual reformation of the Greek church.
Part of the clergy are  opposed to  the
distribution of the Bible, and persecutions
against zealous readers of the sacred book
have  already taken place  in  the more
distant governments.  The Gospels in the 
94
BIBLE SOCIETIES.
Calmuc language and  the  Persian New
Testaments  are much sought for.   A
translation of the Bible for the Booriaits,
Mongol worshippers of the Lama, near
lake Baikal, is preparing, with the assist-
ance of two young Booriaits of high birth,
who embraced Christianity at Petersburg.
AuxiUary societies  have been formed at
Irkutsk, Tobolsk, among the Kirghises,
Georgians,  and  Cossacks  of the  Don.
The word of God is carried from Odessa
to the Levant.   The bull  of Pius VII,
June 28,1816, obtained by the archbishop
of Gnesen, did not prevent the Poles from
forming a society in Warsaw, under  the
protection of Alexander.   In 1817,  the
distribution of the Bible by  such societies
was forbidden in Austria, and those al-
ready  existing  in   Hungary were sup-
pressed.  Italy, Spain and Portugal have
had, as yet, no Bible societies;  France
only one; but the English have provided
them with Bibles in their own tongues. In
the U. States  of America, the great Amer-
ican Bible society, formed in 1816, acts in
concert with the  auxiliary societies, of
which, in 1829, there  were  630.   The
management  of the society is intrusted
to a board of managers; stereotype plates
have been procured, and Bibles are issued
at a low price for the auxiliaries, and for
gratuitous distribution  among the  poor.
During the first year, 6,41€  copies of Bi-
bles and Testaments  were  distributed.
In 1827, the number amounted to 134,000,
and, during the first 8 months of 1828, to
146,000.  The whole number issued since
the organization of the society is  about
700,000.  These have been mostly in Eng-
lish, Spanish and French, from the society's
plates.  The  managers have occasionally
purchased Bibles in Europe, and issued
them to  applicants, in German, Dutch,
Welsh, Gaelic, Portuguese, modern Greek,
and  some other  European languages.
They have also furnished money to print
translations  into pagan languages,  by
American  missionaries.  They have in
operation 8 power-presses and 20  hand-
presses, and copies are prepared at the rate
of 300,000 a year.   Many of the auxiliary
societies have undertaken to discover the
number of families in tlieir vicinity desti-
tute of the Bible, and to supply them.  It
is the object of tbe society to supply every
family in the U. States,  before devoting
much attention to distribution  abroad.
Yet Spanish  America and Ceylon, Greece
and the Sandwich islands, have been fur-
nished with  Bibles by the  society.  The
colonies also exert themselves in  this
cause.  Hayti has offered her assistance,
and even the Esquimaux already read
the Acts of  the  Apostles in  their own
language.  A similar zeal for  the  distn-
bution of the  Bible has been awakened in
Southern Africa and in  India, where Bi-
bles are pubhsbed in the languages of the
country : even the islands on the eastern
coast  of Asia are not neglected.  In the
Netherlands,  there is a fraternal union of
different sects for this purpose, as  is also
the case in  other  countries  containing
various  sects.  Such associations  excite
among different sects a feeling of mutual
sympathy,  by a  consideration of tlieir
mutual participation in  the most impor-
tant truths of Christianity.—Such a gen-
eral diffusion of the Bible is an event of
great  historical importance. Its transla-
tion  into languages which have   been
hitherto  destitute  of all  literature,  and
even of writing, must contribute greatly
to the progress  of intellectual  cultivation
throughout the earth, and must have an
especial  influence  on the advancement
of general philology. The Bible societies
may be considered  as assisting  to pave
the way for the introduction of European
civilization into all  the  less enlightened
regions  of the earth.  The societies ad-
here to the principle of  publishing the
Bible  without  notes, starting from the
Protestant principle, that the Bible,  and
the Bible  alone, is the  foundation  of
Christian faith.  Undoubtedly, the various
sects of Christians, differing so greatly as
they do, and always must, respecting cer-
tain points of faith and the interpretation
of particular  passages of  the Scriptures,
could not be made to co-operate with zeai
in the distribution of the Bible, if the text
were  accompanied with  commentaries.
But now missionaries and ministers must
supply,  by verbal explanation, the place
of notes, because it  is clear to every body
that  the  Bible  cannot be  understood
without  the   explanation afforded  by
study.  Thus the opinions of individuals,
orally delivered,  are substituted for the
more  precise and profound criticism of
united commentators.   It  seems  to us,
that the friends  of Bible societies  and
their  opponents (a  part of the  Catholic
clergy) have  both run into extremes; the
former  by injudiciously distributing the
Scriptures, in some cases,  before people
were  fit to understand them; and the lat-
ter by an unqualified prohibition  of the
reading of the Bible by the  laity.  The
order of the pope, that only certain edi-
tions  and versions should be read  by the
Catholics, originated from views founded
on the  experience  of all  ages of  Chris- 
BIBLE SOCIETIES—BIBLIOGRAPHY.
95
tianity, that men of pure intentions often
faU into dreadful errors  and absurdities
from want of just direction in the  study
of the  Bible.  And it remains a fact not
to be disputed by the most ardent defend-
er of immediate and supernatural assist-
ance to the  reader of  the Bible,  that,
being composed of parts extremely vari-
ous in their character,  written in  times
and countries very remote from us, often
in metaphorical language, and intimately
connected with the customs, views, his-
tory and language of particular nations,
and even individuals, its real meaning is
not to be found without an extensive study
of many different  branches  of science,
the results of which may be used to assist
the less informed reader.  History  shows
us, that the  blackest crimes and the most
egregious folhes have been defended by
the misapplication of the text of the Sa-
cred Scriptures.  It must be left to time
to show what wUl be the ultimate effect
of Bible societies.  Undoubtedly it will be
found, that  some portion of their  efforts
have been made in vain, as was, indeed,
to be expected; and, in many instances,
they appear to us to have  been  made
injudiciously.   The  extension of the
habit of reading through so many parts
of the world,  we  imagine, will  be
one of  the greatest  and  most lasting
consequences of the exertions of these
societies.
   Biblical Archeology is the science
 which describes the political state,  man-
 ners and customs of the Jewish nation,
 as well as the usages  of the  early  Chris-
 tian church; consequently, the antiquities
 of the Bible.   Civil  relations, religious
 ceremonies, holy places, domestic  cus-
 toms and utensils, modes  of dress, and
 other  external  circumstances,  form the
 subject of this science. The antiquities of
 the Bible are partly Jewish, partly  Chris-
 tian.   The  sources of the former are the
 Old Testament, the  works of Josephus
 and Philo, the  Talmud, and the writings
 of the rabbins.  The sources of Chris-
 tian antiquities are the New Testament
 and  the  writings of  the  fathers,  who
 lived and wrote soon after the age of the
 apostles.  Without the knowledge of the
 manners and customs of a nation, many
 passages of their authors, which contain
 aUusions to them, remain unintelligible,
 and, on this account, the  knowledge of
 the antiquities of the Bible is necessary to
 the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures.
 Among the modem  authors, who  have
 written on   Jewish antiquities, Voland,
John Simonis, Ernst Aug. Schulz, George
Lawrence Bauer, Warnekros  de Wette
and  John Jahn particularly deserve  to
be mentioned.  We may find information
concerning Christian  antiquities  in the
commentaries on the New Testament,
and in the historians of the church.  The
Germans have  particularly distinguished
themselves in this department.
  Bibliography  (from  faiiXtov, a  book,
and  ypa^w,  I  describe) was originally a
branch of archaography, or the art of de-
scribing or explaining antiquities, and de-
noted skid in the perusing and judging
of ancient manuscripts; but in its modern
and more extended  sense, it signifies the
knowledge of books,  in reference to the
subjects discussed in them, their different
degrees of rarity, curiosity, reputed and
real value, the materials of which they
are composed, and  the rank which they
ought to hold  in the classification of a
library.   It is, therefore, divided into two
branches, the first of which has reference
to the contents of books, and may  be
called, for want of a  better phrase, intel-
lectual bibliography  ; the second treats of
their external  character,  the  history  of
particular copies, &c, and may be termed
material bibUography.  The object of the
first kind is to acquaint literary men with
the most valuable books in every depart-
ment of study, either by means of cata-
logues raisonnees simply,  or  by similar
catalogues accompanied with  critical re-
marks.   Bibliography belongs to those
sciences, the progress of which  is de-
pendent, in a great degree, on external
circumstances.   It  has been and  still is
cultivated  most successfully in France.
This is owing not  only to the riches of
the  great and daily increasing public li-
braries, liberally thrown open  to the use
of the pubUc, the  large  number of fine
private collections, and the familiarity of
its numerous literary men with books
of all ages and countries, but, in a great
degree, to the practical spirit of the nation
which  induces their bibUographers to
keep constantly in view the  supply  of
existing wants.  Brunet's Manuel du Li-
braire was the first important work which
contained, in an  alphabetical  form, a list
of the most valuable  and costly books of
all Uteratures; Barbier's Dictionnaire  des
 Ouvrages Anonymes,  the  first systematic
and satisfactory treatise  on this subject;
 Renouard's Catalogue <f un Amateur, the
first, and, for a long  time, the best guide
 of the French collectors; the Bibliogra-
phic de la France,  the first work which
 showed how the yearly accumulation of
 Uterary works can be  recorded  in  the 
06                           BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 most authentic manner.  No less valuable
 are  the  works of Peignot, Petit  Radel,
 Renouard on  the  Aldines  (see  Aldine
 Editions),  and many others.   English
 bibliography can boast  of  but  one of
 the advantages of the French; that is, of
 rich public and private collections; but the
 use  of them is allowed only to a Umited
 degree, and  the  EngUsh  bibliographers
 are far behind the French.  The works of
 doctor Adam Clarke (Bibliographical Dic-
 tionary, 1820) and of Robert Watt (Bibli-
 otheca Britannica, 1819) are compilations
 of little value ; the undigested collections
 of Beloe (Anecdotes of Literature, 1807),
 of Brydges (British Bibliographer, 1818;
 Censura Liter aria, 1805), of Savage (the
 Librarian, 1808), and others, are destitute
 of judicious  selection, and often of cor-
 rectness.  Ottley's Inquiry into the Origin
 and  Early History of Engraving (1816),
 and  Singer's  Researches into the History
 of Playing Cards  (1816), works which be-
 long to very important points of bibliogra-
 phy, are deficient in correct criticism; and
 if we  are  not dazzled by  the type, the
 paper  and the engravings of Dibdin's
 productions (Typographical  Antiquities,
 1810; Bibliotheca Spenceriana, 1814; Bib-
 liographical Decameron, 1817; Tour in
 France and Gennany, 1821), we  cannot
 be blind to the superficial acquirements
 of the author.  Tliere is now publishing,
 in England, the  Bibliographer's Manual,
 an imitation  of Brunet's Manuel  above-
 mentioned.  It is to be completed in 12
 parts.  The learned Germans, little assist-.
 ( d by public, almost entirely destitute of
 private  coUections,  consulting only the
 real  wants of the science,  have actively
 endeavored to promote it.  Ersch  is the
 founder  of German  bibliography.   He
 gave it a truly scientific character by his
 extensive work, Allgemeines Repertorium
der Literatur  (Universal  Repertory of
 Literature,  1793—1807), and by his Hand-
 buch der Deutschen Literatur (Manual of
 German  Literature).   German bibliogra-
 phy  is particularly rich in  the literature
of separate sciences; and the bibliography
of the Greek and  Latin literature, as well
as the branch which treats of ancient edi-
tions, was founded by the Gennans.  The
first  attempt,  in  Germany, to prepare a
universal bibUographical work, was made
by Ebert (q. v.), who wrote, also,  in the
 10th number of Hermes, a review of the
whole  modem   German  bibliography.
The  booksellers'  dictionary  is a  very
valuable  German bibliographical  work.
A supplement is  published  annually.
 The  following are valuable German bib-
 Uographical  works in particular depart-
 ments of science and literature:—T. A.
 Nosselt's Anwrisungzur Kenntnissder Bes-
 ten Allgemeinen Biicher in der  Theologie,
 4th ed. Leipsic, 1800,  and die continua-
 tion of it by  Simon, Leipsic, 1813; C. F.
 Burdach's Literatur der  HeUwissenschaJl,
 Gotha, 1810, 2 vols.; W. Gf. Ploucquet's
 LiteraturaMedica, Tubingen, 1808,4 vols.
 4to.; T. G. Meusel's Bibliotheca Historica,
 Leipsic,  1782—1802, 11  vols, in 22 vol-
 umes, not  finished;  his Literatur  der
 Statistik, Leipsic, 1816,  2 vols. ;  G.  R.
 Bohmer's Bibliotheca Scriptorum Historia
 Naturalis,  Leipsic,  1785—99,  7  vols. :
 Alb. Haller's  Bibliotheca Botanica, Zurich,
 1771,  2  vols., 4to.; Anatomica, Zurich,
 1774,2 vols., 4to.; Chirurgica, Bern, 1774,
 2 vols., 4to., and Medicina Practica, Bern,
 1776 etseq.,4 vols.,4to., &c.—Fred. Blume
 has lately published the first volume  of
 Iter Italicum,  containing an account of the
 archives, inscriptions and libraries in  the
 Sardinian and Austrian provinces. Italian
 bibliography  is no longer what it was in
 the times of  Mazzuchelli, Audiffredi and
 Tiraboschi.   A great indifference is al-
 most  universal in regard  to the public
 libraries; the  private collections are be-
 coming more and more  scarce, and the
 precious  ones of count Cassano Serra
 and Melzi, in Naples and Milan,  have
 been  lately sold  to England.  The bib-
 Uographical works of Italy treat  prin-
 cipally of the provincial libraries (one of
 the latest is   Moreri's  Bibliogrqfia  delta
 Toscana, 1805): Gamba's Serie de' Testi
 (1812) is a  veiy valuable work.   The
 Dutch, Spaniards and  Portuguese have,
 of late years,  done little for this science ;
but the  learned  Bentkowsky's Polish
 Literature (1814)  deserves the highest
 praise.  The  count Zechenyi, a Hunga-
 rian, published a catalogue of all Hun-
 garian works, Pest,  1799—1807, 9  vols.,
 8vo.,  and 1 vol., 4to.  Russia has pro-
 duced, in the  department of bibUography,
 little more than catalogues.  In regard to
 particular sciences,  many useful   cata-
 logues exist, commonly called Bibliotheca.
 Well  arranged and  accurate catalogues
 of Ubraries, which are  rich in particular
 departments,  may be used with advan-
 tage by the bibUographer, as may, also,
the annual  catalogue of the book-fair at
 Leipsic.  (See Books,  Catalogues  of.)—
 Directions for the study of bibliography
are contained in  Acjiard's Cours de Bib-
liographic (MarseiUes, 1807, 3 vols.), Th.
Hartwell Home's Introduction to  the
 Study of BibUography  (London, 1814, 2
 vols.), and  Gabr.  Peignot's Dictionnaire 
BIBLIOGRAPHY—BIBLIOMANIA.
97
 aisonne de Bibliologie (Paris, 1802—4,
3 vols.)
  Material Bibliography, often called, by
way of eminence, bibliography, considers
books in regard to their exterior, their his-
tory, &c, and has been principally culti-
vated in France and England. The differ-
ent  branches of material  bibliography
(see, also, Bibliomania) may here be men-
tioned  :—the  knowledge of the ancient
editions (incunabula,  or, if classical au-
thors,  editiones principes),  some  of the
best works on which are, G. Wfg.  Pan-
zer's Annales Typographici (Nuremberg,
1793—1803, 11 vols.,  4to.), coming down
to  1536;  tbe Annales  Typographici, by
Maittaire  (Hague, 1719 et seq.,  11  vols.,
4to.), which not only contains the titles,
but investigates  the  subjects of works.
More exact descriptions of particular an-
cient editions are found hi Serna Santan-
der's Dictionn. Bibliogr. der 15ieme Siecle
(Brussels,  1805, 3 vols.); Fossius' Cata-
logus Codicum, sec. 15, lmpressor. Bibli-
otheca Magliabecchiana (Florence, 1793,
3 vols, fol.), and others.  The study of
rare books, on account of the vague prin-
ciples on which it rests, is more difficult
than is generally believed, and easily de-
generates into superficial and capricious
trifling.   This  has been  more  injured
than promoted  by I. Vogt's Catalogus
Librorum Rariorum (Frankfort and Leip-
sic, 1793), and J. Jac. Bauer's Bibliotheca
Libror. Rarior.  Universalis (Nuremberg,
177fJ—91, 12 vols.)  We may also men-
tion here the catalogues of the books pro-
hibited by the  Roman church (Indices
 Librorum Prohibitorum et Expurgatorum).
 For the discovery of the authors of anon-
 ymous and pseudonymous works, we may
 use Barbier's Dictionnaire des Ouvrages
anonymes  et pseudonymes (Paris 1806—9,
4 vols.), which is valuable for its accuracy
(but it contains  only French and Latin
works).  We need not observe, what an
important source of information, in the
department of bibliography, are  literary
journals. (See Bibliomania.)
   Bibliomanc y ; divination performed by
means  of the Bible;  also called sortes
biblica, or sortes sanctorum.  It consisted
in taking  passages at hazard, and drawing
indications thence concerning things fu-
ture.  It was much used at the consecra-
tion of bishops.  It was a practice adopted
from the  heathens, who drew the  same
kind of prognostication from the works
of Homer and Virgil.   In 465, the coun-
cil of Vannes condemned aU  who  prac-
tised this art to be cast out of the com-
munion of the church; as did the councils
   VOL. II.            9
of Agde and Auxerre.  But, in the 12th
century, we find it employed as a mode
of detecting heretics.  In  the  Gallican
church, it was long practised in the elec-
tion of bishops; children being employed,
on behalf of each candidate, to draw slips
of paper with  texts on  them, and that
which was  thought  most favorable  de-
cided the choice.  A sirrular mode was
pursued at the installation of  abbots, and
the reception of canons; and this custom
is said to have continued in the cathedrals
of Ypres, St. Omer and Boulogne, as late
as the year 1744.  In the Greek church,
we read of the prevalence of this custom
as early as  the consecration  of Athana-
sius, on whose behalf the presiding pre-
late, Caracalla, archbishop of  Nicomedia,
opened the  Gospels at the words, "For
the devil and his angels." Matt. xxv. 41.
The bishop  of Nice  first  saw them, and
adroitly turned over the  leaf to another
verse, which was instantly read aloud:
" The birds  of the  air came  and lodged
in  the branches thereof." Matt.  xiu. 32.
But, this passage appearing irrelevant to
the ceremony, the first became gradually
known, and the church of Constantinople
was  violently agitated  by the most fatal
divisions during the patriarchate.
  Bibliomania  is a word  lately formed
from the Greek, and signifies a passion
for possessing curious  books.  The true
bibliomanist is determined in the purchase
of books, less by the value  of their con-
tents, than by certain accidental circum-
stances attending them.  To  be valuable
in his eyes, they must belong to particular
classes, be  made of singular materials,
or have something  remarkable in  their
history.  Some books  acquire the char-
acter of belonging  to particular classes,
from treating of a  particular subject of
interest to the bibliomanist; others from
something  peculiar  in their  mechanical
execution,  or  from the circumstance of
having  issued from a press of uncommon
eminence, or because they once belonged
to the library of an eminent man.  Some
of these collections are of much intrinsic
value.  Among them are, various editions
of the  Bible  (the most  complete  is at
Stuttgart);  collections of  editions  of
single classics (e. g., those of Horace and
Cicero, in  the city  Ubraiy at  Leipsic);
the  editions in usum Delphini and  cum
notis variorum; the editions of ItaUan
classics printed by the  academy delta
Crusca; works printed by the Elzevirs,
by Aldus, Comino in Padua,  and Bodoni
(the most complete coUection of Bodoni's
editions is  in  the Ubraiy of the duchess 
BIBLIOMANIA.
d'Abrantes); the classics edited by Mait-
taire, Foulis, Barbou, Brindley, and oth-
ers, and the celebrated  Bipont editions;
with others.—It was more customary in
former times  than at  present to  make
collections of books which  have some-
thing remarkable in their history; e. g.,
books which have  become  veiy scarce,
and  such  as have been prohibited.  Of
the first sort, the collections of Engel and
Salthon were  formerly among the most
considerable.  The one at  Dresden is
among the  largest now existing.  Books
 istinguished for remarkable mutilations
 ave also been eagerly sought for.  Those
which appeared in the infancy of typog-
raphy, called  incunabula, from the Lat-
in cuna, a  cradle, principally the first
editions (editiones  principes) of the  an-
cient classics, are still in general  request
Much of the value of a book, in the eyes of
a bibliomanist, depends upon the  material
of which it is  composed.  An enormous
price is frequently given for splendid proof
impressions of copperplate engravings, and
for colored impressions, for works adorned
with miniatures and illuminated initial let-
ters ; Ukewise for such as are  printed upon
vellum.  (The most considerable collec-
tion of vellum copies was sold at  auction,
in 1815, at the sale of M'Carthy's books,
in Paris.  A bibliographical work upon
this subject is now preparing by van  Praet,
in Paris.)—Works printed upon paper of
uncommon  materials (e.  g., (Euvres  du
Marquis de Villeto, Lond. 1786,16mo.), or
various substitutes  for paper  (e. g.,  E.
Bruckmann's Natural History of Asbestos,
upon paper made of asbestos, Brunswick,
1727, 4to.), have been much sought after;
likewise those printed upon colored  pa-
per.   In Italy, the color of books of this
sort is commonly blue; in France, rose-
color ; in some ancient German books, the
color is yellow; sometimes, though rarely,
green.  A list of books of this class is to
be found in  Peignot's Repertoire des Bib-
liographies spectales, Pans, 1810.—Other
books, in high esteem amongbibliomanists,
are those which are printed  on large pa-
per, with very wide margins.  True bib-
liomanists  often measure  the margin by
inches and lines.   In English  advertise-
ments of rare books, some  one  is often
mentioned as particularly valuable on ac-
count of its being " a tall copy."  If the
leaves happen to be uncut, the value of the
copy is much enhanced.—Other works,
highly valued by bibliomanists, are  those
which are  printed with letters of gold  or
silver, or ink of singular color;  e. g., 1.
Fasti Napoliond, Paris, 1804, 4to., a copy
on blue vellum paper, with golden letters;
2. Magna  Charta,  London,  Whitaker,
1816, foUo, three copies upon  purple-
colored vellum, with golden letters; also,
books printed from copperplates.  Cata-
logues of these have been made by Peig-
not and others.—In France and England,
the bibliomania often extends to die bind-
ing.  In  France, the bindings of Derome
and Bozerian are most valued; in Eng-
land, those of Charles Lewis and Roger
Payne, several specimens of whose skill
are to be seen in the library of lord Spen-
cer ; among  others, the Glasgow edition
of iEschylus, 1795, the binding of which
cost £16 7s. sterUng.  Payne  is  said to
have sometimes  received from 20 to 30
guineas  for  binding  a single volume.
This species  of luxury is carried to such
a height  in London, that a copy of Mack-
lin's Bible (4 vols, in folio), in red or blue
morocco leather, costs 75 guineas,  and
Boydell's  large  edition of Shakspeare
(9 vols, with large engravings) £132 ster-
ling.  Even the edges of books are often
adorned  with fine paintings.  Many de-
vices have been adopted to give a factitious
value to  bindings.  Jeffery, a  London
bookseller, had Fox's History of King
James II bound in fox-skin, in allusion to
the name of the author; and the  famous
English  bibliomanist Askew even had a
book bound  in human skin.  In the li-
brary of  the castle of Konigsberg are 20
books bound in silver (commonly called
the  silver  library.)   These  are   richly
adorned  with large  and beautifully en-
graved gold plates, in the middle  and on
the corners.  To the exterior decorations
of books belongs  the bordering  of the
pages with single or double  lines, drawn
with the  pen  (exemplaire regie), common-
ly of red  color—a custom which we find
adopted in the early age of printing, in the
works printed by Stephens.  The custom
of coloring engravings has been dropped,
except in cases where the subject particu-
larly requires it (for instance, in works
on natural  history, or the costumes of
different nations), because the colors con-
ceal the  delicacy  of the engraving.  On
this account, the colored copies of Durer's
wood-cuts  are esteemed less than those
which  are  left  uncolored.  The other
means of idle competition being  almost
all exhausted, the  bibliomanists have late-
ly hit upon the idea  of enriching many
works by the  addition of engravings, il-
lustrative indeed of the text of the book,
but not particularly called for, and of pre-
paring only single copies.  Thus Long-
man, in London, offers an Ulustrated copy 
BIBLIOMANIA—BIDDLE.                      99
 of the otherwise common  Biographical
 Dictionary of all the Engravers, by John
 Strutt (London, 1785—86,  2 vols. 4to.),
 which is increased, in this way, to 37 large
 vols., in folio, and  costs not  less than
 £2000 sterling.  The library of Dresden
 has a similar copy of Buddseus's Historical
 Lexicon, of an earlier date.   Among the
 auctions, where the bibliomania raged
 with the greatest ftuy,  was that of the
 library of the duke of Roxburgh (q. v.), in
 London, 1812.  Every work was bought at
 almost incredible prices.  The first edition
 of Boccaccio, pubUshed  by  Valdarfer, in
 1471, was  sold for £2260 sterling; to the
 memory  of which a bibliomanio-Rox-
 burgh club was founded  in the following
 year, of which lord  Spencer is president.
 It meets yearly on the 13th  of July, the
 anniversary of the  sale  of Boccaccio, in
 the  St. Alban's tavern.  No further evi-
 dence is necessary to show that biblioma-
 nia, which flourished first in Holland (the
 seat likewise of the tulipomania), towards
 the  end of the 17th century, prevails at
 present in England to a much greater ex-
 tent than in Fiance, Italy or Germany.
 —Thomas F.  Dibdin's  Bibliomania  or
 Book-madness (London,  1811), and his
 BibUographical  Decameron   (London,
 1817, 3 vols.), contain many useful direc-
 tions for the assistance  of  collectors  of
 books.—The modern bibliomania is very
 different from the spirit which led to the
 purchase of books, in the middle ages, at
 prices which appear to us enormous. Ex-
 ternal  decorations, it is true, were then
 held in high esteem; but the main reason
 of the great sums then  paid for books
 was tlieir scarcity, and the  difficulty of
 procuring  perfect  copies  before the in-
 vention of the art  of printing.  There is
 sometimes found a rage for possessing
 books, without reference to the value  of
 their contents, or the other circumstan-
 ces  which have been  mentioned as in-
 fluencing the bibliomanist.   A priest  in
 Saxony is  said to have  murdered three
 persons,  with a view of getting posses-
 sion of their Ubraries.  These,  however,
 he did not read.
  Bicetre; a  castle and village in the
 neighborhood of Paris, situated on a hUl,
 and commanding one of the finest pros-
 pects of Paris, of the course of the Seine,
 and of the environs.  Louis XIII erected
 the castle for the  residence  of invalids.
 When Louis XIV afterwards erected the
 great hotel  royal des invalides, B. became
a great hospital, for which it is particular-
 ly adapted by its healthy situation : water
only was wanting in its vicinity, to obtain
which a well was dug in the rock (1733),
B. contains also  a house of  conection
(maison de force)  for dissolute persons,
swindlers, thieves, &c.  Since the revo-
lution, a prison for criminals condemned
to the  gaUeys has  been  erected here,
from  which  they are transferred to  the
public ship-yards.  In the prison and the
house of correction are shops  for  the
grinding of glass, and for other kinds of
work, in which the prisoners are usefully
employed.  In the hospital  of B., 2200
beds are devoted to the reception of aged
patients.  No one  is admitted under  the
age of 70 years.   They are attended to
with the greatest care, and fabricate neat
little works of wood and bone, known in
France by the name of Bicetre works.  A
large  hospital for incurable madmen  has
also been erected since the revolution.
  Bidassoa,  a boundary river between
Spain and France, rises in the Spanish
territory, becomes a boundary at Vera,
and is navigable to Biriatou at  high tide.
It forms the isle of Pheasants,  or  the isl-
and of Conference, where the  peace of
the Pyrenees was concluded (1659), and
falls  into  the bay of Biscay, between
Andaye and  Fontarabia.  On  die Span-
ish side of the river, on the margin of the
valley through which it flows, is an advan-
tageous position, near St. Marcial, which
commands the great road to Bayonne,
before which  (Aug. 31, 1813) 8000 Span-
iards  repulsed a French force of double
that number,  who attempted  to force this
position in order to relieve St. Sebastian.
  Biddle,  John,  a celebrated  Socinian
writer, was  bora  in  1615,  at  Wotton-
under-Edge, in Gloucestershire.  He en-
tered  Magdalen college,  Oxford, in  his
19th  year.  He graduated  as A. M.  in
1641.   Being led to doubt of the doctrine
of the Trinity, he drew up 12 arguments
on the subject; in consequence of which he
was committed to jail by the parliament-
ary committee then sitting at Gloucester,
but was Uberated on security  being given
for his appearance when called for.  About
six months afterwards, he was examined
before a committee of the  parUament, to
whom he readily acknowledged his opin-
ion against the divinity of the Holy Ghost
His Twelve Arguments were now order-
ed to be burnt by the  common hang-
man.  He however persisted  in his opin-
ion, and, in  1648, published  two tracts,
containing  his  Confessions   of Faith
concerning the Holy Trinity,  and The
Testimonies of Irenseus, Justin  Martyr,
and several other early writers on the
same  subject.  These pubUcations  in- 
100                         BIDDLE—BIGAMY.
duced the assembly of divines  to soUcit
parliament to decree the punishment of
death against those who  should impugn
the established opinions respecting the
Trinity and  other doctrinal  points, as
well as to enact severe penalties for mi-
nor deviations.  The parliament indulged
these ministers in their intolerant request,
which immediately exposed Biddle, who
would neither consent nor recant, to the
loss of life ; but difference of opinion in
the parliament itself, and the penalties to
which this sweeping  measure rendered
many in  the army liable, prevented its
execution.   He  was,  some time after,
again remanded to prison, by the zeal of
president  Bradshaw, and remained for
some years in  confinement, subjected to
the greatest privations.  A general act of
obUvion, in 1651, restored him to liberty,
when he  immediately disseminated his
opinions, both  by  preaching and  by the
pubUcation  of his Twofold Scripture
Catechism.  A complaint  being  made
to Cromwell's parliament  against  this
book, he was confined  in the gate-house
for six months.  Cromwell banished  him
to St. Mary's castle, Scilly, where he as-
signed him an  annual subsistence of a
hundred crowns.   Here  he remained
three years, until the protector Uberated
him, in l»i5t\  He then became pastor of
an independent congregation, and contin-
ued to support his  opinions, until fear of
the Presbyterian parliament of Richard
CromweU induced  him to retire into the
country.  On the dissolution of that par-
Uament, he preached as before, until the
restoration, which obliged him to confine
his exertions to private  preaching.  He
was, however, in June, 1662, apprehend-
ed at one of the private assemblies, and,
upon process  of  law, fined £100,  and
ordered to Ue in prison until it was paid.
He feU a martyr to this sentence, by catch-
ing one of the distempers so common at
that time in jails, and died in Sept. of this
year, in the 47th year  of his age, a mar-
tyr to religious intolerance.  The private
character  of this  courageous sectarian,
like  that  of most   of those who suffer
from principle, was moral, benevolent
and  exemplary; and his learning  and
logical acuteness rendered  him very fit
to gain proselytes.   He did  not  agree in
all points with Socinus, but was apparent-
ly unsolicitous to establish a perfect agree-
ment.   Toulmin styles liim the father of
the modern Unitarians.
   Bidpai.  (See Pilpay.)
   Bielefeld ; a town in the province of
WestphaUa, near Prussian  Minden; lon.
8° 27'  E.; lat 51°  53'  N.; population,
6000.  The best German linens are man-
ufactured  here, and exported, in large
quantities, to South America.
  Bievre, marquis  de,  marshal, born
1747, served in the  corps of the  French
musketeers, was a Ufe-guard of the king
of France, and acquired  much  reputation
by his puns and repartees.  After publish-
ing several entertaining works, he com-
posed (1783)  Le Seducteur, a comedy  in
verse, for  the theatre, which has main-
tained  its  place on the stage, although it
is bad both in plan and execution.  When
he was introduced to Louis XV, the king
wished to  hear a calembourg (pun) of his.
Donnez-moi un sujet, dre, said B.—Faites-
en un surmoi.—Sii'e, le roin'estpas un sujet,
was the witty answer of B.  In 1789, he
went to Spa for the benefit of his health,
and died tliere. Mes amis, he said, dying,
je m'en vais de ce pas (de Spa),  lie has
written  several works; among others, an
Almanac des Calembourgs.   There is also
a collection of his jests called Bitvriana.
  Bigamy, in the canon law, means being
twice married; in the common acceptation
of the word, as a term of municipal law,
it means the being married  to  two wives
or husbands at the same time.  Though
the laws relating to plurality of wives or
husbands might, with more strict propri-
ety, be treated of under the head of polyg-
amy, they are more usually brought under
that of bigamy; and, in  compliance with
this usage, they will be introduced in this
place.  The laws of every civiUzed soci-
ety make some provision respecting this
subject.  By  the statute  of 4 Edward
I, stat. 3, c. 5, the marrying of a second
husband or wife, the  first being alive, was
made felony ; and, by that  of 2 James I,
c. 11, this  crime was.made punishable by
deatb.   But  the same statute provided
that, where either party was absent  be-
yond seas for  seven  years, whether
known or  not known to the other party
to be alive, or was absent, though not be-
yond seas, for the same period, and not
known by the other to be alive, the other
party was at liberty to marry again. The
determination of bigamy involves the con-
sideration  of what constitutes a valid mar-
riage.  If a person be married  within the
age of consent, which, in England, in the
case of the husband,  is 14, and in  that of
the wife 12 years, or was otherwise inca-
pable of making such a contract; or in
case the  marriage  was not  celebrated
with the forms and ceremonies required
by law; in these cases, a second marriage
does not subject the party to the penalty 
BIGAMY—BIJA-PUR.                       101
of bigamy.  The statute of James I  has
been adopted in most of the U. States as
to the description  of the crime, but  the
American laws generally differ from it as
to the penalty,  having assigned, hereto-
fore, instead of death, as provided by the
English statute, the punishment of whip-
ping, setting on  the  gallows, &c, which
latter is the punishment in France;  but
most, if not all of the U. States, have now
dispensed with these corporeal inflictions,
some of them prescribing imprisonment
and  hard labor  for  a  number  of years,
according to the discretion  of the court;
others leaving it to the  verdict of the jury
to fix the period of imprisonment.
  Big.  (See Barley.)
  Bignon, Louis Edward, born 1771, at
Meilleraye, department of Lower Seine,
studied at Paris, in the  college Lisieux.
He approved the principles of the revolu-
tion in 1789, but was proscribed in 1793,
because he opposed all violent  measures.
He therefore joined  the army.  In 1797,
he entered on the diplomatic career.   In
Berlin, where the royal family of Prussia
bestowed  on him many marks of favor,
he was, in 1801, secretary of legation, and,
in 1802 and 1803, charge d'affaires. From
1803 to 6, he was minister plenipotentiary
at the court of Cassel, where, the day be-
fore the battle of Jena, he proposed to the
elector a treaty of neutrality, which  was
declined.  After the entry of the French
troops into Berlin, he was appointed  im-
perial commissary  to the Prussian states.
He was afterwards charged with the gen-
eral administration of the  domains  and
finances in the countries taken possession
of until the end of 1808. He asserts, that
he conducted this difficult business with
as much mildness as possible, and that he
has since received many proofs of grati-
tude  from the  people  among  whom he
acted.  In 1809, he  was  minister pleni-
potentiary to the  grand duke of Baden,
when an  imperial decree, dated Schon-
brunn, appointed him administrator-gen-
eral in Austria.   He was  afterwards in-
trusted  with an important mission to
Warsaw,  with  secret instructions: here
he remained about three years. At the
opening of the campaign in 1812, M. de
Pradt succeeded him, and he was appoint-
ed  imperial commissary at the  provisory
government in Wilna.  After the retreat
from Moscow, he took the place of M. de
Pradt in the embassy at Warsaw, and, in
conjunction with prince Poniatowski, suc-
ceeded in delaying for four months the
retreat of the Austrian  allied army under
prince Schwarzenberg, afterwards under
general Frimont, until the scattered Polish
corps, of about 7000 men, were collected
under Poniatowski in Cracow.  This was
increased to 20,000 men, and made its re-
treat, in May, through Austria into Saxo-
ny. B. now repaired to the French head-
quarters at Dresden, and remained there,
with the other members of the diplomatic
corps, during the siege, until the capitula-
tion.  As he had procured passports from
the confederation of the Rhine for several
foreign ministers, prince Schwarzenberg
caused him to be escorted by one of his
aides to the French out-posts at Strasburg.
On his arrival in  Paris, Dec. 7,1813, he
brought to the emperor the first informa-
tion of the defection of Murat   He soon
after retired into  the  country.  On the
restoration of the Bourbons, he wrote his
Expose comparatif de  la Situation de  la
France et celle  des principalis Puissances
de VEurope, in which he showed great
penetration, and also  proved  himself a
true Frenchman of the school of Napole-
on. During the " hundred days," Napo-
leon appointed him under-secretary of
state for foreign affairs, and, in  1820, sev-
eral departments chose him  their deputy.
He spoke  against the  law of exception,
and advocated the  recall of the  exiles,
reminding the ministers of certain secret
circumstances, on which he did not think
proper to explain liimself more fully.  B.
also advocated the  law of  election.  In
1820,  he  wrote  Des Proscriptions,  in
which  he paints  the struggle for  Uberty
against every kind of tyranny.  His latest
writings  on national  disputes have at-
tracted much notice;  for instance, Coup
d'CEil sur les DemeUs des Cours  de Baviere
et  de  Bade (1818),  and particularly  his
work Du Congrcs de Troppau (1821), his
Lettre sur les Differends de la Maison
d'Anhalt  avec  la  Prusse,  and his  Les
Cabinets et les Peuples (Paris, 1824).
  Bija-pur, or Vijaya-puri ;  a city of
Hindostan, formerly capital  of the prov-
ince of Beejapoor (q. v.), called  Viziapoor,
by  the European  travellers of the three
last centuries.  The city is 306 miles N.
Seringapatam, 384  N. W. Madras ;  lon.
75° 47' E.; lat 16° 46' N.  It is situated
in a fertile  plain,  and is of very great
extent, consisting of three towns  within
each other: the innermost is the citadel,
a mile in circuit;  the next  a  fort, eight
miles in compass; and the exterior is en-
vironed with walls many miles in circuit.
But a  great proportion of the space is
covered with ruins.  It is thinly inhabited,
but the population is unknown. The in-
habitants affirm, that,  according  to au- 
102
BIJA-PUR—BILE.
thentic records, it contained, in the time
of its prosperity, 984,456 houses, and 1600
mosques; and  travellers  are of opinion
that the latter number is not exaggerated.
It was taken by Aurangzeb in 1689, when,
it is said, 15,000  cavalry could encamp
between the  fort and die city wall.  It
was one of the wealthiest cities of Asia.
The fort is protected by high walls, with
massive towers, and  is surrounded by a
ditch.  It has seven gates, and  contains
several  cannon of enormous dimensions,
particularly one called the sovereign of
the plains.
  Bilbao.  (See Bilboa.)
  Bilboa,  or  Bilbao,  or  Vilvao,  a
Spanish province in Biscay. The capital,
of the same  name, is  a  seaport on the
Ybaicabal,  in  a plain  surrounded with
high mountains; lon. 3°  4' W.; lat. 43°
l&  N.; population, 15,000.  It  contains
about 1200 houses, part of which are built
on  piles.  The harbor is good, and well
frequented.  Between 500 and 600 ves-
sels visit this port annually; and the year-
ly export of wool is estimated  at 50 or
60,000 sacks of 2 cwt. each.   The air
is healthy; the inhabitants are strong,
robust, and live long.  It is well supplied
with water and provisions : fish are very
abundant; and the environs are fertile in
legumes and fruits.  It contains 5 parish-
es and 12 religious houses. Among the
laws pecuUar to the town is one against
ingratitude.   Its commerce principally
consists in wool and iron.
  Bilderdyk, William, bom at Amster-
dam, 1750, Uves at  Leyden, and is now
considered one of the greatest lawyers hi
Holland—a man of learning in the fullest
extent of the word, and, according to the
judgment of the Dutch critics, one of the
greatest poets of the present  age.  He
studied the classics at  Leyden, chiefly
under Ruhnken and Valkenaer.  In 1776,
he obtained from the learned society of
Leyden, whose judgment was always re-
spected, the first prize for a poem on the
influence  of  poetry upon government.
In  the following year, he obtained from
the same society  two prizes for an ode
and a didactic poem, On True Patriotism.
Since that period, he  has ranked with
Feith and madame de Launoy, among the
first Dutch poets. The present age is the
epoch of the  modern  Dutch school of
poetry, in which, besides B., Feith and
Launoy, and  particularly  Bellamy, Hel-
mers, ToUens,  Loots, van Hall, Kinker,
Klyn and  others are distinguished.  B.
introduced into Dutch poetry iambics and
hexameters, rather to show his talent for
overcoming  difficulties of all  kinds than
from preference to these measures, which,
on the contrary, he declared not admissi-
ble  into Dutch  poetry.  In 1780, he ob-
tained a new prize for a poem, on the
connexion of poetrv and  eloquence with
philosophy.  He added to  this poem, some
time afterwards, an important commenta-
ry, which  showed  him to be a man of
learning and a  philologer.  B., besides,
devoted himself to law, at  the Hague,
with great success.  On  the invasion of
the Nedierlands by the  French, he left
his country on account of his adherence
to the hereditary stadtholder, and remov-
ed to Brunswick, where  he studied the
German language and poetry, and  after-
wards to London, where  he deUvered, in
the French  language, lectures on litera-
ture  and poetry, which were numerously
attended.  After the new order of things
was firmly established in  Holland, he  re-
turned, in 1799, and soon  afterwards pub-
lished some ofhis principal works. Among
these are a didactic poem on astronomy,
and  the masterly imitations of Delille's
L'Homme des Champs, and l'ope's Essay
on Man.   Louis Bonaparte, on his acces-
sion  to  the  throne, appointed  him  his
teacher  of Dutch,  and one of  the first
members of the national  institute found-
ed by him.   After the incorporation of
Holland  into  the  French  empire, B.'s
muse was silent; but  she rose  the  more
vigorously after the deliverance of  his
country.   Perhaps  there  is no  poem of
our time superior in fire, vigor and enthu-
siasm, to Holland's Verlossing,  the joint
composition  of B. and  his wife,  who is a
successful poetess.  When Napoleon  re-
turned from  Elba, B. produced a number
of war-songs, which are considered among
the best in Dutch poetry. He published his
Mengelpoezy (Miscellaneous Poems, two
small volumes,  Rotterdam, 1823, second
edition), which contains some ballads and
imitations of Ossian.  We may also men-
tion  that he  is a bitter enemy of German
literature.
  Bildge.   (See Bilge.)
  Bile ;  a  yellowish-green liquid sub-
stance, of a  bitter taste.  Man and many
animals have, on the  inferior surface of
the liver, a peculiar bladder, in which the
bile, formed by the  Uver  from the  blood,
is preserved.  It consists of water and
several  other  substances.   The  water
constitutes the  greatest  part, and  keeps
the  other parts in a  state  of solution.
The  remaining ingredients are a yellow,
very bitter, fusible resin, which contributes
most to the  taste of the bile; a small por- 
BILE—BILL OF EXCHANGE.
103
tion  of natron; some mineral  alkaline
salts; some oxyde of iron ; a small quan-
tity of a yellowish substance, which is
only partly dissolved in the natron ; and
a considerable portion of albumen.  The-
nard and  Berzelius have done much to
detennine the ingredients of the bile.  Its
principal use  seems to be, to separate the
excrement from the chyle, after both have
been formed, and to produce the evacua-
tion of the excrement from the body.  It
is probable that  these substances would
remain mixed together, and they would,
perhaps, even be partly absorbed together,
were it not for the  bile, which seems to
combine with the excrement, and, by this
combination, to facilitate its  separation
from  the chyle, and  thus to prevent its
absorption.   Fourcroy supposes that the
bile, as soon  as it is mixed with the con-
tents of the intestinal canal,  suffers a de-
composition  ; that  its alkali and  saline
ingredients combine with the  chyle, and
render it  more liquid, while its albumen
and resin combine  with the excrementi-
tious matters, and gradually render them
less fluid.  From the late experiments of
Berzelius on faeces, it cannot be doubted
that the constituents of the bile are to be
found in the excrementitious matter; so
that the  ingenious theory of Fourcroy is
so far probable.  The bile also stimulates
the intestinal canal, and causes it to evac-
uate its contents sooner than it otherwise
would do ; for when there is a deficiency
of bile, the body is constantly costive.—
Biliary calculi, or  gall-stones,  are  some-
times found  in the gall-bladders of men
and  animals.  They are more  rarely met
with in the  substance and body of the
liver. Those that are found in the human
subject consist, principally, of that peculiar
substance, called, by Fourcroy, adipodre.
They are of a white, grayish-brown, or
black color.   The calculi found in the
gall-bladders of quadrupeds  have been
thought to consist  almost entirely of in-
spissated  bile;  but,  though  much  less
complicated than the  corresponding con-
cretions in the human subject, they must
contain  something more  than the inspis-
sated fluid, since they are insoluble, both
in alcohol and water.
  Biledulgerid (BheladalDsherid, coun-
try of dates); a country in Northern Af-
rica, south of mount  Atlas,  bounded  on
the north by Tunis, on the  west by Al-
giers and the Sahara, on the east by Tri-
poli ; supposed to  be about  180  miles
square.   In  the  desert are oases (q. v.),
which are cultivated and  watered  like
gardens.   At the foot of mount Atlas, the
winds which come from these mountains
allay the heat of the climate.  The chief
products of the oases are barley of an ex-
cellent kind, used by the caravans, and
dates, which are  no where else so excel-
lent.  Much dew falls in the oases, rain
but seldom.   All the productions of the
tropics,  which can ripen without rain,
grow here in abundance.  The  Berbers
who live here, as likewise the Negroes and
Arabs, carry on trade by means of cara-
vans. A large proportion of the young men
are destroyed by the change of climate to
which they are thus exposed, as  also by
bad nourishment  and  epidemic  fevers.
Certain parts of this countiy, called Dara,
Tasilet  and  Segelmesse, belong  to  Mo-
rocco ; to Algiers belongs Wadreag, and
to Tunis Tozer.   Gademes,  Welled-Sidi
and Mosselemis  are independent.  Little
is known of the customs, laws,  &c, of
the inhabitants of B.
  Bilin, mineral spring of; a celebrated
spring near the town of Bilin, in Bohemia,
The water is clear,  has a sourish taste,
and mantles, particularly if  mixed with
wine and sugar.   The temperature of the
spring is 59° Fahrenheit.  The water is
used with advantage in many complaints.
  Bilious Fever.  (See Fever.)
  Bill  of  Exchange  is a written re-
quest or order to one person to pay a ce. -
tain sum of money to another, or to his
order, at all  events; that is, without any
qualification or  condition.  The person
who makes the biU is called the  drawer;
the person to whom it  is addressed, the
drawee, and the person to whom, or whose
order, on the face of the bill, it is payable,
the payee.  If the drawee accepts the bill,
he thereby becomes the acceptor.  A prom-
issory note differs from a bill of exchange
in being merely a promise to pay money
by the maker, instead of being a request
to another person to pay it, to the payee.
The expression  promissory  note is  not
strictly  confined  to  negotiable notes,  or
those payable " to bearer," or to the payee
named in it, " or his order,"  but  is more
frequently used  to denote  such instru-
ments ;  and  we shall consider promissory
notes in this sense in the present article,
since the  same rules and principles are,
in a great degree, appUcable to such notes
and to bills of exchange. The maker of
the note answers to  the acceptor of the
bUl, since he is  the  party promising  to
pay it; whereas the maker or drawer of
a bill of exchange does not directly prom-
ise, on the face of the instrument, to pay
it, but merely requests the drawee  to do
so: this is, however, construed  to be a 
104
BILL OF EXCHANGE.
virtual promise that  the  drawee, on the
presentment of the  biU  for acceptance,
and demand of payment  according to its
tenor, will pay it, and  a conditional virtual
promise, that he, the  drawer, will pay it,
in case of the drawee's failing either to
accept it on due presentment, or to pay it
on due demand.   Bank checks are  of a
character similar to promissory negotiable
notes, as to the rules by which the liabiU-
ties and rights of the parties to them are
determined, with this difference in their
common form, that promissory notes are
usually made payable to the payee or " his
order," whereas checks, as also bank-notes,
are usuaUy made payable to the "bearer,"
and the right to demand and receive pay-
ment of them is transferred from one per-
son to another by mere dehvery, without
any indorsement or written order by the
original payee; while the transfer or as-
signment  of a promissory note or bill of
exchange  is made by the payee in writing,
either by indorsement or  otherwise.  He
usuaUy merely writes his name on the
back,  whereby he  becomes the  indorser,
and the person to whom it is thus indors-
ed or assigned, who is called the indorsee,
has a  right  to fill  up this blank indorse-
ment by writing over it an order to pay
the contents to himself or to any  other
person; and any bona fide holder of the
note or bill has the same  right to fill up
the indorsement or assignment.   Thus a
note or biU of exchange, being  once in-
dorsed  in blank,  becomes assignable or
transferable,  like  a  check payable to
" bearer," merely by deUvery of the instru-
ment.   It is an essential quality of  a ne-
gotiable bill, note or  check,  that it be a
promise to pay a  certain sum of money,
and that the promise be absolute ;  for if
no definite amount  is fixed, or it be a
promise to deliver goods or do any other
act than pay money, or if it be conditional,
it is not a bill of exchange, or negotiable
promissory note, or  check.  Besides the
transfer by indorsement above-mentioned,
these  instruments are also transferable by
assignment,  or mere delivery,  so  as to
give the holder all  the rights, against the
maker or acceptor, that  he would  have
had if he had himself been the  payee.
Where the transfer is made by mere de-
livery, the assignor  is exempt  from aH
liability to the holder on the paper  itself;
he makes no promise to pay the money,
but still he, in effect, warrants that it is
the bUl, note or check, which it purports
to be; for if it be a forged instrument, if
it be not bona fide the bill, note or  check
which it purports to be, he wUl  be  Uable
to indemnify  the  person  to  whom  he
transferred it.   But if the transfer  be
made by an indorsement in writing, with-
out any condition or exception, being an
absolute order to pay the  money to the
indorsee or holder, the indorser in this
case  becomes in his turn a promiser;  for
he thereby virtually promises, that, in case
the maker of the  note  or check, or the
drawer or acceptor of the bill, does not
pay  it on  due demand, or in case the
drawee  does not accept it, if it be a bill,
on presentment  according to  its tenor,
then he, the indorser, will pay it.—Though
the fomis  of bills of exchange, promisso-
ry notes, checks and bank-notes are,  re-
spectively, pretty uniform, yet  no precise
form of words is necessary to constitute
either of these instruments.  Any words,
purporting to be an  absolute promise to
pay a certain sum of money, or an abso-
lute order  for its payment to a particular
person or his  order,  or to the bearer, is
either a bill of exchange, promissory note,
or check.—Bills of exchange are, in Eng-
land, either inland, that is, payable in the
kingdom, or foreign, that  is, payable out
of the kingdom.   A similar distinction is
made in the U. States, where, in most  of
the states,  a bill  payable in the  state  in
which it is made is considered to be  in-
land. The material  distinction between
foreign and inland bills is, that, on inland
bills, a protest for non-acceptance or non-
payment is not usually necessary, and that
less  damages can  be claimed  in conse-
quence of the dishonor of the  bill, if,  in-
deed, any can be claimed.   Generally,
in fact, if not universally, only the face of
the bill can, in such case, be recovered of
the drawer or indorser.  In one respect,
foreign  bills most  generaUy, and inland
bills  and promissory notes in many places,
differ in construction from  the literal im-
port  of the terms of the instrument as to
the credit  or  time of payment, being, in
fact,  payable three  days  after the  time
specified;  these three days of additional
credit being allowed  under the name  of
grace: but this additional credit is often
expressed in the instrument itself, thus,—
" Pay to A. B. or order, in sixty days and
grace" which  is equivalent to  sixty-three
days.  Another mode of expression  for
the credit to  be allowed on a bill is  by
the word  usance.  Thus  a bill is drawn
payable at one or two usances; and it is
necessary, in order to ascertain the time
of payment, to know what period is meant
by a usance, and this will vary according
to the place at which, and  on  which,  the
biU is drawn.  Thus a bid drawn in Eng- 
BILL OF EXCHANGE.
105
land, at one usance, on Amsterdam, Rot-
terdam, Altona, or any place in France, is
payable in one calendar month from the
date; on Cadiz, Madrid or Bilboa, in two;
on Genoa, Leghorn or Venice, in three
montiis.—If, on presentment of a bill of
exchange to the drawee, he refuses to ac-
cept it  according to its tenor, the holder
has an  immediate cause of action against
the drawer and  indorsers, and may, on
giving  them notice of the non-acceptance,
forthwith demand the amount of the bill,
though it was on a long credit, and, if it
had been accepted, he must have waited
three or six months for his money. This
rule is  perfectly equitable, since the draw-
er and indorsers impliedly agree  that the
draft shall be accepted on presentment,
and, on its not being so, their promise is
violated.  But the holder must give  no-
tice to the drawer, and the other parties to
whom he wishes  to resort, of the non-
acceptance or non-payment of  the bill.
In case of the dishonor of a bill, the hold-
er has  generally the right to recover of
the parties Uable to him, that is, the draw-
er  and indorsers, not only the amount
expressed on the face of the bill, together
with the expenses of protest and interest,
but something in addition, on account of
his disappointment in not having funds at
the place on which the biU  is drawn, as
he had a right to expect.   The rate or
amount of this damage must, as is evident,
be very various, according to the distance
of the places, the credit on which the bill
was drawn (in case of protest for non-ac-
ceptance), and the rise or fall of exchange
on the same place after the purchase of
the bill.   One rule of estimating the dam-
age is the cost of reCxchange, or of an-
other  bill  on the same  place, with the
addition of one, two, &c, up to twenty
per cent, damages.  In other places, no
regard is had to reexchange, but the hold-
er recovers a certain per cent,  over the
face of the Mil, by way of damage, and
this rate  is the same whether exchange
may have risen or fallen from the time of
purchasing the  bill  to that of its being
returned dishonored.—Exchange appears
to  have been known anciently at Tyre,
Carthage, Athens, Corinth, Syracuse and
Alexandria.   The first  well-ascertained
traces  of it, in modern times, are found,
subsequently to the 12th centuiy, in some
of the  provinces of France, particularly at
the fair of Champagne.  It was brought
to perfection in Italy.   Its great utility
and convenience  consist in its negotia-
biUty.   Suppose, for  instance, a number
of persons to have,  severally,  sums of
money deposited in various  countries.
One, whose funds are in South America,
wishes to make purchases at St. Peters-
burg ; and one, who is entitled to the pro-
ceeds of a cargo at St. Petersburg, wishes
to make a purchase at Canton;  and an-
other, having funds at Canton, desires to
make an importation from South Amer-
ica.  By merely making and deUvering a
sUp of paper, each one will, in effect,
transfer his funds quite  across the globe.
Another advantage of exchange is the fa-
cility it affords in adjusting balances.  Its
effect in this respect may be illustrated by
the practice of banks and bankers  in some
particular cities.   In London, for instance,
the bankers meet at a certain hour  every
day, to pay and receive payment  of each
others' checks; but the amount  actuaUy
paid will bear a  very small proportion to
the whole amount of  the checks, since
the greater part is settled by merely can-
celling the checks they hold against each
other.   So where all the banks of a city,
as is the  practice  in many commercial
towns, take indiscriminately each other's
notes, and settle  the balances every day,
they aU make an exchange  of the notes
which they hold  against each other, and
only  pay over  in specie the balances.
Thus, by  the payment in specie of a com-
paratively very small sum, some hundreds
of thousands may circulate between these
institutions and their respective customers
and depositors.   In the same manner the
balances are  adjusted between two com-
mercial countries, or all the commercial
countries of the world.   Among  the vari-
ous merchants  of the  United States, for
instance, some have sent goods  to Eng-
land, others to France, and others to Hol-
land, and each one may wish to import
goods from  a country  other than that
where his  funds lie.   One,  according-
ly, sells  exchange on  Amsterdam,  and
buys exchange on London, or, which  is
the  same thing in effect, as far as he is
 concerned, he orders his correspondent at
Amsterdam to buy exchange on  London,
 and remit it thither  for his (the mer-
 chant's) account.  If  the  funds  which
 some  merchants have in  each foreign
 place  are exactly equal to what is wanted
 by others in the same place, the  whole
 transaction is only a transfer among them-
 selves of each other's claims, or exchange,
 and no balance  remains; whereas, with-
 out this  faciUty, one  must order  specie
 home from Amsterdam, which the other
 would purchase of him to ship it to Lon-
 don ;  a transaction involving much delay,
 besides the expense of freight and insur- 
106
BILL OF  EXCHANGE—BILLINGTON.
ance.  But stiU, all the merchants of the
country may wish to invest or pay greater
sums abroad than the proceeds of all the
exports already made or making from the
country amount  to, in which  case the
course of exchange is said to be against
the country, and, in this case,  as  in  all
others where the quantity  of an article
wanted is greater than that offered  in the
market, the price will rise, and foreign
exchange will be above par.  So,  if the
quantity of exchange  demanded on any
particular country is greater than that  of-
fered, the rate of exchange, in respect to
that particular countiy, is unfavorable, and
rises.  This has most generally been the
case in the U. States, in respect to  Eng-
land.  So, vice versa, if the funds belong-
ing to  Americans, in any particular for-
eign countiy,  are greater than the sum
wanted by otber Americans to make pay-
ments or  investments tfiere,  the rate  of
exchange with  that particular countiy is
favorable, and the price of it  falls.   And
it is to be observed, that what is called a
favorable  rate  of exchange  is, in fact,
unfavorable to  the person having  funds
abroad, who  wishes to realize them  at
home; for he must, in  that case, sell, at
home, his foreign exchange, for a smaller
sum than its nominal amount.  It is to be
borne in mind, therefore, that an unfavor-
able rate of exchange is not necessarily
disadvantageous to a country.  To follow
out the inquiry, and determine in what cir-
cumstances it is actually disadvantageous
or indifferent, or in  fact advantageous,
would occupy more space than  we can
give to the subject.  But  we  perceive
from this operation of the system of ex-
change, that it is only necessary, at most,
to ship abroad, or import from abroad,
in specie, the actual balance on the whole
aggregate of debts  and  credits, all the
items of which, as far as they offset each
other, are adjusted by exchange; and it
is by no means always the case that this
aggregate balance is paid in  specie; for
the very circumstance of the rise of ex-
change  on any particular country may
make the  trade more  favorable, and in-
duce shipments, the  proceeds of which
are  drawn for  as  soon as the shipments
are  made; so that, in such a case, the un-
favorable balance may be actually advan-
tageous, by promoting trade.
  Bill of Lading; a memorandum sign-
ed by  masters  of ships, acknowledging
the  receipt of  goods  intrusted to  them
for transportation.  There are usually tri-
plicate copies,  one  for  the  party  send-
ing, another for the  party to whom the
goods are sent, and the third for the cap-
tain.
  Bill  of Rights, or Declaration of
Rights, is the  assertion by a  people, or
recognition by its rulers, " of that  residu-
um of  natural liberty, which is  not  re-
quired by the laws of society to be sacri-
ficed to  public convenience; or else those
civil privileges, which society has engaged
to provide, in lieu of those  natural liber-
ties so  given  up by individuals."  The
houses of lords and commons delivered to
the prince of Orange a list of such rights
and privileges, February 13, 1688, at the
time  of  his  succession to the  British
throne,  concluding with the words " and
they do claim, demand, and insist upon,
all and singular the premises, as their un-
doubted rights and privileges."  The dec-
laration is usually called the bill of rights.
A similar declaration was  made  in  the
act of settlement, whereby the crown was
limited to the house of Hanover.   Similar
bills of rights are prefixed to some of the
state constitutions in the United States.
But the constitutions of all the states, as
well as that of the United States, virtually
include  in themselves  declarations  of
rights,   since  they expressly  limit  the
powers of the government   The same is
true of the constitutional charters of those
European governments which have adopt-
ed constitutions,  one of the objects  of
these being to guaranty certain rights and
liberties to the people.
  Bill  in Equity, or Chancery, is the
statement of the plaintiff's case in  a court
of equity, or chancery, corresponding to
the declaration in a court of law, and the
libel in an ecclesiastical court
  Billiards;  a  very interesting  game,
contributing also to health  by affording
the body moderate  exercise.  It was  in-
vented in France, and is now played by
all European nations and their descend-
ants.  The rules for the different games
of billiards are  too numerous to be given
here.  They are also generally found in
billiard rooms.  We therefore omit them,
although we usually  give  the rules  of
games,  in order to furnish  a  means  of
reference  in doubtful cases.   They  are
to be found in Hoyle's Games.
  Billington,  Elizabeth; the  most cele
brated English female singer of her day.
She was of German origin, but born in
England, in 1770, her father, Mr. Weich-
sell, being a native  of  Saxony.  At  an
early age, she studied the piano-forte un-
der Schrotiter, and attained  to an extraor-
dinary   proficiency.  At  14, she  made
her first appearance as a singer  at Ox- 
BILLINGTON—BINNACLE.                    107
ford, and two years afterwards married
Mr. Billington, a performer on the double-
bass, whom  she accompanied to Dubhn.
She made her debut there in the opera of
Orpheus and  Euridice.  From  Ireland
she returned to London, where she ap-
peared  at Covent-garden, for the  first
time,  as Rosetta,  in Arne's Love in a
Village, with such  success as  to  secure
her an  immediate engagement at what
was then considered the enormous salary
of £1000, for the remainder of the season,
besides  a  benefit;  the  managers  after-
wards voluntarily  giving her the  profits
of a second night.  While in  town, she
continued to take lessons of Mortellari, a
celebrated ItaUan master, then in London,
and, on  the closing of the theatre, repaired
to Paris, in order to profit by the instruc-
tions of Sacchini.   In 1785, she returned
to England, and appeared at the concerts
of ancient  music with madame Mara,
whose  brilliant performance she,  to say
the least,  fully equalled.  From this pe-
riod till  1793, no music meeting, opera, or
concert, of  reputation, was considered
complete without her.  In die last  named
year, she visited Italy, and performed, ac-
companied by her brother C. Weichsell,
at the theatre  of St. Carlos at Naples;
Francis  Bianchi composing expressly for
her his  celebrated  opera  Inez de Castro.
Her engagement here met with an  abrupt
and melancholy interruption, her husband
dying suddenly of apoplexy, just  as she
was preparing to set out for the theatre.
In 1796, she appeared at Venice, and after-
wards at Rome, being eveiy where re-
ceived with  the loudest  expressions of
applause.  In 1799, she manied Mr. Feli-
pent,  whom she accompanied  to  Milan.
In 1801, her  wonderful powers   being
then in their meridian, she  returned  to
the London stage, appearing alternately at
either house, and astonishing the  whole
musical world  by  her  Mandane—a per-
formance  that  has never  since been
equalled in EngUsh opera.  Engagements
now multiplied upon her, and  continued
incessantly till  her  final retirement from
public life,  which  took  place  in 1809.
The last exhibition of her powers was in
aid of a charitable institution, at Whitehall
chapel, the queen, the prince regent, and
most of the branches of the royal  family,
being present.  In 1817, she quitted Eng-
land for  ever, and died, after a short illness,
at her villa  of  St. Artien, an estate she
had purchased in  the  Venetian  terri-
tories.
  Bingen; a town  on  the  left  shore  of
the Rhine, where the Nahe joins this river,
opposite Riidesheim, famous for its excel-
lent wine.  Lon. 7° 48' E.; lat. 49° 55' N.
Population, 3300.  Near it the Rhine  is
compressed into a narrow channel, be-
tween rocks, so as to make the navigation
difficult.  This strait is called  Bingen-
loch (hole of Bingen).  The famous MJiu-
sethurm,  or  Tower of  Mice,  where the
avaricious bishop Hatto is said to have
been eaten by mice, as a punishment for
usury, exercised in  a time of famine, is
situated in the vicinity.
  Bingley.  This Garrick of the  Dutch
stage was bora at Rotterdam, in 1755, of
EngUsh parents in  good circumstances.
On leaving  school,  he  was placed in a
counting-house.  It was not long, how-
ever, before  he discovered an invincible
inclination for the stage, and, at the age
of 18, joined the company under the di-
rection of the  celebrated Corver, who
was his first instructer.  In 1779, in the
24th year of his age, he made his debut
on the stage  of Amsterdam.  The pubhc
odium was then excited against England,
on account of its ships having captured
vessels under the Dutch flag, without any
previous  declaration of war, and B. was
unfavorably  received on account of his
English descent. But he soon conquered
this prejudice by  his  performance  of
Achilles, in the tragedy of the same name;
and from that time he  continued to be
the favorite of the public.  He was, also,
so well acquainted with the French lan-
guage, as to appear successfully  in the
French theatres of Amsterdam and the
Hague, by the side  of the great French
actors, who, while on their tours for the
sake of improving  themselves, used  to
visit the  Netherlands.  In 1796, he was
director of a  company of actors, who
played principally at Rotterdam and the
Hague, but, also, visited other cities of
Holland.   Meanwhile,   he  was always
ready to  perform at the theatre in Am-
sterdam, in such parts as could only be
acted by himself.  One of his last repre-
sentations, in which he  was assisted by
the great actress Wattier Ziesenis, was
the part of Farnese, in Lalain's tragedy
Maria, acted, in 1818,  before the royal
family.  In the same year, he died at the
Hague.
  Binnacle, or Bittacle ; a case or box,
which contains the  compass  for steering
a ship, and lights to show the  compass
at night.  In ships steered by a wheel, it
is common to have two binnacles, or a
double binnacle, for the convenience  of
the steersman,  on either  side of the
wheel; but, in this case, the compasses af- 
108
BINNACLE—BIRCH.
feet each others' direction, and thus ren-
der the ship's course uncertain.
  Binomial, in algebra;  a quantity con-
sisting of two terms,  or members, con-
nected by the sign -f- or —.   Binomial
coefficients are the numbers that indicate
how often a given power of a  binomial,
for instance, of a -\- b, contains each of the
products of its parts.—The binomial the-
orem is that  celebrated  formula, which
teaches to find any power of a given bi-
nomial a-r-b, by means of the two terms
a and 6, and of the exponent of the power.
This theorem, frequently called the New-
tonian theorem, on which the system of
analysis  is   principally  founded,  was
known, as far as  relates to  integral posi-
tive exponents, to  several mathematicians
before Newton.   But Newton  was the
first who taught  its application to frac-
tional and negative exponents; and this
discovery, one of the  most important of
those made  by diat  great man,  is en-
graved upon his tomb-stone.
   Bioernstaehl, James  Jonas,  a dis-
tinguished traveller, born at Rotarbo, in
the Swedish province  of Siidermannland,
in 1731, studied at Upsal, afterwards en-
tered the famfly  of baron  Rudbeck, as
tutor, and travelled with his son to Eng-
land and the continent  of Europe.  While
residing in Paris,  he studied the Oriental
languages.   On the return of his pupil to
Sweden, B. was  appointed, by Gustavus
III, to  make the  tour of Greece, Syria
and Egypt, receiving, at the  same time,
the title  of professor at the university of
Lund.  He  now  went, at the king's ex-
pense, to Constantinople, in 1776, where
he remained  for  some time, to learn the
Turkish language. He then proceeded on
his travels as far as  Saloniki, where he
died of the  plague, 1779.   B. had given
an account of his travels, in the form of
letters to his friend  Gioerwell, who,  at
first, published them separately in a jour-
nal, which appeared  in Stockholm, but
afterwards by themselves  (1783).  This
work contains learned and profound re-
searches on medals, manuscripts, rare
books;  and a great many  anecdotes, of
which the most  interesting are those re-
lating to Voltaire, whom B. had visited at
Femey.  His remarks and opinions on
morals, manners, reUgion and  Uterature
are often destitute of truth and justice.
He was possessed of  more  learning than
taste, of more memory than discernment
and  judgment   His health,  naturally
strong, and fortified by exercise, enabled
him to support constant labor, and to en-
dure the greatest  hardships.
  Biology and Biometry.  (See Life.)
  Bion ; born in Smyrna, or in its neigh-
borhood ;  a Grecian  pastoral poet,  of
whose Ufe no account is to be found.  The
elegy, which  Moschus, his friend  and
disciple, composed on the occasion of his
death, seems to imply, that he was a con-
temporary of  Theocritus, and died of
poison.  He probably lived in Sicily or
Magna Grecia. Among the few poems
written by him, which have descended to
our times, his elegy on Adonis  is con-
sidered as the best.  The poems  of B.,
together with those of Moschus, are gen-
erally found as an appendix to the idyls
of Theocritus.  They have been published
separately by  Fr. Jacobs, Gotha, 1795;
Gilbert  Wakefield,  London,  1795;  and
J. C. F. Maass, Leipsic, 1807.
  Biot, Jean Baptiste, a natural philoso-
pher  and astronomer, member of many
French, as well as foreign literary socie-
ties, and  of the legion of honor, born at
Paris, in 1774, studied in the  college of
Louis-le-Grand,  then  joined  the amiy,
and served in the artillery.   His love of
the sciences soon led him back to Paris,
where he  continued  his  studies in the
polytechnic school, till he felt himself fit
for a professorship at Beauvais. In 1800,
he  was made  professor of physics in the
college de France.  In 1802, he was ap-
pointed a member of the first class of the
institute.  In  1804, he prevailed  on the
institute not  to vote  in  favor of Bona-
parte's elevation to  the throne. In 1806,
he  was sent with Arago to Spain, to con-
tinue the measurement of an arc of the
meridian, undertaken to estabUsh the ba-
sis  for the introduction of a new decimal
system (q. v.)  in France.  Before  he de-
parted,  he was appointed a member of
the board of longitude.  His mission was
successful.  He  now devoted  himself
with  unremitted zeal to  his  studies  and
lectures.  In 1816, he was  chosen editor
of  the department  of mathematical sci-
ence  for the Journal des Savans.  His
principal works  are,  Traite de Physique
experimentale et mathematique (1816); the
abridgment of  the same, in a popular
style; Precis  eiementaire de Phyrique ex-
perimentale, and Traiti eiementaire d'As-
tronomie phyrique.  In  1817, he visited
the Orkney islands, to correct some dis-
puted astronomical observations, for the
 measurement of a degree.  B. still com-
 municates important articles to the Utera-
 ry  journals, &c.
   Birch (betula alba) is a forest-tree, easi-
 ly  known by  the smooth appearance and
 sUvery color of its bark; by its leaves be- 
BIRCH—BIRD-ISLAND.
109
ing somewhat triangular, but acute, and
small in comparison with those of other
timber-trees, and by all the small branches
being slender and flexible.—Although the
birch is considered by no means a valua-
ble timber-tree, yet its wood is used for
numerous  purposes.  Being  of  white
color, and firm and tough in texture, it is
variously employed by hoop-benders and
wheel-wrights.  Turners use it for trench-
ers,  bowls,  ladles, and other wooden
ware.  Ox-yokes, small  screws, women's
shoe-heels,pattens,and, in France, wooden
shoes, are made of it Tlie North American
Indians use the bark of  the birch-tree for
canoes, boxes, buckets, baskets, kettles, and
dishes, curiously joining it together with
threads made of roots of the  cedar-tree.
Birch-trees are not unfrequently planted
along with hazels,  for the purpose of pro-
curing wood to be converted  into char-
coal for forges.  This charcoal is  much
esteemed ; and the soot, which is formed
on burning the wood, constitutes a good
black substance for printers' ink.   Nearly
all the other  parts  are applicable to use-
ful purposes.   The inhabitants of Sweden
employ the bark in the tanning of leather,
and, after burning it  to a certain degree,
use it as a cement  for broken  china  and
earthen ware.  The  navigators  of the
river Volga construct of it portable boats,
cradles, &c.  It  is serviceable in dyeing
a  yeUow color.  In  Norway, it is dried,
ground, mixed with meal, and  boiled,
with other food, for swine.  The houses
or huts, in many  parts of the north of
Europe, are covered with the outward
and thicker  part  of the bark, instead of
slates or tiles.  It  is spun  into a coarse
kind of ropes, woven into shoes and hats,
and, in Kamtschatka,  even   made  into
drinking-cups. The  Laplanders  fasten
together large pieces of  it to keep off the
rain.  Abounding  in  resinous  matter,
slices of the bark are sometimes tied to-
gether, to make torches. During a scar-
city of com, it has, in  several instances,
been ground with  bread  corn, and suc-
cessfully used as food for men.  In most
parts of England and America, the twigs
of this tree are made into brooms.  They
are  also made into the tops  of fishing-
rods ;  and, when smeared with bird-lime,
are  used by bud-catchers.  The Norwe-
gians  frequently employ them as fodder
for  their  horses.  The  leaves afford  a
yellow dye.
   Birch,  Thomas ; an  industrious histo-
rian and biographer of  the 18th century.
He  was born in London,  in  1705; and
his father, who was  a Quaker, practised
   VOL. II.          10
the occupation of a coffee-mill maker, to
which the son, also,  was destined.  His
early taste  for  reading induced  him to
prefer a literary life, which he was per-
mitted to choose, on  condition of sup-
porting  himself by  his own  exertions.
He, accordingly, after some previous  tu-
ition, became usher in three different
schools, and then went to  Ireland with
dean Smedley.  Having left the Quakers,
he took orders in the church, in 1730,
and obtained, in 1732, a living in Essex,
through the patronage of  the attorney-
general, afterwards lord Hardwicke.  In
1734, he engaged, with some  coadjutors,
in writing  the General Historical  and
Critical  Dictionary, founded  on  that of
Bayle, and completed, in 10 vols. foUo, in
1741.  He subsequently obtained various
preferments in the church.  In January,
1765, he was killed by a  fall from  his
horse, in the road  between London and
Hampstead.  B. had formed very  ex-
tensive  manuscript  collections,  which,
together with his library of printed books,
he bequeathed to  the British museum.
He produced a large  number of historical
and  biographical works in the course of
his laborious life.  B. was one  of  the
pioneers of literature. He  collected  ful-
ly and faithfully,  but  without much
discrimination, materials  relating to  the
various subjects of his research, which are
calculated to afford important assistance
to writers possessed of more taste  and
judgment.   Doctor Johnson was repeat-
edly obliged to  B. for literary informa-
tion : he bestowed on him a  Greek epi-
gram, and for many  years conesponded
with him.  The literature  of  his countiy
is much indebted to the activity and dili-
gence of B.
  Bird,  Edward  (R. A.);  an  English
painter, who died at Bristol, in Nov., 1819.
He  excelled  in  comic  subjects.  The
marquis of Stafford patronised him.  He
was  appointed historical  painter to the
princess Charlotte of Wales.
  Bird Island ; the name of a very large
number of islands in almost all the parts
of the world, of which we shall  mention
only the following:—B. Islands; a clus-
ter near the N. E. coast of New Holland,
so called by captain Cook.   They are
almost covered with  birds.—B. I., in the
S. Pacific ocean;  lon. 216°  24' E.; lat
I70 48/ S.—B. I., in the gulf of St. Law-
rence ;  lon. 60° A3 W.;  lat 47° 53 N
—Another, in the S. Pacific  ocean;  lon
38°  22' W.;  lat. 54°  S.—One in  the
northern part of the same  ocean;  lon
198° & E.;  lat. 23° 6' N.—B. Islands;  a 
110
BIRD-ISLAND—BIRMAN EMPIRE.
 cluster of islands in  the Caribbean sea;
 Ion. 66° 50' W.;  lat 12° N.—The  name
 Bird island is as common, and as vague,
 as that of Blue mountains, &c.
  Birds.  (See Ornithology.)
  Birds' Nest.  The hirundo esculenta, or
 salangane, a species of swallow, the nests
 of which are used as an article of luxury
 among the Chinese, is found in the In-
 dian seas.   They  are particularly  abun-
 dant in  Sumatra, especially about Croe,
 near the south end of the island.  The
 nest has the shape of a common swal-
 low's nest, is about the  size of a goose's
 egg, is found in caves, particularly on the
 sea-shore,  and has  the appearance  of
 fibrous,  imperfectly concocted  isinglass.
 More or less of this substance is contained
 in the nests of all swallows of that region.
 The manner in which this substance is
 procured is not  ascertained.  The most
 probable suppositions are,  that it  is the
 spawn of fish gathered  by  the bird, or a
 secretion elaborated in the body of the
 animal.  The Chinese collect the  nests,
 and sell  them to  all parts of the world.
 Dissolved in broths, &c, they make a de-
 licious  geUy. The finest are those obtained
 before  the nest has been contaminated by
 the young birds:  they  are pure white,
 and are scarce and valuable. The inferior
 ones are dark, streaked  with blood, or
 mixed  with  feathers:  they are chiefly
 converted into glue.  Some of the cav-
 erns, in which they are built, are difficult
 of access, and dangerous to  climb, so that
 none can  collect  the nests but persons
 accustomed to the  trade  from  their
 youth.
  Biren,  Ernst   Johu   von,  duke  of
 Courland, born in 1687, was, as is assert-
 ed,  the grandson  of a groom of James,
 duke of Courland, and the son of a Cour-
 landish peasant, by the name of Buhren.
 He studied at Konigsberg, and endeavored
 to conceal the meanness of his origin by
 raising himself in the favor of the  great.
 His agreeable person and cultivated mind,
 procured him the highest favor of Anna,
duchess of Courland, and  niece of  the
 emperor  of Russia; but he was unsuc-
cessful  in his attempt to obtain admission
among the  Courlandish nobility.  When
Anna (q. v.) ascended the Russian throne
(1730),  B.,  in spite of the conditions to
 which  the  empress had consented (one
 of which was not  to bring him with  her
to Russia), was loaded by her with honors,
and introduced at the  Russian  court.
 Here he  assumed the name and coat of
 arms of  the dukes of Biron in France,
 and governed under  the  name of  his
 mistress.  Fierce and haughty by nature,
 he indulged his  hatred against the rivals
 of his ambition.  The princes Dolgorucky
 were his first victims.  He caused 11,000
 persons to be put to death, and double
 that number to be exiled.  It is said, that
 the  empress often threw herself at his
 feet, to induce him to lay aside his severi-
 ty, but that neither her entreaties nor her
 tears were able to move him.  The firm-
 ness of his character, however, introduced
 vigor and activity into all branches of the
 administration throughout the great em-
 pire. In  1737,  Anna forced  the Cour-
 landers to choose her favorite (who had,
 in 1722, married a Courlandish  lady of
 the  family  of  Trotta, by the name of
 Treyden) for their duke.  After having
 declared prince  Ivan her successor, she
 appointed B., according to his wish, re-
 gent. Anna died Oct. 28,  1740.   The
 new regent  acted  with  prudence and
 moderation.  But a  secret  conspiracy
 was soon fonned against him.  Field-
 marshal Miinich, with the consent of the
 young emperor's mother, caused him to
 be arrested  in his bed, during the night
 of Nov. 19, 1740, by Manstein, and to be
 confined in  the  castle of  Schliisselburg.
 He was subjected to a trial; but, no proofs
 of the projects, which he was accused of
 having formed for the advantage of his
 family, being discovered, the sentence of
 death was changed into that  of imprison-
 ment for life, and his fortune was declared
 confiscated.   Together with his family,
 he was transported to Pelim,in Siberia, and
 thrown  into a prison, of which  Munich
 himself had  furnished the plan.   In the
 following  year,  Elisabeth, daughter of
 Peter the Great,  being raised to the Rus-
 sian  throne  by a new revolution, B. was
 recalled, Dec. 20, 1741, and Miinich was
 obliged to occupy his prison.  At Kasan,
 the sledges met; the travellers recognised
 each other, and  proceeded on  their way
 without  interchanging  a word.   The
 family of B. afterwards lived  in a  very re-
 spectable condition at Jaroslaw.—After a
subsequent exile of 22 years, the duke, as
 well as Munich,  was recalled, in 1762, by
 Peter III.  When Catharine  II ascended
the throne, the  duchy of Courland  was
restored to  B.,  in 1763.  He  governed
with wisdom and lenity, transferred the
government to his eldest son, Peter, 1769,
and closed his restless life, Dec. 28, 1772.
  Birman Empire.   The great peninsula
east of the bay of Bengal includes Aschem,
or Assam, and the Birman empire.   The
latter extends from 9° to 26°  N. lat, is
about 1000 miles  long and 700 broad; pop- 
BIRMAN EMPIRE.
Ill
ulation, according to Symes,in 1795, about
17,000,000. The natives of the peninsula,
a handsomer and more athletic race of
men than the Hindoos, though not so
neat, are warlike and hospitable, have no
mendicants among them, and reverence
the aged.  The Birman empire, accord-
ing to the reports of missionaries, compre-
hends the kingdoms of Ava, Pegu, Arra-
can, and the adjacent states on the north.
It is bounded on the north by Thibet, As-
sam and China; on the west, it is separat-
ed from the British possessions by a chain
of high mountains  and the river Naafi
In the 16th century, the Birmans in Ava
made themselves independent of Pegu;
but, in 1740, they were subjugated anew
by  this state.  Alompra,  one  of  their
leaders, however, with  about 100 faithful
adherents, almost immediately summoned
the people again to arms, and, in 1753,
conquered the city of Ava.  Defeat  and
victor}' succeeded  alternately, till Alom-
pra, in 1757, conquered the city of Pegu.
This celebrated monarch died in 1760, at
the age of 50 years.  He labored to make
his subjects happy by promoting agricul-
ture, by restricting the arbitraiy exercise
of power on the part of his officers,  and
improving the public morals.  Every act
of the magistrates, in the Birman empire,
was required  to  be public, and every
decree to be made known: even commer-
cial treaties, and all relations established
with  foreign countries, were registered
among the laws of the state, and open to
the inspection of every one.  Namdogee,
his eldest son and successor, who died in
1764, inheriting his father's spirit, adopted
from other nations whatever was of gen-
eral utility to his own,  and was anxious
to do away abuses.  Both father and son
attended particularly to the administration
of the East India company.  Shambuan,
the emperor's brother, became regent, as
guardian for his nephew Mornien; but he
usurped the throne himself, and conquered
Siam.  In 1771, however, this province
recovered its  independence, while  the
principal part of the Birman  forces were
engaged in a war with  China. In this war
they were victorious, and compelled the
Chinese,  whom they took prisoners, to
intermarry with the Birman females, and
to  remain in  their territory.   Fortune
continued to attend this prince; and, in
1776,  he left his empire, much enlarged,
to his son  Chengenza.   This prince lived
in  the unrestrained indulgence  of every
appetite, till, in  1782, he was dethroned
and put to death.   In consequence of the
revolution, Shembuan  Menderagan, the
fourth  son of  Alompra, ascended  the
throne.  He ordered his nephew Mornien,
who was a state prisoner, to be drowned,
and, in 1783, subdued  the  kingdom of
Arracan.  He then engaged in a war with
Siam,  which continued till  1793, and
finally compelled it to submission on cer-
tain conditions.  About  this period, some
highway robbers fled from the Birman
empire, and took refuge in the territory of
the East India company. Shembuan de-
manded that they should be deUvered up.
His demands were not immediately com-
plied with, and he marched, with a strong
force, into the offending countiy. At the
same time, he earned on a friendly nego-
tiation  with the  government in Calcutta,
which  resulted  in the  surrender of the
criminals, and the conclusion of a treaty
of amity and commerce between the two
governments, which agreed to afford each
other mutual aid, in  case of an invasion
from China.   It was negotiated by cap-
tain Symes.  Shembuan was succeeded,
in 1819, by his grandson. The last vic-
tory of the Birmans was, in 1822, over the
northern mountainous province of Assam,
at the source of the Bunampooter.  The
party driven from Assam, together with
the Birman rebels, fled to the British ter-
ritories, whence they intended to invade
Birmah.   The British government forth-
with disanned the insurgents, but refused
to deliver them up or to drive them from
the island of Shapuri,  which they had
occupied.  The court at Ummerapoora,
therefore, attempted  to set the Mahrattas
and  all Hindostan in arms  against  the
EngUsh.  At length, the monarch with
the golden feet (one of the titles of the
sovereign of Birmah) demanded of the
government  at Calcutta the cession of
Northern Bengal, as  being a  part of Ava;
and, in January, 1824, the Birman forces
marched into Kadschar, which had depos-
ed its rulers, and put itself under British
protection.  Lord Amherst, as governor-
general of the British East Indies, now
declared war against Birmah, and general
Archibald Campbell  prosecuted it so suc-
cessfully, that, after the  victory at Promc
(Dec. 1—3,1825), he obUged the monarch
to conclude a very unequal peace at  Pa-
lanagh, Dec. 31, 1825.   As the treaty was
not ratified, on the part of Boa, the Bir-
man emperor, by the time specified (Jan.
18, 1826), Campbell  renewed die war, on
the 19th, and stormed the fortress of Mun-
nun.  Feb. 24, the peace was ratified, and
the war concluded.  The  king of the
white elephants ceded to the company the
provinces of Arracan, Merguy, Tavoy ami 
112
BIRMAN EMPIRE.
Yea, and paid them a sum amounting to
about $4,300,000. Assam was made once
more independent,  and rajahs were  ap-
pointed  by the company to  govern  the
northern provinces of Munnipore, Assam,
Kadschar and Yeahung.  The important
city of Rangoon was declared a free port.
Thus all the western coast of the Birman
empire was ceded to the East India com-
pany, and the most powerful of the East
Indian states was divided and weakened.
—Before the rains commence, the heat in
the valleys of this, in most respects, healthy
country is  excessive.  Though  B. is in
general  fertile,  it contains  several  vast
deserts.   In the northern part, it is moun-
tainous, and abounds in gold, silver,  pre-
cious stones  and marble; also  in iron,
lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, sulphur and
petroleum, which issues from the earth in
abundance.   In the  southern  districts,
owing to the numerous rivers, the  soil is
marshy  and extremely productive.  Here
grow rice,  sugar-cane, fine tobacco,  cot-
ton, indigo, and all the  tropical  fruits.
Land is cheap.  Timber for ship-building,
especially teak or  Indian oak,  which
grows most luxuriantly in a wet soil, on
the banks of rivers, is abundant. The price
of labor is high.  All but the lowest lands
produce grain, or serve for pasture.   Of
manufactured goods,  B. exports  cotton
and silk stuffs, glass,  saltpetre,  powder,
porcelain and marble images of Gaudama,
to which the workmen in stone give an
exquisite  smoothness.  The East India
company builds vessels  even  of  1000
tons burthen in the Birman docks; and
the shipwrights there (giants in compar-
ison with  the puny Hindoos) find  con-
stant employment.  The Pegu ships, how-
ever, are not so well made as those  built
by the  company, in their own  territory.
The trade of the Birmans is very lively,
especially  with China, by means of the
river Irrawaddy,  which  extends  1240
 miles into the interior, and has  populous
 cities all along its banks.  From Barnoo,
 goods are conveyed through the  interior
 to China,  to which  the Birmans  send
 many commodities from the eastern ar-
 chipelago of Asia.  The government en-
 courages the  increase of the population
 by favoring the settlement of foreigners,
 tolerates the religion of every  nation in
 the ports of Rangoon, Negrais and  Mer-
 guy, and encourages the intermarriage of
 foreigners with Birman females.   Instead
 of coin, silver and lead in  bars are  used,
 and their purity is strictly tested in trade.
 The forging and stamping of these  bars
 forms a particular branch of business.—
Menderagee removed the royal residence
to the  new city of Ummerapoora (190
leagues east of Calcutta), on a tongue of
land which runs up into the lake of Toun-
zemahn. Ava, once so magnificent a city,
about four or five miles distant, now  lies
in mins. The buildings among the Bir-
mans are veiy slight, as the government
requires them to be chiefly of wood or
bamboo.  There are well-organized fire-
companies,  for the protection of these
combustible edifices.  The Birman nobles
are distinguished from the lower classes
by their dress, houses and  furniture,  and
are divided into several ranks.  The prince
is absolute, but custom obliges him to ask
the opinion of the nobility in important
state matters:  he is not bound, however,
by their counsel.  The Birmans are all
fond of painting  both their faces  and
hands.  They slaughter no tame animals,
and live simply:  for the most  part, on
vegetables.  No Birman  can have more
than one wife; but he may have  as many
mistresses  as he will.   The latter live in
the same house with  the  wife,  and are
her servants.  A foreigner and an adult
male Birman may, at any time, leave the
empire; but females and children are not
allowed this privilege.  Females cannot
appear before  a court of justice.  The
chief amusement of the Birmans is their
theatre, where declamation, dancing  and
music   alternate: the higher classes are
fond of dramatic  spectacles.  The  new
year is celebrated with aU sorts of purifi-
cation.  At this time,  young women ap-
pear in public with water, and sprinkle
every  one they please.   It is considered
improper,  however, to sprinkle females
 first, or those in a state of pregnancy at
 all. Among the Birmans, the distinguish-
 ed dead are burned; the poor are intened;
 the richest are embalmed, commonly in
 the ancient simple mode, in honey.  Ev-
 ery Birman learns arithmetic, reading and
 writing.  The common  people  write on
 palm-leaves, with an iron style: the rich
 have libraries, with  books the leaves of
 which are thin pieces of ivory, with gilt
 edges. The Birmans, in general, are fond
 of gilding every  thing.   Their materia
 medica is confined to herbs, spices and
 mercury: with vaccination they have long
 been  acquainted.  The English mission-
 aries  are  tolerated,  and serve  the  East
  India  company as the outposts of their
  diplomatic system.  The literary Birmans
  translate from the English all important
  works of science, particularly on astron-
  omy and law.  The religion of  the coun-
  try is that of Buddha, whom the people 
BIRMAN EMPIRE—BIRMINGHAM.                 113
 caU Gaudama.  It enjoins no bloody sacri-
 fices, and is  extremely tolerant.   The
 Birmans have no secular clergy, but only
 a kind  of monks dwelling in  convents.
 All the  clergy practise celibacy, and eat
 but once a day.  Every carnal indulgence
 is punished by a disgraceful and public
 removal from office.  The  clergy are Ut-
 erary men, and highly esteemed for their
 piety and knowledge.  They are permit-
 ted, however, to gild and paint.  Former-
 ly, there were priestesses;  but this order
 has been abolished, because it was found
 injurious to the increase  of population.
 The government has long been struggling
 to  maintain  its  independence between
 the British dominions on the Ganges and
 the Chinese empire.  No part of Eastern
 Asia seems to apprehend an excess  of
 population, and hence no female in China
 is suffered to emigrate.  The Birmans are
 skilful weavers, smiths, sculptors, workers
 in gold and silver, joiners, &c.  Of this
 the citizens of London have had ocular
 evidence, in  the  great state carriage, de-
 voted to the service of the gods, 19 feet
 high, 14  long, and 7 wide, which was
 taken by the British troops, in the war of
 1825.  In Birmah tliere are no hereditary
 offices.  Its civil and criminal code is very
 judicious;  general principles are first laid
 down, and then applied to  distinct cases.
 Robbery is punished with  death  only
 when the property stolen is very great,
 or the offence is aggravated by particular
 circumstances.   Capital punishment is
 commonly inflicted by decapitation, and
 extends to those who eat opium  freely,
 and to drunkards in general. The magis-
 trates have a great discretionary power to
 mitigate the punishments of the law, and
 few penal  laws are executed in all  their
 severity.   The standing army  is small.
 Levies are made,  in case of war, by way
 of conscription; and a specified number of
 houses  is required to furnish  a soldier
 completely equipped, or pay a considera-
 ble fine.   For the crime of insubordina-
 tion, the conscribed are either  punished
 personally, or their families are made  to
 suffer, however innocent they may be.
 The principal part of the militia are em-
 ployed in the war-boats of the crown,
 which sink about three feet deep, and are
 provided with ordnance.   The revenue
 is a tenth part of the  productions of the
 soil and of all imported  goods.   The
 treasury is rich, and the sovereign regards
 an active trade among his subjects as the
 surest basis of national revenue: he calls
his great income from customs the tribute
of strangers.  The empire at present con-
                   10*
sists of seven  provinces.  The capital,
Ummerapoora,  contains 175,000 inhabit-
ants.   Rangoon,  at  the mouth of the
Irrawaddy (pop. 30,000), is an important
trading city, and many Europeans reside
in it.   The Voyage du Capit. Hiram Cox,
dans I'Empire des Birmans is better in this
French edition, by Chalons d'Ange (Paris,
1824, 2 vols.) than in the original EngUsh
(London,  1821).   (See, also, Narrative
of the Birmese  War,  by major Snodgrass
London, 1827; and Mrs. Ann H. Jud-
son's Relation of the American Baptist Mis-
sion to the Birman Empire, Wash., 1823).
   Birmingham ; a town in Warwickshire,
Eng.,  on  a dechvity, on the river  Rea,
which joins the Tame; 62 miles  N. W.
Oxford, 87 N. Bristol, 109 N. N. W. Lon-
don ; population, in 1821,85,753; famiUes,
18,165; houses, 16,653.  Of the inhabit-
ants, 81,642 consist of families connected
with trade and manufactures.  B. has long
been distinguished for the variety, extent
and excellence  of its manufactures,  par-
ticularly in hardware.  With perhaps the
exception  of Manchester, it is the greatest
manufacturing town in England. Among
the principal manufactures are buttons, in
immense variety, buckles and snuff-boxes;
toys, trinkets and jeweUery; polished steel
watch-chains,  cork-screws, &c;  plated
goods for the dining and tea-table; japan-
ned and enamelled articles; brass work
of every  description;  swords and  fire-
arms ; medals and coins of various kinds;
copying machines and pneumatic appara-
tuses ; the  more ponderous productions of
the casting-furnace and rolling-mill;  and,
indeed, every hardware commodity  that
can be considered as curious, useful or
ornamental.  The manufactories are es-
tablished upon the largest scale, and with
the most astonishing  ingenuity.  A coin-
ing-mill was  erected in 1788, which is
now  capable  of striking  between 30
and 40,000 pieces  of money in  an hour.
Before the close of the  last war, no less
than 14,500 stands of arms were deUvered
per week to the ordnance office.  At the
pin-works, it is said, 12,000 pins can be
cut and pointed,  and  50,000 pin-heads
can be made from the wire, in an hour.—
B. is  about two miles in length.   The
lower part of the town consists chiefly of
old buildings, is crowded with workshops
and warehouses, and is inhabited princi-
pally by manufacturers; but  the  upper
part has a  superior appearance, consisting
of new and regular streets, and containing
a number  of elegant  buildings.  It con-
tains three churches and five  chapels of
ease, and many places of worship belong- 
114
BIRMINGHAM—BISCAY.
ing to Dissenters.   St Martin's  church
has a fine lofty  spire, with a peal of 12
bells,  and a set of chimes.   B. is distin-
guished for its charitable institutions, and
has various schools, and several libraries,
one of which contains  10,000  volumes.
The town has the benefit of several canals,
which enable it  to carry on an easy inter-
course with foreign countries. It has three
weekly  markets, and two annual  fairs.
The soil about  the town is dry, and the
climate is considered remarkably healthy.
The average mortality of B., for six years,
ending 1801, was  only 1 to 59; of Man-
chester, 1 to 37; and of London, 1 to 31.
  Biron, Charles de Gontaut, duke  of;
son of marshal Armand de Gontaut, baron
Biron, born about 1562.  Educated as a
Calvinist, he had twice changed his  reh-
gion before he  reached the 16th year of
his age.  In his 14th year, B. was made
colonel of the Swiss regiment, and served
Henry IV with  much zeal and courage.
By the  king's  favor, he was, in  1592,
raised to the rank of admiral of  France,
Though distinguished at court as well as
in the field, always feared and  praised,
he was violent,  obstinate and presumptu-
ous.  At the retaking of Amiens,  in 1598,
B. served under Henry IV, and, in  the
same year, was made a peer and duke.
He thought himself, however, not suffi-
ciently  rewarded.   The Spanish party,
which, after the peace of Vervins, could
injure Henry  only  by  secret intrigues,
took advantage of the duke's discontent.
Henry appointed  him his ambassador at
the court of Brussels, to receive the  oath
of the archduke to the peace of Vervins.
The  Spanish  court seized  this oppor-
tunity to dazzle him with festivals, spec-
tacles and honors; the  female  arts of
seduction were put in  practice,  and the
weak B. promised to join the Catholics,
whenever  they should  rise again.  In
1599, he concluded an agreement  with
the duke of Savoy and the count of Fuen-
tes, by which he pledged himself to take
up arms against his benefactor.   Mean-
while, war being declared against  the
duke of Savoy (1600), B. saw  himself
reduced to the necessity of attacking him.
For fear that his understanding with the
duke should become visible, he possessed
himself of almost  all  the towns in the
duchy, which  was the easier  because
Emanuel had expected some forbearance
on his part  Fuentes and the duke ven-
tured to propose to B., that he should
 deliver the person of the king into then-
 hands ; but he refused.  Their suggestions,
 however, were not without effect  upon
him, and, whUe engaged  in the siege of
the fort St Catherine, in  the vicinity of
Genoa, having reason to  beheve that the
king would come to inspect the trenches,
he sent word to the governor  to dispose
harquebussiers so as  to fire on  him at a
certain signal.   At the decisive moment,
however,  he prevented  the king from
going to  the fatal spot.  In 1601,  peace
was made with Savoy.  So many  nego-
tiations had not, however, escaped the eye
of the king, nor could he  remain ignorant
of dieir object  He therefore intenogated
the marshal as to his designs, with prom-
ises of pardon.  B. made  a partial confes-
sion, and continued his intrigues as before.
Notwithstanding this, Henry sent him, in
the  same  year, to  queen  Elizabeth of
England,  to inform  her  of his marriage
with Maria of Medici.  In the meantime,
B.'s confidant  Lafin, having become sus-
pected by the count of Fuentes, and begin-
ning to fear for himself) discovered the
whole  plot.   A frank  confession and
repentance would have  saved B., since
Henry was inclined to forgive  him.  He,
however, persevered in his denial, rejected
the offers of pardon, and was, therefore,
at the  urgent  entreaties of the queen, at
last surrendered to the rigor of the laws.
Upon leaving the king's room, he was
arrested, carried to  the Bastile, tried be-
fore the  parUament, and beheaded, July
31, 1602.
   Birth.  (See Labor.)
   Biscay ; a province in Spain, bounded
N. by the bay of Biscay, E. by France and
Navarre,  S. by  Burgos, including the
three following subdivisions or provinces:
            Sq. M.   Pop.  Capitals.
B. Proper,  . 1375 112,731  Bilboa.
Guipuscoa, .  653 104,479 St. Sebastian.
Alava,.... 1138   71,396 Vittoria.
             3166 288,606
B. is a mountainous countiy, containing
much wood, and has mines of lead and
iron. It abounds in apples, pears, lemons,
oranges, figs, nuts and currants, but pro-
duces  Uttle wine.  The air is mild and
more temperate than the  rest of Spain.
The country is well cultivated, and the
houses clean  and  convenient.  The  in-
habitants  call themselves Euscaldunac,
boast  of their descent from the  ancient
 Cantabri,  and preserve  strong traces of
 the character of that high-spirited and in-
 dependent people. They are robust, brave,
 active, industrious;  at  the  same time,
 haughty  and irritable;  have  open, ani-
 mated countenances, and handsome per-
 sons.  Their  language is supposed to be 
BISCAY—BISHOP.
115
a dialect of the Celtic, and nearly allied
to the Armorican.   (See Basques.)—B.
forms a kind  of separate state, distinct
from the rest of Spain, governed accord-
ing to its ancient laws and usages.  The
king of Spain, who is simply styled lord
of Biscay, has no right to impose taxes;
and no custom-houses were allowed, till
lately, within the province.
  Biscay Proper is bounded N.  by the
bay of Biscay, E. by Guipuscoa, S. by
Alava, and W. by Santander.   The  coast
is inhabited by seafaring people and fish-
ermen; in the interior, great quantities
of iron are extracted from the ore, and
wrought into different articles.  The rich-
est mines are in the vicinity of Bilboa and
Somorrosto.
   Biscay, bay of; that part of the Atlantic
which lies N. of the province  of  Biscay,
between the projecting coasts of France
and Spain, extending from Ushantto cape
Finisterre.
   Biscay, bay of; a large bay on the south
coast of  Newfoundland, between  cape
Race and cape Pine;  lon. 53° & W.; lat.
46° 50' N.
   Biscay, New, or Durango ; a province
in Mexico, bounded N. by New Mexico,
E. by New Leon,  S. by Zacatecas, and
W. by Culiacan ; 600 miles long, and 400
broad;  pop. 159,000.  The country is, in
general, mountainous, and  watered by a
great number of rivers and brooks:  it has
some mines of silver and lead.  Durango
is the capital.
   Bischofswerder, John Rudolph von,
 a Prussian general and minister,  bom in
 Saxony, in 1756, entered the university of
 Halle,  was admitted into the Prussian
 service in 1760, and appointed major in
 1779.  Under Frederic  WiUiam II,  he
 exercised an  unlimited influence at the
 court of Berlin.  The attachment which
 he had shown Frederic William,  while
 yet crown-prince, procured him the lasting
 affection  of this short-sighted and prodi-
 gal monarch.  As plenipotentiary, he took
 a great part  in the congress  at  Sistova.
 He afterwards effected the interview with
 lord Elgin, at Pilnitz.   After the  king's
 death, he was dismissed, and died  at his
 country-seat, in the neighborhood of Ber-
 Un, 1803.  His views, as a statesman and
 a man, were veiy limited. His propensity
 to mysticism  had  consequences in the
 highest degree injurious.  B. belonged to
 the society of the IHuminati.
   Bishop, in the New Testament,  is the
 instructerand spiritual superior of a Chris-
 tian congregation. The bishops who were
 installed  by the apostles diemselves, or,
according to the apostolic idea of the
office, chosen by the congregations, were
the assistants and successors of the apos-
tles in their labors for the propagation of
Christianity.  They had the supervision
of the whole congregation, and its officers,
the presbyters and deacons, but without
claiming, in the first century, any preem-
inence or rights of diocesans, which they
afterwards  acquired, as die church-gov-
ernment was gradually estabUshed.  When
the system of ecclesiastical rule was ma-
tured, the almost absolute authority which
they exercised over the  clergy of their
dioceses; their interference in the secular
concerns of governments, to which they
soon  rendered themselves necessary, by
their  superior information and their ele-
vated rank; the administration of  the
church-revenues; the maintenance of their
ecclesiastical prerogatives, and their  ex-
tensive  ecclesiastical as well as criminal
jurisdiction, occupied them too much to
leave them any time or inclination for the
discharge of tlieir duties as teachers and
spiritual fathers.  They therefore reserv-
ed to themselves only the most important
functions of their spiritual office, as the
ordination of the clergy, the confirmation
of youth, and the preparation of the holy
oil.  In the middle ages, they attached to
themselves particular vicars, called suffra-
gans, bishops in parlibus, or coadjutors,
for the  performance even of these func-
tions, which they had  reserved to them-
selves, and  for the  inspection of all that
concerned the church.  Bishops who have
preached themselves, and  attended to the
spiritual welfare of their congregations,
have been rare since the seventh century.
The  episcopal office being such  as we
have described it, the nobility, and even
the  sons of princes and  kings, strove to
obtain a dignity which was as honorable
as it was profitable; and which, moreover,
permitted festivals and sensual enjoyments
of every description.  These applications,
which were aided by rich donations made
to the churches, and, in the case  of the
 German  bishops,  by  the influence  of
the  emperor,  gave to the  bishops  of
 Germany, particularly, a  high degree of
 dignity.  The German  bishops became
 princes of the empire, and their influence
 upon all public affairs was important. The
 reformation, however, lessened their num-
 ber, and although, in some of the Protest-
 ant countries of the north of Europe, the
 higher clergy have retained the  title of
 bishop, yet they have lost  the greater part
 of their former revenues and privileges.
 The Swedish bishops constitute one of 
116
BISHOP—BISMUTH.
 the estates of the kingdom, like the Eng-
 lish, but have little influence.  The Eng-
 lish church has  left to its bishops more
 authority than the rest, and, for this rea-
 son, has received the name of the episco-
 pal.  In Protestant Germany, bishoprics
 were abolished by the reformation, but
 they have been restored, in Prussia, with-
 in  the  last 10  years.  The church  of
 Rome early lost many bishoprics by the
 conquests  of the Mohammedans; hence
 the great number of titular bishops, whose
 bishoprics lie in partibus infidelium, that
 is,  in countries in possession of the infi-
 dels.   The Roman  see, however, honors
 with this title only ecclesiastics of a high
 rank.  In consequence of the cession of
 several Gennan countries  to France, 23
 bishoprics were abolished; but, by partic-
 ular agreements  with the Roman court,
 they  have been  reestablished in several
 German states.  (See Concordat, and Ger-
 man Church.)  The former subjects of the
 German bishops remember their  mild
 government with gratitude, and the prov-
 erb " It is good to dwell under the cro-
 sier" proves that the episcopal power was
 not prejudicial to the prosperity and hap-
 piness of those subject to it  (See Clergy,
 and Church of England.)
   Bishop's Hood.  (See Mitre.)
   Bishop's Staff.   (See Crosier.)
   Bismark,  Frederic William, count  ;
 general of cavalry in the service of the
 king  of Wiirtemberg,  and, since  July
 1825, his ambassador in Dresden, Berlin,
 Hanover;  born  at Windheim, in West-
 phalia, in 1783.   He is distinguished as a
 writer on  cavalry, and also as a practical
 officer.   He was esteemed by Napoleon.
 The reigning king of Wiirtemberg, on his
 accession to the throne,  purposing an en-
 tirely new organization of his army, com-
 mitted to count  B. that of the cavalry.
 Here he established a  new system.  It
 must  be confessed that the Wiirtemberg
 cavalry acquired, from  his rules, much
 facility in manoeuvring.  The objections
 which have been made against his system
 are refuted by the practical demonstration
 which B. has given of its utility in his
 regiment.  His views on cavalry are ex-
 plained at  large in  his Vorlesungen  iiber
 die Taktik der Reiterd (Lectures on Cav-
 alry Tactics), 1818, which is considered a
 standard work, and  has been translated
 into French.  Ofhis Ftlddienstinstruction
fur Schiitzen und Reiter (Instruction in the
 Field-service of  Riflemen and  Cavalry),
 four editions have been published within
 the space of two years. He has published,
 also, several other military works.
  Bismuth is a metal called, by artists,
tin glass, a name obviously derived from
the French etain de glace.   It is found
both pure  and mineralized by sulphur,
oxygen and arsenic.—Native bismuth oc-
curs in the veins of primitive mountains,
and  is accompanied by ores of lead, sil-
ver, and sometimes  of cobalt and nickel.
It exists in reticulated, lamellar, or amor-
phous  masses; is soft,  and  of a white
color, occasionally tinged with red.  Spe-
cific gravity, 9.  It is found  in many
countries,—in France, England, Sweden,
Bohemia and die U. States,—but its chief
locality is at Schneeberg^in Saxony, from
whence the supply of bismuth, in com-
merce, is principally derived.  To procure
the metal, the ore requires merely to bo
reduced  to convenient fragments, and
heated in  furnaces, when the bismuth
separates from the earthy matter in which
it is engaged, and flows out into cast-iron
moulds prepared for its reception.—Bis-
muth,  when pure,  has a  reddish-white
color, is  harder than  lead, and is easily
broken under the hammer, by which it
may even  be reduced to powder.   It
melts at 470° or 480°, and crystallizes, on
cooling, with great regularity, in the form
of cubes.  When kept in a state of fusion,
at a moderate heat, it is covered with an
oxyde of a greenish-gray or brown color;
at a  higher temperature, it enters into a
feeble  combustion,  forming  a yellow
powder,  called flowers  of  bismuth.—It
combines, by fusion, with  a great num-
ber of metals, communicating  to them
brittleness and fusibility.    The mixture
discovered by Newton, and produced by
melting together 8 oz.  bismuth, 5 oz. lead
and 3 oz. tin, fuses at 202°.  From it are
made toy spoons, which  melt on being
employed to stir very hot tea.  A still
more fusible compound was invented by
Mr. Dalton, composed of 3 parts tin, 5
lead  and 104  bismuth, which  melts  at
197°.   The  addition of a  little  mercury
renders it even more fusible, and fits it to
be used as a coating to the inside of glass
globes.  An alloy of equal parts of tin
and bismuth melts  at 280°;  a less pro-
portion of bismuth adds to the hardness
of tin,  and hence its use in the formation
of pewter.   Equal parts of tin, bismuth
and mercury form the mosaic gold, used
for various  ornamental purposes.  1 part
of bismuth, with 5  of lead and 3 of tin,
fonns  plumbers' solder, a  compound of
great importance in the arts.  Bismuth is
also used by letter-founders in their best
type-metal, to obtain a sharp and clear
face  for tiieir letters.  Bismuth combines 
BISMUTH—BISON.
117
with sulphur, and forms  a bluish-gray
sulphuret, having a metallic lustre.  The
same compound is found native in small
quantity, and is  called, in  mineralogy,
bismuth glance.—Nitric acid dissolves bis-
muth with great readiness.  The solution
is  decomposed on the addition of water,
and a  white  substance,  called magestens
of bismuth, is precipitated, which consists
of a hydrated  oxyde, united to a small
proportion of nitric acid.  This precipita-
tion, by  the  addition of water, being a
peculiarity of bismuth, serves as an excel-
lent criterion of this metal.  The  mages-
tens of bismuth, from  its whiteness,  is
sometimes employed to improve the com-
plexion,  as  well as the pearl powder, a
similar preparation, diffenng only by the
mixture of a little muriatic acid with the
nitric acid in effecting the solution of the
bismuth.  The liberal use of either, how-
ever, is  highly prejudicial to  the  skin.
They  are, besides, liable to  be  turned
black by the  vapors evolved from nearly
all putrefying substances.—The chloride
of bismuth, formerly termed butter of bis-
muth,  is  formed by pouring bismuth,  in
fine powder, into chlorine gas, or by de-
priving the  muriate  of bismuth of  its
water of crystallization by heat
   Bison (bos Americanus,  Gmel.); a spe-
cies of ox found only in North America,
peculiarly distinguished by a great hump
or projection over its fore shoulders, and
by the length and fineness of its woolly
hair.   The hump is oblong, diminishing
in height posteriorly,  and  gives a consid-
erable obliquity to the outline of the back.
The hair over the head, neck and fore
part of the body is long and shaggy, form-
ing a  beard beneath  the lower jaw, and
descending  below the knee (wrist) in a
tuft.   The hair  on  the summit of the
head  rises in a dense mass  nearly to the
tips of  the  horns, and, directly  on the
front, is curled and matted strongly.—The
numbers of this species still existing are
surprisingly  great, when we consider the
immense destruction annually occurring
since European weapons  have been em-
ployed against them.  They  were once
extensively diffused over what is  now the
tenitory of the U. States, except that part
lying  east of Hudson's river and lake
Champlain, and narrow strips of coast on
the Atlantic  and Pacific.  At the present
day, their range is very different.  They
are no longer found except in the remote,
 unsettled regions of the north and west,
 being  rarely seen east of the  Mississippi
or south of the St. Lawrence.  West  of
lake  Winnipeg, they are found as  far
north as 62°; west of the Rocky moun-
tains, it is  probable they do not extend
north of the Columbia river.—The bison,
on his native plains, is of savage and for-
midable appearance, uniformly inspiring
dread when  beheld for the first  time.
His ponderous head, rendered terrific by
its thick, shaggy hair and streaming beard,
is supported  upon  a  massive  neck and
shoulders,  whose  apparent  strength is
more imposing  from the augmentation
produced by the hump and the long feU of
hair covering the  anterior parts  of the
body.   Nevertheless, the  bison  is  not
known  to  attack  man,  unless  when
wounded and  at  bay.   The  difference
between the summer and winter dress of
the  bison  consists  rather in the length
than in other qualities  of the hair.  In
summer, from the shoulders backwards,
the surface is covered with a very short,
fine hair,  smooth  and soft  as  velvet
The tail is short, and tufted at the end.
Except the long hair on the  fore parts,
which are, to a certain extent, of a rust
color, or yellowish tinge, the  color is  a
uniform dun.  Varieties of color are so
rare among this species, that the hunters
and Indians always regard them  as mat-
ters of special wonder.—The bison bull is
poor, and  his flesh disagreeable  in the
months of August and September.  They
are  much more easily approached  and
killed than the cows, not being so vigilant,
though the cows  are preferred both on
account of their finer  skins  and more
tender flesh.   The cow is much less than
the bull, and has not so much of the long
hair on the shoulders, &c.; her horns are
not  so large, nor so much covered by the
hair.  The sexual season begins  towards
the  end of July, and lasts till near the be-
ginning  of September; after this time,
the  cows separate from the bulls in dis-
tinct herds.  They calve in  April ; the
calves seldom leave the mother  until a
year old ; cows are sometimes seen with
calves of three seasons following them.—
Bison beef is rather coarser grained than
that of the domestic ox, but is  considered
by hunters and  travellers as superior in
tenderness and flavor.  The hump, which
is highly celebrated for its richness and
delicacy, is said, when properly cooked,
to resemble marrow.  The Indian method
of preparing this delicacy is the  follow-
ing :—The hump is cut off the shoulders,
the bones removed, and a piece of skin is
 sewed over the denuded part.  The hair
 is then singed off, and the whole is  now
 ready for the oven.  This is a hole in the
 earth, in and over which a fire has been 
118
BISON—BITHYNIA.
burned, and into this heated receptacle
the hump is conveyed, and covered, about
a foot deep, with  earth  and ashes.   A
strong fire  is again built  over the spot,
and, supposing these preparations to be
begun on the evening of one day, the
hump will be ready for eating by the next
day at noon.  The tongues and marrow
bones are regarded, by the connoisseurs,
as next in exceUence.—Herds, consisting
of thousands of these fine animals, still
roam over the far western prairies, led by
the fiercest and most powerful of the
bulls.  During  the sexual  season, the
noise of their roaring resembles thunder,
and the males often fight desperate battles
with each other. While feeding, they are
often scattered  over a vast surface; but,
when they move forward  in  mass, they
form  a  dense,  impenetrable  column,
which, once fairly in motion,  is scarcely
to be turned.   They  swim  large rivers
nearly in the same order hi which they
traverse the plains; and, when flying from
pursuit, it is in vain for those  in front  to
halt suddenly,  as  the  rearward throng
dash madly forward, and force their lead-
ers on.  The Indians sometimes profit by
this habit:  they lure a herd to the vicin-
ity of a precipice, and, setting the whole
in rapid motion, they terrify them, by
shouting and other artifices, to rush on  to
their  inevitable destruction.   Numerous
tribes of Indians are almost  wholly de-
pendent on these animals for food, clotii-
ing, tents, utensils, &c.   Vast multitudes
of bisons arc slaughtered annually; but it
is to  be deeply regretted, that the white
hunters and traders are in the habit of
destroying  these valuable  beasts in the
most  wanton and  unnecessary  manner.
It is common for such persons  to shoot
bisons, even when they have  abundance
of food, for the sake of the tongue or
hump alone, or even because the animals
come so near as to present a fair aim.   It
is, therefore,  not to be wondered, that,
from all causes of diminution, the bison
should become less numerous every year,
and remove farther and farther from the
haunts of men.  The  preference always
given to  the cows, which are too often
shot while  gravid, operates powerfully in
thinning the herds.—The skins of bisons,
especially that of the cow, dressed in the
Indian fashion, with the hair on, make
admirable defences against the cold,  and
may be used for blankets, &c.  They are
called buffalo robes; the term buffalo being
generaUy, but inaccurately, applied to the
bison.  The wool of the bison has been
manufactured into hats, and has also been
employed in making coarse cloth.  The
time cannot be very far distant, when this
species, like the Indian tribes which hover
near them, will  have passed away, and
the places  which know them now  shall
know them no more.
  Bissago, or Bissaux, or Bissao; an
island  in  the Atlantic ocean, near the
western coast of Africa, and the principal
of the  cluster called Bissagos, 100 miles
in circumference;  lon. 14° 1& W. ; lat.
11° 24' N.  The  ground rises impercepti-
bly to the middle of the island.  The soil
is cultivated and fertile, abounding with
several  sorts of trees, particularly fine
large orange and  mangroves near the
shore.   The  inhabitants are  Portuguese
and Negroes intermixed.  The island is
divided into 9 provinces, 8 of which are
governed  by officers  appointed  by the
sovereign, each bearing the title of king.
—There is another cluster of islands of
the same name, lon. 15° W., lat.  11° SO1
N., 255 miles south of cape Verd.
  Bisset, Robert;  a native of Scotland,
educated at EcUnburgh, for the  cleri«jal
profession.  He took the degree of LL. D.,
and became a schoolmaster at Chelsea;
but, not succeeding in that  occupation, he
employed himself in writing for the press.
His  chief productions are, a  History of
the Reign  of George HI, 6  vols. 8vo.;
the Life of Edmund Burke, 2 vols. 8vo.;
and an edition  of the  Spectator,  with
lives of the authors, 6 vols.  He  died in
1805, aged 46.
  Bitaube, Paul Jeremiah; born in K6-
nigsberg, in Prussia, 1732,  of French pa-
rents.  He  translated Homer into French.
In  consequence  of this translation, and
the  recommendation of d'Alembert, he
was elected a member of the academy at
Berlin.  Frederic II, king  of Prussia, fa-
vored him much, and allowed him to stay
a long time in France, to finish several
translations from  the German into French.
Among his translations is one of Gothe's
Hermann and Dorothea.   Napoleon con-
fened marks of  favor on  him.  He died
in 1808.  His works appeared in 9 vols.,
Paris, 1804.
  Bithynia ; a  country in Asia  Minor,
lying on the Pontus Euxinus, the Thra-
cian Bosphorus  and the  Propontis, and
bounded on the south by Phrygia. In
early times, it was called  Bebryda,  from
the Bebrycians, who inhabited it.   Before
the time of Croesus, B. was an independ-
ent state, under  its own princes.   After
the death of Prusias I, in the war against
Croesus, it fell into  the power of the Lyd-
ians, B. C. 560;  into that of the Persians, 
BITHYNI A—BITUMEN.                      119
 B. C. 555; and into that of Alexander, B.
 C. 334.  The restorer of the  Bithynian
 throne  was Bias or Bas, a native prince,
 at the court of one  of whose successors,
 Prusias II, Hannibal took  refuge, and
 where  he ended his Ufe by poison, 183 B.
 C.  Nicomedes, the last king of this race,
 bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans,
 75 B. C.  The famous cities of Nicome-
 dia, Nicaea and Heraclea were in B.   In
 the 11th century, B. was conquered by
 the Seljuks.  In 1298, a  new kingdom
 was founded there by the Ottoman Turks,
 of which, in 1327, Prusa was the capital.
   Bitsch ;  a  city in the department of
 the Moselle, with 2500 inhabitants, and  a
 citadel  on a hiU; by its situation and  the
 art of Carmontaigne, one of the strongest
 places in France.
   Bittern.   A name commonly applied
 to several species of heron; ardea, L.  (See
 Heron.)
   Bitumen ;  the name of a species  in
 mineralogy, the  individuals composing
 which  have   acquired  several  distinct
 names, from their diversity in appearance.
 This depends  chiefly upon their state of
 aggregation, which forms an uninterrupt-
 ed series from die  perfectly fluid to the
 solid condition.—Naphtha, the most fluid
 variety, is nearly colorless, or of a yellow-
 ish tinge, transparent, and emits a peculiar
 odor.   It swims on water, its specific
 gravity  being from 0.71 to 0.84.  It burns
 with  a bluish-white  flame and  thick
 smoke,  and leaves  no residue.  It con-
 sists of carbon, 82.20, and hydrogen, 14.80;
 and, being the only fluid destitute of oxy-
 gen,  it  is used to  preserve those  new
 metals  in, which were discovered by sir
 H. Davy.  It  is found in Persia, in the
 peninsula of Apcheron, upon the western
 shore of the Caspian sea, where  it  rises
 through a marly soil in the form of vapor,
 and, being made to flow dirough earthen
 tubes, is inflamed for the purpose of as-
 sisting in die  preparation of food.  It  is
 collected by sinking  pits several yards in
 depth, into which the naphtha flows.  It
 is burned in lamps, by the Persians, in-
 stead of oil.  Near the village of Amiano,
 in the state of Parma, there exists a spring
 which yields this substance in  sufficient
 quantity to illuminate the city of Genoa,
 for which purpose it is employed.  With
 certain vegetable  oils, naphtha is  said to
 form a good varnish.—The variety petro-
 leum is  much  thicker than  naphtha, re-
sembling, in consistence, common tar.  It
 has a strong,  disagreeable  odor, and a
blackish or reddish-brown color.  During
combustion, it emits a thick, black smoke,
 and leaves a Uttle residue  in the form of
 a black coal.  It is more  abundant than
 the first mentioned variety, from which it
 does not appear to differ, except in being
 more inspissated.  It occurs, oozing out
 of rocks, in the vicinity of beds of coal, or
 floating upon the surface of springs.  In
 the Birman empire, near Rainanghong, is
 a hill containing coal, into which 520 pits
 have been sunk for the coUection of pe-
 troleum ;  and the annual product of this
 mine is 400;000 hogsheads.  It is used,
 by  the  inhabitants of that country, as a
 lamp-oil,  and, when mingled with earth
 or ashes, as fuel.  In the  U. States, it  is
 found abundantly in Kentucky, Ohio and
 New York, where it is known  under the
 name of Seneca or Genesee oil.   It is used
 as a substitute for tar, and as an external
 application for the remedy of rheumatism
 and chilblains.—Maltha is a bitumen, stiU
 less fluid than petroleum, from which  it
 differs in no other  respect.  Its principal
 locaUty is at Puy  de la Pege, in France,
 where it renders the soil so viscous, that
 it adheres strongly to the foot of the trav-
 eller.  It  is also found in Persia and in
 the Hartz.  It is employed, like tar and
 pitch, on cables and in calking vessels: it
 is used, as well as  the petroleum, to pro-
 tect iron  from  rusting, and  sometimes
 forms an ingredient in black sealing-wax.
 —Elastic bitumen yields easily to pressure,
 is flexible and elastic.  It emits  a strong,
 bituminous odor, and is about the weight
 of water.  On exposure  to the air, it be-
 comes hard, and loses its elasticity.   It
 takes up the traces of crayons in the same
 manner as the caoutchouc, or Indian rub-
 ber, whence it has  obtained the  name of
the  mineral  caoutchouc.  It has hitherto
been found only in  the lead mines of
Derbyshire.—Compact bitumen, or asphal-
tum, is of a shining black color, soUd and
brittle, with a conchoidal fracture.   Its
specific  gravity is  from  1  to 1.6.  Like
the  former varieties,  it burns freely, and
leaves but little residue.  It is  found in
Judea, in  the  Palatinate*  in France, in
Switzerland, and  in  large deposits in
sandstone  in Albania; but no  where so
largely as in the island of Trinidad, where
it forms a  lake three miles in circumfer-
ence, and of a thickness  unknown.  A
gentle heat renders it ductile, and, when
mixed with grease or common pitch, it is
used for paying the bottoms of ships, and
is supposed to protect them from the te-
redo of the West Indian seas.   The an-
cients employed bitumen in the construc-
tion  of  their buildings.  The bricks of
which the walls of Babylon were built 
190
BITUMEN—BLACKBIRD.
were, according to  historians,  cemented
with  hot  bitumen,  which  imparted to
them great solidity.
  Bivouack (from the German biwacht);
the name given to the modern system, by
which the soldiers  in service  lie in the
open air, without tents,  in opposition to
die old system of camps and cantonments.
They remain dressed, in order to be ready,
at a moment's warning, to take their places
in order of battle.  Tents being laid aside,
on the continent of Europe,  for the sake
of diminishing  the baggage  of an army,
large masses of troops are always oWiged
to bivouack, even if they are not near the
enemy.  The  soldier, however,   is  per-
mitted to build  himself a hut of straw or
branches, if circumstances allow it. Fre-
quent bivouacking  is very  injurious  to
the health, and is also a great disadvan-
tage to die countries in which  it takes
place.
  Blacas, count; born at Aulps, in Prov-
ence (1770); served in La Vendee;  accom-
panied Louis XVIII to Russia, and after-
wards to  England.   On the restoration
of  the Bourbons, he was made minister
of the king's household.  After the second
restoration, he was sent to Naples to ne-
gotiate the marriage of the duke de Berri.
I le was afterwards ambassador to Rome,
where he concluded the famous concor-
dat of 1S15, so unpopular in France, that
the government did not venture  to pro-
pose it to the chambers.  On the fall of
the ultras and  the elevation of Decazes,
he retired to  Rome, and is said  to have
been secretly employed at the congress
of  Laybach.  He has since  been ambas-
sador to  Naples,  where, as well as  at
Rome, he has declared  himself the pro-
tector of the ultramontanists.  B. is a thor-
ough ultra-royalist
   Black, Joseph, a distinguished chem-
ist, born at Bordeaux, of Scottish parents,
in  1728, studied medicine  at Glasgow.
Doctor Cullen, his instructer, inspired him
with a taste  for chemical  studies.  In
1754, he was made doctor of medicine, at
Edinburgh,  and delivered an inaugural
dissertation, De Humore acido a Cibis orto
et Magnesia alba, which exhibits the out-
line of his discoveries relative to carbonic
acid and the  alkalies.  In 1756, he pub-
Ushed his Experiments on White Mag-
nesia, Quicklime, and several other Alka-
line Substances, in the 2d volume of the
Essays, Physical and Literary, of the Ed-
inburgh  Society.   He  demonstrates the
existence of an aerial fluid  in these sub-
stances,  which he calls fixed  air,  the
presence of which diminishes the corro-
sive power of the alkalies and the calca
rious earths.  This discovery may be con-
sidered  as the basis of all those which
have immortalized the names  of Caven-
dish, Priestley, Lavoisier, &c,  and iriven
a new form to chemistry.  In 1757, B.
enriched this science with his doctrine of
latent heat, which has  led to such im-
portant  results.   In  1756, he was ap-
pointed professor of medicine and lecturer
on chemistry in the university at Glasgow,
in the  place  of  doctor Cullen,  and, in
1765, when  Cullen  left the  professor's
chair in Edinburgh, he was there, also,
succeeded by B.  No teacher inspired his
disciples with such a zeal for study ; his
lectures, therefore, contributed much to
make the taste for chemical  science gen-
eral in England.  He died in 1799, at the
age  of 71.  Upon  Lavoisier's proposal,
the academy  of  sciences, in  Paris, had
appointed him one  of its eight foreign
members.  His habits  were simple, his
character cold and reserved.  Though of
eminent ability as a  chemist, he  injured
himself by his long opposition to  the re-
ception of the new chemical theory.  At
length,  however, he was convinced of its
superior accuracy, and  did justice to its
merits.   There is a paper of his in the
Philosophical Transactions of 1774, and
another in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, in 1791.  Two of
his letters on chemical  subjects  were
published by Crell and Lavoisier, and his
Lectures on Chemistry, in 1803, in 2 vols.
by Robison.
   Black Art.  (See Magic.)
   Blackbird ; a trivial name, applied to
birds of different species, and distinct gen-
era, but properly belonging to a species
of the  genus quiscalus, as restricted by
prince C. L. Bonaparte, di Musignano, the
latest and most accurate writer  on  orni-
thological nomenclature.  The true black-
birds are either of a rich, glossy black,
showing  metallic reflections,  purple, or
fenuginous; being altogether free  from
maculation.  The kinds improperly called
blackbird, such as  the redwing,  cowbird,
&c, have bright  colors, and are species
of icterus or  troupial.—All  the black-
birds are gregarious and migratory, diffus-
ing themselves in vast flocks from  south
to north; returning  thence as  the cold
season   approaches.  They  build  their
nests in trees, socially, and lav about five
eggs.   The young are unlike the adult
birds.—Three species  of  bl.ukbird  are
known in the United States; among these,
the great crow-blackbird (Q. major, Viel.),
 is the  largest, and,  as its name impUes, 
BLACKBIRD—BLACKFISH.
121
 strongly resembles,  in all  respects, the
 mischievous plunderer of our cornfields.
 The male is 16 inches long, having a most
 glossy black plumage; the tad is cunei-
 form, and, when the wings are folded, they
 extend nearly five inches beyond it.  The
 female is of a  light brown color,  whitish
 beneath, and twelve and a half inches
 long.  This species is found in the South-
 ern States, principally along the sea-coast:
 it also inhabits  Mexico, and is said to be
 common in the West Indies.—The  rusty
 grakle, or blackbird, is nine inches  long.
 Its migrations extend  from  the south,
 where it winters, to as far north as within
 the arctic circle, where it breeds.  Accord-
 ing to Pennant, they arrive in the  vicinity
 of Hudson's bay about the beginning of
 June, when the  ground  is  sufficiently
 thawed to  allow them access to the grubs
 and worms, upon which they chiefly feed.
 They sing finely until they have ceased
 laying, and when the young are fledged,
 they  again resume  their  song.  Their
 nests are fonned of moss and grass, and
 placed in trees  about eight feet from the
 ground.  They pass through the Middle
 States, on  their northern tour, early in
 April: in September, they collect  in vast
 flocks, to seek their winter-quarters in the
 south.—The purple grakle, lesser  or com-
 mon crow-blackbird, (Q. versicolor, Viel.), is
 the most notorious of these sable plunder-
 ers.  On their first arrival in the  Middle
 States from the south, which is in the
 latter part of March, tbey come in  scatter-
 ed flocks,   and are  most  frequent  in
 swamps, meadows, and recently plough-
 ed ground.  At this season, they consume
 an immense number of destructive bi-
 sects, and, if they continued to feed on
 such  food, they would  be  among  the
 farmer's chief benefactors.  Towards the
 beginning or middle of April, they begin
 to  build upon  the  tall pines or  cedars
 nearest to die fields whence they obtain
 their food.   As many as  10 or 15 nests
 have been found on the same tree.  The
 nests  are about five inches  in diameter,
 composed,  externally, of long stalks and
 knotty grass-roots, and  are  lined with
 horse-hair,  &c.  The eggs are of a bluish-
 olive hue, with  large spots, and irregular
 streaks of dark brown.  The period when
 the green blade of the young Indian com
 begins to sprout above die surface of the
 ground  is  that in which  the common
 crow-blackbird  commences  its ravages.
 Vast flocks, chattering and screaming, as
if anticipating the pleasures of the feast,
descend  upon  the soil,  and pluck   the
swelling grain from its recess.  In a few
  vol. n.          11
jhours, the careful  husbandman beholds
 his fair prospect of an ample harvest al-
 most destroyed, and that, too, with but
 little chance  of his being able to remedy
 the  evil.  It is true that the guns are
 commonly put in  requisition, and a few
 volleys, fired among these insolent thieves,
 destroy a small part of their numbers.
 But they only change their place to other
 parts of the  field, and return ere long to
 renew the assault with increased activity.
 It is not until the montii of November
 that they begin to  collect  their  forces,
 now renovated and  augmented by then-
 young, to seek the  genial climate of the
 south for the winter.  When we consider
 that a very ample quantity of corn is pro-
 duced, notwithstanding the  depredations
 of these and other birds, and recollect the
 vast number  of insects they consume be-
 fore dieir attacks  upon the corn begin,
 we shall be  inclined to  agree with  our
 great ornithologist, Wilson, that the ser-
 vice they render the cultivator by devour-
 ing the insects is quite an adequate com-
 pensation for the tax they levy upon the
 grain.  If we extend our observation a
 little further, and remark that these birds
 destroy the insects  before they have at-
 tained their perfect or breeding state, and
 that a single fly or bug is  capable of lay-
 ing thousands of eggs, the magnitude  of
 the  benefit  they  confer  upon mankind
 may  be  more accurately  appreciated.
 Nevertheless,  it is  perfectly right, that,
 during tlieir ravages upon the grain-field,
 they should be driven off and  destroyed.
 The extermination  of the species is  as
 impossible as the wish to  effect it would
be ridiculous.  If such an event could be
brought about, we should  speedily be
convinced, that the supreme Author of
nature had devised all things in wisdom,
by discovering, that, without the  aid of
these  seemingly useless   creatures, the
earth would be despoiled of its vegeta-
 tion, and the habitations of man become
loathsome from the multiplication  of vo-
racious and disgusting worms.
  Blackfish ; a species of labrus, caught
on various parts of the American coast,
especially in the vicinity of Long Island,
whence large supphes are obtained for the
New York market.  For the following par-
ticulars concerning this valuable article of
food, we are indebted to doctor Mitchell's
excellent paper on the fishes of New York,
pubUshed in the Transactions of the Lit-
erary and Philosophical  Society.  The
specific name given  by the learned de-
scriber is L. tautog, in which he has pre-
served the designation used by the Mohc- 
122
BLACKFISH—BLACK FOREST.
gan Indians for this fish.  The common
name, blackfish, is bestowed on account of
the color of its back and sides, which are
of a bluish or crow-black ; the lips, lower
jaw,  neck  and belly, especially in the
males,  are  white.  The  mouth is rather
smaU, the Ups skinny or fleshy, and the
teeth are about twelve in number in each
jaw, the two front teeth being largest, and
the rest of  the respective rows gradually
decreasing  in size.  Within the external
ranges are the points of smaUer teeth, in-
serted  with rather less regularity:  they
are sharp,  distinct, and covered by the
lips.   The  tongue is white,  smooth, lying
close, but  discoverable  by raising; tail
entire, and somewhat convex, the middle
rays being somewhat  more prominent
than the  upper and lower ones; gill cov-
ers smooth, neither scaly, serrated nor
rough; extremities of the pectoral fins
whitish; eyes rather small. The black-
fish is plump in appearance, and is much
esteemed for the table.   It varies in  size,
from 2 or 3 to 10 or 12  pounds.  Rocks,
reefs and rough bottoms of the sea, in the
neighborhood of the coasts, are the situa-
tions  most  frequented by  the blackfish,
which appear to be stationary inhabitants
of the salt water, as they do not, like the
salmon, herring, &c, desert their haunts
to visit  the fresh-water rivers.   These
fish are  caught in abundance, along the
whole of  Long  Island  sound,  Fisher's
Island sound,  and in Narragansett bay.
They are also found in the  southern bays
of Long Island, and on the ocean banks
off Sandy  Hook.  They were formerly
carried  over land  from  Newport  and
 Providence to Boston  market,  but are
now caught in  Massachusetts bay in suf-
ficient numbers to render such importa-
 tion unnecessary.—In catching blackfish,
 the hand  line  is generally used, though
the angle rod may often be  advantageous-
ly employed:  they seize the bait greedily,
at proper  seasons,  and pull strongly, in
proportion to their size and weight.  They
 are  occasionally taken in  seines.  The
bait commonly employed is the soft clam
 (mya), the  soldier-crab or  fiddler (ocypo-
 da), or the large  finny worm of the salt-
 water beaches, called  nereis.  As the
 warmth of spring comes on, the blackfish
 begin to acquire their appetite, which  is
 suspended during the cold of winter,  at
 which time a membrane is found to form
 over and close up the vent.  They may
 be caught, as above stated, until the warm
 weather becomes weU advanced, when
 such an abundance of food is to be pro-
 cured as to render the bait of the fisher-
man no longer a temptation.  The flow
ering of the  common dog-wood (cornus
florida) is considered an indication of the
beginning of the fishing  Beason ;  and
where this  tree  is not to be seen, the
vegetation of the chestnut-tree is regard
ed  as  a similar indication.   These  fish
are  brought  to  Philadelphia market in
wagons, from Long Branch, &c, being
packed in ice, and frozen as soon as
caught.
  Black Forest (in German,  Schwarz-
wald); a chain of mountains in the grand-
duchy  of Baden and the kingdom of
Wiirtemberg.  It runs  almost  parallel
with the Rhine, from south to north, often
only from 15 to 20 miles distant from this
river; is about 85  miles long, and, from
east to west,  in the southern  part, about
30  miles wide; in the northern, about 18.
The Danube rises in these mountains, as
well as many other rivers.  Those on the
west side run into the Rhine, those on the
east side into the Danube.  The  Black
Forest is rather a chain of elevated plains,
than of isolated peaks.  The highest sum-
mit, the Feldberg, measures 4610 German
feet. Except from June  to  September,
these  mountains are generally  covered
with snow, and even during  this  period,
are not entirely free from it.  Among the
many valleys of this chain, the  Murgthal
is particularly celebrated for its beautiful
scenery.  The  whole chain  consists of
primitive mountains: its skeleton, through-
out, is granite ; its higher points are cov-
ered with sand-stone, and other layers of
less consequence, and are surrounded by
 heights  composed of floetz  rocks.  On
the western side,  at the  foot, appears
 gneiss.  Porphyry  and  clay-slate are
 found on several heights, as, likewise, sil-
 ver, lead, copper, iron, cobalt and miner-
 al  waters.  The woods are abundant, and
 consist mostly of pines  and similar  spe-
 cies.  The raising of cattle is the princi-
 pal branch of husbandry carried on in this
 district The ground is  not fertile, and
 the inhabitants, scattered over the moun-
 tains, live extremely frugally, but are very
 industrious.  Their manner of living, build-
 ingtheir houses, and cultivating their lands,
 is  very peculiar.  Till  the 17th centuiy,
 there was no spirit of trade or industry
 among thera; but the wars of that period
 developed it,  and the manufactures of
 glass, straw hats, wooden clocks, and oth-
 er wooden ware, are now very important
 They make, annually, more than 180,000
 wooden clocks,   the  value  of  which
 amounts to over half a million of guilders.
 Neustadt and Furtwangen are the central 
BLACK FOREST—BLACKLOCK.                 123
points of this singular commerce, which
embraces aU Europe, and extends even to
America.  Large n umbers of these clocks
are sent to  Spain and  Portugal,  from
whence they go to South America.  From
the north of Germany, and from Havre,
they are exported to the U. States.  Of
late, the clocks have been much improved,
and  the correctness of some  of  them,
made of  different  woods, in order to
counteract die influence of the weather, is
surprising.—Two passes  of the  Black
Forest became particularly noted in the
time of the French revolution—the Knie-
bis and the HoUe passes.  The former, at
the foot of the Murg, was taken in 1796
and 1797; die latter is famous for  Mo-
reau's skilful retreat through it in 1796.
   Blackfriars' Bridge ;  one of the six
fine bridges  of London, over the Thames,
built between 1760 and 1768, after a de-
sign of Mr-  Robert  Mylne, at an expense
of £152,840.  There  are  9 arches, the
centre  one  being 100 feet wide.   The
whole length is 995 feet.  Over each pier
is a  recess, supported by Ionic piUars.
The bridge is situated at about  an equal
distance from those of Southwark  and
Waterloo.   It commands  a very  fine
view of St. Paul's cathedral, as well as of
both sides of the river, including the  tow-
er, the monument, Somerset house, West-
minster  abbey, and about 30 churches.
The constant bustie on this and the Lon-
don bridge is enormous, and beyond any
thing of the kind to be met with in other
 cities.
   Black Lead.  (See Plumbago.)
   Black Rock.  (See Buffalo.)
   Black Sea ; with the ancients, known
 by the name of Pontus Euxinus (q. v.); a
 sea which  is situated between Europe
 and Asia, bounded on the west by  Roma-
 nia and  Bulgaria,  on the north by the
 Russian dominions, on the east by  Min-
 grelia and Guriel, on the south  by Nato-
 lia, being  connected with the Mediter-
 ranean by  the Bosphorus, and,  by the
 Cimmerian Bosphorus, with the  sea of
 Azoph (q. v.), which is, in fact, only a bay
 of the Black sea.  The area of the Black
 sea and the  sea  of  Azoph  amounts to
 about 297,000 square miles.   The water
 is not so clear as that of the Mediterrane-
 an, and, on account of the many large
 rivers  which fall  into it,—the Danube,
 Dniester, Dnieper, Don and Cuban,—being
 less salt, freezes more readily.   The tern-
  fiests on  this sea are tremendous, as the
  and, which confines its agitated waters,
 gives to them a kind of whirling  motion.
 In the winter, it is so boisterous, particular-
ly near the coast from the Danube to the
Crimea, diat it is scarcely navigable, even
by  the most experienced sailors.  The
chief current runs from the shallow sea
of Azoph,  from north  to south, to the
Thracian Bosphorus and the  Hellespont
The Black sea contains no islands; there
is one, however, in the  Cimmerian  Bos-
phorus.   The fisheries in  the sea  of
Azoph and the Black sea are not unim-
portant, various kinds  of valuable  fish,
both large and small, being taken; among
others, several species of sturgeon. Seines
are used, in which 60,000 fishes are some-
times caught within six hours; but there
are never many large ones among them.
Caviare (q. v.) is also made on the coast,
as well as fish-glue, fish-oil, and, from the
spawn of the sea mullet, botargo; the
latter,  however, only in small quantity.
The salt and smoked  mackerel form an
important article of the commerce of the
Crimea.   Raoul-Rochette has published,
in Paris, 1822, a work on the remarkable
Grecian antiquities on the northern  shore
of the Pontus, which has been corrected
and completed  by the Russian counsellor
 Peter von Koppen, Vienna, 1823.  Quite
recently, Mr. von Blaramberg, director of
the museum established at Odessa and at
 Kertch, has discovered many  interesting
 remains in this quarter.  (See Crimea.)
   Blackguard.  This name was origin-
 ally given to the scullions and coal-carri-
 ers in great houses and  palaces, who, in
 the journeys of the families to which they
 belonged, usually rode in the carts with
 the pots and kettles.
   Blacklock, Thomas, a poet, remarka-
 ble for his literary attainments under the
 misfortune of a deprivation of sight, was
 born at Annan, in the county of Dum-
 fries, hi 1721.  His parents, who  were
 natives  of Cumberland, although  poor
 were industrious and well-informed. At
 the age of six months, he lost his sight by
 the smaU-pox; and, as he grew up, his
 father, with exemplary industry and af-
 fection, endeavored to lessen his calamity
 by reading to him such books as instruct-
 ed or entertained him, when he always
 appeared to be particularly pleased with
 the works of Spenser, Milton, Prior, Pope
 and Addison.   Such  was the kindness
 his pecuUar situation and gende temper
  excited, that he was seldom without some
  companion, who aided  in  his singular
  course of education, until he hod even
  acquired some knowledge of the  Latin
  tongue.  At the age of 12, he began to
  versify, and his performances at  length
  became the subject of  discourse  in hus 
124
BLACKLOCK—BLACKSTONE.
neighborhood.  At the age of 20, he lost
his father, on which he was invited by-
doctor Stephenson, a physician in  Edin-
burgh, to visit that metropolis, in order to
pursue his studies at the university.  He
soon became a proficient in Latin, as also
in French, which he chiefly acquired by
conversation  with a French lady, the
wife of provost Alexander.  He also, in
the course  of nearly 10 years' study at
the university, made a considerable prog-
ress in the sciences.   In 1754, be publish-
ed a second edition of his  poems,  which
gained him the patronage of Mr. Spence,
who published an account  of his  life,
character and productions, which brought
him into general notice; and a quarto edi-
tion of his poems being soon afterwards
published by subscription, a considerable
sum was thereby raised for  his benefit.
He now devoted himself to the study of
theology, and, having passed  through the
usual  course, was  licensed,  in 1759, by
the presbytery of Dumfries.  In 1762, he
married the daughter of Mr. Johnson, sur-
geon, of Dumfries;  a connexion which
proved to  hiin a  source of comfort and
felicity for die remainder of his life.  He
was soon  after  appointed  minister of
Kirkcudbright, on the presentation of the
earl of Selkirk; but, being opposed by his
parishioners, after two years' contention,
he resigned his living, upon  a moderate
annuity, and retired to Edinburgh, where
he  adopted the plan of receiving a few
students of the  university as  boarders,
and of assisting  them  in  their studies
when desirable.  In 1766, he was created
D. D.;  and, having now taken a respecta-
ble station among the literati  of Scotland,
he maintained it  by various publications,
until his death, July, 1791,  at the age of
70. His private  character, according to
the testimony of Hume and  others,  was
singularly amiable.  Letters and conver-
sation were his solace, to which he joined
the practice of music.  His poetry is easy,
poUshed and harmonious; and he com-
posed with considerable rapidity.  The
number of his images from visual objects
wiU surprise those who are not aware of
the uniform strain of imitation in com-
mon-place poetry.  B. wrote, besides his
poems, several prose works.
  Blackmore, sir Richard,  a physician
and poet of notoriety, if not of eminence,
was the son  of an attorney in the county
of Wilts.  In 1668, he entered the  uni-
versity of Oxford.  There he remained
13 years, and, for some time afterwards,
appears to have  foUowed  the profession
of a schoolmaster.  At length he turned
his attention to physic.  In 1697, he had
risen to so much eminence in his profes-
sion, as to be appointed physician to king
William, who knighted him.  The pre-
ceding year, he had made himself known,
as a poet, by the publication of his heroic
poem of Prince Arthur, which was soon
followed by King Arthur; and, in 1700,
he  published a paraphrase of the book
of Job, in folio ; as also a poem entitled a
Satire on Wit, being an attempt to retort
on  the wits by whom he had been veiy
successfully assailed.  By the strictness
of his whiggish principles, he had incur-
red the  resentment of the  tory junto,
composed of Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot and
others; while something solemn in the
complexion of his  religion and morality,
added  to  the  real  absurdity of starting
epic after epic in  quick succession, in-
sured the raillery of all those to whom
his gravity, perseverance  and mediocrity
afforded  so much  subject  for ridicule.
This worthy man and middling poet be-
came  the common  butt of his day, and
for almost two generations, for Pope took
up  the  quan-el  which  Dryden   began.
The work which  produced him the
greatest reputation  was the  Creation, a
poem in seven books, which went through
several editions, and was greatly applaud-
ed, but is, generally speaking, very tamely
elaborate.   In  1721, B. published a New
Version of the Psalms of David, which,
although recommended by authority, has
never been adopted.  He died, at an ad-
vanced age, in 1729, leaving  behind him
the character  of a pious, well-meaning
and respectable man, of limited  genius
and little taste.  Besides the epics already
mentioned, he  wrote Eliza,  in 10 books;
the Redeemer, in 6 books;  King Alfred,
in 12 books,  &c.  He also  composed a
History of  the Conspiracy against King
William  III,   and  several medical and
theological treatises, especially against the
Arians, all of which have quietly reached
oblivion.  As a physician, he was a stren-
uous opposer of the new system of inocu-
lation for the small-pox.
  Blackstone, sir William,  knight and
LL. D., a celebrated English lawyer, and
the most popular writer on the laws and
constitution of his country, was bom  in
London,  in 1723.  He was the third son
of Mr. Charles Blackstone, a silk-mercer,
but, being left an orphan, was brought up
by his maternal uncle, Mr. Thomas Bigg,
surgeon, from whose  kindness  he  re-
ceived an  education, which the  narrow
circumstances  of his father could scarcely
have supplied.  He was educated on the 
BLACKSTONE.
125
foundation of the charter-house, whence,
in 1738,  he was removed to Pembroke
college, Oxford.  He was much distin-
guished, both at school and at the univer-
sity, and  at an early age compiled a work
for his own use, entitled the Elements
of Architecture, which has been much
praised.  Having chosen the profession
of the law,  he was  in due time entered at
the Middle Temple, and on this occasion
published the admired verses, called the
Lawyer's Farewell to his Muse, which
appeared in  Dodsley's Miscellany.   In
1743, he was elected fellow of All Souls'
college, Oxon., and, in 1746, was called to
the bar, and commenced the practice of
law.   Being deficient in elocution,  and
not possessed of the popular talents of an
advocate, his progress was slow.  Having
attended the courts of law at Westminster
for seven  years, without success, he de-
termined to quit the practice of his pro-
fession,  and  retire to his fellowship at
Oxford.  The system of education in the
English  universities supplying no provis-
ion for teaching the laws and constitution
of the country, B. undertook to remedy
this defect, by a course of lectures on that
important  subject; and the manner in
which he executed the task has confened
a lasting distinction on Oxford.  His first
course was delivered in 1753,  and  was
repeated for a  series of years with  in-
creasing effect  and  reputation.  These
lectures  doubtless  suggested to Mr. Viner
 the idea of founding, by his will, a liberal
 estabhshment in the university of Oxford
 for the study of the common law; and B.
 was, with  great propriety, chosen the first
 Vinerian professor.  His engagements at
 Oxford  did  not  prevent his occasional
 practice as a provincial barrister, and, in
 1754, being engaged as counsel in a con-
 tested election for the county of Oxford,
 he was led into   considerations on the
 elective franchise, which produced  his
 work entitled  Considerations on  Copy-
 holds.  In this  treatise  he denied the
 right of copyholders to vote as  freehold-
 ers;  which  led to a declaratory act of
 parliament in  establishment of that  nar-
 row  doctrine.   In 1759, he published a
 new edition of the Great  Charter and
 Charter of the Forest, with a  historical
 preface; and, during the same  year, the
 reputation which  he had obtained by his
 lectures induced  him to resume his at-
 tendance at Westminster hall, when busi-
 ness and the honors of his profession soon
 crowded in  upon him.  In 1761, he was
 elected  M. P. for Hindon,  made king's
 counsel and solicitor-general to the queen.
                    11*
About  this time, he  also married,  and,
thereby losing  his  fellowship,  was ap-
pointed principal of New Inn hall; which
office, with the Vinerian professorship, he
resigned the next  year.  In 1765, he also
published the first volume of his Com-
mentaries on the Laws of England; a
work of greater merit than any which
had yet appeared on the subject  In this
celebrated  production, the author  does
not confine himself to the humble  duty
of an expositor, but aspires to the higher
character of a philosophical  writer on
jurisprudence; and, having been preceded
by no authors in the same line, his man-
ner of accompUshing his task  is entitled
to great praise.   It must not, however, be
regarded as a philosophical investigation
into the grounds and merits of the Eng-
lish laws and constitution, so much as an
elegant exposition and defence of an ex-
isting system.  Whatever he found insti-
tuted, it was  his purpose to support and
eulogise; and consequently we are rather
made acquainted with the " legal reasons"
of what is established, than instructed  in
the general principles of national legisla-
tion.  This mode of treating the subject
may be,  in some degree,  useful, by con-
veying a due notion  of the grounds on
which government  and usage  have pro-
ceeded, but, of course, will do Uttle to ad-
vance the mind of a nation, and  often
a great deal to nurture prejudices and
impede  amelioration.   Notwithstanding
some  passages against  standing  annies,
and in exposition of the progress of the
influence of the  crown, B. is uniformly
the  advocate of prerogative,  and  very
confined in his notions of toleration.  On
the latter ground, he was involved, on the
publication of his Commentaries, in a con-
troversy  with Priestley ; and, some years
afterwards, his political principles  were
assailed, with much acuteness, in a pub-
lication entitled a Fragment on Govern-
ment, now known to be the work of Mr.
Jeremy Bentham.  In the debates which
took place on the Middlesex election, in
relation to the re-eligibility of an expelled
 member, he  was led  to language in par-
 liament, against the tenor of which Mr.
 James Grenville, with  great  adroitness,
 quoted his own  book,  and  he was also
 warmly  attacked for the  same inconsis-
 tency by Junius.   The real  merit and
 talents of B., backed  by political tenden-
 cies, which are generally favorable to ad-
 vancement, now made him an object  of
 ministerial favor, and he was offered the
 post of solicitor-general, in 1770, and, de-
 clining it, was made one of the justices of 
126
BLACKSTONE—BLAIR.
common  pleas,  which  station  he held
until his death, in February, 1780, in  his
57th year.  The private character of B.
was exceedingly mild,  benevolent and
amiable; and he was a most active and
intelligent man of business, in which, in-
deed, he all his life delighted. He left in
MS. two volumes of reports, which have
been published since his death, and  are
deemed inadequate to his reputation.
  Blackstone  Canal leads from Provi-
dence, in the state of Rhode Island, to
Worcester, in Massachusetts.   It  is 45
miles in length, and follows, in the great-
est  part of its course, the  valley of the
Blackstone  or   Pawtucket  river,  from
which it  is  supplied  with  water.  The
fall from the summit, at Worcester, to
tide-water at Providence, is 451-^j- feet
There are 48 locks, which are built of
hammered stone, laid in water lime, each
80 feet long  and  10 feet wide.  The canal
is 34 feet wide at the surface of the water,
18 feet at the bottom, and 4 feet deep.  It
was built by an incorporated company,
under charters   from  the legislatures of
Rhode Island and Massachusetts, at a cost
of about  $600,000.  It  was finished in
the autumn of 1828.
  Bladensburg ; a post-town in Prince
George's county, Maryland, on the east-
ern branch of the Potomac,  6 miles N. E.
Washington; lon.  76° 57'  W.;  lat 38°
5&  N.  It contains about 100 houses.  A
battle was fought  here, Aug. 24,  1814,
between the English  and Americans, in
which the latter were  defeated.  This
success of the British led the way to the
conquest and burning of Washington.
  Blair, Hugh,  a  pulpit orator and au-
thor, a grandson  of Robert B., who, under
Charles I, boldly defended the rights  of
the Presbyterian  church, was born at Ed-
inburgh, in 1718, and prepared himself
for  the  ministry in  the university of that
city.  Ilis teachers, struck by an essay on
the  Beautiful, encouraged his incUnation
for beUes-lettres.  He was made preacher
of the high church of Edinburgh in 1758.
The office was  regarded  as the  highest
dignity  of the Presbyterian church  of
Scotland.  About the  same time, his lit-
erary  reputation  also commenced.   In
1759, he began a course of public lectures
on composition, which he delivered with
so much  reputation, that,  in 1762, the
king founded a professorship of rhetoric
and belles-lettres, which was committed
to his charge. We know his theory of
rhetoric from his Lectures  on Rhetoric
and Belles-Letters (1783, 4,2 vols.), which
have been translated into German.  The
 credit of Macpherson's Ossian was zeal-
 ously supported by Blair, in a dissertation
 which gained him much reputation.  His
 sermons were  considered as models of
 English pulpit eloquence.  Careful  and
 scrupulous as he was hi writing them, he
 only published the  best.  They are  dis-
 tinguished by  a  polished style, and  a
 clear,  easy  and  methodical  exposition.
 The first volume of his sermons was not
 published until his 60th year (1777); the
 10th edition was called for in the follow-
 ing  year.   He subsequently published
 another collection, which was also often
 reprinted.   B.  gave weight to his doc-
 trines by his own example.   He labored
 for the welfare of  his  church, and  was
 always ready to give counsel and assist-
 ance.   He was a kind father, an affec-
 tionate friend and husband,  and, by his
 tranquil and contented temper, as weU as
 by his simple and regular manner of Uv-
 ing, enjoyed the highest degree of human
 happiness to a great age.  He died in
 1800.
   Blair, John  ; an  eminent chronologist
 and  geographer,  a  native of Scotland,
 which  country he  quitted  for  London
 about  the  middle of  the last century.
 Though he  had received a good classical
 education at Edinburgh, he thought him-
 self fortunate in obtaining the situation of
 usher in a school in  Hedge lane, London.
 In 1754, the publication of a work in folio,
 entitled the Chronology and  Histoiy of
 the World, from  the Creation to A. D.
 1753, gained him great reputation.  In
 the composition of this book, he is said to
 have been materially assisted by his rela-
 tion, doctor  Hugh Blair.  In  it, he illus-
 trates his subject by  56 tables, 4 of which
 are introductory, containing die centuries
 which precede  the  first Olympiad.  He
 dedicated his work to the lord chanceUor
 Hardwicke, and, in  1757, was appointed
 chaplain to the princess dowager of Wales,
 and mathematical  tutor  to the duke of
 York, whom he accompanied, in 1763, on
 a tour to  the continent, having  already
 received several ecclesiastical prefennents.
 On his return to England, he pubUshed,
 in 1768, a new edition of his Chronologi-
 cal Tables, with 14 maps of ancient and
modern geography  annexed.  He died
June 24, 1782, of  an attack of influenza.
After his death were pubUshed his Course
 of Lectures on the Canon of the Old Tes-
tament, and a duodecimo volume, entitled
the Histoiy of Geography.
  Blair, Robert; a Scottish clergyman
 and  poet, bom at Edinburgh, in  1699.
 He is  the author of  the Grave,  first 
BLAIR—BLAKE.
127
printed at London, in 1743.   He died in
1746.
  Blake, Robert, a  celebrated British
admiral,  was the eldest son of a merchant
in the Spanish trade, settled at Bridge-
water, where B. was bom, in 1599.  Af-
ter  attending the grammar-school of his
native place, he was  sent to Wadliam
college, Oxford, where  he  took the de-
gree of B. A. in 1617.   On his return  to
Bridgewater, he lived for some time, in a
private manner, on the  fortune left him
by his father, and was led by the gravity
of his own disposition, and by his  family
connexions, to embrace the principles of
the  Puritans, by whose interest he was
elected member for  Bridgewater, in  the
parliament  of  1640.   This  being soon
dissolved, he lost his election for the next,
and immediately sought to advance  the
cause, in  a  military capacity, in the war
which then broke  out  between the king
and parliament   He  soon  distinguished
himself by his activity.  In  1649, in the
manner  of those  times, when military
men  often served on shipboard, he was
sent to command the fleet, in conjunction
with  colonels  Deane  and Popham, and
thus commenced the naval career which
has given him so distinguished a place in
British histoiy.  He  immediately saUed
to Kinsale  in  quest  of prince Rupert,
whom he attempted to block up  in that
port The  prince, contriving to  get his
fleet out, escaped  to  Lisbon, where  B.
followed  him; and,  being  refused per-
mission to attack him in the Tagus,  by
the king  of Portugal, he took several rich
prizes from the Portuguese (against whom
the parliamentdeclaredwar), and followed
Rupert to Malaga, where, without  asking
permission  of Spain, he attacked him,
and nearly destroyed die whole  of  his
fleet  On his return to  England, he was
made warden of the  Cinque Ports, and
soon after reduced the islands  of Scilly
and Guernsey.   In 1659, on the prospect
of a Dutch war, he was made sole admiral,
and, on the 19th of May, was attacked in
the Downs by van Tromp, with a  fleet of
45 sail, the force of B. amounting only to
23.  He, however, fought so bravely, that
van  Tromp was obliged to  retreat.  He
then continued his cruise, took a number
of Dutch merchantmen, and, after  several
partial actions, drove die enemy into their
harbor, and returned to the Downs. May
29, he was again attacked by van Tromp,
whose fleet was now increased to  80 sail.
B., who  could not bear the thought of a
retreat, engaged this  vast  force with a
very inferior number, and an unfavorable
wind; but, after every possible exertion,
was obUged to retreat into the Thames,
on which van Tromp was so much elat-
ed, that he sailed  through the channel
with a broom at his mast head, to signify
that he had swept the sea of British ships.
In the  February  following, B.,  having
with great diligence repaired his fleet, put
to sea with 60 sail,  and soon after met the
Dutch admiral, who had 70 sail, and 300
merchantmen  under  convoy.  During
three days, a furious running fight up the
channel was  maintained with obstinate
valor on both sides; the result of which
was, the loss  of 11 men-of-war and 30
merchant-ships by  the Dutch, while that
of the English was only  one man-of-war.
It was  in April, this year, that Cromwell
assumed the sovereignty, on which occa-
sion, B. and his brother admirals issued
a declaration,  that, notwithstanding this
change, they resolved  to persist in faith-
fully perfonning tlieir duty to the nation.
" It is  not for us (said B. to his officers)
to mind state affairs, but  to  keep the
foreigners from fooUng us." June  3, he
again  engaged van Tromp with dubious
success; but, renewing the action the
next day, he forced the  Dutch to retire,
with a considerable loss in ships and men,
into their  own harbors.   On his return,
he was received  by Cromwell with  great
respect, and returned member in the new
parliament for Bridgewater. Aware  of
his affection for a republican government,
the protector was not  displeased at hav-
ing occasion to send him, with a strong
fleet, to enforce a due respect to the  Eng-
lish flag in the  Mediterranean.   He sailed
first to  Algiers, which  submitted,  and
then demolished the  castles of Goletta
and Porto Ferino,  at Tunis, because the
dey refused  to deliver  up  the EngUsh
captives.  A squadron of his ships also
blocked up  Cadiz, and intercepted  a
Spanish plate fleet.   Being now veiy sick,
he resolved to do one more  service to his
country before his death, and sailed, with
24 ships, to Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe; and,
notwithstanding the strength of the place,
burnt the ships of another Spanish  plate
fleet, which had taken shelter there, and,
by a fortunate  change  of wind, came out
without loss.   His  brother having failed
in some part of duty during this service,
he immediately removed him from his
command.  Finding his  disorder making
rapid progress, he  then  saUed  for  Eng-
land, and, amidst  his  frequent inquiries
for the sight of the  English coast, expired
while  the  fleet was entering Plymouth
sound, August 27,1657.  His body was 
128
BLAKE—BLANCHARD.
honored with a magnificent public funer-
al, and interred in Henry VII's chapel,
whence it was pitifuUy removed at the
restoration, and buried in St  Margaret's
church-yard.—The foregoing  detail suf-
ficiently evinces the bravery and talents
of this able commander, who first deviat-
ed from the old practice of keeping ships
and men as much out of danger as possi-
ble, and gave  the example of bold and
spirited achievement  So  disinterested
was he, that, after aU his rich captures and
high posts, he scarcely left behind him
£500 of acquired property, freely sharing
all with his  friends and  seamen, into
whom he infused that intrepidity and
spirit of enterprise, by which the British
navy has been ever since  so highly dis-
tinguished.
  Blakeley, Johnston, a captain in the
U. States navy during the late war, was
bom in Ireland, in October, 1781.  Two
years after, his father, Mr. John Blakeley,
emigrated to the U. States, and settled in
Wilmington, North Carolina.  Young B.
was  placed, in 1796, at the university of
North CaroUna, being  intended for the
law.  His father died the year after.  In
the year 1799, circumstances  having de-
prived B. of the means of support, he left
college, and, the  next  year, obtained a
midshipman's warrant  In 1813, he was
made  a master-commandant,  and soon
after  appointed to the command of the
Wasp.  In this vessel, he fell  in with  his
Britannic  majesty's ship Reindeer, in  lat.
48° 3&.  This ship  he  took,  after  an
action of 19 minutes.  The loss of the
Americans was 21 killed  and wounded ;
that  of the enemy,  67.  The Reindeer
was cut to pieces in such a manner as to
render it impossible to save her; and she
was accordingly set on fire.  After this,
the Wasp put into L'Orient; from which
port she sailed August 27, and, four days
afterwards, falling in with 10 sail of mer-
chantmen, under convoy of a  ship of the
line, she succeeded in cutting off one of
the vessels.—The evening of the first of
September, 1814, she fell in with four
sail, two on each bow, but at considerable
distances from each other.   The first was
the brig-of-war Avon, which struck after
a severe action; but captain B. could  not
take  possession, as another enemy was
approaching.  This enemy, it seems, how-
ever, was called off to the assistance of
the Avon, which was now sinking.  The
enemy reported that they had  sunk  the
Wasp by the first broadside; but she was
afterwards spoken  by a  vessel off  the
Western Isles.  After this, we hear of
her no more.—In his person, captain B.
was rather below the middle stature ; his
eyes black and expressive, his manners
mild,  manly  and unassuming.  Among
his brother officers, he was considered as
a man of uncommon intellect, courage,
and professional skill.  He was married,
in December, 1813, to  a lady of New
York; and left an  only daughter, who
received one of the most affecting tributes
of pubUc gratitude, which have occurred
in the history of the U. States.   The legis-
lature of North Carolina, December 27,
1816,  after  prescribing the destination of
the sword they had voted to captain B.,
" Resolved,  unanimously,  that  captain
Blakeley's child be educated at the expense
of this state; and that  Mrs. Blakeley be
requested to draw on the treasurer of this
state,  from time to time, for such sums of
money as shall be required  for the edu-
cation of the said child."
   Blanc, Mont.  (See Mont Blanc.)
   Blanchard, Francois, one of the first
aeronauts, born at Andelys, in the depart-
ment of the  Eure, in 1738, was fond of
mechanics from his youth, and, in his 16th
year,  invented a self-moving  carriage,
in which he rode a distance of 18 miles.
This  invention, which  he improved in
1778,  recommended him to the court of
Versailles.  He displayed equal ingenuity,
by the invention of" a hydraulic machine,
in the 19th year of his age, and, after-
wards, in .the construction  of a flying
ship, which, by means of a counterpoise
of six pounds, was raised to more than 20
feet from the ground.  He eagerly availed
himself of the discoveries of the brothers
Montgolfier, and the improvements of the
same  by professor Charles and Robert in
Paris.  After having made his first aeros-
tatic voyage, March  4, 1784, he crossed
the channel from Dover to Calais, 1785,
with doctor Jeffries, a gentleman of Bos-
ton, in the U. States.  For this exploit, he
was rewarded, by the king of France, with
a  present of i2,000 francs, and a pension
of 1200.   In the same  year, at London,
he first made use of a parachute, invent-
ed by him, or, according to  others, by
Etienne Montgolfier.  After having per-
formed  many aerostatic voyages in for-
eign countries also, he was accused of
propagating revolutionary principles, and
imprisoned, 1793, in the fortress of Kuf-
stein, in the Tyrol.  Having obtained his
liberty,  he  made his 46th ascent in the
city of New York, 1796.  In 1798, he
ascended, with 16 persons, in a large bal-
loon, at Rouen, and descended at a place
 15 miles distant.  In 1807, his aerostatic 
BLANCHARD—BLASPHEMY.
129
voyages amounted to more than 66.   He
died in 1809.  Madame Blanchard con-
tinued to make aerial voyages.  In 1811,
she ascended in Rome, and, after going a
distance of 60 miles, she rose  again to
proceed to Naples.  In June, 1819, hav-
ing ascended from  TivoU, in Paris, her
balloon took fire, at a considerable height,
owing to some fire-works which she car-
ried with her.  The gondola fell down in
the rue de Provence, and the hapless aer-
onaut was dashed to pieces.
  Blanco, Cape (literally, White cape); a
name given to a  great number of capes
by  the Spaniards, Portuguese and Ital-
ians.   It corresponds to the  French  cap
Blanc.  The name is as common  and as
unphilosophical  as that of White  hill,
Black river, &c.
  Blank Verse, in modern poetiy; verses
without rhyme;  e. g.,  Milton's Paradise
Lost.  Only those languages which dis-
tinguish long and short syllables can em-
ploy it (See  Verse.)
  Blangini, Giuseppe Marco Maria Fe-
lice, bom  at Turin, 1781, stucUed under
the abbot Ottani, chapel-master  in  the
cathedral there.  In his 12th or 13th year,
he accompanied the choir of this church
on the organ.  At the age of 14 years, he
executed a mass, with a complete orches-
tra.  In 1799, he went to Paris, gave les-
sons in singing, and was soon employed
as a composer.   The completion of the
False Duenna, an opera, left unfinished
by  Delia  Maria,  was intrusted to him;
and soon after  appeared his Zelie and
TervUle, Naphthali, and other operas.  His
concerts, in which he accompanied his
own singing with much taste and expres-
sion, were the  resort of all musical con-
noisseurs and amateurs.  Having, in 1805,
been  invited to Munich, he executed an
opera there, in consequence of which the
king of Bavaria appointed him his chapel-
master.  In 1806, the princess Borghese
appointed him her director of music and
master of concerts; and, in 1809, after the
departure of Reichardt, the king of West-
phalia invited  him, in the same capacity,
to  Cassel.   After the expulsion  of  the
Westphalian court, he lived  in Miinich,
where he composed and performed  his
Trajan in Dacia. Some time after, he went
to Paris, where he is still Uving.  Besides
many comic and heroic operas, we have
a collection of pleasing ballads, notturnos,
ItaUan airs, and charming duets, composed
by him.  In Italy, he is called the Ana-
creon of music.
  Blasphemy  is somewhat variously de-
fined.  According to the more general defi-
nition, it means the denying the existence
of God; assigning to him false attributes, or
denying his true attributes; speaking irrev-
erently of the mysteries of religion; and,
formerly, in Catholic countries, it also in-
cluded the speaking contemptuously or
disrespectfully of the Holy Virgin or the
saints.  PubUc blasphemy has been consid-
ered, by the church of Rome, as an unpar-
donable sin ; and it was, formerly, punish-
ed with death by the municipal laws. The
77th novel of Justinian assigned this pun-
ishment to it; and the capitularies inflict-
ed the same punishment upon  such as,
knowing of an act of blasphemy, did not
denounce the offender.  The former laws
of France punished this crime with fine,
corporeal punishment, the gallows  and
death, according to the degree  and aggra-
vation of the offence.  The records of the
parliaments supply numerous instances of
condemnation  for this crime,  and many
of punishment by death; others of brand-
ing and mutilation.  A man was, for this
offence, condemned to  be hanged,  and
to have  his tongue afterwards cut  out,
and the sentence  was executed at Orleans,
as late as 1748.   But it is very justly re-
marked by a writer in the French En-
cyclopedie Moderne, that we should form
an  erroneous  opinion, from  the pres-
ent state of society, of the effect of this
offence, and the  disorders it might intro-
duce in  former  times; for religion  was
once so intimately blended with the gov-
ernment  and laws, that to treat the  re-
ceived articles of faith or religious cere-
monies with disrespect, was, in effect, to
attack civil institutions.  The French code
provides no punishment for blasphemy;
but a law has been enacted, since the res-
toration of the Bourbons, which places it
again on the list of criminal offences.  By
the common law of England, blasphemies
of God, as denying his being  and  provi-
dence, all  contumelious  reproaches of
Jesus Christ, &c, are punishable by fine,
imprisonment, pillory, &c; and, by the
statute of 9 and 10 William III, ch. 32,
if any one shall deny either of the Persons
of the  Trinity to be  God, or  assert that
there are more gods than one,  he shall be
incapable of holding any office; and, for
a second offence, be disabled  from suing
any action, or being an executor, and suf-
fer  three years'  imprisonment.  By the
statute of 53 Geo. Ill, ch. 160, the words
in Italics were omitted.  This  law  was
an  infringement of the Uberty of con-
science, and certainly could not now be
practically  enforced  in  England, since
some of the  doctrines of some sects of 
130
BLASPHEMY—BLEMMYES.
Christians,  openly  and habitually incul-
cated in their pubUc assemblies, would be
violations of it.  This was, no doubt, the
reason of omitting the part of the statute
above referred to.  The early legislation
of the American colonies followed that of
the mother country, and, in some of them,
the crime  of  blasphemy was  punished
with death; but the penalty was mitigated
before the estabUshment of the indepen-
dence of the  states,  and imprisonment,
whipping,  setting on  the gallows, or in
the pillory, having the tongue bored with
a red-hot iron, &c. were substituted.  The
statutory provisions of the different states
on this subject are very various.  In some
of them, the offence of blasphemy is dis-
tinguished  from that of profane swearing;
in others, blasphemy  is not mentioned as
a  distinct  offence.    Several   penalties
against blasphemy are to be found in the
laws of some of the New England States;
according to which it is provided that, if
any persons shall blaspheme, by denying,
cursing,  or contumeUously reproaching
God, his  creation, government,  or final
judging of the world, or by cursing or re-
proaching Jesus Christ or the Holy Ghost,
or contumeUously reproaching the word of
God, consisting of the commonly received
books of the Old and New Testament, he
is Uable to imprisonment for a term not
exceeding  five years.  But the most direct
and pubfic violations  of these  laws are
passed over without  punishment or pros-
ecution.   In many, and, we beUeve, the
greater number of the states, the offence
of blasphemy, not being a subject of spe-
cial statutory provision, is only punishable
either as an offence at common law, or a
violation of die statute laws against pro-
fane swearing.  The offence, considered
only as a  violation  of positive  statutes,
would be  liable to  a great diversity of
punishment in the different states, from a
fine of two shilUngs and  six pence, in
some, to an imprisonment not  exceeding
a period of five years in others.  Viewing
this subject in a philosophical, reUgious or
poUtical view, it would be difficult to lay
down any general principles  appUcable
to different states of society; but die pre-
vailing principle on  this subject in the U.
 States, and that to which  the  laws and
 opinions of other countries are strongly
tending, is, that any one may profess or op-
 pose any doctrine, provided he inculcates
 his principles, whether orally or in writing,
 in such manner as not to commit a flagrant
 violation of decorum: what acts or words
 will constitute such an outrage must evi-
 dently depend upon the state of the society.
  Blasting ; the technical term for split-
ting any •bject by means of gunpowder.
  Blazoning, or Blazonry,in heraldry;
the deciphering of coats of arms, from
the Gernian Uasen, to blow, because  the
herald blew a trumpet, and caUed out the
arms  of a  knight, when  he entered  the
Usts at a tournament.  (See Heraldry.)
  Bleaching is the art of whitening  lin-
en, wool, cotton, silk, wax, also the mate-
rials of which paper is made, and other
things.  It is shown, by experience, that
organic bodies, after being depnved of
life, and becoming solid and  dry, lose
their color, and become white by the influ-
ence of the air and the sun-beams.  Upon
this fact, the manner of bleaching, which
was formerly in use, is grounded:  since,
however, the bleaching in the  sun com-
monly requires a whole summer, Berthol-
let, in the year 1786, first proposed the use
of chlorine. This, it is known, has so Ut-
tle corrosive power, that, if diluted, it may
be taken inwardly in a considerable quan-
tity.  This method has since been much
improved,  principally by  Watt.  It  has
been  found, however, that Unen certainly
may  suffer, if too much acid is appUed.
In  England, this acid, when  used to
bleach linen, is mixed with one half of
muriate of Ume dissolved in water.  The
quantity of this salt requisite for bleach-
ing is very different, according to the dif-
ferent quality of Unen.   Commonly, the
12th or 20th part of the weight of the lin-
en is  employed.  In manufactories of Un-
en and  cotton  goods, the yarn  or cloth
passes through a  number of  successive
processes,  the principal of which are the
steeping, in which the goods are ferment-
ed in an acescent Uquid, at a temperature
of about 100 degrees Fahr.; the bucking
and boiling, in which a hot alkaline Ue is
made to percolate through them for some
time; the souring, performed with dUuted
sulphuric acid; the bleaching with chlo-
rine,  in which the stuff is exposed to the
action of some compound of fhat sub-
stance,  usually chloride of lime,  called
bleaching sail.  Various mechanical ope-
rations, washings and repetitions of the
processes are commonly practised to com-
plete the  discharge  of the color.  The
fibres of wool and silk are not  bleached
by chlorine, but, after being deprived of
the saponaceous or gummy matter which
adheres to them, are exposed to the fumes
of burning sulphur to discharge their color.
   Blemmyes,  or  Blemyes ;  a fabulous
 people of Ethiopia, without heads, their
 eyes, mouths, &c. being  placed in their
 breasts.   A barbarous tribe of this name 
BLEMMYES—BLENHEIM.
131
appeared in the 3d century as the ally of
the Egyptians against Diocletian.   With
a view of opposing to the B. a suitable
adversary, Diocletian persuaded the No-
batae, a people of Nubia, to remove from
their ancient habitations in the deserts of
Libya, and resigned to them an extensive
but unprofitable territory, above  Syene
and the cataracts of the Nile.
  Blende.  (See Zinc.)
  Blenheim, or Blindheim ; a village sit-
uated in the circle of the  Upper Danube,
in Bavaria, on the Danube.  Here was
fought, Aug. 13, 1704, the famous  battle
of Blenheim, or, as it is more commonly
called  on the  European continent, the
battle of Hochstddt, from another village
of this name in the vicinity.   Louis XIV,
in the war of the Spanish succession, had
to contend with HoUand, England, Aus-
tria, Savoy,  Portugal and  the  German
empire.  The elector of Bavaria was his
only aUy;  but, as  the territories of diis
prince Were contiguous to Austria, which,
on that side, was unprotected, he was the
more to  be  feared, especially as he was
an active and warlike prince, who took
the field himself, and, in case of success,
could open  the way to Vienna  for the
French armies.  Sept. 20,  1703, he de-
feated, near Hochstadt,  a village in the
vicinity of Donawert, the imperial gen-
eral  Styrum,  and  took  the fortress of
Passau.  But his  dissensions with the
upright and unyielding French marshal
Villars prevented  him from reaping, in
the same year, all the fruits which this
victory  might  otherwise have  afforded
him.   Villars was ordered to cede the
chief command to marshal  Tallard, who
overcame, on the Rhine, near Spire, the
margrave Louis of Baden, and rendered
the situation  of the hereditary states of
Austria very dangerous.   Marlborough,
however, the soul  of this whole war, in
the field and in the  cabinet, formed the
plan of deciding the fate of the contest
on the Danube.  Italy, Flanders and the
Lower Rhine were to be defended only;
but the decisive blow was to be struck in
the south of Germany, whither the best
imperial  troops marched, under Eugene,
from the Rhine.   Marlborough attacked
the Bavarian intrenchments, July 2, after
a violent combat on the Schellenberg, and
made his way over the Danube, in order
to be able to occupy the territory of the
elector of Bavaria, if circumstances re-
quired it.  But, for this latter purpose, the
gaining of a decisive battle was  indis-
pensable, since, without it, the invasion of
Bavaria would have been  a hazardous
enterprise,  and a  long  delay, after the
manner  of carrying  on war in those
times,  required  well-filled  and  secure
magazines.  The French and Bavarian
armies were drawn into  an  engagement,
Aug. 13,1704, under the most unfavora-
ble circumstances.   Both these  armies
were posted, under the command of Tal-
lard, Marsin, and  the  elector  of Bavaria
himself,  between  the village  of  B. and
that of Kinzingen, behind the Nebelbach,
a small stream emptying into the  Dan-
ube, which was  on  their  right  flank.
They amounted  to 56,000  men, whilst
the forces  of Marlborough  and Eugene
were about 52,000.  The first had thrown
their troops chiefly into  the two viUages,
which they considered as points of sup-
port for their wings, though  they were at
too great a distance in front of their main
position.   A large proportion  of cavalry
was in the centre, since each army, the
Bavarian as well as the French, had their
horse  on their wings, and  in this way
those of  two wings must necessarily join
each other.  Both the commanders would
undoubtedly have perceived and correct-
ed  this mistake, as Tallard had  in  B.
alone, 27 battalions of infantry; but they
expected so little  to  be attacked, that
when the  line of the  allies  began to
move, Aug. 13, at  2 o'clock in the morn-
ing, they  supposed them  to  be marching
off.  The greatest part of their cavalry
was sent to forage.   Even  at 7 o'clock,
when the heads  of the eight columns,
with which Eugene  and Marlborough
advanced towards the Nebelbach, were
to be seen, Tallard  thought  the whole
a stratagem intended to cover the re-
treat; but he soon saw  his error.  The
dispersed  troops  were  recalled  in the
greatest  hurry, and   the cannon were
drawn  up in line.   The French and Ba-
varians made every exertion to prevent
the passage of the enemy over the Nebel-
bach, and the capture of the two villages,
the conquest of which was considered, by
Marlborough  and  Eugene,  as decisive.
Their Une of attack  was uncommonly
long, about 4£ miles.  Marlborough, in
order to  secure his right wing, attacked
B., but without success: he then changed
his plan,  and threw  himself, with his
principal  forces,  into  the wide interval
between the right wing and the centre of
the enemy, leaving only as  many troops
before B. as were necessary to check the
body which occupied this position. At
5 o'clock in the afternoon, he  succeeded,
after great efforts, in passing the  Nebel-
bach, by  which his victory was decided. 
132
BLENHEIM—BLIGHT.
The French, in the centre, were obliged
to retreat: their example was  followed
by the Bavarians on the left wing, who,
for a long time, had resisted  the impetu-
ous attacks of prince Eugene.  Marlbor-
ough, instead of pursuing the retreating
enemy, placed himself between the line
of retreat and the position of B., guarded
by 18,000 men, who were thus  cut  off
from assistance, and forced to surrender.
The cavalry was routed by the fire of the
EngUsh  cannon and musketry;  and a
large part of the defeated army remained
dead  on  the field of battle  (which was
covered with more than 11,000 corpses),
or were  made prisoners.  Tallard him-
self was  among the prisoners;  his  son
was  killed.   The  consequences of  the
battle were  decisive.  Bavaria,  as Marl-
borough  had  anticipated, fell  into  the
power of Austria.   Fortune  deserted
Louis XIV, as it did Napoleon  after the
battle of Leipsic, and, though he  was able
to continue  the war for almost  10  years
longer, it was owing to  the dissensions
among the  allies themselves, who con-
tended about the best use of the victory
till the opportunity  to  use  it was  lost.
(See Marlborough)
  Blessing, or  Benediction.  The  ex-
pression of wishing one well soon gave
rise, in early ages, to a solemn act, accom-
panied, like  other solemnities of those  pe-
riods, by  symbolic signs; this  was  the
blessing or benediction.  In the patriarchal
times, when the authority  of the head of
a family included that of the priest and
the civil ruler, the blessing of course  ap-
pertained  cliiefly to him,  on account of
his venerable character, and, when  the
priests began to form a separate class, be-
came,  in certain cases, a  prerogative of
theirs. As the authority of the father, in
the infancy of eveiy nation, is extremely
great, the idea soon  sprung up, that  his
prayers, invoking the favor of the Deity,
were more effectual than those of others,
and that  whatever he blessed would be
likely to receive the favor of God.  The
same  importance was soon attributed to
blessings   conferred  by a priest  The
heathens, the Jews, and many  Chris-
tian sects, have cherished  this idea.  By
the Jewish  institutions, certain  benedic-
tions were reserved to the priest:  the same
is the case in  the Catholic church, in
which different  benedictions are appro-
priated to different degrees of the clergy.
We shall mention only a few of them.
The Catholic  bishops alone can  confer
those benedictions which are connected
with unction, and are cafled consecrations,
as, for instance, the consecration of kings
and  queens,  of the cup and patera, the
church and altar.  To them, also, is con-
fined the benediction of abbots and ab-
besses, of knights, and the holy oil.   For
the  benediction of the holy  vestments,
&c, they may employ a substitute. Every
Catholic clergyman may confer the bene-
diction  fiangiale  (that of betrothment);
also, the marriage benediction; may bless
the fruits of the earth, and the holy water.
The  benediction of a bishop is eagerly
sought for by a faithful  Catholic, as con-
tributing peculiarly to his spiritual wel-
fare ; and the CathoUc clergy, in general,
use the benediction as a salutation, or re-
ward for a service, &c.  When the pope
rides or walks out, the Catholics kneel
to receive his blessing, which he gives by
a motion of his hand.  In his antecham-
ber  are  often  seen  things  of different
kinds, rosaries, &c, in  large  quantities,
which he  blesses in passing by.  The
Catholic church  blesses things animate
and  inanimate, and  this is believed  by
many to preserve them from sickness, in-
jury, &c.  (See Agnes, St.)  Among sever-
al Protestant sects, the benediction, at the
close of the sermon, is in the form given
by Moses.  This is the case with the Lu-
therans.  Catholics, in many  cases, use
the consecrated water  in giving the bene-
diction.
  Blight; a general name for various
distempers incident to  corn  and  fruit-
trees.  The term has been used in a very
vague and indefinite maimer. The origin
of the disease has been variously account-
ed for.  There appear to be at least three
distinct species of it.   The first originates
in cold and frosty winds, in spring, which
nip and destroy the tender snoots of the
plant, by stopping the current of the
juices.  The leaves wither and fall; the
juices buret the vessels, and become the
food of numerous insects, which are often
mistaken for the cause of the disease,
while they are really an effect of it.   The
second species originates in  a  sultry and
pestilential vapor,  and happens in sum-
mer, when the grain  has attained its full
growth.   The third  originates in fungi,
which attack the leaves or stem of herba-
ceous and woody plants; but  more gen-
erally grasses, and particularly the  most
useful grains.  It  generaUy assumes the
appearance of  a rusty-looking  powder,
which soils  the  finger  when  touched.
There are several sorts of these fungi,
known  to  farmers under  the  names of
red rust, red gum, &c.  The only means
of preventing the effect of bUght is proper 
BLIGHT—BLIND.                          133
culture.   PalUatives are to be found in
topical applications.
  Blind, the; such as are deprived of
their  sight   The  loss  of the  noblest
sense, by means of which  man receives
an idea of the world that surrounds him,
clothed in light and color, is an event as
melancholy as it is frequent.  Blindness
is different, 1. in its degrees,  some per-
sons  being partially blind, retaining  a
sUght perception of light, with the power
of distinguishing very brilliant colors, and
the general outlines of bodies; others be-
ing entirely deprived  of the  faculty of
seeing; 2. in  its causes: some men are
bUnd from tlieir birth;  others have be-
come bUnd by local diseases of the eyes,
for instance,  by inflammation, suppura-
tion,  cancer of the eye-ball, spots, films,
tumors on the cornea (by which its trans-
parency is destroyed), also by closure of
the pupil, by a turbid  state of the hu-
mors, by a debility of the optic nerve, or
by general diseases of the body, violent
fevers, nervous fevers, plethora and ten-
dency of the blood to the head, erysipelas
in the face, small-pox,  scarlet fever, &c,
or by excessive exertion of the eyes, by
which the optic nerve is enfeebled; for
which reason, some classes of mechanics
and artists, as blacksmiths, laborers in
glass and sinelting-houses, watch-makers,
&c. not unfiequently lose tlieir sight, and,
in northern countries, which are covered
with  snow for a long time, and which
dazzle the eyes by the reflection of the
sunbeams, as well as in the sandy deserts
of Africa,  blindness is a frequent com-
plaint.   Old age is sometimes accompa-
nied  with blindness, occasioned by the
drying up of the humors  of the eye, or by
the opacity of the cornea, the  crystalline
lens,  &c.  There  are  several  causes
which produce blindness from the birth.
Sometimes the eyelids  adhere to  each
other or to the ej e-ball itself,  or a mem-
brane covers  the eyes; sometimes the
pupil of the eye is closed,  or adheres to
the cornea, or is not situated in the right
place, so that the rays of light do not fall
in the middle of the eye; besides other
defects.  Those who are bom  blind have
no  idea  of vision, and are  entirely desti-
tute of all  the ideas derived  from the
sense of sight.  They cannot,  therefore,
be  sensible of tlieir  misfortune in the
same  degree as those who have lost their
sight  at  a later period.   Experience has
shown, that those who acquire the power
of seeing after being bora blind, or having
lost their sight in their  childhood, form
very different ideas of visible objects from
  vol. 11.          12
other  persons.  A  young man, whom
Cheselden couched for a cataract, at the
moment he received sight, imagined that
all  the objects which he saw were  in
contact with  his eyes: he could not dis-
tinguish objects, although of very differ-
ent forms.    Those with which he was
already familiar by die touch,  he exam-
ined  with  great  attention,  in  order  to
recognise them another time; but, having
too many things to  notice  at once,  he
soon forgot all that he had observed.  He
wondered that those persons  whom  he
loved  most  were not handsomer  than
others.  Before he received his sight,  he
had expressed a great  desire to obtain
this sense.  The other senses of persons,
who have been bljnd for a long time, be-
come  more  exquisite, perhaps, because
they  are not subject to the distraction
produced by the sight of so many objects.
The  blind, therefore, are  often distin-
guished for a remarkable mental activity,
and a wonderful developement of the in-
tellectual powers.  Their touch and hear-
ing, particularly,  become  very acute.
Thus it is  related of a blind man,  who
lived  at Puisaux, in France, and was a
chemist and  musician, that he could ac-
curately estimate  the  proportions of ob-
jects,  could judge of  the distance of fire
by  the degree of  heat, determine  the
quantity of fluid in vessels by the sound
it produced while running from one ves-
sel  into another, and the proximity  of
objects by the effect of the air upon his
face.   He determined very accurately the
weights of bodies and the capacities  of
vessels. The celebrated Saunderson, pro-
fessor of mathematics at Cambridge, lost
his  sight in his early youth.   He invented
several processes  to facilitate his studies
in arithmetic and geometry.  His sense
of touch was so acute,  that  he distin-
guished spurious  coins merely by letting
them  pass  through  his  fingers, though
they were  so well  executed,  that even
skilful judges were deceived  by them.
  Blind, Institutions for  the. In the
case  of persons  destitute of sight, it is
necessary to  have recourse  to  the other
senses to supply the want of the eye.   If,
for instance, we wish  to  teach them the
arts of reading and writing, letters must
be prepared,  which will be palpable to
the touch, and the hand guided until they
are  able to copy them.  If we wish to
communicate to them a knowledge of the
surface  of  the earth, globes and  maps
must be prepared with the divisions, &c,
in relief.  Knowledge obtained in this
way must, of course, be  acquired much 
134                               BLIND.
more slowly  than  that received by  the
sight  The senses of touch and of sight
differ in this respect, that the former  as-
cends by degrees from the perception of
parts to  the  perception  of the whole,
whilst the latter views  the  whole at a
single  glance.  It  is,  therefore, evident,
that  the  blind  cannot be instructed  in
the common  schools  destined for  those
who see: in  the first place, because  the
means of instruction  by the touch  are
wanting; and secondly, because the prog-
ress  of the other children would be  re-
tarded by the slow apprehension of the
blind pupils.  For these reasons, and as
the bUnd fonn no small part of the popu-
lation of every country, particular institu-
tions have, in many places, been establish-
ed for their instruction.  In Prussia, they
amount to more than 13,000 souls. Zeune,
in his Belisar (1821, p. 12 et seq.),  has
laid down, as a general law, deduced from
observation, that the proportion of blind
persons decreases  from the equator to-
wards the poles.  In Egypt, he says, it is
as 1 to 100, while in Norway the proportion
is 1 to 1000.—The instruction  given in
the schools for the blind aims, first, at a
general cultivation of their intellectual fac-
ulties. They are afterwards taught some
art which may enable them to provide
for their  own  subsistence.   These  arts
are of two kinds—mechanical  employ-
ments and music.  The instruction  of the
blind, therefore, embraces three  branches
—1. mechanical labors;  2. the  fine arts;
3. science; because it  is impossible to
determine, without  trial,  the  peculiar
genius of the pupils, whether, for instance,
they should  be instructed as mechanics,
musicians, or mathematicians.  The Ger-
man institutions for the blind, as well as
those in  Paris,  have this comprehensive
character, whilst the English aim, more
exclusively, to  impart instruction in me-
chanical  trades. The first  idea of such
an institution for blind persons was con-
ceived by Valentin Hauy, brother of the
celebrated mineralogist: it was suggested
to him by his acquaintance with a blind
German  lady, the  baroness  von Paradis,
of Vienna, who visited Paris in 1780,  and
performed on the organ with general ap-
plause.  Hairy  repeatedly visited this in-
genious lady, and was much surprised to
find in her apartments several contrivances
for the instruction of the blind;  for in-
stance, embroidered maps and  a  pocket
printing-apparatus, by means of wbich
she corresponded with von Kempelen, in
Vienna (the inventor  of the chess-player
and  speaking  automaton),  and with  a
learned blind gentleman, named Wrissen-
burg, at Manheim.  HaQy compared the
high cultivation of these  two Germans
with the degraded state  of the blind in
France, where, at the annual fair of St.
Ovide, an innkeeper had collected 10 poor
blind persons, attired in a ridiculous man-
ner, and decorated with asses' ears, pea-
cocks' tails, and spectacles without glasses,
to perform a burlesque concert.  Nor did
the great institution for the bUnd, or the
hospital of  the 300 (commonly called les
quinze-vingt, founded, in 1260,by St. Louis,
after his crusade to Egypt, during which
so many soldiers became blind by the oph-
thalmia, prevailing in that country), pre-
sent to the  philanthropic Hauy a pleasing
picture of intellectual cultivation; rather
a scene of dulness and moral corruption.
He,  therefore,  resolved  to do for  the
blind in France what the  abbe de I'Epee
had done for die deaf and dumb.  In
1784, he opened an institution, in which
they were instructed, not  only in  appro-
priate  mechanical employments, as spin-
ning,  knitting, making ropes or fringes,
and working in paste-board,  but also in
music,  in  reading,  writing,  ciphering,
geography  and the sciences.  For  this
purpose, he invented particular means of
instruction, resembling  those  with which
he had become acquainted by his inter-
course  with the two  blind  Germans
Paradis and  Weissenburg.  For instruc-
tion in reading, he procured raised letters
of metal, from  which, also, impressions
may be taken on paper:  for writing, he
used particular  writing-cases, in which a
frame, with wires to separate the lines,
could  be fastened upon  the  paper: for
ciphering, there were movable figures of
metal and ciphering-boards, in which the
figures could be fixed :  for teaching geog-
raphy, maps were prepared, upon which
mountains, rivers, cities, and the borders
of countries, were embroidered in various
ways,  &c.   In  the beginning, the phi-
lanthropic society paid the expenses of
12blind persons; afterwards, in 1791,the
institution was taken under the protection
of the state,  and united  to that for the
deaf and dumb; but, as  this was  found
inconvenient, it was, in  1795, separated
from  the latter, and, in  1801,  united to
the hospital  of the quinze-vingt.   The
mingUng of young blind persons here with
old soldiers being found  very prejudicial
to the former, Hauy, full of indignation,
went to Petersburg, in 1806, in order to
estabUsh a similar institution there.  After
the restoration, in 1815, the establishment
was put upon its original footing, and the 
BLIND—BLINDS.
135
physician doctor  Guilli6 appointed  its
director.—Next to  France, the first insti-
tutions for  the  blind were established in
Great Britain, where, however, they are
supported only by the  contributions  of
private individuals. - In 1790, an institu-
tion of this sort was estabUshed at Liver-
pool, in which both males and females are
instructed in manual labors, in singing
hymns, and playing on  the organ.   In
1791, a second one was estabUshed in
Edinburgh, in which the making of bas-
kets and  ropes is the principal occupation.
Similar institutions have since arisen in
other places; one at London, in 1800; also
at Dublin, Bristol and Norwich.—In Ger-
many, the first public institution for the
blind was established by the king of Prus-
sia at Berlin, in 1806, when Hairy passed
through  this city.   Zeune was appointed
director of it   He invented many instru-
ments more simple than those which had
formerly been used, and which answered
the purpose very  well.  Among other
things, he  brought to  great  perfection
maps and globes, destined for the use of
the blind ; which, in many parts of Eu-
rope, are used for the instruction of others
also,  since  they  present, by  means  of
elevations and  depressions  of the sur-
face, proportional elevations and pictures,
which strike the mind forcibly.  In arith-
metic, he directed his  attention  almost
exclusively to mental calculations.  The
first institutions for the blind in Germany,
after  that in Berlin, were established in
Vienna and Prague, both in 1808, and, in
the same year, that in Amsterdam, found-
ed by free-masons.   In 1809, the institu-
tion in Dresden sprang up—a  branch of
that in Berlin.  In 1810, the  institution
in Zurich was  founded by the auxiUary
society.  In 1811,  a similar establishment
was instituted  in  Copenhagen, after the
plan of professor Brorson, by the sodety
of the chain, as it is called, (Verdn der
Kette).   After the  great war  for Uberty,
from  1813 to 15, when the Egyptian oph-
thalmia raged  so  dreadfully among the
European armies, several institutions for
blind soldiers were established, on Zeune's
plan, in  Prussia.   Their object was to
instruct soldiers who had become blind,
and unable to exercise their former busi-
ness, in useful labors.  These schools
were, at first, intended to continue only till
aU  the soldiers received in  them  had
thoroughly  learned some trade: two of
them, however, those at Breslau and Ko-
nigsberg, have  been put upon a  perma-
nent  footing.  The  institution for the
bUnd in Petersburg, which was established
by Hatty, but was never in a very pros-
perous  state,  seems  to  have  declined
greatly,  after  its  founder's  return  to
France, in 1816.  The name of its present
director is Martin Pilazki.   Whether the
institution  projected  at   Barcelona,  in
1820, has been established, or whether it
survived the political storms of that year,
or the  yellow fever of the succeeding,
we do  not know.    Institutions for the
bUnd are confined almost entirely to Eu-
rope, and they appear to be peculiar to
Germany,  Switzerland,  Holland,  Den-
mark, France, England and Russia.  Fa-
ther Charlevoix, indeed, says, that,  in Ja-
pan, the records of the empire  are com-
mitted to the memory of the blind; and
Golownin  estimates their number  in the
gigantic city of Jeddo, alone, at 36,000;
but neither of them mentions that there
is any  institution estabUshed for  them.
The director of the institution in Vienna,
F. W.  Klein, has published a good  Lehr-
buch zum  Untemchte der  Blinden,  &c.
um sie  zu  burgerlicher Brauchbarkrit zu
bilden (Elementary Work for the Instruc-
tion  of the BUnd,  &c, to render  them
useful  Citizens).—The first, and, as yet,
the only institution of the kind in Ameri-
ca, was  commenced in  Boston, in the
year 1829.   In the beginning of that year,
an act  of incorporation was granted, by
the legislature of Massachusetts, to several
gentlemen, authorizing them to  establish
the New England Asylum for the BUnd,
for the purpose of  educating bUnd per-
sons.  This institution will go into opera-
tion  as soon as the necessary funds shall
be obtained.
  Blinds, in operations against fortresses;
the name of all preparations which tend to
intercept the view of the enemy.  There
are several species:—1. A fascine placed
across  the  embrasures, to prevent  the
enemy from observing what passes near
the cannon.—2.  Blinds before port-holes
are shutters made of strong planks, which
are placed  before the port-holes, as soon
as the guns are discharged, to obstruct the
enemy's view.—3.  Single  and double
bUnds.  The former consist of three strong,
perpendicular posts, 5 feet in height, be-
tween  which are  planks  covered with
iron plates on the outside, and thus made
shot-proof.  This screen is furnished with
rollers,  to  enable   the  laborers in  the
trenches to push it before them. The latter
consist of  large wooden chests, on four
block-wheels, which are fiUed with earth,
or bags of sand, and serve likewise  in the
trenches, &c, to cover the soldiers from
the fire of  the enemy.—4. Another kind 
136
BLINDS—BLOCKS.
of blinds used to protect the workmen in
the trenches, are the chandeliers.  Two
square beams of timber are placed paral-
lel, and at a distance of six feet, on  the
ground, and fastened by two cross beams.
Upon the ends, perpendicular posts  are
erected, and the interval is  filled up with
fascines, at least to a height  of five feet—
5. Blind is also the name given to cov-
erings  placed  over  the most exposed
parts in the saps or the fortress.  These
are made of beams, over which hurdles
or fascines are spread, that finally receive
a sufficiently  thick layer of earth as  a
cover.
  Blister ; a topical application, which,
when appUed to the skin, raises the cuti-
cle in  the form of a vesicle, filled with
serous fluid.  The powder of the cantha-
ris, or Spanish fly, operates with most
certainty and expedition, and is now in-
variably used for this  purpose.  Morbid
action  may often be removed  from  the
system by inducing an  action of a differ-
ent kind in  the same  or a neighboring
part ; hence  the utility of blisters  in lo-
cal inflammation and  spasmodic action.
Exciting one  pain often relieves another;
hence the use of blisters in tooth-ache, and
some other painful affections. Lastly, blis-
ters communicate a stimulus to the whole
system, and raise the vigor of the circula-
tion ; hence, in part, their utility in fevers
of the typhoid kind, though, in such cases,
they are used with still more advantage
to obviate or remove local inflammation.
  Bloch, Marcus  Eliezer; a naturaUst
of Jewish  descent,  born  at  Anspach,
in 1723, of poor parents.  In  the 19th
year of his age, he understood neither Ger-
man nor Latin, nor had he, with the ex-
ception of some rabbinical writings, read
any thing.  Nevertheless, he became  tu-
tor in the house of a Jewish surgeon in
Hamburg.   Here  he  learned German
and  Latin,  and, besides, acquired  some
knowledge  of anatomy.  His  principal
work is the  Naturgeschichte der Fische
(Natural History of Fishes), fol., 1785—
1799, which is adorned with  many col-
ored plates.   He enjoyed a weU-deserved
reputation, and died in  1799.
  Blockade  is the interception by  one
belligerent of communication with a place
occupied by another.  National sovereign-
ty confers the right of declaring war,  and
the right which nations at war have of
destroying or capturing each other's sub-
jects or goods, imposes  on neutral nations
the obUgation  not to  interfere with  the
exercise of this right within the rules  and
limits  prescribed by the law of nations.
In order  to render the  communication
with  a place  unlawful to a  neutral, a
blockading or  besieging  force must be
actually present, inventing  it, and  suf-
ficiently powerful to render a communi-
cation with it dangerous to a neutral, and
expose him to seizure by  the blockading
or besieging  force.  A declaration  of
siege  or blockade is an act of sovereign-
ty, but does not require, in all cases, a di-
rect declaration by the sovereign authori-
ty of the besieging belligerent; for its
officers may be invested, either expressly,
or by implication, with authority to insti-
tute  such  siege or blockade.  It  must,
however, in order to be lawful and obli-
gatory on neutrals, be  declared, or sanc-
tioned, either expressly, or by implication,
by the sovereign power.   It must also be
declared or made pubUc, so that neutrals
may have notice of it.  If a blockade is
instituted  by a sufficient  authority,  and
maintained by a sufficient force, a neu-
tral is so far affected by it, that, if he at-
tempts to trade with the place invested,
either by carrying goods to it or bringing
them away, the property so attempted to
be carried to, or from  the place, is Uable
to be  seized by the investing party, and,
in case of being seized, is forfeited.
  Blockhouse, in fortification; a  house
made of beams, joined together crosswise,
and often doubled, with a covering and
loop-holes, large enough for 25—100 men.
In addition to this, it is commonly cover-
ed with earth, to render it entirely  bomb
and fire-proof.  It is usually sunk several
feet into the ground.   Some forts of this
kind  contain two stories; and they are
often  fitted up to receive cannon.  Block-
houses are generally built in the form of
a square or a cross.  Their use is to afford
a feeble garrison of an important  place,
which is very  much exposed, an oppor-
tunity of holding out against the cannon-
ade and assault of the enemy till they are
relieved.  They also serve for bomb-proof
guard-houses, and places of lost resort, in
the interior of intrenchments, and in the
covered passages of fortresses, where the
cannon are stationed.
  Blocks are pieces of wood in which
sheaves or pulleys are placed, for the pur-
pose of forming tackle, purchases, &c, in
various operations in  naval  tactics and
architectural   constructions.   The  me-
chanical power is described in the  article
Pulley, (q. v.)   Blocks are single, double,
treble, and fourfold,  according as  the
number of sheaves is  one, two, three or
four.   The  sheaves  are grooved  to re-
ceive the rope, and have in their centre a 
BLOCKS—BLOMFIELD.
137
brass bush, or triangular piece of brass, to
receive  the pin  on which they revolve.
The sides of the block are called cheeks.
A running block is attached to the object
to be moved ; a standing block is fixed to
some permanent support.  Blocks  also
receive different denominations from their
shape, purpose and mode of application,
which cannot weU be explained without
the use of figures.  No less than 200 dif-
ferent sorts and sizes are made at Ports-
mouth, England, for the royal navy, be-
sides which there are various sorts used
only in the merchant-ships.   The  ma-
chinery for supplying the royal navy widi
blocks is the invention of Mr. Brunei, an
American artist.   It enables 4 men,  in a
given time, to complete the shells of as
many blocks  as  50 men could do by the
old method.
  Bloemart, sometimes also Blom, Abra-
ham, a  Dutch painter, born at Gorcum,
in  1565, died at Utrecht, in  1647.  His
paintings  are  reproached with  various
faults, yet he is distinguished  by the  bril-
liancy of his coloring and the richness of
his invention.  In the representation of
the chiaro oscuro, he may be called great.
He painted all sorts of objects; but his
landscapes are  the  most  esteemed.  He
had four  sons, of whom  the youngest,
Cornelius, is the most distinguished.  He
was born at Utrecht, in 1603, and died at
Rome, in 1680.   He was an engraver, and
his engravings are distinguished for puri-
ty, elegance  and softness.   He was the
founder of a new school, from which pro-
ceeded Baudot, Poilly, Chasteau, Speier,
Roullet, &c.
  Blois (anciently, Blesa, and Castrum
Blesense); a city of France, and capital of
Loir-and-Cher;  36 miles S. W. Orleans;
lon. 1° 207 E.; lat. 47° 35' N.; pop., 13,054.
Before the revolution, it was a bishop's
see, the  seat of a  lieutenant-general, a
grand bailiwick, and capital of the Blai-
sois, once the abode of the kings of France.
B. has been several times conspicuous  in
French history.  There are several foun-
tains in different parts of the town, sup-
plied by an aqueduct, supposed to have
been erected by the Romans.
  Blomfield, Charles James; doctor of
philology, bom at Bury St. Edmund's, in
Suffolk, in 1786.  In  1804,  he entered
Trinity  college, Cambridge,  where  he
distinguished  himself, not only  in the
usual examinations, but also in the pubUc
disputations.   The  university, therefore,
granted him, in 1806, one of the scholar-
ships, founded by lord Craven—a high
academical honor.   In 1808, when he
                   12*
received the  bachelor's degree,  he was
declared third wrangler, and obtained the
first  medal for a prize poem.  Not long
after, he published a new edition of the
Prometheus of  ^Eschylus, and, in 1809,
was  chosen feUow  of his college.  His
literary  reputation soon spread;  and, in
1810, lord Bristol conferred on him the
living of Quarrington,  in  Lincolnshire.
Lord Spencer, one of the first patrons of
Uterature  in  England,  also  voluntarily
presented him  with another at Dunton.
There he remained seven years, during
which time he pubUshed editions of sev-
eral  of  the  plays of iEschylus,   among
them die  Prometheus  (which  he had
printed  once  before), the Seven  before
Thebes,  the Persa and Agamemnon; also
a new edition of CalUmachus, and, after-
wards, in connexion with T. Rennel, the
Musa Cantabrigienses. In 1812, he edited,
with  professor Monk, the Posthumous
Tracts of Porson. He Ukewise pubUshed,
in 1814, the Adversaria Porsoni.   These
works gained him such a reputation, that
lord  Bristol conferred on him the Uvings
of Great and Little Chesterford, in Essex,
on which account, with the permission of
his patrons, he exchanged his cure  at Dun-
ton  for  that of Tuddenham, in  Suffolk.
To the  fame which his philological and
theological studies procured him, he was
also  indebted, in 1819, for the office of
chaplain to  the  bishop of London—a
choice which always  falls on a  man of
acknowledged ability,  it being his duty to
examine the candidates, previously to their
ordination in this diocese.  Places of this
sort  generally lead to high promotions in
the  church,  and B. soon  after received
the living of St.  Botolph's.  Since that
time, he has lived in London, visits in the
first circles, and supports an establishment
suitable  to his income, which is  said to
amount to £8000.  Among his latest Uter-
ary  labors, the continuation of his edition
of JEschylus is the most important.
  Blomfield, Edward Valentine, brother
of the former, born in  1788, studied in
Caius college, at Cambridge, and  excited
the highest expectations.  Among several
prizes which he received, we may men-
tion the  medal assigned him, in 1809, for
his beautiful ode, In Desiderium Porsoni.
In 1812, a fellowship  in Emmanuel col-
lege  was conferred on him.  In 1813, he
visited Germany, where he acquired  a
good knowledge of the German language,
and became acquainted with Wolf in Ber-
lin, and  Schneider in Breslau.  After his
return, he wrote in  the Museum criticum,
or Cambridge Classical Researches (Pt 2), 
138                       BLOMFIELD—BLOOD.
remarks on  German  literature, which
were received  with approbation.   The
university of Cambridge appointed him
one of the preachers at St. Mary's church.
He began a translation  of Schneider's
Griechisch-deutsches Lexicon, but did not
live  to  finish it.   Matthise's  Griechische
Grammatik, however, he  translated com-
pletely.  His translation was pubUshed by
his brother, and every where well receiv-
ed. He was in Switzerland, in 1816, with
his pupil, a young  nobleman, and, in his
haste to return to Cambridge,  on hearing
that he was appointed proctor for the fol-
lowing year, the fatigue of rapid travelling
occasioned a sickness, of which he  died
in October, 1816.
  Blondel ; a confidential servant and in-
structor in music of Richard Cceur de Lion
of England, about the year 1190.  While
his master was the prisoner of the duke of
Austria, B. went  through Palestine, and
all parts of Germany, in search of  him.
He understood, it is said,  that a prisoner
of rank  was confined in  Lowenstein cas-
tle, and hastened  thither.   Placing him-
self under a  grated tower, he began to
sing one  of  the French lays which he
had  formerly composed  for  Richard.
Scarcely had he finished the first stanza,
when a voice from the  dungeon  of the
tower responded.  Thus he  discovered
his king, delivered him, and  gained the
name of the faithful Blondel.  Gretry's
fine  opera, Richard  Cceur de  Lion, is
founded on this anecdote.
  Blood, Thomas (commonly called colo-
nel Blood), was a disbanded officer of Oli-
ver Cromwell. He took part in the revolu-
tion in various ways, and made an attempt
to steal  the crown and regalia from  the
Tower,  in which  he  almost  succeeded.
Being, however, taken, he confessed his
purpose, without showing the least  fear
of death.  Charles II, from idle curiosity,
went to see him,  and B. persuaded  the
monarch to  pardon him.  Charles even
bestowed an estate with £500 a year upon
him, whilst poor Edwards, the keeper of
the jewel-office, who valiantly defended
the crown, and was wounded, lived for-
gotten.
  Blood is the red fluid contained in the
blood-vessels (q. v.) of animal bodies. It
is  found in  the mammalia, in birds, in
reptiles  and in fishes.  In the  last  two
classes of animals, the temperature of the
blood is much lower than in the former,
for which  reason they are distinguished
by the name cold-blooded, while the others
are termed warm-blooded animals.  Insects
and worms, instead of red blood, have a
juice of a whitish color, which is called
white blood.   In the blood, two different
substances are contained, which are sepa-
rated by coagulation—the serum, a fluid
like the white of on egg, and a thick mat-
ter, to which the red color properly be-
longs, which is much heavier than the
former, and  is  called  the  coagulum.
The last may be divided again into two
different parts—into  the cruor, or that
part of the  blood which  is intrinsically
red, and coagulable, and lymph orflbrine, to
which the coagulation of the blood must
be ascribed.  The flbrine, in young ani-
mals, is much whiter than in older and
stronger ones.   The blood  of the latter
contains much more  azote  than  that of
the former.   If the nourishment  of ani-
mals is changed, we also  find an altera-
tion in the constituent parts of their blood.
It is also changed  by diseases.  In ani-
mals that are hunted to death, or killed
by lightning, the blood does not coagulate.
The blood of birds is more highly col-
ored, and warmer, than that of viviparous
animals, and coagulates more easily in the
air.  That of reptiles and fishes coagulates
with  difficulty.   Aided  by magnifying
glasses  of a strong  power, one may  ob-
serve, in examining the blood of the living
animal, or in blood which is newly drawn,
that it consists, especially  the cruor, of
little globular bubbles, the globules of the
blood, as they are called, the diameter of
which amounts to about the three hun-
dredth part of a line.  In blood that has
been drawn  some time, although this time
may be very short, they are not to be dis-
covered.  They are the effect of the life
that pervades the blood. The more robust
and  healthy an animal  is, the more glob-
ules are perceived.   They show, as it
were, the transition from  the formless
liquid to the original  form of the first
organized  matter.   The  blood is of the
greatest importance to the life  of an ani-
mal, and may be considered as the source
of life.   As long as the body is living,
the blood is in perpetual motion.   When
it is taken out of the body, a remarkable
change soon follows: it begins to  coagu-
late, and then undergoes, first an acetous,
and, after a few days, a putrid  fermenta-
tion.  All  the blood takes its origin from
the chyle, and  deposits, by degrees, the
nourishing particles requisite to the pres-
ervation and growth of the body, by a
mu ltitude of vessels adapted thereto. This
is done while it is driven  from the heart
into the remotest parts of the  body, and
from thence back. The circulation of the
blood is, as it were, the principle and first 
BLOOD—BLOOD-VESSELS.
139
condition of Ufe. With it, except in cases
of fainting, suffocation, &c, life ceases.
The heart, the centre of the circulation
of the blood,  has  a two-fold motion, of
contraction and dilatation, which constant-
ly alternate.  With the heart two kinds of
vessels are connected—the arteries and the
veins.  (See Blood-Vessels.)  The circula-
tion of the blood proceeds with an aston-
ishing rapidity:  did it flow at an equal
rate in a straight line, it would run, in the
space of one  minute, through 149 feet.
This  swiftness, however, exists  only in
the larger vessels near the heart; the far-
ther the blood recedes from the heart, the
slower its motion becomes.  In a grown-
up  person, in  good health, we may reck-
on  the  mass of blood at 24—30 pounds.
  Blood- Vessels  are the  tubes or vessels
in which the  blood circulates.  They are
divided into  two  classes,—arteries and
veins,—which have two  points of union
or connexion—the  first in the heart, from
which they both originate, and the other
in  the  minute vessels or  net-work,  in
which they terminate.  The arteries arise
from the heart, and convey the blood to
all parts of the body; the veins return it
to  the  heart.   The arteries distribute
throughout the body a pure, red blood,
for  the  purposes of nourishment; while
the veins return to  the heart a dark-col-
ored blood, more or less loaded with im-
purities, and deprived of some of its valu-
able properties.  But this is not returned
again to the body in the same state.  For
the heart is wisely divided into two por-
tions  or sides, a right and  left,  one of
which receives the  impure blood from
the veins,  and sends it to the  lungs to be
defecated  and freshly supplied with oxy-
gen or vital air, while the other receives
the pure red  blood  from the lungs, and
circulates it anew  through  the  arteries.
The arteries  arise  from the left ventricle
of the heart by one large trunk, nearly an
inch in diameter, which is gradually sub-
divided into smaller ones, as it proceeds
towards the limbs, till they terminate, at
last, in vessels so  small as to be almost
invisible, and  in a fine net-work  of cells,
extending through the whole body,  in
which the blood is  poured out, and nutri-
tion or  the increase of  the  body takes
place, and from which  the residue is
token up  by  the small veins, to be re-
turned to  the heart  The  arteries and
veins are widely different in their struct-
ure, as well as their uses.   The  fonner
are  composed of very strong, firm, elastic
coats  or membranes, which are  four in
number.  The external covering and the
internal lining of the  arteries,  although
belonging to different classes of mem-
branes, are both very thin and soft.   The
second coat is very thick, tough and elas-
tic, being that which chiefly gives  their
peculiar appearance to the arteries.   The
third is formed of fibres, apparently mus-
cular, arranged  in circular rings around
the tube of the vessels.   It is well known
that the pulse of the heart is felt in the
arteries  alone, although, in the  bleeding
of a vein, we sometimes  see the  blood
start as if in unison with  the beating of
the heart. The pulse is produced by the
wave or stream of blood, which is driven
by  the heart through  the arteries, dis-
tending and slightly elevating them, after
which they instantly contract from  their
elasticity, and thus force the blood into
the smaller vessels. The pulse varies in
its character with  the general state of the
health.  (See Pulse.)  When arteries are
cut or wounded,  the firmness  of  then-
coats prevents their  closing,  and hence
arises the fatal nature of wounds of large
vessels, which will remain  open till  they
are tied  up,  or till death is produced.—
The veins commence in small  capillary
tubes in every part of the  body,  and, by
their gradual union,  form  large trunks.
till  they  at last terminate  in two  (one
ascending from the  lower parts of the
body, the other descending from the head
and arms), which pour their contents into
the heart.  Their  structure is much less
firm than that of the  arteries.   They
are very thin and soft, consisting  of only
two thin coats or membranes.  The inner,
or lining membrane, is frequently doubled
into  folds, forming valves, which nearly
close the  passage  in the veins, and  thus
give very material support to the blood
as it is moving up in them towards the
heart.  These valves are not found in the
veins of the  bowels, the  lungs or the
head. The number of the veins is much
greater than that of the  arteries, an artery
being often accompanied  by  two veins.
They differ also in this, that, while the
arteries are deeply seated in the flesh, to
guard them  from  injury,  the veins are
very frequently superficial, and covered
only by the  skin.  The veins, it is  well
known, are the vessels commonly opened
in blood-letting, although, in cases which
render it necessary, a  small  artery  is
sometimes divided.—There are two por-
tions of the venous system, which do not
correspond exactly with our general de-
scription ; these are the veins of the bow-
els and of the lungs.   The former circu-
late their blood through the Uver before 
140
BLOOD-VESSELS—BLOWPIPE.
it returns to the heart, and the latter, the
pulmonary veins, convey red blood from
the lungs to the heart.   (For an  account
of the circulation of the blood, see Heart.)
It should also  be mentioned, that  the
large vein, which brings back the blood
from the lower part of the body, receives
from  the  lymphatic and lacteal vessels
the chyle from the bowels, which sup-
plies the waste of the blood  and nourishes
the body, and the serous and other watery
fluids which are taken up by the absorb-
ents in all parts of the body.
  Bloodhound ; a variety of the com-
mon dog, called C. sagax by Linnaeus,
chien  courant by Buffon, remarkable  for
the perfection of its sense of smell.  Ow-
ing to this circumstance,  these  hounds
were formerly much employed in pursu-
ing criminals escaped from justice, or in
tracing  out  robbers  or enemies, whose
course was inevitably discovered, when
once  the  bloodhound was placed upon
their  trail.  In the  border countiy of
Scotland,  they were formerly much em-
ployed  for such uses, but  at present the
race has become almost forgotten.   In
the  countries  of  South  America, the
Spaniards employed  fierce dogs to aid
tin in in conquering the Indians, but it is
not certain that the dogs, trained by them
to this  cruel business, belonged to the
present variety.  All  the varieties  of
hound,  however, have  much  sagacity,
and  most of  the  larger   and  stronger
breeds have great acuteness of scent, and
might, without much difficulty, be trained
to act as bloodhounds.
   Bloomfield, Robert, an  English poet,
born  at Honington, in 1766, the son of a
tailor,  learned  to  read  at the village
school,  and, in 1781, was  sent  to leam
the trade of a shoemaker with his brother
in London.  The visiting of several places
of worship,  of a debating society,  of
Covent garden  theatre, and the  reading
of sundry books, called forth his faculties,
and  he became, almost unconsciously, a
poet.   Hearing him  one  day repeat a
song which  he had composed, his aston-
ished brother prevailed on him to offer it
to the London Magazine, and it was ac-
cepted.  The  poem was called the Milk
Maid.  A second,  the Sailor's  Return,
Ukewise found a place in that journal.
Thomson's Seasons, the Paradise  Lost,
and other works of this kind,  now  be-
came the subjects of his constant study.
In the  country, where he resided for a
short time,  in  1786,  he first conceived
the idea of his poem, the  Farmer's Boy,
which is characterized by a spirit of rural
simpUcity and innocence.  Itwaswntten,
under the most unfavorable circumstan-
ces, by  a journeyman shoemaker in a
garret.  It was first shown to Capel Lofft,
in 1798, who was so  much  pleased with
it, that,  in conjunction with  his  friend
Hill, he had it printed in  1800.  It de-
rives  its principal value from its  strict
adherence  to  truth  and nature.   The
writer, in  fact, has drawn  his own por-
trait in  the Farmer's Boy, and described
the scenes and events which  he actually
witnessed.  Hence there is a degree of
spirit and originaUty in the poem, which
stamps it with the impress of  genius, and
renders  it very pleasing.  The versifica-
tion is  uncommonly smooth and correct.
B.  also wrote  a volume  entitled  Wild
Flowers, containing a collection of poeti-
cal tales, which was  well  received, and
was not unworthy of his reputation.  His
latest production was  Hazelwood Hall, a
village  drama, which appeared  shortly
before his  decease, a work  of not much
merit.   B. was patronised by the duke of
Grafton, who bestowed on  him a  small
annuity, and made him an under-sealer
in the seal-office.   This situation he was
forced to resign on account  of ill health-
He then worked again at his  trade, as a
shoemaker, and employed himself in con-
structing ^Eoliaii harps.  Engaging in the
book trade, he became a bankrupt, and, in
the latter part  of  his  life, was afflicted
with  violent  head-aches,   and became
nearly blind.   He was gradually reduced
to such  a state of nervous irritability, that
apprehensions were  entertained  of  his
becoming insane.  These fears were ter-
minated bv his death, which  took  place
in August,  1823.
  Blowing-Machines ; the larger instru-
ments or contrivances for producing a
strong and continued cun-ent of air, such
as is necessary in smelting-houses, in large
smitheries, &c.  (See Bellows.)
   Blowpipe is the name applied  to an
instrument, by means of which the flame
of a candle or lamp is made  to produce
an intense heat, capable of being applied
to a variety of useful purposes.  Its most
simple  form is that of a  tapering tube,
about eight inches in length,  and curved
nearly at right angles, within  two  inches
of its smaller extremity.   At its larger
end, it  is nearly a quarter of an inch in
diameter, and at the smaller, only large
enough to admit a common-sized pin.  It
is made of brass or white iron.  In using
it, the flame of a lamp or candle is turned
aside from its vertical to a  horizontal di-
rection, by a stream of air impelled upon 
BLOWPlPE-aLUCHER.
141
it, either from the lungs, or from a double
beUows.  The flame, in its new direction,
assumes a conical shape, and consists of
two parts, visible by their different colors;
the outer  being  reddish-brown, and the
inner blue.  The heat at the apex of the
inner cone is the most intense, and  is
equal to that produced  in  the best fur-
naces.   It is employed  by the jeweller
and goldsmith in the operation of solder-
ing,  and by other artists  who  fabricate
small objects  in metal;  by  the glass-
blower in malting thermometers, barome-
ters and other glass instruments; by the
enameller, and, indeed, wherever it is re-
quired to subject a small body to a strong
heat—The common blowpipe has under-
gone a variety of improvements in the
hands of the chemist, to whose researches
it has  proved  an  excellent  auxiliary.
These consist, principally, in  providing
its stem with a bowl,  or enlargement,
where the moisture of the breath may be
condensed and detained;  in  fitting the
smaller end so as to receive a variety of
little caps, or hollow cones, with orifices
of different diameters, so as to be changed
according as a flame is required more or
less strong; and  in rendering the instru-
ment more portable, by constructing it of
several  pieces, capable  of being takea
apart and  packed up in the space of a
pencil-case.  With  a part, or with the
whole  of these improvements, it is used
by the chemist to make an examination
of any doubtful mineral substance, artifi-
cial alloy, or pharmaceutical preparation
This he is capable of conducting  (whh
the aid of a charcoal support, and,  occt-
sionolly, a little  borax)  in a  moment's
time, and with the loss of the smallest
imaginable quantity of the substance. To
the  analytical chemist its use  is indis-
pensable for enabling him to discover the
principal ingredients in a substance, pre-
vious to his subsequent operations for as-
certaining their relative proportion.  (For
an account of the blowpipe  in which
oxygen and  hydrogen  gases are  em-
ployed, see Compound Blowpipe.)
   Blucher, Lebrecht von, or the family
of Grossen-Rensow, in  Mecklenburg,
prince of Wahlstadt, field-marshal of the
king of Prussia, and knight of almost all
the distinguished miUtary  orders of Eu-
rope, was bora at Rostock, Dec. 16,1742.
When he was 14 years of age, his father,
a captain of horse in the service of Hesse-
Cassel, sent him  to the island  of Riigen.
Here the sight of some Swedish hussars
excited in  him the desire of becoming a
soldier.  His parents and relations in vain
attempted to dissuade him from diis step;
he took service in a Swedish regiment of
hussars in the capacity of a cornet.  His
first campaign was against the Prussians,
and he was taken prisoner by the same
regiment of hussars, which he afterwards
commanded with so  much  honor. The
commander of this regiment, colonel von
Belling, induced  him to enter  into the
Prussian  service.   An  exchange  was
agreed  upon with the Swedes,  and B.
was made Ueutenant in BelUng's regi-
ment.   Discontented at the promotion of
other officers  over his  head, he  left the
army, devoted himself to agriculture, and,
by  industry and  prudence, acquired an
estate.  After  the death of Frederic  II,
he  became a major in his former regi-
ment,  which he  commanded with  dis-
tinction on the Rhine, in 1793 and 1794.
Orchies, Luxemburg, Frankenstein, Op-
penheim (Jan. 16, 1794), Kirweiler and
Edesheim in the  Palatinate, bear witness
to his achievements.  After the battle of
Leystadt,  Sept 18, 1794, which  added
greatly to his reputation, he was appoint-
ed major-general of the army of observa-
tion stationed on the Lower Rhine.  In
1802, in the name of the king of Prussia,
he took possession of Erfurt and Muehl-
hausen.  Oct. 14, 1806, he fought at the
battle of Auerstadt   He  then, with the
greater  part of the cavalry, followed the
retreat of the prince of Hohenlohe to
Pomerania.  His  squadron,  moving  on
the  left  of the main army, became sepa-
rated from it so far that a junction was
 Eossible only by means of forced marches,
 oth in the day time and at night.  The
latter, B. thought himself not authorized
to venture upon, and the prince  of Ho-
henlohe was forced to surrender at Prenz-
lau.  B., cut off from Stettin by this ac-
cident, threw himself into Mecklenburg,
where  he  joined,  at Dambeck, the corps
of the  duke of Weimar, commanded by
prince William of Brunswick-Oels.  All
the  troops, however, were too much fa-
tigued to undertake any enterprise.  Hav-
ing  the  grand-duke  of  Berg on  his left
flank, the prince  of  Ponte-corvo in his
front, and marshal Soult on his right, B.
was obliged  to  take  post  behind the
Trave, in  order  to  draw off the three
great divisions of the French forces from
the  Oder as long  as possible.  With  this
view, he entered into the territory of the
free city of Lfibeck.   This city was soon
stormed by the overwhelming power of
the  French.   Although B.,  with some
troops, escaped out of the city, yet, being
deprived of all means of defending him- 
142
BLUCHER.
self,  or continuing his flight,  he was
obUged to surrender at Ratkau, on the
6th of November.  This, however,  he
would not do, until permission had been
granted him to add the following clause
to the instrument, that  " the capitulation
was offered to him by the prince of Ponte-
corvo, and that he accepted it only from
want of ammunition, provisions and for-
age."  B. was now a prisoner of war; but
he was soon exchanged for the  French
general Victor, and, immediately after his
arrival at Konigsberg, placed at the head
of a corps, and sent by  water to  Swedish
Pomerania, to share in the  defence of
Stralsund, and to assist  the efforts of the
Swedes.   After  the peace of Tilsit, he
labored in the department of war at Ko-
nigsberg  and BerUn.  He  then  received
the chief miUtary command  in  Pomera-
nia, but,  at the instigation of Napoleon,
was  afterwards,  with  several other dis-
tinguished men, dismissed  from the ser-
vice.  In the  campaign of 1812, when
the  Prussians assisted  the French, he
took no part; but no sooner did Prussia
rise against  her  oppressors, than  B., al-
ready 70 years old, engaged in the cause
with all his former activity.  He was ap-
pointed commander in chief of the Prus-
sians and the Russian corps under general
Winzingerode, which, at a later period,
was separated from him.  His heroism in
the battle of Liitzen (May 2, 1813) was
rewarded by the emperor Alexander with
the order* of St.  George. The battles of
Bautzen and Haynau, those on the Katz-
bach (see Wahlstadt) and at Leipsic, added
to his glory. On the  Katzbach, B.  de-
feated the army of marshal Macdonald,
and deUvered aU Silesia.  His army now
received the name of the SUesian.  Napo-
leon himself endeavored hi vain  to check
the old general of hussars, as he called
him.  Oct  3, B. crossed  the  Elbe at
Wartenburg. This bold step compelled
the great Bohemian army under Schwart-
zenberg,  and the  northern army under
the crown-prince of Sweden, to act with
more spirit.  The great battle of Leipsic
approached.  Oct. 16,  he  gained a sig-
nal advantage over marshal Marmont, at
Mockern, forcing his way as far as  the
suburbs of Leipsic.  On the 18th, in con-
nexion with the crown-prince of Sweden,
he  contributed greatly to  the defeat of
the enemy, and, on the 19th, his troops
made the first assault upon Leipsic.   His
promptitude and pecuUar manner of at-
tacking had already, in  the beginning of
the campaign, procured him from  the
Russians the name of  marshal Forward.
From that time it  became his name of
honor throughout the whole German ter-
ritory.   Jan. 1, 1814, with the Silesian
army, which now consisted of two Prus-
sian, two Russian, one Hessian  and one
mixed  corps, he crossed the Rhine at
Kaub,  took  possession of Nancy on the
17th, gained, Feb, 1, the battle of La Ro-
thiere,  and pushed forward towards Paris.
His detached corps were, however, check-
ed by Napoleon; yet B., though with a
great loss,  effected his  retreat  towards
Chalons.  He then crossed the Aisne at
Soissons, joined  the northern army, ob-
tained, March 9, a victory over Napoleon
at Laon, and, in connexion with Schwart-
zenberg, at the close of the month, pressed
forward to Paris.  The day of Montmar-
tre  crowned this campaign, and, March
31, B. entered the capital of France.  His
king,  in remembrance  of  the victory
which  he had  gained near Wahlstadt,
made him  prince of Wahlstadt, with a
suitable income.  In England,  whither
he foUowed the alUed monarchs, in  June
of the same year, he was received by the
people with enthusiasm.   The university
of Oxford conferred on him the degree
of doctor of laws.   He afterwards  Uved
on his estates in Silesia till 1815, when
the chief command was again committed
to him, and he led his army  into the
Netherlands.  June 15, Napoleon threw
himself upon him, and B.,  on the  16th,
ivas defeated at Ligny.  In this engage-
ment, his horse was kiUed, and he was
Ihrown under his body.  After  this un-
fortunate,  yet honorable day, the  true
greatness of the field-marshal  and  his
irmy became apparent.   In the battle of
Lie 18th, B. arrived, at the most decisive
moment, upon  the ground,  and, taking
Napoleon in the rear and flank, gained,
in union with Wellington, the great vic-
tory of Belle Affiance, or Waterloo, (q. v.)
He  refused the proffered armistice, and
forced  Paris to surrender; opposing, with
energy, on this  second  conquest of the
capital, the system of forbearance  prac-
tised on the  former occasion.  As he was
already a knight of all the military orders
of Europe, the king of Prussia, to reward
his  new services,  created a new  order
expressly for him.  After the peace of
Paris,  the prince retired to his estates.
Aug. 26,1819, the anniversary of the bat-
tle on the Katzbach, the hero received at
Rostock, his native place, an honor which
is seldom bestowed in  Germany.   The
whole body  of his countrymen, the in-
habitants of Mecklenburg, united to erect
a monument commemorating his  glory, 
BLUCHER—BLUEBIRD.
143
executed by Schadow in Berlin.   B. died,
after a short illness, at his estate of Krib-
lowitz, in Silesia, Sept. 12, 1819, aged
almost 77 years.   June 18, 1826, a statue
of bronze was erected  to him, in Berlin,
12 feet  in  height, modelled  by Rauch,
and cast by Le Quine and Reisinger.—
B. was  not  so eminent for  miUtary sci-
ence as for abiUty in action.  He himself
often acknowledged  this,  when he was
praising the merits of Gneisenau, to whose
assistance he was greatly indebted.  In
battle, however, he had the eye of a  fal-
con.  His simplicity, good-nature and
bravery endeared him to his  soldiers,
who  loved  him Uke a father.   His  ad-
dresses  and proclamations  are distin-
guished for their brevity, precision and
simplicity, forming a striking contrast to
the high-sounding French proclamations
of the time.  (See  Bluecher's Lebensbe-
schreibung (Bliicher's Life), by Varnhagen
von Ense, Berlin, 1827.)
   Blue.  (See Color.)
   Blue, Prussian; a coloring matter, of a
pure dark-blue color, a duU fracture, ino-
dorous  and insipid,  insoluble in water,
spirits of wine or ether; it is soluble only
by the action of corrosive alkalies.  The
discovery of this color was accidentally
made, in 1704, by Diesbach, a  manufac-
turer of colors, who, with the intention of
precipitating the  coloring matter  from
cochineal, with which alum and vitriol of
iron were dissolved,  procured some alkali
from the  laboratory  of Dippel.   This al-
kali,  which Dippel had been heating with
some animal matter, produced a beautiful
blue precipitate.   Dippel, discovering that
the  alkali had  acquired  this power  of
forming a blue precipitate of iron on ac-
count of its mixture  with animal oil, soon
learned to prepare  it  in a  more simple
way, since all animal substances,  and
even all vegetables, which contain much
azote, will give  the same result. It is,
however, necessary, that all  the materials
should  be perfectly pure, since the purifi-
cation would be too  expensive.   The ad-
dition of alum  gives  to  this blue more
body and a brighter color.  This blue
substance is a prussiate of iron (52 parts
red oxyde of iron, and 48 of prussic acid).
The alumine added amounts to from 20 to
80 per cent; but the greater the quantity,
the poorer is the quality of the blue.
   Bluebird (sylvia sialis, Wils.: saxico-
la sialis, Bonaparte).  This beautiful Uttle
bird is one of the earliest messengers of
spring, and is occasionally seen as  early
as the month of February,  in  mild  sea-
sons.  The middle of March is the ordi-
nary time of mating, when the male blue-
bird is observed to be extremely devoted
to the female, and shows the ardor of his
attachment by every attention in his pow-
er, by the rapturous animation of his song,
and the angry jealousy with which he re-
pels the approaches of a rival.   The nest
of the former year  is then repaired, and
the female begins to lay her eggs, usuaUy
five, sometimes six, of a pale-blue color.
Two or three broods are raised in a sea-
son, the youngest of which are taken care
of by the male, while the mother is still
attending to the nest.  The principal food
of this species is insects, especiaUy large
beetles, and other hard-wing or coleopte-
rous bugs, to be found about dead or rot-
ting trees: berries, persimmon, and  the
seeds of various plants, are also discovered
in their stomachs.  Large and numerous
tape-worms infest their bowels,  and they
are also exceedingly annoyed by vermin
externally.  Wilson says, that, in this re-
spect, they are more plagued  than any
other bird, except the  woodcock.  The
spring and summer song of the bluebird
is a soft and often-repeated warble: in
the month of October,  his song changes
to  a single  plaintive  note.  About  the
middle of November, the bluebirds disap-
pear, though, occasionally, one  or two
may be seen  during the winter, in mUd
weather.  The  manners of this species
are so  gentle, and they render so much
service by the destruction of insects, that
they are always regarded with  favor by
the  farmer.  The male bluebird is six
inches and three quarters long,  with very
full and  broad wings.  All the upper
parts are of a rich sky-blue, with purple
reflections: the bill  and legs are black.
The female is easily known by  the duller
cast of the plumage on the back, and by
the red on the breast not  descending so
low  as in the male, and  being much
fainter.  The bluebird inhabits  the whole
of the U. States, also Mexico, Brazil, Gui-
ana  and  the Bahama islands.—WUson
states that " nothing is more common, in
 Pennsylvania, than to see large flocks of
these birds, in the spring and fall, passing
at  considerable heights hi  the  air, from
the south  in the  former,  and from the
north in the latter season.   I have seen,
in the month of October, about an hour
 after sunrise, 10 or  15 of them descend
 from a great height, and settle on the top
 of a tall, detached tree, appearing, from
 their silence and sedateness, to be stran-
 gers and fatigued.   After a pause of a few
 minutes, they began to dress and arrange
 their plumage, and continued so employ- 
144
BLUEBIRD—BOA.
 ed for 10 or 15 minutes more ; then, on a
 few warning notes being given, perhaps
 by the leader of the party, the whole  re-
 mounted to a  vast height, steering in a
 direct line for the south-west."
   Blue Ridge ; one of the ranges of  the
 Alleghany  or  Appalachian  mountains,
 which extends from the river Hudson to
 Georgia, and intersects the state  of Vir-
 ginia from N. E. to S. W., dividing it into
 two parts, nearly equal.  The great lime-
 stone valley extends  along the  N.  W.
 side of this range.  The most elevated
 summits  of the  Blue  Ridge are  the
 peaks of Otter, in Bedford county, Vir-
 ginia.
   Blue-Stocking ;  a pedantic  female ;
 one who sacrifices the characteristic  ex-
 cellences of her sex  to learning.  The
 origin of this name, in England, is thus
 given by Boswell, in his Life of Johnson:
 "About this time (1780), it was much  the
 fashion for several ladies to have evening
 assemblies, where the fair sex might par-
 ticipate in conversation with Uterary and
 ingenious men, animated with a desire to
 please.   These  societies  were denomi-
 nated blue-stocking clubs, the  origin  of
 which name was as follows:—One of the
 most eminent members of these societies
 was Mr.  Stillingfleet, who always wore
 blue stockings.   Such was the excellence
 of his conversation, that his absence was
 felt as a great loss, and it used to be said,
 ' We can do nothing  without the blue
 stockings;' and thus, by degrees, the title
 was established."—In  Germany,  blue-
 docking (blau-strumpfe) signifies a traitor,
 a slanderer,  an  infamous lover, &c, and
 the term, in  tiiat country, is said to be de-
 rived from  the  blue stockings  formerly
 worn by procurers.
   Blumauer, Aloysius, a poet, and famous
 parodist, born at Steyr, in Austria, above the
 Ens, in 1755, studied in his native city, en-
 tered (1772) into the order of the Jesuits in
 Vienna, Uved tliere privately, after the abo-
 lition of his order, till he was appointed
 censor, which place he resigned in 1793,
 and took the establishment of the booksel-
 ler Graeffer, in which he had been concern-
 ed since 1786.  He died in 1798.   By his
 iEneid travestied, he distinguished himself
 as a burlesque poet  It is a poetical farce,
 rich in burlesque wit and droll contrasts.
 These quaUties are also to be found  in
several others  of his numerous  poems.
 Some of them are  fuU  of animation, and
are written  in a pure, manly style.   At
times, his wit is vulgar, his language in-
 correct and prosaic.  A collection  of his
 works appeared at Leipsic, 1801—3,8 vols.
   Blumenbach, John Frederic, doctor.
 This profound  naturalist is, at present,
 one of the  first ornaments of the univer-
 sity at Gottingen, where he has  lectured,
 for 50 years, with  unabated industry, on
 natural  history,  physiology, osteology,
 comparative anatomy, pathology, mid the
 history of medical literature, to very nu-
 merous audiences.  He  has written on
 almost all these  sciences with acuteness,
 method and precision.   His works  bear
 the  stamp  of his pecuUar genius,  and
 some  of  them  have been several times
 published.  His masterly, but, at present,
 somewhat antiquated Handbuch der Na-
 turgeschichte (Compendium  of Natural
 History) was published, in 1825, for the
 11th time.  Of his Handbuch der Phyrio-
 logie (Compendium of Physiology) there
 is an English translation, the  second  edi-
 tion of which (1818) is also remarkable
 for being  the  first book ever printed by
 mechanical  power.—B. was born at Go-
 tha, May 11, 1752; studied in  Jena and
 Gottingen, where he received his degree
 of doctor of medicine, Sept. 19, 1775.   In
 1776, he  was appointed director of the
 cabinet of natural curiosities belonging to
 the university, and professor extraordina-
 ry of  medicine, and, in  1778, ordinary
 professor  of the same.  In 1783, he un-
 dertook a  literary journey to Switzerland,
 and, at a later period, one to  England,
 where the attentions of the celebrated sir
 Joseph Banks were particularly servicea-
 ble to him.  He possesses an  excellent
 collection  of books and engravings illus-
 trating natural histoiy, and numerous spe-
 cimens of natural curiosities.  The collec-
 tion  of skulls is not, perhaps, equalled in
 the world.   On this collection is founded
 his Collectio  Craniorum divers,  gent, il-
 lustr.,  with  engravings,  of  which  six
 numbers (Gottingen,  1790—1820) have
 appeared.   Schnader called a newly-dis-
 covered species of plants after his name,
 Blumenbachia insignis.  The 50th anni-
 versary of his professorship in the univer-
 sity of Gottingen was celebrated  Feb. 26,
 1826.
  Boa ; the  name  of a genus of reptiles
 belonging to  Cuvier's tribe  of serpents
 proper ; having  the tympanic bone or
pedicle of the lower jaw movable, which
is  itself almost always  suspended to an-
other bone analogous to the mastoid, at-
tached to the skull by muscles and  liga-
ments, which contribute  to its  mobiUty.
The branches of this jaw are not united,
and those  of the upper jaw are attached
to the intermaxillary bone only by liga-
ments, so that these animals can dUatc 
BOA.
145
the mouth sufficiently to swallow bodies
larger  than themselves.  Their  palatic
arches partake of this mobility.  In the
species of this tribe not possessed  of ven-
om, the branches of the upper and lower
jaw, throughout their  entire length, as
well as the palate bones, are  armed with
pointed, recurved, solid and  permanent
teeth,  forming four nearly equal  rows
above, and two below.—The genus boa
comprises all those serpents which, in ad-
dition  to the  preceding characters, have
the scuta on the under part of the  tail sin-
gle ; a hook on each side of the vent; the
tail prehensile ;  the body compressed and
largest in the middle, and  with  small
scales, at least on the posterior part of the
head.—The  species  properly belonging
to this genus are among  the largest  of
 the serpent  tribe, some of  them,  when
 full grown,  being 30 and even  40 feet
 long.   Though destitute of liuigs and ven-
 om, nature has endowed them with a de-
 gree  of muscular power which  renders
 them  tenible.  Happily, they are not com-
 mon  in  situations much  frequented by
 mankind,  but are chiefly found in the
 vast marshy regions of Guiana, and other
 hot parts of the American continent. Al-
 though sufficiently  active when fasting
 or hungry,  they become very  sluggish
 and inert after having gorged their prey,
 at which  time  they are most Ccisily de-
 stroyed.   In order to obtain their food, the
 boa of largest size attach themselves to
 the trunk or branches cf a tree, in a situa-
 tion  likely to be visited by  quadrupeds
 for the sake of pasture or water. There
 the serpent swings  about in the  air, as  if
 a branch or pendent  of the tree, until
 some luckless animal  approaches; then,
 suddenly relinquishing its position, swift
 as lightning he seizes the victim, and coils
 his body spirally round its throat and chest,
 until, after a few ineffectual cries and strug-
 gles, the animal is suffocated, and expires.
 In producing this effect, the serpent does
 not merely wreathe itself around its prey,
 but places fold over fold, as  if desirous of
 adding as much weight as possible to the
 muscular effort:  these  folds   are then
 gradually tightened with enormous force,
 and speedily induce death.  The animals
 thus  destroyed by the larger boa  are deer,
 dogs, and even  bullocks.  The prey  is
 then  prepared for being swallowed, which
 the creature  accomplishes by pushing the
 limbs into the most  convenient  position,
 and then covering the surface with a glu-
 tinous  saliva.  The  reptile commences
 the act of deglutition by taking  the muz-
 zle of the prey into its mouth,  which is
    VOL. II.           13
capable of vast extension ; and, by a suc-
cession of wonderful muscular contrac-
tions, the rest  of the body  is graduaUy
drawn in,  with a  steady and  regular
motion.  As  the mass advances in  the
gullet, the  parts through which  it  has
passed resume their fonner dimensions,
though its immediate  situation is always
betrayed by  external protuberance.—As
already mentioned, the species of boa are
pecuUar to the hot parts of South Ameri-
ca, though nothing is more common than
the error of confounding the great  ser-
pents of India, Africa,   &c, with  the
proper boa.   According to the researches
of Cuvier, all the boa, at present well de-
termined, are natives of the new  conti-
nent.  The great serpents of the old con-
tinent belong to the genus python (Daud.),
and will be treated of under that title.  It
is nevertheless true, that Pliny has spoken
of the huge serpents of India, and after-
wards of large serpents of Italy,  which
were called boa, thus named from the cir-
cumstance of their being at first fed with
cow's milk.—Among the most celebrated
species is the boa constrictor  (L.),  distin-
guished  by  a large chain, formed alter-
nately of large, blackish,  irregular hexag-
onal spots, with pale, oval spots, notch-
ed at their  two extremities, along the
back. This  is the largest species,  and  is
usually confounded, by casual observers,
with the python Tigris of the old  world.
The B.  cenchris (L.), and the B. scytale, el
musina (L.), attain to nearly an equal size
 with the constrictor (from 20 to  30 feet
 long), and are all natives of the toreid and
 marshy regions of America. The other spe-
 cies are  of smaller  size, and some  do not
 much exceed that of the largest common
 snakes.  We cannot reflect upon the natural
 history of these great reptiles, without be-
 ing struck with tlieir peculiar adaptation to
 the situations in which they are common-
 ly most abundant.   In regions bordering
 on  great rivers, which, like the Orinoco,
 &c, annually inundate vast tracts of coun-
 try,  these  serpents  live  securely  among
 the trees with which the soil is covered,
 and are capable of enduring very pro-
 tracted  hunger without  much  apparent
 suffering or diminution of vigor.  Nox
 ious as  such districts are to human life,
 they teem with a gigantic and luxuriant
 vegetation, and are the favorite haunts of
 numerous animals, preyed upon, and, to a
 certain degree, restricted in their increase,
 by the  boa.   As their prey come within
 tlieir reach, they require  no deadly appa-
 ratus of poison to  produce their destruc-
 tion, since nature has endowed them with 
146
BOA—BOCCACCIO.
 muscularstrength surpassingthat of almost
 every other creature, in proportion to their
 size.  Once fairly involved in the crushing
 folds of the constrictor, the strength of the
 strongest man  would not  prove  of  the
 slightest avail;  indeed, from the ease with
 which larger and more powerful crea-
 tures are put to death by these serpents,
 it is evident that any number of unarmed
 men would act  very unwisely to provoke
 a combat with enemies endowed with
 powers of such  dreadful energy.
  Boadicea ; queen of the Iceni, in Brit-
 ain, during the reign of Nero.  Having
 been  treated in  die  most  ignominious
 manner by the Romans, she headed a
 general insurrection of the Britons, at-
 tacked the Roman settlements, reduced
 London to ashes, and put to the sword all
 strangers, to the number of 70,000.  Sue-
 tonius, the Roman general, defeated her
 in a decisive battle, and B., rather than
 fall into the hands of her enemies, put an
 end to her own  life by poison.
  Boat ; properly, a vessel  propelled by
 oars.  In a more extensive sense, the word
 is applied to other small vessels,  which
 differ in construction and name, according
 to the services in which they are  em-
 ployed.  Thus  they are light or strong,
 sharp or flat-bottomed, open  or decked,
 &c, according  as they are  intended  for
 swiftness or burden, deep or shallow wa-
 ter, &c.—The barge is a  long, light, nar-
 row boat, employed in harbors, but unfit
 for sea.—The long-boat is the largest boat
 belonging to a  ship, generally furnished
 with sails, and  is employed for cruising
 short distances,  bringing heavy articles on
 board, &c.—The launch  is more flat-bot-
 tomed  than  the long-boat, which  it has
 generally superseded.—The pinnace re-
 sembles a barge, but is smaller.—The
 cutters  of a ship  are broader and deeper
 than the barge  or pinnace, and are em-
 ployed in carrying light  articles, passen-
 gers, &c. on  board.—Yawls  are used for
 similar purposes,  and are smaller than
 cutters.—A gig is a long, narrow boat,
 used for expedition, and rowed with six
 or eight oars.—The jolly-boat is smaller
than a yawl, and  is used for going on
shore.—A merchant-ship seldom has more
than two boats, a long-boat and a yawl.—
A wherry is a Ught, sharp boat, used in a
river or harbor, for transporting passen-
gers.—A punt  is a flat-bottomed boat,
chiefly used for one person to go on shore
from small vessels.—A  skiff is a small
boat, like a yawl, used for passing rivers.
—A Moses is a flat-bottomed boat, used in
the West Indies for canying hogsheads
 from the shore to ships in the roads.—A
felucca  is a large passage-boat, used in
 the  Meditenanean, with  from 10 to 16
 banks of  oars.—Scow  is an  American
 word, signifying a large, flat-bottomed,
 heavy boat, about 30 feet long, and 12
 wide.  In some  parts of the U. States, it
 is called a gondola. (See  Canoe, Galley,
 &c.)
   Boccaccio,  Giovanni, whose  name
 alone, as Mazzuchelli justly says, is equiv-
 alent to a thousand encomiums, was the
 son of a Florentine merchant  His family
 came, originally, from Certaldo, a village
 in Tuscany ; whence he gives  himself
 the appellation da Certaldo.  He was the
 offspring of an illicit connexion which his
 father formed, while on a visit of busi-
 ness, at Paris, and was  born in that city,
 1313.  He early removed to Florence,
 where he began  his studies, and, even in
 childhood, discovered a decided fondness
 for poetry.  In his 10th year, his father
 put him under the care of a merchant, to
 be educated in  his business.  With him
 he returned to Paris, and remained there
 six years, without acquiring any fondness
 for his profession.  His residence of eight
 years at  Naples  was equally ineffectual
 to this purpose.  Instead of attending to
 trade, he formed  the closest intimacy with
 several  learned  men of  Florence and
 Naples, who had been drawn  thither by
 that patron of the arts, king Robert. There
 is nothing to prove that  he shared in the
 favor of the prince; but he enjoyed ili«
particular affection of a natural daughter
of his, for whom he composed many pieces
in prose and verse, and to whom he often
pays homage under the name of Fiam-
metta.  Placed in fortunate circumstances,
with a lively and cheerful  disposition, of
a soft and  pleasing address, the favored
lover of a  king's daughter, he regarded
with  more aversion  than ever  the sta-
tion  for which  he  had been intended.
The fondness of the princess for poetiy;
his own intimacy with scientific and lite-
rary men; the tomb of Virgil, near Naples,
which he used to visit in his walks;  the
presence of Petrarch, who was received
with the highest distinction at the court
of Naples, and who went from that city
to Rome, to be crowned with the poetic
laurel; the intimacy which had arisen  be-
tween the two poets;—all operated power-
fully on  B., to  strengthen  and fix  his
natural inclination for poetry and litera-
ture.  After living two years at Florence
with his father, he returned to  Naples,
where he was very graciously received
by the queen Joanna.   It is thought that 
BOCCACCIO.
147
it was no less to gratify the young queen,
than  his Fiammetta, that  he wrote his
Decameron, which has raised him to the
rank of the first Italian prose-writer.  On
the death of his father, becoming master
of his own inclinations,  he  settled  at
Florence, where his  first work was a de-
scription of the plague, which forms the
opening of the  Decameron.   He  after-
wards wrote the life of Dante.  He was
chosen to inform Petrarch, at  Padua, of
his recall from exile,  and the restoration
of the property belonging to his father,
who had died during his  absence.  The
friendship  of these  two men of genius
continued for life. When B., some years
after, had  exhausted his  fortune in the
purchase of costly books, and in expen-
sive pleasures, he found in  Petrarch the
most generous assistance :  the wise coun-
sels of his friend were now as beneficial
to his morals as they had  been to his
writings; in fact, to him he was indebted
for the change which took place in his
character.  A dying  Carthusian had per-
suaded  him to  renounce  all the pleas-
ures of the world: Petrarch softened his
determination, and brought him back to
that  proper medium which  marks the
truly wise man.   New troubles in Flor-
ence  induced him to retire to  Certaldo,
where he owned  a small  estate.  There
he prosecuted his labors  in tranquillity.
He  now  composed several  historical
works in  Latin.  Among these is the
first  modern work which  contains, in  a
collected form, the mythological notices,
which are scattered in the  writings of the
ancient*.  He was well versed in Greek,
and  had,  at his  own  expense, brought
Leontius  Pilatus of Thessalonica  from
Venice  to Florence,  and maintained him
three years at his house, in order to learn
Greek of him, and to have his assistance
in explaining the poems of Homer, and
translating them into Latin.  He was the
first  who procured  copies of the  Iliad
and  Odyssey  from  Greece, at his own
expense, and  spared neither  cost  nor
trouble  to obtain good  Greek and Latin
manuscripts. At the same time, he used
aU  his  influence to  excite his  contem-
poraries  to learn the  Greek language,
and substitute the study of the  ancients
for that  of the scholastic philosophy.
The  reputation  which he had gained
twice procured  for  him important mis-
sions  to pope Urban  V.  Having fulfilled
these, he returned to Certaldo, and re-
sumed his studies. Here he was attacked
by a severe and lingering disorder, which
finally left him in a  state  of debility as
painful as the disease  itself.   Upon  his
recovery, he was charged with a difficult,
but very flattering trust.  Dante had al-
ways been the object of his highest ad-
miration.  The  Florentines,  who  had
once persecuted and banished that illus-
trious poet, but now  did  justice to  his
merits, had  resolved, by way of atone-
ment to his memory, to establish a pubUc
professorship for the  illustration  of  his
poems, which were every day becoming
more obscure, as the distance  of the time
when they were written became greater.
This  new  professorship was conferred
upon B., who devoted himself to it with
so much ardor, that his health could never
be firmly reestablished.  This received a
further shock from the  death of his  in-
structor and dearest friend  Petrarch.  He
survived him not much more than a year,
and died at Certaldo, Dec. 21,1375.  On
his tomb was  placed this inscription, com-
posed by himself:
  Hac sub mole jacent cineres ac ossa Joannis,
  Mens sedet ante Deum meritis ornata laborum,
  Mortalis vitse. Genitor Bocchaccius illi,
  Patria Certaldum, studium fuit alma poesis.

—B. appears, in all his works, to be a poet
of the richest invention, the  most lively
imagination, and the tenderest  and warm-
est feeUng.   In  prose,  he is a perfect
master of  composition.  His Decameron,
which contains a collection of a hundred
tales, partly borrowed from the Provencal
poets, is the work on which his  fame
chiefly rests.  In  this he painted, as it
were, on  one vast canvas, men of all
ranks, characters and ages, and incidents
of eveiy kind, the  most  extravagant and
comical, as well as the most touching and
tragic;  and  improved the  Italian lan-
guage  to  a   degree of exceUence never
before attained.   Of his other works, we
will mention  only the following: La Te-
seide, the first attempt towards an Italian
epic, and written in ottava rima, of which
B. is considered the inventor; Amorosa
Visione, a  long poem in terza rima (the
initial letters  of which form two sonnets
and a canzonet, in praise of the princess
Maria,  his mistress, whom he here ven-
tures to address by her proper name J; 11
FUostrato, a romantic poem in ottava rvma;
Nimfale Fiesolano, in the same measure;
Rime; (most of his sonnets, canzonets,
and other amatory poems, he consigned
to the  flames, after reading  the Italian
poems of Petrarch ; those  which remain
appear to have been preserved against his
will); 11 Filocopo, owero amorosa Fatica, a
hunting romance ;  L'amorosa Fiammet-
ta, a charming tale; L'Urbano  (thought 
148
BOCCACCIO—BOCHICA.
by some to be spurious); L'Ameto ossia
Nimfale d'Ameto, a  mixed composition,
partly in prose, and partly in verse; 11
Corbaccio, ossia Laberinto cVAmare, a pun-
gent satire against  a lady who  had of-
fended him; and, finally,  Origine, vita e
Costumi di Dante Alighieri, a work inter-
esting for the characteristic traits which
it records; and his Commento sopra  la
Commedia di  Dante, which, however, is
earned no farther than the  17th canto of
Dante's Hell.   His  Latin  works  are, De
Genealogia Deorum, Libri xv; De Mon-
tium, Lacuum, Sylvarum, Fluviorum, Stag-
norum et Marium Nominibus Liber; De
Caribus  Virorum et Feminarum illustrium,
Libri iv; De claris Mulieribus ; and Ec-
loga.—A new critical edition of  the De-
cameron,  with a historical literary com-
mentary, and the life of B., was published
at Paris, 1823, in 5 vols.—In  the ducal
Ubrary at Florence,  among the manu-
scripts collected by the celebrated Mag-
liabecchi, prof. Ciampi lately discovered
a memorandum-book of B., containing a
record of his studies, and  some  curious
circumstances relating to  himself and  a
number  of his distinguished contempora-
ries. It has been published.
  Boccage, Marie Anne du, a celebrated
French  poetess, member  of the acade-
mies of  Rome, Bologna, Padua, Lyons
and  Rouen, was born in  Rouen, 1710,
died 1802.  She was educated in Paris,
in a nunnery, where  she discovered  a
love of poetiy.  She became the wife of
a receiver of taxes  in  Dieppe, who  died
soon after  the  marriage,  leaving her  a
youthful widow. She concealed her tal-
ents, however, till the charms of youth
were past,  and first  published  her  pro-
ductions in 1746.  The first was  a poem
on the mutual influence of the fine arts and
sciences.  This gained the prize from the
academy of Rouen.   She next attempted
an imitation of Paradise Lost, in  six can-
tos ; then, of the Death of Abel; next, a
tragedy, the Amazons ;  and a poem in
10 cantos, called the Columbiad.  Madame
du Boccage was praised by her  contem-
poraries with an extravagance, for which
only her sex and the charms of  her per-
son  can  account.   Forma Venus, arte
Minerva, was the motto of her admirers,
among whom were Voltaire, Fontenelle,
and Clairaut  She was always surrounded
by distinguished men, and extolled in a
multitude of poems, which, if collected,
would fill several volumes.  There is a
great deal  of entertaining matter in the
letters which she wrote on her travels in
England and Holland, and in which one
may plainly see the impression she made
upon  her contemporaries.   Her works
have been translated into EngUsh, Span-
ish, German and Italian.
  Boccherini, Luigi, a celebrated com-
poser of instrumental music, was born in
1740, at  Lucca, and received  from the
abbot Vanucci, music-master of the arch-
bishop, his first instruction in music  and
on the violoncello.   He further improved
himself in the art at Rome, and afterwards
went, with Filippo Manfredi, his friend
and countryman, to Spain, where he was
loaded with honors and presents by the
king, and was appointed by the academy
to furnish nine pieces of his composition
annually, which he continued  to do till
his death, in 1805.  The king of Prussia,
Frederic William  II,  who  was a great
lover of the violoncello, and admired B.'s
compositions, settled upon him  a consid-
erable pension, on condition of his send-
ing him yearly some of his  quartets and
quintets.  The compositions which B.
has published himself consist of sympho-
nies, sextets, quintets, quatuors, trios, du-
ets and sonatas for the violin, violoncello
and piano-forte.  He never composed any
thing for the theatre, and of church com-
positions we find but one, his Stabat Ma-
ter.  The adagios  of B. excited the admi-
ration of the connoisseurs, and the despair
of the composers of his time.  He may
be regarded as the precursor of Haydn, as
he was the first who wrote  instrumental
quartets, of which all  the parts ore obli-
gato, and  determined the true  character
of this species of music.  His melodies
are more highly esteemed in France and
Spain than in Germany.
  Bocchetta ; a narrow pass of the Apen-
nines, leading from Lombardy to Genoa.
It is defended by three  fortifications.  In
the Austrian war of succession (1746 and
1747), and in the  French war, towards
the end  of the 18th century, it was the
scene of several important events.
  Bochica was the founder of the Indian
empire of Cundinamarca.   The inhabit-
ants of the valley of Bogota had a tradi-
tion,  at the  period of the Spanish con-
quest, that, in remote times, their ancestors,
the Muisca Indians, Uved without agricul-
ture,  laws or religion.  At  length  there
appeared  among  them a venerable old
man, of foreign aspect, dress  and manners,
who taught them the arts of life, and re-
claimed them from their savage condition.
He was known by three names—Bochi-
ca, Nemqueteba and Zuhe.   Accompany-
ing him was a beautiful female, named
Chia, who, unlike the wife of Manco Ca- 
BOCHICA—BODIN.                         149
pac, prided herself in thwarting her hus-
band s beneficent purposes.  Making the
river of Bogota to overflow by magic, she
deluged the whole valley, and reduced
the inhabitants to the necessity of  fleeing
to the mountains for  safety.   Hereupon
Bochica  expeUed  the malevolent Chia
from the earth, and she became the moon.
Then, tearing asunder the rocks  of Te-
quendama, he gave the waters an  exit by
these celebrated falls, and freed the valley
of Bogota from inundation.  Introducing
the worship of the sun, and persuading the
inhabitants to cultivate the soil, he laid the
foundations of a state, which held the same
rank, in this part of America, which Peru
did farther to the south.   The institutions
of this people very strikingly resembled
those of the incas, and  perhaps had a
common origin;  but, at the time of the
conquest of South America, they  consti-
tuted a distinct people, and possessed a dis-
tinct religion. (See Bogota, Cundinamarca,
Muisca; Compagnoni, America, xix, 107).
  Bockh, Augustus, one of the greatest
philologists of our times, was bom at
Carlsruhe, 1785,  studied at Halle, and, in
1811, became professor of classical litera-
ture at BerUn.  Two works will immor-
talize the name of B. with the students
of ancient literature ;  first, his edition of
Pindar, which he announced to the pub-
lic by his Specimen Emendationum  in Pin-
dari Carmina (1810), and by Observationes
Critica in Pindari, Prim., Olymp., Carm.
(1811; the large  Leipsic edition,  1811—
1821, is in 3 vols., 4to.).   A new arrange-
ment of the Pindaric measures is here
proposed, founded on  deep and extensive
researches into the music of the Greeks.
Even those who entirely reject the  hy-
potheses of this  philologist cannot  but
acknowledge his erudition,  and  admire
his acuteness.  The other work, to which
we have alluded, is on the Political Econ-
omy  of  the Athenians (4 books,  Berlin,
1817, 2  vols.).   No work has hitherto
appeared in Germany, which throws so
much light on the political life and public
administration of any ancient people, as
this of B.  It has furnished  new means
for illustrating the Attic orators and histo-
rians.  B. has added to this work 21 in-
scriptions.   Of late years, he has  been
busily engaged in preparing a work under
the patronage of the Berlin academy of
science, of which he is a member, called
Corpus Inscriptionum Gracarum, of which
the first volume appeared, in 1825, at Ber-
lin, in folio.  The smaller writings of this
author relate chiefly to  Plato  (of whose
works he  promised, some time since, to
                  13*
give a new edition), and to the Platonic
philosophers.
  Bode, John Elert, an astronomer, born
at Hamburg, 1747, early discovered an
inclination for mathematical science, in
which his  father, and, afterwards, the
famous J. G. Busch, instructed  him.  He
gave the first public proof of his knowl-
edge by a short work on the solar eclipse
of Aug. 5, 1766.  The approbation which
this received  encouraged him  to greater
labors, and in 1768 appeared  his Intro-
duction to the Knowledge of the Starry
Heavens (9th ed. 1822); a famihar trea-
tise on astronomy, which has done much
for the extension of correct views upon
the subject, and continues to do so, as it
has kept  pace, in its successive editions,
with  the progress of the science.  In
1772, the Berlin academy chose him their
astronomer, and, ten years afterwards, he
was made a  member of that  institution.
His best works  are his Astronomical Al-
manac (commencing 1774)—a work indis-
pensable  to  every astronomer; and  his
large Celestial  Atlas  (Himmelsatlas), in
20 sheets, in which the industrious editor
has  given a catalogue of 17,240 stars
(12,000 more than in any former charts).
B. was released in 1825, at his own wish,
from his duties in the academy of science,
and the observatoiy in BerUn.   His place
was filled by professor Encke, formerly
astronomer at Gotha.
  Bodin, Jean, a poUtical writer of the
16th centuiy, was born in 1530 or 1529,
at Angers; studied law at Toulouse; de-
livered lectures on  jurisprudence there,
and afterwards went to Paris and practis-
ed.  Being unsuccessful in his profession,
he turned his talents to literary labors;
was invited  by Henry III to his court;
and  afterwards travelled with  the king's
brother Francis,  duke of Alen^on and
Anjou, to Flanders and England, where
he  had the  gratification of hearing lec-
tures, in Cambridge,  on his work De la
Republique  (originally written in French,
but afterwards  translated, by B.  himself,
into Latin).   When  the duke died, he
went to Laon,  married there, obtained a
judicial office, and was sent, by the third
estate in  Vermandois, 1576, as  deputy, to
the estates of Blois.   Here he defended
the rights of the people, and the liberty of
conscience.  IBs conduct made  him many
enemies at court.  He also prevailed on
the city of Laon to declare itself '"t the
league, in 1589, representing to the i eople,
that the rising of so many towns an.l par-
liaments, in  favor of the duke of Guise,
was not a rebelhon, but rather a powerful 
150
BODIN—BODONI.
poUtical revolution.  He afterwards, how-
ever, submitted to Henry IV.  He died,
1596, at Laon, of the plague.  His great
work is that entitled De la Republique, in
which  he gave the  first complete essay
towards a scientific treatise  on  politics,
and, guided by his own experience, sought
to strike out a middle course between the
advocates of  monarchy  and  democracy.
His Demonomanie, and his Theatrum Uni-
versa  Natura (Lyons, 1596), show how
superstition and learning were united in
his character;  but the charge of atheism,
which is grounded particularly on a work
entitled Hcptaplomeron, proceeds  from die
religious indifference which was noticed
in him by his  contemporaries.
  Bodleian Library.  (See Libraries.)
  Bodley, sir Thomas;  the  founder  of
the  Bodleian  library at Oxford.  He was
bom at Exeter, in  1544,  and educated
partly at Geneva, whither his parents, who
were Protestants, had retired in the reign
of queen  Mary.  On the accession  of
Elizabeth, they returned home, and  he
completed his studies at 31agdalen col-
lege, Oxford.   He afterwards became a
fellow of Merton college, and read lectures
on the Greek  language and  philosophy.
He  went to the continent in 1576, and
spent  four  years in travelling.   He was
afterwards employed in various embassies
to Denmark, Germany, France and  Hol-
land.   In 1597, he  returned home, and
dedicated the  remainder  of his life to the
reestablishment and  augmentation of the
public library at Oxford. This he accom-
plished, procuring books and manuscripts
himself, both  at home and abroad, at a
great  expense, and, by his influence and
persuasions, inducing his friends and ac-
quaintance to assist in his undertaking.
Sir Robert Cotton,  sir Henry Savile, and
Thomas Allen, the  mathematician, were
among the principal contributors on tliis
occasion.  The library was so much aug-
mented,  that   sir Thomas B., who was
knighted at the accession of James I, was
induced to erect an  additional structure
for the reception of the increasing quan-
tity of valuable books and manuscripts.
He died in London, 1612,and was interred
in the chapel of Merton college, in the
university.   He bequeathed nearly the
whole of his  property to the support and
augmentation  of the  Ubraiy, which has
been  so  much enriched by subsequent
benefactions, that it is, at present, one  of
the most magnificent institutions of the
kind in Europe.  (See Reliquia Bodlei-
ana, London, 1703.)
  Bodmer, John Jacob; a celebrated Ger-
man poet and scholar, bom at Greifenseo
near Zurich, July  19, 1698.   Although
he produced nothing remarkable  of his
own in poetry, lie helped to open the way
for the new German literature in this de-
partment.  I le was the antagonist of Gott-
sched, in Leipsic, who aspired  to  be the
literary dictator of the day, and had em-
braced the  French theory of taste, while
B. inclined  to the English.   He has the
honor of having had Klopstock and Wie-
land among his scholars.  B. was, for a
long time, professor of histoiy in Switzer-
land. He was a copious and indefatigable
writer, entertained many incorrect views,
but was  of service, as  we  have  already
said, to the German literature, which was
then  in  a low and  barbarous state.  He
died at Zurich,  1783.
  Bodoni, Giambatista, superintendent of
the  royal press at Parma, chief printer of
his  Catholic majesty, member  of several
academies of Italy, knight of several high
orders, was born,  1740, at Saluzzo, in
Piedmont, where his  father  owned a
printing establishment  He began, while
yet a boy, to employ himself in engraving
on wood.  His  labors meeting with suc-
cess, he went, in 1758, to Rome, and was
made compositor for the press  of the
Propaganda. By the advice of the su-
penntendent, he made himself acquainted
with the Oriental languages, in order to
qualify himself for the  kind of printing
required  in  them.   He thereby enabled
himself to be of great service to this press
by  restoring and putting in place the
types of several Oriental alphabets, which
had fallen into disorder.  The infant don
Ferdinand, about 1766,  had, with a view
of diffusing knowledge, established a print-
ing-house in Parma, after the  model of
those in Paris, Madrid and Turin.   B. was
placed at the head of this establishment,
which he made the first of the kind in
Europe,  and gained the reputation of
having far surpassed all the splendid and
beautiful productions of his predecessors
in the art.   The beauty of his type, ink
and  paper, as well as the whole manage-
ment of the technical part of  the work,
leaves nothing  for us to wish;  but the
intrinsic value of his editions  is  seldom
equal to their  outward splendor.  His
Homer is a truly admirable and magnifi-
cent work ;  indeed, his Greek letters are
the most perfect imitations that  have been
attempted,  in modem  times,  of Greek
manuscript  His  splendid editions of
Greek, Latin, Italian and French  classics
are  highlv  prized.   He died  at  Padua,
Nov. 29, 1813. 
BOEHME—B030TIA.                        151
   Boece.  (See Boethius.)
   Boehme, or Boehm, Jacob; one of the
most renowned mystics of modern times;
born, in 1575, at Altseidenberg, a village
in Upper Lusatia, near Gorlitz; was the
son  of poor peasants; remained to his
10th  year without  instruction, and em-
ployed in tending cattle.  The beautiful
and sublime objects of nature kindled his
imagination,  and inspired   him with  a
profound  piety.  Raised by contempla-
tion  above his circumstances, and undis-
turbed by exterior influences, a strong
sense of the  spiritual, particularly of the
mysterious, was awakened  in him, and
he saw  in ail the workings of nature
upon his mind a revelation of God, and
even imagined himself favored by divine
inspirations.   The  education  which he
received at  school, though  very  imper-
fect, consisting only of writing, spelling
and  reading the Bible, supplied new food
for the excited mind of the boy.  He be-
came afterwards a  shoemaker; and this
sedentary life seems to have strengthened
his contemplative habits.  He was  much
interested in the disputes which prevailed
on the subject  of Cryptccalvinism in
Saxony ; though he never took a personal
part  in sectarian controversies, and knew
no higher delight than to elevate himself,
undisturbed, to the  contemplation of the
infinite.  B. withdrew himself more and
more from the world.  If we take into
view his retirement,  his  piety, his rich
and lively imagination, his imperfect ed-
ucation, his philosophical desire for truth,
together with his abundance of ideas, and
his delusion in considering many of those
ideas as immediate communications of
the  Deity,  we  have the  sources  of his
doctrine  and  his works.   His writings
are very unequal, but always display a
profound feeling,  and must be judged
with indulgence for the causes just men-
tioned.   In  1594, B. became a master
shoemaker in Gorlitz, married, and con-
tinued a shoemaker during his life.  Sev-
eral visions and raptures, that is, moments
of strong enthusiasm,  led him to take the
pen.   His first work  appeared in 1616,
and was called Aurora.   It contains his
revelations on God,  man  and  nature.
This gave rise to  a prosecution against
him; but he was acquitted, and  called
upon, from all sides, to continue writing.
He did not,  however, resume his pen
until 1619.   One of his most important
works is, Description of the three Princi-
ples  of the  Divine Being.   His works
contain  profound and lofty ideas, min-
gled  with many absurd and  confused no-
tions.  He died, after several prosecutions
and acquittals, in 1624.   Abraham von
Frankenberg (who died in 1652), his bi-
ographer and admirer, has also published
and explained his writings. The first col-
lection of them was made in Holland, in
1675, by Henry Betke ; a more complete
one, in 1682, by Gichtel (10 vols., Amster-
dam); from whom the followers of B., a
religious sect  highly valued for their si-
lent, virtuous  and benevolent  Ufe, have
received the name Gichtelians.  Another
edition appeared in Amsterdam, in 1730,
under the title Theologia revelata,  2 vols.
4to.;  the most complete, in 6 vols.  In
England, also, B.'s writings have found
many admirers.  William Law published
an  English translation of them, 2 vols.,
4to.  A sect, taking their  name from B.,
was likewise  formed in  England, and
in 1697, Jane  Leade, an enthusiastic ad-
mirer of his, established a particular soci-
ety for the explanation  of his  writings,
imder the name of the Philadelphists.  It
is said that such a society still  exists.
John  Pordage, an EngUsh physician, is
also well known as a commentator on B.
  BffiOTiA ; a countiy of ancient Greece,
bounded N. by Phocis and the country
of the Opuntian  Locrians; E. by the
Euripus, or strait of Euboea; S. by Attica
and Megaris;  and W. by  the Alcyonian
sea and Phocis ; but the boundaries were
not always the same.  In the north, it is
mountainous  and cold,  and the  air  is
pure and healthy,  but the soil is less fer-
tile than that of the other portion, which,
however, is infested by unhealthy vapors.
The mountainous  part in the north was
called, in earlier  times, Aonia.  Among
its mountains  are several remarkable in
history and mythology:  Helicon (now
Sagara), the mountain of the Sphinx, the
Taiunessus,  Libethrus and Petrachus.—
The chief occupation of the inhabitants
was agriculture and the raising of cattle.
It was first occupied by Pelasgian  tribes.
In the time of Bceotus (son of Itonus and
grandson of Amphictyon, from whom  it
is said to have derived its name), these
were subject to the Hellenists.  It  was
divided into small states, until  Cadmus
the Phoenician founded the government
of Thebes.  In later times, all Greece
worshipped the Hercules of Thebes.  Af-
ter the death of the Theban king Xanthus,
most of the cities of B. formed a kind of
repubhc, of which Thebes  was the chief
city. Epaminondas and Pelopidas raised
Thebes, for a short time, to the rank of
the most powerful states of Greece. In
B. are several  celebrated ancient battle- 
152
BCEOTIA—BOERHAAVE.
fields, the former glory of which has been
increased by late events, namely, Platsea
(now the village Kokla), where Pausanias
and  Aristides established the liberty of
Greece by their victory over  the 300,000
Persians under Mardonius; Leuctra (now
the village Parapogia), where Epaminon-
das checked the ambitious Spartans; Co-
ronea, where the  Spartan  Agesilaus de-
feated the Thebans ; and Chaeronea (now
Capranu),  where  Philip  founded  the
Macedonian greatness on  the  ruins of
Grecian liberty.  Near Tanagra, die birth-
place of Corinna  (q. v.), the best wine
was  produced; here, also,  cocks  were
bred, of remarkable  size,  beauty  and
courage, with which the  Grecian cities,
passionately fond  of cock-fighting, were
supplied.  Refinement and cultivation of
mind never made such progress in B. as
in Attica.  The Boeotians were vigorous,
but slow and heavy.  Several  Thebans,
however, were worthy disciples of Soc-
rates, and   Epaminondas  distinguished
himself as  much in philosophy as by his
military talents.  The people were  par-
ticularly fond of music,  and excelled in
it.  They had also some great poets  and
artists.  Hesiod, Pindar, the  poetess Co-
rinna, and Plutarch, were Boeotians.
  Boerhaave, Hermann, one of the most
celebrated physicians of the 18th centuiy,
was  bora, Dec. 13, 1668,  at Woorhout,
near Leyden, and received from his fa-
ther  a Uberal education.  Before he was
11 years old, he was well acquainted
with Latin and Greek.  An obstinate ul-
cer on his  left thigh, which, for 7 years,
resisted all  medical remedies,  was the
means of directing  his thoughts and in-
clinations to the study of medicine.  In
1682, he was sent  to Leyden  to study
theology.  Here he gave, at the age of
20, the first  public proof of his learning
and eloquence.  He pronounced an  aca-
demic oration  before  Gronovius, with
whom he studied Greek, Qua probatur,
bene  inteUectam a Cicerone, et confutatam
esse  Sententiam Epicuri de summo Bono
(Leyden, 1690, 4to.)  In this, B. attacked
the doctrine of Spinoza  with  so much
talent, that the city rewarded him with a
gold medal.  In  1689, he received the
degree of doctor of philosophy, and main-
tained an inaugural dissertation, De Dis-
tinctione Mentis a Corpore (Leyden, 1690).
He now commenced, at the age of 22,
the study of medicine.  Drelincourt was
his first and only teacher.  From him he
received  only a little instruction ; and it is
worthy of notice,  that B. learned by his
own solitary study  a science on which
he was afterwards to  exert so importan
an influence.  He first studied anatomy,
but rather in the works then in vogue, of
Vesale, Bartholin, &c,  than  in the dis-
secting room.   He was present, indeed,
at most  of the dissections  of Nuck, but
still  the  want of a practical study of
anatomy  is evident in  all  his  writings.
The influence  which he had in improving
anatomy, notwithstanding the defect we
have noticed, must be traced  to the close
connexion  of this mechanical  science
with physiology and  medicine.   As, in
these last,  he made  use of  mechanical
illustrations, his  example  induced  the
anatomists  to apply themselves to an ac-
curate study of the forms of  the organs,
as may be  noticed in  all the anatomists
of that time—Santorini, Morgagni,  Val-
salva, Winslow, Albinus, &c.   After this
preliminary study, which, in  fact, is the
groundwork of medical science, B. read
all the works, ancient  and modern, on
medicine, in the  order of time,  proceed-
ing from his contemporaries to Hippocra-
tes, with whose superior excellence and
correct method he was forcibly struck in
this course of reading.  He also studied
botany and chemistry, and, although still
preparing himself for  the clerical profes-
sion, was made, in 1693, doctor of medi-
cine  at  Harderwick.    His dissertation
was De Utilitate explorandorum Excremen-
torum in Mgris, ut Signorum.  After his
return  to  Leyden, some  doubts being
raised as to his orthodoxy,  he finally de-
termined to follow the  profession of med-
icine.  In 1701, the university of Leyden
chose him,  on  the death of Drelincourt,
to deliver lectures on the theory of medi-
cine ; on  which occasion, he pronounced
his dissertation De commendando  Studio
Hippocratico.   In this, with an enthusi-
asm excited by the study of Hippocrates,
he demonstrates the  correctness  of the
method  puisued by that great man, and
establishes  its exclusive superiority:  it
had been well if he  himself had never
deviated from it  B. now began to devel-
ope those great and peculiar excellences,
which  make  him a  pattern  to all  who
undertake the  office of instruction.  Pu-
pils  crowded  from all  quarters  to  hear
him.  In 1703, he delivered another dis-
sertation, De Usu Ratiocinii mechaniri in
Medidna, Leyden, 1703.  In this, he be-
gan  to  deviate  from  the  Hippocratic
method, and to introduce the first prin-
ciples of a  defective system, to which his
eminent talents gave afterwards exclusive
currency.  In 1709,  the  university of
Leyden was at length enabled to reward 
BOERHAAVE—BOETHIUS.
153
him for his services, by appointing him
professor of medicine and botany in Hot-
ton's place.  It is remarkable, that, on this
occasion, he delivered a dissertation, Qua
repurgata Medidna facUis asseritur Sim-
plicitas, which deserves to be placed by
die side of those in which he recom-
mends the study of Hippocrates.  In this
dissertation, he is  for carrying back the
science to its original simpUcity—to obser-
vation and experience—quite contrary to
the spirit which  guided his  own system.
The course of instruction,  to which B.
was now devoted, induced  him to  pub-
lish two works,  on which his fame still
rests, viz. Institutiones  Mcdica  in  Usus
annua  Exercitationis domesticos;   and
Aphorismi  de  cognoscendis  et  curandis
Morbis in Usum Doctrina Medidna.  In
the former, which is a model of compre-
hensive erudition  and clear method, he
unfolds his system in its full extent: in
the latter, he  undertakes the classification
of diseases, and  discourses separately on
their causes, nature and treatment  The
professorship of botany, which  he also
filled, contributed  no less to his reputa-
tion.  He rendered essential services to
botany by his two catalogues of plants in
the garden of Leyden, the number of
which he had very much increased.   We
are indebted  to  him  for the description
and delineation of several new plants,
and the introduction  of some new spe-
cies.  In 1714, he was made rector of the
university, and, at the close of his term of
office, delivered an  oration, De  compa-
rando  certo in Physicis, one of his best
pieces.   At the end of this year, he took
Bidloo's place in  the office  of practical
instruction, in which he was employed
more than  10 years.  Anticipating the
great advantages of cUnical institutions,
and wishing to unite practice with theory,
he  opened an hospital, where he lectured
to his pupils twice a week, on the history
of  the diseases before them, confining
himself to the particular phenomena in
each case presented  to  their observation.
Busily occupied as he  already was, the
university conferred on him, at the death
of Lemort, the professorship of chemistry,
which science he had taught since  1703.
On this occasion he dehvered his disser-
tation  De  Chemia suos  Errores expur-
gante.  Although the relations which B.
supposes to exist between chemistry and
medicine  are  ill-founded,  he  deserves
credit for rendering the science intelligi-
ble and familiar in his excellent works on
this subject.  His Elements of Chemistry
is,  perhaps,  his finest  production, and,
notwithstanding the  entire  revolution
which has taken place in this branch of
science, is still highly valuable.  His ex-
periments are remarkable for their accu-
racy.  The part which treats of organic
bodies is  exceedingly good for that pe-
riod.  So extensive  a  sphere of action
gained for B. a fame  that few learned
men have  enjoyed.  People came from
all  parts of Europe to ask his advice.
His property amounted, at his death,  to
2,000,000  florins—a  very extraordinary
fortune  for a  man of  his profession  in
Europe.   Peter the Great visited him on
his travels, and a Chinese mandarin wrote
to him with the address, " To Boerhaave,
the celebrated physician in Europe."  In
1722, an attack of the gout, accompanied
with  a  stroke of  the apoplexy, obliged
him to  remit  his active pursuits.  New
returns of his disorder, in 1727 and 1729,
compelled him to resign the professorships
of chemistry  and botany, which he had
held for 20 years.  In 1730, he was again
appointed rector, and, at the close of his
term, delivered a celebrated address, De
Honore, Medici Sermtule, perhaps the best
of all those essays, in  which he represents
the physician as the servant of nature,
whose activity he  is to awaken and di-
rect.  In this he returned, in some meas-
ure, to  the  principles  of Hippocrates,
from which, indeed, he had never depart-
ed far in practice.  In 1738, his disorder
returned with increased  violence, and,
after a few months, put an end to his life,
at the age  of 70.  The  city erected a
monument to  him in St. Peter's church,
with his favorite motto upon it—Simplex
sigillum veri.
  Boethius, Anicius Manlius Torquatus
Severinus, a  man  celebrated for his vir-
tues, services, honors and tragical end,
was born about 470 A. D., in Rome or
Milan, of a rich, ancient and respectable
family;  was educated in Rome, in a man-
ner well calculated to  develope his ex-
traordinary abilities;  afterwards went  to
Athens, which was  still  the  centre of
taste and science, and studied philosophy
under Proclus and others.  Returning to
Rome, he was graciously received  by
Theodoric, king of the  Ostrogoths, then
master of Italy, loaded with marks of fa-
vor and esteem, and soon  raised to the
first offices in the empire.  He exerted
the best influence  on the administration
of this monarch, so that the dominion of
the Goths promoted the welfare and hap-
piness of the people who were subject to
them.  He was long the oracle  of his
sovereign and the idol  of the peoipk. 
154
BOETHIUS—BOGOTA.
The highest honors were thought inade-
quate to reward his virtues and  services.
But Theodoric, as he grew  old, became
irritable, jealous, and distrustful of those
about him.  The Goths now indulged in
all sorts  of oppression  and extortion,
while B. exerted  himself in vain to re-
strain them. He had already made  ma-
ny enemies by his  strict integrity  and
vigilant justice.  These at last succeeded
in prejudicing  the king against  him, and
rendering him  suspicious of B.  The op-
position  of B. to their unjust measures
was  construed into a rebellious temper,
and he was even accused of a treasonable
correspondence with the court  of Con-
stantinople.  He was arrested, imprisoned
and  executed,  A. D. 524 or 526.—While
he was at the helm of state, he found rec-
reation from his toilsome occupations in
the study of the sciences, and devoted a
part  of his leisure to the construction of
mathematical  and musical instruments,
some of which he sent to Clothaire, king
of France.  He was also much  given to
the study of the  old Greek philosophers
and  mathematicians,  and wrote  Latin
t ranslations of several of them.  His most
celebrated work is that composed during
his imprisonment, On the Consolations of
Philosophy. It is written in prose  and
verse  intermixed.  The  elevation  of
thought, the nobleness of feeling, the  ease
and  distinctness of style, which  it exhib-
its, make this composition, short as it is,
far  superior to any other of  the  age.
(Principal edition,  Basil,  1570, foUo. A
modem one of some value appeared at
Glasgow, 1751, 4to.)
  Boettcher, John Frederic, the invent-
or of the Dresden porcelain, born Feb. 5,
1682, at Schleiz, in the Voigtland,  in  his
15th year went from Magdeburg, where
he received his early education, to Berlin,
as apprentice  of an apothecary.  There
he devoted his  nights to the art of making
gold.  His want of sleep rendered him so
stupid, during  the day, as to  draw upon
him  many reproofs, till, at last, he acquir-
ed some consideration by showing little
pieces of gold, which he pretended to
have made. Oct 1,1701, he changed, as
it is  said, in the presence of several  wit-
nesses, 18 pieces of silver into fine gold.
As this was much talked of, the king de-
sired to see him, and B., believing he was
to be arrested as an adept (q. v.), fled to
Saxony.   The king of Saxony gave him
large sums of money, which he wasted, stiU
keeping  his employer in suspense.  His
majesty finally became very impatient to
see the gold.  B., therefore,  in  1704, at-
tempted to escape, but was overtaken, and,
with the assistance of one Tschirnhausen,
who had discovered a kind of porcelain, in-
vented an improved composition of it, with
which he hoped to appease the king, who
spent immense sums in China ware.  In
1705, B. invented the Dresden porcelain,
which has since  become so famous.  He
made use of a clay found  in the vicin-
ity  of Meissen.   The  king,  upon  this,
made him a baron of the empire and di-
rector of the new manufactory of porce-
lain  in  Meissen, though he was  often
treated as a prisoner, lest the secret should
be betrayed. He  was finally  removed
from  his dignity, on account of his im-
moral life, and died, March 13,1719, in
the greatest poverty, so that  he did  not
even leave sufficient to pay the expenses
of his funeral.
  Bogdanowitsch,  Hippolyt  Federo-
witsch, the  Russian  Anacreon, was bom
in 1743, at Perewolotschna, in White
Russia.  His father was a physician.  He
was designed for an engineer; went, for
the purpose of studying engineering, to
Moscow, in 1754, and entered an  acad-
emy there;  but the  sight of a splendid
play,  and the reading of Lomonossow's
poems, turned his inclination  to poetry.
He wished  to become an actor, but  the
manager of the  theatre, Cheraskow, dis-
suaded  him  from his purpose.  By his
advice, he  applied himself to the  study
of the fine  arts,  and to learning foreign
languages.  He gained patrons and friends,
and, in 1761, was made inspector in the
university of Moscow,  and  afterwards
translator in  the department of foreign
affairs.  In 1762, he travelled with  count
Beloselsky,  as secretary of legation, to
Dresden, where he devoted  his whole at-
tention to the study  of the  fine arts and
of poetry, till 1768.  The  beautiful pic-
tures in the gallery of that place inspired
him  to  write his  Psyche  (Duschenka),
which appeared  in 1775, and fixed  his
fame  on a lasting foundation.   After this,
he devoted himself to music and poetry,
in solitary  study at Petersburg, till  Cath-
arine  called him  from his  retirement.
He then wrote,  on different  occasions,
several dramatic and historical pieces. In
1788, he was made  president  of the  im-
perial archives.   In 1795, he took  leave
of the court, and lived as a private man
in Little Russia.  Alexander recalled him
to Petersburg, where he lived till  1803.
He was as remarkable for modesty  as for
genius, and a man  of childlike goodness
and vivacity.
  BogotA,  at the time of the Spanish 
BOGOTA—BOHEMIA.
155
 conquest, was the seat of empire of one
 of the most civilized states of America,
 that of the Muisca  Indians.  Owing to
 the fertility of the great valley of Bogota,
 which has been thought capable of sus-
 taining a population  of two or three mil-
 lions, it contained a  comparatively dense
 population of Indians, whose advances in
 refinement  rendered them, in a certain
 sense, the rivals of the inhabitants  of
 Cuzco.  They traced the foundation of
 their reUgious and political institutions to
 Bochica, whose history greatly resembles
 that of Manco Capac.  They were sub-
 dued by  the  Spanish general Gonzalo
 Ximenez  di  Quesada.   (See Bochica,
 Cundinamarea, Muisca;  Compagnoni, t.
 xix; Humboldt; Robinson's Bogota.)
   Bogota, or Santa Fe de Bogota ; a
 city of South America, the capital of the
 republic  of Colombia, and formerly the
 capital of the vice-royalty of New Grena-
 da.  Lon. 74° 13 W.; lat. 4° 3& N.  The
 population  has of la.te  been  variously
 stated, from less than 30,000  to 60,000.
 It is situated in a spacious and luxuriant
 plain, elevated 8721 feet above  the level
 of the sea, and lies to the east of the prin-
 cipal chain of the Andes.  Two  small
 streams flow  through the  town, which
 join  the river Funza, or Bogota, at a short
 distance.  The city  contains a magnifi-
 cent cathedral, a university, a mint, an hos-
 pital, and  various other public buildings.
 The streets are  wide and  well  paved.
 The city,  by reason of its elevation,  en-
 joys the temperature of perpetual spring;
 the mean  heat being 57.74, and the ther-
 mometer  having  a  range of only a few
 degrees.   The plains around Bogota pro-
 duce two  regular harvests in a year.
   Bogota or Funza river.  (See Tequen-
 dama, Cataract of.)
   Bohemia, Bsheim, Bojenheim, has its
 name from the Boii, a Celtic  nation, who
 settled there about 600 B. C, under their
 leader Segovesus, a nephew of Ambiga-
 tus, king of the Bituriges, but were after-
 wards almost all driven out by the Mar-
 comanni.   About the middle of the  4th
 centuiy, B., then inhabited  by German
 nations, enjoyed a settled and  quiet gov-
 ernment under its dukes, who were, as
 yet, but little known.  In the middle of
 the 6th century, a  numerous army of
 Sclavonians (Czecliowe, Tschechen, as  the
 Bohemians still call themselves), who had
 hitherto inhabited the shores of the Black
 Sea,  invaded B. (as  some say, under  the
command  of one Zecko), conquered  the
country, and put  it  under cultivation.
According to others, Zecko  was entirely
unconnected with the Sclavonians, and
his successors were hard pressed by that
people, although his descendants  were
never quite expelled from the land.   The
first of them who is known to us by
name was  Przemislas, a peasant, whom
the princess Libussa espoused, 632, and
raised  to the throne.  Although Charle-
magne and some of his successors com-
pelled  B.  to pay tribute,  this subjection
did not continue long.  In 840, B.,  Si-
lesia and Moravia were free from all for-
eign dominion,  and governed  by  their
own dukes, although still  maintaining a
sort of confederacy with the German em-
pire.  In 1061,  Henry  IV  gave the title
of king to the duke of B., which was not,
however,  generally recognised   tiU  the
time of Wratislaus, in 1086.  Afterwards,
about 1230, Philip conferred the  royal
dignity on Przemislas and  his successors.
It was confirmed by Frederic II,  since
whose time B. has remained a kingdom.
The male descendants of the old  kings
ceased with Wenzel V, in 1305, on whose
death, John of Luxemburg obtained  the
crown by marriage, in 1310, and left it to
his descendants.   After this, Charles  IV
(of the house of Luxemburg, under  the
name of Charles I, who very much im-
proved the kingdom), and his sons, Wen-
zeslaus and Sigismund (the latter  near-
ly lost B. in the religious war with  the
1 lussites), united the crown of B. to that
of  the  German  empire.  After  Sigis-
mutid's death, 1437, B. came into the pos-
session of his son-in-law, Albert of Aus-
tria, who died in  1439, and the crown
descended to his son Ladislaus, born after
his  death, 1440 (hence surnamed Postliu-
mus), who being at the same time king of
Hungary, B. was separated  again  from
the German states.   After his death,  1457,
the people  chose George von Podiebrad,
who had been regent,  for their king, in
1458, and, in 1469, when he was  excom-
municated by the pope, they elected  the
Polish  prince Wladislaus, who, however,
did not come into possession of the throne
till  the death of George,  in 1471.   He
was succeeded, 1516, after  a reign of 45
years, by his son  Louis.   These  were
both also kings of Hungary.  Lewis  be-
ing killed in a battle with the Turks near
Mohatz, in 1526, B.  fell to the  house of
Austria.  The brother-in-law of Louis,
Maximilian's second  grandson, the arch-
duke Ferdinand, succeeded to the crown.
This prince desired the   Bohemians to
take up arms in the  Smalkaldic   war
against the  elector  of Saxony;  but, find-
ing them averse to his wishes, and threat- 
156                              BOHEMIA.
ening to rebel against him, he conducted
towards them with great harshness, after
the victory of Charles V, at Miihlberg,
and declared B. an absolute monarchy.
He was succeeded by his son MaximiUan
(1564), and he by his sons Rodolph (1576),
and Matthias (1612).  Towards  the close
of the reign of the latter prince, in conse-
quence of the infringements  upon the re-
ligious liberty of the Protestants, troubles
arose,  which threatened the house  of
Austria with the loss of B.   In 1619,  the
people invited Frederic V, elector of the
Palatinate, to the throne, to the exclusion
of Ferdinand II, who  had been already
crowned king during the life-time of his
cousin Matthias.  But,  when the victory
at Prague, Nov. 9, 1620, had decided  the
war in favor of the  emperor, those who
had joined in the rebellion were  most rig-
orously dealt with: 27  of them  were ex-
ecuted, 16 banished or imprisoned for life,
and their goods confiscated. The sen-
tence of confiscation was also extended
to those who had already died, and to 29
who had escaped, as well as to 728
wealthy lords and knights, who  had vol-
untarily  acknowledged their   offence.
The Protestant  religion, which was held
by three fourths of the people, was rooted
out; Rodolph's imperial edict was revok-
ed (1627), and B. reduced to an  absolute
and hereditary monarchy, and the Roman
Catholic  faith established to the entire
exclusion  of all  others.  From  this time
B. continually dccUncd.  History hardly
furnishes a  parallel instance of such  a
complete  triumph of  mere brute  force
over the spirit of a people.  The house of
Hapsburg has to answer for this violation
of human rights.  More than 30,000 fam-
ilies (185 of which were of the rank of
lords and knights), all the Protestant min-
isters and teachers, a multitude of artists,
tradesmen and  mechanics, who refused
to become Catholics, emigrated to Saxo-
ny, Brandenburg, Holland, Switzerland,
&c.  In the mountain and forest villages,
however, out of the way of the Jesuits
and soldiers, many secret Protestants still
remained.  Since that  period, the Bohe-
mian language has been disused  in public
transactions.  In the 30 years'   war, B.
was entirely  desolated;  it lost the best
of its strength and wealth.  When Fer-
dinand II died,  in  1637, there  remain-
ed of the 732 towns, 34,700  villages, and
3,000,000 of inhabitants, which  B. con-
tained  in  1617, only 130 towns, a Uttle
more  than 6000 vdlages, and 780,000 in-
habitants!  After the  death of Charles
VI (1740), Charles Albert, elector of Ba-
varia, laid claim to the crown, and the
oath of allegiance was taken to him in
Prague ;  but Maria Theresa succeeded in
obtaining possession  of B.,  which  has
remained ever since  one of the richest
jewels in  the  Austrian  diadem.—The
kingdom of Bohemia  is bounded on the
west by Bavaria, on the east  by Moravia
and Silesia, on the north by Lusatia and
Misnia, and  on the south by Austria and
Bavaria.   It contains 20,200 square miles,
and over 3,380,000 inhabitants (of whom
2,170,000 are  Czechs,  and  more  than
50,000 Jews),  in 286 large towns (stddte),
275  market-towns,  and  11,924 villages.
The prevailing religion is  the Roman
Catholic; other sects, however, are toler-
ated.  The  language  of the  countiy is
Bohemian, a dialect of the Sclavonic: in
some districts, and in most of the cities,
German is spoken.  B. is surrounded on
all sides  by mountains, is covered with
large  forests,  and  considerable ponds.
The number of the latter is reckoned at
20,000.   Its plains are remarkably fertile.
The largest rivers are the Elbe and the
Moldau.   All  sorts of grain,  flax, hops
(the  best  in Europe)  and fruits are  ex-
ported.   Wine is not abundant, but, in
the neighborhood of Melnic,  of  pretty
good  quality.   The  raising  of sheep,
horses, swine and poultry is carried on to
a considerable extent.  The mines yield
silver (1823, 13,873 marks), copper, excel-
lent tin (1800 cwt), garnets and other pre-
cious stones, iron (200,000 cwt.), cobalt,
arsenic, uranium and tungsten, antimony,
vitriol, alum, calamine, sulphur, and coal
in abundance.   There are also numerous
mineral springs (150), but little salt.  Man-
ufactories of different kinds arc establish-
ed in all parts  of the countiy.  The most
important of these are the linen, cambric,
lace, thread and veil factories, and others
of a similar kind.  These, in 1801, yielded
goods to the value of more than 20,000,000
florins: half of this amount was exported
from the country.  The woollen manu-
factories produced an amount of 10,000,000
florins.   The woollens have advanced, of
late years, both in quantity and quality.
The Bohemian glass (there are 78 glass-
houses) is the best in Europe, and is  car-
ried  to Spain, America, Russia and the
Levant, to the amount of 2,500,000 florins.
Besides these,  there are 8 minor factories.
At  Turnau there are manufactories of
composition-stones, porcelain and earthen
ware, &c.   Of considerable importance,
too, is the manufacture of hats of the fin-
est sort, of paper, of silk stuffs, polished
garnets,  musical instruments,  and many 
BOHEMIA—BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN.
157
 other  articles.   B. contains, besides  the
 city of Prague, 16 circles, governed by
 officers appointed  yearly.  The most im-
 portant places are  the cities of Buntzlau,
 Melnik, Turnau, Reichenberg, Trautenau,
 Kuttenberg,  Budweis,  Pilsen, Carlsbad
 (q. v.), Joachimsthal, Teplitz (q. v.), Eger;
 the  fortresses of  Konigingratz, Joseph-
 stadt, Theresienstadt; die manufacturing
 town of Rumburg; the villages of Ader-
 bach, Sedlitz, Seidschutz, Piillna, Konigs-
 wart, Franzensbrunnen (q. v.), Marien-
 bad (q. v.), &c.  For internal intercourse,
 there are excellent highways, extending
 1060 miles; and, in 1826, a "rail-road was
 laid to connect the Danube with the Mol-
 dau.—The  Bohemians of all ranks  are
 distinguished for their iiublic spirit, exert-
 ing itself in the most  noble and  useful
 plans.  In  1822,  they  had 2996  pubhc
 establishments for education, a university,
 3 theological academies, 26 gymnasiums,
 2961 common schools, and a conservatory
 for music,  6709 teachers, 410,463 pupils;
 among them, 2055 students in the high
 schools.  (See prof. Schnabel's Statistical
 Account of Bohemia.)
   Bohemian Brethren ; the name of a
 CJiristian sect which arose in Bohemia,
 about  the  middle of  the  15th  centuiy,
 from the remains  of the stricter sort of
 Hussites, (q. v.)  Dissatisfied with the ad-
 vances towards popery, by which  the
 Calixtines (q. v.)  had  made themselves
 the ruling party in Bohemia, they refused
 to receive the compacts,  as they were call-
 ed, i. e., the articles of agreement between
 that party and the council  at Basil (30th
 Nov. 1433), and began, about 1457, under
 the  direction of a clergyman,  Michael
 Bradatz, to form themselves into separate
 parishes, to hold meetings of their own,
 and to distinguish themselves from  the
 rest of the Hussites by the name of Bro-
 thers, or Brothers'  Union ; but they were
 often confounded by their opponents with
 the Waldenses and Picards, and, on ac-
 count of their seclusion, were called Cav-
 ern-hunters (Grubenhdmer).  Amidst  the
 hardships and  oppressions  which they
 suffered from the  Calixtines and Catho-
 Ucs, without making any resistance, their
 numbers increased so much, through their
 constancy in their belief and the purity
 of their morals, that, in 1500, their par-
 ishes amounted  to 200, most of which
 had  chapels belonging to them.  The pe-
 culiarities of their religious beUef are seen
 in their confessions of faith,  especially
their opinions with regard to the Lord's
supper. They rejected the idea of tran-
substantiatioii, and  admitted only a mys-
  VOL. II.          14
 tical spiritual presence of Christ in the
 eucharist  In other points^ they took the
 Scriptures as the ground of their doctrines
 throughout, and for this, but more espe-
 cially for the constitution and  discipline
 of their churches, received  the approba-
 tion of the reformers of the 16th centuiy.
 This constitution  of theirs was framed
 according  to the accounts which remain
 of the  oldest apostolic  churches.  They
 aimed to restore the  primitive purity of
 Christianity, by the exclusion  of" the vi-
 cious from their  communion,  and by
 making three degrees of excommunica-
 tion, as well as by the careful separation
 of the sexes, and the distribution of the
 members  of  their  society  into  three
 classes—the  beginners, the  proficients
 and the  perfect.   Their  strict  system
 of superintendence,  extending  even  to
 the minute details of domestic life, did
 much towards promoting this object.  To
 carry on their system, they had a multi-
 tude of officers, of different degrees: viz.
 ordaining bishops, seniors and conseniors,
 presbyters  or preachers, deacons, aediles
 and acolytes, among whom the manage-
 ment of the ecclesiastical, moral and civil
 affairs of the community was judiciously
 distributed. Their  first bishop received
 his ordination from a Waldensian bishop,
 though  their churches held no commun-
 ion with  the Waldenses in  Bohemia.
 They were destined, however,  to experi-
 ence a like fate with that oppressed  sect.
 When, in conformity to their principle not
 to perform military service,  they refused
 to take up  arms hi die Smalkaldic war
 against  the Protestants, Ferdinand took
 their churches  from them, and, in 1548,
 1000 of their society retired  into Poland
 and Prussia, where they at first settled in
 Marienwerder.   The  agreement which
 they concluded at Sendomir, 14th April,
 1570, with  the Polish Lutherans and Cal-
 vinistic churches, and  still more the Dis-
 senters'  Peace Act of  the PoUsh conven-
 tion, 1572, obtained toleration for them in
 Poland, where they united more closely
 with the Calvinists under the persecutions
 of the Swedish Sigismund, and have con-
 tinued in  this connexion to the present
 day.—Their brethren, who remained in
 Moravia and  Bohemia,  recovered a cer-
 tain degree of Uberty  under Maximilian
 II, and had their chief residence at Ful-
nek,  in  Moravia, and hence have been
called Moravian Brethren.  The issue of
the 30 years' war, which  terminated so
 unfortunately for the  Protestants, occa-
sioned the  entire  destruction  of their
churches, and their last bishop, Come 
158       BOHEMIAN BRETHREN—BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE.
nius (q. v.), who had rendered important
services in the education of youth, was
compelled to fly.  From this time, they
made frequent emigrations, the most im-
portant of which took place in 1722, and
occasioned the estabUshment of the new
churches of the Brethren by count Zin-
zendorf.  (For  the  history  of the old
churches of this sect, we refer the reader
to Cranzen's History of the Brethren, and
to Schulz On the Origin and Constitution
of  the  Evangelical  Brethren's  Church
(Gotha, 1822), a sensible and impartial
work.)   Although   the  old  Bohemian
Brethren must be  regarded as now ex-
tinct, this society  will ever deserve re-
membrance, as a quiet guardian of Chris-
tian truth and piety, in times just emerging
from the barbarity of the middle ages; as
a promoter of pure  morals, such as the
reformers of the 16th centuiy were una-
ble to establish in their churches;  and as
the  parent of the esteemed and widely ex-
tended  association of the United Brethren
(q. v.),  whose constitution has been mod-
elled after theirs.
  Bohemian  and   Bavarian   Forest.
From the Fichtelgebirge, southward, to-
wards the confluence of the Ilz and the
Danube,  extends a ridge of mountains,
covered with wood, called the Bohemian
Forest,  in ancient times a part of the Sylva
Hercynia, the highest peaks of which are
the  Arber (4320 feet high), Rachel and
others.   It separates  Bavaria and  Bohe-
mia. The great abundance of wood has
occasioned the  establishment of many
glass-houses, forges, &c. in this region.
The inhabitants have acquired, in their
seclusion from  the world, many charac-
teristic  virtues and vices.
  Bohemian Language.  The Czeehish
(Bohemian) dialect  was the first  of the
Sclavonic idioms which was cultivated
scientifically.   This dialect is spoken in
Bohemia, Moravia,  with  slight variations
in Austrian Silesia,  in half of Hungary,
and in Sclavonia.   That the  Czechish
has been widely spread as a dialect of the
Sclavonian, is proved, as weU by its anti-
quity, and its degree of cultivation, as by
the  size of the countries whose national
language it is.  We shall consider first
the  richness of the vocabulary of this lan-
guage.    This  richness  consists  in the
number  of inflexions  of the  syUables
at  the  beginning  and  end  of words.
Thus from the single radical word byti
(his) there are more than 110 derivatives;
from the radical word dege se (£ read like
ea\, signifying it happens, there are more
than 95, without reckoning the frequent-
ative verbs, verbal substantives and adjec-
tives.   By the sunple  prefixing of the
letters s, w, v, z, die verb acquires a  dif-
ferent signification; e. g., s-razyti, v-razyti,
w-razyti, convey the meanings to beat down,
to beat off, to  beat in.   Hence this lan-
guage has formed, from native roots, all
the scientific terms of theology, jurispru-
dence and philosophy,  and,  with every
new invention, can be further developed.
A proof of its rienness is to be found also
in the numerous  synonymes, as  psyce
(c read like the Italian ce),kubka, tjsta, the
bitch; hodmost, dvstognost, dignity; hnug,
mrwa, manure; wes, wesniee, didina, the
village.—If one compares the Bohemian
radical words with the analogous terms in
other languages, he will be astonished at
the number of inflexions and derivations
by which the language  of the Czechi is
distinguished.  A great part of the facility
with which it receives new forms and ad-
ditions rests upon its manifold declensions
and its numerous  tenses and participles.
In this respect, the language of the Bohe-
mians excels that of all other modern na-
tions, with the exception  of the  other
races of Sclavonic origin. In the variety of
declensions, which are terminated almost
aU with a vowel, are inflected only at the
end, and  are used without an article (see
the Grammar of Negedly,  Prague, 1821),
the Bohemian- equals the precise Latin;
for instance, muzi (viro), zene (femina), (z
read Uke  the French ch), &c.  The  par-
ticiples give it a great deal of pUabiUty, as
they unite  in  themselves the advantage
of verbs  and adjectives, by denoting, as
verbal adjectives,  at once the quality of
the thing and the determination of  the
time, saving thus the use of the relatives
which, who, as, and the prepositions after,
dnce, &c, by  which periods become so
dragging: hence   its  conciseness.—An-
other advantage of the pUability of the
Bohemian language is  the means which
it  affords of  compounding  words;  as,
Samowladce, he who rales alone; Hro-
mowladny, the  ruler of the  thunder, &c.
The Bohemian expresses the compound
words of the Greeks and Germans some-
times by  a particular form of the adjec-
tive, sometimes by particular substantives;
as, kostnic, the charnel-house; chmelnice,
the hop-yard; duha, the rainbow.—An-
other pecuUarity is the  great  variety of
diminutives, by which not only smaU, but
agreeable and  dear objects are designat-
ed ; as, panacek, the little gentleman ; mi-
lenka, the much beloved; panenka,  the
little maid, and many  others:  also  the
ways of expressing concisely the frequent 
BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE.
159
naming of a thing; for instance, Frantis-
kowati se (s read as sch), to use frequently
the name Francis; macechowati se, to use
frequently the name step-mother.  It pos-
sesses also the patronymic nouns ; for in-
stance, kralowcc, the king's son.  It indi-
cates concisely that an action is complet-
ed ; as, dopsati,  to write to an  end.  It
contains the inceptive verbs; for example,
hrbatjm, I am  becoming  hunch-backed;
and many others.—Secondly, the Bohe-
mian language has much expressiveness
and energy, as it is not weakened by a
number of" articles, auxiliary words, con-
junctions and words of transition,  but  is
able to represent the objects of imagina-
tion, of passion, and all the higher emo-
tions  of the poet and orator, in a quick,
vigorous  and  lively  manner, by its brev-
ity, heaping together the  most significant
words, and ananging the connexion of
the parts of speech according to the de-
gree of feeling to be  expressed, so as to
give the style spirit and energy, or gentle-
ness and equability.   The Bohemian des-
ignates many  objects by the imitation of
natural sounds.  Thus the names of many
animals are taken from their voices; as,
kruta,  the  turkey;   kachna,  the  duck.
Many plants he names from their effects;
as, bolehlaw, hemlock (from head-ache).
The conciseness of the  language is in-
creased by the absence of auxiliaries in
the greater part  of the verbs ; as, dam, I
shall  give.  The preterites, in the third
person, singular and  plural,  express  a
meaning  still  further condensed, as the
variation  in the last  syllable is made to
designate  the  sex;   for   example,  psal,
psala, psalo,  he,  she, it  has  written;
psali, psaly, psala, they  have  written;
narozen,  narozena, narozeno, he, she,  it
has been born.  Thus the absence of the
personal pronouns in the verbs, of the ar-
ticle in the substantives, and the use of
many participles and participial forms, give
to this language the expressiveness and
power of the Latin.   In like manner, the
Bohemian saves many prepositions and
much circumlocution of other kinds, by
the  use  of  the  instrumental,  agreeing
with  the  Latin ablative; for  instance,
secenjm mece hlawu mu st' al (t  read like
te\ with a blow of the sword he has cut
off his head.  This language is, therefore,
very well fitted for the translation  of the
Latin classics.  By the use of the part.
prat, activi, the Bohemian can designate,
as well as the Greek, who has really per-
formed the action contained in the predi-
cate  of the accessary clause, which the
Latin, with  his  ablative  absolute, or
participle  passive,  must  leave always
undefined  and  dubious;  for  instance,
TltvSapoc  ilaffi/cXta  ano&a*as trtirponov kh tom
xai&o; xai toiv ^ptijiarav arrrjotv us lle\onowtioov ;
Pindarus vstanowiw Pasiklea za porucnjka
syna sweho a geho gmenj, tdhl do Pelopon-
nesu ;   Pindarus constituto Padcle turn
filii turn bonorum tutore, in Peloponnesum
abiit.  This contributes to the perspicuity
and precision of the Bohemian language.
Every notion, moreover, is expressed by a
peculiar word; for example, the verbs zjti,
strjhati, krageti, rezati, denote to cut with
the  scissors, with the  sickle,  with the
knife, and with the sithe; while most lan-
guages  use one verb, to cut, in aU these
cases.   In  the  subtilty  of grammatical
structure, the Bohemian is Uke the Greek,
and has the advantage over the Latin and
other  languages.   In speaking of two
hands, two eyes, &c, the dual number is
used; e. g., ruce, od, &c.  The language
is also capable of expressing  the idea of
duration referring to an indefinite past
time, like the Greek  aorist; for instance,
kupowal dum, ale nekaupil ho, which we
have no means of rendering precisely, for
kupowati means to buy, and kaupiti means
also to buy: accordingly the phrase would
be, literally, he  bought  the  house,  and
bought it not, which  would be  a contra-
diction: he was about to  buy the  house,
but did not buy it, would be  also an in-
correct expression of  this idea, for the
action was already going on—he was al-
ready   buying.   The  language  affords
several  preterite  tenses,  which are dis-
tinguished with great  subtilty; as,  prat.
sing. unit,  (time which  has only past
once)—kaupil, he has bought once ;  plus-
quamperf. primum—kupowal, he had pur-
chased  for a long time; plusquamperf.
secundum—kupowawal, he had purchased
formerly  several  times;  plusquamperf.
tertium—kupowawawal,  he seldom  had
purchased in  former  times; where,  by
adding  the auxiliary verb byl, a time still
longer passed  may  be expressed, though
this is  very seldom used; for instance,
byl kupowawal, he had purchased in times
long past.   Another advantage of the lan-
guage consists in the many future tenses
by which the Bohemian denotes not only
the time, but also the  duration, and the
more or less  frequent repetition of the
action ;  viz. futurum  simplex—kaupjm,
I shall purchase once; futurum duratwum
—for instance, budu  kupowati, I shall be
purchasing for a long time ; jut. frequen-
tativum—budu  kupowawati, I  shall pur-
chase several  times; and Jut. ilcrativum
—budu kupowawati, I shaU be purchasing 
160       BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE-BOHEMIAN LITERATURE.
very often.   Not less  manifold  in  sig-
nification, and equally subtile in  the de-
termination of time, are the participles
and  the participial constructions.  The
determination of the sex and  the number
by the final syllable of the participle gives
the Czechish  language  no small  prefer-
ence above others.  The Bohemian  can
express himself as elegantly and politely,
and at the same time as concisely, as the
Greek  with his optative; for instance,
nechalo toho, she may let it go ;  vcinil, let
him do it.  The small,  comiective parti-
cles of speech, which the Bohemian  has,
in common with the Greek, must  be con-
sidered as so many touches and shadings,
by which the  whole  idea and  feeling  is
more distinctly expressed.   The Greek
a\Xa ucv, yap, 6c, re, &c.  agree  with  the
Bohemian ele pak, wsak, li, z, t'; only the
three latter are always affixed to  si word.
Finally, the free, unrestrained anange-
ment of the words contributes much to
perspicuity, as the Bohemian is less  fet-
tered than any of the other modern lan-
guages to  a particular construction.—By
a happy mixture  of vowels  and conso-
nants, and by a combination of the hitter
favorable for the pronunciation, the lan-
guage has also much euphony,  though
many call it rough on account of the r
(read rsh); but the sound of entire words,
not that of the single letters  which com-
pose them, determines the roughness or
smoothness of their pronunciation;  be-
sides, every language, on account of the
difference of the feelings which it has to
convey,—some gentle, others harsh  and
violent,—ought to be able to form some
harsh sounds.  The  terminations of the
various declensions and conjugations are
mostly  vowels,  or the  smoother conso-
nants.   In general, the Bohemian has a
natural  melody, like  that of  the  Greek;
for the  tongue stops longer on a  syllable
containing a long vowel, a, e,j, u, y, than
on one containing a short vowel.  In the
Bohemian alphabet of 42 letters (a num-
ber in which it is surpassed  only by die
Indian, the most copious of known alpha-
bets, and the Russian, which  comes next
to it), there are to be found all the sounds
ef the  other languages.  The English
sound of ts the Bohemian expresses with
c, the EngUsh y with g, the sh with S3 or
s, the Italian ce or d with c,  the  French
ge and gi with  the z, the Italian u with
the y, the  gn with  the n, the English w
with the  w, particularly at  the  end of
words.  Hence his alphabet  enables  him
to write all languages so as to give their
correct pronunciation, and to pronounce
them  easily and well, so as to be consid-
ered by Frenchmen, Germans and Ital-
ians as their  countryman.   He never
confounds smooth and rough letters;  his
singing is easy and graceful, and the Bo-
hemian opera pleases, like the Italian, as
it suppresses no syllables, but gives a full
sound  to each word.  It is very seldom
that combinations of difficult consonants
are to be found in  the Sclavonic idioms,
and these may be  softened by the free-
dom of construction which the language
allows.  The euphony of the language is
also the reason why the  Bohemian takes
a rank in music inferior only to that of
the ItaUan.  Throughout Europe, Bohe-
mian  musicians are to be found:  the dis-
tinguished musicians of Austria are mostly
from  Bohemia.  Taste  and feeling  for
music almost always keep  pace with the
melody of the language of a nation.
  Bohemian Literature has five periods.
The first extends from the  mythological
times to 1409.  It is certain, that, among
the Sclavonian tribes, the  Czechi were
the first who  cultivated and fixed their
language.  (See Sclavonians and Sclavonic
Language.)  It affords no written docu-
ments of remote antiquity, unless we be-
lieve the Runic characters to have been
in use before the introduction of Chris-
tianity.  We  know, however, that the
language of that period was similar to the
present, from the names of*  the  gods,
dukes, rivers, cities, mountains,  which
have  been  preserved, such  as  Perun,
Prccmysl,  Boriwog, Wltawa, Bila, Praha,
Tetin, Krkonose.   The Sclavonian apos-
tle Method, and the philosopher Constan-
tine, called Cyril,  made  the Sclavonians
in Moravia acquainted with Christianity.
From thence it penetrated, under duke
Boirwog, to Bohemia, and  thus the peo-
ple of this country received the Grseco-
Sclavonic  ritual in the  year  845.  The
same Constantine invented for the sounds
of the Sclavonic  language the Cyrillic-
Sclavonic  alphabet—Az,  Buky, Wiedi,
Glagol, Dobro, &c, borrowed mostly from
the Greek.  In later times, the GlagoUtic
alphabet sprung up,  of which, however,
less use  was  made.  When  the  Latin
church supplanted the Greek in Moravia,
Bohemia and Pannonia, the Latin alpha-
bet came also into use, instead  of the
Cyrillic.   In Bohemia, the Cyrillic char-
acter was in use only with the  monks of
Sazawa, who observed the Sclavonic ritu-
al.  King Wratislaus, intending to intro-
duce it again in other places, and asking
the permission of pope Gregory  VII, re-
ceived a refusal.   As the Latins endeav 
BOHEMIAN LITERATURE.
161
ored to annihilate all the writings of the
old ritual,  and  the Sclavonic language
was, in many cases, obliged to give way
to the Latin, Bohemian literature suffered
from popery  incalculable injury:  hence
we possess, from the earlier centuries, but
a few insignificant remains in the charac-
ters above  mentioned.   In the 10th cen-
tury, the Bohemians had a school at Ku-
det, in which they learnt  Latin.  Their
most ancient relic is the hymn (Hospodine
Pomiluyny) of bishop Adalbert (Wegtech),
a native Bohemian, which is sung to the
present  day,  even by the Russians and
Poles.   Some think it of still greater an-
tiquity.   From the 11th  century, we have
no complete works; but, in Latin docu-
ments, Sclavonic  names are frequently
found.   The 12th and 13th  centuries
were more fertile.  When king Wratislaus
issued the summons for  the  renowned
expedition  to Milan, all  Prague resound-
ed with  the  songs of the  valiant young
knights; but none of  them  has  been
preserved.   Zawis Z. Rozinberka wrote,
in 1290, several good poems.   The Bo-
hemians possess the remains of a collec-
tion of lyric-epic national  songs, without
rhyme, which seem to have been of great
merit; but only  two sheets of parchment,
in duodecimo, and two small strips, have
been preserved.   Mr. Hanka, keeper of
the Bohemian national  museum, discov-
ered these valuable remains in a room in
the church  at Koniginhof, in a pile of
neglected papers.   The manuscript ap-
pears to  have been written in the  years
1290 and 1310:  some of the poems may
be still older: the more  is the loss of the
greater part of them to be regretted.  This
whole collection consisted  of 3 books, as
may be concluded from  the inscription of
the remaining chapters  of the 3d book,
which are  inscribed 26th, 27th, 28th.  14
poems  are preserved,  which  constitute
those 3 chapters.  (See  Rukopi's Kralod-
worsky  wydany  od Wac,  Hanky, 1819.)
We cannot determine the subject of the
first song, Boleslaw, by the part which
has come down to us; the  second poem,
 Wihori Dub, calls upon  duke Udalrich to
drive the Poles  from Prague (1003);  the
third, Benes, celebrates the repulse of the
Saxons who advanced from Gorlitz; the
fourth relates Jaroslaw Sternberg's victo-
ry over the Tartars, near Olmfitz, in 1241;
and so on.  Gothe  found these nation-
al songs worthy of particular attention.
They deserve, perhaps, to be placed by
 the side of Ossian's poems.   A Bohe-
 mian psalter, and a legend, in rhyme, on
 the 12 apostles (the latter only a fragment
                  14*
of 70 verses, at Vienna), have  also been
preserved ;  likewise,  the Complaint of a
Lover on the Banks of the Muldau (Wel-
tawa), in prose ; a fragment of a history
of the  passion of Jesus, in rhyme; the
hymn Swaty Waclawe; besides  a number
of poems,  songs, fables and  satires, in
verses  of four feet, also in rhyme.  The
14th centuiy is more productive.   Under
the emperor Charles  IV, who  promoted
the cultivation of the Bohemian language,
the university of Prague was founded, in
1348.  In the golden bull, he commanded
the sons of the German electors to learn
the Bohemian language.  Under his son,
the emperor Wenceslaus, all decrees were
written in Bohemian, which  formerly
were in Latin.   Prague was  then  not
only the most populous city in  Germany,
but also, on account of its splendid court
and the wealth of its citizens, the centre
of the arts and  sciences.  Dalemil Me-
zericky wrote a history of Bohemia in
verse ; Ondreg Z. Dube, a collection of
Bohemian laws, in 3 vols.; Warinec Z.
Brezowa, a history of the Roman empe-
rors, and translated Mandeville's Travels ;
Pribik  Pulkawa,  a Bohemian  history ;
and Benes  Z. Horowic, a history  of the
empire to  the time  of Wenzel.   This
period affords, also,  many vocabularies,
poems and songs; also a translation of
the life of  Alexander the Great; the life
of the  emperor and king Charles IV ; the
description of the heroic feats of Pliehta
of Zerotin,  and of the battle of Cressy, in
1346, and an account of the death of king
John, which celebrates his fame and  that
of the  other Bohemian heroes;  a descrip-
tion of the tournament in  1315; the ex-
pedition of king John against count Mat-
thias of Trenzcin, &c—With Huss com-
menced the second period, from 1409 to
1500, which elevated the character of the
Bohemian  language  and  nation.   The
assembled  fathers at  Constance and Bale
beheld with astonishment, among the Bo-
hemian nobility and  citizens, men not
only distinguished for their intrepidity,
but able, also, to explain with profound
learning the word of God.  The Bohe-
mian  nobility of those times not only
wielded with a vigorous arm the national
weapon of their country in defence of the
rights  of the nation, but stood, also, in the
first rank of scientific cultivation.  The
prevalence of religious disputes  caused
the Bible to be generaUy read and  under-
stood.  ./Eneas Sylvius, then pope, says,
Pudeat Italia sacerdotes, quos ne semel
quidem novam legem  constat legisse, apud
 Taboritas  vix midierculam invenies,  qua 
162                    BOHEMIAN LITERATURE.
de Novo Testamento  et veteri respondere
nesriat.  (Com. in Diet Alph. Reg., sec.
ii, 17.)   Huss of Hussinetz translated
Wickliffe's book  Trialogus  into the Bo-
hemian tongue, and sent it to the laymen
as presents.  The treatise of the  six er-
rors he caused to  be  inscribed, in Bohe-
mian, on the walls of the chapel of Beth-
lehem.   He wrote  his first collection of
sermons when at the castle of  Kozy
(1413), besides an appeal  to  the pope, a
commentary on the ten commandments,
an explanation of the twelve articles, two
sermons  on the  Antichrist,  the  Triple
Cord, and  several excellent hymns.  His
letters from the dungeon in Constance to
the Bohemians were translated by Lu-
ther  into  Latin,  accompanied with  a
preface, and  printed at  Wittenberg  in
1536.  He, and Jakobellus and Jerome,
improved  and distributed the Bohemian
Bible, of which several copies have been
preserved  to our  times.  How many of
his works  perished by the hands of the
Jesuits is  unknown.   The cruel  execu-
tion  of the Bohemian martyrs Huss and
Jerome, for their faith, was considered
by their countrymen as an outrage upon
the whole nation, of which they com-
plained bitterly ; many satires, also, were
written at  that time.  Of Zisca of Troc-
now, one  of the greatest generals in his-
tory, several letters, and his rules of war,
have been preserved.  From this period,
there have come down to  us, also, several
war-songs of the Taborites;  as
Kdox gste Bozf bogoionjoy a zakona gdho,
(Whoareyou, warriors of God and of his law),&c.
Nux mniskowe" poskakugte,
(Well now, ye monks, be chaste), &c ;
also  some  songs of Prague.   Martin Lu-
pac  undertook, with  the assistance of
some learned men, the labor of translating
the whole New Testament, and rendered
it, in many places,  more  correct and
plain.   The  church-service  was  now
performed entirely in the  Bohemian lan-
guage.   The  bishop  of  the Taborites,
Nicholas of Pelhrimow, wrote a Bohe-
mian and Latin theological tract.  Kristan
Prachatitzky wrote a book on medicine ;
Martin Kabatnik, a Journey to Jerusalem ;
P. Prespole, the mining laws of Kutten-
berg and  Iglaw,  which have since  be-
come so famous.   Johann Rokycana, H.
Litomericky,  W.   Koranda  and others
wrote different works on reUgious sub-
jects.  P.  Chelcicky gave on explanation
of the  Lessons of the  Gospel for every
Sunday; wrote the Net of Faith (Sit Wjry),
a discourse on the 13th chapter of Reve-
lation, of the beast and its image (O Selme
a Obrazu Gegjm), and an essay on the love
of God.  The most famous book of his
was one in 40 chapters, which he called
Kopyla (Last).   Many controversial writ-
ings of this period might be mentioned.
Bohuslaw of Sechtic wrote  the work
Zrcadlo wscho Krestanstwa (Mirror of the
whole of Christianity).   In this, die differ-
ence between the conduct of the apostles
and of the Roman  bishops is represented
by various drawings.  Three other draw-
ings represent Huss preaching, and at the
stake;  besides 16 leaves, upon which the
life and the letters of Huss are contained.
After  two pictures, of which one repre-
sents  the worship of the Hussites,  the
other  the expedition of the Taborites,
comes a satirical letter  of Lucifer:  an-
other plate represents the bUnd hero Zisca
at the head of his army, under which
there  are quotations from  the Taborite
war-song, Neprdtel se nelekeyte—Na ko-
ristech  se  nczastawugme  (Fear  not  die
foes—Stop not  for plundering):  besides
a dialogue, in which the father  tells his
son how the cup and the law of God had
been introduced into Bohemia. The whole
consists of 118  leaves, of which 88 have
pictures.   Stibor of Cimburg and Towa-
cow wrote the  very ingenious work on
the  possessions  of the clergy, which he
dedicated  to king  George, in 1467, and
the collection of the rights and privileges
of the margraviate of Moravia. Walcow-
sky Z. Knezmosta wrote on the vices and
hypocrisy of the clergy ;  P. Zidek wrote,
in 3 vols.,  the  Art of Governing, 1471
(Zprdwa Krdlowska). The first volume
treats of the duties of a king with regard
to the public welfare; the second, on his
personal behavior; the third is a general
view of history, from the beginning of the
world to the time of the author, wherein
frequent hints are given, as to what a king
should do, and what avoid.  William Cor-
neUusof Wsehrd wrote nine books on the
laws, judiciary offices and the register of
lands in Bohemia.  King George was the
author of an ordinance respecting meas-
ures, money, weights, &c.  V. Mladieno-
wic, who, when notary at Constance, was
an eye-witness of the execution of Huss,
wrote an account of his  life.  This used
to be  read in the  Bohemian churches.
Procopius continued the  rhyming chron-
icles of Dalemil.  J. Lodkowic related
his Journey to the Holy Sepulchre.  Sasek
of Mezyhor wrote Notes and  Travels
through  Germany, England,  France,
Spain, Portugal  and Italy, of the  Bohe-
mian baron Loew of Rozmital and Vlatna
(whom he  accompanied); a contribution 
BOHEMIAN LITERATURE.
163
to our knowledge of the manners of the
15th century,  which was pubUshed by
Jos. Edm. Horky, in a German  transla-
tion printed at Brunn, 1824.  M. Gallus,
Albjk,  Chrislan,  Zidek,  J.  Cerny, J.
Blowic and Sindel, wrote on  medicine,
astrology and  agriculture.  As early as
1447, we have  an anonymous work on
the grafting of trees.  We have also the
rhyming legend of the  10,000 knights, a
translation of the  fables of ^Esop, the
council of the  beasts and  birds, in prose
and verse, in 3 vols, (Placj  Rada).  Each
lesson,  which  flows in rhyme from the
mouths of the animals, is preceded by the
natural history  of the  animals and the
moral.   It was printed three times in the
Bohemian  language,  and  published at
Cracow in Latin verse, 1521, 4to.   There
is, Ukewise, a satire, in 132 verses, on the
persecution of the priests  of the Tabor-
ites ; the Maitraum  of Hynek of Podie-
brad, the younger son of king George;
besides several vocabularies  and  roman-
ces, among  which is  Tkadlecek, which
has been pubUshed at Vienna, in  a Ger-
man translation.  Of the Bible, 14 trans-
lations have come down to us, besides 10
of the New Testament  The oldest, of
the year 1400, is in Dresden.  The typo-
graphic art made a rapid progress in Bo-
hemia.   The first printed  work was the
epistle of Huss from Constance, in 1459;
the second, the Trojan War, in 1468; the
third, a  New Testament,  in 1474; the
whole Bible, in 1488; the  first almanac,
in 1489.—The third age,  from 1500 to
1620, may be called the golden  age of
the Bohemian language.   During those
dreadful tumults,  hi which,  not  only in
this kingdom, but also in the neighboring
countries, populous  cities became heaps
of ashes, and  innumerable villages en-
tirely disappeared, the peculiar inclination
of the nation to investigation,  sind their
predilection  for  science and art, devel-
oped  themselves.   The  cultivation of
learning—in other countries, with only a
few  exceptions,  the monopoly  of the
clergy—was, in this favoured land, open
to the  whole nation.   All branches of
science were elaborated, and brought to
an uncommonly high degree of improve-
ment for that time.  The purpose of this
work does not allow us to enumerate aU
the authors of this age, since, under Ro-
dolph II alone, there were more than 150.
Gregory Hruby of Geleni  translated the
work of Petrarch, De Remediis utriusque
Fortuna. W. Pisecky translated from the
Greek  the  Exhortation of  Isocrates to
Demonikos.  John Amos Comenius wrote
54 works, some of which were very ex-
cellent.   He pubUshed his Janua and an
Orbis Pictus, which were translated, in his
lifetime,  into  11 languages, have passed
through  innumerable editions,  and are
not yet surpassed.  In all the north of
Europe, Comenius attracted attention by
his projects  for  improving  education,
which were deliberated upon even by the
diet of Sweden and the parliament of Eng-
land.  The hymns of this and the earlier
ages, part of  which have been translated
by Luther, may serve as standards for all
languages.  In Prague alone, there were,
at this period, 18 printing-presses; in the
country-towns of B. 7,  and in  Moravia
also 7: many Bohemian books, too, were
printed in foreign countries, as in Venice,
Nuremberg, Holland, Poland, Dresden,
Wittenberg and Leipsic.—The fourth pe-
riod  begins with  1620, and  ends with
1774.   After  the battle at the White
mountain, the whole Bohemian nation
submitted entirely to the conqueror.  The
population of most of the cities and  of
whole districts migrated, in  order not to
be false to their faith.  More than 70,000
men, and almost the whole of the nobility,
all the Protestant clergy, scholars and ar-
tists, in general, the most cultivated part
of the nation,  left  their native country.
Of these emigrants, the greater part
formed the flower of the anny of count
Mansfeld. Hence  the 30 years' war de-
populated Bohemia more than any other
countiy, since these fugitives endeavored
to regain their native  country by repeated
invasions. Nothing, however, was so dis-
advantageous to  Bohemian  literature  as
the introduction of  monks, who were
mostly Italians, Spaniards and Southern
Germans, who condemned every Bohe-
mian work, as heretical, to the flames, so
that individuals boasted of having burnt
about  60,000  manuscripts,  which  they
took  from the  people  by force, after
searching their houses.  Such works as
escaped  the  flames  were  shut up  in
monasteries, in carefully-secured rooms,
fastened  with  iron grates, doors,  locks,
bolts and chains, and often inscribed with
the warning title Hell.  Instead of these
excellent remains of the classical times
of the country, they gave the Bohemians
nonsense of all kinds; accounts  of hell
and purgatory,  the  reading  of which
made  many of the  populace maniacs;
though  even  this stuff  was, in  many
cases, burnt, and mostly forbidden.  The
fugitives estabUshed at Amsterdam, Dres-
den, Berlin, Breslau and Halle, printing-
presses, and  sent  to their brethren  in 
164
BOHEMIAN LITERATURE—BOIL.
Bohemia, Moravia and Hungary, a num-
ber of books, mostly new editions.  Some
Bohemians, who  observed the decay of
their language, strove to remedy  it; as
Pesina Z. Cechorodu; Joh. Beckowsky,
who continued the Bohemian histoiy to
1620; W. Weseley, who wrote a work
on geometry and  trigonometry, &c.; but
the decay was too great to admit of being
checked ; the nobility had become stran-
gers, and the  government  encouraged
only German Uterature.  From this time,
therefore, the Bohemians wrote more in
the German  language.—In the fifth pe-
riod, from 1774 to 1826, a new ray of hope
shone  on Bohemian  Uterature ;  when,
under the emperor Joseph II, a deputa-
tion of secret Bohemian Protestants, trust-
ing to his  liberal views, made him  ac-
quainted with the great number of their
brethren of the same faith.  He perceived
the  necessity of introducing toleration,
and hundreds of thousands of Protestants,
in Bohemia  and Moravia, came to light:
their concealed works were printed anew,
their classical  language  was again  ac-
knowledged and cultivated.   This is done
still more under the present government,
who perceive the necessity and utility of
the  Sclavonian language, which,  in  the
Austrian states, is spoken by 14,000,000
people, and  of which the  Bohemian is
the  written  dialect.  Under this protec-
tion,  many  men of merit,  mindful of
the fame of their  ancestors, have endeav-
ored to cultivate anew all branches of the
sciences, and  to  reach,  if possible, their
more advanced neighbors.  In particular,
the members of the Bohemian society of
sciences, of the national museum, and of
other patriotic  societies, above all, count
Kollowrath-Liebsteinsky and count Cas-
par of Sternberg, deserve to be named
with high  respect.—The Bohemian  has
natural talents for mathematics, as Co-
pernicus, Vega, Strnad, Wydra, Littrow,
&c, may prove.  The corps of Austrian
artillery, which are recruited in Bohemia
and Moravia, have always contained men
distinguished for acquaintance with this
science.   In  philology and  music,  the
Bohemians  are likewise eminent.   The
teacher of Mozart was Kluck, a Bohe-
mian.    Recently,  Adlabert Sedlaczek,
canon of a chapter  of the Praemonstra-
tenses, has distinguished himself by phys-
ical and mathematical compendiums in
 the Bohemian language.—Compare  the
 Vollstandige Bohmische  Literatur  of pro-
 fessor  Jungmann  (Prague,  1825,  2
 vols.).
   Boiardo, Matteo Maria, count of Scan-
diano, was born at a seat belonging to his
family near Ferrara, in 1434.  From 1488
to 1494, the period of his death, he  was
commander of the city and castle of Reg-
gio, in the service of his protector, Ercole
d'Este, duke  of Modena.   This accom-
plished courtier, scholar and knight  was
particularly distinguished as a poet.  His
Orlando  Innamorato  (Scandiano, 1496)
is continued  to the 79th canto, but  not
completed.  He immortalized the  names
of his own peasants, and the charms of the
scenery at Scandiano, in the persons of his
heroes and his descriptions of the beauties
of nature.  In language and versification,
he has been  since surpassed by Ariosto,
whom he equalled in invention, grace, and
skilful  conduct of complicated episodes.
Dominichi,  Berni   and  Agostini  new
modelled and continued the work of B.
without improving it.  One continuation,
only, will  never be  forgotten—the  im-
mortal Orlando of Ariosto.  In some of
his works, B. was led, by the spirit of his
times, to a  close imitation of the ancients;
e. g., in his Capitoli; also, in a comedy
borrowed from  Lucian's  Timon;  and in
his  Latin  eclogues  and  translations  of
Herodotus  and  Apuleius.   In his sonnets
and canzoni (first printed at Reggio, 1499).
he has displayed great talents  as a  lyric
poet.
  Boil ; to  heat a  fluid until it bubbles
and becomes changed into vapor.  If the
requisite heat is applied a sufficient time,
bubbles continually arise, until the fluid is
entirely  consumed.  A singular circum-
stance is to  be remarked, that the fluid,
in open vessels, when it has once begin.
to boil, receives no increase of heat, even
from the hottest fire.  The reason is this,
that the additional caloric goes to  form
steam, and ascends  with it into the air.
The steam itself, when formed, may be
raised to a much higher degree of temper-
ature.   During the period of boiling, the
surface of  the fluid exhibits a violent un-
dulating motion, and the stratum of air
immediately over it is filled  with vapor.
The noise which  accompanies boiling,
arises, without  doubt, from the displacing
of  the  steam-bubbles,  and varies  very
much  with  the nature  and situation of
the vessel.  The vaporization of fluids is,
very probably,  nothing more than a me-
chanical union of caloric with  the fluid.
The degree  of heat at which different
fluids  boil is very different.  Spirits boil
 at  the  lowest  temperature; pure  water
 next;  at a still higher  temperature,  the
 fixed oils.  The degree of heat at which
 a fluid boils is called  its boiling point. 
BOIL—BOIS-LE-DUC.
165
This is used as one of the fixed points in
the graduation of thermometers.  This
 oint is uniform only in case of complete
 oiling, and under a uniform pressure of
the atmosphere.  The influence of this
pressure appears  from experiments.   In
an  exhausted receiver, the  heat of  the
human hand is sufficient  to  make  water
boil; while, on the contrary, in Papin's
digester, where the confinement prevents
evaporation, it may be heated to 300 or
400 degrees without boUing.  Under  the
common pressure of the atmosphere, the
boiling point of rain-water is 212° Fahren-
heit; that  of alcohol, 174°;  that of mer-
cury, 660°; that of ether, 98°.  From the
experiments of prof. Robinson, it appears,
that, in  a  vacuum, all liquids boil  about
145° lower than  in  the open air, under a
pressure of 30 inches of mercury ; water,
therefore,  would boil in a vacuum at 67°
Ether may be made  to boU  at  the com-
mon temperature, by merely exhausting
the air from the vessel in  which it is con-
tained.
  Boileau, Despreaux Nicholas, bora in
1636, at Crosne, near Paris, commenced
his studies in the  college  d'Harcourt, and
continued them hi the college  de Beau-
vais.  Even in his early youth, he read
with ardor the great  poets of antiquity,
and tried  his  own powers in a tragedy,
though with little success.  After having
completed his academical studies, he en-
tered  upon die career of the law;  but
soon left it from dismcUnation, tried some
other pursuits, and  resolved, finally, to
devote himself entirely to belles-lettres.
His first satire, Les adieux a Paris, made
known his talents. In 1666, he published
seven  satires, with an introduction,  ad-
dressed to the king.  They met with  ex-
traordinary applause; for  no one,  be-
fore hiin, had  written  with  such ele-
gance  of  versification.  But in this, and
in the purity of his language, and  the
clearness  with which he sets  forth his
luminous  principles, consists their chief
merit;  novel, profound, original  ideas,
wc should look  for in vain, though the
pieces are not destitute of graceful touches
and deUcate strokes.   They  are unequal
in merit.  The satires Sur VEquivoque and
Sur VHomme have  undeniable defects.
That on Women, which he wrote at a more
advanced  age, is monotonous, and  de-
ficient in humor.   His epistles, in which
he is the successful  rival of Horace, are
more esteemed at the present day.  They
display a graceful versification, a natural
and sustained style,  vigorous  and well
connected  ideas.   These  were followed
by his Art Poetique, in which he describes,
with precision and taste, all the different
kinds of poetry (with the exception of the
apologue), and lays down rules for them.
In regularity of plan, happy  transitions,
and continual elegance of style, this poem
is superior to the Ars Poetica of Horace.
It  was long regarded, not only in France,
but also in foreign countries, as a poetical
code, and has every where had a favora-
ble influence, as  it inculcates purity and
regularity, and subjects all the produc-
tions of poetical genius to a fixed standard.
B.'s censures of Tasso and Quinault, with
some other  equally unfounded opinions,
display a nanowness of spirit He had
many opponents, who   accused  him of
want of fertility, invention and variety.
To refute them, he wrote his Lutrin, a
mock-heroic poem,  which is  still un-
rivalled in  the eyes of the French.   A
music-stand, which had been removed
from its place, had occasioned dissensions
in a chapter: this is the subject of B.'s
poem, in which  his art of making petty
details interesting deserves as much praise
as the other excellences of his poetry al-
ready enumerated. In his life, B. was
amiable and generous.   Louis XIV gave
him  the place of historiographer, in con-
nexion with Racine.  As he had attacked
the academicians in several of his writ-
ings, he was not  received into their socie-
ty until 1684, and then  only by the  inter-
ference of the  king.   He died in  1711,
of the dropsy. M. de St Surin has pub-
lished (Euvres de  Boileau, with a  com-
mentary, Paris,  1824, 4 vols.  The first
volume of Dauuou's (member of the  in-
stitute) (Euvres completes de Boileau, with
a literary and historical commentary, ap-
peared in Paris, 1825.
   Boiler.   (See Steam and  Steam En-
gine.)
■  Bois-le-Duc (the French name for the
Dutch Hcrtogenbosh, also  hn Bosh); a
fortified  city in  the province of North
Brabant, in the kingdom of the Nether-
lands, with  3770 houses and  13,300 in-
habitants, at the confluence of the Dom-
mel  and the Aa, which form, by their
junction, the Dicst.  Lon.  5° 9' E.; lat.
51° 40'  N,  It has many manufactories,
and  much  trade in  com,  some  salt-
works, a lyceum,  10 Catholic churches,
4 Calvinistic, 1 Lutheran.  Godfrey, duke
of Brabant, founded this important mili-
tary  post in  1184  The fortifications now
consist of strong walls and seven bastions,
but it owes  its security, chiefly, to the fa-
cility with  which  the whole  country
around can be laid under water (the new 
166
BOIS-LE-DUC—BOLEYN.
canal to Maastricht has 16 sluices).  B. is
defended by several forts and  a  citadel.
The city has four gates, and three en-
trances  from  the water.  The  cathedral
is one of the finest in the  Netherlands.
The city suffered much  in  the religious
wars of the 16th century, and fell into the
hands of the Dutch in  1629.  Sept.  14,
1794, the  French  defeated the English
here; Oct. 9 of the same year, it surren-
dered to Pichegru.  In January, 1814, it
was taken by the Prussian general Billow.
  Boisseree.   A  celebrated gallery of
pictures is  exhibited in  Stuttgart, which
was collected by the brothers  Sulpice
and Melchior Boisseree, and John Ber-
tram, men who, animated by love of  the
arts, began, at the time of the destruction
of the  monasteries, during  and after the
French  revolution, to purchase old pic-
tures, and  afterwards completed their
collection by the addition of many valua-
ble paintings  of the old German school.
By this coUection, the brothers Boisseree,
and Bertram, have happily realized  the
idea of  a historical series of old German
paintings.   It is to their endeavors that
we owe the discovery, that Germany pos-
sessed, as early as the  13th century, a
school of painters of much merit, which,
like the Italian, proceeded from the old
Byzantine school, but became,  in the se-
quel, distinguished by excellences of its
own.  We owe to these collectors, also,
the  restoration  to  favor of the forgotten
Low German masters, and a just estima-
tion of John von Eyck, as the  creator of
the  genuine  German style  of painting.
By this collection, the names of von Eyck,
Wilhelm von Koln, Hemling, Goes, Mec-
kenem, Wohlgemuth, Schoen, Mabuse,
Schoorel, and many others, have attained
deserved honor.  The most distinguished
connoisseurs and artists, including Gothe,
Canova, Dannecker and Thorwaldsen,
have strongly expressed their admiration
of this  collection.   The  proprietors  are
publishing a work consisting of excellent
lithographic  prints from  their pictures.
In  the  autumn of 1820, the publication
of  the splendid engravings, illustrative of
the cathedral in  Cologne, was resolved
on.  The plates surpass, in size and exe-
cution, every thing which had appeared
in the department of architectural deline-
ations, and were  partly made in Paris.
(See Boisseree's Geschichte und Beschrd-
bung des Doms von Koln, Stuttgart, 1823.)
   Boissonade, Jean Francois,  bom at
Paris, 1774, one of the most distinguished
Greek scholars in  France, was made as-
sistant  professor of the Greek language
in the university of Paris, in  1809; and,
in 1812, after the death of Larcher, whom
he succeeded  in the  institute, principal
professor.   The king  made him a mem-
ber of the legion of honor in 1814, and,
in 1816, member of the academy of in-
scriptions.  Besides valuable contributions
to the Journal  des Debats, to the Mercure,
to the Magazin Encyclopidique, to  the
Biographic UniverseUe, and to  the Notices
et Extraits (10 vols.), we are  indebted to
him for an edition of the Heroica of Phi-
lostratus (1806), and of the  Rhetoric of
Tiberius (1815).   Still  more important
are his editions of Eunapus' Lives of the
Sophists, of Proclus' Commentary on the
Cratylus of Plato,  never before printed;
of a Greek romance by Nicetas Eugenia-
nus, &c.  He  compiled, also, a  French
dictionary, on  the plan of Johnson's.
   Bojaca,  Battle of, so called, from
having been fought near the bridge of the
small town of Bojaca, not far from  the
city  of Tunja, between the Spaniards,
under Barreyro, and  the united forces
of Venezuela  and New Grenada,  com-
manded by Bolivar.  It  occurred August
7th, 1819, and was  decisive of the inde-
pendence of New Grenada.   Among the
republicans, generals  Anzuategui, Paez
and Santander distinguished themselves;
and the  Spaniards  sustained a total de-
feat, their general, most of tlieir officers
and men who survived the battle, together
with  all  their arms, ammunition  and
equipments, falling  into  the hands of
Bolivar.  So complete was  the destruc-
tion of the Spanish army, that the vice-
roy instantly fled  from Santa Fe, leaving
even  the public treasure  a prey  to  the
conquerors.
   Bole ; a fossil of a yellow, brown, or red
color, often marked with black dendrites;
found in different parts of Bohemia, Si-
lesia and Stiria, also  in Lemnos, and at
Sienna  in  Italy.  It is  made into pipes
for smoking, and vessels for cooling water
in hot  weather.  The  terra sigillata is
nothing but bole.
   Boleyn, or Bolen, Anne, second wife
of Henry VIII  of  England, was   the
youngest child of sir Thomas Boleyn and
a daughter of the duke of Norfolk.   She
was bom, according to some  accounts, in
1507, but, according to other  more prob-
able ones, in 1499 or 1500.  She attended
Mary, sister of Henry,  on her marriage
with  Louis XII, to France, as  lady of
honor.   On the return of that princess,
after  the king's death, she   entered  the
service of queen Claude, wife of Francis
I, and, after her death, that of the duchess 
BOLEYN—BOLINGBROKE.
167
of Alencon, sister of the  French  king.
Young, beautiful,  gay and witty, she was
an object of great attraction in the gallant
court of Francis I.  She returned to  Eng-
land about 1525 or 1527, and became lady
of honor to the queen, whom she  soon
supplanted. The king, passionately enam-
ored of her, found an unexpected opposi-
tion  to his  wishes, and Anne firmly de-
clared that she could be had on no terms
but those of marriage.  She  knew that
the king already meditated a divorce from
his wife, Catharine of Aragon; but she
also  knew what difficulties the  Catholic
religion opposed to the execution of this
plan.  Cranmer offered his  services to
bring about the accompUshment of the
king's wishes, and thus gave the first oc-
casion to the separation of England from
the  Roman church.  But the impetuous
Henry did not wait for the ministers of
his new  reUgion  to confirm his divorce:
on the contrary,  he privately married
Anne,  Nov. 14, 1532, having previously
created her  marchioness of Pembroke.
When her pregnancy revealed the secret,
Cranmer declared the first maniage void,
and  the  second  valid, and  Anne was
crowned queen at "YVestminster, with un-
paralleled splendor. In 1533, she became
the mother of the famous Elizabeth. She
could not, however, retain the affections
of the king, as inconstant as he was tyran-
nical ;  and,  as  she had supplanted her
queen, while lady  of honor to Catharine,
she was now supplanted herself by Jane
Seymour, her own  lady of honor.  Sus-
picions of  infidelity were added to the
disgust of Henry, which seem to be not
entirely unfounded, although the judicial
process instituted against her was wholly
irregular.   In 1535, she was  imprisoned,
accused, and brought before a jury of
peers.   Smeaton,  a musician, who was
arrested  with others, confessed that he
had enjoyed the queen's favors, and, May
17, 1536, she was condemned to death by
26 judges.   Anne in  vain affinned that
she  had  long before  been contracted to
the duke of Northumberland, and, there-
fore, had never been the lawful wife of
Henry.  Cranmer in vain  declared the
marriage void.   The  sentence of  death
was executed by the command of the in-
flexible Henry, who esteemed it a great
exercise  of clemency to  substitute the
scaffold for the stake.  The last day of
the Ufe of tins unhappy woman, May 19,
1536, presents many interesting moments.
She sent for the wife of the Ueutenant of
the Tower, threw herself upon her knees
before her, and said, " Go to  the princess
Mary (daughter of Catharine) in my name,
and, in this position, beg her forgiveness
for all the sufferings I have drawn upon
her and her mother."   " She sent her last
message to the king," says Hume, " and
acknowledged the obligations which she
owed him in uniformly continuing his
endeavors for her advancement."  " From
a private  gentlewoman, you have made
me,  first, a marchioness, then a queen;
and, as you can raise me  no higher in
this world, you are now sending me to be
a saint in heaven."
  Bolingbroke, Henry St John, viscount,
bom in 1672, at Battersea,  near  London,
of an  ancient family, the  members  of
which  had distinguished themselves in
military and civil offices, received an edu-
cation adapted to his rank, and completed
his studies at Oxford, where he early ex-
hibited uncommon  talents, and attracted
general attention. On entering the world,
he displayed a rare union of brilliant parts
and elegance of manners, with beauty of
person, dignity and affabiUty, and such
fascinating eloquence, that, according to
the  unanimous testimony of his  contem-
poraries, nobody could resist him.  Unfor-
tunately, the passions of his youth oppos-
ed the  developement of his  talents; and,
in his 23d year, he was distinguished prin-
cipally as an accomplished  libertine.  His
parents, supposing that marriage would
have a salutary influence upon him, pro-
posed to him a lady, the heiress of a mil-
lion, who united with a channing figure a
cultivated mind and noble birth.  But the
young  couple had lived but a short time
together,  when  irreconcilable  disputes
arose between them, in consequence of
which  they separated for ever.   Another
plan was adopted to give a better direction
to the impetuous character  of B.  By the
influence of his father, he obtained a seat
in the house of commons.  Here his elo-
quence, his acuteness, and the strength of
his judgment, attracted universal attention.
His former idleness was changed at once
into the most incessant activity.   In 1704,
he was made secretary of war, and came
into immediate connexion with the duke
of Marlborough, whose talents he discern-
ed, and whose enterprises  he supported
with all his influence.  When, however,
the whigs gained the ascendency, B. gave
in his resignation.   Now followed, as he
said himself, the two most active years of
his life, in which he  devoted himself to
study, but by no means neglected pubUc
affairs.   He continued to maintain a con-
stant intercourse with the queen, who
prefened him to her other counseUors. 
168
BOLINGBROKE.
The whig  ministiy was overthrown, to
the astonishment of all  Europe; and B.
received the department of foreign affairs,
in which  post  he concluded the peace
of  Utrecht, of which  he  was always
proud, and which gained  him  general
admiration.   In concluding this peace,
every thing was unfavorable to him—the
whigs, the peers, the bank, the East India
society, Marlborough, Eugene, the empe-
ror, Holland, the jealousy of all the Euro-
pean  powers, the weakness of his own
queen, the ircesolution, imprudence, and
even the envy of his colleagues.  B. after-
wards became a prey to the impetuosity
of his passions, and exhibited a versatility
of conduct that has rendered his loyalty,
his patriotism and  his  whole character
suspected.  The  collision of the whigs
and tories produced such a general excite-
ment, that the  ministers were attacked,
the peace was decried as disastrous, and
the Protestant succession was declared in
danger.   At this moment, a fatal  conten-
tion broke out between the lord  high
treasurer (the  earl of Oxford) and  B.,
immediately after the conclusion of the
peace. Swift, the friend of  both, but par-
ticularly intimate with the lord high treas-
urer,  accused  B.  of having  principally
contributed to the ruin of their party.  Be
this as it may,  queen Anne, provoked to
the utmost by Oxford, dismissed him four
days before her death, and made B. prime
minister.  But the death of Jnne changed
the whole scene.   George I of Hanover
ascended the throne, and the whigs tri-
umphed more completely than ever.  B.,
who could not impose on the Hanoverian
court by his plausible pretences, and who
was as much envied as he was bated, was
dismissed  by king George,  while yet in
Germany, and fled to France, upon learn-
ing that the opposite party intended to
bring him to the scaffold. James III, the
Pretender, as he was called, invited him to
Lorraine, and made him his secretary of
state.  But, when Louis XIV died, B.
lost all hope of the success of the Pretend-
er, and repented of having entered into so
close a connexion with  him.  Whatever
the feelings and  plans  of  B. may  have
been, his intentions, with regard to James
III, were doubtless honest.  Nevertheless,
the latter deprived him of his dignity, and
transferred it  to  the duke of Ormond.
Thus it was the strange  fate of B. to be
charged with treachery, both by the king
and die Pretender.  Offers were made to
him by king George,  on condition of bis
revealing the secrets  of the  Pretender.
This  proposal he at first declined, but
afterwards yielded so far as to promise a
decisive  blow against the  cause  of the
Pretender, on condition of the total obliv-
ion of what had already passed, and of an
entire confidence for  the  future.   Wal-
pole, however, was afraid of B.'s influence
in parliament, and opposed his recall.  B.,
in order to  forget his situation, applied
himself to writing philosophical consola-
tions after  the  manner of Seneca, but
soon found sweeter ones in his  marriage
with a rich and amiable lady,  niece of
madame de Maintenon.  In 1723, the par-
liament, which had been so hostile to B.,
was at length dissolved, and he was per-
mitted to return to England. His estates,
however,  were  not restored until  two
years after, by a particular act of parlia-
ment   On  his return, he lived at first
retired in the country, maintaining, how-
ever, a  correspondence  with Swift and
Pope.  But  no  sooner was the voice of
opposition heard in parliament, than he
hastened to  London, and, as the restora-
tion of his seat in the house of lords was
still  denied  him, attacked  the  ministry
during eight years, in the journals or in
pamphlets, with great success.  He drew
upon himself powerful enemies, against
whom he directed his Treatise on Parties,
which  is considered as his masterpiece.
He then returned to France, with the in-
tention, as even Swift supposed, of throw-
ing himself into the arms of the Pretend-
er's party,  against which  charge  Pope
defended him, and declared that he had
himself advised  his noble  friend to leave
an ungrateful country, by which he was
suspected and persecuted.   In France, B.
wrote,  1735,  his  Letters upon  Histoiy,
which  are  admired even at the present
day, but in which the individual character
of tbe author appears to the exclusion of
general views, and which were blamed, in
particular, for attacking revealed reUgion,
which he had once warmly defended. In
1729, in the  midst  of his  contest with
Walpole, he had suggested to Pope his
Essay on Man, assisted him in the com-
position, and supplied  him with the most
important materials.  His feeUngs finally
carried  him back to his  country, where
he wrote,  1738,  his  Idea of a Patriot
King, under the eyes of the heir apparent.
He died in 1751, in his 80th year, after a
long  and dreadful disease, during which
he composed Considerations on the State
of the Nation.  He bequeathed his manu-
scripts  to the Scotch  poet Maflet, who
published them in 1753; but scarcely had
they  appeared, when a general  cry  was
raised against them, on account of their 
BOLINGBROKE—BOLIVAR.
169
revolting attacks on Christianity.  They
were  presented  by the  grand jury  of
Westminster  as  subversive of religion,
government and moraUty.  B. was capa-
ble  of inspiring the warmest friendship
and the bitterest enmity.  He was accus-
ed of immoderate ambition, and of a proud,
passionate, envious and implacable tem-
per.   His memoirs are useful, as illustrat-
ing English history during the first quar-
ter of the 18th century.
  Bolivar,  Simon,  the great military
captain of South America, and the most
prominent individual yet produced by the
revolution in the late  Spanish colonies,
was born in the city of Caraccas, July 24,
1783.  His father was  don  Juan Vicente
BoUvar y Ponte, and  his mother, doiia
Maria Conception Palacios y Sojo, both
of  noble and distinguished families  in
Venezuela.   After acquiring tUe first ele-
ments of a Uberal education at home, B.
repaired to Europe, in pursuit of more
extended means  of gaining knowledge,
visiting Havana and Mexico on his way.
He completed his studies in Madrid, and
then spent some time in traveUing, chiefly
in the south of Europe.  He was particu-
larly  attracted to -the  capital  of France,
where he was an eye-witness of some of
the later events  of the  revolution, and
there, probably, conceived the idea  of
liberating his country from the tyranny
of Spain. Returning to Madrid, he mar-
ried the daughter of don N. Toro, uncle
of the marquis of Toro, in Caraccas, and
 embarked with her for America, intend-
 ing to dedicate himself, for a while, to
 domestic life and the superintendence  of
 his large estate.   But  the premature and
 sudden death of his wife, who feU a vic-
 tim to the yeUow fever, dispelled his  vis-
 ions of domestic happiness; and he again
 visited Europe as a relief to his sorrow
 for her loss.   On  his return home,  he
passed through the  U. States;  and  the
 lesson of Uberty was not without its fruits;
for, on his arrival in Venezuela, he em-
barked in the plans and intrigues of the
 patriots, and  pledged himself to the cause
 of independence.  Being one of the chief
 promoters of the movement in Caraccas
 of April 19, 1810, which is considered as
 the beginning  of the  revolution, he  re-
ceived a colonel's commission from the
 supreme junta then established, and  was
associated with don Luis Lopez Mendez,
for the purpose of communicating intelli-
 gence of the change  of government to
 Great Britain.  He took  part in the  first
 military operations of the Venezuelan
 patriots after the declaration of indepen-
   vol. n.            15
dence, July  5, 1811, serving under Mi-
randa in an expedition against a body of
persons in Valencia, who thus early took
a stand opposed to the revolution.  After
the earthquake of March, 1812, the war was
commenced  in earnest by the advance of
Monteverde  with the Spanish troops; and
the command of the important post  of
Puerto Cabello was intrusted to B.  But,
unfortunately, the Spanish  prisoners in
the castle of San Felipe,  which com-
manded the town, conupted one of the
patriot officers, and obtained  possession
of the castle; so that B. was compelled to
evacuate the place.  This  mishap con-
tributed greatly to produce the submission
of Miranda, which left Venezuela in the
full  control  of Monteverde.   Many  of
those persons, who were deeply commit-
ted in the revolution, now sought to leave
their  country; and  B. succeeded in ob-
taining a passport and escaping to Cura-
coa.  Unable, however, to remain a cold
spectator  of the events occurring on the
continent, he repaired to Carthagena, in
September,  1812, and, with other emi-
grants from Caraccas, entered into the
service of the patriots  of New Grenada.
They  gave  him  the  command in  the
small town  of Baranca, nominally under
the orders of Labatut, the republican gov-
ernor of Santa Marta; but B. could not
lie content with  the obscure part which
must have fallen to him had he remained
at Baranca.   Instead of this, he under-
took an expedition against Teneriffe, a
town higher up  on the river Magdalena,
occupied  by the  Spaniards, captured it,
and,  gathering forces  on  the  way, he
proceeded,  on his own responsibility, to
Mompox, driving the  Spaniards  before
him  from all their posts in  the Upper
Magdalena,  and finally entering the city
of Ocaiia in triumph, amid the acclama-
tions of the inhabitants, whom he deliv-
ered.  These happy and successful move-
ments now turned the pubUc attention
 upon him ;  and he was invited to march
 upon  Cucuta, and  attempt to expel the
 Spanish division commanded by Correa.
 This operation, also, he achieved, without
 any loss, by the  celerity and  skill of his
 movements,  and  now conceived  die
 great and bold project of invading Vene-
 zuela with his little army, and delivering
 it from the powerful forces under Monte-
 verde.  The congress  of New Grenada
 gratified  him in this respect, and  gave
 him  a  commission  of brigadier;  but
 many obstacles were thrown  in his way
 by colonel Manuel Castillo, commandant-
 general, under the congress, in the prov- 
170
BOLIVAR.
 ince of Pamplona, which led to an irrec-
 oncilable difference  between them.  At
 length, having overcome a multitude of
 difficulties which retarded his advance,
 and  driven Correa  from the  valleys of
 Cucuta, he commenced his march for
 Venezuela, with a smaU force of but little
 more than 500 men,  but accompanied by
 exceUent officers, some of whom after-
 wards acquired great celebrity, such as
 Rivas, Jirardot, Urdaneta and d'Eluyar.—
 Heedless of the accusations of rashness
 lavished on his enterprise, B. plunged into
 the province of Merida.   The inhabitants
 of the  provincial  capital rose upon the
 Spaniards on learning  the  news of his
 approach.   He  hastily  reestablished the
 republican  authorities  there,  while his
 van-guard was proceeding upon Trujillo,
 under Jirardot.   A  single  engagement
 took place in  Corache, where Jirardot
 ilefeated a strong corps of royalists under
 CaiTas,  after which the provinces of Me-
 rida and  Trujillo  remained  wholly free
 from the  Spaniards.  B. had detached
 from his  troops  a  small  body under
 colonel Briceno for the occupation of
 Varinas.   Briceno was  defeated  ;  and,
 faffing into the hands of the Spaniards,
 was shot in cold  blood, with 17 of his
 companions, and many of the patriots of
 Varinas,  by the Spanish commandant
 Fiscar.  Meanwhile,  B.  obtained authen-
 tic intelligence of the horrid and shame-
 less cruelties and oppressions every where
 perpetrated in Venezuela by Monteverde
 and his subordinate officers, analogous to
 the butcheries of Fiscar.   Exasperated by
 the knowledge of these  events, he issued
 the  famous decree of guerra d muerte,
 condemning to  death  aU the  Spanish
 prisoners who might fall into his hands.
 But  he is  not of a  cruel or sanguinary
 temper; and this decree seems to have
 been  intended rather to intimidate  the
 royalists than literally to be put in execu-
 tion.  His army increasing daily, he sep-
 arated it into two  divisions,  committing
 /me of them to the charge of Rivas, and
 hoth  rapidly advanced  upon  Caraccas
through the provinces  of Trujillo  and
 Varinas.  Several  engagements ensued,
in which  the  patriots  were successful;
and, at length, the  decisive victory of
 Lastoguanes, in  which  the  flower of
Monteverde's troops were completely de-
feated, left open the road to  Caraccas.
Monteverde shut himself up in Puerto
Cabello, and R. lost no  time in marching
upon the  capital, which was evacuated
by the Spaniards without a struggle, and
entered in triumph by B., Aug. 4, 1813.
 Meantime, Marifio had effected the liber-
 ation of the eastern provinces of Venezu-
 ela, of which the patriots had regained
 entire possession, excepting only the for-
 tress of Puerto Cabello.—At this period,
 the whole authority in Venezuela centred
 in B., as the commander of the Uberating
 army, and the oppressions of some of his
 subordinate officers excited  loud coin-
 plaints.  Nevertheless, convinced of the
 necessity of having the resources of the
 country, at such an emergency, in the
 hands of a single individual,  it was re-
 solved, in a convention of the principal
 civil and  miUtary officers, assembled at
 Caraccas, Jan. 2, 1814, to confirm the dic-
 tatorial powers which circumstances had
 already thrown  upon  B.  A desperate
 contest now ensued between the royalist
 and patriot parties and forces; and to
 narrate the part which B. took therein,
 would be to relate the history of the war.
 Suffice it to say, that, after various vicis-
 situdes  of  fortune,  B. was  beaten by
 Boves, in a battle fought in the plains of
 La Puerta,  near Cura, and  compelled to
 embark for Cumana, with  the shattered
 remnant of  his forces ; so  that Caraccas
 was retaken by the Spaniards in July,
 1814, and,   before  the  end of the year,
 the royalists were again  undisputed mas-
 ters of Venezuela.  Once more, therefore,
 B. appeared in Carthagena as a fugitive,
 and  proceeded to Tunja, where the con-
 gress of New Grenada was sitting, to give
 an account of bis brilliant, but, in the re-
sult, disastrous expedition. Notwithstand-
 ing his misfortunes, and the efforts of his
 personal enemies,  he was  treated with
great consideration, and received the ap-
plause  merited by one who had needed
only resources proportionate to  lus tal-
ents to have accomplished the permanent
deliverance  of his  country.—When B.
arrived  at Tunja, the congress was  or-
ganizing an expedition against the city
of Bogota, for the purpose of compelling
the  province of Cundinamarca to accede
to the general union of the provinces of
New Grenada, and thus put an end to the
colUsion which divided the means and
crippled the exertions of the republicans.
Every conciUatory measure having failed
to effect a  union of the provinces, the
government had recourse  to  arms.  B.
was  intrusted with  the delicate  task of
commanding the forces of the union upon
this occasion, and marched  against Santa
Fe early in  December, 1814, at the head
of nearly 2000 troops.   He invested the
city, drove  in the outposts,  obtained pos-
session of the suburbs by storm, and was 
BOLIVAR.
171
 preparing to assault  the  great  square,
 where the dictator Alvarez and the troops
 of Cundinamarca were posted, when the
 latter capitulated, December 12, and be-
 came subject, thenceforth, to the general
 government of New Grenada, which was
 peaceably transferred to Bogota. The con-
 gress passed a vote of thanks to B. for
 the wisdom and  courage with which he
 had directed the campaign, and brought
 it so  speedily to a happy termination;
 and the inhabitants of the city themselves
 expressed their approbation of his person-
 al conduct.—Previous to this time, Santa
 Marta had fallen into the  possession of
 the royalists, in consequence of the inca-
 pacity of Labatut; and the general  gov-
 ernment  justly  appreciated  the  impor-
 tance of regaining it.  B. was accordingly
 employed upon  this service,  and was to
 receive the necessary munitions  of war
 from the citadel of Carthagena; but the
 rivalry and jealousy of the military com-
 mandant  Castillo, the origin of which we
 have already explained,  defeated all his
 plans.  Indignant at  Castillo's conduct
 in refusing him the requisite supplies, B.,
 after the season for acting  against Santa
 Marta to advantage had been wasted in
 ruinous delays, invested Carthagena with
 his  troops, hoping to intimidate Castillo
 into submission, or, if not, to reduce him
 to reason by force.   But, in the midst of
 these wretched dissensions, wherein both
 parties listened too much to resentment,
 Morillo arrived at the isle of Margarita
 with an overwhelming force from Spain;
' and B., aware that all further views upon
 Santa Marta were hopeless, threw up his
 command, and, finding that he could not
 be usefully employed at Carthagena, em-
 barked for Jamaica, in May, 1815, to wait
 for better times.  He remained in Kings-
 ton most of the year, whilst Morillo was
 reducing  Carthagena, and  overrunning
 New  Grenada.  During his  residence
 there, a hireling Spaniard made an at-
 tempt upon his  life, and would have as-
 sassinated bun,  if it had not happened
 that  another person  occupied B.'s  bed
 at the time, who  was stabbed to the heart.
 —From  Kingston, B. repaired  to  Aux
 Cayes, in the island of Hayti, and, assisted
 by private individuals, and with a small
 force furnished by Petion, formed an ex-
 gedition, in conjunction with commodore
  Irion, to join  Arismendi, who had raised
 the  standard of  independence anew in
 the isle of Margarita.  He arrived in safe-
 ty at Margarita in May, 1816, and, sailing
 thence, landed on  the  main  land  near
 Cumana,  but, in  a few months, was en-
 countered by the  Spaniards under  Mo-
 rales at  Ocumare, and compelled to re-
 embark.   Nothing disheartened by this
 failure, he  obtained  reinforcements  at
 Aux Cayes, and, in December, 1816, land-
 ed once  more in Margarita.   There he
 issued a proclamation  convoking the
 representatives of Venezuela in a general
 congress; and from thence passed over
 to Barcelona, where  he organized a pro-
 visional government, and gathered forces
 to resist  Morillo, who was approaching
 with a powerful  division.  They encoun-
 tered each  other on  the 16th, 17th and
 18th of February, in a desperate conflict,
 which ended in B.'s obtaining the victory.
 Morillo  retreated  in  disorder,  and  was
 met and  defeated anew by general Paez,
 with his irresistible Llancros.   B., being
 now recognised  as supreme chief, pro-
 ceeded in his career of victory, and, be-
 fore the close of the year 1817, had fixed
 his  head-quarters at  Angostura.  The
 sanguinary battles of this period, in the
 most important of which he was engaged
 in person, belong rather to the history of
 Colombia (q. v.)  than to B.'s  own  life.
 He  found  time, however, to preside at
 the opening of the congress of Angostu-
 ra, February 15th, 1819, and to  submit a
 long and elaborate exposition of his views
 of government  He also surrendered his
 authority into the hands of the congress,
 which required him to resume it, and to
 retain  it  until the independence of his
 country  should  be fully  achieved.  B.
 soon reorganized his forces, and set out
 from Angostura, with the purpose of cross^
 ing the Cordilleras, and effecting a junc-
 tion with general Santander, who com-
 manded  the republican forces in New
 Grenada, so that the united arms of the
 two republics might act with the greater
 efficiency.   He succeeded, in July, 1819,
 in reaching Tunja, which city he entered
 after a battle on the neighboring heights,
and, on the 7th  of August,  gained  the
 great and splendid  victory of Bojaca,
 which gave him immediate possession of
 Santa Fe and all  New Grenada.  The
 viceroy Samano fled  precipitately before
 him; and he was enthusiastically wel-
comed in Santa  Fe  as a deliverer,  ap-
pointed president and captain-general of
the republic, and  enabled by the new re-
sources of men, money and munitions of
war, which he found there, to prepare for
returning into Venezuela with an army
sufficient  to  ensure the complete expul-
sion of the  Spaniards.—B.'s entry into
Angostura, after his glorious campaign in
New Grenada, was a pecuUarly gratify- 
172                             BOLIVAR.
ing and affecting spectacle.   Its whole
population hailed him as the liberator and
father of his countiy.  He embraced the
favorable moment to obtain  the funda-
mental law of December 17tb,  1819, by
which  the  repubUcs of Venezuela and
New Grenada  were to be  thenceforth
united in a single state, under the presi-
dency of B., and by the title of the repub-
lic of Colombia.   Meanwhile,  the seat of
government  was transferred  provisional-
ly to Rosario de Cucuta; and B. again
took the field, at the head of the  most
formidable army that had been assembled
by the  independents.  After  a series of
memorable advantages over  the  Span-
iards, an armistice of six months was ne-
gotiated at Trujillo, between B. and Mo-
rillo, and  subscribed  November  25th,
1820.  Morillo soon afterwards returned
to Spain, leaving La Tone in command.
At the termination of the armistice, B.
made a great effort  to finish the war by
a decisive  blow, and attained his object
by vanquishing La Tone, in the famous
battle of Carabobo, leaving to the Span-
iards only the broken  fragments  of an
army, which  took refuge in  Puerto Ca-
bello, and there, after a protracted and
obstinate struggle of more than two years,
sunendered to general Paez.—The battle
of Carabobo may be regarded as having
put an end to the war in Venezuela.  B.
entered Caraccas, June 29th, 1820, having
now, for the  third time, rescued his na-
tive city from its oppressors, and was re-
ceived with transports of joy.  By the
close of the year,  the  Spaniards  were
driven from every part of the  countiy, ex-
cept Puerto Cabello and Quito; and the
time was deemed auspicious for establish-
ing  permanent  political  institutions in
Colombia.  The present constitution was
completed  and  adopted August  30th,
1821, and B. was elected the first con-
stitutional president, with general San-
tander  for vice-president  Having thus
achieved the independence  of his own
countiy, B. placed himself at the head of
the Uberating army destined  to expel the
Spaniards from Quito and  Pera.  The
fate of Quito was decided by the battle
of Pichincha, fought in June", 1822, and
gained by the  talents and  prowess of
Sucre.  Aware that the southern  prov-
inces of Colombia could never be secure
while  Peru remained  subject to Spain,
and anxious to  extend the  blessings of
independence to all America, B. resolved
to march upon Lima, and assist the Peru-
 vians.  The royaUsts, not being prepared
 to meet him, evacuated Lima at his ap-
proach ; and B., entering the capital anud
the acclamations of the people, was in-
vested with supreme power as dictator,
and authorized to call into action  aU the
resources of the country for its liberation.
But, opposed and  denounced by  some
of the factions wliich distracted Peru, he
found himself under  the necessity of re-
turning to Trujillo, in Northern Peru, leav-
ing Lima to be retaken by the Spaniards
under Canterac.—At length,in June, 1824,
the liberating army was completely or-
ganized, and soon after, taking the field,
routed the vanguard of the  enemy.  B.
was anxious for  the  opportunity of a
decisive engagement, and, in fact, soon
obtained a brilliant victory, August 6, on
the plains of Junin.  Leaving Sucre to
follow the royalists in their retreat into
Upper Peru,  he repaired to Lima, to or-
ganize the government; and, during his
absence from the army,  Sucre  gained
the splendid victory of Ayacucho.  Noth-
ing was now held by the Spaniards in
Pera  but  the  castles of Callao;  which
Rodil maintained for upwards of a year,
B.  employing aU the  resources  of  the
government for their reduction, until Jan-
uary, 1826.   In June, 1825, B.  visited
Upper Peru, which detached  itself from
the government  of  Buenos Ayres, and
was formed into a new republic, named
Bolivia, in honor of the Uberator.   The
members of the congress of the new re-
public, assembled in August, 1825, seem-
ed to vie  with one another in extrava-
gant resolutions, testifying  their gratitude
to B. and  Sucre.  The  former  was  de-
clared perpetual protector of the republic,
and requested to  prepare  for it a  consti-
tution of government  Returning to Lima,
he occupied  himself in performing this
task.—We touch  now upon a  period
when B. appears in a new  aspect.   Hith-
erto, we have traced his military  career,
at first uncertain,  and abounding in great
reverses, but at length splendidly success-
ful.   His remarkable fertility in resources,
his  courage,  conduct,  and  preeminent
genius for the art of war, are all undenia-
ble, and are proved not less by his brilliant
success, than by the  testimony of all the
most competent  judges.  But he now
comes before us in the capacity of a law-
giver ; and imputations on the purity of
his political views arise contemporaneous-
ly with his assuming the delicate  task of
consolidating the  governments which his
military  prowess had created.—In De-
cember, 1824, B. issued a decree, convok-
 ing a constituent congress to  assemble in
 Lima the ensuing February.   This body 
BOLIVAR.
173
 assembled accordingly; but, in considera-
 tion of the unsettled state of the country,
 resolved to continue the dictatorial pow-
 ers of B. another year, without  attempt-
 ing to settle the government permanently.
 They also urged on B. a grant of a million
 of dollars, which  he, widi  the Uberality
 of feeling,  and contempt of mercenary
 motives,  which have  invariably distin-
 guished   him,  rejected.  Congress  soon
 adjourned,  and B.  remained sole  and
 absolute  governor  of  Peru.   Residing
 partly at  Lima, and partly at Magdalena,
 he directed the  acts of the govemment,
 and,  at  this period, proposed  the cele-
 brated congress of Panama, for the pur-
  Eose of  estabUshing  a stable  alliance
  etween  all the independent states of
 America.  Having completed his project
 of a constitution for Bolivia, he presented
 it to the congress of that state, with an ad-
 dress, dated  May 25th, 1826, wherein he
 solemnly recorded his opinions of the
 form of government required by the new
 repubUcs of the south.   Of this famous
 code, an  account  will  be  found in the
 article Bolivia.  It is enough to state here,
 that, among other features which alarmed
 the friends of liberty, the most exception-
 able was a provision for lodging the exec-
 utive authority in the hands of a president
 for life, without responsibility, and  with
 power to nominate his successor.  When
 the  nature  of this constitution  became
 generally known in South America, it
 excited the  liveliest apprehensions, es-
 pecially among the republicans of Bue-
 nos  Ayres  and Chile,  who feared,  or
 pretended to fear, an invasion from  B.;
 and not less in  Pera, where he began to
 be accused  of a design to  unite perma-
 nently Colombia, Peru  and Bolivia, and
 to make himself perpetual dictator of the
 same.—These imputations received coun-
 tenance, at least, from the proceedings of
 B. himself  The surrender of Callao, by
 completely  freeing Peru from the Span-
 iards, finished the  business for which B.,
 and  the   Colombian  troops, had  been
 called into  the country.  But he mani-
 fested no intention of departing, or of re-
 signing his  authority.  On the contrary,
 when  the deputies  for the  constituent
 congress of  1826 assembled, they saw fit,
 or were induced, for alleged irregularities
 in their appointment, and for other causes,
 to decline acting in  their legislative ca-
 pacity.  A majority of the deputies pub-
 lished an address,  in which they urged
 B. to continue at the helm another year,
and, meantime, to consult the provinces
individually as to the form of government
                15*
 which they might desire, and the person
 who should be placed at its head.  Ac-
 cordingly, circular letters, written in the
 name  of B. and  his council of govern-
 ment, and issued from  the bureau of his
 minister Pando,  were addressed to the
 several prefects  of  departments, com-
 manding them to assemble the electoral
 colleges, and submit, for their sanction, a
 form  of constitution precisely the same
 with the Bolivian code, only adapted to
 Peru.  This constitution was adopted by
 the  colleges,  who  also  nominated  B.
 president  for Ufe under it, with  a  una-
 nimity too  extraordinary not  to  have
 been  the result either  of intimidation or
 of management  Before this time, how-
 ever, events had  transpired in Colombia,
 which demanded the presence of B. in
 his own country.  During his absence,
 the vice-president,  Santander,  had  ad-
 ministered  the  government  with abiUty
 and  uprightness.  Colombia  had been
 recognised  by other countries as an inde-
 pendent state; its territory was divided
 into  departments, and its  government
 regularly organized.  But, in April, 1826,
 general Paez, who commanded in Ven-
 ezuela, being accused before  the Colom-
 bian senate of arbitrary conduct in the
 enrolment of the  citizens of Caraccas in
 the miUtia,  refused obedience to the sum-
 mons of the senate, and placed himself in
 open rebellion to the national government
 and constitution.  Taking advantage of
 this  unhappy incident, the  disaffected
 party in the ancient Venezuela, all those
 opposed to a central form of government,
 and all those opposed to the existing ad-
 ministrators of the government,  united
 with Paez; and thus the northern depart-
 ments became virtually separated, for the
 time being, from the rest of the  republic.
 But all professed a readiness to  submit
their grievances to the decision  of B., and
anxiously required his  return to Colom-
bia.  While these movements were taking
place  in  Venezuela, professedly with a
view to obtain a federal, instead of a cen-
tral form of government, various muni-
 cipalities in the  southern departments,
 formed from what had been the presi-
dency of Quito, held public meetings, in
 which  they voted to adopt the Bolivian
code, and lodged the authority of dictator
in the hands of B.  Evidence  has been
adduced, showing  that the latter proceed-
ings were in accordance with the wishes
of B., and that the meetings were actual-
ly summoned by  the personal  interven-
tion of Leocadio  Guzman, an  emissary
of his, who suggested the resolutions they 
174
BOLIVAR.
 should pass;  and suspicions  have not
 been wanting, that Paez was  either in-
 cited, or sustained, by intimations received
 from the same quarter.   On these things
 it  would be  premature now  to  decide.
 Certain it is, that, to all appearance, the
 central departments alone, answering to
 New Grenada, continued faithful to the
 constitution.  These circumstances most
 imperiously demanded the presence of B.,
 whether  as the  cause and  object  of
 the pubUc  distractions, or as  the  means
 of  composing  them.  Accordingly,  he
 set out from  Lima in  September, 1826,
 committing the government to a council
 of his own appointment, and  responsible
 to him alone, with general Santa Cruz at
 its  head, and leaving  the whole of the
 Colombian auxiliary army in Peru and
 Bolivia.  B. made all haste to  reach Bo-
 gota, which  he  entered Nov. 14, 1826,
 and, assuming the extraordinary powers
 which, by the constitution, the president
 is authorized  to exercise in case of rebel-
 lion, he remained only  a few  days in the
 capital, and pressed on to stop the effusion
 of blood in Venezuela.   He went, accom-
 panied merely by a small escort, although
 forces were in readiness to sustain him if
 requisite, and all the demonstrations of
 insurrection vanished  at  his approach.
 He reached  Puerto Cabello   December
 31st, and immediately  issued a decree,
 dated  Jan. 1, 1827, giving assurance of
 a general amnesty to the insurgents, on
 their peaceably submitting to  his author-
 ity, and engaging to call a convention for
 the reform  of the constitution.  He had a
 friendly meeting with  Paez,   and, soon
 afterwards, entered Caraccas, where he
 fixed his head quarters, having the north-
 em  departments under  his  immediate
* personal  authority, and separated from
 the body  of  the  republic, which pro-
 ceeded in  its ordinary routine.  B. and
 Santander had respectively been reelected
 to the offices  of  president and vice-presi-
 dent, and should  have been qualified anew
 as such in  January, 1827.  But, in Feb-
 ruary,  B. addressed a  letter from Carac-
 cas to the president of the senate, renounc-
 ing the presidency of the republic, and
 expressing  a determination to repel the
 imputations of ambition cast upon him, by
 retiring to seclusion upon his patrimonial
 estate.   Santander,  in  reply,  urged him
 to  resume his  station  as constitutional
 president, convinced that the troubles and
 agitations of the  country, if they were not
 occasioned by the intrigues of B. himself,
 might  at any moment  be  quieted by his
 lending the authority  of his  name, and
his personal influence, to the cause of the
constitution.  But distrust, suspicion and
jealousy of die conduct and intentions of
B. now filled all the friends of repubUcan
institutions. He had recorded his confes-
sion of political faith, to use his own ex-
pression, in the  anti-repubUcan BoUvian
code, and he was believed to be  anxious
for its introduction into Colombia.  When
his renunciation of  the presidency was
submitted to the consideration of the con-
gress, a  portion  of the members  urged
that  body to accept  the  renunciation.
They pubhcly accused  him  of being in
concert with Paez;  of having designedly
thrown the whole nation into discord and
confusion, in order to create a false  im-
pression  of the  necessity  of bestowing
upon himself the dictatorship.   But  a
majority of the members insisted upon his
retaining the presidency, and  required his
presence at Bogota  to take the constitu-
tional oaths.  Before  he came, however,
they had passed a decree of general am-
nesty ; a decree for assembUng a national
convention at Ocaiia, and a decree for re-
establishing constitutional order through-
out Colombia.  His arrival was hastened
by unexpected events, touching him per-
sonally, which had occurred  in Peru and
the southern departments.  Not long after
his departure from  Lima, the returns of
the electoral coUeges were  received by
the council of government, by which the
Bolivian code was pronounced to be the
constitution of Peru, and B. the president
for life.   The  constitution  was accord-
ingly  promulgated  officiaUy, and  was
sworn to, by the pubUc functionaries in
Lima, Dec. 9,1826, the anniversary of the
victory of Ayacucho.  At this time, the
Colombian auxiliary  army in Peru  was
cantoned in three divisions; one stationed
in Upper Peru, and two in Lower Peru;
one of these at Arequipa, and one in Lima.
This  third division consisted of veteran
companions of  B.'s  triumphs, and was
commanded by his personal friends, gen-
erals  Lara and Sands.  Notwithstanding
the attachment of these troops to B., they
had lately been growing distrustful of his
designs; and, although they  did not feel
disposed, it would seem, to thwart his
views upon Peru, they took fire immedi-
ately when diey saw cause to believe that
he had similar views  upon their own na-
tive Colombia.   The consequence was,
that, in the short space of six weeks after
the new constitution was solemnly adopt-
ed, they  came forward, and revolutionized
the government of Peru.  So well were
tlieir measures taken, that, Jan. 26, 1827, 
BOLIVAR.                              175
they anested tlieir general officers without
any conflict or opposition ; placed them-
selves under the command of Bustamante,
one of their colonels; and announced to
the inhabitants of Lima, that their sole
object was to relieve the  Peruvians from
oppression, and to return home to protect
tlieir  own  countiy  against  the alleged
ambitious schemes of B.  The Peruvians
immediately abjured the Bolivian code,
deposed  B.'s  council of ministers, and
proceeded, in perfect freedom, to organ-
ize a provisional government for them-
selves.   Arrangements  were   speedily
made, after this bloodless revolution was
effected, to transport the third division to
Guayaquil, according to tlieir own desire.
They embarked at Callao, March 17, and
landed in the southern department oi'Co-
lombia, in  April, part of them proceeding
for Guayaquil, and  part  for Cuenca and
Quito, uniformly declaring their object to
be the restoration of constitutional order,
in opposition to any designs  upon the
republic entertained by  B.   Intelligence
of these events reached B. while he was
still  in the north of Colombia.   Rousing
himself iustantly from his long-continued
inactivity,   he  made  preparations  for
marching  to the other  extremity of the
republic, and reducing the third division.
But these troops, finding the  government
was in the hands of the  regular national
executive,  had  peaceably submitted to
general  Ovando, who was sent, by  the
constitutional authorities, for the purpose
 of taking  the command.  B. meanwhile
 signified his consent to be  qualified as
 president,  and proceeded, with this intent,
 to Bogota, where  he arrived Sept. 10,
 took the oaths prescribed by the constitu-
 tion, and resumed the functions belonging
 to his official station.  To external appear-
 ance, therefore, Colombia was restored to
 tranquillity, under the rule of her consti-
 tutional magistrates.  But the nation was
 divided between two great parties, and
 agitated to its centre by their opposite views
 of the political condition of the countiy.
 B. had regained the personal confidence
 of the soldiers and officers of the third
 division, who expressed the  deepest re-
 pentance for tlieir distrust  of his charac-
 ter, and their entire devotion to his inter-
 ests.  But the  repubUcan  party, and the
 friendsof the constitution, with Santander
 at their head,  continued  to regard his
 ascendency over the army, and his poUti-
 cal movements, with undisguised and not
 unfounded apprehension, universally ac-
 cusing or suspecting him of a desire to
 emulate the career of Napoleon.  They
looked to the convention of Ocaiia, which
was  to assemble  in March, 1828, for a
decided expression of the will of the  na-
tion  in favor of the existing republican
forms. The military, on the other hand.
did not conceal tlieir  conviction that a
stronger  and more permanent fonn of \
government was necessary for the public
welfare;  that the people were unprepared
for purely republican institutions, and that
B. ought to be intrusted with discretionary
power to administer the affairs of Colom-
bia.—In  1828, B.  assumed the supreme
power in Colombia, by a  decree, dated
Bogota, Aug. 27, which gives him author-
ity to maintain  peace at  home, and to
defend the country against foreign inva-
sions ; to have the command of the land
and sea forces; to negotiate with foreign
powers;  to make peace and declare war;
to make  treaties; to appoint the civil and
military officers; to pass decrees, and ordi-
nances of every description; to regulate
the  administration of justice,  &c.  The
decree provides, however, that he is to be
assisted in the exercise of executive pow-
er by the councfl  of ministers.  If B. is
to be the Csesar of South America, even
his  enemies admit that, like Caesar, his
purposes are ultimately good.   He desires
the pure administration of justice, encour-
ages the arts and sciences,  fosters all the
great national interests, and, if he attains
absolute power, will probably use it wisely
and nobly.  But it is premature to denom-
inate  him the Washington of the South,
before it well appears whether the liber-
ties of his country are safe from his am-
 bition.—In his person, B. is described as
 being of ordinary stature; ungraceful in
 his  air and movements; thin and spare,
 but capable of great  endurance; of an
 olive complexion, with black, coarse  hair,
 thin in front; broad, busby eye-brows over-
 shadowing an eye somewhat sunken, but
 full of fire and expression.  His inteUect
 is undoubtedly of the highest order, and
 his general character of that ardent, lofty
 cast, which civil commotions are apt to
 form, and which qualifies its possessor to
 ride on the tempest.   His  ordinary state-
 papers do not bespeak a very pure taste,
 nor an  understanding ever subjected to
 any  well-directed cultivation, and  are
 frequently conceived  in language which
 even the lofty idiom of  his vernacular
 tongue will hardly sanction.  Being now
 only 46 years of age, he may have a long
 career of varied  fortune yet before him,
 wherein he may do  much, either to fill
 the friends of republican institutions with
 sonow, or to build for himself a durable 
176
BOLIVAR—BOLIVIA.
 monument of glory.  (Restrepo's Colom-
 bia, vols. 3—6;  Columbia, vol. 2; Amer.
 An. Register, vols. 1 and 2.)—There has
 lately appeared a work, entitled Memoirs
 of Simon Bolivar, and of his prinripal Gen-
 erals, with an Introduction, &c, by general
 H. L. V. Ducoudray  Holstein ;  Boston,
 1829.  The book is a  violent philippic
 against B., and evidently colored too highly
 to be a  safe authority.  It does not be-
 come the biographer to adopt  the views
 of a political  partisan, nor to pronounce
 a decisive judgment until  the  career of
 his subject is closed.
   Bolivia; the  name  of a country in
 South America.   It is bounded N. W.
 by Peru,  N. E. and E. by Brazil, S. by
 Buenos Ayres or the United Provinces of
 South America,  and  W.  by the Pacific
 ocean and Peru.  It is elevated and moun-
 tainous, giving rise to several large tribu-
 taries, both of the Amazon and La Plata.
 It includes lake Titicaca. It contains rich
 silver mines,  of which those of Potosi,
 that were formerly very productive, are
 the most  celebrated.  The town of Chu-
 quisaca, or La Plata, is the capital.  Some
 of the other principal towns are Potosi,
 Charcas, Oropesa, Oruro, La Paz and Co-
 chabamba.  The population has been re-
 cently estimated at 1,000,000 or  1,200,000.
 —This republic dates its origin from the
 battle of Ayacucho, fought Dec. 9, 1824,
 in which  general Antonio Jose de Sucre,
 at the head of the Colombian forces, de-
 feated the viceroy La Serna, and insured
 the independence of the countiy.  It con-
 sists of the provinces  known under the
 Spanish government as Upper Peru, and
 then  governed as a dependency  of the
 viceroyalty  of Buenos  Ayres.   Olaneta
 maintained a show of opposition for a
 short time after the battle of Ayacucho;
 but  Sucre quickly drove  him  into the
 province of Salta, where his  forces were
 dispersed by the Buenos Ayrean authori-
 ties, in April, 1825.  No obstacle now re-
 mained to prevent the organization of an
 independent  government   A congress
 assembled at Chuquisaca, in August, 1825,
 and resolved to establish a separate repub-
 lic, independent both of Lower Peru and
 of Buenos Ayres, to be named Bolivia, in
 honor of the  liberator Bolivar.  Among
 other testimonials of then- gratitude to-
 wards him, they requested him to prepare
 the draft of a constitution for the republic,
 lodging the authority of president,  mean-
 while, in  the  hands of Sucre.  Bolivar
.accordingly prepared the project of a con-
 stitution,  which he presented to them
 May 25,1826, accompanied by an address,
containing his general views upon the
subject of government.  By this code, the
powers of government are distributed into
four sections—the  electoral, legislative,
executive and judicial. The electoral body
is composed of persons chosen, for a peri-
od of four years,  by the citizens at large,
at the rate of one elector for every hundred
citizens.   The legislative power resides
in three  chambers, the first of tribunes,
the next  of senators, and the highest of
censors.   The tribunes are  to be chosen
for a period of four years, half of the
chamber  being renewed  every  second
year; and the senators for eight  years,
half of their body being renewed every
fourth year.  Between these two bodies,
the ordinary duties of legislation are ap-
portioned in a manner peculiarly artificial
and  inconvenient, together with various
other functions of a judicial  and executive
character.  The censors are for Ufe, and
their business is to watch  over the gov-
ernment, to accuse the executive before
the senate, to regulate the  press, educa-
tion, and the arts  and sciences, to grant
rewards  for public services, and to de-
nounce the  enemies  of the state.  The
executive power resides in a president for
life, a vice-president and four secretaries.
The president commands all the  military
and naval forces, and exercises the whole
patronage of the government, nominating
all the civil and military servants of the
state, officers of the army, navy and treas-
ury,  foreign  ministers, and the vice-presi-
dent, who is to be his successor:  he is,
moreover, without any responsibility for
the acts of his administration.  The judi-
cial power is regulated so as to secure the
due  administration of justice; and the
private rights of individuals arc carefully
protected by suitable guarantees.   This
form of constitution, it is evident, would
give  the  executive  such preponderating
power, that  all  the measures of govern-
ment would, in  fact, be subject to his will,
and he would be, to all intents  and pur-
poses, the elective prince of a monarchy,
limited in theory, but absolute in opera-
tion.  This code was presented to tiie
constituent  congress  of Bolivia, which
assembled at Chuquisaca, in May, 1826,
and by that body adopted as the constitu-
tion  of the republic.  The 9th of Decem-
ber, the anniversary of the battle of Aya-
cucho, being fixed upon as  the period
when it should be canied into effect, Su-
cre  resigned his  discretionary  authority
into  the  hands of congress, and solicited
them to  appoint a native of the country
to be his successor.  But  they resolved 
BOLIVIA—BOLOGNA.
177
that he should retain the executive power
until the election of a constitutional pres-
ident should take place.  Sucre consented
to continue in office until that time;  re-
quiring, however, that  the electoral col-
leges should present a  candidate for  the
high office of president, previous to  the
assembling of the  constitutional legisla-
ture.   This resulted in the election of
Sucre as president  for life under the con-
stitution.  Whether the choice was  en-
tirely a free one or not is  yet uncertain.
A large body of Colombian troops re-
mained in Upper  Peru, under  circum-
stances analogous to the situation of other
troops of the same  nation in Lower Peru,
and, of course, affording like reason to pre-
sume that military influence may have
affected the election.—The geographical
  Eosition of B. being mostly inland, its po-
  tical condition' is  less  accurately known
than that of die neighboring countries, and
less an object of general interest  In the
natural progress of things, it would seem
likely  to  be reunited  to  Lower Peru,
from which it was arbitrarily severed by
the Spanish government.   But  hitherto
the congress of the Rio de la Plata has
refused to recognise   its  independence,
insisting that the limits of tlieir  republic
shall be  coextensive   with  the ancient
boundaries of the  viceroyalty of Buenos
Ayres, and, of course, claiming the prov-
inces of Upper Pera  by  the same  title
under which they lay claim to Paraguay
and the  Banda Oriental.   But it is not
probable,  in any event that can be reason-
ably anticipated, that Bolivia will again
be joined to Buenos Ayres.  (Const, of
Bolima; Amer. An. Reg. vols. 1 and 2.)
   Bollandists ; a society of Jesuits in
Antwerp, which has published, under the
title  Acta Sanctorum  (q.  v.), the well-
known collection of the traditions of the
saints of the  Roman Catholic church.
They received this name from John Bol-
land, who first undertook to digest the
materials already  accumulated by Heri-
bert Roswey.
   Bollman, Erich, a  man distinguished
for knowledge, character and enterprise,
bom in 1770, at Hoya, in Hanover, went,
in 1792, to Paris, to practise  as  a physi-
cian.  Here he saved count Narbonne
from the Jacobins. In 1794, he resolved
to free Lafayette from his prison in 01-
miitz.  By his efforts, and those of Mr.
Huger, a  gentleman belonging to the U.
States, Lafayette was enabled to quit his
dungeon, Nov. 8,  but  was unfortunately
retaken  soon after.   B.  was  cast  into
prison, but after a while set at liberty, and
banished from the Austrian dominions.
He afterwards settled in the U. States,
and subsequently went to England.
  Bologna (Bononia Felrinia);  one of
the oldest, largest  and richest cities of
Italy, with colonnades along the sides of
the streets for foot-passengers.  It is call-
ed la grassa (the fat); lies at the foot of
the Apennines, between  the rivers  Reno
and Savena, and contains 65,300 inhabit-
ants and 8000 houses, with manufactories
of cordage, soap, paper,  artificial flowers
and arms.  B. is the  capital of the  papal
delegation of the same name ; the secular
concerns of which are administered by a
cardinal legate, who  resides here ; whilst
the archbishop directs in spiritual affairs.
A gonfaloniere, chosen  every 2  months,
with 50 senators and 8 elders from the
citizens, form a  republican government,
which has almost the whole management
of the affairs of the city.  The people of
B. voluntarily submitted to the papal see
in 1513, being tired of the party struggles
among the nobles, by which the strength
of the state was exhausted.  B. has an
ambassador in  Rome, whose  duty it is
to maintain the  limitations of the papal
authority, according  to  the constitution,
and who, after every new election of a
pope,  presents  complaints  of the en-
croachments  of his predecessor.   The
city chooses, also, one of the judges com-
posing  the  high  court of appeals  at
Rome.  Her  armorial bearings are  even
now  sunounded by the charmed word
Libertas.  The pope, by the constitution,
can exact no other tax than the excise on
wine.   During three centuries, the papa!
government endeavored to introduce  in
B. the excise on corn (annona), but could
not  succeed.   The  rich nobility of the
papal states live in  B., and are on bad
terms with the head of the church.—This
city is also the residence of the old Bo-
lognese patrician families, who have given
many  popes  to  the  church.   The  most
liberal men in the papal dominions are to
be found among the  learned of this city.
In 1816,  the nobiUty, scholars and citi-
zens founded a Socratic society for the
promotion of social happiness, which was,
however,  suspected of Carbonarism.  B.
was  long renowned for  its  university,
founded, according to tradition, by Theo-
dosius the younger, in 425, which, in die
centuries  of barbarism,  spread the hght
of knowledge over all Europe.  It once
had 10,000 students, but the number at
present is only  300.  Here the famous
Irnerius taught  the  civil law in the 11th
century;  and men like Bulgerus, Marti- 
178
BOLOGNA—BOMB.
nus, Jacobus and Hugo attracted pupils
from every quarter.  The  university for-
merly possessed  so much  influence, that
even the coins of the city  bore its motto,
Bononia docet.  The  law school enjoyed
the greatest  fame.  Its teachers had the
reputation of inculcating principles favor-
able to despotism, and were consequently
rewarded  by the favor of the emperors
and  of the  ItaUan sovereigns.   During
1400 years,  every new discovery  in sci-
ence and the arts found patrons here, and
the scientific journals prove that curiosity
on these subjects is still awake in B.   A
citizen of B.,  general count Fern. Mar-
sigli, founded, in 1709, the instituto delle
sdenze, and gave it  a  library of almost
200,000 volumes; to which, in 1825, the
abbate Mezzofanti, professor of Oriental
languages, was appointed librarian.  This
learned man speaks  a  large number of
living  languages correctly and fluently
(for instance, Gernian, in several dialects,
Russian, Hungarian, Walachian, the lan-
guage of the Gipsies, &c), without ever
having left B.  The foreign troops in Italy
gave him opportunities for  learning them.
Count  Marsigli  founded and endowed,
also, an observatory,  an anatomical hall,
a botanical garden, and accumulated val-
uable collections for  all branches  of sci-
ence and art.  These are at present con-
nected with  the accademia Clementina
of pope Clement XI.  In  the  16th cen-
tury, the  famous painters and sculptors
Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichino and
Albano founded  a school,  to which their
works have given great reputation.  (See
Painting.)   There were, even as early as
the 12th and 13th centuries, great paint-
ers in  B.  Francesco, called U Francia,
was famous in the 15th century.  The
chief place of the city is adorned  by sev-
eral venerable buildings: among them arc
the senate hall (which contains a number
of excellent pictures and statues, and the
200 folio volumes of  the famous  natural
philosopher  Ulysses Aldrovandus, written
with his own hand, as materials for future
works), the palace of justice of the podes-
ta, and the cathedral of St  Petronio, with
its unfinished  front and the meridian of
Cassini drawn upon a copper plate in the
floor.  Among the 73 other churches, the
following are distinguished : S. Pietro, S.
Salvatore, S. Domenicho, S. Giovanni in
Monte,  S.  Giacomo  maggiore,  all pos-
sessed  of rich  treasures of art.  The col-
lections of  works of art are numerous:
they are  part of  rich  family fortunes,
transmitted  in trust, and are continually
increased by each generation.  The gal-
leries Sampieri and Zambeccari formerly
excelled all others, but are now surpassed
by  those  of Marescalchi and ErcolanL
The collection of the academy of painting,
endowed, in modern times, by the muni-
cipality, principally with the treasures of
abolished churches and monasteries, is
rich, and full of historical interest.  The
admired fountain  of the  market is  defi-
cient in nothing but water.  It is adorned
with a Neptune in bronze, by John of
Bologna.  The towers degli Asinelli and
Garisenda were formerly objects of ad-
miration ; the former for its slenderness,
which gave it the appearance of an Ori-
ental minaret; the latter for its inclination
from the perpendicular, which  amounted
to 14 feet.  It has since, however, been
reduced to one third of its former height,
from  precaution.  B.  has always been
famous for cheap Uving, and has been
chosen as a residence  by many literary
men.  Gourmands praise it as the native
country of excellent maccaroni, sausages,
liquors and preserved fruits. The schools
for training animals enjoy, likewise, some
reputation.  The pilgrimage to the  Ma-
donna di  S. Lucca, whose church  is situ-
ated at the foot of the Apennines, half a
league distant from B., and to which an
arcade of 640 arches leads, annually at-
tracts a great number of people from all
parts of Italy.
  Bomb ;  a  large, hollow, iron  baU or
shell,  formerly often made  of cannon-
metal, and sometimes  of an  oval form,
with a hole  in which a wooden fuse is
cemented, and with two little handles,
Bombs are thrown from mortars.  They
are  filled with powder and combustible
matter (which consists of equal  parts of
sulphur  and  nitre,  mixed with some
mealed powder), and are used for  setting
fire  to houses, blowing up magazines, &c.
The charge in bombs of 74 pounds con-
tains from 5 to 8 pounds of powder, and
1 pound of the other composition  above-
mentioned.  In bombs of 10 pounds, it
amounts to 1 pound of powder and from
2 to 3 ounces of the mixture.   The fuse,
which is hollow, and filled with powder
and other inflammable ingredients,  sets
fire  to the charge.  The  length and the
composition of the fuse must be  calcu-
lated in such a way that  the bomb shall
burst the moment it arrives at  the  des-
tined  place.   Bomb-shells are generaUy
csist somewhat thicker at the bottom than
above, that they may not fall upon the
fuse and extinguish the  fire ; yet they are,
at present, often cast of an equal thickness
in every part, because it has been found 
BOMB—BOMBAY.
179
 that the fuse remains at the top, notwith-
 standing.—As early as  the 7th century,
 balls,  filled with burning matter, were
 thrown from  vessels of clay, then from
 machines  called blydes  or  manges,  or
 with hand-slings made of a small net  of
 iron wire.   In 1238, James I, king of Ar-
 ragon, used, at  the  siege of Valencia, a
 kind of large rockets, made of four parch-
 ment skins, which burst in falhng.  After-
 wards,  large  iron balls,  heated red hot,
 came into use.  In the middle of the 15th
 century, prince Rimini  Sigismund Paii-
 dulf Malatesta  invented mortars  and
 bombs.  They consisted, at first, of two
 hollow hemispheres of metal, fiUed with
 powder, and held together by chains.  By
 degrees, they received their present shape.
 An EngUsh  engineer,  Malthus,  whom
 Louis XIII took into his service, intro-
 duced them into France, and used them
 first (1634) at the siege  of Lamotte,  in
 Lorraine.—The  grenades,   which  are
 thrown from  howitzers, are easily distin-
 guished  from the bombs, which are cast
 from mortars.  The first are used only in
 the field, the latter in sieges.   The Prus-
 sian general von Tempelhoff has in  vain
 attempted to bring 10 pound mortars into
 the field.—In  order to make a wall bomb-
 proof, it should  be  three  feet  and a half
 thick.
   Bombast, in composition ; an attempt,
 by strained description, to raise a low or
 familiar subject beyond its rank, which,
 instead of being sublime, becomes ridicu-
 lous. Its original signification was, a stuff'
 of soft, loose  texture, used to swell out
 garments.
   Bombay ; a presidency, island and city
 in British India; lat 18° 56^ N.; lon. 72°
 7'  E.  The island  was  formerly subdi-
 vided into several smaUer ones, but many
 thousand acres, once entirely underwater,
 have been recovered, and the two ranges
 of hills which cross die island  have thus
 been united by a line of fertile valleys.
 It is of  Uttle  importance as regards its
 internal resources, but in a commercial
 point of view is of great value.  Its prox-
 imity to  the main land gives it a faciUty
 of communication with all the different
 points of that  long line of coast, as well
 as with the shores of Persia and Arabia.
 The island  is easily defended, and the
 rise  of the tide  is sufficient to allow the
 construction of  docks on a large  scale.
 The surface is either naked rock or low
 ground exposed to inundation: the quan-
 tity of grain, which it is capable of pro-
ducing,  is,  therefore, very small.   The
causeway which connects it with  Sal-
 sette, an island lying between  B. and the
 coast of Malabar, affords, however, an easy
 way of introducing provisions.  When first
 known to Europeans, it was considered
 a very unhealthy place; but it has been
 improved by draining and embankments.
 The population, in 1816, was  161,550, of
 whom 104,000 were Hindoos, 28,000 Mo-
 hammedans, 11,000 native Christians, and
 4300 English.  There were  also  about
 13,000 Parsees, who here found an asy-
 lum from the persecutions of the Moham-
 medans, and  are almost the  exclusive
 proprietors of the island.  On a narrow
 neck of land, near the south-eastern ex-
 tremity  of the  island, stands the  city,
 which is about a mile in  length and  a
 quarter of a mile in  breadth.  It is sur-
 rounded  by  fortifications, which  have
 been gradually  improved,  in  proportion
 to the growing importance  of the place.
 It is the seat of government for the south-
 western part of the British possessions in
 India.  In front of the fort is an espla-
 nade : at the commencement  of the hot
 season, those Europeans, who are obliged
 to have their principal residences within
 the  fort, erect  bungalows  on this  spot,
 which are, many of them, elegant build-
 ings, but unfit to  resist the violence of
 the monsoons.   As soon as the rains be-
 gin, they are taken down, and preserved
 for another year.  There are three  gov-
 ernment residencies in the island.   The
 one within the fort is used principally for
 holding councils,  and  for  despatching
 business.  It is a spacious, dismal-looking
 building, like  many of the other large
 houses in B.  The European society here
 is neither so numerous nor so  expensive
 as that in the other presidencies; but, if
 not rivals in splendor, they are quite equal
 in comfort  and hospitality to their coun-
 trymen  in Calcutta or Madras.—As this
 place is the emporium of all the  north-
 western coast of the peninsula,  and of the
 Persian and  Arabian  gulfs, its trade is
 very considerable.  To China  it sends a
 large quantity of cotton. Pepper, sandal-
 wood, gums, drugs, pearls, ivory, gems,
 sharks' fins, edible birds' nests, form the
 remainder  of  the  cargoes  for Canton.
 Hemp, coffee, barilla, manufactured goods
 from Surat, and other  articles, are sent to
 Europe.  The trade to America is incon-
 siderable.—The company's marine estab-
lishment consists of 18 cruisers, besides
boats:  the military and marine  corps
amount to less than 3000 men. Besides
the governor and council, stationed at the
city, there are magistrates and commer-
cial residents in  the chief towns of the 
180
BOMBAY—BONAPARTE.
different  provinces subject to their gov-
ernment  There  is one  supreme court
of judicature, held under a single judge,
called the recorder.—Since  1814, B. has
been a station of the American board of
commissioners for foreign missions, and,
hi 1828,  they had 4 missionaries and a
printing press employed here and in the
vicinity;  with  16 schools for boys, con-
taining 1049 pupils, and 10 for girls, con-
taining 577.—B. was obtained by the Por-
tuguese, in 1530, from an Indian chief at
Salsette; by them it was ceded to Great
Britain,  in 1661, and, in 1668,  it  was
transferred, by the king, to die East India
company. From the commencement of
the last centuiy, it has gradually increased
in importance, and  has now attained a
high degree  of prosperity.  It is  difficult
to fix, with  precision, the extent of the
territories included within the presidency
of B., as some districts belonging to the
native  powers  are intermingled  with
them.  They may be calculated at about
10,000 square miles, with a population of
2,500,000.
  Bombelles, Louis,  marquis de; bora
1780, at  Ratisbon, where his father was
French  ambassador  at   the diet.   His
mother had been governess in the royal
family (des enfans de France), and an in-
timate friend of the virtuous Elizabeth,
sister of  Louis XVI.  The  son inherited
a feehng of devotion for the  family of
Bourbon. Under the protection of prince
Metternich, he was sent,  in a diplomatic
capacity, to  BerUn,  and  when, in 1813,
the king  left this city to declare  himself
against Napoleon, he carried the archives
of the Austrian  embassy, in the  absence
of the ambassador,  to Silesia. In 1814,
at the entry of the  alUes into Paris, he
was appointed, by the emperor of  Austria,
to carry to the count of Artois the white
cockade, and was repeatedly sent  to Den-
mark.  In 1816, he went to Dresden, as
Austrian  ambassador, and  married  Ida
Bran, the daughter of the poetess of this
name.  Since 1821, he has been Austrian
ambassador  in   Florence,  Modena  and
Lucca.
   Bomb-Ketch ; a vessel  built  for  the
use of mortars at sea, and furnished with
all  the apparatus necessary for a vigor-
ous bombardment   Bomb-ketches  are
ouilt remarkably strong, to sustain the vi-
olent shock produced by the discharge
of the mortars.  The  modern bomb-ves-
sels generaUy carry two  10 inch  mortars,
four 68 pounders, and six 18 pound car-
ronades; and the mortars may be fired at
as  low an  angle as  20 degrees; their
 Krincipal purpose, at these low angles,
 eing to cover the landing  of troops, and
protect the coast and harbors.  A bomb-
ketch is generally from 60 to 70 feet long,
from stem to stern, and draws 8 or 9 feet
of water, carrying 2 masts, anil is usually
of 100 to 150 tons burden.  The tender is
generally a brig, on board of which the
party of artillery remain till their services
are required on board the bomb-vessels.
  Bona (the Aphrodirium of Ptolemy); a
seaport of Algiers, 66 miles N. N. E. Con-
stantina; lon. 7° W E.;  lat. 36° 32' N.
Pop. 8000.  This town is built above a mile
south of the ancient Hippo, or Hippona.
The harbor, which is situated to the east
of the town, is capacious, and a considera-
ble trade is carried on here in corn, wool,
hides and wax.  The situation is good, be-
ing near die mouth of the  Seibouse, and,
with proper care, it might be made one of
the most flourishing towns in Barbary.
  Bona Dea ; a name given to Ops, Ves-
ta, Cybele, Rhea, by the Greeks, and by
the Latins to Fauna or Fatua.  She was
so chaste that no man saw her, after her
mamage, but her husband;  for which
reason, her festivals were celebrated by
night, in private houses, and all statues of
men were veiled during the ceremony.
  Bonald, Louis Gabriel  Ambroise, vis-
count de, member of the  French cham-
ber of deputies, is one of the first speakers
of the ultramontanist party. He emigrat-
ed in 1791, and wrote, in  Heidelberg, af-
ter the  dissolution of the corps of the
emigrants,  in which he had served, his
well-known Theorie du Pouvoir, politique
et religieux (3 vols. 1796).  The charac-
ter of this, and  of his later political writ-
ings, is that of  metaphysical abstraction,
which is by no means popular among the
French.  After he returned to France, he
succeeded in  insinuating himself into the
favor of Napoleon and of his brothers.
The emperor made him a counsellor at
the university,  with a salary of 10,000
francs.  Louis proposed to him to under-
take the education of his son, then crown-
prince of Holland, but B. decUned the
offer.  He  was closely connected  with
Chateaubriand, and assisted in the editing
of the Mercure  de France.  After the res-
toration of the Bourbons,  he was chosen,
in 1815, member of the chamber of depu-
ties.  He voted, in this chambre introuva-
ble (q. v.),  with the majority.  In 1816,
he was admitted into  the  French acade-
my.  His most important work is the
Legislation primitive (3 vols. 1802).
   Bonaparte  is the name of an ancient
 ItaUan  faniuy,  which, Louis  Bonaparte 
BONAPARTE—BONAVENTURA.
181
says, in his Documens  historiques sur le
Gouvernement de la Hollande, was settled
in Treviso as early as 1272, when a Nar-
diUus Bonaparte gained renown as podes-
ta of Parma and knight of St. Maria or
Gaudentius.  An author of this  name,
James  Bonaparte, a  Tuscan nobleman,
who lived about 1527,  remarks that  his
family  held important offices in  the  re-
pubUc  of  San Miniato, hi the Tuscan
territory, and had been distinguished in
the wars of Florence.   A branch of it
existed at  Sarzana, in  the Genoese do-
minions, and, during  the contests of the
Guelphs and GhibeUines, settled at Ajac-
cio, in Corsica.  From this branch sprung
the  father of Napoleon, Charles Bona-
parte, who at  first fought with Paoli  for
the independence of Corsica, and in com-
pany with him left the island, but eventu-
ally returned,  at the invitation of  Louis
XV.   In 1776, Corsica  chose him one of
the deputies of the nobility who were to
be  sent to the king  of France.  Before
the French revolution, he wrote his name
di Bonaparte.  On account of  his health,
he  subsequently retired to  Montpellier,
where  he died in 1785,40 years old.—His
wife, the beautiful Maria Letitia, bom at
Ajaccio, Aug.  24, 1750, was  descended
from the house  of Ramolini, which was
of ItaUan origin.  She bore him the fol-
lowing children, whose names are cited
in the  order of birth:—Giuseppe, Napo-
lione, Luciano, Luigi, Mariana, Carletta,
Annunziada and Girolamo.  Left a young
widow, destitute of property, she sought
and obtained friends among the powerful.
Her acquaintance with the count of Mar-
bceuf was the foundation of the  fortune
of her family.  The Corsicans maintained
that they were all nobles, and refused,
therefore,  to pay taxes.   Louis  XV,  in
consequence, commanded the governor
to select 400 famines, who were alone to
be  considered as  noble.   In this  list
Marbceuf inserted the Bonapartes.  When
the English conquered Corsica, in 1793,
madame Letitia, whose second husband
was captain Francis  Fesch,  of Bale (see
Fesch,  Joseph, cardinal), fled, with  her
daughters,  to Marseilles.  Soon after  the
18th Brumaire (9th November), 1799, she
went to Paris; but not tiU  after Napo-
leon's  elevation to the imperial  dignity,
was homage paid to madame Mere, who,
in pronunciation and language, was half
ItaUan, half French.  She maintained  a
separate household, and was  appointed,
by Napoleon, protectrice generate des etab-
lissemens de charite.  Her benevolence, at
this period, was much praised.    Some
  vol. n.           16
persons, however, deemed her avaricious.
She  was not dazzled by the  greatness
which surrounded her.  Of her children,
she entertained  the greatest affection for
Louis,  the  ex-king   of Holland.   In
1814, she went  to live at Rome, with her
brother-in-law, cardinal Fesch.  Napole-
on seems to have always had much affec-
tion  for her.  She resided  at  Rome in
the year 1829.—By the treaty of Paris, of
Nov. 20, 1815, the whole family of Bona-
parte was banished from France; and, in
the  edict  of amnesty  issued  by  Louis
XVIII, Jan. 6, 1816, all Napoleon Bona-
parte's relations were  excepted.  They
were to remain in banishment, hold  no
possessions in  France, and dispose  of
all tlieir property there within six months.
The royal ordinance of May 22, 1816, de-
creed,  that the  property and income of
the members of the Bonaparte family who
had  come  back on  Napoleon's return
from Elba, which had been confiscated
by the  law of Jan.  12, 1816, should be
appropriated to  the support of meritorious
soldiers and such donees as had lost their
donations in  foreign  countries.—For ac-
counts of Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Louis
and  Jerome Bonaparte, see these heads;
for information  respecting Mariana, after-
wards called Elisa, we refer the reader to
the article Bacriochi; respecting Carletta:
afterwards called Marie Pauline, to the
article  Borghese; respecting Annunziada,
afterwards called Annondade Caroline, to
the article .Murat.  See, moreover, Fesch,
Eugene (whose  sister, Hortensia, is men-
tioned  in the article  Louis Bonaparte),
and  Maria Louisa (Leopoldine Caroline).
—The members of the family of Napo-
leon live retired and  much  respected,
manifesting great taste for  the fine arts
and  the sciences.  Almost  all have ap-
peared as authors, with more or less suc-
cess, as wiU  be  seen  under the different
heads.
  Bonaventura, John of Fidanza; one
of the  most renowned scholastic philoso-
phers ; bom, 1221, in Tuscany; became, in
1243, a Franciscan monk; in 1255, teacher
of theology at Paris, where he had studied;
hi 1256, general of his order,  which he
ruled with a pradent mixture of gentle-
ness and firmness. He  died in 1274, at
the age of 53.  At this time,  he was a
cardinal and  papal legate at the council
of Lyons.  His death was hastened by
his ascetic severities.   On account of his
blameless conduct from his earUest youth,
and  of some miracles ascribed to him, he
enjoyed, during his life, the greatest ven-
eration, and  was canonized by pope Six- 
182
BONA VENTURA—BONE.
tus IV.  The elevation of thought in his
writings, and his dignity as general of the
Seraphic order, procured  him the name
doctor Seraphicus.   The Franciscans op-
posed him as their hero to the Dominican
scholastic  Thomas Aquinas.  He wrote
for the  honor  and improvement of his
order, for the promotion of the worship
of the virgin, on celibacy, transubstantia-
tion and other doctrines.  He is frequent-
ly obscure by his  attempts to support the
creed of  the  church with  arguments
drawn from the  Aristotelian  and  new
Platonic philosophy, and  by his mystical
views in treating of the moral  and intel-
lectual perfection  of the human character.
Yet he is distinguished from other scho-
lastics by perspicuity, avoidance of use-
less  subtleties, and greater warmth  of
religious  feeUng.  Among his writings
are,  Itinerarium  Mentis  in  Deum; Re-
ductio Artium in Theologiam ; Centiloqui-
;im, and Breviloquium.  The  whole was
published 1588—96, at Rome, 7 vols, folio.
But many pieces in that coUection are not
genuine.
   Bond, in  law,  is a  deed whereby the
party obliges  himself, his executors  or
administrators (and, if the deed so express
it, his heirs also),  to pay a certain sum of
money  to another at a  day  appointed.
If this be all, the bond is called a simple
one  (simplex  obligatio).  But there   is
generally a condition  added, that, if the
obligor does some particular act, the obli-
 gation shall be void, or else shall  remain
 in full  force;  as payment of rent, per-
 formance of covenants in a deed, or re-
 payment  of a principal sum of money
 bonowed of the obligee, with interest;
 which  principal  sum is usuaUy one half
 of the penal sum specified in the bond.
 In case this condition is  not  performed,
 the bond becomes forfeited, or absolute at
 law, and charges the obligor while living,
 and,  after his death,  his personal repre-
 sentatives, and his heirs, if the heirs be
 named in the bond.   In case of a failure
 to perform the condition of the bond,  the
 obligee can recover  only  his principal,
 interest and expenses, if the bond  were
 given to  secure  the payment of money,
 or, if it were  given  to  secure  the per-
 formance of a covenant, he  can recover
 only reasonable damages for the breach.
   Bondage.  (See Villenage.)
   Bondi, Clemente,  abbate,  one of  the
 most esteemed  modern poets  of Italy,
 born at Mantua, or,  according to some
 accounts, at Parma, entered the order of
 the Jesuits a few years before its abolition.
  After  his talents became known to the
archduke Ferdinand, governor of Milan,
and his lady,  Maria Beatrice of Este, a
princess worthy of that name, which'has
been immortalized by Ariosto and Tasso,
he was appointed tutor of tiieir children,
and appeared  successively as a lyric, de-
scriptive, satirical and elegiac poet; often,
also, as a poetical translator.   By the ele-
gance, flow and harmony of his  versifi-
cation, and by the nobleness of his style,
disfigured  neither by extravagance  nor
by affectation, he became a favorite in
Italy.  We possess all the  poetry of B.
in an  elegant edition (1808, 3 vols,  by
Degen, Vienna).  The first  volume con-
tains the longer poems, La Conversazione;
La Felicita;  II Governo Pacifico;  La
Moda, and La Giornata VUUrecria.  The
second and third contain sonnets, epistles,
elegies, canzoni, cantatas, and other small
poems.  The  third  concludes with the
translation of  Virgil's  Georgics.
  Bondy,  Taillepied,  count of; born  al
Paris, 1766, of an ancient  family.  In
1792, he was made  director  of the manu-
factory of assignats.   August 10th of this
year, he retired from public office until
1805, when Napoleon made  him a cham-
berlain, and afterwards prefect of the de-
partment of the Rhone, where he con-
ducted with nuldness, and promoted the
public works  in his district.   In 1812, he
 was very useful to  Lyons by his care to
 prevent  a  scarcity of food in the city.
 In 1814, he maintained the city for a long
 time  against the alUes.  In  1815,  he was
 appointed, by Napoleon, prefect  of  the
 Seine, with a  vote in the council of state.
 Here he spoke, usuaUy, with great frank-
 ness  to Napoleon,  on the necessity of a
 constitutional system of government July
 3d, 1815, he was one of the three com
 missioners of the government for conclud
 ing with  the generals of  the oUies the
 terms for  the surrender of the capital.
 In 1816 and  18, he  was deputy for the
 department of the Indre, and advocated
 the principles of the left side.
   Bone.  The bones are the hardest and
 most soUd parts of animals; they consti-
 tute  the frame, serve as points of attach-
 ment to the  muscles, and afford support
 to the softer soUds.   They  are the instru-
 ments, as  muscles are the organs, of mo-
 tion.—In  the mammalia, birds, fish  and
 reptiles, the whole system of bones unit-
 ed by the vertebral column is called  the
 skeleton.—In the foetus, they  are first a
 vascular, gelatinous substance, in different
 points of  which earthy matter is gradual-
 ly deposited.  This process is perceptible
 towards the  end  of the second month, 
BONE—BONIFACE.
183-
arid, at the time of maturity, the bone is
completely formed. After birth, the bones
become graduaUy more solid, and, in the
temperate zones, reach their perfection in
men between the  ages  of 15  and  20.
From  this age till 50,  they change but
slightly;  after that  period, they  grow
thinner, lighter, and more brittle. Those
of the two first  classes of animals  are
harder on their exterior than they are in-
ternally.   Their  material,  except in  the
teeth,  is nearly  the same  throughout.
Their structure is vascular, and they are
traversed by the blood-vessels and the ab-
sorbents.  They are hardest at the surface,
which is formed by a firm membrane,
called the periosteum; the internal parts
are cellular, containing a substance  called
marrow.   The use of  the marrow is to
prevent  the too great dryness and brittle-
nessof the bones.—Chemistry decomposes
bone into gelatin, fat, cartilage and earthy
salts.  A fresh bone boiled in water, or
exposed to the action of an acid, gives out
its gelatin; if boiled  in water, on cooling
the  decoction, a jelly  is  formed, which
makes a good portable soup.   A pound
of bone yields twice  as much as the same
quantity of flesh.  The earth of bones is
obtained  by calcination;  that  is, by ex-
posing them to a red heat, by which they
are deprived of the soft substances.—That
part of anatomy which treats of the bones
is called osteology.
   Boner, Ulrich, the most ancient Ger-
man fabulist, was a Dominican friar  at
 Berne, in the first half of  the 14th  centu-
 ry.  He lived when  the age of minstrelsy
 and chivalrous poetry was in its decline,
 and has pubUshed a collection of  fables,
 under the title Der Edclstein (The  Gem),
 which is distinguished by purity of  lan-
 guage and picturesque simplicity  of de-
 scription.   The  first  editions of these
 fables were by  Bodmer and  Eschen-
 burg. Benecke  in Gottingen has publish-
 ed a very good edition  more recently, and
 added a vocabulary  (Berlin, 1816).
   Boneset.  The herb  known by the
 name of boneset or thoroughwort (eupato-
 rium perfoliatum)  is  a very useful annual
 plant, indigenous to the United States.  It
 is easily distinguished, in the  autumn, in
 marshy  grounds, by its tall stem, four or
 five feet in  height,  passing through the
 middle of a large, double, hairy leaf, which
 is perforated by the stalk, and surmounted
 by  a broad,  flat head  of  light-purple
 flowers.—It is much used as a medicine,
 throughout the country, in the form of an
 infusion of the heads of the flowers, and
 part  of the remainder of the plant,  in
boiling water, which is allowed to stand
a few minutes upon the fire.  It is one
of the best domestic articles for breaking
up  and throwing off a violent cold, for
which purpose, from a half pint to a pint
of the above infusion may be drank cold,
at bed-time, which wiU be found to purge
by  morning; or it may be taken warm
before eating, in the  morning, when  it
will generally operate as an emetic and
purgative.  Smaller quantities of the in-
fusion, taken warm through the day,  in
bed, and in combination with other med-
icines, will be found highly seiviceable in
rheumatism and rheumatic fevers.   As a
safe and valuable family medicine, it can-
not be too highly recommended.
   Boniface ; the name of several popes.
B.  I, elected, 418, by a party of the clergy,
and confirmed by the emperor Honorius,
who declared  the  antipope Eulalius a
usurper.   B.  persecuted the  Pelagians,
and  extended  his authority  by prudent
measures.  A decree of the emperor The-
odosius  deprived him,  in  421,  of the
spiritual sovereignty over Eastern Ulyria.
He  died  422.  His  history proves the
 Roman bishop to have been, in his  time,
 dependent on the secular power.—B. IL
 elected 530.  The death of  his rival, the
 antipope Dioscorus,  a few days after  his
 election, left him in quiet possession of
 the papal  chair. He acknowledged the
 supremacy of the secular sovereign, in a
 council  held at Rome.—B. Ill,  chosen
 607, died  nine  months after his election.
 —B. IV, elected 608. He consecrated the
 Pantheon (q. v.) to the virgin and all the
 saints.—B. V, a Neapolitan, was pope from
 619 to  625.  He confirmed the inviola-
 bility of the asylums, and endeavored to
 diffuse Christianity among  the  English.
 —B. VI, a Roman, elected 896, died of
 the gout a fortnight after.—B. Vll, anti-
 pope, elected 974, during the lifetime of
 Benedict  VI,  whose death he was sus-
 pected of having caused.  Expelled from
 Rome, he returned on the death of Bene-
 dict VII, and  found  the  chair occupied
 by John XIV, whom he  deposed and
 threw into prison, where he allowed him
 to die of hunger.  B. died 11  months af-
 ter his return.—B. VIII, see the article.—
 B. IX, Pietro  Tomacelli of Naples, suc-
 ceeded  Urban VI at Rome,  during  the
 schism in the church, while Clement VII
 resided  at Avignon.   He was distinguish-
 ed for the beauty of his  person, and the
 elegance of his manners, rather than for
 a  profound knowledge of  theology and
 canon law.  Even the counsel of his ex-
 perienced cardinals could not save him 
184
BONIFACE.
 from the commission of gross blunders.
 He was more skilled in the arts of simony
 and extortion.   He  sold the same bene-
 fice repeatedly, established the annates in
 1372, and lavished the treasures thus pro-
 cured on his relations, or in  costly edi-
 fices ; the fortification of die castle of St.
 Angelo, for instance, and the capitol.—
 He supported  the pretensions of Ladis-
 laus to the throne of" Naples, and, during
 the greatest part of his pontificate, was
 engaged  in  negotiations with his rivals
 at Avignon, Clement VII and Benedict
 XIII.  He died in 1404.
  Boniface VIII, BenedictCajetan; born
 at Anagni, of an ancient Catalonian fami-
 ly ; elected  pope Dec. 24th,  1294.   He
 received  a careful education, studied ju-
 risprudence, was a canon  at Paris and
 Lyons, advocate of the consistory, and
 prothonotaiy of the pope at Rome. After
 Martin IV had elevated him to the dignity
 of a cardinal (1251), he went as legate to
 Sicily and Portugal, and was intrusted
 with embassies  at several courts; in par-
 ticular, with the charge of reconciling the
 king of Sicily with Alphonso of Anagon,
 and  Philip the  Fair with  Edward I of
 England.  After Ccelestine V had resigned
 the papal dignity, at Naples, in  1294, at
 the instigation of B., the latter was chosen
 pope.  He met with opposition from the
 cardinals of the family  Colonna, and re-
 venged himselfby excommunicating them.
 His  induction  was magnificent.   The
kings of Hungary  and Sicily held  his
bridle on his  way  to the  Lateran, and
 served him, at table, with tlieir crowns on
 their heads. B.,  however,  was not  suc-
 cessful in his first efforts for the  increase
 of his power.  The sovereignty of Sicily
 was denied him, and  Frederic  II  was
 crowned king there in spheof his excom-
 munication.  He  was equally unsuccess-
 ful  in his attempt  to arbitrate between
 England and France.  The bulls which
he issued, at this time, against king Philip
the Fair of France, obtained no considera-
tion.  This was also the case with the
interdict  which  he  pronounced  against
him  at the  council of Rome, in 1302.
 Supported by  the states and  the clergy
 of France, Philip defended his royal rights
against the encroachments  of the pope.
 The pope was accused of duplicity, of
simony, of usurpation, of heresy, of un-
 chastity;  and it was resolved to condemn
 and  depose  him at a  general council at
 Lyons.  Philip went still further:  he sent
 Nogaret  to  Italy, in order to seize his
 person, and bring him to Lyons.  Nogaret
 united himself, for this purpose, with Sci-
ana Colonna, who, with his whole fami-
ly,  had been oppressed by B., and  was,
in consequence, his  enemy.  B. fled  to
Anagni, where Nogaret and Colonna sur-
prised  him.  B., on  this occasion, acted
with spirit.  " Since I am betrayed," said
he, " as Jesus Christ was betrayed, I will
die at least as a pope."   He assumed the
pontifical  robes and  the tiara, took the
keys and the cross in his hand, and seated
himself in the papal chair.  But the insig-
nia of  his  holy office did not save him
from anest  Nay, Colonna went  so far
as to use personal violence.   B. remained
in a disagreeable confinement for two
days, when the Anagnese took up arms,
and delivered him.  After this, he depart-
ed to Rome, where he died, a month later,
in 1303.   From fear of poison, he had
not taken any food  during his captivity.
This abstinence brought on a fever, which
terminated fatally.  Boldness in his views,
and perseverance  in  his resolutions, can-
not be  denied to B.; but these qualities
were stained by ambition, vanity, a spirit
of revenge, and a mean pliability.  Dante
assigns to  him, as  guilty of simony, a
place  in  hell, between Nicholas III and
Clement V. B. founded, in 1300, the cen-
tennial jubilee, and enriched his treasury
by the  frequent sale of indulgences. He
was an accomplished man, for the times
in which he lived.
  Boniface, St.; the apostle of Gennany,
who first preached Christianity, and spread
civilization among the Germans.  He was
born in England  (680),  and his original
name was Winfrid.   In his 30th year, he
was consecrated a priest.  A great part
of Europe, at this period, was inhabited
by heathens, and several missionaries set
out from England to convert them.   Gal-
lus, in 614, went  to Allemania; Emme-
ran, who  died  652, to Bavaria; Kilian,
who died 689, to Franconia ; Willibrord,
wha died 696,  to Friesland; Sigfrid  to
Sweden ; Swidvert to Friesland.  In 716,
B. conceived the plan of preaching Chris-
tianity among the Frieslanders; but was
prevented by the war between Charles
Martel and the king of Friesland, Rad-
bod.  He  therefore returned to England,
where he was chosen abbot.  In 718, be
went  to  Rome, where Gregory  II au-
thorized him to preach the  gospel  to all
the nations of Germany.  He commenced
his labors  in  Thuringia  and  Bavaria,
passed three years in  Friesland, and jour-
neyed  through  Hesse in Saxony, baptiz-
ing every where, and converting the pa-
gan temples to Christian  churches.  In
723, he  was invited to  Rome, made a 
ST. BONIFACE—BONN.                      185
bishop, by Gregory II, and recommended
to Charles Martel and  all princes and
bishops.  His name Winfrid he changed
to B.  In 724, he  destroyed the oak sa-
cred to  Thor, near Geismar, in Hesse,
founded churches and monasteries,  invit-
ed from England priests, monks and nuns,
and sent them to Saxony, Friesland and
Bavaria.  In 732, Gregoiy III made him
archbishop and primate of aU Germany,
and authorized him to establish bishop-
rics, the only existing  bishopric  being
the one  at Passau.  He founded those of
Freisingen, Ratisbon, Erfurt, Barabourg
(transfened afterwards  to  Paderborn),
Wiirtzburg and Aichstadt  In 739, he
restored the episcopal see of St. Rupert,
at Salzburg.  After the death of Charles
Martel,  be consecrated Pepin the  Short
king of the Franks, in Soissons, by whom
he was  made bishop of Mentz.  He held
eight ecclesiastical councils in  Germany,
founded the famous abbey of Fulda, and
undertook, in 754, new journeys for the
conversion of the infidels.  He was kUled
at Dockum, in West Friesland, by some
barbarians, in 755,  in  his 75th year.  In
Fulda, a copy of the Gospels, in his own
handwriting, is to be  seen.  At the place
where B. built,  in  724, the first Christian
church  in North Germany, near the vU-
lage of Altenburg,  in the Thuringian for-
est, a monument has  been erected to his
memory, consisting of a candelabrum, 30
feet high.  The most complete collection
of the letters of B. was published at Mentz,
1789, folio.
   Bonn ; capital of the Prussian govern-
ment of Cologne,  formerly the residence
of the elector of Cologne, on the left bank
of the  Rhine,  with  1109  houses, four
Catholic, and, since 1817, one  Protestant
church.  It contains 10,600 inhabitants,
among whom are 200 Jews, who dweU
in  a particular street.  B.  was formerly
fortified: the works  were demolished in
1717.   A lyceum  was instituted here in
1802.   An academy  had been estabUshed
in 1777, and, in 1786, erected into a uni-
versity.  This institution was superseded
by the lyceum.   The manufactures are
not important.   The commerce is chiefly
in  the  hands of the Jews.  A walk, with
four rows of trees,  and 1200 paces in
length, leads to the  beautiful  palace of
Clemensruhe, near the viUage of Poppels-
dorf.   B.  contains the university  of the
 Rhine, the charter of which was  given,
 Oct. 18,1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle,  by the
king of Prussia, who, at the same time,
 endowed it with  an annual income of
 80,000  Prussian dollars, 16,000 of which
                  16*
are appropriated to the botanical garden.
The  former residence of the elector of
Cologne was bestowed on the university.
It has been fitted up at great expense, and
is surpassed, in extent and beauty, by no
university buildings in Europe.  It con-
tains all  the lecture  halls,  a library of
more than 50,000 volumes, a museum of
antiquities, a collection  of casts of the
principal ancient statues,  a cabinet  for
natural philosophy, cUnical institutions of
uncommon  extent and  order, to which
will be added a Catholic  theological sem-
inary, and a convictorium  (refectory). The
paintings in the aula minor (among oth-
ers,  the  great  allegorical  picture,  the
Christian Church) were executed by some
pupils of CorneUus.  To the UberaUty of
the king, the university owes also an ana-
tomical hall, a new riding-school, and an
edifice, once a royal palace, in Poppels-
dorf,  ten  minutes' walk from the city,
which contains  the  mineralogical  and
zoological collections, and before  which
lies the botanical  garden.  Adjoining it
are lands and buildings for the use of the
agricultural  institute.  The tower of the
old  custom-house, which  commands a
fine view, is destined for an observatory.
The king has also established here a print-
ing press for Sanscrit, under the inspec-
tion of A. W. von Schlegel.  The museum
of German and Roman antiquities is un-
der the direction of the same distinguish-
ed  scholar.  The  teachers of the five
faculties,  of which  the university con-
sists, are more than fifty.  Particular aoV
vantages are afforded for the education
of young men intended for instructers.
Many men distinguished   in  various
branches of science  are connected with
the university.   The historian Niebuhr
has  lately  repaired thither  to deliver
lectures.  The  exertions of the govern-
ment to collect in B. all tUe means of
instruction, united with the charms of the
place and the  beauties of the scenery,
have made the university in a short time
very much  frequented.  In 1826, it con-
tained 931  students, among whom were
110 foreigners.
   Bonn, Andrew, an anatomist, born at
Amsterdam, in 1738, studied and received
his degree  at Leyden.  His dissertation
was the exceUent treatise De Continuita-
tibus Membranarum, of which two famous
physicians,  Bichat and Wrisberg, have
made use in their works.  He  finished
 his studies at Paris.  In 1771, he returned
 to Amsterdam, where  he delivered  lec-
 tures.  He had the three first numbers of
 the Thesaurus Hovianus Ossium Morbo- 
186
BONN—BONNET.
 soiitm engraved at his own expense.  He
 died in 1818.  His long Ufe was devoted
 to the relief of the suffering, and to the
 education of skilful physicians and sur-
 geons.  As president of the iMonnikhof
 institution for the investigation of the best
 remedies against  the different kinds of
 hernia, he has likewise accompUshed a
 great deal.
   Bonner, Edmund, an English prelate
 of infamous notoriety, was the son of a
 peasant at Hanley in Worcestershire.  He
 was educated at Pembroke college, Ox-
 ford, where he was made doctor of com-
 mon law, in 1525.  For his skill in busi-
 ness, he  was  patronised  by  cardinal
 Wolsey, from whom he received several
 clerical preferments.   On  the death  of
 Wolsey, he  acquired the favor of Henry
 VIII, who made him one of his chaplains,
 and sent  him to Rome to advocate his
 divorce from queen Catharine.  Here he
 conducted with so much intemperance,
 that the pope is said to have threaten-
 ed to throw him into a caldron of boil-
 ing lead,  on which he thought  proper
 to  return.   In 1538, he was nominated
 bishop  of Hereford, being then ambas-
 sador at  Paris; but, before  his  conse-
 cration, he was translated to the see of
 London.  At the time  of the death of
 Henry, he was ambassador to the emperor
 Charles V, but returned the same year,
 when, refusing to take the oath of suprem-
 acy, he was deprived of his bishopric,
 to which, however, he was restored, on
 making submission.   Still continuing  to
 act with contumacy, he was, after a long
 trial, once more deprived of his see, and
 committed to the Marshalsea; from which
 prison, on the accession  of Mary, he was
 released, and once more restored by com-
 mission.   During this reign,  B. distin-
 guished himself by  a most sanguinary
 persecution  of the  Protestants, 200  of
 whom he was instrumental in bringing to
 the stake, whipping and  torturing several
 of them with his own hands.  When
 Elizabeth  succeeded, he went, with the
 rest of the bishops, to meet her at High-
 gate, but, at the sight of  him, she averted
 her countenance with an expression  of
 honor.  He remained, however, unmo-
 lested, until his refusal to take the oath
 of supremacy; on which  he was once
 more committed to the Marshalsea, where
 he remained a prisoner for nearly 10 years,
 until his death, in 1569.  He was buried
at midnight, to avoid any disturbance on
the part of the populace, to whom he was
extremely obnoxious.  B. was well versed
in the canon law, and was an able diplo-
 matist.  He cannot, says a Catholic wri-
 ter, be defended  from the  charge of ex-
 treme rigor and cruelty; yet he deserv es
 credit for his firmness of principle, for his
 courage when in  disgrace,  and for the
 calmness and resignation with which he
 supported a long imprisonment
   Bonnet, in fortification; an elevation
 of the parapet in the salient angles of a
 field retrenchment, or of a  fortification,
 designed to prevent the enfilading of the
 front of the work, at the end of which it
 is  situated.  The  bonnet  accomplishes,
 however, only part of this object, and is
 subject, at least in field retrenchments, to
 the disadvantage, that the  men destined
 for its defence are too much exposed to
 be taken in flank by the fire of the ene-
 my, on account of the necessary elevation
 of the banquette (q. v.)—a fault which
 cannot occur in  the works of a  fortress
 which are well laid out.
   Bonnet, Charles, a natural philosopher
 and metaphysician, bom  at  Geneva, in
 1720, exchanged thestudy of the laws for
 that of natural histoiy.   His essay On
 Aphides, in which he proved that they
 propagated without coition, procured him,
 in  his 20th year, the place  of a corre-
 sponding  member  of the  academy of
 sciences  at  Paris.  Soon afterwards, he
 partook in the discoveries of Trembley re-
 specting the polypus, and made interesting
 observations on the respiration of cater-
 pillars and butterflies, and on the structure
 of the tape-worm.  An active correspond-
 ence with many learned men  in his own
 country and abroad,  and  too continued
 perseverance in labor, brought on an in-
 flammation in his eyes, which prevented
 him from writing for more than two years.
 His active spirit employed this interval in
 meditating on the source of our ideas, on
 the nature of the soul, and on other myste-
 ries of metaphysics. From 1752 till 1768,
 he was a member of the great council of
 his native city.  He afterwards retired to
 his countiy-seat (Genthod), on the banks
 of the lake  of Geneva, where he led a
 retired life, devoting his time to the inves-
tigation of nature, to the conversation of
learned men, and  to an extensive corre-
spondence, till his death, in 1793.  B. was
a close and exact observer.  He carried
religious contemplations into the study of
nature.  In his views of the human soul,
many  traces of materialism  are  to be
found; for instance, the derivation of all
ideas from the movements of the nervous
fibres.  Of his works  on natural history
and metaphysics,  there are two collec-
tions ; one in 9 vols., 4to., the other in 18 
BONNET—BONNYCASTLE.
187
vols., 8vo., Neufchatel,  1779.  The most
celebrated are, Traite cVInsectologie; Re-
cherches sur V Usage  des Feuilles dans les
Plantes; Considerations sur les Corps or-
ganises ; Contemplation de la Nature; Es-
sai analytique sur  les Facultes de I'Ame;
Palingenesie PhUosophique, and Essai de
Psychologic
  Bonnet ; advocate, andbdtonnier (presi-
dent) of the advocates in Paris.  During
the revolution, he was zealous in defend-
ing many  unfortunate persons who were
dragged before the revolutionary tribunal.
He displayed his  brilliant eloquence  in
the defence of general Moreau.  In later
times,  he has been  blamed  for having
yielded too  much  to the vindictive spirit
of the French state attorneys: since 1815,
particularly, he has been  considered  too
compliant towards the procureur-general
Bellart.  We have reason to suppose that
much of the reproach  which has been
cast upon  him  is unfounded, as  he is
known  to have exposed his life and Ub-
erty, in  former times, to save the accused.
B.  belongs to the  extreme right side  in
the chamber of deputies, and has thus
lost his popularity.
  Bonneval,  Claude Alexander, count
of,  or  Achmet Pacha,  bora  1672,  at
Coussac, in Limousin,  of an  illustrious
French family,  entered, in his 16th year,
the body-guard of the king, but  showed
an  extravagant propensity for pleasure.
In war, he was an able and  successful
partisan, beloved by those under his com-
mand.   He enjoyed the  esteem of the
marshal of Luxembourg.  In the war of
the  Spanish succession, he obtained a
regiment, with which he inarched to Italy,
and distinguished himself  by his valor as
well as  by his excesses.  On his return,
he was  obliged to fly, in consequence of
some violent expressions against the min-
ister and  madame de  Maintenon.  He
was, in  1706, appointed major-general by
prince   Eugene, and fought against his
native country.   At the peace of Rastadt,
in  1714, by  the  interference  of prince
Eugene, the process against him for high
treason  was withdrawn, and he was al-
lowed to return to his estates.   In  1716,
he  was lieutenant field-marshal of the
Austrian infantry, and distinguished him-
self by  his valor  against  the Turks at
Peterwardein (1716).   In  1718,  B. was
made a member of the imperial council
of war,  but his licentiousness and indis-
cretion induced prince Eugene to get rid
of him, by appointing him, in 1723, mas-
ter-general of the ordnance in the Neth-
erlands.  To revenge himself on Eugene,
he sent complaints to Vienna against the
governor,  the  marquis of Prie; but the
latter, who, on his side, had not been in-
active, received an order to anest B., and
to imprison him in the citadel of Ant-
werp.   B., being afterwards  ordered to
appear at Vienna, and give an explanation
of his conduct, spent a month at the
Hague before  he chose to comply with
the summons.  He was therefore confined
in the castle of Spielberg, near  Briinn,
and condemned to death by the imperial
council  of war;  but the sentence was
changed, by the emperor, into one year's
imprisonment  and exile.  B.  now  went
to Constantinople, where the fame of his
deeds, and  his  humanity towards the
Turkish prisoners of war, procured him a
kind reception.  He consented to change
his religion, received  instruction  in Mo-
hammedanism from the mufti, submitted
to circumcision, and received the name
Achmet  Pacha, with a large salary.  He
was  made a pacha of three tails, com-
manded a large army, defeated the Aus-
trians on  the  Danube,  and quelled  an
insurrection in Arabia Petraea.  His ex-
ertions, as commander of the bombardiers,
to improve the  Turkish artillery,  were
opposed by the jealousy of powerful pa-
chas,  the  inesolution of Mohammed V,
and the  dislike of the Turkish troops to
all European  institutions.  He enjoyed,
however,  the pleasures of his situation.
He died in 1747.   His Memoires were
published  by  Desherbiers (Paris, 1806,
2 vols.)   In the second volume  of the
Memoirs of Casanova are to be  found
some notices of B.
  Bonnycastle, John, professor of math-
ematics  at the royal military academy at
Woolwich, was  born in  Buckingham-
shire.  Though his education was  not
neglected, yet he was chiefly indebted to
his own exertions for the various and
extensive  knowledge which he acquired.
While young, he became private tutor to
the two sons  of the. earl  of Pomfret
After two  years, he quitted that situation
on being  appointed one  of the mathe-
matical masters at Woolwich.   Here, for
more  than 40  years, he devoted his time
to the duties of his profession, and to the
composition of elementary mathematical
works.  His  first  production was  the
Scholar's Guide to Arithmetic, which has
passed  through many  editions.   His
guides to  algebra and mensuration are
useful school-books.  He likewise wrote
a Treatise upon Astronomy,  8vo. ;  the
Elements  of Geometry, 8vo.;  a Treatise
on Plane  and  Spherical  Trigonometry, 
188                    BONNYCASTLE—BONZES.
8vo.;  a Treatise on Algebra, 2 vols. 8vo.;
and various articles  in the early part of
the last edition of doctor Rees's Cyclopae-
dia.  He died at Woolwich, May 15,1821.
  Bonpland,  Aime,  educated  at  the
medical school and the botanical garden
in Paris,  accompanied Alexander  von
Humboldt to America in 1799, and  dis-
covered above 6000 new species of plants.
After his return, he was made, in 1804, su-
perintendent of the garden at Malmaison,
which he  has described  (Paris,  1813—
1817,  11  numbers,  folio, with copper-
plates).  He  was also  co-editor of the
Travels and Voyages in the  Equinoctial
Regions of the  New Continent,  from
1799 to 1804, by Alex. Humboldt and A.
Bonpland  ; pubUshed in French in Paris,
and in  German, by Cotta, in Tfibingen
(1818).  In 1818, he went, as professor of
natural histoiy, to Buenos Ayres.  There,
Oct.  1, 1820, he undertook a journey
along the  Parana, to explore  the interior
of Paraguay.  At Santa  Ana, however,
on the eastern bank  of the Parana, where
he had laid  out plantations of tea, and
had founded a colony of  Indians, he was
surprised, on the  territory  of  Buenos
Ayres, by 800 soldiers of doctor Francia,
dictator of Paraguay, who destroyed his
plantations, and carried him off prisoner,
togedier with most of the Indians.  Fran-
cia sent him, as physician, to the garrison
of a fort, and employed him in laying out
a commercial road.   B. lived till within a
few years in Santa Maria.  There is no
other reason for his captivity, than his suc-
cess in planting the Paraguay tea.  Alex.
Humboldt wrote to doctor  Francia  to
persuade  him to liberate his friend, and
he was supported in his request by the
English minister Canning, and the British
consul in Buenos Ayres, Mr. Parish, but
without success.  A late French mission
to South America has in view his  libera-
tion.  From the manuscripts of B., Kunth
arranged  the large work, Nova Genera ct
Species Plantarum,  which B. and Alex.
Humboldt had coUected and described
on their travels in the tropical countries
of the new world.   (Paris, 1815—1825, 7
vols.,  fol.,  with copperplates,  in 35 num-
bers, 1240 francs.)
  Bonstetten, Charles von ; born  at
Berne,  1745,  of an ancient and noble
family, in the canton of Zurich.  His
father,  Charles Emanuel, was  treasurer
of Berne.   He was educated, till his 19th
year,  at Yverdun, then in Geneva, where
he improved  himself in the society  of
Bonnet, Stanhope, Voltaire, Saussure and
other learned men.   He  studied at  Ley-
den, afterwards with Gray at Cambridge,
then at Paris, and travelled in Italy.  In
1775, he became a member of the supreme
council  at Berne, and, in 1787, landvoigt
in Nyon.   Here Matthisson,  Salis and
Frederica  Brun  lived  with him ; here
John Muller wrote on the history of his
native country.  By his endeavors to im-
prove education, and other useful efforts,
he  promoted  the welfare of his native
country.  During the revolutionary times,
he lived with his friend Frederica Brun,
in Copenhagen.  On his  return, in 1802,
he chose Geneva for his residence.  The
results of a journey to Italy, in which he
had made interesting  investigations  on
the depopulation of  the  campagna  at
Rome by  the  maV aria, appeared under
the title Voyage sur la Scene du dernier
Livre de VEneide, suivi de quelques Obser-
vations  sur le Latium Moderne (Geneva,
1813).   In 1807, appeared his Recherches
sur la Nature et les Lois de VImagination,
2 vols.  He afterwards published Pensees
Diverses sur divers Objets du Bien Public
(Geneva, 1815);  Etudes ou Recherches sur
les  Facultes  de Sentir et de Penser (1821,
2 vols.); and L'Homme du Midi et du Nord
(Geneva, 1824).  These works indicate a
philosophical spirit of observation.
  Bonzaniga, Giuseppe;  royal sculptor
at Turin.  By a persevering application
of 40 years, he raised the art of carving in
wood and ivory to a high degree of per-
fection, and  founded an  establishment,
from which  numerous works of art have
been produced, that are much sought for
in all Italy,  and valued by connoisseurs.
He died Dec. 18,1820.
  Bonzes ;  the  name given by Europe-
sins to the priests of the reUgion of Fo, in
Eastern Asia, particularly in China, Bir-
mah, Tonquin, Cochin-China and Japan.
As  these  priests live together in monas-
teries, unmarried, they have much resem-
blance  to the monks of the Christian
church: the system of their hierarchy
and of their  worship also agrees, in many
respects, with that of the CathoUcs. They
do penance, and pray for the sins of the
laity, who secure them from want by en-
dowments and alms.  The female bonzes
may be compared to the Christian nuns;
as the  religion  of Fo suffers no priest-
esses, but  admits the social union of pious
virgins and widows, under monastic vows,
for the performance  of reUgious  exer-
cises.   The bonzes are  commonly  ac-
quainted only with the external forms of
worship and  the idols, without  under-
standing  the  meaning of their religious
symbols.  They endeavor to keep up the 
BONZES—BOOK-TRADE.
189
 superstition by which they are  support-
 ed.
   Book-keeping is a mercantile term,
 used to  denote  the method of keeping
 commercial accounts, of all kinds, in such
 a manner, that a man may thereby know,
 at any time, the true state  of his affairs,
 with clearness and expedition.  Book-
 keeping rests,  like commerce in general,
 mi the notions of debtor and creditor, or
 on the notions of that which we possess
 or are to receive, and that which we are
 to pay, and is divided into ringle, and
 double or Italian book-keeping.  In the
 first, the posts of debtor and creditor are
 separated from each other, and entered
 in such  a  way, that each  one appears
 singly ; while, in the latter, creditor and
 debtor are  in continual mutual connex-
 ion, to which  end all the posts are entered
 doubly, once on the debtor and  once  on
 the  creditor side, by which  every enor
 or mistake is  prevented.   This mode of
 flouble book-keeping sprung up in Italy,
 in the 15th centuiy; yet it had been prac-
 tised already in Spain in the 14th century,
 according to  a  legal  ordinance.   The
 principle of this system is, that all money
 and  articles received  become debtors to
 him from whom  they are received, and,
 on the other hand, aU those who receive
 money or goods from us become debtors
 to cash  or  to the goods.   The books
 which the merchant wants are principally
 a  waste-book,  in which all his  dealings
 are recorded without particular order; a
journal,  in  which  the  contents of the
 waste-book  are  separated  every month,
 and  entered on  the debtor and creditor
 sides; and  a  leger, in which the posts
 eaitered in  the journal are placed under
 particular accounts, and from which, every
 year, the balance is drawn.
   Book-Trade,  Booksellers.   Before
 the  invention  of typography, those  who
 copied  books carried on  the  trade  in
 them. In Greece, in Alexandria, and in
 Rome, there were  booksellers who  kept
 a number of transcribers.   In the middle
 ages, there  were booksellers, called sta-
 tionarii, at the  universities of Bologna and
 Paris, who  loaned single  manuscripts at
 high prices.  In Paris, after 1342, no one
 could deal in  books without the permis-
 sion of the university, who had particular
 officers to  examine the manuscripts and
 fix  the price.  After die invention  of
 printing, the printers were also the book-
 sellers.   Faustus, the first bookseller, car-
 ried his printed Bibles for sale to France.
 Those who had  formerly been employed
 in copying now acted as agents of the
printers, and carried the printed copies
into the monasteries for sale.  Towards
the end of the 15th century, there were
such book traders in Ulm, Nordlingen and
Augsburg.   The first bookseller who pur-
chased manuscripts from the authors, and
had them printed by others, without pos-
sessing  a press of his own, was John
Otto,  in Nuremburg (1516).   In  Leipsic,
there  were, for the first time, in 1545, two
booksellers of this kind—Steigerand Bos-
kopf.  The books were earned to Frank-
fort on the Maine to the fair.   The book-
fair at Leipsic  did not become important
until  a  later period: in 1667, it  was at-
tended  by  19 foreign bookseUers. The
Leipsic  catalogue of books  appeared as
early  as 1600.   The bookseUers of the
present  day may be divided into  printers
who  sell their own publications  (they
have  become  rare), booksellers who sell
the books which have  been printed at
their  expense  by others, and those who
keep  for sale the publications of others.
The last have, usually, at the same time>
publications of their own, which they seU
or exchange with others.  This  trade is
promoted, in  Germany, chiefly  by the
book-fairs at Leipsic, of which the Easter
fair is frequented by all the booksellers
of  Germany,  and by those  of some of
the neighboring countries, as of  France,
Switzerland, Denmark, Livonia, in order
to settle their mutual  accounts, and to
form  new  connexions.  The  German
publisher sends his  publications to tliE
keeper of assortments, a condition, that is,
on  commission for a certain time, after
which the latter pays for what have been
sold, and can return what have not been
sold.  This  is not so favorable  for the
publisher as the custom in  the  French
book-trade, where  the keeper of assort-
ments takes the quantity he wants at a
fixed  rate.  In the German book-trade, it
is the practice for almost eveiy house,
either in the country or abroad, which
publishes or sells German books, to have
its  agent at Leipsic, who receives and
distributes its pubUcations.   A., in Riga,
who publishes a book calculated for the
German trade, has his agent, B., in Leip-
sic, to whom he sends, free of expense, a
number of copies of his publication, that
he may  distribute the new work to all the
booksellers with whom  he is connected,
from  Vienna  to  Hamburg, and  from
Strasburg to Konigsberg, each of whom
has his  agent in Leipsic.  Instructions are
also given as to the number  of copies to
be  sent  to each.  B. delivers those copies
in Leipsic to the agents, who send them 
190
BOOK-TRADE—CATALOGUES OF BOOKS.
every week, or more or less frequendy,
by the post, or by carriers, at the expense
of the receiver.  C, in Strasburg, who
finds  that  he  has not  received  copies
enough, writes for an additional number
of copies to his agent, D., in Leipsic.  D.
gives  this order to B., who  delivers  the
number wanted to D., to be transmitted
to C.  This arrangement is advantageous
to the German book-trade as well as to
Leipsic.  The dealer receives every thing
free to Leipsic, and, as a great number of
packets, with books from aU parts of Ger-
many, arrive there for him every week,
he can have them packed together and
sent at once.  The freight is thus much
less than if the packets were sent to him
separately from the different places, and
the  whole  business  is  simplified.   The
bookseUers are also enabled to agree with
greater  ease on a certain discount  per
cent.  In other European countries, for
instance, in England and France, no such
connexion of the bookseUers has yet been
formed.   Paris is the central  place of the
French  book-trade.   In Great Britain,
Edinburgh rivals London.  In the Neth-
erlands,  the most important repositories
of books are at Amsterdam, Utrecht, Ley-
den and  Haerlem. In Brussels and Liege,
many French works are reprinted.  In Ger-
many, several houses rarely unite for the
publication of great works, as is done in
France and England.  In 1802, the book-
sellers of the U. States established a fair
at New York, and rules for its regulation.
In Spain and Portugal, the price of every
book is regulated by the government.
  Books, Catalogues of. Catalogues of
books are interesting  if the libraries they
describe contain a great number of works
(Bibliotheca Thottiana, Copenhagen, 1789
—95,7 parts, in 12 vols.; Bibliotheca Fir-
miana, Milan, 1783,6 vols.; Catalogue du
Due  de   la Vallihe,  Paris, 1783—88, 9
vols.), or are distinguished by well-select-
ed, by_ rare and costly works (Cat. Bibl.
Harleiana, by Michael Maittaire, London,
1743—45, 5 vols.), or  by scarce  books
merely (Catalogue of Sam. Engel, Bern,
1743,  and  Dan. Salthen,   Konigsberg,
1751),  by  old  editions  (J.  F. Dibdin,
Biblwth. Spenceriana, London, 1814, 4
vols.; Ferd. Fossii, Cat. Codd. Sec. 15 Im-
 fressor.  Bibl. Magliabccchiana, Florence,
 793,  3  vols, fol.), by beautiful copies,
particularly  on  parchment  (Cat.  de  la
Bibl. de McCarthy, Paris, 1815, 2 vols.),
or by being very rich in some particular
department. For natural history, the most
important catalogues  are those of sir Jos.
Banks (London, 1796, 5 vols.), and of
Cobres  (Augsburg, 1782, 2  vols.);  for
Hungarian histoiy, that of count Szecheny
(Sopronii, 1799 et seq.); for classical lit-
erature, those of count Rewiczky (Berlin,
1794), and of Askew (London, 1775), with
some others;  for French literature,  the
second part of the catalogue of Valliere ;
for Italian literature, the catalogues of
Capponi (Rome,  1747, 4 vols.), Floncel
(Paris, 1774,2 vols.), and Ginguene (Paris,
1817) ;  for the  German  language, that
of Adelung (Dresden, 1807).  Catalogues
acquire their  true  value  and utility by
judicious  arrangement and accuracy of
detail.   For this purpose, besides perfect
exactness in  the  material   statements
which must prevail throughout, and es-
pecially with regard to uncommon works,
a notice of the printer, number of pages,
signatures, catchwords, &c,  and, in en*
gravings, an account of the number and
quality of the impressions, and the artist's
name, are necessary.  Above all, a clear
arrangement of the books is requisite, that
they may be  easily consulted.  In this
department, the  French took the lead
Gabriel Naude opened the  way by  the
Catalogus Bibliotheca  Corderiana (Paris,
1643, 4 vols.): he was followed by Ish-
mael Bullialdus and Jos. Quesnel, in  the
Cat. Bib. Thuana  (Paris, 1679).   Ga-
briel Martin,  a bookseller at  Paris, dis-
tinguished himself, in the 18th centuiy, by
a further  attention  to the method of ar-
rangement, and,  at the  same time, by
bibliographical accuracy, (Catalogues of
Bulteau, 1711, du Fay, 1725, Brochard,
1729, count Hoym, 1738).   On the  founr
dation laid by Martin,  Debure built, in the
catalogue  of Gaignat, 1769; and, in  the
preparation of the first part of ValUere's
catalogue, as well as in the arrangement
of the  second part, the bookseller  Nyon
followed him  with  success.  About this
time, Jac. Morelli, in Venice, published  a
catalogue  of the excellent library of Mat
feo Pinelli (Venice, 1787, 6 vols.), distin-
guished by similar merits.  All these cat-
alogues, however, were prepared only to
facilitate the sale of the books enumerated,
and aspired to nothing higher.   The ear-
lier catalogues of the Bodleian (Oxford,
1738, 2 vols, fol.) and Parisian libraries
(1739,  6  vols, fol.) are  very  defective.
John Michael Francke, in his catalogue of
the Ubraiy of Bunau (Leipsic, 1750,7 vols.
4to.), and Audiffredi,  in the alphabetical
catalogue of the library of Casanati (Rome,
1761, 4  vols,  fol.), have  distinguished
themselves as scientific bibliothecarians.
Both works, though incomplete, are  ex-
cellent models.  Catalogus Biblioth. Aca- 
CATALOGUES  OF BOOKS—CENSORSHIP OF  BOOKS.      191
demia Theresiana, by Joseph de Sartori
(Vienna, 1801,13 vols. 4to.), is fuU of er-
rors and  defects, and is by no means to
>>e compared to the former of the above-
mentioned works.  There are, lastly, crit-
ical  catalogues  (cat. raisonnes)  which
contain  more  minute information and
opinions, descriptions of uncommon and
remarkable  books, and  sometimes  ac-
counts of their prices.  Besides  the few
generally interesting works of this nature
by John Fabricius (Wolfenb., 1717,6 vols.
4to.),  Jac.  Fred.  Reimmann  (Hndesh.,
1731, 2 vols.),  GotUeb Stolle (Jena, 1733,
18 vols. 4to.),  and  others, the catalogues
of Crevenna (Amsterdam,  1778, 6 vols.
4to.), Sema Santander (Brussels, 1803, 5
vols.), and lord Spencer (see above), and
Denis's MemorabiUa of the Library of Ga-
relli (Vienna, 1780,4to.) are very valuable.
   Books, Censorship of.  Unless we
consider the burning of condemned books
under the Roman emperors as a censor-
ship, the establishment of this institution
must be attributed to the popes;  but it
cannot  be denied,  that it  would  have
sprung up in a thousand  other places,
even if it had not existed in then- domin-
ions.  Soon after the invention of print-
ing, the  popes  perceived the influence
which this art exerted over the diffusion
of knowledge.  It was, besides, doubly
dangerous at a time when the authority of
the  church  had been assailed, and was
shaking  under  die  load  of its abuses.
They endeavored, therefore, to  prohibit
first the reading, and secondly the print-
 ing, of certain literary works.  They en-
 forced the ancient decrees of the church
 against the reading of heretical books,
 and introduced  an ecclesiastical superin-
 tendency of the press in 1479 and 149^
 which was more  completely establishes
 by a bull of Leo X, in 1515.  In this, the
 bishops  and inquisitors were required to
 examine all works before they were print-
 ed, and thus to prevent the publication of
 heretical opinions.  They went  still fur-
 ther: as this  papal  decree could not be
 carried into execution in all countries, on
 account  of the reformation, they prepared
 an index of books which nobody was al-
 lowed to read under penalty of  the cen-
 sure  of the  church.   This index  was
 commenced by the  council of Trent, in
 the fourth session of which (1546), the
 decree of the censorship was renewed;
 but it was not  executed, and was finally
left to the popes (25th session of 1563), by
whom several such Indices Librorum pro-
hibitorum have been  published.   Even in
recent times, in 1758, such an augmented
index was  issued.  Works of an estab-
Ushed character, which could not well be
prohibited,  it was determined  to expur-
gate.  The duke of Alva caused such an
Index expurgatorius to be prepared in the
Netherlands; another was  drawn up  a»
Rome, in 1607, which, however, with the
exception of some  fragments, has re-
mained secret.  This censorship was soon
afterwards adopted by the secular author-
ity, and, in some respects, extended stifl
further.   In Gennany, the  politico-theo-
logical controversies  gave the first  occa-
sion for the introduction of this institution^
as they were carried on with the greatest
violence on both sides.  The  decree of
the  German diet,  in  1524,  prohibited
them.  By the diet of 1530, a more severe
superintendence of the press was estab-
lished ; and this was confirmed by later
laws of the empire, in 1541, 1548, 1567,
and 1577, &c.  It was also provided,  at
the peace  of Westphalia, 1648 (Osnabr.
Instr., chapter  v, §  50), that  the  states
should not  suffer attacks on religious par.
ties:  From that time, the emperors have
promised, in tlieir elective  capitulations,
to watch strictly over the  fulfilment  of
tins article.  In the  capitulations of the
emperor Leopold II,  1790, and of the
emperor Francis II, it was  further added
(art. vi, § 8), " that  no work should  be
printed, which  could not be reconciled
with the symbolical books of both  Cath-
oUcs and Protestants, and with good mor-
als, or which might produce the ruin  of
the existing constitution, or the disturb-
ance of pubUc  peace.. It was,  however,
not difficult, in most Protestant countries,
for individual authors or Uterary journals
to obtain an exemption from the censor-
ship ; and  many institutions, academies,
universities, &c,  were privileged in this
way,  as far as concerned  their regular
professors.   The  governments sometimes
protected their  subjects with great ener-
gy ; as,  for instance, that of Hanover, in
the case of Putter  and Schloezer.   In
France,  the censorship belonged to the
department of  the  chancellor, and was
administered by  royal censors.  It was
first  abolished   in  England.   It was
formerly exercised   by the weU-known
star-chamber, and, after the aboUtion  of
this court, in 1641, by the parUament   In
1662, it was  regulated by a  particular
statute,  but only for a certain number  of
years.   This statute was renewed in 1679,
and again, in 1692, for two years  more.
In 1694, the right of the crown to render
the printing of writings, journals, &c. de-
pendent on its  pennission, that is, the 
192                     CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS.
censorship, ceased entirely.  In HoUand,
and even in the Austrian Netherlands,  a
great liberty, if not an  entire freedom of
the press, prevoffed.   All that was  not
permitted to  be printed  in  France  ap-
peared in the Netherlands or in Switzer-
land, at Lausanne and Geneva, to  the
great advantage  of the Dutch and Swiss
book-trade.  In  Sweden, by on edict of
1766,  and accordingly under the aristo-
cratical constitution, the abolition of the
censorship  was  ordered;  yet Gustavus
III, personally a friend to the liberty of
the press, was obliged to retain the cen-
sorship, and even to execute it with se-
verity,  during the aristocratical machina-
tions which disturbed his reign, and which
were but imperfectly counteracted in the
revolution of 1771.  Gustavus IV issued
an  edict  soon  after  he  ascended  die
throne, by which the censorship was re-
tained  only in matters of religion,  and
was  administered by the  consistories.
This,  however, was  not  permanent: at
first, penalties were enacted,  and, in 1802,
the censorship was entirely reestablished,
committed to the chancellor  of the court,
and executed with severity.  French  and
German  books  were  prohibited.  King
Charles XIII, immediately  after his as-
cension to the throne, abolished it entirely
by a provisional  order  of April 12, 1809,
which  was confirmed, as an article of the
constitution (§ 86), June 6,1809.   In Den-
mark,  by a royal rescript of Sept. 14,
1770 (under the minister Struensee), the
censorship was wholly abolished; neither
has it  been restor-J, though the laws by
which  the liberty of the press has been
regulated have been changing, and have
sometimes  been very  oppressive.   In
France,  the  censorship,  like so many
other institutions, was annihilated by the
revolution.  All  the  constitutions, from
1791 to the Charte Constitutionelle of 1814,
declare the Uberty of the press one of the
fundamental laws. During the republic,
diere was no censorship, but the revolu-
tionary tribunals took its place.   Napo-
leon restored it, in another  fomi, by the
decree of Feb. 5, 1810 (Direction de I'lm-
primerie).   Since the restoration, it  has
also undergone various changes.  Books
of more than 20 sheets have always re-
mained free, but the censorship has been
exercised over pamphlets and journals at
different periods; for the last time, Aug.
15, 1824, just before  the  death of Louis
XVIII: it was, however, abolished again
by the  present king, Sept. 29 of the same
year.   For the estabhshment of new po-
litical journals, the permission of the  gov-
ernment must  be obtained,  and  bonds
must  be given  by the  editors.   What
changes will  yet be made in France re-
mains  to be  seen.  The introduction of
the censorship is demanded by one side,
even  in  respect to books already pub-
Ushed.  In the kingdom of the Nether-
lands,  the censorship is abolished by a
fundamental statute of Aug. 24, 1815, art
226.  Even in  the kingdom of Poland,
this was formerly the case  (constitution
of Nov. 27, 1815, art.  16), but it has been
restored by a decree of June  16, 1819.
In the German states, the liberty  of die
press was much restrained till 1806, the
state-attorney having till then had control
over it.  After 1814,  several states abol-
ished the censorship—Nassau (decree of
May 4, 1814), Weimar (in the constitu-
tion, May  5,  1816), Wiirtemberg (decree
of Jan. 30,1817), Bavaria (May 26, 18181
grand-duchy  of Hesse (constitution or
Dec. 17, 1820, §35),  though  with very
different provisions as to the responsibih-
ty of authors, printers  and booksellers.
(See Press, Laws of the.)  In accordance
with the unhappy decrees of Carlsbad,
1819, and the resolutions of the German
diet of Sept. 20, 1819, the censorship in
all the  states of the German confederation
has become  one  of  the conditions of
union,  but only with regard  to  books of
less than 20 sheets, and journals.  These
measures were, at  first,  adopted only for
five years, but are, at present, continued
indefinitely.   In Russia and Austria, tiiere
is naturally a despotic censorship.   In the
U. States, a censorship has never existed.
Besides the different degrees  of severity
with which the censorship is exercised in
different countries, it may be divided into
different  kinds,  according to  the  field
which  it embraces.  1. A general censor-
ship of the book-trade and of the press,
under which  even foreign books cannot
be sold without  the consent  of the cen-
sors, exists in Russia, Austria, Spain, &c
(Austria has, in the censorship of foreign
books,  four formulas: a. admittitur,  en-
tirely free; b. transeat, free, but without
public  advertisements for sale ; c. erga
schedam, to be sold only to pubUc officers
and Uterary men,  on the delivery of a
receipt; d. damnatur,  entirely forbidden.)
2.  A general  censorship  of the press, ex-
tending only to books printed in  the
country, exists in Prussia (edict of Sept
19,1788 ; order of the cabinet of Dec. 28,
1824), where, however, a case once took
place, in which the publications of a fot-
eign bookseller, Brockhaus  of Leipsic,
were  prohibited.  3.  A  Umited censoi- 
CENSORSHIP OF BOOKS—BOONE.
193
ship, only over works of less  than 20
sheets, and journals, is at present the law
in the states of the German confederation.
(See Press, Liberty of the.)
  Boone, Daniel, one of the first adven-
turers who penetrated into the wilds of
Kentucky, was bora in  Virginia.  He
was, almost from his infancy, addicted to
hunting in the woods.   He emigrated
early to  North Carolina, then  recently
settled.  Having determined to cross the
wilderness bordering on the Cumberland
mountains, in quest of the region of Ken-
tucky, then  little  known, he set out on
his  expedition, with five companions, May
1, 1769.   June 7, they arrived  at  Red
river, north  of the Kentucky.  A short
tune afterwards, B. and one of his com-
panions, John Stewart, were captured by
a party of savages.  They soon escaped,
but could  discover  no traces  of their
friends, who had returned home.  B. and
Stewart would have been constrained to
follow them, had not Squire  B.,  the
brother of Daniel, pursued  their track
from North  Carolina, and reUeved them
with a few  necessaries.  Shortly after-
wards, Stewart was killed by the Indians,
and the two Boones were left die only
white  men  in the  wilderness.   They
passed the winter in a cabin.   In May,
1770, B.'s brodier returned home.   In
July of the same year, however, he came
back, according to agreement  They then
traversed the country to the Cumberland
river, and, the following year, returned to
their families, with a determination of re-
moving with  them  to  Kentucky.   In
September,  1773, B. commenced his re-
moval to Kentucky, with Ins  own,  and
five other families, and was joined by 40
men, who placed themselves under his
guidance. Being attacked by the Indians,
6 of his  men were slain, and the cattle
belonging to the  party dispersed.   The
survivors  returned,  in consequence, to
the settlements on Clinch river, about 40
miles from the scene of action.  A com-
pany of North Carolina, having formed a
plan of purchasing the lands on the south
side of the  Kentucky river from  the
southern Indians, employed  B. to buy a
tract of country, the limits of which were
described to him.   He performed the ser-
vice, and,  soon  after, made a road from
the  settlements on the Holston  to the
Kentucky river, notwithstanding the in-
cessant attacks of the Indians, hi which 4
of his  men were killed and 5 wounded.
In Apr., 1775, he built a fort at a salt-spring,
on  the southern bank of the Kentucky,
where Boonesborough is bow situated.
  VOL. II.         17
It consisted of a block-house and several
cabins, enclosed with palisades.  In 1777,
he sustained two sieges in Boonesborough
from the Indians, but repulsed them.  In
the following year, however, Feb. 7, B.
was taken prisoner by the savages, while
hunting, with a number of his men.  In
May,  they were  conducted to  Detroit,
where they experienced great  kindness
from governor Hamilton, the British com-
mander of that post He even offered the
Indians £100 for their prisoner, in order
that he might liberate him on parole,  but
they would not part with him, having con-
ceived for him sentiments of great affec-
tion and respect.  On his return, he was
adopted by one of the principal chiefs at
Chilicothe, and might have been happy
in this situation, had not the thoughts of
his wife  and  children continually kept
alive  the  desire of escape.  This he ef-
fected one morning, having risen at  the
usual hunting hour, and departed, appa-
rently for the woods, but  in reality for
Boonesborough.  He anived there on the
20th of June, after a journey of 160  miles,
which he performed in 4 days, having
eaten, it is said, but one meal during that
time.  On the 8th of August, a body of
savages, to the number of 450, command-
ed by Canadian Frenchmen and some of
their  own chiefs, invested  the fort, with
British colors flying.  B. was summoned
to surrender, but  announced  his deter-
mination,  and that of the garrison, who
amounted to but 50 men, " to defend  the
fort as long as a man of them was alive."
The enemy then resolved to obtain it by
stratagem, and requested that nine of the
principal  persons  of the garrison would
come out and treat with them, promising
terms so favorable, that the  invitation was
accepted.  After the articles of the  treaty
had been signed, B. and his companions
were  told that it was  customaiy, upon
such  occasions, among the Indians, for
two of them to shake each  white man by
the hand, in order to evince the sincerity
of their friendship.   This was also agreed
to; and,   accordingly, two Indians  ap-
proached each of the nine, and, taking his
hand, grappled  him, with  the intent of
making him prisoner.  Their object being
then immediately  perceived, B. and his
party extricated themselves, and retreated
into the fort, amid  a heavy fire from the
savages.   An  attack was  then quickly
commenced, and continued until the 20th
of August, when the enemy abandoned
the siege.  This was the last attempt of
the Indians  to possess themselves of
Boonesborough.  In October,  as B. was 
194
BOONE—BOOTAN.
returning  from die Blue Licks, with his
brother, the latter was slain, and B. pur-
sued by a  party of Indians for three miles,
by the aid of a dog; but, having lulled the
animal, he escaped.  In 1782, the depre-
dations of the  savages  increasing to an
intolerable extent,  B\, with other militia
officers, coUected 176 men, smd went in
pursuit of a large body, who had march-
ed beyond the  Blue Licks to a bend of
the main  fork  of  the Licking river, 40
fniles from  Lexington.   They overtook
them August 19, but, being much inferi-
or in numbers, were  obhged to retreat.
General Clark, then at the falls of the
Ohio, immediately assembled a consider-
able number of men, and commenced the
pursuit of the savages,  accompanied by
B.  From that time until 1798, B. resided
alternately in Kentucky and in Virginia.
In that year, he removed to Upper Louis-
iana, where he received a grant from the
Spanish authorities of 2000 acres  of land.
His children, friends and followers were
also presented with 800  acres each.   He
settled  with them on the Missouri river,
at Charette, some  distance  beyond  the
inhabited parts  of the country, where he
followed his usual course of life—hunting,
and trapping for bears—until Sept., 1822,
when he died, at the residence of his son,
major A. Boone, in Montgomery county,
in the 85th year of his age.  He had been
gradually declining for some years previ-
ous to his decease.  It is related,  that,
some time before that event, he had two
coffins  made out of a favorite cherry-tree,
the first of which, not fitting, he gave to a
son-in-law; in the second he was buried,
having bestowed on it a fine polish  by a
course  of  rubbing for several years.  His
sons and  daughters still reside in  Mis-
souri.
  Boors.   The peasants of Russia  are
divided into two classes—-free boors and
vassal boors. The former cannot be alien-
ated or sold. The latter  are mere slaves,
not being capable of possessing property,
but, with their  famiUes,  being at the dis-
posal of their  lords.  They are of three
sorts—the crown boors, the mine boors and
the private boors.  The  crown  boors are,
some of them, considered as absolute prop-
erty ; others are attached to the mines or
soil, while many are only obliged to per-
form a certain quantity of labor, or to pay
a certain proportion of the produce of it.
Their condition is superior to that of die
other two  classes, as they usually pay an
annual abrock, or rent, of about five rabies
each, and  enjoy the rest of their earnings
undisturbed.  They are allowed also to
purchase from noblemen lands or villages,
with the vassals belonging to them.  The
mine  boors are  unalienably attached to
particular mines, and may be transferred
with them to different masters. The third
sort, or private boors, are those belonging
to the nobles.  Their condition  depends
on  the character of their masters: it is
sometimes very comfortable, but  often
most wretched.  In the richest provinces,
according  to  the  testimony  of doctor
Clarke, you may find them dying of hun-
ger, or pining  from bad  food.  Pastures,
covered  with cattle, yield no  milk for
them.  The harvest supplies no bread for
their  children.  The lord claims all the
produce.  Some attempts were made by
Alexander (q. v.) to alleviate their condi-
tion, but private  interests interfered with
the benevolent intentions of the govern-
ment.
  Bootan ; an extensive region of North-
ern Hindostan,  lying between Bengal
and Thibet.  It is  about  250 miles from
east to west, and 90 from north to south;
but its eastern boundaries are imperfectly
known.  It forms a portion of the decliv-
ity  of that stupendous Alpine chain, of
which Thibet occupies  the  table  land.
Notwithstanding it is mountainous, and,
in many parts, extremely cold, the coun-
try  is productive, and  highly cultivated,
the slope of  the  mountains being cut
into terraces  for this  purpose.   As it
is situated without the tropics, it is free
from periodical rains; and the climate is,
in general, moderate, calculated to bring
forth  both European  and Asiatic  fruits
and vegetables.  Thus we find the  trees
and shrubs of Northern Europe, in  sight
of the large forests, and a  rank vegetation
of plants strictly tropical.  The Deb Rajah,
who resides at Tassisudon, is the prince
of the countiy,  but is tributary to the
grand lama of Thibet.  The inhabitants
are robust, active  and ferocious.  They
have  the  Tartar features.  They are of
the Boodh reUgion, and leave most of the
labor  to the women.   Their houses are,
in general, of only  one story, but the pal-
ace of the rajah is a lofty  pile.  From the
precipitous nature  of the country,  they
are obliged to  use numerous  bridges,
many of which are constructed with ropes
and iron  chains.  B. produces a hardy
breed  of  horses, about  13  hands high,
called tangans.  A caravan is sent annu-
ally by the prince Deb  Rajah, who is the
only merchant in the dominions, to Rung-
pore,  in Bengal.  The goods which are
carried by the tangans are coarse wooUen
cloths, cow-tails from  Thibet, bees-wax, 
BOOTAN—BORA.
195
ivory, musk, gold dust, silver ingots, with
silks, tea, paper and knives from China,
with which B.  has  a close  intercourse.
The current coin is the Narainy rupee of
Couch Behar, worth about 20 cents. The
customs of the inhabitants resemble those
of the Birmans or inhabitants of Ava,
more than they  do those of tlieir nearer
neighbors of Thibet or Assam.
  Bootes ; a northern constellation, called,
also, by the Greeks, Arctophylax, and, by
the English, Charles's Wain.  Arcturus was
placed, by the ancients, on his breast; by
the moderns, on the skirt of his coat.
Fable  relates that  Philomelus,  son of
Ceres and Jasion, having been robbed by
his brother  Plutus, invented the  plough,
yoked two bulls to it, and thus supported
himself by cultivating the ground.  Ceres,
to reward his ingenuity, transfened him,
with his cattle, under the name of Bootes,
to the heavens.
   Booth, Barton, an actor of great celeb-
rity in the  reigns  of queen Anne and
George I, was born  in 1681, and placed,
under   doctor  Busby,  at  Westminster
school.  An early attachment for the dra-
ma was fostered by the  applause he met
with while performing a part in one of
Terence's plays, at the annual exhibition
in that seminary. He eloped from school
at the  age of 17, and joined Ashbury's
company of strolling players, with whom
he went  to  Dublui.  After  perfonning
three years in the Irish capital with great
applause,  he returned, in 1701, to Lon-
don, and, engaging with Betterton, met
witb similar success.  On  the death of
that manager, he joined the Drury lane
company, and, on the production of Cato,
in  1712, raised  his  reputation as a trage-
dian to the highest pitch, by his perform-
ance of the principal character.  It was
on this occasion that lord Bolingbroke
presented liim from the stage-box with 50
guineas—an example which was  imme-
diately followed by that nobleman's polit-
ical opponents.   Declamation, rather than
passion, appears to have been his forte,
though Cibber speaks of his OtheUo as
his finest character.  He became a pat-
entee and manager of the theatre in 1713,
in  conjunction  with Wilks, Cibber and
Doggett, and died  May, 1733.   He was
buried in Westminster abbey, where there
is a monument  to his memory.   He was
the author of Dido and ^Eneas, a mask,
various songs, &c,  and  the translator of
several odes of Horace.
   Bopf, Francis, bom in 1791, at Mentz,
went  to Paris,  in the autumn of 1812, in
order to become acquainted with the Ori-
ental, and, in particular, with the Indian
language and  Uterature.  While study-
ing these, he did not neglect Arabian and
Persian, and found in Elmina von Chezy
and Sylvestre de Sacy, as well as in Au-
gustus William von Schlegel, friends who
wilUngly assisted  him  in his  investiga-
tions.  With  a small pension from the
king of Bavaria,  he lived  five years in
Paris, afterwards in London, then in G6t-
tingen, devoted to his favorite studies with
the greatest perseverance.  He was now
made professor of the Oriental languages
in Berlin.  He wrote on the  system of
conjugation  in the  Sanscrit  language,
compared with that of the Greek,  Latin,
Persian and German tongues, and accom-
panied his remarks with translations of
extracts from  Indian poems  (Frankfort
on the Maine,  1816).   He also  published
works with the following titles: Srima-
hdbharate Nalopakhajanam. Nalas, carmen
Sanscritum, e Mahabharato, edidit, Latine
vertit et adnot. illust., Fr. Bopp, London,
Paris and Berlin; Complete System of the
Sanscrit  Language;  Indralokagamanan,
Voyage of Ardschura  to the  Sky of In-
dra; together with  other  Episodes of
Masabsarah, published  for the  first  Time
in the original Language, and translated in
Metre, with a Commentary.
  Bora, Catharine von, wife  of Luther,
was born in 1499.  Her birth-place  is not
known, and of her parents we only  know
that  her mother,  Anna, was  descended
from one of the most ancient families of
Germany, that of Hugewitz (Haugewitz).
The daughter took the veil,  very early, in
the nunnery of Nimptschen, near Grim-
ma.  Notwithstanding  her  devout dispo-
sition, she soon felt very unhappy in her
situation, and,  as her relations would not
listen to her,  applied,  with eight  other
nuns, to Luther, whose fame had reached
them.  Luther gained  over a  citizen of
Torgau, by the name of Leonard Koppe,
who, in union with  some other citizens,
undertook to deliver  the nine  nuns from
their convent.   This was done the  night
after Good Friday, April 4, 1523.  He
brought them to Torgau, and from thence
to Wittenberg, where Luther provided
them a decent abode.   At the  same time,
to anticipate the charges of his enemies,
he published a letter to Koppe, in which
he frankly confessed that he was the au-
thor of this enterprise, and had persuaded
Koppe to its execution; that he had done
so in the confident hope that Jesus Christ,
who had restored  his gospel, and destroy-
ed the kingdom of Antichrist, would be
their protector, though it might cost them 
196
BORA—BORACIC  ACID.
even Ufe.  He also exhorted the parents
and relations of the nine virgins to admit
them again into their houses.  Some of
them were received  by citizens of Wit-
tenberg; others, who were  not  yet too
old, Luther  advised  to marry.   Among
the latter  was  Catharine, whom  Philip
Reichenbach, at that time mayor of the
city, had taken into his house.  Luther
proposed to  her (by  his friend Nicholas
von Amsdorf, minister  in  Wittenberg)
doctor  Kaspar Glaz  and  others in mar-
riage.   She declined these proposals, but
declared her willingness to bestow her
hand  on Nicholas von  Amsdorf, or on
Luther  himself.  Luther, who,  in  1524,
had laid aside the cowl, was not averse to
matrimony, yet appears to have been led
to the  resolution  of marrying by reason
rather than by passion.  Besides, he was
not then favorably inclined towards Catha-
rine, because he suspected her of worldly
vanity.  He  says, however, that he found
in her  a pious and faithful wife.  There
could be no want of  disadvantageous ru-
mors on this occasion, some of them as
shameful as they were unfounded.  The
domestic peace of the pair was also drawn
into question, and Catharine, in particular,
was accused of being peevish and domi-
neering, so that her  husband was  often
obliged  to correct her.   Although this
!-st story is without foundation, yet Lu-
ther seems not to have been fully satisfied
with her; for he speaks with great sincer-
ity of the sufferings, as well as of the hap-
piness, of his marriage. When, after Lu-
ther's death,  in 1547, Charles V  entered
Wittenberg  in  triumph,  Catharine saw
herself obUged to leave this place, and to
remove to Leipsic, where she was  com-
pelled  to take  boarders for  her support.
She afterwards returned to  Wittenberg,
and Uved there till 1552 in want  When
the plague broke out in this place, and
the university was removed to Torgau,
she went thither also, arrived there sick,
and died soon after  (Dec. 27, 1552).  In
the church of Torgau her tomb-stone is
still to be seen, on which is her image, of
the natural size.
   Boracic Acid, uncombined, exists  in
several small lakes in Tuscany, at Volca-
no, one of the  Lipari islands, and in the
hot springs near Sasso, in the Florentine
tenitory, from whose waters it is deposit-
ed by natural  evaporation.   It is  easily
obtained also from  borax, a native salt,
composed of this acid and  soda, by dis-
solving it in boiling water, and gradually
adding sulphuric acid to engage the soda:
the boracic  acid is  in this maimer set at
liberty, and is deposited in crystals on the
cooling of the Uquid: these, when wash-
ed with cold water and  dried, are per-
fectly pure.   In this state, it presents
the form  of brilUant, white,  hexagonal
scales, soft  and greasy to the touch, and
having a specific gravity  of 1.479.  Its
taste,  when first taken into the mouth, is
sourish; afterwards it becomes bitter, and
finally leaves a sweetish impression upon
the tongue.  It is slightly soluble in wa-
ter, and  much  more so  in alcohol, to
which, when burning, it communicates  a
green color.  It contains 43 per cent, of
water, which it parts with, on being heat-
ed to  redness,  when it melts into a trans-
parent glass, and is called calcined boracic
acid.—Boracic acid  was discovered by sir
H. Davy to be a compound of a peculiar
base,  which he called boron, and oxygen,
in the proportion of 8 parts of the former
to 16 of the latter.  Its principles are sep-
arated both by  means of galvanism and
by the action of potassium.  Boron is  a
tasteless and inodorous substance, in the
form of a greenish-brown powder.  It is
insoluble in water, ether, alcohol and oils;
nor does it fuse when  subjected to the
strongest heats.  By exposure to common
air, it gradually becomes  oxygenated,
and, when  heated in  oxygen gas, burns
vividly, and is converted into boracic acid.
—Boracic acid is sometimes employed in
the analysis of minerals, and for soldering
metals in the arts; and, since its discovery
in such abundance in the  Italian springs
and lakes,  it has also been used in the
manufacture of borax, being united  with
soda.—The most important combination
formed by boracic acid is that with soda,
commonly  called borax.  It is brought
into Europe, in an impure state, from the
East Indies, under the name of tincal, and
is understood to occur principally in cer-
tain lakes, from whence it is obtained by
evaporation.  It is also reported to be dug
from  the earth in Thibet, and  to exist in
the mines of Riquintipa and Escapa, in
South America.  A knowledge of its
manufacture was, for a long time, confin-
ed to  the Venetians and Hollanders.  This
is now known  to consist in boiling car-
bonate of soda with the calcined tincal, in
order to saturate its  excess of acid:  12
pounds of carbonate of soda are requisite
for every 100 pounds of washed tincal, in
the water: the lie is left to cool gradually
and crystalUze.  The French nation man-
ufacture their borax  (of which they con-
sume about 25 tons annually) from the
boracic acid found in the Italian lakes; in
consequence of which the price of this 
BORACIC ACID—BORDELAIS WINES.              197
article has fallen in France from five shil-
lings and  ten  pence the pound, to two
shillings and two pence.   The  process
which  they adopt  is  to  dissolve 1200
pounds  of carbonate of  soda in 1000
pounds of water, to which is added, by 20
pounds at a time, 600 pounds of Tuscan
boracic acid.  This is done  in  a leaden
boiler, of double the capacity requisite to
contain the materials, in order to provide
for the effervescence which takes  place.
The heat  is kept up for 30 hours, when
the clean liquid is  drawn off into leaden
coolers, a  foot in depth, where  the first
crop of crystals deposits itself in three days.
100 pounds of the best Tuscan boracic
acid produce about 150 of borax.—Borax
appears in crystalUne masses of a mode-
rate size, or in distinct hexagonal prisms,
terminated  by three  or six-sided pyra-
mids ; is of a white color, and transparent.
It requires 20 parts of cold and 6 of boil-
ing water  for its solution.  Exposed to
heat, it swells up, boils, loses its water of
crystaUization, and becomes converted in-
to a porous, white, opaque mass, common-
ly called calcined borax. A stronger heat
brings it to the form of a vitreous trans-
parent substance,  in which state it is
known under the name of glass of borax.
Borax forms one of the best fluxes known.
It is used in the analysis of minerals by
the blow-pipe, in melting the  precious
metals, in forming artificial gems, and in
soldering.—Another native  combination
of boracic acid is  that with magnesia,
known, in mineralogy, under the name of
boracite.   It  is found in  small crystals,
imbedded  in gypsum, near Lunenburg,
in Lower Saxony, and at  Segeborg, in
Holstein.   Their form is that of a cube,
 with the edges and four of the solid an-
gles truncated.  They are remarkable for
their electric  properties, becoming, when
heated, negatively electrified at their  per-
fect angles, and positively so at their trun-
cated angles.
   Borak Al.  (See Alborak.)
   Borda, Jean Charles; born at Dax, in
the department of Landes, in 1733; an
engineer, and afterwards a captain in the
French marine, famous for his mathemat-
ical talents.(  In 1756,  he was chosen a
member of the academy of sciences, and
occupied  himself in making experiments
on the resistance of fluids, the velocity of
motion, and other  topics  relating to dy-
namical science.   In 1767,  he published
a dissertation on  hydraulic wheels, and
afterwards one on the construction of
 hydrauUc machinery.  In 1771, with  Ver-
dune and Pingre,  he  made a voyage to
                   17*
America, to determine the longitude and
latitude of several coasts, isles and shoals.
and to try the utiUty of several astronom-
ical instruments.  In 1774, he visited the
Azores,  the cape Verde  islands, and the
coast of Africa, for the same purpose.  In
the American war,  he was very useful to
the count d'Estaing, by his knowledge of
navigation.   In later times,  he visited
a second time the Azores, the cape Verde
islands, and the coast of Africa; but  the
observations which  he made in this voy-
age have not been published.  B. was the
founder of the schools of naval architect-
ure in France.  He invented  an instru-
ment, of a very small diameter,  which
measures angles with the greatest accu-
racy, and which has been used in meas-
uring the meridian; the reflecting circle,
which has made  his name   immortal;
besides an instrument for measuring  the
inclination  of the compass needle,  and
many others.  On the estabhshment of the
national  institute, he  became  one of its
members, and was occupied,  with other
men of science, in  framing the new sys-
tem of weights and measures adopted in
France under the republican government.
Among the latest of his labors was a series
of experiments to discover the length of
a pendulum which should vibrate seconds,
in the latitude of Paris.  Among his wri-
tings are Recherches sur la Resistance des
Fluides; Nouvelle Methode pour observer
la Longueur du Pendule; Nouveau Sys-
tkme de Poids et Mesures, adopte par les
Etats Generaux, &c.  The principal are
his Voyage, pubUshed in 2 vols, in 177?",
and his Tables Trigonometriques Deri-
males, which have been edited by  De-
lambre.  B. died at Paris, in 1799.
   Bordeaux.  (See Bourdeaux.)
   Bordelais  Wines.   The  finer  red
wines of the Bordelais (country round
Bourdeaux) are the best which  France
produces.  They contain but Uttle alcohol,
keep well, and  even improve by removal.
As the original fermentation is complete,
they  are, if judiciously  managed,  less
subject  to  disorder and acidity  than
the Burgundy wines.  None of the very
best quality, however, is exported pure: a
bottle of the best Chateaux-Margaux, or
 Haut-Brion, is  a rarity hardly  to be  pro-
 cured in Bourdeaux itself, at the  rate of
 six or seven francs a bottle.   For export,
 the secondary growths of Medoc are min-
 gled  with  the  rough Palus.   The red
 wines of the Bordelais are known in Eng-
 land and North America under the name
 of claret.   They  have  less  aroma  and
 spirit, but more astringency, than the Bur- 
198                  BORDELAIS WINES—BOREAS.
  gundy wines. The Bordelais are the safest
  wines for daily use, as they are among
  the most perfect of the light wines, and
  do not easily excite intoxication.  They
  have been accused of producing the gout,
  but without reason.  Persons who drench
  themselves with Madeira, Port, &c, and
  indulge in an occasional debauch of claret,
  may, indeed, be visited in that way; be-
  cause a transition from the strong bran-
  died  wines to the lighter is always fol-
  lowed by a derangement of the digestive
  organs. The principal vineyards are those
  of Medoc, Graves,  Palus and  Vignes
  Blanches; after these, those of Entre-
  deux-Mers, St. Emilion and the Bourgeais
  are the most important.  The first growth
  of Medoc are die famous wines of Cha-
  teaux-Margaux, Lafitte and Latour.  The
  Lafitte is  characterized by its silky soft-
  ness on the palate, and a perfume partak-
  ing of violet and Raspberry.  The Latour
  is  fuller, has more aroma, but less softness.
  The Chateaux-Margaux is lighter than
  the Latour, and delicate, like the Lafitte,
  but has not so high a flavor.  Of the sec-
  ond growth, we may mention the Rauran
 and the Leoville.  The  average  produce
 of the first growth is 100 tonneau (of 217
 gallons each).  The soil of Medoc is  a
 sandy and calcarious loam.  The gravelly
 lands (les Graves),  to the south and west
 of Bourdeaux, produce the  Graves.  The
 first growth of the red Graves is the Haut-
 Brion, which rivals the first growth of
 Medoc; it  has more color  and body, but
 is  inferior  in aroma and   taste.   The
 principal white  Graves are St. Bris and
 Carbonieux. The best Medoc ought to be
 kept three or four years before removal;
 the Graves five  or  six.   The wines of
 Palus, which is a bed of rich alluvial de-
 posits, are inferior to the preceding; they
 are stronger and more deeply colored than
 those of Medoc.  Being hard and rough,
 they  are  improved  by a  voyage, and
 are principally sent  to the  East  Indies
 and America as vins de cargaison, or  are
 mixed with Medoc, which is intended for
 exportation. By the voyage, they become
 more light and delicate, but  are not to be
 compared with the growths of Medoc and
 the Graves.   The best are Queyries and
 Mt Ferrand.   The  former are  deeply
 colored, and have much body. Age gives
 them an agreeable aroma, resembling that
 of a raspberry.  Among the  white Borde-
lais wines, besides those already mention-
ed,  the finest  growths are  Sauterncs,
Preignac, Barsac and Bommes. Martillac
and St.Medard are of a good quaUty,and
have Ughtness and  body.   Dariste, for-
  merly Dulamon, is  equal to St. Bris and
  Carbonieux. Among other red wines are
  the  Bourgeais, which are of a fine color,
  and acquire by age  lightness  and an
  agreeable almond aroma:  of all the Bor-
  delais wines, they most resemble the Bur-
  gundy  wines.   The  first growths are
  Debosquet,  Chateau-Rousset, Tajac and
  Falfax.  The Bourgeais wines were for-
  merly  preferred to Medoc.  The  wines
  of St. EmiUon have been much esteemed.
  The Fronsac and  Canon are the best
  Those of Entre-deux-Mers become agree-
  able with age.   The vins de Cotes are good
  vins ordinaires: they are generally fermes
  and hard, and improve by age.  The best
  are those of Bassens and Cenon.   Those
  of St Gervais,  Cadillac and St. Romain
  are soft and agreeable.  (For further in-
  formation, see  Le Guide ou Conducteur
  de I'Etranger a Bordeaux; 2d ed., Bour-
  deaux, 1827, which  contains a  minute
 account of the wines raised in the neigh-
 borhood  of  Bourdeaux.   See,  also, A.
 Henderson's History of the Ancient and
 Modern Wines, 4to., London, 1824.)   The
 Ught  wines of Bourdeaux might be very
 advantageously  substituted,  in  the  U.
 States, for the strong Uquors too generally
 drank in this country.
   Bordentown, in New Jersey ;  on the
 east side of the Delaware, 26 miles N. E.
 of Philadelphia.  It is a small, pleasant
 town, and now  the residence of Joseph
 Bonaparte.
   Boudone,  Paris,  a celebrated painter
 of the Venetian school, born at Treviso,
 in 1500, died in  1570.   Under Titian, he
 made rapid progress  in painting.  The
 execution of many works for his native
 city and for  Venice  spread  his fame as
 far as France, whither he was invited by
 the king.  The galleries of Dresden and
 Vienna  possess  several  of his  pieces.
 His most  famous picture is the Old Gon-
 dolier presenting a Ring to the Doge; it is
 painted  in oil, and  now to be seen at
 Venice.
  Boreal ; northern.
  Boreas ; the north wind, worshipped
by the  Greeks as a  deity,  residing  in
Thrace,  and  represented  with   wings,
which, as well  as his  hair and  beard,
were  full  of  flakes of snow; instead  of
feet, he had the tails of serpents, and, with
the train of his  garment, he stirred up
clouds of dust   Boreas was the son  of
Astreus  and  of  Aurora.  When Apollo
and his  favorite  Hyacinthus were  once
playing at quoits, he blew the quoit of the
former, of whom he was jealous,  upon
the head of the youth, who was killed by 
BOREAS—BORGHESE.
199
 the blow.  By Orithya, daughter of Erec-
 theus of Athens, he was father of Cleopa-
 tra, Chione, Calais and  Zetes.  The last
 two partook in the Argonautic expedi-
 tion.
   Borghese ;  a  Roman  family,  which
 derives its  origin  from Sienna.   They
 have  held the  highest offices in this re-
 public, from the middle  of the 15th cen-
 tury.   Pope Paul V, who belonged to
 this family, and ascended the papal chair
 in 1605, loaded his relations with honors
 and riches.   In 1607, he appointed his
 brother, Francesco B., leader of the troops
 sent against Venice to maintain the papal
 claims; bestowed the principality of Sul-
 mone on Marco  Antonio  B., the  son of
 his brother Giovanni Battista; granted him
 a revenue of 150,000 dollars, and obtained
 for him the title  of a grandee of Spain.
 Another of his nephews, Scipione Caffa-
 relU, he created cardinal, and made him
 adopt the name of B.  From Marco An-
 tonio B., prince of Sulmone, is descended
 the rich family  of B., which is continued
 in the prince Camillo B. and  his brother
 Francesco, prince B. Aldobrandini.  (See
 Cenci.)
   Borghese,  Camillo  PhiUp   Louis,
 prince ;  formerly  duke  of  Guastalla,
 prince of France,  &c.j  born  1775, at
 Rome; son  of Marco Antonio B.  When
 the French  invaded  Italy, he  entered
 their service, showed great attachment to
 the cause of France, in particular to gen-
 eral Bonaparte; went, in 1803, to Paris,
 and married the second  sister of Napole-
 on, Pauline, widow  of  general Leclerc.
 In 1804, he  became a French  prince, and
 grand cross  of  the legion  of  honor, and,
 at the breaking out  of the war against
 Austria, in 1805, commander of a  squad-
 ron of the imperial guard.  After its ter-
 mination, his wife received the duchy of
 Guastalla, and  he was  created duke of
 Guastalla.  After having served, in 1806,
 in the campaign  against  the Prussians
 and Russians, and after  having been sent
 to Warsaw,  to prepare the Poles for a re-
 volt, the emperor appointed him governor-
 general of the provinces beyond the Alps.
 He fixed  his court at Turin, and became
 very  popular among the  Piedmontese.
 After  the abdication of  Napoleon, he
 broke up all connexion with the Bona-
 parte family, and separated from his wife.
 The prince  sold  to the French govern-
 ment, for the  sum of  8,000,000  francs,
322 works of art, which ornamented the
palace of his ancestors, known under the
name of the villa  Borghese.  (See  Rome.)
Among them were several masterpieces ;
e. g., the Borghese  Gladiator, the Her-
maphrodite, the SUenus, the Dying Sene-
ca, Amor  and Psyche.  Bonaparte pro-
vided for the payment out of the national
domains in Piedmont, which the king of
Sardinia confiscated in 1815; at the same
time, in consequence of the second inva-
sion of France, the prince received back
 Jiart of these treasures of art.  He now
 ives in Florence.  In 1818, he sold  Lu-
cedio, in Savoy, for 3,000,000  livres.  In
the kingdom of Naples, he possesses the
principalities Sulmone and Rosano.  He
is one of the richest Italian princes.  Dur-
ing his residence in Rome, in 1826, Leo
XII treated him with great  distinction,
and the establishment of some pious in-
stitutions was expected from him.
   Borghese,  Marie  Pauline, princess,
originally Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon,
born at Ajaccio, Oct 20, 1780,  went,
when the English occupied Corsica, in
1793, to Marseilles, where she  was  on the
point of marrying Freron, a member of
the convention,  and  son  of  that critic
whom  Voltaire made famous, when an-
other lady laid claim to his hand.  The
beautiful Pauline was then intended for
general Duphot,  who was  afterwards
murdered at Rome, in December,  1797;
but she bestowed her hand, from choice,
on general  Leclerc, then at Milan, who
had been, in 1795, chief of the general
staff of a division at Marseilles, and  had
there fallen in love with her.   When Le-
clerc was sent to  St. Domingo, with the
rank of captain-general, Napoleon ordered
her to accompany her husband with her
son.  She embarked, in December, 1801,
at Brest, and was called, by the poets of
the fleet, the Galatea of the Greeks, the
Venus marina.  Her statue, in marble, has
since been made by Canova, at Rome—a
successful image of the goddess of beauty.
She was no less courageous than beautiful,
for when the Negroes, under Christophe,
stonned Cape Francois,  where she re-
sided, and Leclerc, who could  no  longer
resist the assailants, ordered his lady and
child to be  carried  on shipboard,  she
yielded only to force.   After the death of
her husband, Nov. 23, 1802, she manied,
at Morfontaine, Nov.  6, 1803, die  prince
Camillo Borghese. (q. v.)   Her son died
at Rome,  soon after.  With  Napoleon,
who loved  her tenderly, she  had  many
disputes, and as many reconciliations ; for
she would not always follow the caprices
of his policy.  Yet even the proud style
in which she demanded what her brothers
begged, made her the more attractive to
her brother.   Once, however, when she 
200
BORGHESE—BORGIA.
forgot herself towards the empress, whom
she never Uked, she was obliged to leave
the court.   She was yet  in disgrace, at
Nice, when Napoleon resigned his crown
in 1814 ; upon which occasion she imme-
diately acted as a tender sister.   Instead
of remaining at her palace in Rome, she
set out for Elba, to join her brother,  and
acted the part of mediatrix between  him
and  the other members  of his family.
When Napoleon landed in France, she
went to Naples, to see her sister Caroline,
and  afterwards returned to Rome.   Be-
fore the battle  of Waterloo, she placed all
her diamonds, wliich were of great value,
at the disposal of her brother.  They were
in his carriage, which  was token in  that
battle, and  was 6hown publicly at Lon-
don.  He intended to have returned them
to her.  She lived, afterwards, separated
from her husband, at Rome, where she
occupied part of the palace Borghese, and
where she possessed, from 1816, the  villa
Sciarra.  Her house, in which taste  and
love of the fine arts prevailed, was the
centre  of the most splendid society at
Rome.  She often saw her mother, her
brothers Lucien and Louis, and her uncle
Fesch.  When she heard of the sickness
of her brother Napoleon, she repeatedly
requested permission to go to  him at St.
Helena. She finally obtained her request,
but the news of his death arrived imme-
diately after.  She died, June 9, 1825,
at Florence.  She left many legacies, and
a donation, by the  interest of which  two
young men of Ajaccio will be enabled to
study medicine and surgery.  The  rest
of her property she left to her brothers,
the  count  of  St. Leu and the prince of
Montfort.  Her whole property amounted
to 2,000,000 francs.
   Borgia,  Caesar; the natural son of an
ecclesiastic, who afterwards became pope
Alexander  VI, and of a Roman  lady,
named Vanozza. At a time when the court
of Rome was a school of falsehood  and
licentiousness, and compacts and oaths
afforded no security, he reduced crime to
a system.   Other princes have shed more
blood, have exercised more atrocious cru-
elty ; but  his  name  is stigmatized  with
the greatest infamy ; for  with B. all  was
calculated with cool reflection.   He  pro-
faned whatever was most holy for the at-
tainment of his  purposes.  His father,
who had become pope in 1492, invested
him with  the purple.   When  Charles
VIII of France made his entry into Rome,
Alexander  was obliged to treat with  him,
and deUvered Caesar B. into his hands as
a hostage, who escaped, however, after  a
few days, from the camp of the king.  In
1497, Alexander bestowed  the duchy of
Benevento, together with the counties of
Terracina and Ponte-corvo, on his eldest
son, who had already received from the
king of  Spain the  duchy  of Gandia.
Caesar  became jealous of his  elevation,
and, when the duke of Gandia was mur-
dered, a week after his investiture, public
opinion accused his brother Caesar of the
deed.  His father permitted him  to lay
aside the purple, and devote himself to
the profession of arms,  and  sent him to
France, to cany to Louis XII the bull
for divorce and dispensation  for maniage
which he  had long desired to obtain.
Louis rewarded B., for the compliance of
his father, with the duchy of Valentinois,
a body-guard of 100 men, and 20,000 li-
vres a year, and promised to aid him in
his projects of conquest.  In 1499, Ccesar
manied a daughter of king John of Na-
varre, and accompanied Louis XII to It-
aly.  He first undertook the  conquest of
Romagna, expelled the lawful possessors
of the land, caused them to be treacher-
ously murdered, and himself to be ap-
pointed, by Iris father, duke of Romagna,
in 1501.  In  the same  year, he wrested
the principality of Piombino from Jacopo
d'Apiano.  He also endeavored, though
in vain, to make himself duke of Bologna
and Florence.  In 1502, he announced
that he was about to attack Cameririo,
and demanded, for that purpose, soldiers
and artillery from Guidobaldo of Monte-
feltro,  duke  of Urbino.  Camerino was
taken by stonn, and Julius of Barona, the
lord of the city, with both his sons, was
strangled  at  the command  of B.  This
fate  he prepared for all whom he had
robbed.  Those who did not fall into his
hands, he  pursued  with  poison  or the
dagger.  Meanwhile, all the  petty princes
had united, and collected the soldiery for
their defence ; but Caesar B. terrified some
by means of 3000 Swiss, whom he called
to Italy, and gained over others by advan-
tageous offers.  Thus he dissolved their
alliance, seized their lands, and saw no
further obstacle to his being  made, by his
father, king of Romagna,  of the March,
and of Umbria, when Alexander VI died,
Aug. 17,1503.  At the same time, Caesar
B. was attacked by a severe disease, at a
moment when his  whole  activity and
presence  of  mind  were needed.   He
found means, indeed, to get  the treasures
of his father into  his possession, assem-
bled his troops in Rome, and  formed a
closer alliance with France ; but enemies
rose against him on all sides, one of the 
BORGIA—BORNEO.
201
most bitter of whom was the new pope,
Julius II.  B. was arrested and carried to
Spain, where he remained for two years
in prison.  He at length made his escape
to his brother-in-law the king of Navarre,
went with him to the war against Castile,
sind was killed by a shot before the castle
of Biano, March 12,1507.—Caesar B. was
temperate and sober, loved and protected
the sciences, wrote verses himself, and
possessed so much eloquence, that he se-
duced even those who were most on their
guard against his treacherous designs.
  Borgia, Stefano, cardinal, superintend-
ent of the Propaganda, one of the noblest
protectors of science in the 18th century,
was  bom at Velletri, in 1731,  and died
November 23, 1804, in  Lyons.   His life
was  affected, in various ways, by the po-
litical revolutions of Europe.  The dicta-
torship of Rome  was  intrusted to him,
together  with  two other cardinals, by
Pius VI, when  the French attacked the
city.  His Memoric istoriche delta Citth di
Benevento del Secolo VIII al XVIII (3
vols., 1763,4to.), show his ability as a his-
torian and antiquary.
  Borgne ;  a  bay or  gulf  (improperly
called lake)  in  Louisiana, east  of lake
Pontchartrain.   It  communicates  with
the gulf of  Mexico  and lake Pontchar-
train, and is 40  miles long and about  15
broad.
  Boring is a species of circular cutting,
in which a cyUndrical  portion of a sub-
stance  is gradually removed.   When
tubes of metal are to be formed, a cast is,
in some cases, made in  solid metal, and
the whole of the bore is produced by the
boring machine: in others, the cast is
made hollow at first, and the borer is on-
ly used to give  umformity and  finish to
the inside of the tube.  In boring cannon,
the tool  is at rest while the cannon re-
volves.  By this anangement the  bore is
formed with  more accuracy than by the
old method  of putting the  borer in mo-
tion.  The tool is kept pressed against
the cannon by a regular force.  Cylinders
of steam-engines are cast hollow, andaf
terwards bored ; but, in this case, the borer
revolves, and the cyUnder remains at rest.
In either case, the  axis  of the borer and
that of the cylindrical material should co-
incide ; for otherwise, if the borer revolve,
it will perforate obliquely; if the material
revolve, the perforation will be conical.
The instruments used are gimlets, augers,
centrebits, drills, &c.  Drills are made to
turn  rapidly, either in  one  direction by
means of a lathe-wheel and puUey, or al-
ternately in  opposite directions  by a spi-
ral cord, which coils and uncoUs  itself
successively upon the driU, and is  aided
by a weight or fly.—Boring for water has
been, of late, successfully employed in
obtaining  a  supply without sinking a
well.  In the progress of the boring, fre-
quent veins of water are passed through,
but the operation should be continued un-
til a main spring is struck, which, if from
a sufficiently elevated source, will  flow-
up to the surface ; otherwise a weU must
be sunk to the level  of the source, and the
water must be raised by a pump.  To ex-
clude mineral waters, land-springs, &c,
the hole is generaUy cased with a metal-
lic pipe.
  Borneo,  next  to New Holland, the
largest island in the world,  is about 800
miles long and 700 broad, with a  popu-
lation  estimated  at from  3,000,000 to
5,000,000.  Lon. 109° to 119° E.;  lat. 7°
N. to 4° 207 S.  Its central  parts  have
never been  explored by Europeans, and
the insalubrity of its climate has prevent-
ed them from frequenting its  shores. On
this account, the geography of Borneo is
very imperfect.  The principal  chain of
mountains is called the Crystal mountain,
from the numerous crystals they contain.
The island is often  devastated by volca-
noes and earthquakes.  The  coast,  for 10
or 20 miles inland, is marshy, and a
considerable  portion is a moving bog.
Though situated  under the  equator, the
heat is not excessive, being moderated by
the sea and mountain breezes, and by the
rains, which are incessant  from Novem-
ber tiU May.  Some of the rivers are
large.  The principal are the  Borneo, the
Banjarmassing  and Passmir.  Gold  is
found  in  large quantities.   Diamonds,
which are  found no where  else but in
Hindostan and Brazil, are confined  to the
south and west coasts.  The  best are ob-
tained from Landak.  The miners are the
aboriginal savages.   The petty prince of
Maltan  is  in possession of  one of the
largest diamonds in  the world.  It is val-
ued at 1,200,000 doUars, which is 150,000
doUars less than the Russian, and 500,000
more than the Pitt diamond.   The  other
minerals are iron, copper and tin.   Pearl
and mother of pearl are  found on the
north coast.  Rice, yams and betel, with
aU the fruit-trees of  India, excellent ship-
timber, groves of nutmeg and clove-trees,
pepper, ginger and  cotton, are produced
on the island.  The camphor differs from
that  of Japan,  and  is found only in Su-
matra and  Borneo.   Benzoin, a species
of resin, is produced in great abundance.
B. produces the pongo, the largest of the 
202                        BORNEO—BORNOU.
 monkey tribe, which grows to the size of
 a man ; the oran-outang, which bears the
 strongest resemblance to the human sj>e-
 cies in look, manners, and gait; two spe-
 cies of wild buffalo, wild boars, elephants
 and tigers.  The species of birds are in-
 numerable,  and most of them different
 from those of Europe.  The salangane or
 swallow, which constructs edible nests, is
 numerous.  Wild bees supply wax, which
 is exported in great quantity.  The coasts
 are inhabited by Malays, Javanese, Bugis
 or natives of Celebes, and some descend-
 ants of Arabs, who are all  subject to des-
 potic princes  called  sultans.   Moham-
 medanism is the prevailing religion.  The
 princes and nobles live in a style of bar-
 barous pomp.  The interior is  peopled
 by  a race  of Malay colonists, who have
 been longer estabUshed on the island than
 those of the coasts.  They are called Bi-
 ajoos or Viajas.  The natives are called
 Dejakkese or Idaan.  They are fairer than
 the  Malays, tall, robust and  ferocious.
 They extract some of the front teeth, and
 insert pieces of gold in their stead. Their
 bodies are painted, and  their only cloth-
 ing is a girdle  round the middle.  The
 Biajoos hang up the skulls of their ene-
 mies  at the doors  of their huts.  The
 Harafooras,  a  race  of the interior, differ
from the Idaans in having  darker com-
plexions and longer ears. Then; dancing
girls are much admired by Europeans for
their activity and grace.  The forests of
the central region are occupied by Papu-
ans.  Several European  nations have at-
tempted to form settlements on the island.
The Dutch alone have succeeded in form-
ing  permanent  establishments.   Their
chief profits are derived  from pepper and
diamonds.  On the north-west part of
the island, 10 miles  from  the  sea, on a
fine river, is situated the town of Borneo.
 It contains 3000 houses, and is the  seat
of a sultan who formerly reigned over the
 whole island.  The houses are often built
on rafts, moored to the shore, so as to rise
and fall with the tide: the cbief commu-
nication is by means of boats.  The in-
 habitants carry on considerable trade with
 China: they are said to be intelligent, and
 faithful  to  their contracts,  but, in other
 cases, prone to treachery, and the crews
 of  vessels  trading  here cannot  be too
 much on their guard against them.
  Bornholm ; an island belonging to Den-
 mark, in the Baltic sea, nearly surrounded
 with rocks; lon. 15° E.; lat. 55° 10' N.;
 pop., 18,902.  It is about 28 miles  long,
 and 18  broad.  Square  miles, 218.  The
 soil is stony, but fertile, with excellent
 pastures.   Oats, butter and fish constitute
 the  principal  riches  of the  inhabitants.
 There are mines of coal and quarries of
 marble in the island.
   Bornou, a kingdom of Central Africa,
 lying between 15° and 10° N. lat., and 12°
 and 18° E. Ion., is bounded N. by Kanem
 and the Desert,  E. by lake Tchad, S. by
 Mandara, and W.  by Soudan.  The first
 Europeans by whom it was visited, major
 Denham and captain Clapperton, furnish
 us with  the most authentic  infonnation
 concerning this country (Travels in North-
 ern  and Central Africa, in 1822, 23 and
 24; London, 1826).  From March to July,
 the heat is extreme,the thermometerrising
 to 107°, and rarely falling below 86° Fahr.:
 during this time, scorching winds from the
 south prevail.  As in other tropical coun-
 tries, the seasons are divided into the dry
 and rainy: the latter continues from March
 to October, when the air becomes milder
 and fresher.  The country is populous,
 containing 13 principal towns.  These are
 generally  large and well built, with walls
 40 feet high and about 20 feet thick.  The
 houses  consist  of several  court-yards,
 with apartments  for slaves, habitations for
 the different wives,  and several turrets
 connected by terraces, forming the apart-
 ments  of the owner.   The Shouaas are
 Arabians: they are deceitful, arrogant and
 cunning.  The Boniou people, or Kanow-
 ry, have Negro features: they  are peace-
 able and quiet, but cowardly, and addict-
 ed  to pilfering.  The government,  until
 lately, has been an  elective absolute mon-
 archy, under a sultan.  The sultanship is
 now but a name, the  real power being in
 the hands  of El Kanemy, sheikh of the
 Coran, an able, warlike and popular chief
 His force is chiefly  cavalry, and is esti-
 mated  at  about 30,000 men, armed  with
 spears, shields and daggers.  The chiefs
 wear jackets of chain armor, cuirasses, or
 coats of msiil.  Indian corn, cotton and in-
 digo are the most valuable productions of
 the soil.  Very few fruits or vegetables are
 raised, and agriculture is in a wretched
 state.  The domestic animals are  asses,
 camels, horses, dogs, sheep, goats, cows,
 and  innumerable herds of oxen.  Lions,
 panthers,  leopards, hyenas, jackals,  ele-
 phants (in herds of from 50 to 400) and
 buffaloes crowd  the  forests.   The croco-
 dile and  hippopotamus are considered a
 luxury.  A Shouaa belle, arrayed for con-
 quests,  her hair streaming with  fat, a
 black rim of kohol round her eyes, sits
jambe  deed, jambe dela on her  favorite
 bullock, who is guided by a thong passed
 through  the cartilage of his nose.   The 
BORNOU—BORROMEO.
203
ostrich, pelican, crane and Guinea  fowl
abound.  The air is filled with locusts,
which are devoured by the natives, both
roasted and hoiled, and formed into balls
of a sort of paste.  The mineral produc-
tions  are  unimportant.   The  principal
return which the  Moorish merchants ob-
tain for their goods is slaves.   The cur-
rency of the country consists of strips of
cotton, about  three inches wide and a
yard long, called  gubbuk, four or five of
which make a rottala.
  Borodino.  (See Moscow, Battle of.)
  Borough ; originally, a fortified town.
In England, the term was early restricted
to those towns which sent burgesses to
parliament.  This burden, as it was once
considered, was probably imposed on the
largest and wealthiest towns, or on those
which had placed  themselves under the
protection of some baron.  The number
of boroughs in Great Britain, represented
in  parliament, is  222, sending 396 bur-
gesses: of these, 171 are in England, and
are represented by 339 burgesses.   Sev-
eral centuries  have  elapsed since the dis-
tribution of  representatives among the
towns was fixed.  Many places, formerly
populous, and entitled to be represented,
now contain not more than two or three
houses, and yet retain their original  priv-
ilege.  These  are called  rotten boroughs.
[ See Parliament.)
  Borromei Islands (hole dei Conigli,
on  account  of the  many  rabbits there);
four smaU islands in the Lago Maggiore,
in Upper Italy, which is 30 miles in length
and 7 or 8 in breadth.  The greater part
belongs to Piedmont, die rest to the king-
dom of Lombard)'.  Its banks are formed
of a beautiful Alpine country, with  many
villages, villas, vineyards,  gardens and
chestnut groves.  The islands  have their
name from the family of Bonomeo, which,
for centuries,  was  in possession of the
richest estates in the vicinity of the Lago
Maggiore.  Vitelliano Bonomeo, in 1671,
caused garden-soil to be spread over three
naked rocks in this  lake,  and terraces to
be walled up.  Thus arose the Isola Bella,
Isola  Madre, L'Isolino and  Isola dei Pes-
catori, the two first famous for their beau-
tiful garden-grounds.  The Isola Madre,
abounding in pheasants, lies in the middle
of the lake.  It consists of seven terraces,
with a kitchen-garden, cypresses, laurels,
chestnuts  and myrtles.  The Isola Bella
is loaded with artificial ornament  It
contains a handsome palace of four sto-
ries, which  lies  near the shore, and is
occupied, for some months in the year, by
the count Borromeo.  By means of the
Grotte Terrene, it communicates with the
gardens, which are laid out in the French
taste, upon 10 terraces, rising above each
other, and nanowing in  proportion to
tlieir elevation.   The whole has the ap-
pearance of a truncated pyramid, on the
top of which stands a colossal unicorn,
the armorial ensign of  the  Borromei.
Orange, citron and lemon-trees, united by
fine hedges, or forming arbors,  breathe
their fragrance; lofty laurels form a Uttle
grove; myrtles  and cypresses are to be
seen, together with pomegranate-trees, the
fruit of which ripens here; for the moun-
tains which crown the lake serve as a shel-
ter against the cold winds.  The  cUmate
of the Isola Madre, however, is milder
than that of the Isola Bella.  In the latter,
the orange and citron-trees, &c. must be
secured,  in winter,  by boards laid  over
them, and, in extreme cold, by applying
charcoal-pans underneath.   The  inhabit-
ants of the Isola dei Pescatori carry on a
trade in fish  to Milan and Piedmont, and
are engaged in smuggling.
  Borromeo, Carlo, count,  of an ancient
Milanese family,  bora, Oct. 2, 1538, at
Arona, on Lago Maggiore, the family-seat
of his virtuous and pious parents, was, at
the age of  12, a commendatory abbot.;
studied  the  law at  Pavia;  was, in 1559,
made doctor, and,  in 1560, was succes-
sively appointed, by his uncle, Pius IV,
apostolical prothonotary, referendary, car-
dinal, and archbishop of Milan.  From his
earliest  youth,  grave, pious and severe
towards himself,  the young ecclesiastic,
at the age of 22, devoted himself to the
duties of government with a conscientious
zeal.  As legate over Romagna, the march
ofAnconaaud Bologna, he had a great
share in the civil government: as  protect-
or of Portugal, of  the Netherlands, of
Switzerland, of the  Franciscans, Carmel-
ites, and  of the knights of  Malta, he ad-
ministered several important branches of
the spiritual government of the pope, who
created  him his grand  penitentiary, and
did nothing  of importance without his
advice.  The re-opening and  the results
of the council of Trent, so  advantageous
to the papal authority, were  chiefly effect-
ed  by the great influence  of B., which
was felt during the whole  sitting of the
council.  He did much for the embeUish-
ment  of the papal  bufldings, employing
even his own fortune  for  that purpose,
and established many good institutions,
as archbishop of Milan; improved the dis-
cipline of the clergy, founded schools, sem-
inaries, a regular order of secular divines,
libraries, hospitals, and was indefatigable 
204
BORROMEO—BOS.
in doing good.  All his virtues, however,
could not save him from persecution and
calumny; he was even severely attack-
ed  by the government,  but no charge
could be proved against  him.  He died,
Nov. 3, 1584, at the age of 46, exhausted
by mental sufferings, the accusations of
his enemies, and his monastical penances.
.Miracles were immediately wrought at his
itomb, and his canonization took place  in
1I6I6.  Posterity wiU venerate the purity
of his life, the energy and grandeur of his
character, his exemplary administration,
and  the noble  works which he accom-
plished ; and, in spite of the bigotry which
is to be attributed to the spirit of his age,
and to his clerical relations, must acknowl-
edge  his truly Christian and  apostolic
character.
  Borstell, Louis George Leopold von;
lieutenant-general in the Prussian service,
born  in 1773.   In the campaign against
the French, in 1813, he commanded two
brigades, and decided the battles of Gross-
beeren and of Dennewitz; the latter, by
hastening from Kropstadt to the field of
battle, and, in opposition to the orders of
the crown-prince of Sweden, joining the
left wing of Billow, in order to take Gehls-
florf,  the key  of the enemy's position.
General B. was very active through the
whole war, and,  in 1815, had the com-
mand of die 2d Prussian corps.  While
he was occupied with its organization in
N'amur, some battalions of Saxon guards
and grenadiers in Liege, excited  by the
news of the partition of their country, and
by some incautious expressions, as well
as by the measures which had been taken
to gain over the  Saxon officers and sol-
hers, broke the windows in the lodgings
of prince Bliicher, and committed odier
excesses.  It was  necessary that they
should  be  punished in  the  most severe
manner, as many thousand soldiers, for-
merly in the  French and Westphalian
service, but now united under Prussian,
EngUsh, Belgian and other colors (many
of them yet attached to  Napoleon), were
on the French borders, almost in sight of
the enemy, and there  was  danger of a
repetition of these  scenes, if they were
treated with clemency.  Bliicher therefore
sent the guilty battalions to Namur, with
orders to B. to disarm them, to burn their
colors, and to shoot  the ring-leaders.   B.
considered the order too severe: accus-
tomed to expose his person and  life for
his own colors, he felt that such a dis-
grace must be worse than death;  and he
adopted the determination of not obeying
the command,  although  pronounced  in
the most decided manner, and confirmed
by a refusal to listen to his remonstrances.
Bliicher felt obliged to suspend him from
his command, and to report his  behavior
to the king.  Borstell  returned into his
country, and a court-martial condemned
him to several years' confinement  in a
fortress.  In the year 1815, he  was par-
doned and reinstated in his command by
the king.
  Bory-de-Saint-Vincent,  J. B. G. M.,
born  at Agen, 1772, displayed,  from his
earliest youth, an excessive ardor both On
literary and political subjects.  As a youth,
he was fuU of zeal for natural history, and,
as a man, his political views, though often
enoneous,  were  always  marked  with
genius.  This is the character of the es-
says which he wrote in the Nain Jaune,
and Aristarque, and of the defence of his
principles, pubUshed in Aix-la-Chapelle.
His  Essai sur  les Isles  Fortunes  de
VAntique Atlantide ou Precis de  VHistoire
generate de VArchipel des  Canaries, and
his treatise on the cryptogamic plants, are
full of original views.  He accompanied
captain  Baudin,  in 1798,  in  his voyage
round the coasts of New Holland, examin-
ed closely the volcanoes of the island  of
Bourbon, and was led to form many geo-
logical hypotheses.   When  miUtary in-
tendant of the general staff of marshal
Soult, he showed much severity towards
the commissaries.  In 1815, he served as
colonel hi the campaign under Napoleon.
After the battle of Waterloo, he proposed,
July 1, to his colleagues of the  chamber
of representatives, not to submit volunta-
rily to the Bourbons.  In consequence of
the royal decree of Jan. 17,1816, he emi-
grated, and lived in Aix-la-Chapelle and
Halberstadt, and, afterwards, in  Brussels,
where, with van Mons, he edited a jour-
nal dedicated to natural science, which is
at present continued in Paris.  He wrote,
also, an excellent work on the subtenanean
quanies in the lime mountains near Maes-
tricht  After his return, in 1820, he was
engaged in many of the journals of the
liberal party.   He reported the sittings of
the deputies in the Courier Francais, and
assisted in Courtin's Encyclopedic.
  Bos,  Lambert,  a profound philologist,
was born at Worcum, in Friesland, 1670,
and died in 1717.  He studied in the uni-
versity at Franeker, where his rapid and
brilliant progress obtained for  him the
Greek professorship in 1704.  His Ellipses
Graca is a standard work, and  has been
often printed.  The edition  of Schaffer
(Leipsic, 1808) is the best   The Antiauit.
Grac. Descriptio has also passed through 
BOS—BOSCOVICH.                         205
numerous editions.   His  Vet.  Test,  ex
Versione LXX is highly esteemed.  He
was also the author of several other valu-
able phUological works.
  Bosc, Louis Antoine Guillaume; super-
intendent  of the  French establishments
for breeding sheep;  member of several
learned societies in France, &c.; born at
Paris, in 1759, where his father was phy-
sician to the king; made himself known,
from 1784 to 1788, as editor of the Jour-
nal de Physique.  Proscribed in the reign
of terror, in 1793, he took refuge in  the
forest of Montmorency; and, though daily
exposed to the danger of being taken and
executed, he occupied himself with labors
in natural history.  In 1796, the directory
sent him  to the  U. States, as consul at
Wilmington, and afterwards at New York;
but the American government doubted
whether the French directory was entitled
to be  represented by a consul.   Thus
exempt from official duties,  he  travelled
through the U. States,  collecting botan-
ical and zoological specimens, and con-
tributing to the advancement of his favor-
ite studies.  In 1799, B. was made admin-
istrateur des hospices.   From that time, he
has been  actively engaged  in researches
in natural histoiy.  His brother, Etienne
Bosc,  an  orator and author,  combines a
profound  knowledge  of natural  history
with an extensive acquaintance with  po-
Utical economy.
   Boscan,  Ahnogaver,  Juan, a Spanish
poet, bom towards the  close of the 15th
century, at Barcelona, died about 1540.
His parents, who belonged  to  the most
ancient nobility, gave him a careful edu-
cation.  He followed the court of Charles
V, and, in 1526, was attached to it for some
time in Grenada.  His noble  manners
and character gained him the favor of the
emperor.  The education of the duke of
Alva was committed to him, and his  in-
structions  developed  the  great qualities
which  the duke  afterwards  displayed.
After his marriage, B. lived at Barcelona,
occupied in publishing his works, togeth-
er with those of his deceased friend Gar-
cilaso, in which he was employed  at the
time of his death.  B. was persuaded to
attempt Italian measures in  Spanish, by
Antonio Navagero, an ItaUan scholar and
ambassador of the repubUc of Venice at
the court of the emperor.  Thus he be-
came the creator of the Spanish  sonnet,
and, with  Garcilaso, first  used the  ter-
zine in his poetical epistles and elegies.
In general, he distinguished himself by
introducing Italian forms  into  Spanish
poetry, which met with  great opposition,
   VOL. II.          18
and not less applause.   The poems of B.
are still  esteemed.   His other  literary
works, mostly translations, are forgotten.
  Boscawen,  Hon. Edward,  a British
admiral of the last century, was born in
1711, and distinguished himself at Porto
Bello and at Carthagena, where he storm-
ed a battery at the head of a part of his
crew.  In 1744, he was promoted to the
Dreadnought, a sixty gun ship, in which
he took the Media.  Three years after-
wards, he signalized himself under Anson,
at the battle of cape Finistene. Towards
the close of this year, he was raised to the
rank of rear-admiral, and despatched with
a squadron to the East Indies.  Though
he failed  in an attempt on Pondicherry,
he succeeded in  making himself master
of Madras, and  returned  to England,
where he obtained a seat at the admiralty
board. In 1755, he again sailed for North
America, and, in an action with a French
squadron, two ships of the line fell into
his hands. In 1758, in conjunction with
lord Amherst, who commanded the  land
forces, he succeeded  in reducing Louis-
bo urg and cape Breton, and, the year fol-
lowing, having then the command in the
Mediterranean, pursued the Toulon fleet,
under  De la Clue, through  the straits of
Gibraltar, and, coming up with it in Lagos
bay, completely defeated  it, burning two
ships and taking three.  For these ser-
vices, he received the thanks of parliament
and £3000 a year, with the rank of gen-
eral of marines, in 1760.  He died in the
following year.   He sat in the parUament
of 1743, as member for Truro, in his na-
tive county.
   Boscovich, Roger Joseph, an astron-
omer and geometrician of distinguished
eminence in the 18th century, was a na-
tive of Ragusa, in Dalmatia.  He was ed-
ucated among the Jesuits, and, entering
into their order, was appointed professor
of mathematics  in  the Roman college,
before  he had  entirely completed the
course of his studies.   He was employed
by pope Benedict XIV in various under-
takings, and, in 1750, began the measure-
ment of a degree of the meridian in the
Ecclesiastical States, which operation oc-
cupied him for two   years.   He after-
wards visited the Pontine marsh, to give
advice respecting the draining of it.  He
was then intrusted,  by the republic of
Lucca, with the defence of its interests, in
a dispute about boundaries with the gov-
ernment of Tuscany.   This affair obUged
him to go to Vienna, and, having termi-
nated it with success, he visited Paris and
London.  He was elected a fellow of the 
206
BOSCOV1CH—BOSPHORUS.
royal society, and dedicated to this body
a Latin poem on ecUpses.  Returning to
Italy, he was appointed mathematical pro-
fessor in the university of Pavia; whence,
in 1770, he removed to Milan, and tliere
erected the celebrated  observatory at the
college of Brera.  On the suppression of
the order of Jesuits, he accepted an  invi-
tation to France from Louis  XV,  who
gave him a pension of 8000 livres,  with
the office  of director of optics for the
navy.  This appointment induced him to
pay particular attention to that part of op-
tical science which treats of the theory of
achromatic telescopes, on which subject
he wrote a treatise of considerable extent.
He was obliged to leave  Pains, in 1783,
on account of ill health, when he retired
to Milan,  where  he died Feb. 12, 1787.
An edition of the works of father B. was
published by himself} in 5 vols., 4to., 1785.
His Theoria Philosophia Naturalis reducta
ad unicam  Legem Virium in Natura ex-
istentium, first pubUshed in 1758, is a cu-
rious production, containing speculations
of which doctor Priestley availed himself
in his writings in favor of materiaUsm.
  Boshme:*,  Bosjesmen, or  Bushmen.
i See Hottentots.)
  Boshuanaa.  (See Bushwanas.)
  Bosio, N.; the most celebrated  of liv-
ing French sculptors.   His  Hercules, ex-
hibited  in 1814, has  been  particularly
admired.  In the following year, he  pro-
duced  another excellent statue, his Her-
maphrodite.   The  artist  received  from
Napoleon the cross of the legion of honor
in 1815. The royal government has since
honored him with important commissions,
<uid confirmed the choice of the academy
of the fine arts, which  elected him a
member.  Since 1823, his statue of Hen-
ry IV, as a child, met with public admira-
tion.  His statue of Louis XIV was  des-
tined for the place des victoires at Paris.
The execution is excellent; but the trans-
fer of the support of  the horse to its tail
might be objected to as contrary to mod-
ern taste.
  Bosjesmen.  (See Hottentots.)
  Bosnia ; a Turkish  province, with the
title of a kingdom, which comprehends,
besides  the ancient B., part  of Croatia
(Sanjiak Bielogrod), between the rivers
Unna and Verbas, a tract of Dalmatia and
Herzogovina, and is bounded N. by Scla-
vonia, W. by Croatia, S. by Dalmatia and
die Adriatic sea, and  E.  by Servia.   B.
contains 22,500 square  miles, with 850,000
inhabitants, mostly of  Sclavonian  origin,
Bosniacs and Morlacs, among whom are
50,000 Turkish miUtia.  The inhabitants
are two thirds Christians, mostly of the
Greek church, and one third Turks, who
possess nearly all the territorial property
as allodiums or  feuds, besides Jews and
Gipsies.  The  countiy is level towards
the north;  in the south, mountainous and
woody.  Its chief rivers are the Save, the
Verbas, the Bosna, Rama  and Drina.  B.
contains fertile fields, orchards and vine-
yards: the breed of cattle is excelient, and
the mountains furnish good iron, of which
a great part is manufactured in the coun-
try into guns and blades.   The other arti-
cles manufactured are leather, morocco,
and coarse woollen cloths.  In the 12th
and 13th centuries, B. belonged to Hun-
gary.  In 1339, it fell into the hands of
Stephen, king of Servia.  After his death,
it  remained  independent, and the Ban
Twartko took the title  of king in  1370.
In 1401, it  became tributary to the Turks,
and, since 1463, has been a Turkish prov-
ince.   It is divided into the southern and
northern parts, or Upper  and Lower B.
The former is caUed sometimes Herzogo-
vina, or  the  duchy of Saba, because the
emperor Frederic III bestowed the title
of duke on the  ruler of this district in
1440.   Travnik  is the residence  of the
pacha of B.  The capital of the country
is  Bosna-Serai, or Saraievo  (in Italian,
Seraglio), at the confluence of the Migli-
azza with the Bosna, with 15,000  mostly
miserable houses, and 60,000 inhabitants,
including the garrison of 10,000 janiza-
ries.  The  citadel Ues at some distance
from the town.  The taxes of Saraievo
are an appanage of the mother of the sul-
tan.  Zwornick,  Banjaluka and Turkish
Gradiska are also important in historical
and statistical points  of view.  The fear
of losing their property is the chief cause
of the  adherence of the Bosniacs to the
Turkish government, since, in case of the
conquest of  B.  by the  Christians,  they
expect the  same treatment  which the
Christians formerly experienced, when it
was conquered by the Turks.
  Bosphorus.   The  strait which leads
from the Black sea into the Propontis, or
sea of Marmora, was  formerly so  called,
either because Io, after being metamor-
phosed  into  a cow,  passed over  at this
place, or because the strait is so narrow
that an ox can swim across. When other
straits were afterwards called by the same
name, this was caUed B. Thracicus.  Over
this channel (5  stadia,  about 3300 feet
wide) Darius constructed a bridge of boats,
on his expedition against  the Scythians.
Bosphorus Cimmericus was the name giv-
en by the ancients to the strait that leads 
BOSPHOR US—BOSSUET.
207
from the Black sea into the sea of Azof.
The Italians, who formerly traded in these
regions, called  it  bocca di S.  Giovanni,
or estretlo di Caffa.  There was also an-
ciently a kingdom of the name of B., so
called  from the  straits, on  both sides of
which  it was situated.  In Panticapaeum
(at present, Kertsch, q. v.) a Milesian col-
ony in  the Tauric Chersonese, the Archae-
sinaktides established this kingdom, B. C.
479, and reigned till B. C. 437.  Spartacus
was the first king.  Under his successor,
Satyrus, the kingdom was extended to the
coast of Asia, and his son Leucon acquired
Theodosia, B. C. 300.  He improved the
commerce of the country (in particular by
the exportation of corn to Athens, also of
fishes, fur, skins, bees-wax  and slaves).
From  him his descendants were called
Leuconides. Leucanor became tributary
to the  Scythians 290 B. C, and the  trib-
ute was finally  so oppressive, that Pali-
sades,  the last of the Leuconides, prefer-
red to  submit to  Mithridates, the king of
Pontus, who vanquished  the  Scythians
under  Scilurus,  116 B. C, and made his
son king of B.  The latter killed himself.
At the death of Mithridates, the Romans
gave the country, B. C. 64, to his second
son, Pharnaces, who was afterwards mur-
dered.   The  Romans  placed different
princes successively upon the throne, who
all pretended to be descendants of Mith-
ridates.  When  this family became ex-
tinct, A. D. 259, the Sarmatians took pos-
session of the kingdom, from whom it
was taken by the Chersonides, in  344.
The Tauric Chersonese then belonged to
the Eastern empire, till it was seized by
the Chazars, and afterwards by the  Tar-
tars,  under the Mongol princes.    (See
Tauria.)
   Bossi, Charles Aurele, baron de,  born
at  Turin,  1758, son of count  Bossi de
Sainte-Agathe, is a lyric poet  of reputa-
tion.   In his 18th year, he published two
tragedies—the Circassians and Rhea Syl-
via.  His great poem on the French rev-
olution, entitled  L'Oromasia, and a com-
plete collection of his poems, appeared in
London, 1814.  Only a few copies  were
stnick off.  His present life, in Paris, is
that of a scholar and a private  man.  His
former political life placed him in difficult
situations, and has exposed his conduct
to reproach.
   Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, bishop  of
Meaux, born at Dijon, 1627, was six years
old when his father became member  of
the parUament  at Metz.   The son re-
mained  at Dijon,  in  the  college  of the
Jesuits.  By chance, the boy got posses-
sion  of a Latin Bible, which  made  an
indelible impression upon him.  At the
age of 15, he was sent to Paris, where he
entered the college of Navarre, the presi-
dent of  which, Nicholas Cornet, took
pleasure in  forming his mind.   B., under
the  direction  of  this worthy teacher,
studied Greek and the Holy Scriptures,
read the ancient classics, and investigated
the Cartesian philosophy.   He was made
doctor of the  Sorbonne  and  canon in
Metz.  Here he edified his hearers by his
preaching  and  example;  was commis-
sioned by his bishop to refute the cate-
chism  of the  Protestant  minister Paul
Ferry, and  did it in such a way, that even
his antagonists were  obliged  to  respect
him.   The queen mother (Anne of Aus-
tria) was induced, by this work,  to em-
ploy B. in the conversion  of the Protest-
ants in the diocese of Metz. This business
often called him to Paris, where his ser-
mons met with great  approbation.  The
sermon which  he  delivered in 1668, on
the occasion of marshal Turenne's joining
the Catholic church,  procured him  the
bishopric of Condom.   In 1670, the king
charged him with the education  of  the
dauphin.  In consequence of this  ap-
pointment,  he resigned his bishopric in
1671, because he thought it inconsistent
with his duty to retain it during a contin-
ual absence from  his diocese.  At this
time, he delivered  his sermon  at the fu-
neral of madame, the duchess of Orleans,
a princess, who, in  the midst of a brilliant
court,  of which she was  the  ornament,
died suddenly  in  the bloom  of  youth.
His  last sermon of this kind (that at the
tomb of the great Conde) is considered as
a masterpiece.  The manly vigor  which
characterized his orations  is seen  also in
the Discours sur VHistoire Universale, de-
signed for  the  instruction of his royal
pupil.   The care which  he took  of the
education of this prince was rewarded, in
1680, by the office of the first almoner of
the dauphin; in 1681, by the bishopric of
Meaux; in 1697, he obtained the dignity
of a  counsellor of state, and, a year after-
wards, that of the first almoner  of  the
duchess of Burgundy.  His practice and
his doctrine were equally severe.   AU his
time was divided between his studies and
the execution  of his  official duties; he
seldom allowed  himself  any  recreation.
The last years of his life he passed  among
his flock, in the midst of whom he died,
in 1704.  The learned Benedictines of
the brotherhood of St. Maur have lately
published a complete edition  of all  the
works of B.  The style  of B. is  full of 
208
BOSSUET—BOSTON.
energy, but not without defects: his Latin
style is hard.  The French academy con-
sider him among their  most renowned
members. His lite has been written by M.
deBausset. (For his dispute with the arch-
bishop of Cambray, Fenelon, see Fcnelon
and Quietism.)
  Bostangi (gardeners); the guard of the
sultans in the seraglio, whose overseer is
caUed bostangi baschi, and has the super-
intendence over the  gardens  of the se-
raglio, over the channel of the Black sea,
and  the  imperial summer residences.
The bostangi  baschi accompanies the
sultan in all his  rides, and has the privi-
lege of wearing a beard.  The bostangi
are also the boatmen and executioners of
the sultan.
  Boston (anciently Botolphs Town);  a
town of England, in Lincoln; 34  miles
S. S. E. Lincoln, 115 N. London ; lon. 0°
2' W.; lat. 52° 48' N.  Population in  1801,
5926; in 1811,  8113.  It is nearly sur-
rounded by fens, on  the Witham, which
is navigable,  and forms a port, well fre-
quented, and much assisted by navigable
canals.   It  has four annual fairs, and
markets  on   Wednesday and  Saturday.
It has a flourishing trade with the Baltic
for hemp, tar,  timber,  &c.  In former
periods,  it stood  high  as a commercial
town.  The church is a  handsome struct-
ure, and serves  as a mark to seamen.
  Boston, the  capital  of Massachusetts
and the largest citv in New England, lies
14 miles S. W.  Sa'lem, 40 N. N. E. Prov-
idence,  56 S. W. Portsmouth, 100 E. N.
E.  Hartford, 210 N. E. New York, 300
S. S. E. Montreal, 300 N. E. Philadelphia,
436 N. Washington ;  lon. 71° 4' W.; lat.
42° 22' N.  Pop. iu 1765,15,520; in 1790,
18,038; in 1800, 24,937 ; in 1810, 33,250;
in 1820,43,298; in 1825,  18,281. Its popu-
lation,  in 1829,  amounted  to  58,281.
It is situated  at  the bottom of Massachu-
setts bay, at the mouth  of Charles river.
It stands principally on a small peninsula
of elevated ground, two miles and  three
quarters in length and one hi breadth, and
is connected  with the continent by a nar-
row neck of land, and by seven bridges.
Including South Boston, which is without
the peninsula, its whole extent is nearly
three square mUes.  It has a capacious
harbor, of sufficient  depth of water for
the largest ships of war to enter  safely
and Ue at anchor, protected from storms
by a great number of islands, on several
of which are fortifications.  The bridges,
with one exception, are of wood.  That
which  leads from B.  to Cambridge  is
3483 feet in length, and is supported by
180 piers.   The western avenue, so called,
leading across the bay, from the western
part of the city to Roxbuiy, is 8000 feet
in length, and is formed of solid earth,
supported on each side by walls of stone.
It serves die double purpose of a bridge
and  a dam, by means of which and a
cross dam, two large basins are  formed,
one  of which is filled at every flood-tide,
and  the other is emptied at every  ebb,
whereby a perpetual water-power is cre-
ated for canying mills  and  machinery.
This dam was built at a cost exceeding
$600,000.  One of the bridges is free; all
the  others are toll bridges.  The streets
are  mostly narrow  and irregular,  and
some of them are crooked.  The wharves
are, in general, spacious, and afford ample
accommodation  to  shipping, and store-
houses  for merchandise.  Long wharf is
1650 feet in length;  Central wharf, 1240
feet long and 150 wide.  The wharves
and many of the streets have been made
by raising the ground  formerly  covered
by the tide.  The number  of dwelling-
houses  is about 10,000, besides a  great
number of store-houses and shops.  A
great part of the buildings are  of brick,
four stories in height.  Many of them are
of hammered granite and sienite.  These
are  excellent building materials,  of a
beautiful  gray color, hard and durable,
splitting easily, and readily wrought into
the required form.  Many of the dwelling
houses  are large and weU built.   The
principal public  buildings are the state-
house, which is  of brick, is situated on
the  highest part of the  city, and com-
mands a view of the countiy and bay for
many miles round; the  county court-
house, which is of stone ; Faneuil hall, in
which town-meetings and public assem-
blies for  political  discussions are  held;
the  Massachusetts general hospital, suid
the  Faneuil hall market, two handsome
buildings of granite, the latter two stories
in height, 540 feet  in length and 50 feet
in width ; about 40  churches;  10 public
school-houses; a  house of industry; a
house  of correction; a county jail; and
two theatres.  Among the best specimens
of  architecture  are  the  market-house,
Trinity church, the general hospital, sev-
eral of the bank buildings, and the Tre-
mont house, the front of which is built of
gray sienite, and  is ornamented with a
handsome  portico  of the  Doric order,
with fluted pillars.   This last-named
building is finely situated, and is the most
elegant and commodious hotel  in the U.
States.   The city is divided into 12 wards.
The municipal government is vested in a 
BOSTON.
209
mayor, 8 aldermen, and a common coun-
cil of 48 members.  The executive pow-
ers are exercised by the mayor and alder-
men, and measures of a legislative char-
acter are adopted by a concunent act of
that board and of the common council.
These officers are chosen annually by the
citizens,  voting in the wards  in  which
they reside. Ward officers are also chosen
annually to  superintend the  elections.
The city, with the small town of Chelsea,
forms the county of Suffolk.  The coun-
ty is represented in the senate of the state
by six senators.  Until the year 1821, the
municipal affairs of the town were super-
intended by a board of seven select-men,
annually chosen;  and all  measures for
raising and granting money, establishing
schools,  and  making municipal regula-
tions, were adopted in town-meeting, or
assembly of the quahfied voters, held in
Faneuil  hall.   All public officers were
chosen in town-meeting.  There is a po-
Uce court of three justices, for examining
all criminal charges and the trial of minor
offences; and a municipal court, held by
a single judge, which has jurisdiction of
all criminal causes not capital,  which are
tried by jury.   The annual expenditures
of the city amount to about  $300,000; of
which sum $53,000 are expended for the
support of schools; $50,000 for paving,
repairing and widening  streets; $30,000
for the support and relief of the poor, &c.
The public schools are, a Latin grammar
school, open to all boys between the ages
of 9 and 15; a  high school, in  which are
taught the various branches  of mathe-
matics and other branches of EngUsh edu-
cation ; 8 grammar and writing schools,
7  of which  have 2  masters each—a
grammar and a writing master, who teach,
alternately, boys and  girls, at different
hours;  one African  school; and 57 pri-
mary schools, which are kept by  wo-
men, and in which chUdren from four to
seven years of age  are taught to read,
speU and write.  The schools  are under
the direction of a school committee, con-
sisting of the mayor and aldermen and 12
members, annually elected.  The princi-
 Sal literary  institution  in  the vicinity,
 [arvard university, is situated at Cam-
bridge, three miles from the city.  The
medical  branch of this  institution is es-
tablished in Boston, where the  professors
reside.  The Boston  athenaeum has two
large  buildings; one  containing a library,
and the other a picture gallery, a hall for
public lectures, and other rooms for sci-
entific purposes.  The library consists of
about 24,000 volumes.  There  ore many
                   18*
literary, scientific and charitable societies
in B.   Among the former are the Amer-
ican academy of arts and sciences, which
has published four volumes of memoirs ;
the historical society, which has pubUshed
22  volumes;  the Massachusetts medical
society; the mechanic institution, under
whose patronage courses of lectures for
mechanics are deUvered annually. Among
the latter are  the humane society;  the
Boston dispensary, by which the poor are
furnished with medical attendance  and
medicine free of expense ;  the female
asylum, for the  maintenance of female
orphans; the boys' asylum,  and several
others.  The pursuits of the inhabitants
are in a great measure mercantile.  They
carry on an extensive foreign trade, and
own many ships, which are employed not
only  in the  importing,  exporting  and
coasting trade, but in trade between for-
eign markets.  B. is the second commer-
cial town in the U. States.  The value of
the annual  imports is about $13,000,000,
and that of the exports $9,000,000.  The
amount of shipping owned in  B., at the
commencement of 1828, was 161,583 tons.
Many kinds of manufactures are carried
on  here.  The capitalists of B. are  also
the principal proprietors in the joint stock
manufacturing companies established in
Lowell, Waltham,  and  other  towns in
Massachusetts and some of the neighbor-
ing states.    Great improvements  have
been  made, within  a few years,  in the
appearance of the city by the  widening
and repaving  of streets, the  erection of
new and elegant buildings, and the em-
bellishment of the public grounds.  The
principal pubUc  square is the  common,
which, with the maU, a  graveUed walk
which surrounds it, covers a surface of
about 50 acres.  It is a handsome piece
of ground,  has a sloping  and undulating
surface, is partly shaded with elms, and is
sunounded by some of the most elegant
buildings in  the city.    There are six
newspapers published daily, three semi-
weekly, several weekly, and a number of
other periodical journals,  some of which
are conducted with great  ability, and are
extensively circulated.  Among these are
the  North  American Review and  the
Christian Examiner.  B. was founded in
August, 1630.  It received the name of B.
from a borough of the same name in Lin-
colnshire, England (from which a part of
the inhabitants emigrated), by a vote of
the court of assistants, September 7, and,
on  the 19th of October of the same year,
the general court of the colony was held
there.  This general court was  not com- 
210
BOSTON—BOSWELL.
posed of representatives, but of the pro-
prietors under the charter, acting in their
own right.  The first church was built in
1632.  The Middlesex canal, leading from
Boston  harbor to the Merrimack river,
forms with this river a navigable channel
to Concord in New Hampshire.  There
are no other  means  of transportation to
and from the  interior, except such as are
afforded by the  common roads.  In this
respect, B. is  behind the  other principal
cities of the U. States, and its inland trade
is much less than it would otherwise have
been.  Projects are now before the public
for remedying this inconvenience  by the
construction of rail-roads.  The popula-
tion  has doubled from the  year 1783
once in about 23 years.   Previously to
that date, the  population of the town had
been, for 100 years, nearly stationary, and
for 50 years entirely so ; its trade, and that
of the colony, having been subjected to
severe restraints and  heavy burdens   In
the reign of Charles II, the inhabitants of
the colony fell under the  royal  displeas-
ure,  and, in 1683, a writ of quo warranto
was issued against the charter of the col-
ony.  A legal town-meeting of the free-
men of B. was held, and the question was
put to vote, whether it was their wish that
the general court should resign the charter
and the privileges therein granted, and it
was resolved in the negative unanimously.
The charter, however, was declared for-
feited by a decree of the court  of chan-
cery, and, soon after,  sir Edmund Andros
was  appointed  the first royal  governor.
His  administration, which endured for
two or three years, was arbiu-ary and op-
pressive.  In  April, 1689,  the people  of
B, took forcible possession of the fort in
B., and the castle in the harbor, turned the
guns upon the frigate Rose, and compeUed
her to surrender, seized the governor, and
held him a close prisoner under guard in
the castle.  A Uttle more than a month
afterwards, news was  received of  the
revolution in England, and the event was
celebrated with great rejoicings.  In 1765,
after the passage of the  stamp act, the
person appointed distributor  of stamps
was  compelled, by threats of violence, to
decline the acceptance of the office, and
the house of the Ueutenant-governor was
destroyed by a  mob.  A  large miUtary
and  naval force was stationed at  B. for
the  purpose  of overawing  the people.
On the  evening  of March 5,1770, a ser-
geant's guard fired upon a crowd of peo-
ple,  who were  surrounding  them, and
pelting them with snow-balls, and killed
five  men.  Dec. 16,1773,  on the  arrival
of three ships loaded with tea, after various
unsuccessful attempts hud been made by
public meetings of the citizens, to prevent
its being landed and sold, in violation of
the non-importation resolves of the peo-
ple, a number  of  men, disguised as In-
dians, went on  board the ships, and threw
all the tea overboard.  In the following
spring, the port of B. was  closed by an
act of parliament (Boston Port-bill), and,
the landing and shipping of goods within
the harbor was ordered  to be discontin-
ued.  The session of the general  court
was  removed  to  Salem, and additional
bodies of troops and a military goveraor
were ordered  to  B.   In 1775,  the war
commenced with the battles of Lexington
and  Bunker hill, and the town of B., in
which the British  troops were encamped
to the number of 10,000 men,  was be-
sieged by  the American  army.  The
siege continued until the March follow-
ing,  when the British troops evacuated
the town and castle, embarked on board
their own ships, and withdrew to another
part  of the country.    The inhabitants
were among the earliest  and most sirdent
assertors  of the rights of the people, and
among the earUest advocates and active
supporters of independence.  During the
revolutionary straggle, popular meetings
were frequent.   These meetings  were
usually held in Faneuil  hall.  Benjamin
Franklin was bora in B., Jan. 17, 1706.
  Boswell, James, the  friend and biog-
rapher of Johnson, born at Edinburgh, in
1740, studied in his native  city, in  Glas-
gow,  and in  the  Dutch university  of
Utrecht  He afterwards resided several
times in London, and  cultivated the ac-
quaintance of the most distinguished men
of his time. Here he became acquaint-
ed with Johnson—a circumstance which
he himself calls the most important  event
of his life.  He afterwards visited Voltaire
at Ferney, Rousseau at Neufchatel, and
Paoli in  Corsica, with whom he became
intimate.   He  then returned by the way
of Paris to Scotland, and devoted himself
to the  bar.  In 1768, when Corsica at-
tracted so much  attention, he published
his valuable Account  of Corsica,  with
Memoirs of PaoU. At a later period, he
settled at London, where he Uved in the
closest intimacy with Johnson.  In 1773,
he accompanied him  on a tour to the
Scottish  Highlands and Hebrides, and
published an  account of the excursion
after their return.  After the  death  of
Johnson, he became his biographer.  The
minuteness and accuracy of his account,
and  the  store  of Uterary anecdote which 
BOS WELL—BOTANY.
211
it contains, render this work very valua-
ble.  It was  pubUshed in 2 vols. 4to., in
1790, and has been repeatedly reprinted.
B. died in 1795.
  Bosworth ; a small town in the county
of Leicester, England, about three miles
from which is Bosworth field, where was
fought, in 1458, the memorable battle be-
tween  Richard III and the earl of  Rich-
mond, afterwards Henry VII. This battle,
in which Richard lost his Ufe, put a period
to the long and bloody wars of the roses,
between the houses of York and Lancas-
ter.
  Botanical Gardens ;  establishments
in which plants from all cUmates, and all
parts of the world, are cultivated in the
open air, in green-houses and hot-houses.
The object of such  an establishment  is
partly  infonnation  and the improvement
of science, partly  pleasure  and luxury.
Theophrastus seems to have instituted the
first botanical garden.  He bequeathed it
to his scholars.  Attalus Philometor, king
of Pergamus, and Mithridates Eupator of
Pontus, vied with each other in the estab-
Ushment of gardens, where they cultivated
poisons and antidotes. PUny mentions a
botanical garden which was laid out in Ita-
ly by Antonius Castor, son-in-law of king
Dejotarus. In the  middle ages, Charle-
magne exerted a favorable influence, by
establishing  gardens near the  imperial
palaces and castles,  specifying even the
single  shrubs, which were to be planted.
In the beginning  of the 14th  century,
Matthaeus Sylvaticus, at Salerno, found-
ed the first botanical garden, properly so
called.  The  republic of Venice, soon
afterwards, in 1333,  instituted a  public
medical garden, and  had the plants paint-
ed by Amadei.  The paintings are  still
preserved.  After  the time of the revival
of learning,  the first botanical  gardens,
which contained, however, for the greater
part, merely  medicinal plants, were  laid
out in Italy.   Duke  Alfonso of Este  was
the founder of an excellent institution of
this kind in  Fenara; then followed the
gardens in Padua, Pisa and Pavia.  Mont-
pelUer, in France, first imitated his exam-
ple.  The academical garden  in Leyden
was instituted in 1577;  that of Paris, in
1633; and about the same time the  first
botanical gardens in Germany and Eng-
land  were  founded.  At  present,  the
largest and most renowned in Germany
are the imperial Austrian, at Schonbrunn,
under the inspection of Jacquin; the royal
Prussian, near  Berlin,  under  Link and
Otto;  that of  Weimar,  in  Belvedere;
that  of  the  grand  duke of Baden, at
Schwetzingen; and the royal  Hanove-
rian, in  Herrnhausen.  In Great Britain,
the royal garden  at  Kew; the  Chelsea
garden, founded for the London apothe-
caries ; and that at Liverpool, under the
superintendence of  Shepherd, are  the
most  celebrated scientific institutions, to
say nothing  of  the  extensive  gardens
where plants  are  raised  for  sale.   In
France, the royal garden in Paris, under
the inspection of Desfontainesand Thouin,
is the principal.  Formerly, that of Mal-
maison, founded by the empress  Jose-
phine, was the most famous (see Bon-
pland).   In  Italy,  die  garden of  the
university  at  Turin, superintended  by
Capelli, is, perhaps, the best; in Spain, the
royal garden at Madrid, under Mariano
Lagasca; in Denmark, the garden of the
university at Copenhagen, under the su-
perintendence of Homemann.  In Russia,
the excellent  institution  of  the  count
Alexis Rasumowsky, at  Corinka, near
Moscow, deserves to be  placed by  the
side of the most celebrated estabhshments.
The  principal  botanical gardens in  the
U. States are in New York, in  Philadel-
phia and Cambridge.  In Asia, the gar-
den  of the East  India company at Cal-
cutta is the most important.—At present,
almost all universities and learned acade-
mies, as well as  many rich private pro-
prietors, have botanical gardens.
  Botany, the  science of plants, may be
divided  into two parts,  one of which de-
scribes their external appearance, and is
sometimes called phytography;  the other
treats of their  internal structure and or-
ganic action, and may be termed  philo-
sophical botany or phytonomy. The former
requires a perfect knowledge of terminol-
ogy, the latter a thorough knowledge of
the plants  themselves, with a view to a
systematic classification of them, accord-
ing to fixed principles.   The necessity of
such a classification must have  been felt
as soon as the number of known  plants
became great,  and  their relations  and
analogies  obvious.  At the time of the
revival of letters,  hardly 1500 plants were
known  from the descriptions  of the an-
cients.  At present, at a moderate estima-
tion, more than 50,000 have been describ-
ed.  It is obviously impossible to introduce
order into this infinite chaos, or to acquire
any distinct knowledge,  without the aid
of general principles.  Even  in the 16th
and 17th centuries, the founders of botan-
ical science perceived that in  plants, as
 well as in all other natural bodies, the es-
 sential  and necessary parts must be  dis-
 tinguished from the accidental, and that a 
212
BOTANY.
scientific classification  must be founded
on the former alone.  Now it was obvious
that the production of fruit and seed is the
ultimate object of vegetation, and, accord-
ingly, in the first attempts at classification,
the relations and component parts of the
seed and of the fruit were made the found-
ation of the arrangement.  This areange-
ment was confirmed by on observation of
the uniformity of nature in the formation of
those parts in  plants  of similar kinds.
But it was  found, also, that uniformity in
these formations prevailed in too great a
number of plants to allow them alone to
be made the distinguishing characteristics.
It became, therefore, necessary to have
recourse to other parts.  The flower was
first chosen, as it presents a great variety
of forms, and, at the same time, a uniform-
ity of  structure.  But  the limits  to this
uniformity, and the absence of flowers in
innumerable plants, with the consideration
that they are not essential, suggested to
the immortal founder of modern scientific
botany the idea that the sexual parts are
most intimately related to  the growth of
the fruit, and that  they are, therefore,  of
the greatest importance, and furnish bet-
ter grounds of classification than  the
flower.  A general principle was  thus
established, fertile in consequences, excel-
lently adapted to  facilitate die  diffusion
and extend die sphere of the science.
The Linnaean system was founded exclu-
sively on the relations of the sexual parts.
Linnaeus divided all known  plants into
two general divisions,  one of which has
visible  sexual  psirts   (phanerogamous),
while in the other they are  invisible  or
wanting (eryptogamous).  The first divis-
ion comprehends the 23 first classes of his
system, which are distinguished according
to the situation  of the sexual parts in the
same or in  separate flowers, their number,
their length, &c.  If any system has in-
troduced order in  the midst of variety,
and shed fight on the immense diversities
of nature, it is that of Linnaeus.  Hence,
even those  who have departed from it in
their  writings have considered it neces-
sary for elementary instruction.   Many
objections,  however, are brought against
it.  It has been made a question whether
it is fitted for the investigation and classi-
fication of unknown  plants.  It  is said
that the sexual  parts may be very differ-
ent in similar plants; that he neVer will
have a complete idea of nature, who pro-
ceeds only on one principle.  It has, there-
fore, been thought necessary to find a more
natural arrangement.   (See Plants.)   In
order to follow nature, we must look at
every part; at  the  internal  structure, as
well as the external  relations, analogies
and differences.  This can be done only
by a profound and toilsome investigation,
of which the mere  follower of a system
has hardly a notion.  Seed is considered
as the ultimate  object of vegetation.   Its
parts, their formation, situation, sind other
relations,  must be critically  examined.
The most perfect natural system, in mod-
em times, is that of Jussieu, particularly
as enlarged by Decandolle.  (See Decan-
dolle's Regni vegetabilis Systema naiurale,
his Thtorie eiementaire  de la  Botanique,
and  his Prodromus Systematis naturalis
Regni vegetabilis; also the Nouveaux El-
emens dela Botanique, by Richard.)
  The second general division of this sci-
ence begins with the investigation of the
internal  structure,  or the  anatomy  of
plants.  This study has been recently cul-
tivated, by the  Germans, to an  extent,
which, 30  years ago,  could  hardly have
been conceived.  It is closely connected
with the first  division, if the plants are
studied  in  their natural order.  Without
good microscopes, and the aid of the best
works in this branch, a distinct knowledge
of the structure of plants cannot easily be
obtained.   Chemical botany must be con-
nected with the anatomy of plants.  Their
constituent parts, their  various changes,
and  the  different combinations of their
liquid and solid parts, are to be examined.
From those, at last, we ascend to the laws
of vegetable Ufe, which are, in general, the
same  as  those  of animal life.  Animal
physiology must, therefore, be intimately
united with the physiology of  plants.
Connected  with  the  latter  are two
branches of knowledge, which the bota-
nist cannot well dispense with, since they
offer the most  important conclusions  on
the economy of nature, on  the  history
of the earth, and on the application of
science to the arts.  These are, first, the
science of the deformities and diseases of
plants, which can be  made  certain only
by correct physiological views, and which
is of great value in gardening, agriculture,
and the cultivation of woods; and, second,
a knowledge of the mode in which plants
have been spread over the earth.   If we
study the forms of vegetation which have
come to us from distant ages, in the flotz
formations, this observation  affords the
most interesting discoveries in relation to
the history of our earth.  If we trace the
laws by which  vegetation seems to have
been distributed, we  extend our  knowl-
edge of the general action of nature, and
arrive at  conclusions which may be of 
BOTANY.
213
great  practical utility.   The  work  of
Sprengel on the structure and  nature of
plants, is, perhaps, the most  complete.
Separate parts of the  anatomy of plants
have been treated of by Link, Treviranus
and Moldenhawer; vegetable  chemistry
by Senebier, Saussure and Schrader.
  History of the Science.  Of the two gen-
eral divisions of botany, the physiological
or philosophical is the elder. Before the
Greek philosophers attempted to distin-
guish classes and  species of plants, they
examined the laws of vegetable  life, the
difference of plants from animals, and, as
far as it could be done with the naked
eye, their  structure.   Theophrastus  of
Eresus is  the creator  of  philosophical
botany, which he treated on a great and
original plan. From the writings of the
Alexandrians, and from  original observa-
tions, Dioscorides of Anazarba, in the first
century of the Christian era, compiled a
work, which contains imperfect  descrip-
tions  of about 1200 plants, the  medical
qualities of which were more attended  to
by the author than the description of their
characteristics or their philosophical clas-
sification.  This  work continued, for  15
centuries, the only source  of botanical
knowledge.   The  Persian  and  Arabian
physicians added about 200 plants, which
were unknown to the Greeks, and, conse-
quently, the number of known plants, at
the time of the  revival of letters, was
about 1400.   Gennany has the merit  of
having founded  historical  botany.  The
obvious  imperfections  of  Dioscorides,
when the plants of Germany came to  be
investigated, and  the  extravagances into
which those persons fell, who attempted
to  apply  his descriptions to  German
plants,  impelled  Hieronymus  of Bruns-
wick, Otho Braunfelsius, Leon. Fuchsius,
Hieron.  Tragus  and  Conrad Gesner, to
examine  the vegetable  productions  of
their countiy, independently of Dioscori-
des, and to represent them  in wood-cuts.
Gesner first started the ideathat the parts of
fructification were the most essential, and
that plants must be classified with refer-
ence  to them.  They were followed, in
the 16th centuiy, by the  Italians, Peter
Matthiolus, Andr. Csesalpinus, Prosp. Al-
pinus and Fab.  Columna; the Belgians,
Dodonaeus, Clusius and Lobelius.  Among
the botanists of this period, who extended
the science by their labors in collecting
specimens,  are the French Dalechamp,
the English Gerard, the German  Joach.
Canierarius, Tabemsemontanus and John
Bauhin, whose brother Gaspard  not only
increased the number of known plants by
numerous discoveries, but endeavored to
reform the nomenclature, which had be-
come much confused by the multiplica-
tion of names of the same plant.   These
are the fathers of botany, whose standard
works still reward examination.  By the
exertions of these men,  the number of
known plants, at the beginning of the 17th
century, amounted to 5500.   The  neces-
sity of classification  increased with the
quantity of materials.   Lobelius and John
Bauhin adopted the  natural division of
trees, grasses, &c, without reference to
any general principle.  Andreas Csesalpi-
nus, by the advice of Conrad Gesner, fix-
ed upon the fruit and the  seed  as the
foundation of a classification, which is still
retained  by  many of his followers, who
are called fructists.   In the 17th centuiy,
new methods were introduced by Robert
Morison  and John  Ray; the latter of
whom attended to the structure  of the
coroUa and its parts,  while Rivinus con-
sidered only the regularity or irregularity
of its shape, and Tournefort its resem-
blance to other  objects.  The number of
known plants was increased  by Morison,
Plukenet, BarreUer, Boccone, van Rheede,
Petiver and Plumier.  In the 17th centu-
ry, the foundation of botanical anatomy
was laid by Grew and Malpighi;  botani-
cal chemistry was founded by  Homberg,
Dodart and Mariotte ; and the difference
of sex was discovered by Grew, Morland
and Rud. Jak. Camerarius.  This discov-
ery Micheli  attempted to extend even to
the lower degrees of organization, moss,
lichens and sponges.   To such predeces-
sors,  and to the great collectors of her-
bariums,  Rumphius, Parkinson, Sloane,
Flacourt, Sommelyn, Buxbaum, Ammann
and Feuillee, the immortal Linnaeus was
indebted, in part,  for  the  idea  on  which
his system was  founded, and for his great
stores of botanical  knowledge.   When
the first edition of his Species Plantarum
was published, he was  acquainted with
7300 species; in the  second edition, with
8800.  If we consider that  a moderate
herbarium now contains from 11,000 to
 12,000 species,  we must be astonished at
the  increase  in the  number of known
plants in 60 years.  The two sexes of
 Linnaeus were afterwards  extended, by
 Dillenius, Schmidel  and Hedwig, to the
 imperfect vegetables.  This system was
 opposed by Adanson, Alston and Haller;
 it was extended still  farther by Schveber
 ScopoU, Crantz and Jacquin.  In the 18th
 century, numerous discoveries in  the ve-
 getable world  were  made by John Bur-
 maun, J. G. Gmelin, PaUas, Forskal, For- 
214
BOTANY—BOTOCUDES.
ster, Hosselquist, Browne, Jacquin, Aublet,
Sommerson, Stahl, Swartz, Aiton.  Ve-
getable physiology was enlarged and en-
riched with new discoveries by Bonnet,
Du Hamel, HU1, Koelreuter and Senne-
bier, and thus botany approached its pres-
ent degree of improvement.  (SeeSpren-
gel's History of Botany,  2 vols., Leipsic,
1818.)  An outline of the Linnaean sys-
tem is to be found in the  article Plants.
  Botany Bay.  (See New South Wales.)
  Both,  John  and  Andrew; born  at
Utrecht, in 1610, the sons of a glass painter,
who instructed them in the rudiments of
drawing.   They afterwards made further
progress in the school of Abraham Bloe-
maert, and went, at an early age, together
to Italy.  John, attracted by the works of
Claude Lorraine, chose him for his model;
Andrew preferred the painting of the hu-
man figure, and  imitated the style  of
Bamboccio.  But, although their inclina-
tions led them in different directions, their
mutual friendship often united their talents
in the same works.  Thus Andrew paint-
ed the figures  in  the landscapes of his
brother; and their labors harmonized so
weU, that their pictures could not be sus-
pected of coming from  different hands.
The ease and fine coloring, in the beauti-
ful figures of John, cannot be overlooked,
in spite of the excess of yellow, sometimes
found in them.  His fame has been  con-
firmed by time,  and his  merit, as well as
his  residence in Italy, has procured him
the name of Both of Italy.  Andrew was
drowned  at Venice, in  1650.   John, in-
consolable  for  his loss, abandoned Italy,
and returned to Utrecht, where he  died
shortly after.  The  plates which  John
Both has himself etched  from his princi-
pal works are much valued.
  Bothnia, East, a province  formerly
belonging to Sweden, but ceded to Russia
in 1809, situated on the E. side of thegulf
of Bothnia, bounded N. by Lapland, E. by
the Russian government of Archangel
and Olonetz,  S.  by Finland,  and  W.
by  the  gulf of Bothnia,  is about 300
miles in  length,  and from  60 to 210
in breadth.  Towards the south, and on
the sea-coast, the land is low and marshy.
The summers are often so cold as to de-
stroy a great part of the  crops.   Popula-
tion, about 70,000.  The  cattle are small,
and bears  are  numerous.  The salmon
fishery is abundant,  and that  of pearls
often successful.  The principal exports
are timber, butter, whale-oil,  pitch,  tar,
&c. The principal towns are  Cajana, or
Cajaneborg, Ulea, Christinestadt, &c.
  Bothnia, West; a province of Sweden,
situated on the W. side  of the gulf of
Bothnia, bounded N. and W. by Lapland.
S. by Angermania, and E. by the gulf of
Bothnia.  The country is  tolerably fertile,
but sudden frosts, in the  month of July,
often destroy the laborer's hopes.  There
are mines of copper and iron.  The prin-
cipal towns are Umea, Pithea and Lulea.
Population, about 56,000.
  Bothnia, Gulf of ;  the northern part
of the Baltic sea, which separates Sweden
from Finland.  It commences at the island
of Aland, 61° N. lat., and  extends to 66°:
its length is about 360 miles, its breadth
from 90 to 130, and its depth from  20 to
50 fathoms.  It freezes over in the winter,
so as to be passed by sledges and carriages.
Its water contains only one third of the
proportion of salt found in other sea-
water.  It  abounds  in salmon  and in
seals, which furnish great quantities  of
train-oil.—This gulf is gradually decreas-
ing in extent.
  Bothwell ; a vfllage of Scotland, on
the Clyde, nine miles from Glasgow.  At
Bothwell  bridge,  a  decisive battle was
fought,  in  1679,  between the  Scottish
covenanters, commanded  principally  by
their  clergy, and  the royal forces,  com-
manded by the duke of  Monmouth, in
which the fonner were totally routed.
  Bothwell,  James  Hepburn, earl, is
known in Scotch history by his marriage
with  queen Mary.  It is supposed, by
some historians, that he was  deeply con-
cerned in the murder of the  unfortunate
Damley, Mary's husband, and that,  he
was   even  supported by the  deluded
queen.  He was charged with the crime,
and tried, but acquitted.  After  the death
of Damley, he seized the queen at Edin-
burgh, and, carrying  her a prisoner to
Dunbar castle, prevailed upon her to mar-
ry him,  after  he had divorced his own
wife.  Though seemingly secure in the
possession of power, and  though created
earl of Orkney by the unfortunate queen,
he soon found that his conduct had rous-
ed the indignation of the kingdom.  Ma-
ry found not in him the fond husband she
expected: he  became unkind and brutal.
A confederacy was formed  against him
by the barons, the  queen was liberated
from  his power, and he  escaped to the
Orkneys,  and  afterwards to Denmark,
where he died, 1577.  In his  last mo-
ments, it is said, that, with an agonizing
conscience, he confessed  his own  guilt,
and the queen's innocence, of the murder
of Damley.
  Botocudes, savages of  Brazil, received
their name from  the large wooden  pegs, 
BOTOCUDES—BOTTOMRY.
215
with which they ornament their ears and
Ups.  A  small  part of these savages  is
now somewhat  civilized.   Most of the
tribes are still in a completely barbarous
state, continuaUy at  war  among them-
selves, and accustomed to  eat the flesh
of  their  enemies.  A more  particular,
though incomplete, account of them  is
to be found in the Travels  of the Prince
of Neuwied and others in Brazil.  With
the view of promoting their civilization,
three Indian villages were  laid out,  in
1824, by order of the emperor.
  Botta, Carlo Giuseppe GugUelmo,
member  of  the academy  of sciences  at
Turin, a poet and historian, bora, 1766, at
S. Giorgio, in Piedmont, studied medicine
and botany  at Turin.  In 1794, he was
a physician  in  the French army which
passed the  Alps.  This service carried
him to Corfu. In 1799, he  was a member
of the provisory government of Piedmont,
and was  one of those who favored the in-
corporation  of  Piedmont with  France.
After the battle of Marengo,  he was a
member of the Piedmontese consulta.  In
the corps legislatif, he displeased Napo-
leon, because he openly censured the des-
potism of his administration.  In 1814, he
was one  of  the members of the corps le-
  fislatif, which pronounced that Napoleon
  ad forfeited his throne.  After the  resto-
ration, he was  struck out of the Ust of
members of the legislative body, because
he was a foreigner, and not naturalized.
In 1815, Napoleon appointed him direct-
or of the  academy at Nancy.  At the res-
toration,  he  resigned this post, and lives
now as a private  individual.  His most
important works are his  Description of
the Island of Corfu (2 vols.); his transla-
tion of Born's (Joannis physiophili) Speci-
men monachologia; Memoir on the The-
ory of Brown; Recollections of a Journey
in  Dalmatia;  On  Tones and  Sound;
Short History of the Royal House of Sa-
voy and Piedmont; Histoiy of the North
American Re vol utionary War;  11 Camillo
o Veja conquistata, a much-esteemed epic
poem, in 12 cantos,  published in  1816;
Storia (Tltalia  dal 1789 al 1814 (4 vols.
Ito.), in 1824, somewhat rhetorical,  but a
good picture of the state of this unhappy
country;   Histoire des  Peuples d'Ralie
(Paris, 1825, 3 vols.], hi which  he denies
to the Christian  religion and to philoso-
phy the merit of having civilized Europe,
and attributes this effect to the  revival of
learning.
  Bottles,  by  the ancients, were  made
of skins and  leather: they are now chief-
ly made of thick glass, of the cheapest
kind,  and formed of the most ordinary
materials.  It is composed of sand, with
Ume,  and sometimes clay, and alkaline
ashes  of any kind, such as kelp, barilla,
or even wood ashes.  The green color
is owing partly to the impurities in the
ashes, but chiefly to oxyde of iron.  This
glass  is strong, hard and well vitrified.
It  is  less subject to conosion by acids
than flint-glass, and  is  superior to  any
cheap material for the purposes to which
it is applied.
  Bottomry is  the hypothecation  or
pledge of a  vessel for the  payment of a
debt.   The creditor has no right to take
possession of the ship, until the expiration
of the time for which the  loan is made,
and then (under a bottomry contract in
the usual form) only by the intervention
of an admiralty court.  If the loan is not
repaid at the stipulated  time,  the lender
appUes to an admiralty court, which (the
truth  of the claim being established) de-
crees a sale of the ship to satisfy the debt
The conditions of such a contract usually
are, that, if the ship is not lost or destroy-
ed by those risks which the lender agrees
to run, the debt is to become absolute.
The risks assumed by the lender are usu-
ally the same as  are enumerated in a
common poUcy of insurance.  If the ship
is wholly lost in  consequence of these
risks, the lender loses his loan.  In cose
of a partial  damage, the bottomry bond
usually provides that this damage  shall
be borne by the lender hi the  proportion
of the amount loaned to the value of the
ship.   If this amount is equal to one half
of the value of the ship, the lender is to
bear one half of the amount of such loss,
&c.   As the lender thus assumes a cer-
tain risk, he  is justly entitled to a greater
interest than if he did  not thus take the
hazard of the loss of the whole loan; and
this is called marine interest.  He is enti-
tled to the usual  rate of interest on his
loan, in addition to the usual premium of
insurance for the same voyage or period.
The stipulation for such a rate of marine
interest is not  a violation of the laws
against usury, for it is not merely a com-
pensation for the use  of the money loan-
ed, but also  for the risk assumed.  The
ship-owner may bonow money on  bot-
tomry, whether his vessel be in port or at
sea.  But the captain of the ship, as such,
cannot so bonow when in the port where
the owner resides, or near enough to con-
sult him on any  emergency.  In  any
other  port, he may pledge the ship on
bottomry for the purpose of raising money
necessary  for  repairing, supplying  and 
216
BOTTOMRY—BOUCHER.
navigating her, if he can obtain it in no
other way.   If he bonow  thus without
necessity, the bond is void, and the lender
can  look only to the personal responsi-
bility of the captain.
   Bots.  (See (Estrus.)
i   Botzen, or Bolzano ; a  town in Ty-
rol, at the confluence of the Eisack and
the Adige, containing  8100 inhabitants,
and  1000 houses.  It  has  four  annual
fairs.   The rivers of the town, the  former
privileges of the bishop of Trent, and the
intersection of the main roads leading to
Germany, Italy and Switzerland,  at this
place, on account of the chains of  moun-
tains and the  courses of the streams, af-
forded it great advantages for commerce,
which yet continue, in some degree.  Its
commerce, however, is much injured by
the smuggling over lake Como,  and also
from  Switzerland,  into  Lombardy.   B.
lies in a valley, enclosed by high  moun-
tains ; it is, therefore,  excessively  hot  in
summer, and sometimes even visited by
the sirocco.   The  finest  fruits of Upper
Italy  (agrumi) are produced here,  if pro-
tected by a covering in winter on the east
side of the mountain.   Autumn is here
the most beautiful season  in the year.
The  winter is generally short.  On  the
declivities of the mountains  is produced a
peculiar kind of red wine.   In the valleys,
mulbeny-trees flourish.  B. is, therefore,
the best place for silk-worms in die Aus-
trian dominions.
   Bouchardon, Edmund, born, in 1698,
at Chaumont-en-Basigni, son of a sculptor
and architect, applied  himself early to
drawing and  painting.  He made many
copies, without, however, giving  up  the
study of nature.  In order to devote him-
self to statuary, he went to Paris, and en-
tered the school of the younger Coustou.
He soon gained the highest prize, and
was made royal pensioner at Rome.  He
studied his art partly in the  works of anti-
quity, and partly in those of Raphael and
Domenichino. He executed several busts,
and  was to  have erected  the  tomb  of
Clement XI,  but the orders of the king
recalled him to  Paris in  1732.   Here,
among other works, he made a large
group in stone, representing an  athlete
overcoming a bear. This stood for a long
time in the  garden of Grosbois.  After-
wards, he assisted in repairing the foun-
tain of Neptune at Versailles.  He exe-
cuted ten statues, which adorn the  church
of St. Sulpice.  A monument to the duch-
ess of Lauraguais, made by him, is also
in that church.  The fountain in  the rue
de Grenelle, which the city of Paris order-
ed to be constructed in 1739, was  made
by him, and  is  considered  his  master-
piece.  A Cupid which he made for the
king was unsuccessful.  For the Traite
des Pierres gravies, B. furnished  designs,
from which the plates were copied.   The
execution of the greatest  monument of
that period, the equestrian statue of Louis
XV, which  was erected by order of the
city of Paris, was committed to him.  He
labored 12 years  on this, with inconceiva-
ble perseverance, and has  left, in  the
horse,  a  model  which may be ranked
with any work of antiquity.  He died in
1762.   His designs are great and accurate.
His pieces bear  the character of simple
grandeur. He put more spirit and  ex-
pression into  his sketches  than into  the
marble.  In general,  more fire is to be
desired in his sculpture.   The paintings
which  he executed  at Rome ore  bold
and powerful.   Afterwards he adopted a
more polished, delicate manner, to suit the
taste of the age.  Among his scholars,
Louis-Claude Vasse,  who  died in  1772,
is  distinguished.   Caylus has written his
life.
  Boucher, Alexander, or, as he  was ac-
customed to  call himself,  from the title
given him in a French journal, L'Alexan-
dre du violon, one of the most remarkable
but eccentric violinists, was born  at Paris
in 1770.  At the  age of six, he played be-
fore the dauphin, and at eight he played
in public.  He was in unfortunate circum-
stances in early life, until he  obtained a
place in Spain, under Charles IV, who was
himself a very good violinist.  In 1814, he
went to England.  At Dover, the custom-
house officers were about to seize his in-
strument, but B. suddenly struck up " God
save the King,"  with variations, and was
suffered to pass unmolested.  He is as
remarkable for eccentricity as for his mu-
sical powers.   He is  now  established at
Berlin. B. has attracted much attention by
his resemblance to Napoleon, whose gait,
demeanor and look he can perfectly imi-
tate.  Every one fancies he sees the ex-
emperor  when B. folds his arms.   He
declares  this resemblance to have been
disadvantageous to him at the time of the
restoration of the Bourbons.
   Boucher, Francis; painter to the king,
and director of the academy of painters;
born at Paris, 1704, died 1770.  WhUe a
pupil of the celebrated Lemoine, he gain-
ed, at the age of 19, the first prize of the
academy.  After studying  at Rome for a
short time, he returned to  Paris, and was
styled  the painter of the graces—a title
which he did not merit He would, per- 
BOUCHER—BOUFFLERS.
217
haps,  have risen  to excellence,  had he
not yielded to the  corrupt taste of his age,
and had devoted himself more completely
to his studies.  The ease with which he
executed made him careless.  His draw-
ing is faulty;  his coloring does not  har-
monize, especially in  his naked pieces,
which are so glaring, that they appear as
if the light was reflected on  them from a
red curtain.  In  a word, he is looked
upou  as the  corrupter  of the  French
school.  He was neither envious nor av-
aricious, but encouraged younger artists
as much as was in his power. The great
number  of his paintings and  sketches
show with what  rapidity  he produced
them.   The  latter alone  amounted to
more than 10,000.  He has also etched
some plates,  and  many of his paintings
have been engraved.
   Bouches-du-Rhone  (mouths  of  the
Rhone); a department  in  the south of
France,  in the ancient  government of
Provence.  Chief town, Marseilles.  Pop.
hi 1827, 326,302.   (See Departments.)
   Boudinot, Elias, was born in PhUa-
delphia, May 2,1740.  He was descended
from one  of the Huguenots, who sought
refuge in America from reUgious perse-
cution in  France. He studied  the  law,
and became eminent  in that profession.
At an early period of the  revolutionary
war, he was appointed, by congress, com-
missary-general of prisoners.  In the year
1777, he was chosen a member of con-
gress, and, in 1782, was made president
of that  body.  After the adoption of the
constitution, he entered the  house of rep-
resentatives,  where  he continued  six
years.  He then  succeeded Rittenhouse
as director of the mint of the U. States,
an office which he resigned in the course
of a few years, and lived, from that time,
at Burlington, New Jersey.   He devoted
himself earnestly to  Biblical literature,
and, being possessed of an ample fortune,
made  munificent donations to  various
charitable  and theological institutions.
The American Bible society, of which he
became president, was  particularly an
object of his bounty.   He died at the age
of 82, in October,  1821.
   Boudoir; a  small  room, simply and
gracefully fitted up, destined for retire-
ment  (from bonder, to pout, to be sulky).
It may  be indebted for its  name to an
angry husband, whose wife, when inclined
to pout, shut herself up  in  her chamber.
The boudoir is  the pecuUar property of
the lady—her sanctum  sanctorum.  To
this she flies for peace  and solitude from
the bustle of society.
   vol. n.          19
  Boufflers, marshal  de,  born 1644,
died 1711, may be considered one of the
most celebrated generals of his age.  He
was an eleve  of the great Conde, of Tu-
renne, Crequi, Luxembourg and Catinat.
His defence of Namur,  in 1695, and of
Lille, in 1708, are famous.  The siege of
the former place was conducted by king
William in person, and cost the allies more
than 20,000 men.  The latter  was con-
ducted by prince  Eugene.  An  order was
sent from Louis  XIV, signed by his own
hand, commanding B. to surrender; but
he kept it secret, until  all means of de-
fence were exhausted.  The retreat  of
the French after the defeat at Malplaquet,
under the direction of B., was  more like
a triumph than a defeat.
  Boufflers, Stanislaus, chevalier de,
member of the French academy, son  of
the marchioness of B., mistress  of Stanis-
laus, king of Poland, born at Luneville,
1737, was considered one of  the most
ingenious men of his time, and was dis-
tinguished for the elegance of his man-
ners and conversation.  He was destined
for the church, but declared that his love
of pleasure would interfere with the du-
ties of this profession.   He entered the
miUtary career, was  soon appointed gov-
ernor of Senegal, and, while in this office,
made many useful regulations.  After his
return, he devoted himself to  that  light
kind of Uterature which distinguished the
age of Louis XV.  He was much admired
by the ladies, and in the higher  circles of
the capita], as well as in the foreign courts
which  he visited.  His  reputation  gave
him a seat in the  states-general, where he
was esteemed for his moderation and his
good intentions.   After Aug. 10, 1792, he
left France, and  met with a friendly re-
ception  from  prince Henry of Prussia, at
Reinsberg, and Frederic WilUam II.  A
large grant was made to him in Poland
for establishing a colony of French  emi-
grants.   In 1800, he returned  to  Paris,
where  he devoted  himself to literary
pursuits, which, in 1804, procured him a
seat  in  the  French institute.  He  died
Jan. 18, 1815. He  Ues  buried near the
abbe DeliUe, and  on his tomb  is this  in-
scription, written by himself, and charac-
teristic   of his lively disposition:  Mes
amis, croyez queje dors.   His works were
published in  8 vols. 12mo.  1815.   His
mother  was long the ornament of the
court of Stanislaus,  during its  residence
at Luneville,  by  the graces of  her mind
and beauty of her person.  Voltaire ad-
dressed  to her a  madrigal which finishes
thus:— 
218
BOUFFLERS—BOUILLON.
    Si' vous eussiez vecu du temps de Gabrielle
    Je ne sais pas ce qu'on eut dit de vous,
    Mais on n'aurait point parle d'elle.
She died 1787.
  Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, count
of the empire, senator, and member of the
institute in  1796,  bom,  1729, at Paris,
died at the same place, 1811.   At first a
lawyer, afterwards  a distinguished  sol-
dier, diplomatist and scholar,  he was al-
ways  remarkable for Iris energy of char-
acter.   He  fought bravely in Canada,
under the marquis of Montcalm, and it
was principally owing to his exertions, in
1758,  that a body of 5000 French with-
stood  successfully  an English army of
16,000 men.  Towards the conclusion of
the battle, he received a shot in the head.
The governor of Canada, finding himself
unable to defend the colony, sent B. to
France for reenforcements.  He set off
in Nov., 1758, and returned Jan., 1759,
after the king had made him colonel and
knight of St. Louis.  After the batde of
Sept  13,  1759, in which Montcalm was
killed, and the fate of the colony decided,
B. returned to France, and served with
distinction under Choiseul  Stainville, in
the campaign of 1761, in Germany.  Af-
ter  the  peace, he entered the navy, and
became one of the greatest naval officers
in France.  He persuaded the inhabit-
ants of St. Malo to fit out an  expedition
for the purpose of establishing a colony
in the Falkland islands,  and undertook
the command  of the expedition himself
The king appointed him  captain, and B.
set sail, with his Uttle fleet, in 1763.  But,
as the Spaniards had a prior claim to the
islands, France was obliged  to sunender
them, and B., having returaed to France,
was commissioned to carry the surrender
into execution, on receiving from Spain a
remuneration for his expenses.   For this
purpose, he set sail, with one frigate and a
merchant  ship, from St  Malo, Dec. 15,
1766.   After the immediate object of his
voyage was accompUshed, he circumnav-
igated the  world, and returned to St Ma-
lo, March 16, 1769.   He enriched the
science of geography by a number of new
discoveries.  In the  American war,  he
commanded several ships of the line, with
great honor; was, in 1779, chef d'escadre,
and, in the following year, field-marshal
in  the land  forces.   After   1790,  he
devoted himself to science.   He was a
man  of the   most  engaging  manners,
obliging, Uberal,  and, in  every respect,
worthy  of the greattst • esteem.  He re-
tained the natural Uveliness of his dispo-
sition  to a very advanced age.
  Bouille, Francis Claude Amour, mar-
quis de, one of the most celebrated  of
the generals of Louis XVI, bora 1739, at
Auvergne,  early  entered  on  a miUtary
life.  He distinguished himself in  the
seven years' war, and was appointed gov-
ernor of Guadaloupe  in 1768,  and con-
quered  Dominica, St. Eustatia, Tobago,
St.  Christopher, Nevis  and Montserrat
After the peace of 1783, he returned to
Paris, and was appointed lieutenant-gen-
eral.  He afterwards travelled in England,
through Holland and a great part of Ger-
many, until he was made chief of the
province Trois-Eveches.   In the assem-
bly of notables (1787—88),  he declared
for the proposed  reforms of  Calonne,
which, however, were defeated by cardi-
nal Brienne.   He was opposed to the plan
of Necker for the union of the  provinces.
At the breaking out of the revolution, he
supported the  existing government, both
in his former  province and in Lon-aine,
Alsace and Franche-Comte.  It was only
at the urgent desire of the king, that he
swore allegiance  to the constitution of
1791.  He repressed, in  1790,  the re-
bellion  of the  garrisons of Metz and
Nancy;  and, although the national assem-
bly  decreed him a vote of thanks for the
bravery  and ability he had displayed  on
this occasion, still the revolutionists dis-
trusted him.  Shortly afterwards, he made
preparations to assist Louis XVI in his
escape.  B. had made his an-angements
well, and, had not the king forbidden any
bloodshed, he  would certainly  have res-
cued  him.   Being thus  compelled   to
leave the king at Varennes to his fete, he
fled from the dangers to which he him-
self was exposed by the attacks of the
revolutionists.   From Luxembourg,  he
wrote a threatening letter to the national
assembly, and then exerted himself  to
excite  the  foreign powers against the
republic.  He  succeeded weU at Vienna,
gained over Gustavus III, and obtained
the  promise  of 30,000 men from the em-
press  Catharine II, to be put under the
command of the king of Sweden and the
French general.  But Gustavus was mur-
dered, the empress forgot  her  promises,
and B.  went ovter to  England in  1796.
Here he wrote his Memoirs of the Revo-
lution, which  appeared in an EngUsh
translation (London, 1797), and, after his
death, in the original.  B. died at Lon-
don in 1800.
  Bouillon ; a large district in Ardennes,
9 miles wide and 18 long, on the borders
of Luxembourg and Liege.  This woody
and  mountainous  tract  consists of the 
BOUILLON—BOULOGNE.
219
town of B. with 1980 inhabitants, and 21
villages with 16,000 inhabitants.   The
town, which is  the capital of a canton,
within the  arrondissement  of Sedan, de-
partment of Ardennes,  lies in  the midst
of hills, on the  left bank of the Semois,
which abounds  with  fish, 40 miles from
Liege and 18 from Ivoix.   It has a strong
castle upon a rock,  which, however,  is
commanded by the  neighboring moun-
tains.   Godfrey of  B. once possessed the
dukedom of this name.  He was duke of
Lower Lorraine, and B. was  bestowed
upon  him  as belonging properly  to the
county of Ardenne.  In order  to supply
himself with funds for his expedition  to
the Holy  Land, Godfrey  mortgaged his
duchy of B., in  1095, to the bishop  Albert
of Liege.   After the estate  had been held
for many  years by the   bishopric, the
houses of La Marc and La Tour d'Au-
vergne laid claims to  B.,  but, in  1641,
relinquished  their  pretensions  to the
bishop of  Liege   for  150,000 Brabant
guilders.  In the  war  of  1672, France
conquered  B., and Louis  XIV gave  it,
in 1678, to  the  chevalier La Tour d'Au-
vergne, his chamberlain.  After this time,
it belonged to the house of La Tour until
the revolution,  when it was taken from
them, in 1792.  The last possessor, God-
frey Charles Henry de k Tour  d'Au-
vergne, died Dec, 1812.   By the  peace
of Paris, in  1814, the dukedom was in-
cluded in that of Luxembourg, which had
fallen to the king of  the Netherlands.
The title of prince of B. was assumed,  in
1792, by Philip d'Auvergne,  captain  in
the British  navy,  and he continued  to
bear it till  his death, in 1816.   The con-
gress which met at Vienna in 1815 ap-
pointed commissioners to investigate the
comparative claims of this  nobleman and
prince Charles of Rohan.   They decided
in favor of the latter.
  Bouilly, J.  N.,  a  popular French
writer, born  of a respectable family  at
Tours,  applied himself,  at first,  to the
law; but this study did not prevent him
from devoting  himself to  literature.  In
die revolution,  in which his whole heart
was  engaged,  he united   himself with
Mirabeau and Barnave.  About this time,
he  wrote his  opera  Peter the  Great,
which Gretry set  to music.  At  Tours,
where he  was  president  of the depart-
ment, judge of the  civil tribunal, and pub-
lic  prosecutor,  his sense  of justice pre-
vented him from misusing his power  to
the detriment of the opposite party.  Nei-
ther the excesses of the Vendeans nor the
fury of the revolutionary  tribunal were
experienced in  his  government.  With
La Chabeaussiere, he contributed much
to the  introduction  of primary schools.
When the direction  of public instruction
passed from the hands of the committee
of organization into  those  of the police,
he left his office, and devoted himself to
the  drama.  On account of the proUx-
ity of his style,  the  critic d'Arnaud says,
he suffers  from  embonpoint du  sentiment.
His L'Abbe de I'Epee met with much suc-
cess.  He also wrote Madame de Sivigne,
a comedy; for  the royal academy  of
music he wrote Les Jeux  Floreaux, and
some other pieces ;  for the Vaudeville
theatres,  Haine  aux Femmes ;  for the
opera comique, Fanchon, and Une Folic
His works on education are very popular,
and  have  been  often published.   These
are Les Contes a ma Fille, Les Consdls a
ma Fille, and some others.
  Boulevards.  (See Paris.)
  Boulogne ;  an old seaport  town  on
the coast of Picardy, now  chief town ot
an arrondissement of 388 square miles,
with 74,676 inhabitants, in the department
Pas de Calais, at the mouth of the Liane ;
lat. 50° 43' 33" N.; lon. 1° 36' 59" E.  It
consists of the upper and lower town ; the
latter of which is called Boulogne surMer,
and  is  far  superior  to the former in the
beauty  of its houses and streets.   Both
parts contain together over 16,000 inhab-
itants, and about 1600 houses, and a har-
bor, which is too shallow for large vessels
of war, but the largest merchant vessels
can  go in  and  out, at high tide, without
danger.  With a favorable wind, vessels
can reach the coasts of England in two or
three hours from this place.  Bonaparte,
therefore, ordered the harbor to be made
deeper, and a number of vessels to  be
built, in order to transport the army  in-
tended for the invasion of England, and
some small forts and batteries to be erect-
ed, in order to strengthen the harbor and
the town.   A large  army remained here
for many months in a camp, which  al-
most resembled a town, waiting to em-
bark ; when, upon the breaking out  of
hostiUties with Austria, 1805, they were
called to  other places.  B. is a  bishopric,
contains 6  churches, an hospital,  an ex-
change, a maritime court, a society for the
promotion of agriculture, commerce and
the arts, a school for instruction in navi-
gation,  sea baths,  manufactories of soap,
earthen-ware, linen  and woollen  cloths.
Hening and mackerel, large quantities of
which  are  caught off the coast, Cham-
pagne and Burgundy wines, coal, corn,
butter,  linen and  woollen  stuffs, are the 
220
BOULOGNE—BOUNTY.
articles of export.   Four steam-boats run
from this place to England.
  Boulogne, Wood of ; a pleasant grove
near the gates of Paris, mentioned in all
the French romances.   The greatest part
of the old  trees were destroyed during
the revolution.  When Napoleon chose
St. Cloud for a summer residence, he or-
dered young trees to be planted, had the
place enclosed with a wall, and the wood
stocked with game,  so that  it  became
more a place of resort than before. From
July, 1815,  to  September, the  English
troops under lord  Wellington were sta-
tioned in it, and cut down the  most beau-
tiful trees, old and young, for barracks.
For a long time, it has  been the duel-
ground of the Parisians.  Here  was ma-
ny a partie fine; and gay  equipages and
horsemen  often   enlivened  the place.
Through the principal  walk the  pious
world made pilgrimages to Longchamps.
Here Montgolfiers  (balloons)  were  first
raised.—Cuvier discovered, by geological
investigations, that  the soil of the wood is
alluvial.  Petrified  trunks of  trees  are
found in it at a great depth,  as are also
the bones of elephants, oxen, elks, and
other mammalia. The wild plants of the
place are only those which prefer a rich
alluvial soil.  The  little castles of Madrid
and Bagatelle lie near the wood, which
no traveller should  omit seeing.
  Boulton, Matthew, a celebrated engi-
neer, was born  at  Birmingham in 1728.
After being educated at a grammar-school,
he  was instructed  in  drawing by Wor-
Udge, and  he also studied mathematics.
He engaged in business as a manufacturer
of hardware, and,  as early as  1745, he is
said to have invented, and brought to great
perfection,  inlaid steel  buckles,  buttons,
watch-chains, &c,  of which large quan-
tities  were exported to  France,  whence
they were  repurchased  with  avidity by
the English, as " the offspring  of French
ingenuity."  In 1762, B., finding his man-
ufactory at Birmingham too confined for
his purposes, purchased a lease of the
Soho,  about two  miles distant,  in  the
county of  Stafford.  This spot, then a
barren heath, was gradually  converted
into an extensive manufactory and school
of the mechanical  arts, where ingenious
men found ample  employment for their
talents from the liberal patronage of the
patriotic proprietor. The introduction of
that important machine the steam-engine,
at Soho, led to  a connexion between B.
and James Watt, of Glsisgow, who became
partners  in  trade  in  1769.   Among the
many great undertakings in which these
gentlemen were engaged, one of the most
useful and important  was the improve-
ment of the coinage.  In beauty and ac-
curacy of execution, the coins struck  at
the Soho manufactory have  rarely been
surpassed; and the reform thus effected
in the state of the  English national  cur-
rency confers the highest honor on those
with whom it originated.   About the year
1773, was invented, at the estabUshment
of Boulton and Watt, a method of copy-
ing, by a mechanical process, paintings in
oil, so as to produce fac-similes of the
originals, sufficiently accurate to deceive
a  practised connoisseur.  The  various
mechanical inventions and improvements
which originated,  more or less directly,
from the  genius  and application of B.,
are too numerous  to admit of specificsi-
tion.  His long life was almost  uninter-
ruptedly devoted to the advancement  of
the useful arts, and  the  promotion  of
the commercial interests  of' his country.
He died at Soho, Aug. 17, 1809, and  was
interred in the parish-church of Hands-
worth.  600 of his  workmen attended his
funeral, each of whom had a silver medal
presented to him, which had been struck
for the occasion.  He was a fellow of the
royal societies of Loudon and Edinburgh,
and an  associate of several scientific in-
stitutions abroad.   His manners and  con-
versation  are said to have been highly
fascinating, and his private character was
extremely respectable.  He left  an  only
son, who succeeded him in his establish-
ment  at  Soho.—(See  his  Memoirs, pub-
lished at Birmingham, 8vo.)
  Bounty, in political economy, is a re-
ward  or  premium granted to  particular
species of trade or production.  The gen-
eral subject of encouragement of domes-
tic, in competition with foreign, industry
or trade (which is  one species of indus-
try), will lie treated of under other heads,
and only those circumstances mentioned,
in this  place, which distinguish bounties
from  other species  of encouragement.
And it is to be observed, in the first place,
that the  general principle is the same,
whether the encouragement is given  to a
particular species of education, as that  in
the clerical profession, which has been
the subject  of encouragement, direct  or
indirect, time immemorial; or  education
in general; or a particular kind of literary
productions, as the best poetical composi-
tion ;  or a treatise on some scientific  sub-
ject, as one on light and  heat (for which
count Rumford has provided a premium,
in the funds left by him to the American
academy of arts and sciences); or to some 
BOUNTY.
221
agricultural or manufactured product,  as
in the case  of the  premiums formerly
granted by England on the exportation of
wh.eat, and  those given by agricultural
societies in the U. States, for the greatest
production of any kind of grain  on a
given extent of land, or the best threshing
or winnowing machine, &c.  In all these
instances, the general doctrine is assumed
and presupposed, that the successful di-
rection of talent or industry to the species
of art or mode  of production  indicated
will  be beneficial to the  public.   The
utility  of the bounty  wUl depend  upon
the correctness of this assumption.  All
bounties or premiums are not offered for
the encouragement of domestic talent and
industry to the exclusion of foreign com-
  Eetition.   Many of those offered by the
  British and French governments, and by
private associations,  are  held out to all
competitors indiscriminately ; and, where
the object is universal improvement, this
is one of the appropriate modes of encour-
agement, though others  concur with  it,
such as the monopoUes of copyrights and
patents, and the honors and distinctions
conferred  on those who make any im-
portant improvement.  But if the object
be to favor  the  domestic production of
any article which is  consumed in  great
quantities, and the supply of which will
employ many hands, bounties  are  only
the first steps in promoting it;  for, when
the species of production is once introdu-
ced to an extent sufficient for the supply of
the consumption, or so far introduced that
it can readily be pushed to the limits of the
national demand, the  production is more
usually, and may be more economically,
sustained by  a tax or prohibition of the
foreign substitute.  It was, for instance,
a very expensive mode  of encouraging
the domestic production of grain in Great
Britain, to offer a bounty upon the export-
ation, for  it was buying a place in the
foreign market; and  though the bounty
went  to  the subjects of the  kingdom,
namely, the British landholders, yet expe-
rience abundantly  shows that  a govern-
ment may oppress, derange, and, possibly,
paralyze, its  industry, by  pensions, re-
wards and gratuities to its own subjects.
The object of the bounty was to encour-
age the home production, by guarantying
that  the  domestic should  be  generaUy
higher than the foreign market price, by
the excess of the amount of the bounty
over that of the freight  paid on the ex-
portation.   If the government had, at the
same  time, imposed  an additional  land-
tax, proportional to the  enhancement  of
                 19*
rents  occasioned by the corn-bounty, it
would thus have derived a great revenue.
If the land-tax could, in this case, have
been exactly proportioned, on each estate,
to the enhancement of the rents in conse-
quence  of the bounty,  the bounty and
land-tax would have  constituted a tax
on the consumption of wheat, without af-
fecting the value or rent of land.  But no
tax on land seems to have been levied as
a counterpart to the  bounty; one object
of which seems to have been to promote
the culture of grain, in  order to provide
adequate supplies of so necessary an arti-
cle, for which, in  time of war, it would
be dangerous to depend  upon  foreign
sources.   The other object was, probably,
to raise  or sustain rents; at least, as that
was its tendency, the agricultural interest
would favor the measure on this ground
But the result was the payment of a tax,
by the nation, for  the advantage  of the
export trade  in corn; and  the  question
then arose, whether the advantages, di-
rect and  incidental, of that trade, were
sufficient to compensate for the tax; and,
after a long experiment, the nation finally
became convinced that they were not so,
and the bounty was aboUshed.  But they
secured its objects, in some degree, by a
prohibition of the  importation of grain,
except at times when the prices  in the
home market rose  to an unusual height,
which was specified in  these acts, which
have since been so modified, that, at a cer-
tain price in  the home market, the im-
portation becomes aUowable at a certain
duty, and, at a higher rate of prices, the
duty  is les6.  The supply  of the home
market is thus secured to the agricultur-
ists, within certain limits  of price,  and
they are previously certain of no other
than domestic competition below those
prices: in short, they have the monopoly
of the home market as long as they throw
into it a quantity sufficient  to supply the
consumption, and foreign grain is intro-
duced only in case of a rise of price ap-
parently indicating an inadequate stock
in the country.  The only way of making
up the deficiency of scant crops is by im-
portation. If on ordinary crop supplies a
large export trade, a blight would leave a
smaller, or perhaps no  deficiency of the
home production for the home consump-
tion.  But no regulation, except the pub-
Uc granary system, would provide against
an occasional resort to foreign supplies.
If the present regulations secure a pro-
duction commensurate with the consump-
tion, in ordinary years, it will be attended
with  nearly  all  the  advantages of the 
222
BOUNTY—BOURBON.
bounty system, without being Uable to its
objections,  which arise  from the direct
purchase of a foreign export trade, with-
out any means of making that particular
trade reimburse  the expenditure.  This
shows us one of the objections to  the
bounty system, which is a more cumbrous
and  burthensome one  than even that of
monopolies, when appUed  directly  and
permanently to the supply of foreign mar-
kets.  It can be advantageously applied
only at the opening of such a trade, to
meet a part of the expense of the experi-
ment ; and this is one of the proper ob-
jects of this species of  encouragement
One other class of cases may, properly
enough, be made the subjects of bounties
or premiums; namely, the productions
of extraordinary efforts of ingenuity  and
skill.  A competition is in this way  ex-
cited, by which none suffers, and all  the
effects of which are beneficial to a com-
munity.  There is one  other class of cases
in which nations have offered bounties;
namely, to species of industry in the pros-
ecution  of which the national security is
supposed to be, in some measure, involv-
ed.  The support of the British navy, for
instance, is supposed to depend, in some
degree, upon the fisheries, since these are
considered to be one of the great schools
of  seamen.  The British  government,
therefore, encourages this species of in-
dustry by bounties.  This kind of boun-
ties  has the effect of  reducing the price
of fish in the British market.  If the re-
duction of the cost of this article increases
the consumption, and  creates a large ex-
port, then the bounty has the  effect  of
training more seamen  in this  branch of
business than would otherwise resort to
it.  The advantages, however, obtained
by  the bounty, over what would result
from the prohibition of foreign fish,  are,
probably,  inconsiderable, and  are pur-
chased at a high price.   Bounties are a
more expensive mode  of encouragement
than duties and prohibitions, as the money
must be first collected  by a tax, and then
distributed in bounties—a process in which
a loss of from 2 to 20 per cent, is sustain-
ed—that is, a bounty of 100 doUars costs
the nation from 102 to  120 dollars, ac-
cording as the collection  and distribution
of the revenue is more or less expensive.
   Bourbon.  The founder of this family,
which has governed France,  Spain, the
Two SiciUes, Lucca and Panna (q. v.), is
Robert the Strong, who, in 861, became
duke of Neustria, and, in 866, lost his life
in a battle against the Normans.  Some
trace his descent from Pepin of Heristel,
others from a natural son of Charlemagne,
and others from the kings of Lombardy.
It is certain  that  the  two  sons of this
Robert were kings of France.  The elder
named Eudes, ascended the throne in 888,
and died in 898; the younger, Robert, in
922,  and died 923. The eldest son  of
this Robert was Hugh the Great, duke of
the Isle of France, and count of Paris and
Orleans.  Hugh Capet,  son  of Hugh the
Great (great  grandson of Robert  the
Strong), founded the third French dynas-
ty, in 987.  (See Capet) One of his de-
scendants, named Robert, was the root of
the elder line of the dukes of Burgundy,
which became  extinct  in 1361.  A  de-
scendant of this Robert, Henry of Bur-
gundy, was  first  regent of Portugal  in
1095, where  his  legitimate descendants
became extinct in 1383.  Pierre de Cour-
tenay, a descendant of Hugh Capet  in the
fifth generation, was father and ancestor
of many  emperors of Constantinople.
The house of Anjou, which was descend-
ed from Hugh Capet in the eighth genera-
tion, possessed the throne of Naples for
two centuries, and, for some  time, that of
Hungary.  Another descendant of  Hugh
Capet, in the  tenth degree,  founded  the
house of Navane, which continued from
1328 to 1425.  A second family of Anjou,
descended from Hugh  Capet in the 13th
degree, gave some distinguished princes
to Provence.   In the  same degree,  the
younger line  of the powerful dukes  of
Burgundy derived its  origin from him.
This Une became extinct with  the  death
of Charles the Bold, in  1477, whose suc-
cessor, Maria, married Maximilian, arch-
duke of Austria, and became grandmother
of Charles V.   All these Unes, with  the
exception  of  that of Burgundy, are  de-
scended from Anna Jaroslawna, a Russian
princess, wife of Henry  I, in 1051.  Rob-
ert, earl  of Clermont, second son  of St.
Louis,  manied Beatrice, duchess  of B.
In this way, the city of  B. l'Archambaud,
or B. les  Bains,  in the department  of
AUier (formerly Bourbonnais), became the
birthplace of the house of B., and Loins
I, duke of B., son of Robert and Beatrice,
its founder.  Two branches took their or-
igin from the  two sons of this Louis duke
of B., who died in 1341.  The elder Une
was  that of the dukes of B., which be-
came extinct at the death of the constable
of B., in 1527, in  the assault of the city
of Rome. The  younger was that  of the
counts of La Marche,  afterwards counts
and  dukes  of  Vendome.    Of  these,
Charles duke of Vendome, who died in
1537, had  two  sons,  who  became  the 
BOURBON.
223
founders of the foUowing lines.  Anthony
of Navane,  father of Henry  IV,  is the
origin of tbe royal house of B.; the el-
der line of  which governs France, and
branches of the same rule in Spain (since
1701),  in  the  Two  Sicilies  (where  a
branch  of the  Spanish Bourbons was
established in 1735), and in Lucca (Par-
ma was ceded to the last branch in  1748);
the younger Une  is the ducal house of
Orleans.  From the other son, Louis,  is
derived the ducal family of Conde,  which
is divided  into  the houses of Conde and of
Conti.   The French revolution overthrew
the house  of Capet from 1792 to 1814 in
France; from 1808 to 1814  in Spain;
from 1806 to 1815  in Naples;  from 1801
to 1817 in Parma; and also  in Etruria,
where a Bourbon ruled, by means  of Na-
poleon, from 1801  to 1807.  The  throne
of Ferdinand IV alone was upheld by the
English at Palermo.  After the fall  of Na-
poleon, in 1814, the Bourbons succeeded
again  to  the  throne  of  France.   The
histoiy of the Bourbon race is  connected
with a great part of the history of Europe.
  We  shall  here give a general view of
the family  of B.   After  the  death  of
Charles IV the Fair, the  last of the old
branch  of the  Capets, in 1328, the house
of Valois  came to the throne in the per-
son of Philip  IV.  This house became
extinct, in 1589, by the murder of  Henry
III.  Henry IV of B.  (king of Navarre),
a descendant of Louis I, duke of B., in
the  eighth  degree,  succeeded to the
throne by  right of inheritance, and main-
tained his power  by his  own personal
greatness.  His father, Anthony, had ob-
tained the kingdom of Navarre through
his wife,  who inherited  it,  and  Henry
now added  it to the French dominions.
Anthony's younger brother, Louis, prince
of Conde, was the founder of the  line of
Conde. There were, therefore, two chief
branches of the Bourbons—the royal, and
that of Conde.   The  royal branch was
divided by the two sons  of Louis XIII,
the elder of whom, Louis XIV, continued
the  chief branch, which,  under his de-
scendants Louis (the dauphin) and  Philip
V, was separated into the elder or royal
French branch, and the younger or royal
Spanish  branch;   whilst the younger,
Philip I,  founded the  house of Orleans,
when  he  received  the duchy of Orleans
from Louis XIV.   The kings of the elder
or French line of the house of B. run in
this way:—Henry IV, Louis XIII, XIV,
XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, and Charles X.
(For the kings  of  the  younger royal
branch, see Spain.)—The house  of  B.
consisted,  in  1826,  of  the  following
branches and  members:—A. The royal
French line.   1. Charles X (q. v.);  2. his
son,  Louis Anthony, dauphin, duke of
Angouleme (q. v.) ;  3. the dauphiness,
daughter of  Louis XVI, Maria  Theresa
Charlotte, bom Dec. 19, 1778;  4.  Caro-
line Ferdinande Louise, born 1793, wid-
ow of the duke of Berri, second son of
the present king Charles X, murdered in
1820, has  a  daughter, Louise, mademoi-
selle  de Fiance, born Sept. 21, 1819, and
a son, Henry, duke of Bourdeaux, born
Sept. 29, 1820, petit-fils de  France, heii
apparent, by whose birth the house of
Orleans have  lost tlieir chance  of suc-
ceeding to  the throne  of  France. In
1826, Charles  X  appointed  the  duke of
Riviere his governor, the bishop of Stras-
burg, Tharin, a friend of the Jesuits, his
instructer, and the counts  Maupas and
Barbancois assistant instructers.—B. The
house of Bourbon  in Spain, and its branch
in Italy, founded by Philip V, second
grandson of  Louis XIV.  (This Une, by
compact, stands, in the order of succes-
sion to the throne of France, next after
that  of Orleans.)  I. The  children  of
Charles IV, king of Spain (died at Naples,
Jan. 19, 1819), and his wife, Maria Louisa
of Parma (died at Rome, Jan. 2,  1819).
These are as follows:  1. Charlotte, born
1775, queen-dowager of Portugal, whose
son, Peter of Alcantara, now emperor of
Brazil, married Leopoldine, second daugh-
ter of Francis I,  emperor of Austria; 2.
the  son of  his daughter Maria Louisa,
queen-dowager of Etruria (died March
13, 1824), Charles Louis, bora at Madrid,
1799, duke of Lucca (afterwards of Par-
ma), who married the second daughter
of Victor  Emanuel, former king of Sar
dinia, and by her had a son, Ferdinand,
Jan. 14, 1823;  3. Ferdinand VII (q. v.),
king of  Spain;  4.  Charles, infant  of
Spain, born 1788,  lives at Madrid, mar-
ried Maria Francisca, third daughter of
the late king of Portugal, who has borne
him  two  sons—Charles, born Jan. 31,
1818, and Ferdinand, Oct 19, 1824;  5.
IsabeUa, bora 1789, second wife of Fran-
cis I, king of  the SiciUes, had five sons
and  six daughters ;  6. Francis  of  Paula,
infant of  Spain,  born at Madrid,  1794,
married, in  1819, his niece, Louisa, sec-
ond daughter of  Francis I, king  of the
Two Sicilies, by bis second wife, Isabella:
he has  had two  sons—Francis, duke of
Cadiz, born  at Madrid, May  18,1822, and
Charles, duke of Seville, bora June 12,
1824. II. Brothers  of Charles IV.  1.
Ferdinand I,  king of the Two SiciUes 
224
BOURBON.
 (q. v.), died Jan. 4, 1825.  His children
 by his first wife, Caroline of Austria, are,
 a. the present  king, Francis I,  whose
 daughter, by his first maniage with Clem-
 entina of Austria, is Caroline, widow of
 the  duke  of  Berri and  mother  of the
 duke of Bourdeaux; b. Christina, wife of
 Charles Felix, who became king of Sar-
 dinia in 1821; c. Amalie, wife of the duke
 of Orleans, Louis Philip, mother of nine
 living children;  d. Leopold, prince of
 Salerno, married Maria Clementina, third
 daughter of the emperor Francis I.  2.
 Gabriel Anthony Francis Xaver, infant of
 Spain, died in 1788 ;  his son Peter mar-
 ried Theresa, eldest daughter of the king
 of Portugal, died in 1812, at Rio Janeiro,
 leaving a son, Sebastian Maria, infant of
 Spain, born in 1811.  From the maniage
 of the brother of Charles HI, Louis Antho-
 ny Jacob, with Theresa of Ballabriga and
 Drummond, duchess of Chinchon, daugh-
 ter of an Arragonian captain of infantry,
 have sprung, don Louis Maria of Bour-
 bon, archbishop of Toledo; Caroline Jo-
 sephine Antoine, wife of  don Manuel
 Godoy, prince  of peace; and Maria Lou-
 isa of Bourbon, who married, in 1817, the
 duke of San Fernando, grandee of Spain.
—C. The collateral branch of the royal
 French line of Bourbon-Orleans, which,
 by the revolution, lost the peerage of that
 name, and which derives  its origin from
 Philip I, brother of Louis XIV, is the fol-
 lowing:  1. Louis Philip, duke of Bour-
 bon-Orleans, bom 1773 (see Orleans); 2.
 Eugenie  Adelaide Louise, mademoiselle
 d'Orleans, sister of the duke of Orleans,
 bom  1777.—D.  Of the  line of Conde,
 second branch of the  house of B., the
 following individuals,  of the  branch  of
 Bourbon-Conde, were living in 1826:—
 Louis Henry Joseph, duke of B., son of
 Louis Joseph, duke of B., prince of Con-
 de (see Conde), who died  in  1818.  (His
sister  Louise Adelaide, princess of Cond6,
 born in 1757, lived in England, in a con-
 vent  at Norfolk ; in 1768, was abliess at
 Remiremont; entered a convent at Turin
in 1795; became, in December, 1816, di-
rectress of a convent  at  Paris, and died
March 10,  1824.)  Charles  Charolois,
prince of Conde, had two natural daugh-
ters, afterwards legitimated, one of whom,
 Charlotte Margaret  Elisabeth, mademoi-
selle de Bourbon,  married the count  of
 Lowendahl, now Danish major-general.
The  second branch, Bourbon-Conti, be-
 came  extinct by the death of Louis Fran-
 cis Joseph of B., prince of Conti, March
 13,1814.  In 1815, Louis XVIII granted
 his two natural sons, the lords of Hatton-
 ville  and Removille, permission to as
 sume the name and  arms of Bourbon-
 Conti.  The countess of Mont-Cair-Zaim,
 Gabrielle Louisa, is considered as the nat-
 ural daughter of prince Louis of Bour-
 bon-Conti.  She was a knight of the order
 of the Holy Ghost, belonged  to the le-
 gion of honor, and died at Paris, 70 years
 of age, March 29, 1825.   She served in a
 regiment of dragoons  with  honor for
 some time.  Gothe has taken the materi-
 als for his Eugenia, the Natural Daughter,
 from the biography of this lady, published
 in 1798.  (See Histoire du Bourbonnais et
 des Bourbons, by Coiffier Demoret, mem-
 ber  of the  chamber  of  deputies, Paris,
 1818,  2 vols.; and Achaintre's Histoire
 chronologique et genealogique de la Maison
 royale  de Bourbon, Paris, 1824, 2  vols.)
 The Memoires relatifs a la Famille royale
 de France pendant  la  Revolution, publies
 d'apres le Journal,  8fc. de la Princesse  de
 Lamballe (Paris, 1826,  2 vols.), is, through-
 out, a miserable work.
  Bourbon, Charles, duke of, or consta-
 ble  of Bourbon, son of Gilbert, count of
 Montpensier, and Clara of Gonzaga, was
 born in 1489; received from Francis I, in
 the 26th year of his  age, the  sword of
 constable.  By the coolness  with which
 he  faced death in posts  of the greatest
 hazard, he excited  the admiration of his
 fellow-soldiers.   When viceroy of Milan,
 he won all hearts  by  his  frankness and
 affability.  His fame was not yet tarnish-
 ed, when the injustice of his king depriv-
 ed him of his offices, banished  him from
 France, and brought the family of Bour-
 bon into disgrace, in which state it  con-
tinued  until the  conclusion of the reign
 of Henry III.  Some historians declare,
that the duchess of Angouleme,  mother
 of Francis I, had fallen in love with the
young  constable, and could  not endure
the contempt with  which he treated her
passion:  others relate, that, influenced by
avaricious motives, she laid claim to the
 estates of Charles  of B., and obtained
possession of them by a judicial process.
Whatever may be  the true cause of her
 conduct, it is  certain  that she strove to
invalidate a formal donation of Louis XII.
The constable, enraged at seeing himself
deprived of his estates by the mother of
the  king whom  he had  served with so
much fidelity  and  zeal, Ustened to the
proposals made him by  Charles  V  and
the  king of England. He experienced
the usual fate of deserters: he was well
received while his services were needed,
but narrowly watched  to secure his fidel-
 ity.  Exposed as he was  to the  contempt 
BOURBON—BOURDALOUE.
225
of the Spanish nobility, and the jealousy
of the generals of Charles V, nothing re-
mained  to him but  his courage and re-
pentance.  His abiUty, however, induced
the emperor to  bestow  upon  him the
command of an  army, and to  treat him
with honor.   He was already beyond the
confines of France, when Francis I sent to
demand the sword which he bore as con-
stable, and the badge of his  order.  His
answer displays the anguish of his heart—
" The king  took from me my sword at
Valenciennes, when he gave to d'Alencon
the command of the vanguard,  which be-
longed to me: the badge of my order I
left under my pillow at Chantelles."  His
flight was a misfortune to France;  the
expedition of Francis into Italy was ar-
rested.  Having  been appointed to the
command of the  imperial troops, he made
an unsuccessful attack upon Marseilles, but
contributed greatly to the victory of Pavia.
When Francis was carried a prisoner to
Madrid, he went there in person, that he
might not be forgotten in the treaties be-
tween the two monarchs ; but  Charles V
delayed concluding them, and  B. discov-
ered that he could not trust the emperor,
who had even promised  him his sister in
marriage.  Compelled to smother his re-
sentment, he returned to Milan, maintain-
ed possession of Italy by the terror of his
arms, and obtained so much authority as
to  become an object of suspicion to the
emperor, who, in order to weaken  him,
refused  to grant  him the necessary sup-
plies. In order to prevent the  dispersion
of his army, he led the soldiers to the
siege of Rome, the plunder of which city
he promised them.  He was the first to
mount the breach, and was killed, May 6,
1527, by a ball, shot, it is said, by Benve-
nuto Cellini. He died excommunicated,
without issue, in  the 38th year of his age.
His  body being  conveyed to Gaeta, his
soldiers erected over it a splendid monu-
ment, which was afterwards destroyed.
   Bourbon, Louis,  cardinal and  arch-
bishop of Toledo ; born 1777 ;  son of the
infant Louis, brother of king Charles III
of Spain, and the duchess of  Chinchon.
The marriage was concluded  with  the
royal assent: nevertheless, it was doubt-
ed, after the death of Charles III, wheth-
er the prince would be lawful heir to the
throne,  if a male descendant of the old
line should   be  wanting.  He  therefore
entered  the  church, and a cardinal's hat
was given to him in 1800.  After the im-
prisonment of Ferdinand VII at Valencay,
he joined the party of the cortes, and be-
came very  influential.  He offered, in
1814, the constitution  of the  cortes to
Ferdinand VII for his signature; and, the
king having altered his determination, B.
lost his favor, and  was deprived of the
archbishopric of Seville.  After the events
which  took place on the insurrection of
the army at the  island of Leon, he engag-
ed in the revolution, and was  president
of the provisional junta before which the
king swore, at Madrid, March 9, 1820, to
abide by the constitution of the cortes of
1812.  He died  March 19, 1823.
  Bourbon, Isle of; situated in the In-
dian ocean, about 400 miles east of Mad-
agascar ; lat.  20° 51' S.;  lon. 55° 207 E.
It is 48 miles long and 36 broad.  It was
discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese,
in 1545, who  called  it by his own name.
The French took possession of it in 1649,
and gave it the name of B. At different
periods of  the  revolution, it was called
Reunion and Bonaparte.   It was captur-
ed by the English in 1810, and restored
to France in 1815.  The population con-
sists of 17,000 whites, 6,000 free Negroes,
and 60,000 slaves.  Its commerce is im-
peded by the  want of good harbors.  The
principal articles of export  are coffee,
sugar, rice, tobacco, spices, indigo, pepper,
maize,  &c.   The  coffee  was  brought
from Mocha, and is of an excellent quali-
ty.   The capital is  St Denis, a pretty
town, with about 8000 inhabitants.  The
heat is  excessive from November to April;
the evenings,  however, are refreshed  by
the sea-breezes, and the mornings by the
land-breezes.  The island  is  of volcanic
origin,  and seems to be composed of two
enormous volcanic mountains, in  one of
which the fire is extinct: the other is still
in activity.  The loftiest summit, le Pitou
de Neige, or  the Snowy  Spike, is about
10,000  feet above the level of the sea.
  Bourbonnais ; a province and govern-
ment of Old France, with the  title, first
of a county, and afterwards of a duchy,
lying between the  Nivernais, Berry and
Burgundy.   It now forms the department
of the  Allien  It derived its name from
the small town of Bourbon l'Archambaud,
from which the reigning family of France
and  the dukes  of Bourbon also received
their title.  (See Bourbon.)
  Bourdaloue, Louis, the reformer of
the pulpit, and founder of genuine pulpit
eloquence in  France, was born  at Bour-
ges,  in  1632, and was 16 years old when
he entered the society of Jesuits.  His in-
structers successively intrusted to him the
chairs  of polite letters, rhetoric, philoso-
phy and moral  theology.  In  1669,  he
entered the pulpit, and extended his rep- 
226
BOURDALOUE—BOURDEAUX.
utation by attacking, with a powerful and
religious eloquence,  free  from the bad
taste  of the age, the passions, vices and
enors of mankind.  The dignity of his
deUvery and the fire of his language made
him distinguished amidst the victories of
Turenne and the  feasts  of  Versailles,
among the  master-spirits of the arts and
of Uterature, in the time of CorneiUe and
Racine.  Louis XIV invited  him, at the
time of Advent, in 1670, to preach before
the court, and B.  acquitted himself with
so much success,  that he  afterwards re-
ceived invitations  at 10  different  times.
After the  repeal  of the edict of Nantes,
he was sent to Languedoc, in order to ex-
plain  to the Protestants the doctrines of
the CathoUc faith, and he succeeded  in
this difficult  business in reconciling the
dignity  of  his office with the rights of
mankind.   In  his latter days, he  re-
nounced the pulpit, and devoted himself
to the care of hospitals, prisons and re-
ligious institutions. He well  knew how
to accommodate his manner to the ca-
pacity of those to whom he gave instruc-
tion,  advice  or consolation.   With the
simple, he was simple; with  the learned,
he was  a scholar; with free-thinkers, he
was a logician ; and came off  successful
in all  those contests in which the love of
his neighbor, reUgious zeal, and the duties
of his office, involved him.  Beloved alike
by  all, he  exercised authority over the
minds of all; and  no consideration could
make him  give up his openness and in-
tegrity of character.  He  died in  1704.
His sermons have been  translated into
several languages.
  Bourdeaux (lon. 0° 34' W.; lat 44°
50' 14" N.),  in the Bordelais district of the
ancient  Guyenne  or Aquitania, the me-
tropolis  of trade and chief city  in the de-
partment of the Gironde, and the head of
an arrondissement containing 13 cantons,
1632  square miles, and 223,863 inhabit-
ants, Ues on the left bank of the Garonne,
and is connected  with  the opposite side
by  the  new bridge  erected  by  Louis
XVIII, 700 feet long, and supported by
17 arches, 16 leagues from the  mouth of
the river.   It numbers 7800 houses and
100,000  inhabitants. It is an antique and
gloomy city, having 19 gates, 12 of which
lead to  the  river, and 7 to the adjacent
country; also 2 suburbs (Les Chartrons
and St.  Severin), splendid  pubUc places,
deUghtful   promenades,   46  Catholic
churches and 1 Protestant. Among the
buildings deserving of mention are the
cathedrals,  the council-house  of Lam-
briere (in which the ancient  dukes of
Guyenne resided, and the parliament af-
terwards held its sessions), the exchange,
the hotel desfermes, the theatre, the Vaux-
hall, the palace built by Bonaparte in
1810, and a newly invented mill, with 24
sets of stones, put in motion wholly by
the ebb and flow of the  tide.   B. is en-
circled by walls and strong towers.  The
small fortifications of Haa and St. Louis,
or  St. Croix, and the stronger  works of
the chateau Trompette, protect the  harbor,
which is entered without difficulty by the
largest  merchant-vessels during the flow
of  the tide, which sometimes rises to the
height of 12 feet; but it has been unfortu-
nately injured by  the accumulation of
sand.  B. has more  than 900 merchant-
ships.   It exports, on an average, 100,000
hogsheads of wine, and 20,000 of French
brandy. Other articles of export are vine-
gar, dried fruits, ham, firewood, turpen-
tine,  glass bottles,  cork, honey,  &c
Among the articles of import are colonial
wares, British tin, lead, copper and coal,
dye-stuffs,  timber, pitch, hemp, leather,
henings, salted meat, cheese, &c.  B.  has
the greatest share of any city in France,
except Nantes, in the French and Ameri-
can trade.  It  contains a bank, an  insur-
ance company, &c.  Its  fairs, in  March
and October, are of the  utmost import-
ance  to  all  the  west of France.   Its
merchants carry on  the whale  and cod
fisheries through the harbors of Bayonne,
St. Jesm de Luce,  and St Malo.   B. is
the seat of an archbishop, a Protestant
consistory,  a  prefect, and of the com-
mander-in-chief of the 11th division of
the militia.  It has a royal court  of jus-
tice, a chamber of commerce, a commer-
cial court,  a university  (established in
1441), an academy  of sciences (instituted
in 1712, which  has a library  of more
than 55,000 volumes), an academy  of fine
arts (founded in 1670, and renewed in
1768), a museum, a lyceum, a Linnaean
society,  an  institution for the education
of the deaf and dumb, a school  of trade
and navigation, &c.   The most important
manufactories are 14 sugar-houses, several
glass-houses, potteries, manufactories of
woollen and lace.   B. is the Burdigala of
the  Romans.  In the 5th  century,  it  was
in the possession  of the Goths,  and at
length pillaged and  burnt by the Nor-
mans.   By the marriage of Eleonora,
daughter of William X, the last duke of
Guyenne, to Louis  VII,  it fell  into the
hands of France.  But, in 1152, the prin-
cess was repudiated by her husband, and
afterwards  united in  marriage with the
duke  of Normandy, who ascended the 
BOURDEAUX—BOURSAULT.
227
 throne of England, and transferred B. to
 that crown.  After the battle of Poictiers,
 Edward, the black  prince, carried John,
 king of France, prisoner to B., where he
 resided 11 years.  Under Charles VII, in
 1451, it was restored again  to  France.
 In 1548, the citizens rebelled on  account
 of a tax on salt, and the governor De Mo-
 rems was  put  to death, for which  the
 constable  of Montmorency inflicted  se-
 vere  punishment on  the city.   During
 die  revolution,  it was devastated as  the
 rendezvous of the Girondists, by the  ter-
 rorists, almost as completely as Lyons  and
 Marseilles.  The oppressiveness of  the
 continental system to the trade of B. made
 the inhabitants  disaffected to the govern-
 ment of Napoleon,  so that they were the
 first to declare  for the house of Bourbon,
 March  12th, 1814.   The  Roman poet
 Ausonius was a native of B.  Montaigne
 and Montesquieu were born in the neigh-
 boring countiy, and the latter lies buried
 there in the church of St Bernard. (For
 the wines of Bourdeaux, see Bordelais.)
  Bourdon,  Sebastian;  a  celebrated
 French painter, born  at MontpelUer, in
 1616.  Being poor  and without  occupa-
 tion, he enlisted  as a soldier.  After re-
 ceiving his dismission, he  visited Italy,
 and studied  under Sacchi  and Claude
 Loname.   In 1652, he was driven from
 the  French kingdom  by  the  religious
 troubles.  He afterwards became distin-
 guished in  his  own  country  by  many
 great works, among which  are  the  fol-
 lowing:—the Dead Christ, the Adulter-
 ess,  the Old  Kings of Burgundy in the
 Senate-house at Aix.  He had no  pecu-
 liar manner, but he  imitated others.  He
 was a good engraver on copper.   He died
 in 1671, while  engaged in painting  the
 ceiUng of the Tuileries.
  Bourges ; a  city of France, formerly
 the capital of the province of Berri, now
 of the department  of the Cher, with a
 population of  16,350  inhabitants.  The
 cathedral  is one of  the finest Gothic
 structures  in France.  The pragmatic
 sanction (q. v.)  was published at B. by
 Charles VII.  Louis XI was born  there,
 and  founded its university in 1465.   It
 now contains one of the 26 academies of
 the university of France.  There are some
 manufactures of silk, woollen stuffs, cot-
 tons and stockings in the city  and its
 neighborhood, which  are disposed of at
 its  annual  fairs.    The inhabitants  are
 principally supported  by the nobility  and
students who reside in the town.   It was
anciently caUed  Avaricum, and afterwards
Bituriga, and was one of the most  an-
cient and best fortified cities of GauL   It
lies 155 miles S. of Paris ; lat. 47° 3 N.;
lon. 2° 23' E.
  Bourgogne.   (See Burgundy.)
  Bourignon, Antoinette;  a celebrated
reUgious fanatic, born in 1616, at Lille,
daughter of a merchant  At her birth,
she was so deformed, that a  consultation
was held whether it would not be proper
to destroy her as a monster.   She made
herself famous by her restless manner of
Ufe, her wanderings through France, Ger-
many and Denmark, and by her  fanati-
cism.   A  collection  of her  authentic
works, in which she displays an animated
eloquence, was pubUshed at Amsterdam,
in 1686, in 21 volumes.
  Boursault, Edme, was born  in 1638,
at Muci-1'Eveque, in the province of Bur-
gundy, grew up without education, and
went, in  1651, to Paris, without under-
standing any thing but his own provin-
cial patois.  Here  he learned to  speak
and write French, and improved so fast,
that the composition of a book for the in-
struction of the dauphin  was committed
to him.  This work, La Veritable Etude
des Souverains, pleased the king so  much,
that he appointed B. assistsmt instructer
of his  son.  B. decUned  the office,  and
also refused to offer himself as  a  candi-
date for admission  into the academy, on
account of his ignorance of Latin.  In his
youth, he undertook a poetical gazette,
with which  the king and court were so
much pleased, that an annuity of 2000
livres  was granted him.  But, happening
to satirize, in this work, a ludicrous adven-
ture, which had befallen a Capuchin, the
confessor of the queen caused the journal
to be suppressed, and B. himself escaped
the  Bastile only by the influence  of the
prince of Conde.   Another journal of his
was suppressed soon after, on account of
a satirical couplet on king WilUam, with
whom the French court then wished to
negotiate.  He was more  fortunate in his
writings for the  stage, and many  of his
pieces  met   with  permanent  success;
among  others,  Esope  a la  VUle,  and
Esope a la Cour, which still  continue on
the stage.   His two tragedies Marie Stu-
art and Germanicus are forgotten.  B. had
the  misfortune to quarrel with Moliere
and BoUeau.  He  wrote a severe criti-
cism on the Ecole des Femmes, under the
title of Le Portrait du Pdntre.  Moliere
chastised him in his Impromptu de Ver-
sailles.  To revenge himself on Boileau,
who had ridiculed  him in his satires, he
wrote a comedy called Satyre des Satyres;
but Boileau prevented its performance. 
228
BOURSAULT—BOW.
B. afterwards took a noble revenge.  He
heard that Boileau  was at the baths of
Bourbonne entirely destitute: he hasten-
ed to him, and compelled him to accept a
loan of2001ouis d'ors.  Touched by this
generous  conduct,  Boileau struck his
name from his satires.  B. died at Mont-
lucon, in 1701.
  Boustrophedon ;  a kind of writing
which is found on Greek coins and in in-
scriptions of the remotest antiquity.  The
lines do not run in a uniform direction
from the left to the right, or  from the
right to the left; but the first begins at
the left, and terminates at the right; the
second  runs  in  an  opposite direction,
from the  right to the left;  the third,
again, from the left, and so on alternately.
It is called boustrophedon (that is, turning
back like oxen) because the Unes written
in this way succeed each other  like fur-
rows in a ploughed field.   The laws of
Solon were cut in tables in this manner.
  Bouterwek, Erederic,  professor  of
moral philosophy at Gottingen, a man of
much merit as an academical instructer
and a writer on literature, was born April
15, 1766, at Oker, a village not far  from
Goslar, in North Germany.  After apply-
ing himself to many departments of learn-
ing, jurisprudence, poetry, &c, he at last
became entirely devoted to philosophy
and literary history.  He  was  at first a
follower of Kant,  but  finally attached
himself to Jacobi.  His Idee einer Apo-
dikiik was the immediate fruit of his inti-
mate acquaintance with the philosophical
views of Fr. H. Jacobi.  This work was
published in two volumes, 1799.  It was
afterwards completed  by  the Manual of
Philosophical Knowledge  (two volumes,
1613;  2d edition, 1820), and by the Re-
Ugion of Reason  (Gottingen,  1824).  In
this work, as  well as in his Asthetik, two
vols., 1806 and 1824, he had to contend
with many powerful antagonists.  B. has
gained  a permanent  reputation by  his
History  of Modern  Poetry  and  Elo-
quence,  published  1801—1821, a  work
which, though unequal in some respects,
and in parts, especially in the first volume,
partial and superficial, is an excellent col-
lection  of notices  and original observa-
tions, and may be considered one of the
best works of the kind in German litera-
ture.   Among his minor  productions,  a
selection of which he published in 1818,
are many essays, which  are superior to
the best of his larger speculative works;
for instance,  the introduction to the His-
tory, in which he gives an account of his
Uterary  labors until  that period,  with
great candor, and  with almost excessive
severity against himself.  B. died in 1828.
His  history of Spanish literature has
been translated into Spanish, French and
English.
  Bouts Rimes (French); words or syl-
lables which rhyme, arranged in a partic-
ular  order, and given to a poet with a
subject, on which  he must write verses
ending in the same rhymes, disposed in
the same  order.   Menage gives the fol-
lowing account of the origin of this  ridic-
ulous conceit, which may be classed with
the eggs and axes, the echoes, acrostics,
and  other equally ingenious  devices of
learned triflers.  " Dulot (a  poet of the
17th century) was one day complaining,
in a large company, that 300 sonnets hod
been stolen from him.  One of the com-
pany expressing his astonishment at the
number,' Oh,' said he,' they are blank son-
nets, or rhymes (bouts  rimes) of all the
sonnets I  may have occasion to write.'
This ludicrous statement produced such
an effect,  that it  became  a fashionable
amusement  to compose blank sonnets,
and, in 1648, a 4to. volume of bouts  rimes
was published."  Sarrazin's Dulot Vain-
cu, ou la Defaite des Bouts Rimes,  is an
amusing performance.
  Bow ; the name of one  of the  most
ancient and universal weapons of offence.
It is  made of steel, wood, horn or  other
elastic substance, which, after being bent
by means  of a string fastened to its two
ends, in  returning to  its  natural  state,
throws out  an anow with great  force.
The figure of the bow is nearly the same
in all countries, having generally two in-
flexions,  between  which, in the  place
where the anow is fixed, is a right line.
The  Grecian bow was nearly in the form
of the letter 2: in drawing it, the  hand
was brought back to the right breast, and
not to the ear. The Scythian bow was
distinguished  for its  remarkable curva-
ture,  which  was nearly  semicircular;
that of the modern Tartars  is similar to
it* The materials of bows have been dif-
ferent in  different countries.  The Per-
sians and Indians made them  of  reeds.
The  Lycian  bows were  made of the
coniel-tree ; those of the Ethiopians, of
the palm-tree.  That of Pandarus (II. iv,
104) was made from the hom of a moun-
tain goat, 16 palms in length : the  string
was an ox-hide thong.   The  horn of the
antelope is still used for the same purpose
in the East The  long-bow was the favor-
ite national  weapon in England.  The
battles of Cressy (1346), Poictiers  (1356)
and Agincourt (1415) were won by this 
BOW—BOWDICH.                         229
weapon.   It was made of yew, ash, &c,
of the height of the archer.   The anow
being usually half the length of the bow,
the cloth-yard was only employed by a
man  six  feet high.   The  arbalist, or
cross-bow, was a popular weapon with
the Italians,  and  was  introduced  into
England  in  the  13th  centuiy.  The  ar-
rows  shot from  it were called quarrels.
The bolt was used with both kinds of
bows.  Of the power of the bow, and the
distance to which  it will carry, some  re-
markable  anecdotes are related.   Xeno-
phon  mentions an Arcadian  whose head
was shot through by a Carduchian archer.
Stuart (Ath. Ant. i.) mentions a random
shot of a Turk, which he found to  be 584
yards; and  Mr.  Strutt saw the Turkish
ambassador shoot 480 yards in the arch-
ery ground  near Bedford square.   Lord
Bacon speaks of a Turkish  bow  which
has been known to pierce a steel  target,
or a piece of brass, two inches thick.  In
the journal of king Edward VI, it is men-
tioned, diat  100 archers of  the  king's
guard shot at an  inch  board, and  that
some  of the arrows passed through this
and into another board  behind it, although
the wood  was extremely sohd and firm.
It has been  the custom of many  savage
nations  to poison their arrows.   This
practice is mentioned  by Homer and  the
ancient historians; and we  have many
similar accounts  of modern travellers and
navigators from almost every part of the
world.  Some of these stories  are  of
doubtful  authority, but  others are well
authenticated. Some poison, obtained by
Condamine  from South American  sav-
ages,  produced instantaneous death in  an-
imals inoculated with it.  The poisoned
arrows used in Guiana are not shot from a
bow,  but  blown  through a tube.  They
are made of the hard substance  of the
cokarito-tree, and are about  a foot long,
and of the size of a knitting-needle. One
end is sharply pointed, and dipped in the
poison of wooraia: the other is adjusted
to the cavity of the reed, from which it is
to be blown, by a roll of cotton.  The
reed  is several feet in length.  A single
breath carries the  anow 30 or 40 yards.
(See Bancroft's History of Guiana.)
  Bow, in music, is the name of that well
known implement by the means of which
the tone is  produced from viols, vioUns
and other  instruments of that kind.  It is
made of a thin staff of elastic wood, taper-
ing slightly till it reaches  the lower end,
to which the hairs (about 80 or 100 horse-
hairs] are  fastened, and  with which  the
bow is strung.  At the upper  end is an
  vol. n.          20
ornamented piece of wood or ivory, call-
ed the nut, and  fastened with a screw,
which serves  to  regulate the tension of
the hairs.   It  is evident that the size and
construction of the bow must conespond
with the size of the species of viol-instru-
ments from which the tone is to be pro-
duced.
  Bow Instruments are all the instru-
ments strung  with cat-gut or goat-gut,
from  which the  tones  are produced  by
means of the  bow.  The most  usual are
the double  bass (violono or contrabasso);
the small  bass, or moloncello;  the tenor
(viola di braccio); and  the violin proper
(violino, from  violon).  In  reference to
their  construction, the  several parts are
alike: the difference is  in the size.  (See
Violin and  Quartett.)
  Bowdich,  Thomas  Edward; an in-
genious and enterprising man; one of the
victims of the attempts to explore the in-
terior of the African continent.  He was
bom  at Bristol, in June, 1793, and  was
sent  to Oxford, but was never regularly
matriculated.   At an early age, he marri-
ed, and engaged in trade at Bristol.  Find-
ing the details of business irksome, he
obtained the appointment of writer in the
service of the African company.  In 1816,
he arrived at Cape Coast Castle.  It being
thought desirable  to send an embassy to
the Negro king of Ashantee, B. was cho-
sen to conduct it; and  he executed with
success the duties of his situation.  After
remaining two years in Africa, he return-
ed home, and soon after  published  his
Mission to Ashantee, with a  Statistical
Account of that Kingdom, and Geograph-
ical Notices of other Parts of the Interior
of Africa  (1819, 4to.)   Having  offended
the company  in  whose service he had
been  engaged, and having therefore no
prospect  of   further   employment, yet
wishing ardently  to return to  Africa for
the purpose of visiting  its hitherto unex-
plored regions, B. resolved to  make the
attempt with  such assistance as he could
obtain from   private   individuals.   He,
however,  previously went to Paris,  to
improve his acquaintance with physical
and mathematical science.  His reception
from  the  French Uterati was  extremely
flattering.   A  public  eulogium was  pro-
nounced on him at a meeting  of the in-
stitute, and an advantageous appointment
was offered him by the French govern-
ment To obtain funds for the prosecu-
tion  of his favorite project, B. also pub-
lished a translation of Mollier's Travels to
the Sources of the Senegal  and Gambia,
and  other works; by  the sale of which 
230
BOWDICH—BOYDELL.
he  was enabled, with a little assistance
from other persons, to make preparations
for his second African expedition.  He
sailed from Havre in August, 1822, and
arrived in safety in the river Gambia.  A
disease, occasioned by fatigue and anxie-
ty of mind, here put an end to his life,
Jan. 10, 1824.   B. is said to have been a
profound classic and linguist, an excellent
mathematician, well versed in most of the
physical sciences, in ancient and modern
histoiy, and in polite literature.  He was
a member of several literary societies in
England and abroad.
  Bowdoin, James, a governor of Massa-
chusetts, born, in the year 1727, at Boston,
was the son of an eminent merchant.  He
was graduated, in 1745,  at Cambridge
(N.  E.).   In 1753, he was elected a repre-
sentative to  the general  court, and, in
1756, became a member of the council.
In this situation he continued until 1769,
when he was negatived by governor Ber-
nard, on account of his  decided whig
principles, but  afterwards  accepted  by
Hutchinson, because  he thought his in-
fluence more prejudicial " in the house of
representatives than at the council board."
In consequence of his being a member of
the  committee who prepared the answer
to the governor's speeches, which assert-
ed  the right  of Great Britain to tax the
colonies, he was negatived  by  governor
Gage, in the  year  1774.  In  the same
year, he was elected a delegate to the first
congress, which was to meet at Philadel-
phia, but was  prevented from  attending
by the state of his health.  His place was
afterwards filled by  Mr. Hancock.   In
1775, he was  moderator of the  meeting
in which  the inhabitants  consented to
deliver up their arms to general Gage, on
condition of receiving permission  to de-
part from the  city  unmolested, which
agreement, however, was violated by the
British commanders.  Shortly  after, he
was appointed chief of the Massachusetts
council, and, in 1778, was  chosen presi-
dent of the convention which formed the
constitution of that state.   In  1785, he
was appointed governor  of Massachu-
setts, and had the good fortune to crush,
without a single execution, an  insurrec-
tionary  movement against  the govern-
ment  Governor  B.  was  a member of
the  convention of Massachusetts assem-
bled to deUberate on  the adoption of the
constitution of the U. States, and exerted
himself in its favor.   He was ever an ar-
dent lover of learning and science, and a
benefactor to others of the same character.
The university of  Edinburgh  honored
him with the degree of doctor of laws,
and the royal  societies of Dublin and
London, with several other foreign socie-
ties, admitted him among their members.
He was the first president of the academy
of arts and sciences, which was establish-
ed, in 1780, at Boston, in a great measure
through his influence and exertions, and
to which he contributed  several papers,
printed in the first volume of their Trans-
actions.  His letters to doctor FrankUn
have  likewise been pubUshed.  He died
at Boston, in 1790.
   Bower.   (See Anchor.)
   Box-tree.  The box-tree (buxus-sem-
pervirens) is a shrubby evergreen-tree, 12
or 15 feet high, which has small, oval and
opposite leaves, and grows wdd in several
parts  of Britain.  It has been remarked,
that this tree was formerly so common in
some parts of England, as to have  given
name  to several  places,  particularly to
Box-hUl in  Surry, and Boxley in Kent;
and, in 1815,  there were  cut down, at
Box-hill, as many trees of this sort as
produced upwards of  £10,000.   This
tree was much admired by the  ancient
Romans, and has been much cultivated,
in later times, on  account of its being
easily clipped  into the fonn of animals
and other fantastic shapes.   The wood is
of a yellowish color, close-grained, very
hard and heavy, and admits of a beautiful
polish.  On  these  accounts, it is much
used  by turners, by engravers on wood,
carvers,  and  mathematical instrument
makers.  Flutes  and other wind-instru-
ments are formed  of it; and  furniture,
made of box-wood, would  be  valuable
were  it not  too  heavy, as it would not
only be very beautiful, but its bitter quaU-
ty would secure it from the attacks  of in-
sects.   In France, it is  much in demand
for combs,  knife-handles  and  button-
moulds ; and it has been stated that the
quantity annually  sent  from  Spain  to
Paris  is alone estimated at more  than
10,000 livres.  An  oil distilled from the
shavings of box-wood  has been found to
reheve the tooth-ache, and to be useful
in other complaints; and  the powdered
leaves destroy worms.
  Boxing.   (See Gymnastics.)
  Boydell, John,  bom  at  Dorington,
1719, deserves a place in the histoiy of
the arts in England, on account of the in-
fluence which his  enterprises had  upon
the advancement of the arts in that coun-
try.  He was an engraver on copper; af-
terwards, a collector and seller of engrav-
ings.   His  greatest undertaking  is  his
Shakspeare  GaUery, for which he em- 
BOYDELL—BOYER.
231
ployed most of the great painters and
engravers of his time.  He made some
other collections of prints, among  which
the Houghton  Gallery  is  conspicuous,
which was bought by the empress Cath-
arine.  To him we  owe a work of high
interest, Liber Veritatis, a copy of that
precious  volume in which Claude Lor-
raine  sketched the designs of  all  his
paintings.  The original is owned  by the
duke of Devonshire.  Of his Collection
of Prints engraved after the best  Paint-
ings in  England (19 parts), the two first
volumes are excellent  B. enjoyed much
respect  He was an alderman and lord
mayor of London.  He died in 1804.
  Boyeldieu, Adrian; one of the most
celebrated  opera  composers of France.
He was born at Rouen, in 1775,  and, at
seven years of age, studied music with
Broche, the organist of  the cathedral of
that place.   About  1795,  he went  to
Paris, and  soon made  himself known
and esteemed by the composition and
execution of his ballads.  He was soon
appointed professor  of the piano-forte at
the conservatory.  At tiiis time, he wrote
several operas,  among which Ma tante
Aurore and the Calife de Bagdad are the
most celebrated.  In 1803, he went to St.
Petersburg.  His reputation obtained him
a favorable  reception, and  the  emperor
Alexander  appointed  him his chapel-
master.  For the theatre of the hermit-
age at St. Petersburg, he wrote his Aline,
Queen of Golconda, and the opera Tele-
machus, which is considered by some as
his masterpiece.  In 1811, he returned to
Paris, and, poUtical events retaining him
in France, he devoted  his talents entirely
to the theatre Feydeau.  The most esteem-
ed operas which he  has since composed
are, La  dot de  Susette,  Jean de  Paris
(1812), which has had the greatest suc-
cess of aU his pieces; Le nouveau Srig-
neur de  Village (1813); and La Fete du
Village Voisin (1816).  A later opera, Le
Chaperon Rouge, has lively  music, but is
not equal  to John of Paris in originality.
His latest opera, La Dame Blanche  (1825),
has met  with great applause.  A sweet
and natural melody, simple but agreeable
accompaniments,  an  expressive  gayety
and great variety, are the characteristic
excellences of B.
  Boyer, Alexis; baron ; one of the first
surgeons in Europe, clinical professor in
Paris, and chirurgien en chef adjoint at the
hospital of charity.  Surgery is  indebted
to him for many instruments which he
has either invented or improved.  He was
born in 1760, at D'Uzerche, in the Limo-
sin, became a pupil  of the celebrated
Desault, and, as  early as 1787, deUvered
lectures.   He accompanied Napoleon on
his campaigns  as chief surgeon.   His
Traite complet cVAnatomie (four vols.) has
gone  through four editions.  His Traite
des Maladies chirurgicales et des Opera-
tions  qui leur conviennent is not yet fin-
ished. He  explains diseases and their
remedies very circumstantiaUy.  Without
relating what others have  done, he de-
scribes his own  mode  of treatment, and
the advantages of it.  He was for a long
time  feUow-laborer  with Roux and Cor-
visart in the Journal de Medicine Chirurgie
et Pharmade.  He also wrote many sur-
gical  articles for the Dictionnaire des Sri-
ences  medicales.  When the king wished
for an official statement of the circum-
stances of the medical and surgical col-
leges  in the kingdom, in 1815, drawn up
by the most learned physieians and sur-
geons, B. was a member of the committee
of inquiry.
   Boyer, Jean  Piene, president  of the
island of Hayti, was  born  at  Port  au
Prince, in  that  island,  about  the year
1780.   He  is a mulatto, although some-
what  darker than most persons of that
cast.  His father was a shop-keeper and
tailor  of good repute and some property
in the city  of Port au  Prince, and his
mother a Negress from Congo in Africa,
who  had  been  a slave in the neighbor-
hood.  He joined the cause of the French
commissioners Santhonax and Polverel,
in whose  company, after the arrival of
the English, he withdrew to Jacquemel.
Here  he attached himself to Rigaud, set
out with him for France, and was cap-
tured  on his passage by the Americans,
during the war between France and the
U. States.   After the  conclusion of the
war, being released,  he resumed his voy-
age to France, where  he remained until
Le Clerc's expedition against St. Domin-
go was organized.  Like many other per-
sons of color, he  took part in that expedi-
tion ;  but, on the death of Le Clerc,  he
joined Petion's party, and continued  at-
tached to that chieftain  untU his death.
He rose, in  the  service of  Petion, from
the rank of his aid and private secretary
to be  general of the arrondissement  of
Port au Prince,  and was finally named
by Petion to be his successor in the pres-
idency.  Petion died March 29th, 1818,
and B. was immediately  installed in his
office, and assumed  the functions of gov-
ernment.   When the  revolution  broke
out in the northern part of  the island, in
1820, he was invited by the insurgents to 
232
BOYER—BOYLE.
place himself at their  head; and, upon
Christophe's death,  the north and south
parts of the island were united, under his
administration, into  one govemment, by
the name of the republic of Hayti. In the
course of the succeeding  year, a similar
revolution took place in  the  eastern or
Spanish port, the inhabitants of which vol-
untarily placed themselves under the gov-
ernment of B., who thus became, in the
course of a few years, by mere good for-
tune, and without any merit on his part, un-
disputed master of the whole island.   Had
his wisdom corresponded to his fortune, he
might, by fostering the agricultural inter-
ests  of the island, and strengthening its
friendly relations with the U. States and
Great Britain, have accomplished much
towards estabUshing the prosperity of the
republic on a stable foundation.   But he
is  represented as a vain and weak man;
and,  although more amiable in his temper
than Christophe, is destitute  of the energy
of character  and  comprehensive views,
by which that despot's policy was direct-
ed.  The consequence has been the grad-
ual dechne of the agriculture, commerce
and wealth of Hayti, and, finally, its total
prostration, by the  absurd  arrangement
concluded by B.  with France  in 1825.
He foolishly agreed  to  pay  to France an
indemnity of 150,000,000 of francs in five
equal annual instalments, in consideration
of which, France merely  recognised the
actual government of Hayti; and the ab-
solute inabUity of B. to make good his
engagements places him  at  the mercy
of France.—Franklin's Present  State of
Hayti.  (See Hayti.)
  Boyxe, Robert;  a celebrated  natural
philosopher; born at Lismore, in Ireland,
1627, 7th son of Richard, the great earl
of Cork.  In 1658, he  went to  Geneva,
under the care of a  learned French gen-
tleman, where he continued to pursue his
studies for several  years.   In 1641, he
made a journey to Italy. In 1642, he was
left at Marseilles destitute of money, on
account of the breaking out of the  Irish
rebelUon.  This circumstance did not al-
low  him to return to England until 1644.
During this period  his father had died,
leaving  him considerable property.  He
now went to his  estate  at Stallbridge,
where he devoted himself to the study of
physics and  chemistry.'  He was one of
the  first  members of a learned  society,
founded in 1645, which at first went un-
der  the  name  of the  philosophical col-
lege. On account  of  the  political  dis-
turbances, this society retired to Oxford,
but  was revived after the restoration, un-
der the name of the royal society.  B.
occupied himself, at Oxford, in making
improvements in  the air-pump.  Like
Bacon, he esteemed observation the only
road to truth.  He  attributed to matter
merely  mechanical  properties.   Every
year of his life  was marked by new  ex-
periments.  We are indebted to him for
the first certain knowledge of the absorp-
tion of air in calcination  and combustion,
and of the increase of weight which met-
als gain by oxydation.  He first studied
the chemical phenomena of the atmos-
phere, and was thus the predecessor of
Mayow, Hales, Cavendish and Priestley.
In all his philosophical inquiries, he dis-
played an accurate and methodical  mind,
relying wholly  upon  experiments.  At
the same time, his imagination was warm
and lively, and inclined  to  romantic  no-
tions,  which were  first produced, in  his
childhood,  by the  perusal of Amadis of
Gaul,  and always exercised a visible in-
fluence on  his character.   He was natu-
rally  inclined to melancholy,  and this
temper of mind was increased by circum-
stances.  The sight of the great Carthu-
sian monastery at Grenoble, the  wildness
of the countiy, as well as the severe asce-
tic life of the monks, made a deep im-
pression  upon  him.  The  devil, as  he
said, taking advantage of his melancholy
disposition,  filled his soul  with terror,
and with doubts concerning the funda-
mental doctrines of  reUgion.  This situa-
tion was  so insufferable,  that  he was
tempted to free  himself from it  by com-
mitting suicide, and was only prevented
by the fear of hell.   While  endeavoring
to settle his faith, he found those defences
of the Christian reUgion, which had been
published before his time, unsatisfactory.
In  order,  therefore, to read the original
works, which are considered the founda-
tion of Christianity, he studied the Oriental
languages,  and  formed connexions with
Pococke, Thomas Hyde, Samuel Clarke,
Thomas Barlow, &c.  The result of his
studies was a conviction of its truth, which
was manifested not only by his theological
writings, but  by his  benevolence and
generous disinterestedness.  He institut-
ed pubUc  lectures for  the defence of
Christianity ; and to this  endowment we
owe the convincing arguments of Samuel
Clarke, on the existence of a God.  B.
did much for the support of the mission
in  India, and  caused Irish  and  Gaelic
translations of the  Bible to be made and
printed at his own expense. To his re-
ligious principles were united the purest
morals, a rare modesty, and an active he 
BOYLE—BRABANT.
233
nevolence.  He died at London, in 1691,
and was interred in Westminster abbey.
Birch published an edition of his works
5 vols, folio, London, 1744.
  Boylston, Zabdiel, was born at Brook-
line, Massachusetts, in 1684.  He studied
medicine  at  Boston, where, in a  few
years, he rose into extensive practice, and
accumulated a considerable fortune.   In
1721,  when the small-pox broke out in
Boston, and fiUed the whole country with
alarm, doctor Cotton  Mather  pointed out
to the physicians of the town an account
of the practice of inoculation in the East,
contained in a volume of the Transactions
of the royal society.  This communication
was received with  great contempt by the
whole faculty, with  the  exception of
B.  Although  this practice  was  unex-
ampled in America, and not known to
have  been introduced into  Europe, he
immediately inoculated his  own son, a
chUd of six years of age, and two servants.
Encouraged by his success,  he began to
extend his practice.  This innovation was
received  with  general opposition.   The
physicians of the  town gave their unani-
mous opinion  against it, and the select-
men of Boston passed an ordinance to
prohibit it But, supported  by the con-
viction of the utiUtyof this invention, and
the  countenance   of several intelligent
clergymen, he persevered; and, in 1721
and 1722,  inoculated 247  persons; 39
more  were inoculated by others, and of
the  whole  number (286), only six died.
During the same  period, of 5759,  who
had the smaU-pox  the natural way,  844,
nearly one seventh, died.  Still, however,
his  opponents maintained that his prac-
tice  was  wilftdly  spreading contagion;
that, as the disease was a  judgment from
God on the sins of the people, all attempts
to avert  it would but provoke  him the
more; and that, as there was a time ap-
pointed to every man for death, it was im-
pious to  attempt to stay  or  to avert the
stroke.   ReUgious bigotry,  being  thus
called into action, so exasperated many of
the ignorant against B., that attempts were
threatened against his Ufe, and it became
unsafe for  rum to leave his house  after
dusk.  Time  and experience at length
came in  to the aid  of truth, opposition
died away, and B. had the satisfaction of
seeing inoculation in general use, in New
England, for some time before it became
common in Great Britain.   In  1725, he
visited England, where he received much
attention, and was elected a fellow of the
royal society.  Upon  his return, he  con-
tinued at the  head of his profession for
                 20*
many years, but yet found time for Ute-
rary and philosophical pursuits, and con-
tributed several valuable  papers  to  the
Transactions of the  royal society.  He
died March 1,1766.   His only publica-
tions, besides his communications to the
royal society, are, Some Account of what
is said  of  Inoculating, or Transplanting
the SmaU-pox, by the  learned  doctor
Emanuel Timonius, and Jac. Pylarinus,
(a pamphlet, Boston, 1721), and An His-
torical Account of the SmaU-pox inocu-
lated in New England, &c. (London 1726).
  Boyne ; a river of Ireland, running into
the Irish channel, near which was fought
a celebrated battle between the adherents
of James  II and William III, in 1690;
the latter was victorious, and James was
obliged to flee to the continent
  Bozzaris.   (See Greece.)
  Brabant, duchy  of; in the kingdom
of the  Netherlands,  having Holland on
the north, Liege  and  Limburg  on  die
east, Flanders on the west, and Hainault
and Namur on the south.   North B. con-
tains 252,000 inhabitants, and South B.
366,000.   B. was erected into a duchy in
the 7th century.  For some ages, it be-
longed to the Frankish monarchy, and sub-
sequently became a  German fief.   At all
periods in the history of the Belgic prov-
inces, it appears to have  been  preemi-
nent among the  states, in the general
assembUes of which its deputies held the
first place, and gave their votes before the
others.  The last duke, a descendant of
Charlemagne, dying  in 1005, the duchy
devolved on Lambert I, count of Louvain,
his brother-in-law.  Through his posteri-
ty,  it descended  to  Philip II, duke of
Burgundy, and afterwards came,  in the
line of descent, to the emperor Charles V.
In the  17th centuiy, the repubhc of Hol-
land took possession of the northern part,
which was thence called Dutch B.  The
other part belonged to Austria, and was
occupied by the French in 1746, but re-
stored  at  the peace  of Aix-la-Chapelle.
It was again occupied  by them in 1797,
and their possession  confirmed  by  the
treaties of Campo  Formio (1797)  and
Luneville (1801).  Dutch B. was united
to the  French empire in 1810.  Austrian
B., whUe under the dominion of Austria,
had its own states, consisting of 2 bishops
and 11 abbots, with the  barons, and 7
deputies, chosen by  the cities of Brussels,
Louvain and Antwerp.  Since the forma-
tion of the kingdom of the  Netherlands
in 1815, North B. sends 7, and South B.
8 members to  the representative assem-
bly.  The province  of Antwerp, which 
234
BRABANT—BRADFORD.
formerly belonged to the duchy, sends 5.
Much of the soil, especially in the south-
em part, is fertile, produces large quanti-
ties of grain, and affords excellent pas-
turage.  In die north, considerable tracts
are covered with moss, heath and woods;
but others yield  large crops of wheat,
hops and flax.  There are manufactures
of cloth, lace, linen, &c.  The chief riv-
ers are the Dommel, the Denier, the Dyle
and the Nethe, which, with the canals,
facilitate the internal  commerce of the
duchy.  In  the  northern part, the in-
habitants are Protestants; in the southern,
chiefly CathoUc.
  Brachmans.  (See Gymnosophists.)
  Bracteates ;  thin  corns of  gold or
silver,  with irregular figures on  them,
stamped upon one surface only, so  that
the impression  appears  raised on  one
side, while the other appears hollow.  It
seems  most probable, that these  coins,
being circulated in great quantities under
Otho I, emperor of  Germany, when the
working of the silver mines of the Hartz
afforded the most convenient medium of
exchange,  were first coined at tiiat place,
and  spread  into other countries, where
the Roman money was not known or in
circulation.  The original  form  of these
coins was bonowed from that of the By-
zantiau gold ones, which, about that time,
lost in thickness what they  had gained
in extension.  Allowance was made, how-
ever, for the greater softness of the silver.
Gold and copper bracteates belong only to
a later period.  The name bracteate itself
points to Byzantium (according to Isidore,
it is derived from .Bpaxtiv, to ring).  Brae-
tea signifies leaf of gold, or other metal.
The real  name, at the time when they
were in circulation, was denarius, moneta,
obolus, panningus.   They  are of impor-
tance as illustrating history.  A very good
representation of a rich collection of brac-
teates can  be  seen  in W. G.  Becker's
Two hundred rare  Coins of  the Middle
Ages (Dresden, 1813,4to.).  In later times,
there  have been many bad imitations of
these coins, and the study of them is there-
fore much  more   difficult—Bracteated
coins, or bracteati nummi; a term used to
signify coins or medals covered over with
a thin plate of some richer metal.  They
are usually made of iron, copper or brass,
plated over and edged with gold or silver
leaf.  Some of them are to be found even
among  the truly  ancient coins.   The
French caU them fourrees.
  Bracton, Henry  de,one of the earUest
writers on EngUsh law, flourished in the
13th century.  He studied civil and canon
law at Oxford, and, about the year 1244,
Henry III made him one of his judges
itinerant.  Some writers say, that he was
afterwards chief justice of England; but
his  fame at present  is derived from his
legal treatise, entitled De Legibus et Con-
suetudinibus Anglia, which was first print-
ed in 1569, folio, but of which a more
correct  edition  was pubUshed in 1640,
4to.   It is possibly to the unsettled nature
of the times, and the alternate ascendency
of the crown and barons, that we must
attribute his inconsistency with regard to
the royal prerogative; in one place ob-
serving that no man must  presume to
dispute or control the actions of the king;
and in another, that he is subordinate to
the law, and may  be "bridled"  by his
court of " earls  and  barons." The time
of his death is unknown.
  Braddock,  Edward,  major-general,
and  commander of the British army in
the expedition against the French, on the
river  Ohio, in  1755, arrived in  Virginia
in February of that year, and, in the spring,
marched against  fort Du  Quesne, now
Pittsburg.   He reached the Monongahela,
July 8, at the head of 1200 men, the bag-
gage having been  left behind, tinder the
care of colonel Dunbar,  to  advance by
slower marches.  On the next day, he
moved forward to invest the fort, and, by
disregarding the caution of his provincial
officers, who warned him of the danger
of surprise in an Indian war, feU into an
ambuscade, by which he lost nearly one
half of his troops, and received himself a
mortal wound.  All his officers on horse-
back, except colonel, afterwards general,
Washington,  who  acted  as aid, being
killed, the  army  retreated  precipitately,
near 40 miles, to Dunbar's camp, where
the general, who  was conveyed there in
a tumbril, expired.
  Bradford, William, an American law-
yer of eminence, was born  in Philadel-
phia,  September  14th,  1755.   In the
spring  of  1769,  he entered the  college
of Nassau haU, at Princeton, New  Jersey,
then under the direction of the late learned
and pious doctor John Witherspoon. In
1779, he was admitted to the bar of the
supreme court of Pennsylvania, where
his character soon introduced him to an
unusual share of business;  and,  in Au-
gust, 1780, only  one year after  he was
licensed to practise, he was appointed
attorney-general of the state of Pennsyl-
vania.  August 22,  1791, he was made a
judge of the supreme court of Pennsyl-
vania.  His industry, integrity and abiUty
enabled him to give general satisfaction 
BRADFORD—BRAHAM.
235
in this office.   On the attorney-general
of the  U. States being promoted  to the
office of secretary of  state, B. was ap-
pointed to the vacant office, Jan. 28,1794.
This office he held till his death.  In 1793,
he published an Inquiry how  far the
Punishment of  Death  is necessary in
Pennsylvania.  This performance jusdy
gained him great credit.  His death was
occasioned by an  attack of the  bflious
fever.  He died August 23, 1795, in the
40th year of his age.
  Bradley, James, a celebrated astrono-
mer, wsis born at Shirebom, England, in
1692.  He studied theology  at Oxford,
and took orders; but his taste for  astron-
omy soon led him to change his  course
of life.  His uncle instructed him in the
elements of mathematics, his own  indus-
try did eveiy thing else, and, in 1721, he
was  appointed professor of astronomy at
Oxford.  Six years afterwards, he made
known his discovery of the aberration of
light, (q. v.)  But, although this discove-
ry gave a greater degree  of accuracy to
astronomical observations, and  although
the discrepancies of different observations
were much diminished, yet slight  differ-
ences  remained, and did not escape his
observation.  He studied them during 18
years with the greatest  perseverance, and
finally  discovered  that they  were fully
explained by the supposition of an oscil-
lating  motion of the earth's axis, com-
pleted  during a revolution of the moon's
nodes,  i. e., in 18 years.  He  called this
phenomenon the nutation of the  earth's
axis; and pubUshed, in 1748 (Philosoph.
Trans. No. 785), his  account  of the ap-
parent motion of the fixed stars, with its
laws, arising from this phenomenon of
nutation.   D'Alembert  afterwards ex-
plained the physical causes of this phe-
nomenon, upon the principle of universal
attraction.   By  these  two  discoveries,
astronomers  were, for  the  first time,
enabled to  make tables of the motions of
the heavenly bodies with the necessary
accuracy.  B. had already, in 1726, ex-
plained the method of obtaining the lon-
gitude  by means of the eclipse of Jupiter's
first  satellite.  In  1741, at  the  death of
doctor Halley, he  received the office of
astronomer royal, and removed to the ob-
servatory at Greenwich.  Here he spent
the remainder of his life, entirely devoted
to his astronomical studies, and  left 13
volumes folio of his own observations, in
manuscript. Of these, the first volume
was  pubUshed by  Horesby, 1798.  The
whole  appeared under the title of  Astro-
nomical Observations made at the  Obser-
vatory at Greenwich, 1750—62; Oxford,
1805, 2 vols. foUo.  From this rich mine
have been taken thousands of observations
on  the  sun, moon  and planets, which,
properly arranged, have brought our as-
tronomical  tables to great accuracy.  It
was from this that Mayer  drew the  ele-
ments of his celebrated tables of the moon.
In addition to his merit as  a man of sci-
ence, B. was modest, benevolent, humane
and generous in private life.  He died in
1762, aged 70.
  Bradshaw, John; president of the high
court of justice which tried and condemn-
ed Charles I.  He studied  law in  Gray's
Inn, and obtained much chamber prac-
tice from the partisans of the parUament,
to  which  he   was  zealously devoted.
When the trial of the king  was determin-
ed  upon, the  resolute  character  of B.
pointed   him out for  president,  which
office, after a sUght hesitation, he accept-
ed.  His deportment on  the  trial was
lofty and unbending, in conformity to the
theory which rendered the unhappy sove-
reign a criminal, and amenable; and every
thing was done,  both  for and by him, to
give weight and dignity to  this extraordi-
nary tribunal.  He rendered himself ob-
noxious to Cromwell, when the  latter
seized the protectorate, and was deprived
of the chief justiceship of Chester.  On
the death of Cromwell, and the restora-
tion of the long parhament, he obtained a
seat in the council, and was elected pres-
ident. He died in 1659, and, on his  death-
bed, asserted that, if the king were to be
tried and condemned again, he would be
the first to  agree to it.  He was mag-
nificently buried in  Westminster  abbey,
whence his body was ejected, and hanged
on a gibbet at Tyburn, with those of OU-
ver and Ireton, at the restoration.
  Braga.  (See Mythology, northern.)
  Braganza ;  one of the oldest towns of
Portugal.  It was made a duchy in 1442,
and from its dukes the present reigning
family of Portugal are descended.  The
town and surrounding district still belong
to the king of Portugal  as duke of Bra-
ganza.  Lat. 41° 44' N.; lon. 6° 23 W.
(See Portugal.)
  Bra ham ; one of the greatest profes-
sional singers England has ever produced.
His tenor is unrivalled for power, com-
pass and flexibility.  His compass extends
to about  19  notes, to  each of which he
knows how to  give almost any degree of
strength; and his falsetto, from D to A, is
so entirely within his control, that it is
hardly possible, in the ascent and descent
of the scale, to distinguish at what note 
236
BRAH AM—BRAIN.
 the natural voice begins and ends.  His
 intonation may be called perfect, so far as
 respects the strength and quality of a note,
 and his tone readily takes the character
 of whatever he wishes to express.  His
 articulation is equally excellent, and not a
 syllable escapes the hearer.  On this ac»
 count, he particularly excels in recitative.
 The flexibility of his organs, and his rapid-
 ity of execution, are incredible.  He goes
 rapidly through the whole compass of his
 voice, makes  the boldest leaps from the
 highest to the lowest notes, and makes
 chromatic runs  with incredible  velocity.
 The hearer is never troubled with the
 fear of his failing; and this unlimited pow-
 er is used with extravagant liberality.  B.
 enters into every composition with a glow
 of feeUng which gives the  perfonnance
 the liveliest coloring, and brings into full
 action aU his natural powers.  Always
 enthusiastic, his imagination  pours itself
 out most profusely on sentiment, passion,
 melody, expression and ornament.   But
 it is in this that  he overleaps the bounds
 of art, and often excites more of wonder
 than pleasure,often dissatisfies more than
 he delights, and,  indeed, too often de-
 stroys the general effect.  From this man-
 ner of his arise that indescribably pervert-
 ed and  constrained tone, those  sudden
 stops, vehement bursts, and immoderate
 heaping together of notes, which injure
 the singing; and hence also proceeds his
 mixture of the theatrical with the church
 and concert styles, in all of which he has to
 sing by turns.  B. has had numerous imi-
 tators: the whole kingdom resounds with
 them; and a generation must pass away
 before the bad taste, which his errors have
 occasioned in eveiy corner of England,
 shaU be destroyed.  Although he is one
 of the greatest singers which any age has
 produced, yet  it is not easy to find united
 in one individual such extraordinary pow-
 ers and such glaring faults.  He still sings
 at Drury lane theatre with great applause.
 He is also a composer; as, for example, of
 the Cabinet, in  which he performs  the
 principal part.
  Brahe, Tycho de.  (See Tycho.)
  Brahilow,  Brailow, or  Braila,  a
 strongly-fortified Turkish town in Wala-
 chia, on the northern bank of the Danube,
with 30,000 inhabitants,  governed by  a
pacha of three  tails, lies in a Turkish mfl-
itary district, which is similarly organized
to the adjacent frontier districts of Austria.
The town is situated at the confluence of
the Sereth and the Danube, which divides
itself there into three arms, embracing  a
piece of neutral  territory between  the
 dominions of the Turks and the Russians.
 From this  place much grain, raised in
 Walachia, is sent to Constantinople.  The
 fishery of sturgeon in the Black sea car-
 ried on from B. is considerable.  Lon 28°
 le'E.; lat. 45° Iff N.
   BRAHMA,BRAHMiN.(See£ra»ta,.Bramtn.)
   Brailow.  (See Brahilow.)
   Brails ;  certain ropes passing  through
 pulleys on  the mizzen-mast (q.  v.), and
 afterwards fastened, in different places, on
 the hinder  edge of the sail, in order to
 draw  it up to  the mast, as occasion re-
 quires.  Brails is likewise a name  given
 to all the ropes employed to haul up the
 bottoms, lower corners and skirts of the
 great sails in general.   The operation of
 drawing them  together is called  brailing
 them up, or hauling them up to the brails.
   Brain.  The brain is a soft  substance,
 partly reddish-gray  and  partly  whitish,
 situated in the  skull, penetrated  by nu-
 merous veins,  and  invested by  several
 membranes.  Democritus and  Anaxago-
 ras dissected this organ almost 3000 years
 ago.  Haller, Vicq d'Azir, and other anat-
 omists in modern times, have also  dissect-
 ed and investigated it without exhausting
 the subject.   Between the skull and the
 substance of the brain three membranes
 are found.   The outer one is called the
 dura mater.  This is strong, dense and
 elastic.  It invests and supports  the brain.
 The next which  occurs  is  the tunica
 arachnoidea.   This is of a pale white
 color,  yet in  some  degree transparent,
 very thin, and, in a healthy state, exhibits
 no appearance  of vessels.  The mem-
 brane below this is called the  pia mater.
 It covers the whole surface of the brain.
 It is very vascular, and a great portion of
 the blood which  the brain  receives is
 spread out  upon its  surface in  minute
 vessels. The brain consists of two  prin-
 cipal parts, connected by deUcate veins
 and fibres.  The larger portion, the cere-
 brum, occupies, in men, the upper part of
 the head, and  is seven  or eight times
 larger than the other, the cerebellum, lying
 behind  and below it  It rests  on the
 bones which form the cavities of the eyes,
 the bottom of the skull and the tentorium,
 and projects  behind over the cerebellum.
 On the whole  exterior of the cerebrum
there  are  convolutions, resembling the
 windings of the small intestines.   The
 external reddish substance of the brain is
soft and vascular, and is called the  cortical
substance; the internal is white,  and is
caUed  the medullary substance  of the
 brain.   This medidla consists  of fibres,
which are very different in different parts. 
BRAIN—BRAINERD.                        237
The cerebellum lies below the cerebrum, in
a peculiar cavity of the skull.  By exam-
ining  the  surface, it is seen to be divided
into a right and left lobe, by the spinal
marrow lying between, but connected at
the top and bottom.  Like the cerebrum,
it is sunounded by a vascular membrane,
reddish-gray on the outside, and compos-
ed of a medullary substance within.  In
proportion to its size, also, it has a more
extensive surface, and more of the vascu-
lar membrane, than the cerebrum.  In a
horizontal section of it,  we find parallel
curved portions of  the  cortical and the
meduUary  substances  alternating with
each other.  Between the cortical and the
medullary substance,  tliere is  always
found, in the cerebellum, a third intermedi-
ate yellow substance.  All the medulla of
the cerebellum is also united in the middle
by a thick cord.  Experience teaches that,
in the structure of the brain, irregularities
are far more uncommon than in other
parts  of the human body.   It is worthy
of observation, that every part of the brain
is exactly symmetrical with the part oppo-
site.  Even those which lie in the middle,
and are apparently single (the spinal mar-
row, for instance) consist, in fact, of two
symmetrical portions. The  total  weight
of the human brain is estimated at two or
three  pounds.   It is larger and heavier in
proportion to the youth  of  the subject;
and  in  old  age  it  becomes specifically
lighter.  In delirious affections, it is some-
times harder and sometimes less solid and
softer.  The brain is the organ of sensa-
tion, and, consequently, the material rep-
resentative of the soul,  and the  noblest
organ of the body.  (See Serres's Anato-
mic comparee du  Cerveau  dans les quatre
Classes des animaux Vertebres, &c. (Com-
parative Anatomy of the  Brain in the four
Classes of vertebral Animals, &c.); Paris,
1824, with engravings.   It received  the
prize of the French institute.)
   Brainerd, David, the celebrated mis-
sionary, was born in April, 1718, at Had-
dam,  Connecticut.   From an early  pe-
riod, he  was remarkable for the  serious
and refigious turn of his mind, devo-
tional exercises occupying a considerable
portion of his time, though, as he says, his
piety was originally prompted by the fear
of punishment, and not by the  love of
God.  In 1739,  he became a  member
of Yale  college, where he  was distin-
guished  for application  and  general cor-
rectness of conduct; but was expelled, in
1742, in consequence of having said, in
the warmth of his religious zeal, that one
of the tutors was as devoid of grace as  a
chair—an expression which reached the
ears of the rector, who commanded B. to
make a pubUc confession  in the halk
Thinking the order unjust to humble him-
self before the whole college for what he
had uttered  in private conversation, he
refused  to comply, and, on this  account,
as well as for having gone to the separate
religious meeting at New Haven, afte»
being prohibited to do so by the authority
of the college,  he was dismissed.  In the
spring of  1742, he began the study of
divinity; and,  at the end of July, he was
licensed to preach, for which  a thorough
examination had  shown him qualified.
He had for some time entertained a strong
desire of preaching  the gospel among the
heathens, which was gratified by an ap-
pointment as missionary  to the Indians
from the society for propagating Christian
knowledge.  At Kaunameek, an  Indian
village of Massachusetts, situated between
Stockbridge and Albany, he commenced
his labors, in the 25th year of his age.  He
remained there about 12 months, at first
residing in a wigwam among the Indians,
but afterwards in  a cabin, which he con-
structed  for himself, that  he might be
alone when  not engaged in his duties of
preaching and instruction.   On the re-
moval of the Kaunameeks to Stockbridge,
he turned his attention towards the Dela-
ware Indians.   In 1744, he was ordained
by a presbytery at Newark, New Jersey,
and took up his habitation near the forks
of the Delaware, in Pennsylvania, where
he resided for a  year, during the course
of which  he  made two visits to the In-
dians on the  Susquehannah  river.  His
exertions, however, were attended with
little success, until he went to  the Indians
at Crosweeksung, near Freehold, in New
Jersey.  Before the end of a year, a com-
plete reformation took  place in  the lives
of the savages, 78 of whom he baptized
within that time.   They became humble
and devout; and  it was not unusual for
the whole congregation to shed tears and
utter cries of sonow and repentance.  In
1747, he went to Northampton, in Massa-
chusetts, where he passed the short resi-
due of his Ufe in the family of the cele-
brated Jonathan  Edwards.  He died in
 1747, after great sufferings.  B. was a man
 of vigorous intellect and quick discern-
ment. He was gifted with a strong mem-
 ory, a happy  eloquence, and a sociable
 disposition,  that could adapt itself with
 ease  to the different capacities, tempers
 and circumstances of men, which, togeth-
 er with an intimate knowledge of human
 nature, as well as of theology and worldly 
238
BRAINERD—BRAMINS.
science, peculiarly fitted him for the busi-
ness of instruction.  He was remarkably
composed and resigned during the ap-
proaches of death, and left this world in
the full hope of a glorious immortality.
His  pubUcations are,  a  narrative of his
labors at Kaunameek,  and bis journal, or
account of the rise  and progress of a
remarkable work of grace among a num-
ber of Indians in New Jersey and Penn-
sylvania, 1746.
  Brainerd ; a missionary station among
the Cherokee  Indians, in the district of
Chickamaugah, within the chartered lim-
its of Tennessee, near the boundary line
of Georgia, on Chickamaugah creek, a
few miles above its entrance into the river
Tennessee; 150 miles S. E. of Nashville,
250  N. W. Augusta.   This  missionary
station was commenced in  1817,  and
it is  the  oldest estabUshment formed by
the American board of missions among
the Cherokees.  The property belonging
to the mission, in 1822, was estimated at
$17,390, and there are  between 30 and 40
buildings of various descriptions, mostly
of logs.   The labors of  the missionaries
here have been remarkably successful in
imparting to the Cherokees a  knowledge
of the  rudiments  of learning, and of the
arts  of civilized  life,  as well as of the
principles and duties of reUgion.
  Brakenburg,  Regner, a well-known
Dutch painter, distinguished for his rustic
scenes, family pieces,  &c,  was born at
Haerlem, in 1649.  The time of his death
is not known:  it took  place at Friesland.
His paintings are true  to nature.
  Brama ;  the first person in the Trinity,
or Trimurti, of the Hindoos, consisting of
Brama, the creator, Vishnu, the preserv-
er or redeemer,  and Siva, the destroyer.
He is represented with four heads and as
many arms, and the swan is  consecrated
to him.   His name signifies knowledge of
the laws, in allusion to  his creative power.
He is the god of the fates, master of life
and death, and, by some, has been repre-
sented as the supreme eternal  power; but
he is himself created,  and is  merely the
agent of the Eternal One. He is believed
to die, according to some, annually, or,
according to others, after a longer period,
and  to rise again.  His character  is no
better than that of the Grecian Jupiter.
He is  considered as  the author of the
Vedas, and as the lawgiver and teacher
of India. The worship of B.  is regarded
as the oldest religious observance in that
countiy.  (For a more particular account,
see Indian Mythology.)
  Bramante of Urbino, Francesco Laz-
zari, shares with Brunelleschi  the credit
of being the restorer of architecture.   He
was born at Castel  Duranti, in the duchy
of Urbino, in 1444.  He applied himself
first to painting; but his passion for archi-
tecture soon gained the ascendency.  At
length he went to Milan, and there his
whole time was spent at the  cathedral
Pope Alexander VI named him his archi-
tect, and Julius II made him superin-
tendent of his buildings. At the command
of the latter, he united the Belvedere with
the palace of the Vatican.  He persuaded
the pope to order the church of St. Peter
to be torn down, and another to be erect-
ed in its place, which should not have its
equal in the world.  In 1513, the founda-
tion of this edifice  was laid,  according to
the plan of B.  It yet remains the greatest
production of modern architecture.  B.
died in  1514, without Uving to see this
work completed.  He had begun the edi-
fice with incredible despatch; but his suc-
cessors,  Raphael, Julius  of San  Gallo,
Peruzzi and Michael  Angelo altered the
original plan,  and left nothing  of B.'s
workmanship standing, except the arches
which support  the tower of the dome.
His writings, part prose, part verse, first
discovered in 1756, were printed the same
year at Milan.
  Bramins ; the first of the four costs of
the Hindoos.  They proceeded from the
mouth of Brama, which is  the seat of
wisdom.   They form the sacred or sacer-
dotal  cast,  and its  members  have main-
tained a more absolute and extensive au-
thority than the priests of any other nation.
Their great prerogative is that of being
the  sole depositaries and interpreters of
the  Vedas  or sacred books.  There are
seven subdivisions of the Bramins, which
derive their origin from seven  penitents,
personages of high antiquity and remark-
able purity, who are said to have rebuked
the gods themselves for  their debauch-
eries.  The great  body of the Bramins
pay equal veneration to the three parts of
the mysterious trinity, but some attach
themselves more particularly to one per-
son  of the triple  godhead.   Thus the
Vishnuvites are distinguished by an or-
ange-colored  dress, and the  mark called
nama on their foreheads.  The devotees
of Siva wear the lingam, and are distin-
guished from  the  former by their  great
abstemiousness.  A Bramin  should  pass
through  four  states.   The  first begins
at about seven, when the duty of the
young novice, or Brachmacari, consists in
learning to read and write, studying the
Vedas, and becoming familiar with the 
BRAMINS—BRANDENBURG.
239
 privileges of his cast, and all points of
 corporeal purity.  Thus  he is taught his
 right to ask alms, to  be  exempted from
 taxes, from capital and even corporal pun-
 ishment  Earthen  vessels, belonging to
 Bramins, when used by profane persons,
 or for certain purposes, must be broken.
 Leather and skins of animals, and most
 animals themselves, are impure, and must
 not be touched by them.  Flesh and eggs
 they are not allowed to eat The Bramin
 is also taught to entertain a horror of the
 defilement of the soul  by sin ; and rules
 for purification by ablution, penances, and
 various ceremonies, are prescribed.  The
 second state begins at his maniage, when
 he is called Grihastha.  Marriage is neces-
 sary to his respectabiUty.  His daily du-
 ties become more numerous, and must be
 more strictly performed.  Regular ablu-
 tions, fasting,  and many minute observ-
 ances, become requisite.   The Bramins,
 however, engage in secular employments,
 political,  commercial, &c.  The third
 state is that of the Vana-Prasthas, or in-
 habitants of the desert, which is now, how-
 ever, seldom reached. They were honored
 by kings, and respected even by the gods.
 Retiring to the forest,  green herbs, roots
 and  fruit were  tiieir food: reading  the
 Vedas, bathing morning,  noon and even-
 ing,  and  the practice of the  most rigor-
 ous penances, were prescribed.  " Let the
 Vana-Prastha," says Menou in the  Insti-
 tutes, " sUde backwards and forwards on
 the ground, or stsmd  the whole  day on
 lip-toe,  or continue  rising and  sitting
 down alternately; in the hot season, let
 him sit exposed to five fires; in the rain,
 let him stand uncovered; in the cold sea-
 son, let him wear wet garments; then,
 having stored up his  holy fires  in  his
 mind,  let him live without external fire,
 without a shelter, wholly  silent, and feed-
 ing on roots and fruit  When he shall
 have thus become void of  fear and sonow,
 and shaken off his body, he rises to  the
 divine essence."  The  fourth state is that
 of a Sannyasi, in which new and severer
 penances are to be perfonned. Suppress-
 ing the breath, standing on the head, and
 other such ceremonies, are performed, tiU
 the devout patient rises to a participation
 of the divine nature.   The sanctity and
 inviolabiUty of a Bramin are maintained, in
 the eyes of his countrymen, by the most
 severe penalties.  The murder of one of
 the order, robbing him, &c, are inexpia-
 ble sins: the kiUing of his cow can only be
expiated by a painful penance.  To some
travellers it appears that  the  number of
Bramins  respectable for knowledge and
virtue is very small; that the great body
of them are devoted to ambition, intrigue
and voluptuousness, and that their char-
acter is disgraced by avarice, meanness
and cruelty.  Their charity extends only
to those of their own cast.  The objects
of their worship, besides their innumera-
ble  gods, are almost every species of ani-
mals, and a variety of malignant demons.
The transmigration of souls is one of their
essential doctrines, and they beUeve in the
existence of a hell.  Some of the ceremo-
nies of the Braminical worship are horri-
ble: some are more Ucentious than the or-
gies of Bacchus. The sacrifices commonly
consist of vegetables, but animals are some-
times sacrificed, and the burning of widows
is a reUc of the horrid practice of offering
human victims.  (See Indian Mythology.)
  Brandenburg, mark ormarquisate of;
one of the most extensive districts in the
fonner circle of Upper Saxony. The sofl
is, in some parts, fertile, but mostly sandy,
and fit for grain.  It is rich in wood, fish,
flax, hemp,  hops, tobacco, and pastures,
particularly  for sheep; it also produces
lime, salt-petre, turf, and  some iron, &c.
B. carries on an active trade in manufac-
tured  articles, and  is well situated for
commerce, since it has many canals, riv-
ers, lakes, and many towns lying on them.
Most of the inhabitants  profess the Lu-
theran faith; the rest are Calvinists.  From
1685 to  1688,  many  French  refugees,
Walloons, and  inhabitants of Lorraine
and of the Palatinate, settled in the mark.
During the reign of Frederic II, prior to
1777, more than 10,000 families took up
their residence there.  The country is
watered by the Elbe, Spree, Havel, Oder,
Wartha, Netze and  Ucker.  The district
of B. is divided into the  Electoral Mark
and the New Mark.  I.  The former in-
cludes, 1. the Old Mark (capital Stendal);
2. the  Priegnitz (capital Perleberg); 3.
the Middle Mark (capital BerUn); 4. the
Ucker Mark (capital Prenglau).  II. The
New Mark (capital Custrin)  receives its
name  from  this circumstance, that the
elector Frederic II redeemed it, in 1455,
from the knights of the Teutonic  order,
to whom it had been pledged until that
period.  At  present, B. is the most im-
portant of the  Prussian states, including,
as it does,  the capital (Berlin), and the
governments of Potsdam  and Frankfort.
It contains,  upon 15,800 square  miles,
1,335,160 inhabitants, and 150 towns, &c.
The first people who are known to  have
inhabited B.  were the Suevi.  They were
succeeded by the Sclavonians, a barba-
rous people, whom Henry I  conquered 
240
BRANDENBURG—BRAND YWINE.
 and converted to Christianity in the early
 part of the 10th  century.  The govern-
 ment was first conferred  on a  Saxon
 count, and did not become hereditary till
 the time of Albert, whose son was raised
i to the dignity of elector in 1100.  This
[race  becoming extinct, Charles IV  as-
 signed  the  electorate to his  son Sigis-
 niund, who became emperor in 1415, and
 sold the region to Frederic, burgrave of
[Nuremberg, the ancestor of the  present
 reigning family.  Frederic WilUam  the
 Great made various accessions to the ter-
 ritories  of his ancestors, and obliged  the
 king of Poland, in 1656, to declare Prus-
 sia an independent state. The Old Mark
 was ceded  to  Napoleon in  1807,  and
 formed  part of the kingdom of Westpha-
 lia ; but it was  restored to  Prussia  in
 1814.  The elector of B. held the seventh
 rank among the electors of the empire, and
 had five votes in the council of princes.
   Brandenburg; capital of the province
 of the same name (q. v.), on the Havel, 30
 miles west of Berlin,  formerly the resi-
 dence of the reigning  famUy of Prussia.
 It contains 12,000 inhabitants.
   Brandes, Ernest; a learned and able
 Gennan scholar and statesman,  bom at
 Hanover in 1758.   Happily endowed by
 nature,  and  educated  under favorable
 circumstances, he  afterwards extended
 his views  by travel,  by his  connexion
 with  public  affairs, by his  intercourse
 with  the best society, and by an intimate
 union with the greatest scholars in Ger-
 many.  From 1775 to 1778, he studied at
 Gottingen, of which  he afterwards  be-
 came the benefactor,  when the govern-
 ment of Hanover appointed him secretary
 of the cabinet, and intrusted him with the
 chief direction of the affairs  of the uni-
 versity.  During  a  tour which he made
 through Germany and France (1780—81)
 his attention was particularly drawn  to
 the theatres of Paris and Vienna, and he
 gave  his opinion concerning them in  his
 well-known remarks upon the theatres of
 London, Paris and Vienna. During his res-
 idence in England, in the winter of 1784,
 1785, he formed many literary and politi-
 cal connexions, besides gaining a complete
 knowledge of  the  EngUsh constitution.
 His journey gave  his  mind  a political
 turn.  After having been appointed to fill
 a number  of honorable offices, he  was
 made a member of the privy council.
 When  the  French took possession of
 Hanover, in 1803, he was one of the del-
 egates  appointed to treat with Mortier,
 and remained a member of the govern-
 ment, until the committee of  administra-
tion was established by the victors.  B.
had  gained so much  respect,  that  his
death, in 1810, was lamented as  a public
calamity.  Great powers of observation,
and an extensive knowledge of the world,
are displayed in aU his works
  Brandt, Nicholas or Sebastian; a Ger-
man chemist of the 17th centuiy, usually
considered the discoverer of phosphorus.
Leibnitz mentions him as a chemist of
Hamburg, who, during a course of exper-
iments on urine, for the purpose of dis-
covering a solvent which would  convert
silver into gold,  accidentally produced
phosphorus, in 1667 or 1669.  He com-
municated his discovery to another chem-
ist, who showed it to. Leibnitz and Boyle.
  Brandt, Sebastian (named Titio), bom
at Strasburg, in 1458, died there in 1520.
He studied law at Bale, where  he  was
graduated; and delivered lectures on this
science, for many  years, with great ap-
plause.  He was still more distinguished
for his poetical  talents,  and the  emperor
Maximilian I  invited him, several times,
to his court.  He has immortalized him-
self by a poem called The Shipof Fools, or
the Ship from the Land of Folly, which
satirizes the crimes and follies of his age,
first published at  Bale, 1494, 4to.  Four
editions appeared in one year.   It  has
since been repeatedly printed and trans-
lated into all the languages of Europe.
In Germany, it was, for about a  centuiy,
truly a national book, so well known  and
esteemed  by  all classes, that the cele-
brated  preacher Geiler of Kaisersberg
deUvered pubUc lectures upon it from the
pulpit at Strasburg.  In this work, we
find a collection  of moral instructions,
and satires upon  the crimes, vices  and
abuses common both in public  and  pri-
vate life.  The  book is divided  into 113
chapters, which, however,  have  no con-
nexion with each other.   The  descrip-
tions are not, in general, poetic, but  still
contain  many happy and beautiful pas-
sages, often display learning, and not sel-
dom vigor; and the Ship of Fools  will
always be a valuable book, full of sound
reasoning, pure morality, clear and bold
thoughts,  and  knowledge  of mankind.
It has been repubhshed by Hagen in his
Fool's Books.
  Brandy.  (See DistUlation.'j
  Brandywine, a  small  river  which
rises in the state of Pennsylvania, passes
into  the state of Delaware,  and, after a
course of about 45 miles, joins the Chris-
tiana, two miles below Wilmington. It
abounds in favorable sites for the appU-
cation of water-power; and the Brandy- 
BRANDYWINE—BRAUWER.
241
  wine flour-mills  form the finest collec-
  tion of the  kind  in the U. States.—This
  river is noted for  giving name to a battle
  fought  near it, Sept 11,  1777, between
  the British and Americans, in which the
  latter were  defeated, with  the  loss  of
  about 300 men killed and 600 wounded.
   Brantome, Piene  de Bourdeilles, lord
  of the abbey of, bom at Perigord, about
  1527, died in 1614.  In his epitaph, com-
  posed by himself, he relates, in a vaunting
  manner, how he first bore arms  under
  the great Francis of Guise, and after-
  wards served the king, his master.  After
  the death of Charles IX, he withdrew to
  Ins estate, and wrote his memoirs, which
  have  a great deal  of vanity and self-
  complacency, mingled with much that is
  interesting.  They are a living picture of
  his age; for B. was personally acquainted
  with aU the great  characters  of the time,
  and an eye-witness of all the important
  events which  then took  place,  and,  in
  some, was an  actor.   B.'s character was
  that of his birth-place (Gascony) and of
  his  rank.  He was a courtier, regardless
  of right or wrong; who does not blame
 the  great, but observes and relates then-
 faults and crimes as ingenuously as if he
 were  uncertain whether  they  deserve
 praise or blame ; as indifferent about hon-
 or and chastity in women as about integ-
 rity in men.   He  describes a scandalous
 act without being sensible of" its offensive-
 ness.  He speaks of the good king Louis
 XI, who ordered his brother to be poison-
 ed, and  of the virtuous ladies, whose ad-
 ventures no  pen but his  own could de-
 scribe.   He  places us in the middle of
 that centuiy, when expiring chivalry was
 contending with the forming, and, as yet,
 unsettled manners of later times.  B., in
 the midst of his wandering Ufe, had ac-
 quired  more  learning than most  of his
 fellow-soldiers.   He   has  left Vie des
 Hommes illustres et des grands Capitaines
 Franpais;  Vie des  grands  Capitaines
 Etrangers;  Vie des Dames illustres;  Vie
 des Dames galantes;  Anecdotes touchant
 les Duels; Rodomontades et Jurements des
 Espagnols.  Twelve editions of his works
 were pubUshed from 1666 to 1740, some-
 times entire, sometimes in selections.
   Brasil.  (See Brazil.)
   Brass.  (See Copper.)
   Brattleborough ;  a   post-town  in
 Windham county,  Vermont, on the Con-
 necticut, 41  miles N. of Northampton,
 110 S. of Montpelier;  population in 1820,
2,017.  It is one of the most considerable
and  flourishing towns in  Vermont, and
contains  two  parishes, in each of which
  VOL. II.          21
 there is a handsome viUage.  The village
 in the west parish contains an academy;
 that in the east parish has a large printing
 estabUshment, various manufactures, and
 a  flourishing trade.—In the south-east
 corner of B. was  fort Dummer, which
 was established in 1724, and was the first
 settlement  formed by  Anglo-Americans
 in Vermont.
   Brauwer, Braur, or Brouwer, Adri-
 an ;  a  celebrated painter,  of the Dutch
 school,  born at Haerlem, in 1608,  or,
 more probably, at Oudenarde, where  his
 father was  a painter of common paper-
 hangings.  Poverty contributed, perhaps,
 to form his talents.  When  a child, he
 painted flowers and birds to be stitched
 on caps, which were  sold by his mother.
 Francis Hals, a skilful painter, expecting
 to profit by the talents of the young artist,
 took him  to  Haerlem.   Here,  amidst
 wearisome labors and  poor diet, B. spent
 the greater  part of his time  in a ganet,
 occupied in making little paintings, of the
 value of which he was ignorant, while
 Hals kept the profits of them for himself
 Two pretty paintings of his, The  Five
 Senses and The  Twelve Months, are men-
 tioned as belonging to that period.  By
 the advice of Adrian of Ostade, his fellow
 pupil, he escaped to  Amsterdam, where
 he was surprised to hear, that his paint-
 ings  were  esteemed.   He now  gained
 considerable sums by his labors;  but, in-
 stead of devoting himself to his art,  he
 made the inn his workshop, never exert-
 ing himself tiU the hostess insisted upon
 payment  He threw into the fire a paint-
 ing for which he  did not  receive  the
 price demanded, and began  a new one
 with  more care.  Having gone to Ant-
 werp during the wars of the Low Coun-
 tries, he was thrown into prison as a spy.
 He declared that he was a painter, ap-
 pealing to the duke of Ahremberg, who
 was likewise  imprisoned there; and, at
 the  prince's  intercession, having  been
 provided with materials, he painted  his
 guards engaged in playing cards, with so
 much expression and truth, that  Rubens,
 at the sight  of the  picture,  exclaimed,
 " This is  B.'s work;  none but he  can
 succeed so well in such subjects."  Ru-
 bens  effected his  release  by standing
 bail for  him, clothed him, and received
 him into  his house  and at his table.
 B., however, instead  of being  grateful
 for this  generosity, escaped secretly,  to
plunge  into  still   greater extravagan-
ces.   He  took  lodgings with a baker,
Craesbeke, who became a skilful painter
by his instructions.  This man,  whose 
242
BRAUWER—BRAY.
incUnations agreed with those of B.,  had
a handsome  wife,  and  the  connexion
between these three persons became so
intimate,  that they were  obUged to  flee
from justice.  B. went to Paris, but, find-
ing no employment there, returned to
Antwerp, where he died in the hospital,
hi 1640.  Rubens, who remembered only
his  talents, caused him to be honorably
buried in the church  of the CarmeUtes.
All the pictures of B. show what sort of
Elaces and company this artist frequented.
 le did not, however, Uke Teniers, under-
stand how to  give to mean objects the
variety of  which they  are susceptible.
Nevertheless, his paintings command high
prices from amateurs.   It would, indeed,
be difficult to excel B. in power and  har-
mony of coloring, in the management of
the chiaro-oscuro, and in truth of expres-
sion.
  Bravo, Nicholas, one of the most prom-
inent leaders in the Mexican revolution,
was a native of New Spain, and son of
don Leonardo Bravo.  He became iden-
tified with  the patriot party at an early
period of their struggle for independence,
and adhered to it through all their vicissi-
tudes of fortune.  After the fatal termina-
tion of Hidalgo's career, B. made common
cause with  Morelos, commanding a di-
vision of the  latter's army in 1812, at
which period  he was particularly distin-
guished, among other  achievements,  by a
victory over the Spanish general  Musitu.
When Iturbide's deception of  the royal-
ists gave him the means of promoting the
revolution, in 1821, B. was one  of the first
to take advantage of circumstances, and
to raise anew the standard of revolt, un-
detened by past misfortunes.  Iturbide
endeavored in vain  to acquire the confi-
dence of B., who, Uke Victoria, suspected
his ambitious purposes long  before he
suffered them openly to appear. Victoria
and B. steadily opposed  the projects of
the usurper, and, at length, became so far
committed in their opposition as to be
arrested  and imprisoned by him, whflst
president of the executive junta. They
were subsequently released, and  B.  took
arms against the  emperor at the  earliest
opportunity.—Upon the estabUshment of
a provisional  repubhcan  government in
 1823, subsequently  to the fall of Iturbide,
the executive consisted of generals Vic-
toria, B. and  Negrete.  During  the dis-
 cussions relative to the  formation  of  a
 constitution, B. maintained the necessity
 of a central system, Uke that of Colombia,
 in opposition  to the federal party, which
 finally prevailed  in organizing the  gov-
ernment  in imitation  of that of the U.
States.  The new constitution  was sol-
emnly sworn to in the capital, Feb. 2,
1824; and, in the ensuing elections, B.,
being unsuccessful in  the contest for the
presidency, was chosen vice-president;
and, from that period, has been  regarded
as the leader of the opposition party in
Mexico.—During the year 1827, it is well
known, the struggle between the party in
favor of the present constitution, and the
party opposed  to  it,  daily increased in
violence and bitterness, the former being
distinguished by the party name of York-
inos, the  latter by that of Escoceses, from
the  different masonic rites  which  they
uphold.   Although the latter party in-
cluded the Spaniards and other enemies
of the republic, it was hoped  that B.'s
love of his country and weight of char-
acter would prevent  his countenancing
any design of theirs inimical to the liber-
ties of Mexico.  But, Dec. 23, 1827,  lieu-
tenant-colonel Manuel Montano raised the
standard  of rebeUion at Otumba, and the
government immediately  despatched a
strong body of  troops, under  general
Guenero, to disperse the insurgents. A
few days after he marched,  several  offi-
cers, known to be violent Escoceses, clan-
destinely left Mexico, and joined Montano;
and, at length, the vice-president, B., fol-
lowed them.   Their whole force, at this
time, did not  exceed  150 men.  They
proceeded to Tulancingo, immediately on
B.'s  joining them,  where they fortified
themselves; but, after a feeble resistance,
were compelled to surrender. B., and 25
other officers, were taken prisoners, and
thus  terminated this  desperate attempt.
B.'s great merits in the cause of indepen-
dence secured  to  him the lenity of die
government; and he  was  merely  sen-
tenced to seven years' banishment from
the republic.   No  authentic  account has
yet transpired  of B.'s motives and partic-
ular inducements in taking this step; and,
in the absence of such evidence, it is dif-
ficult to  believe that a man of his tried
patriotism can have dreamed of restoring
the  Spanish authority in  Mexico.  (See
Ward's Mexico, &c.)
   Bravura Air ; an air so  composed as
to enable the  singer to show his skill in
execution by  the  addition of embellish-
ments, striking cadences, &c. It is some-
times used for the style of execution.
   Bray  ; a small village in the county of
 Berks.  The church  is a vicarage in the
 gift of the bishop of Oxford.  The vicar
 of Bray Uved in the reigns of Henry VIII,
 Edward  VI,  Mary and EUzabeth, and 
BRAY—BRAZIL.
243
Was first a Papist, then a Protestant then
a Papist, and finally a Protestant again.
Being accused of inconstancy, " It is not
so," he repUed; " for I always keep to my
principle, which  is this—to live and die
vicar  of Bray."  A well known song is
founded on this incident.
  Bray, Francois  Gabriel, count de ;  in
1809,  Bavarian ambassador at St. Peters-
burg ; since 1820, at Paris; was born  in
Normandy, where  his father belonged to
the nobility of the province;  assisted,  as
knight of St. John of Malta, in a bloody
attack upon Algiers.   He  prepared him-
self for the diplomatic career at Ratisbon,
where, previous  to the overthrow  of the
German empire, French diplomatists were
bred for the courts of Northern Europe.
In the revolution, he entered  the Bavari-
an service, and, while ambassador  at  St.
Petersburg, wrote his able work,  Essai
Critique sur VHistoire de la Livonie, suivi
(Pun Tableau de I'Etat actuel de cette Pro-
vince  (1817, Dorpat, 3 vols.)
  Brazil ; a countiy of vast extent, and
one of  the richest regions of the  earth,
comprising the eastern and central parts
of South America; bounded N. by Colom-
bia, Guiana,  and  the  Atlsmtic ocean,  E.
and S. E. by the Atlantic  ocean, and W.
by Buenos Ayres, or the United Provinces
of La Plata, Bolivia and Peru.—The fol-
lowing table exhibits the population of the
several  capitanias, or provinces, as stated
by Mr.  Brackenridge, who visited  South
America in the years 1817 and 1816.
   Provinces.       Pop.      Chief Towns.
Pemambuco ... 550,000... Pemambuco.
Bahia.........500,000... St Salvador.
Minas Geraes.. 380,000... Villa Rica.
 Rio Janeiro  ... 400,000... Rio Janeiro.
 St. Paul.......300,000... St Paul.
 Rio Grande  ... 250,000... Portalagre.
 Maranham .... 200,000... St. Luis.
 Para...........150,000... Para.
 Matto Grosso .. 100,000... Cuyaba.
 Goyas.........170,000 ... Villa Boa.
       Total, 3,000,000
  In 1826, the country was divided anew,
so as to  constitute nineteen provinces.
Of the population, as stated by Mr. Brack-
enridge, 1,000,000 are supposed to be of
European  origin  or  descent,  1,200,000
Negroes,  and  800,000   subdued  Indi-
ans;  the  unsubdued  Indians not  being
included.   A later estimate  makes  the
number of Negro slaves, 1,800,000. Malte-
Brun estimates the population of B. at
3,800,000; Hassel  and  Humboldt,  at
4,000,000.—The principal rivers are  the
Amazon, Madeira, Topayas, Xingu, To-
cantins, Negro,  St Francisco, Paraguay,
Parana, and Uraguay.—There is scarcely
to be found on the globe a finer coun-
try than B.; one blessed with  a more
genial  climate,  or a more fertile  soil;
more happily diversified with wood and
water,  or  with  abundance of navigable
rivers;  or more  famed for its precious
produce of gold and diamonds.   It com-
prises within its limits nearly aU the most
valued productions of the earth.   Viewed
from the sea, the country appears rugged
and mountainous; but,  on a nearer ap-
proach, its appearance is highly romantic
and picturesque, clothed as it is with the
most luxuriant vegetation, its hills cov-
ered with thick  woods, and its valleys
with a verdure which never fades.  To-
wards the interior, the land rises, by gentle
gradations, to the height of from 3  to
6,000  feet above the level of the  sea;
and, in these temperate regions, European
fruits and grain are raised in abundance,
while  the intermediate  valleys  are ex-
tremely favorable to  the production  of
sugar, coffee, and  all kinds of tropical
produce.  A large part  of the interior is
overspread with  an impenetrable forest,
the trees  being closely interwoven with
brushwood and shrubs, and covered with
creeping  plants, adorned  with beautiful
flowers, thus giving a peculiar and rich
appearance to  the  scenery.  The forests
abound in a great variety of useful and
beautiful  WOOd, adapted  for dyeing, cab-
inet-work and ship-building.   They con-
tain numerous wild  animals.  The  cli-
mate, in the neighborhood of the Amazon
and in the  northern parts,  is  hot, but
tempered by the  humidity of the air; in
the southern parts, it is  temperate, and
 generally healthy.—B. has been  long cel-
 ebrated for  gold and diamonds, which
 abound in the higher regions of the  in-
 terior, and are chiefly found  in  the beds
 of the mountain torrents, where the stream
 is most rapid.  Most of the streams that
 rise from the chain of mountains which
 extend through the province of Minas Ge-
 raes are rich, especially near their sources,
 in gold and diamonds.  The  towns of St
 Paul, Villa Rica, Cuyaba, and others in
 the interior, have  grown  out of mining
 establishments.   Tejuco is the chief town
 of the principal diamond  district.—Brazil
 was discovered by Pedro  Alvarez Cabral.
 Emanuel, king of Portugal, had equipped
 a squadron for a voyage to the  East  In-
 dies, under the command of Cabral. The
 admiral, quitting Lisbon, March 9, 1500,
 fell in accidentally,  April 24, with the 
244
BRAZIL.
 continent of South America, which he at
 first supposed to be a large island on the
 coast of Africa.  In this  conjecture he
 was soon undeceived, when the natives
 came in sight.  Having discovered a good
 harbor, he anchored his vessels, and called
 the bay Puerto Seguro.   On the next day,
 he landed with a body of troops, and, hav-
 ing erected  the cross, took possession of
 the countiy  in the name of his sovereign,
 and called it Santa  Cruz; but the name
 was afterwards altered by king Emanuel
 to that of Brazil, from the red-wood which
 the country produces.—The Portuguese
 entertained,  for some time, no  very fa-
 vorable opinion of the country, not hav-
 ing been able to find  there either gold or
 silver; and,  accordingly, they sent thither
 none  but  convicts, and women  of aban-
 doned character.  Two ships were annu-
 ally sent from Portugal, to carry to the
 new world the refuse of the human race,
 and to receive  from thence cargoes of
 panots and dye-woods.   Ginger was af
 terwards added, but, in a short time, pro-
 hibited, lest  the cultivation  of  it might
 interfere with the sale of the same article
 from India.   In  1548, the  Jews of Por-
 tugal, being banished to  B.,  procured
 sugar-canes from Madeira, and began the
 cultivation of that article.  The  court of
 Lisbon began to perceive  that a colony
 might  be  beneficial  without  producing
 gold or silver, and  sent  over a goveraor
to regulate and superintend it. This was
Thomas de Souza, a wise and able man.
 De Souza  found it veiy difficult to suc-
 ceed in inducing the natives to fix on
 settled habitations, and to submit to the
 Portuguese government  Dissatisfaction
 ensued, which at length  terminated in
 war.  De Souza did not bring with him a
 sufficient  number of men  to conclude
 hostilities speedily.   By building St. Sal-
 vador, in 1549, at the bay of All Saints,
 he established a central and rallying point
 for the colony; but the great object of re-
 ducing the  Indians to submission was
 effected by the Jesuits, who gained their
 affections  by presents and  acts of kind-
 ness.—The increasing prosperity of B.,
 which became visible to Europe at the
 beginning  of the 17th  centuiy, excited
 the envy of the  French, Spaniards  and
 Dutch, successively.   The latter, howev-
 er, were the principal enemies with whom
the Portuguese  had to contend  for the
 dominion of B. Their admiral, Willekens,
 in 1624, took possession of the  country
 in the name of the United  Provinces.
 Having plundered the people of St. Sal-
 vador, he  returned to Europe, leaving  a
 strong  garrison.  The  Spaniards next
 sent out a formidable fleet, laid  siege to
 St. Salvador, and  compelled the Dutch
 to sunender.  When the affairs of  the
 Dutch assumed a more favorable aspect
 at home, they despatched admiral Hen-
 ry Lonk, in the beginning of 1630, to at-
 tempt the entire conquest of B.   He suc-
 ceeded in reducing Pemambuco, and, on
 his return to  Europe,  left behind him
 troops which reduced, in 1633, 1634 and
 1635, the provinces of Temeraca, Parai-
 ba and Rio Grande.  These, as  well as
 Pemambuco,  furnished  yearly  a large
 quantity of sugar,  a great deal of wood
 for dyeing, and other commodities. The
 Dutch now determined to conquer all B.,
 and  intrusted  Maurice  of Nassau with
 the direction of the enterprise.  This dis-
 tinguished officer reached the place of his
 destination in the beginning of 1637, and
 subjected Seara, Seregippe, and the greater
 part  of Bahia.  Seven of the fifteen prov-
 inces which composed the colony had
 already submitted  to them, when they
 were suddenly checked  by the  revolu-
 tion, which removed  Philip IV from  the
 throne of Portugal, and gave to the Portu-
 guese independence, and a native sove-
 reign.  The Dutch,  then, as  enemies
 of the Spaniards, became friends to  the
 Portuguese, and the  latter confirmed  the
 title  of the Dutch to the seven provinces,
 of which they were in possession.  This
 division gave rise to the name of the Bra-
 zils,  in pluoo of  the  fbimor appellation.
 The   Dutch government soon began to
 oppress the Portuguese colonists, who,
 after an obstinate contest, drove them  out
 of several of the provinces.  Finding they
 were not able to  retain possession of  the
 countiy, the Dutch ceded all their interest
 to the Portuguese for a pecuniary com-
 pensation.  The  dominion of Portugal
 was  now extended  over all B., which,
 during the 18th century, remained in the
 peaceful  possession of  the Portuguese.
—The value of B. to Portugal has been on
the   increase since the discovery of the
 gold  mines, in 1698, and the discovery of
the diamond mines, in 1782.  Up to the
year  1810, B. had sent to Portugal 14,280
cwt.  of gold,  and 2100 pounds  of dia-
monds, which  foreign countries, and  es-
pecially Great Britain, at last succeeded
in purchasing, at  the  Lisbon  market
Rio Janeiro now became the mart for the
proceeds of the Brazilian mines and native
productions.  But the administration was
any  thing  but adapted  to  promote the
 prosperity of the country.  The attention
 of the government was turned almost ex- 
BRAZIL.                              245
clusively to the gold washings, and to the
working of the diamond mines; and the
policy of the administration consisted in
the exaction of taxes  and duties, which
were  collected from  the fortified ports,
to which  trade  was solely  confined.
Foreigners were  excluded, or jealously
watched, and trade was paralysed by nu-
merous restrictions.  In the interior, the
lands  situated  on the great rivers, after
being surveyed,  were frequently  pre-
sented, after the year  1640, by the kings
of the house of Braganza, to the younger
sons of the Portuguese nobility, whom the
system of entails excluded from the pros-
pect of inheritance.  These grantees en-
listed adventurers, purchased Negro slaves
by thousands, and  subjected the original
inhabitants, or  drove them from their dis-
tricts, and ruled their  dominions with al-
most unlimited sway.  The missions of
the Jesuits also received similar dona-
tions from the kings.  They organized a
brave militia from the converted savages
and their descendants, and bore the sword
and the  cross farther and farther into the
interior.  Equally independent with the
secular lords of the soil, they united the
converted savages in villages and parishes
along the  rivers.  The celebrated Jesuit
Vieyra  introduced  the  cultivation  of
spices, in which Holland  alone had hith-
erto traded.  As these Brazilian proprie-
tors defrayed, from their own means, the
above-mentioned indemnifications made
to the Dutch, the Portuguese govern-
ment, in return, confirmed and enlarged
all the privileges of the ancient planters,
extending them to the present and future
possessions of  these noble families.  But,
in the end, the government multiplied its
own monopolies,  and assumed preroga-
tives interfering with the  interests of the
ancient  and rich  landlords.  Even from
1808 to  1821, as long as the court resided
in Rio Janeiro, the Portuguese by birth
continued to have the preference, in the
high offices of state, before the chief na-
tive families;  and the system  of taxing
the productions of B., and the importa-
tion of articles needed by the Brazilian
nobility  for  themselves and  slaves,  was
even extended.  The government final-
ly placed  obstacles  in the  way of in-
creasing the number of the latter, which
the rich landlords deemed indispensable
for the establishment of new plantations.
The vassals, moreover,  always  had  a
stumbling-block in their way in the fiscal
prerogative of the  court, that the land
which the  vassal called  his  own, but
which he had hitherto neglected to search
                 21*
for gold, or for diamonds, in case of any
future discovery of such treasures, should
be the property of the crown, or, at least,
the object of high taxation.  In the grants
of the ancient plantations, the crown had
not  indeed provided for such a  contin-
gency, and had reserved no such rights.
Even the  humanity of the government,
in attempting to ameliorate by laws the
condition of the slaves, was a  subject of
offence, because it appeared to the  lords
to be an injury to their  legal  property to
proceed in such a matter  without  their
consent.  Out of Rio Janeiro, in the more
northerly and  more fertile section, the
number of young merchants in the  large
maritime cities  and their vicinity was
greatly increased by emigrations  from
states where more  freedom  of thought
was  enjoyed  than  in  B.  Many came
even from Germany.  These adventurers,
bent on gain, naturally felt  burthened  by
the heavy system of taxation, and by the
monopolies of the crown.  They carried
on the smuggling trade  to such a degree,
that they lived, in fact, in open  war with
the   govemment.   In addition to these
malcontents, there were  many disbanded
soldiers, who had embarked from Portu-
gal, in the hope of being rewarded by the
court for their services, but, from the pov-
erty of the finances, found that they could
obtain nothing but land, which was of no
value to these warriors.   Moreover, many
Europeans emigrated to  Bahia and  Per-
nambuco, who, though destitute, were not
altogether uninformed, and who desired
to make their fortune there, some way or
other.  The lower class of  the native
clergy, too, were very much  dissatisfied,
because, even  while the  court  resided
in B., Portuguese noblemen  received
the  most important ecclesiastical offices.
Without  ascribing  to the Brazilians any
democratic propensities, all these circum-
stances must have awakened the desire
of independence in their breasts, as much
as it augmented their hatred of the Por-
tuguese.  From these two causes, a con-
flict of parties of several years' duration
has lately taken  place, the result of which
is the new empire.—The removal of the
Portuguese government to B., Jan.  19,
1808), when the  royal family landed in
Bahia, whence it transfened its residence
to Rio Janeiro in March, till the depar-
ture of king John  VI  to  Lisbon, April
26,  1821), was  the commencement  of
the  prosperity of B.  As  early as Jan.
28,1808, aU the ports of B. were open-
ed  for  the  unconditional entrance  of
all friendly and neutral  vessels, and  for 
246
BRAZIL.
the exportation of Brazilian productions,
under certain duties, with the sole excep-
tion of Brazil  wood.  B. now entered,
also, into an immediate  connexion with
Germany, which  had an equally bene-
ficial influence on itsagriculture, intellect-
ual improvement and commerce.  The
treaty of alliance and commerce conclud-
ed  with England at Rio Janeiro, Feb.
19, 1810, permitted the British even to
build and repair vessels of war in the har-
bors of B.; and the  then prince-regent
of Portugal promised never to introduce
the inquisition into B., and to co-operate
in earnest to effect the abolition of the
slave-trade, excepting such as was carried
on in the Portuguese possessions in Af-
rica.  The  decree  of  Nov.  18,  1814,
next allowed all nations  free intercourse
with  B.  In 1815,  the  prince-regent
promised  B. independence and  equal
privileges with Portugal.  Dec. 16, 1815,
he made it a  monarchy.   Finally, by the
marriage of the crown-prince  (now em-
peror) of B.,  don  Pedro, with  the  arch-
duchess Leopoldine, daughter of Francis
I. of Austria, Nov. 6,  1817,  Germany
was in various ways brought into contact
with B.  The government in Rio  Janeiro
now allowed  the free  prosecution  of
natural researches.  Thus Mawe, an Eng-
lishman, was permitted to  examine the
diamond mines; the chevalier Eschwege,
afterwards overseer of the cabinet of min-
erals in Rio, was enabled to examine the
mountains of Minas Geraes at Villa Rica;
and the latest work on B., by Martius and
Spix, contains similar evidence  how zeal-
ous  even  a  royal  minister, Conde  da
Barca, is in promoting scientific  investi-
gations.  As B., by reason of its soil and
climate, may become the chief mart of all
colonial  commodities,  the   government
has  encouraged, since 1809, the  settle-
ment of strangers, and  has granted to
foreigners, at a small price, large tracts of
land (cismarias), of a league (22,500 feet)
in breadth, and  three leagues in length,
for the cultivation of sugar, coffee, cotton,
&c, as weU as  wheat,  rice and maize,
which afford here annually two crops.
Swiss and  Germans (such  as  Freyreiss,
the baron Busche, and Paycke of Ham-
burg) have therefore founded  large set-
dements here.  According to Langsdorf,
who pubUshed Observations on Brazil, at
Heidelburg,  1821, Welsh corn generally
yields in B. 130 fold, and  rice 80 fold.
The coffee-tree, which, in the West Indies,
yields annually, on an average, 1£ pounds
of coffee, in B.,  yields  at  least  2 or 3,
and not unfrequently  5 or 6 pounds.
But the want of industry, at that time,
rendered the means of living in the capi-
tal  and  neighborhood  extremely dear,
while the total absence of highways, and
other means of facilitating transportation,
deprived the products of the interior of
almost all their value.   Without a con-
siderable capital, no foreigner can culti-
vate the land bestowed on him, and B. is
as yet far  removed from that equality of
rights, which secures to  each one the full
use of his means, as well as from that
toleration, which affords protection and
freedom of conscience  to  every  creed.
The  royal decree of March  16, 1820,
which  encourages the settlement  of
foreigners, by an exemption from taxes
for four years, will never, therefore, while
these impediments exist, produce  the re-
sults which  have followed  the coloniza-
tion of North America—a countiy, in other
respects, less inviting.  The foreign rela-
tions  of B., of late years, have not been
altogether of a  peaceful nature.   After
the conclusion of the congress of Vienna,
Spain refused to cede OUvenza to Portu-
gal ; on which account, the Banda Oriental,
with its capital,Monte Video, an important
portion of the Spanish province of Buenos
Ayres, was  taken possession of  by  B.,
and  maintained  with effect against the
claims of the republic of Buenos  Ayres,
after it had  attained independence.  An
insunection  in  Pemambuco, in  April,
1817, where a party raised the republican
standard, was suppressed by the  Portu-
guese troops  stationed in B.  But when
the revolution broke out in Portugal, Aug.
1820, having for its object  the  establish-
ment of a constitution,  the Portuguese
troops in B.  also obtained  a constitution
in behalf of the latter countiy.   Don Pe-
dro, the crown-prince,  proclaimed the
acceptation of the Portuguese  constitu-
tion in  the name  of himself and father,
Feb. 26, 1821.  King John VI now com-
manded the  choice of  deputies (March
7th) to meet with the cortes assembled in
Lisbon, and was desirous to embark with
them for that city. But, the bank being
unable to make the  necessary advances
of money, a bloody insurrection ensued.
The  king  therefore  changed  the bank
into a national bank, and,  to defray the
sums loaned, appropriated to it the charge
of the diamond mines, and the regulation
of the trade in diamonds.  The king soon
after (April 21 and 22) saw  himself com-
peUed to  order the miUtary to disperse
the assembly of electors, who demanded
the adoption of the Spanish constitution.
On the other hand, he repeated the rati- 
BRAZIL.
247
fication  of the (then incomplete)  Portu-
guese constitution, and, April 22, appoint-
ed his son don  Pedro prince-regent of
B.  He  now embarked  for  Portugal,
April 26.   But, as the Portuguese cortes
was not willing to grant the entire equali-
ty of civil and political relations demanded
by the Brazilians, and,  without waiting
for the arrival of the  BraziUan deputation,
had framed the articles of the constitution
which related to  B., and subsequently re-
jected the additional articles proposed by
the Brazilian deputies, and, finally, had
expressly declared, that  B. was to be di-
vided into governments, and ruled by the
ministry of state at Lisbon, and the prince-
regent was to be recalled  to Portugal,—
such violent convulsions were excited in
Rio Janeiro, and various parts of B., Dec,
1821, that it was explicitly declared to the
prince-regent, that  his departure  would
be the signal for estabUshing an indepen-
dent republic. The prince, therefore, re-
solved to remain in  B., and gave a public
explanation of his reasons,  Jan. 9th, 1822,
to his father, to  the cortes in Portugal,
and to the people of B.  The Portuguese
troops were removed from B.  The prince-
regent assumed,  May 13th, 1822, the title
of perpetual defender of B., and, in June,
convened a national assembly, composed
of 100 deputies, to frame a separate con-
stitution for the  country.  The cortes in
Lisbon, on the other hand, declared this
constitution void, Sept. 19th,  1822, and
demanded  the return of the prince-regent
to Europe, on pain of forfeiting his right
to the throne. Meanwhile, the national
assembly of B. had  declared the separa-
tion of that country from  Portugal, Aug.
1, 1822, and, Oct 12, appointed  don
Pedro the constitutional emperor of B.
The new emperor  retained, at the same
time, the title of perpetual defender of B.
—Soon after the establishment of the em-
pire, began the struggle with the republi-
can  party.  In  this  party  were  many
free-masons.  Don  Pedro, who had pro-
claimed himself,  shortly before,  grand
master  of  all the free-masons in  B., or-
dered that  all the lodges should be closed,
and the congress, which he had promised
to assemble for the  purpose of framing a
constitution, was not  convened.   At that
time, the  two  brothers  Andrade, Jose
Bonifacio,  minister  of foreign affairs and
of the  interior,  and Martin F. Ribeiro,
minister of finances, especially the former,
possessed  the entire  confidence  of the
emperor.  The most difficult matter was
to effect his recognition in Europe; for
don Pedro had acquired the new  dignity
in consequence of the principle of the sove-
reignty of the people in a colony separated
from the mother country;  and it was also
made a question, whether he should not re-
nounce his claims to the crown of Portugal.
His father, indeed, when he left B., April
26,1821, had given him full powers to do
all that might be necessary to preserve this
country to the  house  of Braganza.  The
mission, nevertheless, of major Schaffer
to Vienna, could not  procure the ac-
knowledgment of the new emperor  by
his father-in-law, the  emperor of Austria.
The Brazilian troops, in  the meantime,
conquered  Monte Video, which still had
a Portuguese garrison, in Dec, 1823, after
which the Banda Oriental  was united
with B., under the name of Cisplatino, as
also Bahia, which was defended  by a
Portuguese garrison,  under general Ma-
deira.  Lord Cochrane, the Brazilian ad-
miral, blockaded the  harbor from March
26,  1823.  Madeira, compelled to surren-
der by famine, sailed, during the nego-
tiation, in the night of July 2, to Europe,
and the BraziUan troops entered the place.
At home, don  Pedro  had two parties to
contend  with—the  ancient  Portuguese,
which was the weaker, and the repubU-
can, the stronger. The latter was espe-
cially  powerful  in  Pemambuco.  The
brothers  Andrade  sought to gain both
parties by the proposal of a free constitu-
tion, formed after the model of the Eng-
lish ; but the obstacles of all kinds, and the
violent opposition with which their ad-
ministration was harassed, compelled them
to resort to arbitrary measures and anests.
They treated the malcontents as Carbon-
ari, and  thereby excited the  suspicion,
that the emperor aspired  to absolute au-
thority. They finally convoked the cortes
of B., the session of which was opened
by the emperor, May 3, 1823.  Of the 20
members, who constituted the opposition,
out of the 60 (instead of 160) present,
Aranjo  Lima was  the most eloquent.
The ministers succeeded in  causing se-
cret societies to  be prohibited, by which
means they gained  a  pretence  for im-
prisoning many, whose sentiments were
republican.  This augmented the pubUc
dissatisfaction, and, when the emperor,
having been severely injured by a fall
from a horse, did not appear in pubUc for
a month, the enemies of the ministers
became more  bold in their outcries, and
even  sent  threatening representations to
the emperor.  The imprisoned were ac-
quitted by the  supreme court of justice,
and the emperor found himself compelled
to  dismiss the  two Andrade, July 16, 
248
BRAZIL.
1823.  Don Joaq. de Cameiro Campos
(formerly professor of mathematics at the
college  of Lisbon) received the depart-
ment of foreign  affairs,  and don  Man.
Jacint  Figueroa  da Gama that of the
finances—both  adherents to  the  politi-
cal principles of  1791.—Meanwhile, the
royal power had been restored in Lis-
bon in  May, 1823 ; but the Brazilians
demanded  the  more loudly a free con-
stitution and a separation from Portu-
gal. The  emperor, therefore, refused  to
receive  the envoy of the  king his father,
the count de Rio Mayor, Sept. 6,  1823,
because  he  could  not  give  assurance
of the  acknowledgment of the  indepen-
dence of B.  At the same time, the con-
  Eess authorized a loan of £2,500,000  in
  ondon, which has subsequently  been
increased about £700,000.  (75 per cent.
only was paid in specie, at 6 per cent
interest!)   The constitution of Aug. 10,
1823, which the  national assembly had
accepted with some alterations, was final-
ly laid before the  emperor, but, in conse-
quence  of a revolution which suddenly
ensued, not accepted, because it resem-
bled the Spanish and Portuguese consti-
tutions, and restricted too much the au-
thority of the sovereign.  Since the fall of
the Andrade, the  republican party had
gained  strength, and attacked, in  their
journals, with  particular violence, the
Portuguese  in the Brazilian service, and
demanded their expulsion.  Two officers,
in  retaliation, did some  injury, Nov.  8,
to an apothecary at Rio, who laid his
complaints before the congress.  The two
ex-ministers  Andrade,  and their  third
brother, don Antonio Carlos, likewise a
deputy, demanded that congress should
investigate  the  matter;  others desired
that it should be refened to the courts of
justice.  This gave  rise to a  violent tu-
mult on the 10th ; the people took part in
it;  the  dismissal  of the  ministers,  and
the departure of all the  Portuguese,  were
loudly required.  The ministers gave in
their resignation,  and the emperor col-
lected the troops at his palace San Chris-
tovao, four leagues from  the city.  The
congress hereupon declared itself perma-
nent.  Nov. 12, it was informed,  by  a
message from the emperor, that all the
officers  regarded  themselves  as injured
by  two  journals,  of one  of  which the
three Andrade were editors, and patrons
of the other; and they were accused, in
general, of being at the head of a rebel-
lious party.  The minister of the interior
declared, at the same time, that the troops
insisted on  the  removal of the two An-
 drade  from the  assembly.  Immediately
 after, the troops entered the city, sur-
 rounded the hall of the convention, and
 an  officer delivered  an imperial decree,
 ordering the dissolution of the assembly.
 The president recorded it on the journals,
 declared the session  terminated, and the
 deputies separated, Nov. 12,  1823.  But
 while departing, and subsequently, many
 were arrested;  among them the three
 Andrade, who were eventually transport-
 ed.  In a decree  of the same day, the
 emperor termed the  assembly perjured,
 but, on the following day, limited this
 expression to the faction of the Andrade.
 —The provinces,  also, were  the theatre
 of many turbulent scenes.  In  Pemam-
 buco, the violent dissolution of the con-
 gress gave rise  to much  dissatisfaction,
 and it was difficult to appease the hatred
 of the Brazilians against the Portuguese.
 A second national assembly  was finally
 convened at the end of Nov., 1823, and
 the emperor caused a constitution, drawn
 up by his council of state, to be laid be-
 fore the cabildo (the municipaUty) of the
 capital, Dec. 11, 1823, which collected
 the votes of the citizens respecting it in
 writing.  As all  assented to this constitu-
 tion, the oath was administered Jan. 9,
 1824.  The same course was  pursued in
 the provinces:  but  here many  citizens
 voted against  the  constitution ;  among
 others, the president, Man. de Carvalho
 Paes d'Andrade of Pemambuco.  March
 25,  1824, the oath to  observe  the consti-
 tution was also taken by the emperor and
 empress.  In its fundamental principles,
 this  constitution coincided with  those
 previously projected.   The four branches
 of  civil authority—the  legislative,  the
 mediative, the  executive and the judicial
 —are administered  by the representatives
 of the  people.  The  government is mo-
 narchical, hereditary, constitutional and
 representative.  The representation of the
 Brazilian nation  consists of the emperor
 and the general  assembly, a body  com-
posed of two chambers—that of the depu-
ties, chosen for four years, and that of the
senators, chosen  by the emperor from the
election-lists.   With  the former rests the
power of originating bills for the imposi-
tion of taxes and the levying of soldiers,
as well as of proposing a change of dyn-
asty.  The latter retain their  dignity for
Ufe.  The sessions  of these chambers are
pubUc.  The majority of votes  decides.
 The senate has jurisdiction of the misde-
 meanors of the  members of the  royal
 family,  of  the ministers,  deputies and
 council of state.  The two chambers pos- 
BRAZIL.
249
 sess,  in  general, great  privUeges.  The
 emperor has the executive and mediato-
 rial authorities; but his veto is not abso-
 lute.  He cannot refuse his sanction to a
 bill equally approved by two  legislative
 assemblies.  The press is free, but libels
 are punished  by law.  All immunities,
 privileged corporations, &c are abolish-
 ed.  The Roman CathoUc is the estab-
 lished religion :  to  other denominations
 domestic worship is allowed, but without
 the power of having churches, &c.  Not-
 withstanding this liberal constitution, the
 republican partygained the supremacy in
 Pemambuco.   The  president,  Man. de
 Carvalho Paes d'Andrade, recalled by the
 emperor, attempted to unite the northern
 provinces into one  republic,  called the
 Union of the Equator.  But, as soon  as
 the emperor had no longer cause to fear
 an attack from  Portugal, his  forces in-
 vaded Pemambuco, in August, by land
 and sea,  under the  command of  lord
 Cochrane and general Lima.  Carvalho
 and Barros, with a  great portion  of the
 inhabitants, made an obstinate resistance;
 but, on the 17th of Sept, 1824, the city
 was taken by assault.  Carvalho had flted
 to an English ship of war; the  others
 into the interior  of the countiy.—In the
 following year, the emperor sent general
 Brandt and the chev. de Cameiro to Lon-
 don, to negotiate there, with the Portu-
 guese minister, the marquis de Villareal,
 respecting the independence of B.   Sim-
ilar negotiations afterwards took place  in
 Lisbon,  through the  British  envoy ex-
 traordinary,  sir Charles   Stuart,  who
 finally concluded, at  Rio  Janeiro, with
 the Brazilian minister of foreign affairs,
 Luis Jose de Carvalho e Mello, a treaty
 between  B.  and Portugal, Aug. 29,1825,
 on the following terms:—1. B. should be
 recognised as  an  independent empire,
 separate from Portugal and Algarvia.   2.
 The king of Portugal was to resign the
sovereignty of B. in favor of his son and
his legitimate  posterity.  3. The king  of
 Portugal should retain the  title of empe-
 ror of B. for his own person merely.  4.
 The emperor don Pedro should promise
to receive from no Portuguese colony
proposals for  a  union with B.  5. The
trade between the two nations should be
 restored,   and  aU  property confiscated
 should  be returned, or  compensation
 made for it.  The king of Portugal rati-
 fied this treaty Nov. 15, 1825.  The  em-
 peror of B. has since sent ambassadors  to
 the courts of Lisbon,  London, Paris and
 Vienna.  Sir Charles  Stuart, soon after,
 concluded at Rio, Oct. 18,  1825, a treaty
of  amity and  commerce,  and another
treaty, respecting  the  aboUtion  of the
slave-trade,  delayed  for four  additional
years,  between B. and  Great Britain.
But neither was ratified by the king of
Great  Britain,  because,  among  other
things, they contained stipulations for the
mutual  sunender  of political criminals
(or those charged with high treason) and
refugees.  About this time, the govern-
ment of the United Provinces of the Plata
urged the restoration of the Banda Ori-
ental, which B. had held in possession
since 1816.  The emperor, therefore, de-
clared  war against Buenos Ayres, Dec.
10, 1825, and caused the  mouth of the
La Plata to be blockaded by his vessels
of war.   But the people of the Cisplatino,
with the natives of Monte Video, had al-
ready taken up arms, for the  sake of a
union with the United Provinces of the
Plata.  The insurgents took Maldonado.
General  Lecor (viscount  de  Laguna),
however, maintained  himself  in Monte
Video.   On  the other hand, the republic
of the Plata formally received the Banda
Oriental into  its confederacy, and, at the
close of the year 1825, B. possessed but
two points in the Banda Oriental—Monte
Video and the colony del San Sagramen-
to.  A question of much importance now
arose, whether  the emperor don  Pedro
should succeed his  father, king John VI,
in the kingdom of Portugal.   The king
died March 10, 1826, having  appointed
his daughter, the infanta Isabella Maria,
provisional  regent  According  to the
constitution  of B., don Pedro could not
leave the countiy without the  consent of
the general assembly.  He therefore en-
tered upon the  govemment of Portugal,
and gave this kingdom a representative
constitution, but renounced the crown
of Portugal in his own person by the act
of abdication of May  2, 1826, and resign-
ed his right to his daughter  donna Maria
da Gloria, princess of Beira, born in 1819,
who was to marry her uncle don Miguel,
born in  1802;  meanwhile,  the emperor
confirmed the present regent of Portugal.
(For a further account of Maria, Miguel,
and the state of Portugal, see Portugal.)
Soon after, May 8, he opened the second
constitutional assembly of B. at Rio.  He
had previously, April 16, 1826, founded
the new Brazilian order of  Pedro I.—
The war with Buenos Ayres was contin-
ued in  the  Banda Oriental with  little
vigor, and with Uttle  prospect of advan-
tage to either party,  but with a ruinous
charge upon the finances of both.  A ne-
gotiation for peace was at length opened, 
250
BRAZIL—BREACH.
under the mediation of  Great Britain,
which terminated  in the execution of a
treaty, Aug. 27, 1828.  In this treaty, the
emperor of Brazil and the government of
the United Provinces unite in declaring
the Cisplatino, or the province of Monte
Video, which had been the chief  object
of controversy, a  free and independent
state, under such form of government as
it might  deem most  suitable  to its inter-
ests, wants and resources.  It was stipu-
lated, that, for the purpose of forming this
government, the existing government of
the Banda Oriental  should, Immediately
on the ratification  of the treaty, convoke
the  representatives  of  the part  of  the
province subject  to  it,  and the govern-
ment of Monte Video its citizens, to make
choice of a proportional number of dele-
gates, and that these representatives and
delegates should constitute a provisional
government, whose duty it should be to
form a political constitution for the new
state.  After the meeting of this  provis-
ional government, the  functions of  the
previously existing governments were to
cease.  The independence of the prov-
ince of  Monte Video was  guarantied by
the contracting parties.   This treaty was
duly ratified, the blockade of the La Plata
was immediately raised, and the  troops
of the two belhgerents were withdrawn
from the contested  territory.—By an act
of the legislature, passed in 1827, the cel-
ibacy of the clergy has been abolished in
B. (For further information, see Banda
 Oriental.)
   The national debt of B. is considerable,
including the  English loan of £3,200,000.
The  principal ecclesiastical  dignitaries
are an archbishop, who resides at Bahia,
and 16 bishops, of the Roman Catholic,
the estabUshed religion.  In all the large
towns, the government supports element-
ary and  high schools.  In the former, the
'system of mutual instruction is introduced.
In Bahia and Rio Janeiro, there  are in-
stitutions for  teaching surgery, medicine,
engineering and law, and for imparting
commercial  information.  Rio has an
academy for  the  instruction  of officers
intended for the naval service; also an
observatory.   This city and  Bahia, also,
contain academies for the promotion of
the  fine arts, pubUc Ubraries, &c  In
1826,300 young BraziUans were pursuing
their studies in France.  The army con-
sisted, in  1824, of 30,000 regular  troops
and 50,000 militia, besides a regiment of
free Negroes.   The  navy,  in  1826, con-
 sisted of 96 ships, including 1 ship of the
 line and 4 frigates.  The revenue  of B.
has been lately estimated, by the minister
of finances, at  about $16,290,000.   Of
this sum, about $7,200,000 are all which
come into the hands of the general gov-
ernment for the supply of the general ex-
penses.  The remainder is consumed in
the internal administration of the  prov-
inces in which it is collected.  The whole
estimate, however, is vague, and not much
to be depended on.  Notwithstanding the
many natural resources  of B.,  it must
long remain  weak, in a poUtical view;
for its  inconsiderable population is  too
unequal in  its advantages and too divided
in its views.  1,800,000 are Negro slaves,
ignorant and barbarous; the Indians  are
of no advantage  to the  industry of the
country. They live, for the most part, re-
tired in the wilderness.  The Mulattoes
seem to combine  in themselves the vices
of the savage and the European.  Both
sexes give themselves up, without shame,
to the  impulses  of  their passions, and
their cruelty to their slaves is often horri-
ble.   The  Europeans and  the  Creoles
form, to some extent, the aristocracy of
the country.  Most of them are  planters
or miners,  or overseers in the colonies,
and, in  this way,  are  scattered far over
the  country,  with little  communication
with each other, without knowledge and
education.  The most cultivated  persons
are  found  in the maritime cities.   But,
even in Rio, the merchants, according to
Mathison, are men of very little infonna-
tion.  They take no interest in any thing
but  what  immediately  concerns their
business.   The clergy Mathison  found
so dissolute, that he was ashamed to give
a description of their morals.  Of men of
higher character, capable of administering
pubUc offices, there are but few, and they
are chiefly Portuguese.   (See  the  Coro-
  frqfia Brazilica of Manoel Ayres de Cazal,
  Lio Janeiro, 1817, 2 vols. 4to.; Southey's
History  of  Brazil, London, 1818, 2 vols.
4to.)
   Breach ; the aperture or passage made
in the  wall  of any  fortified  place, by
the  ordnance of the besiegers,  for  the
purpose of entering  the  fortress.  They
should be made where there is the least
defence, that is, in the front or face of the
bastions.  In order to divide the resist-
ance of the besieged, breaches are com-
monly made at  once in  the faces of the
attacked bastions, and in  the  ravelin.
This is effected by battering,  and, at
such places as the cannon do  not reach,
by the  aid  of mines.—Breach-Battery.
(See Battery.y—The breach is called prac-
ticable,  if it  is large enough  to afford 
BREACH—BREAD-FRUIT.
251
some hope of success in case of an assault.
This is generaUy  considered to be  the
case if it allows a  passage to  14 men
abreast  Frequently, however, a breach
of much less  extent, even of half that
width,  may be entered.
  Bread.  In the earUest antiquity, we
find the flour  or meal of grain  used as
food.  The inconvenience attending the
use of  the grain in its natural  state, and,
perhaps, the accidental observation, that,
when  bruised,  and softened  in water,
it formed  a  paste, and, when  dried
again,  a more  compact, mealy substance,
led, by degrees, to the artificial  prepara-
tion of bread.   Easy as it seems  to us, it
must have been a long time before it was
completely  successful.   The  grain  was
first bruised between stones, and, from the
meal mixed with milk and water,  a  dry,
tough and indigestible paste  was made
into balls.  This is  yet the chief food of
the caravans in the deserts of Northern
Africa.  The  Carthaginians, also, ate no
bread, and hence were called, in derision,
by the Romans,pultiphagi (pottage-eaters).
After  many attempts, or, perhaps, acci-
dentally, it was observed that, by bring-
ing the paste into a state of fermentation,
its tenacity is almost  entirely destroyed,
and the  mass becomes bread, porous,
agreeable to  the taste, digestible,  and,
consequently, healthy.  The process pur-
 sued is the following:—Some old dough,
 called leaven,  which, by a pecuUar spirit-
 uous  fermentation,  has swelled up, be-
 come  spongy, and acquired an  acid and
 spirituous smell, is kneaded with the new
 dough, and produces, though in an  infe-
 rior degree, a similar fermentation in the
 whole mass.   The  whole thus  becomes
 spongy; a quantity of air or gas is devel-
 oped, which, being prevented  from es-
 caping  by the tenacity of  the dough,
 heaves and swells it, and gives it a porous
 consistency.  This  is called the working
 of the dough.   In this state, the dough is
 put into the  heated oven, where the air
 contained in it, and the spirituous sub-
 stance, are stiU more  expanded by  heat,
 and increase the porosity of the bread,
 making it materially different from the un-
 baked dough.   The best and most whole-
 some  bread is baked  in  some parts of
 France, and on the Rhine.  In  England,
 the flour is adulterated with too  many
 foreign substances, in order to make the
 bread whiter.   In some parts of Sweden,
 die bread is composed, in part, of the bark
 of trees, during the winter.  In Westpha-
 lia, a  kind of very coarse, black bread is
 made, of which  the peasants bake one
large loaf for the whole week.  This is
divided for use with  smaU  saws.  It is
called  pumpernickel,  and is sometimes
exported.   In many parts of  Germany,
bread is made of grain nearly entire,  or
but just bruised, which is very coarse, and
frequently forms part of the food of the
horses.  Bread is found wherever civili-
zation has extended.  It i s made of wheat,
rye, maize, barley,  oats, spelt,  &c.  The
want of bread has often occasioned pubUc
commotions, particularly in Paris and an-
cient Rome.
   Bread-Fruit.   The bread-fruit is a
large, globular berry, of a pale-green color,
about the size of a child's head, marked
on the surface with  inegular six-sided
depressions, and containing a  white and
somewhat fibrous pulp, which,  when ripe,
becomes juicy and yellow.   The tree that
produces it (aitocarpus incisa) grows wild
in Otaheite and other islands of the South
seas, is about 40 feet high, with large and
spreading branches, and has  large, bright-
green  leaves, deeply divided into 7 or 9
spear-shaped lobes.—We are informed, in
captain Cook's  first  voyage  round  the
world, that the eatable part of this fruit
lies between the skin and the core; and
that it is as white as snow, and somewhat
of the consistence of new bread.  When
 gathered, it is generally used immediate-
 ly:  if it  be kept  more than 24 hours, it
 becomes hard and choky.   The inhabit-
 ants of the South sea islands prepare it as
 food by dividing the fruit into three or
 four parts, and roasting it in hot embers.
 Its taste is insipid, with a sUght tartness,
 somewhat resembling  that of the crumb
 of wheaten bread mixed with Jerusalem
 artichoke.  Of this fruit,  the  Otaheitans
 make various messes  by mixing it with
 water or the milk of the cocoa-nut, then
 beating it to  a  paste with a stone pestle,
 and  afterwards  mingling  with  it  ripe
 plantains, bananas, or a sour paste made
 from the bread-fruit itself,  called mahie.
 It continues  in season eight months, and
 so great is its utility in the island of Ota-
 heite, " that," observes captain Cook,  " if,
 in those parts where it is not spontane-
 ously produced, a man plant but 10 trees
 in his whole lifetime, he  wiU as com-
 pletely fulfil his duty to his own and to
 future generations, as the  native of our
 less temperate climate can do by plough-
 ing in the cold of winter, and reaping in
 the summer's heat, as often as these sea-
 sons return ; even if, after he has procured
 bread for his present household, he should
 convert the  surplus into  money, and lay
 it up for his children."  Not only does 
252                      BREAD-FRUIT—BREATH.
this tree supply food,  but  clothing, and
numerous  other conveniences  of Ufe.
The  inner  bark,  which  is white, and
composed of a net-Uke series of fibres, is
formed into a kind of cloth.  The wood
I is soft, smooth, and of a yellowish color,
| and is used for the building of boats and
houses.  In  whatever part the  tree is
wounded, a glutinous, milky juice issues,
.which, when boiled with cocoa-nut oU, is
employed for making bird-lime, and as a
[cement for filling up cracks in such ves-
sels as are intended for holding water.
Some parts of the flowers serve as tinder,
and the leaves are used for wrapping  up
food, and other purposes.—As the cUmate
of the South  sea islands is considered not
very different from that of the West In-
dies, it was, about 42 years ago, thought
desirable, that some of the trees should
be transferred, in a growing state, to the
EngUsh islands there.   His majesty's ship
the Bounty sailed, in 1787, for this pur-
pose, to the  South seas, under the com-
mand of lieutenant, afterwards admiral,
Bligh.  But  a fatal mutiny of the crew
at that time  prevented the accompUsh-
ment of this benevolent  design.   The
commander of the  vessel,  however, re-
turned  in safety to his country, and  a
second expedition, under the same person,
and for the same purpose, was fitted out
in the year 1791.   He arrived in safety
at Otaheite,  and, after an  absence from
England of about 18 months, landed in
Jamaica, with 352 bread-fruit-trees, in a
living state,  having left many others at
different places  in his passage  thither.
From Jamaica, diese trees were transfer-
red  to other islands; but, the Negroes
having a general  and long-established
predilection for  the plaintain, the bread-
fruit  is  not  much relished  by them.
Where, however, it has not been gener-
ally introduced as an article of food, it is
used  as a deUcacy;  and, whether em-
ployed as bread, or in  the form  of pud-
ding, it is considered highly palatable by
the European inhabitants.
   Breakers ; billows  which break vio-
lendy over rocks lying under the  surface
of the sea.  They are readUy distinguish-
ed by the foam which  they produce, and
by a peculiar hoarse roaring, very differ-
ent from that of waves  in deep water.
When a ship is driven among breakers, it
is hardly possible  to save  her, as every
billow that heaves her upward serves to
dash  her down with additional force.
   Breaking  Bulk ; the act of beginning
to  unlade a  ship,  or  of discharging the
first part of the cargo.
   Breakwater.   (See Cherbourg, Plym-
outh and Delaware.)
   Breast.  (See Chest.)
   Breast-Plate ; a piece of defensive
armor,  covering   the  breast, originally
made of thongs, cords, leather, &c (hence
lorica, cuirass), but afterwards of brass,
iron, or other metals.   It may be consid-
ered as an improvement of the shield or
buckler, which was borne on the left arm,
and moved so as to protect, successively,
aU parts of the body.   It being perceived
that the free use  of both  hands in the
employment  of offensive  weapons was
important, the  defensive armor was at-
tached to the body, and received different
names from its position, use, &c.; as, for
instance,  breast-plate,   cuisses,  greaves.
These different species of defensive ar-
mor are of litfle use against fire-arms, and
have, therefore, generally fallen into dis-
use in  modern war.   (See  Cuirass.)—
Breast-plate, in Jewish antiquity, was  a
folded piece of rich, embroidered stuff}
worn  by the high-priest  It was set with
12 precious stones, bearing  the names of
the tribes.  It was also caUed the breast-
plate of judgment, because it contained the
Urim  and Thummim.
   Breast-Wheel ; a water-wheel which
receives the water at about half its height,
or at  the  level of its axis.   In England,
float-boards are employed, which  are fit-
ted accurately to the mill-course, so that
the water, after acting on the floats by its
impulse, is detained in the course, and
acts by its weight.  In the U. States, they
are often  constnicted with buckets, and
with a part of the circumference fitted to
the mill-course.
   Breast-Work.   In  the military art,
every  elevation  made  for   protection
against  the shot of the enemy.  Wood
and stone are  not suitable  for  breast-
works,  on account of their Uability to
splinter.   The best are  mode of earth; in
some  circumstances, of fascines, dung,
gabions, bags of sand and of wool.  The
thickness of the work must be in propor-
tion to  the artillery of the enemy.  In
general, it ought not to be less than 10,
nor more than 18, or, at  most, 24 feet
thick.   The rule  of Cugnot is,  that the
breast-work should be so high, that noth-
ing but the sky and the tops of trees can
be seen within cannon  shot from the in-
terior of the intrenchments.  If this rule
cannot  be followed, on account of the
height of neighboring mountains, the in-
terior of the  fortification ought to be se-
cured by traverses.
   Breath.  The  air which issues  from 
BREATH—BREDOW.
253
the  lungs,  during respiration  (q.  v.),
through the nose and mouth.   This op-
eration is performed without effort,  but
still it causes a motion in the external air,
before the nose and mouth.  The air ex-
pired is the vehicle of sound and speech.
A smaller portion of oxygen and a larger
portion of carbonic acid is contained in
the air which is exhaled  than in  that
which is inhaled.  There are, also, aque-
ous  particles in the breath, which  are
precipitated, by  die coldness of the  ex-
ternal air, in the form of visible vapor;
likewise  other  substances  which  owe
their origin to secretions  in the mouth,
nose, wind-pipe  and lungs.   These cause
the  changes in the breath, which may be
known by the smell, Uke the other quaU-
ties  of the air.  In youth, the  breath is
insipid, and contains acid: it loses these
qualities  after the age of puberty, and be-
comes more agreeable.  With advancing
age, it becomes again unpleasant.  A bad
breath is often caused by local affections
in the nose, the mouth, or the wind-pipe:
viz.  by ulcers in  the nose, cancerous poly-
pi,  by discharges from the mouth, by
sores on the lungs, or pecuUar secretions
in them.   It  is  also caused  by rotten
teeth, by impurities in the mouth, and by
many kinds of food  (viz. horse-radish,
onions, and also by flesh, if used to the
exclusion of other food), and  by fevers.
In the lost case, it often varies with the
character of the disease.   The remedy
for this complaint  must depend on the
causes which produce it  Substances of
on aromatic kind, which have  a strong,
rich smell, should be chewed to diminish
its offensiveness.  (See Mengin's Tenta-
men Physiologicum de  respirat (Edin-
burgh, 1790.)  But it  is often impossible
to remove this unpleasant  disorder.   Ac-
cording to the Prussian code, a bad breath
furnishes ground for a divorce.
   Breathing.  (See Respiration.)
   Breccia; a  term  appUed  to a  rock
composed of angular fragments cemented
together.
   Brechin ; a town of Scotland, 83 nules
north of Edinburgh,  with 5906 inhabit-
ants.  It is more distinguished in history
than for its present importance.  David I
founded  a bishop's see at B. in 1150, and
some remains of its cathedral still exist.
The steeple is a fine tower, surmounted
by a spire, and is 120 feet high. Near it
is one of those old towers common in
Ireland,  103 feet high, and 16 feet in di-
ameter at the base.  Nothing  is known
of the uses of these towers, or of the time
of their erection.  The Culdees (q. v.) had
   vol. ii.            22
a cell or convent here.  There was, for-
merly, a strong  castle at  B., which sir
Thomas  Maule  defended  against  Ed-
ward I.
  Breda, in the Netherlands ; capital of
a district of the  same name, has 9000
inhabitants, is connected with  the Meuse
by the navigable river Merk.   B., being a
strong frontier fortress, was fonnerly of
the greatest  importance to Holland, and
is still of great military value as the chief
point of the line of fortresses before the
Meuse.  The fortifications consist of 15
bastions, as  many ravelins, and 5 horn-
works, besides the  citadel.   The chief
strength  of this fortress Ues in its marshy
environs, which may easily be laid under
water.  B. became a town in 1534: since
that time, it has often been a  subject of
contention between the Dutch, Spaniards
and French. It  was taken by surprise
by  Barlaimont in 1581, and by Maurice
of Orange in 1590.  The  latter  capture
was accomplished by means of a boat
loaded with  turf, in which  70  Dutch sol-
diers were concealed.  Spinola took B.,
in 1625, after a siege of 10, and Henry of
Orange after one of 4 months.  During
the French revolutionary war, Dumouriez
made himself master of the city and for-
tress in February, 1793, and would there-
by have  prepared the way for the con-
quest of Holland, had he not been forced,
by the loss  of a battle at Neerwinden, to
evacuate the city and fortress, April 4.
In  September, 1794, B. was attacked by
the army of Pichegru, but did not  sur-
render till all Holland was  conquered, in
the winter of 1794.   On the approach of
the  Russian van-guard,  under  general
Benkendorf, in Dec, 1813, the  French
garrison  made a  sally, and the patriotic
citizens profited by the occasion, rose en
masse, shut the  gates, and prevented the
French from returning into the town. A
peace was concluded at B. between Eng-
land and Holland in 1667.
  Bredow,  Gabriel Godfrey, professor of
history in  Breslau,  born  in  Berlin, in
1773, of poor parents, was, for  a time,
professor at  Eutin, and a colleague of the
celebrated Voss;  afterwards professor at
Helmstadt, and, stiff later, at Frankfort on
the Oder, whence he went to  Breslau on
the  removal of  die university  to  that
place.  He died in 1814.  He was distin-
guished for his patriotism and his Uterary
works.  His Handbuch der alten Geschichte
(Manual of Ancient History)  has passed
through  five editions, the last of which
appeared in 1825.  He is the author of
 Chronik des  neunzehnten Jahrhunderts 
254
BREDOW—BREISLAK.
 (Chronicle of the Nineteenth Century),
 Epistola Parisienses (he went to Paris in
 1807, to collect all that has been left to us
 by die Greek geographers), Untersuch-
 ungen iiber  Geschichte, Geographic und
 Chronologie (Researches on Histoiy, Ge-
 ography and  Chronology), and  of  the
 very useful Historische  TabeUen (Histori-
 cal Tables), which have been translated
 into English.
   Bree, Matthew van,  first painter to the
 crown-prince of the Netherlands, mem-
 ber of the national institute of the Neth-
 erlands, born at Antwerp in 1773, culti-
 vated his  talents in this  city, and after-
 wards  in  Paris, under the direction of
 Vincent, and in Italy.  As early as 1798,
 his Death of Cato  was admired.  This
 great painter, being accustomed to sketch
 his ideas rapidly, was able to present to
 Napoleon the manoeuvres of the fleet on
 the Scheldt before Antwerp, a few hours
 after they took place. With almost equal
 rapidity, he made a painting of  Napo-
 leon's entrance into Amsterdam,  at the
 moment  chosen,  being that  when the
 magistrates  are delivering to him the
 keys of the city.  In architecture and in
 sculpture, B. also exhibited considerable
 talents.—Philip James van B.  is likewise
 a  celebrated painter, and Uves at  Pavia.
 Several of his works have been purchased
 in France for the Louvre, St Cloud, &c
 He was born in 1786.
   Breeches ; an article  of clothing in
 use even  among the Babylonians,  and
 which, with them, were  made so as to
 cover the foot, and supply the place of
 stockings.   In Europe, we find hose  first
 used among the Gauls; hence the  Ro-
 mans called a part of Gaul breeched Gaul
 (Gallia  braccata).   In the 5th century,
 they had become  fashionable  in Rome ;
 but the breeches-makers  were expelled
 from the  city by an  imperial edict,  it
 being considered unworthy of the lords
 of the world to wear these barbarous in-
 vestments. The stockings were separated
 from them some centuries since.  Some-
 times they were worn small, and  some-
times large, as the fasliion changed.  In
some instances, an immense quantity of
cloth was put in them.   The poor stuffed
theirs out with  such substances as they
could procure.  Joachim II,  elector of
Brandenburg, who  had  forbidden  the
wearing of these enormous integuments,
made a person, whom he saw with a pair,
rip them  open, when some  bushels of
bran fell out of them.   Osiander  (in his
 Hoffahrtsteufel)  and  Musculus  (in  his
Hosenteufel) raised their  voices  against
 this preposterous fashion.  The modern
 breeches were first introduced during the
 reign of Louis XIV.
   Breeching ; a rope used to secure the
 cannon of a ship  of war, and prevent
 them from recoiling too much in the time
 of battle.  It is of sufficient length to al-
 low the muzzle of the cannon to come
 within the ship's side to be charged.
   Breezes, Sea, Land and  Mountain.
 (See Winds.)
   Breguet, A. L.,  maker of  time-pieces
 for the royal marine in France, member
 of the academy of sciences and the bu-
 reau des longitudes,  of the society for the
 encouragement of national industry, the
 royal council  of arts  and manufactures,
 and the legion of honor, bom at Neuf-
 chatel, in 1747, contributed to the perfec-
 tion of the art  of watch-making, as well
 as of mechanics in  general, by a number
 of useful  inventions, for  instance, astro-
 nomical  double watches, double chro-
 nometers, marine watches, a sympathetic
 clock, watches that  need not be wound
 up, provided they are  occasionally worn
 about the person, the metalUc  thermome-
 ter, &c  He likewise  improved the tele-
 graph.  He  has a son, who possesses a
 large share of his father's talents, and has
 been concerned with him  in  the execu-
 tion of many of his great works.
  Brehon ; an ancient Irish  magistrate.
 The office appears to have been hereditary.
 Each tribe had one brehon, whose judg-
 ments were given in the open air on the
 hill-tops;  many spots  are   yet  caUed
 Brehons' chairs. The  office  was abol-
 ished under Edward III. Some fragments
 of the brehon law are  yet extant.  (See
 Ledwich's Antiquities of Ireland, 1790.)
  Breisgau.  (See Brisgau.)
  Breislak, Scipio, born in Rome, 1768,
 and  destined  for the church, for which
 reason he is mentioned as an abbate in
 the works of Spallanzani, was one of the
 most ingenious geologists of our times,
 and  opposed to the Neptunian system,
 without, however, implicitly adopting the
 Vulcanian.  He was professor of natural
 philosophy and mathematics  at Ragusa.
 He was  afterwards professor in the colle-
gia Nazareno, at Rome, made a scientific
 tour through Naples, and went to Paris,
 where he formed an intimacy with Four-
 croy, Chaptal,  Cuvier, &c.   Napoleon
 appointed him inspector of die  saltpetre
 works and powder-mills in the kingdom
 of Italy.  He was also a member of the
 institute and many other Uterary societies.
 The first work, by which he made him-
 self  known to the public as an  observer 
BREISLAK—BREMEN.
255
of nature (e. g. his treatise on the solfata-
ra in the vicinity of Naples, in the neigh-
borhood of which he lived  for years as
director of the estabUshments for boiling
alum), contains indications of the princi-
ples which he afterwards developed in his
system.   The first extensive  work, which
he published at Florence in 1798, was the
Topogrqfia Firica della Campagna (Phys-
ical Topography  of Campania).   After
some  time  spent  in the examination of
this region, he returned to Rome, exam-
ined the adjoining country in a geological
point  of view, and confirmed his former
opinion,  that the seven hills are chiefly
the remains of an extinct volcano.   Leav-
ing his native city on account of poUtical
disturbances, he went  to  France, where
he made himself known to the mineralo-
gists,  in 1801, by a new edition of the
above-mentioned  work (disfigured,  in-
deed, by many misprints),  with additional
remarks, supplements and   corrections,
under the title Voyages Physiques et  Li-
thologiques dans la Campanie, 2 vols.  A
topographico-mineralogical description of
the environs  of Rome is added to it.  It
contains the results of 12 years' research-
es.  Till then, there had been no system-
atic treatise on the mineralogy of mount
Vesuvius.  Earlier writings  on this  vol-
cano contained merely the histoiy of sin-
gle eruptions, and the only mineralogical
work on this subject, by Gonni, is nothing
but a catalogue.   B. was the first who
examined geologically  the  regions  de-
scribed in his work.  This valuable work
has been translated into several languages;
into French by general Pommereuil,  into
German by Fr.  Ambr. Reuss (Leipsic,
1802, 2 vols, with engravings).—B. took
advantage of his  residence  in France to
examine the regions of Auvergne famous
for the Puys (volcanic mountains),  and
his observations  there contributed not a
little  to the formation  of his theories on
the effects of volcanoes.  In Milan, he
wrote his Arte di Salnitrajo  (Art of man-
ufacturing Saltpetre), and, in 1811, pub-
Ushed his Introduzione alia Geologia  (In-
troduction to Geology),  2  vols., which
was, in 1818, followed by an edition in
French, almost  a new work, under the
title Institutions  Geologiques, 3 vols., like-
wise  published  at Milan.  In  1822, his
beautiful geological  description  of the
province of Milan appeared.  He died at
Turin, Feb.  15,  1826, at  the age  of 78.
He left  his celebrated cabinet of minerals
to the family of Borromeo.
  Breitkopf, John Gottlob Emmanuel;
born  at Leipsic, in 1719.  He pursued, at
first, a Uterary career.  During his studies,
the works of' Albert Diirer, in which the
proportions of letters are mathematically
calculated,  fell  into his hands.  He was
pleased with this subject, and, during his
whole life, labored with zeal to improve
the German characters.  An attempt was
once made to  introduce into  Germany
the Latin  characters  instead  of  those
commonly used in  that countiy.  B. was
one of the most zealous opposers of the
plan.   In 1755, he essentially improved
the art of printing  music with movable
characters.  His invention of a  method
of printing maps, pictures, and even Chi-
nese characters, by means  of  movable
types,  is ingenious, though less useful
than the other. Although the pope,  as
well as  the academy  in Paris,  testified
their great approbation of this invention,
yet no practical use has yet been  made
of  it.   He  was  engaged  in  writing a
history of the art of printing, but died in
1794, before this work was finished.   B.
was a man of great probity.
  Bremen, on  the  Weser, situated in a
tenitory  formerly  an archbishopric, but
erected into  the  duchy  of Bremen  in
1648, was one of the leading members  of
the Hanseatic league.  At the reforma-
tion, the  city embraced the Lutheran reli-
gion, and expelled the archbishop.   Since
1562, Calvinism has been the prevailing
religion.  By the peace of Westphalia, the
crown of Sweden came  into possession
of the  secularized  archbishopric, under
the title  of a duchy.  When the elector
of  Brunswick  gained  possession of the
duchy in 1731,  the prerogatives of a free
city were confinned to B.  B. is divided
by  the Weser into the old and the new
towns.   The fortifications have been de-
molished, and on the ground where they
stood a garden,  in  the English style, was
laid out in 1802, extending, in a semicir-
cle, round the old  town, from one bank
of the  Weser to the other:  the garden is
provided with running water, and  wide,
clean walks.  Outside of each of its gates
is a retired place, planted with fir-trees,
affording sheltered walks, and room for
sports  of various sorts.  There  is,  also,
much taste displayed in the arrangement
of the trees, shrubs and plants. Adjoining
it are the finest houses, which have a good
view of the river,  the  city, and the sur-
rounding country.   The principal build-
ings, besides the churches, are the senate-
house, with its cellar  of Rhenish  wine,
the former archiepiscopal palace,  con-
verted, in  1819, into the city hall; the
exchange, a museum, theatre,  hospital, 
256
BREMEN—BRENNUS.
city library, and  two orphan  asylums.
The  water-works furnish the old town
with pure,  soft water.  The number of
inhabitants  is estimated at 38,000; that of
the houses is 5350.  The  city contains a
gymnasium (academy), and, for scientific
instruction, a padagogium.  The magis-
trates (two  of whom may be Lutherans),
are 4 burgomasters and 24 senators, com-
posed partly of the learned and partly of
the mercantile professions.  If matteis of
general moment arise, the Wittheit (wis-
dom), consisting of all the  citizens who
pay taxes,  is convoked.  The  territory
belonging to the  city is about 74 square
miles, and  contains 48,500 inhabitants.
From 1810 to  1813, B. was the capital
of the French department of the Mouths
of the Weser.   The congress of Vienna
admitted it into the German confederacy,
as a free city, with one vote in the gener-
al assembly.  B. and the three other free
cities have, together, a vote in the diet
The revenues amount to 400,000 florins;
the debt, to 4,500,000 florins.  The con-
stitution is, Uke that of Hamburg and Lu-
beck, a relic of other times.  A thousand
antiquated forms render the government
of this small city a complicated web of
janing interests.  These free cities do not
even possess the liberty of the press,  and
their existence depends  on the  mutual
jealousy  of the powers which surround
them, with whose whims they must al-
ways comply.   The only advantage of
which they can boast is the comparative
lightness of the taxes.   The chief points
deserving of remark in the  political con-
stitution of these cities are, that they have
four burgomasters chosen for Ufe, a sen-
ate, chosen from among the citizens, also
for life ; likewise meetings of the citizens,
either in  primary assemblies or by dele-
gates, whose opinion  and  consent  are
seldom  asked,  except when new taxes
are to be imposed; and, finally, a number
of subjects not represented.  In 1820, the
toll at Elsfleth was aboUshed;  but the
accumulation of sand between Vegesack
and B. has  not ceased, and vessels deeply
laden can go up the river only to Bracke
and  Elsfleth, or, at most, to Vegesack.
Their cargoes  are, therefore, discharged
into  Ughters, which is inconvenient  and
expensive.   The herring and whale fish-
eries carried on from this city are import-
ant, and the trade, principally in German
Unen, to St. Thomas and South America,
is increasing.  Olbers  and Heeren were
bom at  B.  B. Ues in lon.  8° ASt 3" E.;
lat. 53° 4' 45" N.
   Brenner, in  the Tyrol.  Mount  B.,
properly so called (also mons Brennius),
rising between Inspruckand Sterzing, and
between the rivers Inn, Aicha and Adige,
729 fathoms above the level of the sea, is
6063 feet in height.  The road from Ger-
many to Italy  traverses  this mountain.
It is 4376 feet high, and about  12 miles
long.  At its foot is the pass, called Lueg
or Lug, where the milestones of Maximin
and JVlaxentius are standing; the first of
which was erected in 236, or the year of
the victory over the Allemanni, and indi-
cates the distance of 130 Roman miles to
Augsburg.   The B. has  been the chief
position for the  defence of the Tyrol.  In
the last revolution  of the  Tyrolese, in
1809, particularly in  August, they de-
fended themselves gallantly in this place
against the Bavarians and  French, who
were advancing, cutting off their commu-
nication with Italy, until November.  (See
Alps, Roads over.)
  Brennus ;  the name of several princes
of the ancient Gauls, and expressive of
their dignity.   Its  derivation  from the
old Celtic word brenn (chief} leader)  is
not improbable. A leader  of the  Sen-
nones, a Gallic nation  in  the upper part
of Italy,  who is mentioned under  this
name, made an  invasion into the Roman
teiTitory about the year 390 B. C.  Aruns,
an Etrurian, having  failed in an attempt
to obtain justice at  Rome in a  lawsuit
with his ward,  addressed himself to the
Sennones for the purpose of revenging
himself!  Enticed by the description of
the fertility  of  Etruria,  they conquered
the whole country from  Ravenna as  far
as Picenum.  They then laid  siege to
Clusium, the inhabitants of which  city
had  recourse  to  Rome for assistance.
The Romans, in consequence, sent three
brothers of the  Fabian famdy to remon-
strate with B.  B. repUed, that his right
lay in his sword.  The Fabu, provoked
by this haughty answer,  entered the city
under pretence  of negotiating, exhorted
the inhabitants to perseverance, promised
them assistance, and even  conducted a
sally at their head.  B. resolved to avenge
this breach of faith, and, raising the siege
of Clusium,  directed his  march towards
Rome, after having in vain demanded the
surrender of the Fabii.   They were ap-
pointed miUtary tribunes, and, at the head
of 40,000 men, went  forth  to meet the
enemy.   A battle was fought near the
river AUia, not far from Rome ; the Ro-
mans were totally defeated,  and B. took
possession of the city, which had been
previously abandoned by the inhabitants.
The capitol only was provided with a 
BRENNUS—BRESCIA.
257
garrison; but several aged citizens of rank,
priests, ex-consuls and generals, amount-
ing in the  whole to about  forty,  had
resolved  to  remain  in the  city, and de-
vote themselves  to the infernal deities.
Attired in their sacerdotal, consular and
triumphal robes,  like  victims  decorated
for the sacrifice, they  seated themselves
in their chairs of office, in the middle of
the forum,  awaiting  death.   When B.
arrived at the forum, he was struck with
astonishment at  their venerable aspect.
The Gauls looked upon them as so many
statues of deities, and feared  to go near
them.  At last one ventured to approach
M. Papirius, and  stroke his beard, upon
which the latter struck him with his ivory
sceptre, and was  immediately massacred,
together with  his  companions, by  the
infuriated Gauls.  Rome was sacked, and
aU the inhabitants who  yet remained in
their houses were slain.  B. then assault-
ed the capitol, and, being  repeUed with
considerable loss, he set fire to the city,
and IeveUed it with  the ground.  The
capitol,  however, was so strong, that he
resolved to reduce it by famine. Detach-
ed parties, at the same time,  plundered
the plain country, and exacted contribu-
tions from the neighboring cities.  Such
a party appeared before Ardea, the place
where the valiant Camillus  Uved in exile.
This magnanimous patriot persuaded the
senate  of Ardea to  defend  their city,
made a nocturnal attack on the besiegers,
and caused  a dreadful slaughter among
them.  By this victory, the courage of the
Romans, who had fled from  their city,
was revived: they ralhed a body of 40,000
men, chose Camillus their leader, and  the
senate, being secretly apprized of it, nam-
ed him dictator.   Meanwhile, the garrison
of the capitol was in great distress.  B.
attempted a surprise by night, in which
he would have  succeeded, had not  the
cackling of the  geese, sacred to Juno,
awakened the Romans.  ManUus, the for-
mer consul,  alarmed the ganison, and the
Gauls were  repulsed.  As it was  not
known in the capitol  that CamiUus was
approaching, or  that the Gauls were dis-
tressed for want  of provisions (Camillus
having cut offtiieir supplies), the garrison
was inclined to enter into a  treaty.  B.
promised to raise  the siege,  and leave the
Roman territory, for 1000 pounds of gold.
The gold was weighed, but  the Gauls
made use of false  weights; and, when the
Romans complained of the fraud, B. threw
his sword into the scale, and cried out,—
" Wo to the  vanquished!"   The Romans
were about  to submit to  this injustice,
                  22*
when Camillus appeared with his army,
and declared the treaty void.  A battle
ensued: after having sustained an incon-
siderable loss, the Gauls retreated, and, in
the succeeding  night,  abandoned  their
camp.  On the following day, Camillus
pursued and defeated them.   Those who
escaped death in battle were slain by the
inhabitants of the country, so that not one
of them returned to his native land.—An-
other B., likewise a leader of the Gauls,
invaded Macedonia, about 100 years later,
with an immense army  (150,000 foot and
30—40,000 horse), and, after having de-
feated  Sosthenes,  directed  his  march
through Thessaly and  Greece,  towards
Delphi, where he plundered,  or was on
the point  of plundering, both city  and
temple ; but, as several writers assert, he
was  repelled by a tenible storm,  accom-
panied by Ughtniug and earthquakes: a
Greek  army drew near,  and a  general
defeat of the Gauls ensued.  B. himself
put an end to his Ufe.
  Brentano, Clement, born at Frankfort
on the  Maine, in 1777, has made himself
known by several literary works. Among
them is Des Knaben Wunderhorn (The
Boy's wondrous Horn, 3 vols., 1826), a col
lection of German popular songs, which
he published with his friend Achim von
Aniim.
  Brentford ; a town in Middlesex, Eng.,
seven miles W. of London. It has a week-
ly market and  two  annual fairs.  Here
Edmund  Ironside  defeated  the  Danes,
under  Canute, in 1016; and Charles I a
part of the parUamentary forces, in 1642.
The  magnificent edifice of the duke of
Somerset,  where lady Jane Grey resided,
now  belonging to the duke of Northum-
berland, was built here, on the site of a
suppressed nunnery.
  Brescia ;  capital of a delegation com-
prising 314,000 inhabitants, and 1200 sq.
miles, in the Milanese, at the foot of a
mountain rising between the lakes Guarda
and Iseo, on the rivers Mella and Garza.
This latter river divides the city into two
parts, in which respect it resembles most of
the cities of Lombardy.   It is a manufac-
turing  place, containing 3438 houses and
31,000 inhabitants.  It is commanded by
a citadel, elevated on a rocky height, and
is adorned with a magnificent cathedral.
This, as well as the splendid library in the
episcopal palace, it owes to cardinal Qui-
rini.   It has also a philharmonic  society
a cabinet of medals, and a theatre.  This
last is to be found in almost all Italian
cities of equal importance, because, in Ita-
ly, many possessors of landed estates, hav- 
258
BRESCIA—BRETEUIL.
ing no other pursuit than pleasure, spend
their income in  the cities.  In this city
(for many centuries called Armata) and in
Bergamo were the chief manufactories of
arms of every description, to answer the
demand of the Levant, where much lux-
ury is displayed in this article.   Venice,
for a long time, sent thither suppUes of
beautiful and costly arms.   The guns of
B., and the steel prepared there, are cele-
brated  in the East.   B. has also manufac-
tures of oil, fustian, linen, silk, paper and
hardware.  Much  silk, wine, flax and
cloth is conveyed into the interior; for the
artificial irrigation,  by  the aid of Alpine
streams and the  abundance of lakes, to-
gether  with the southern exposure of the
territory of B., impart to the fertile soil of
this delegation a great  richness of vegeta-
tion, which is increased by the industry
of the  tenants, assisted by the advances
of funds  on the part of the wealthy pro-
prietors.  Under  the government of Ven-
ice, the taxes were very Ught; neverthe-
less, the inhabitants of B. and its territory
were very unruly subjects of the republic,
whose  poUce was  so  lax, as scarcely to
punish those who undertook to revenge
themselves.  An  end has been put to the
disorders, caused by banditti in the terri-
tory of Venice, by the  French and Aus-
trian government in Italy.   In 1826, a
number of remarkable antiquities  were
found buried in a vault near B.
  Breslau, capital of  Silesia, on the river
Ohlau, at its junction with the Oder, has
78,860 inhabitants, among whom are 4600
Jews.  B. is the residence of both the
military and civil  governors of Silesia, and
the seat of a superior council of adminis-
tration, a superior court of justice, &c.  It
contains more than 20  Catholic churches,
of which the cathedral of St John on the
Dominsel (island  of the cathedral) is the
seat of the bishop of B. Among 84 liter-
ary institutions, there are four distinguish-
ed gymnasia; two Lutheran, one Reform-
ed and one CathoUc. Among the Ubraries
worthy of notice are the royal library, the
library of the university, and the library
of Rhediger, which belongs to the city,
and is remarkable  for  its rich collection
of manuscripts.  The  city possesses, in
its senate-house, and  in  the  church of
the cross, standing  on  Sandinsel  (Sandy
island) two  magnificent monuments of
ancient German  architecture, and,  in
pubUc  places as weU  as private  coUec-
tions, contains many exquisite works of
art  It  has  also a theatre.   B. carries
on a considerable commerce, which has,
however, been diminished by late events.
The two annual fairs of wool are numer-
ously attended.  Among the misfortunes
that have  befitilen the city  in  modem
times, the siege in 1806 and 1807, by the
French and the troops  of the confedera-
tion of the Rhine, m ust be noticed.  After
the capture, the French began to destroy
the fortifications, which have since  been
entirely demolished.  The spacious walks
and new buildings, which occupy the place
of the works, have very much contributed
to embellish B.  The Catholic university
was established under Leopold II,  in
1702, by the Jesuits, and, in 1811, com-
bined with  the Protestant  university of
Frankfort on the Oder.  In 1826, it con-
tained  more than  850 students.   The
Prussian government has done much for
this institution, as well as  for the other
new universities in BerUn and Bonn.
  Brest (anciently,  Brivates Portus, and
Gesobrivate); a seaport in France, and
principal place of a district in the depart-
ment of Finisterre, in the former province
of Brittany, 23 posts N. W. Vannes, 691
W.  Paris; lon. 4° 2V  W.; lat. 48° 23' N.;
pop., 25,865; houses,  2600.   It has one of
the  best harbors in  France, and  a safe
road, capable of containing 500 men-of-
war, in 8,10 and 15 fathoms at low water,
and it is the chief station of the French
marine.  The harbor and magazines were
constructed  in 1631,  by Richelieu.   The
coast, on both sides, is weU fortified.  The
entrance is  nanow  and difficult, with
covered rocks, that make it dangerous to
those not weU acquainted with it.  It con-
tains two parishes and a marine seminary.
The arsenal is an  immense and superb
building, and the dock-yards are weU con-
structed.  It is the  seat of a governor, of
an  admiralty board, and a  municipality.
The climate of B. is wet and uncomfort-
able, and the sky is almost always obscur-
ed,   June 1, 1794, the  French fleet was
beaten off Brest by  the EngUsh, under
Howe, who  took from  them six ships of
the  line, and sunk a seventh.
  Bretagne.  (See Brittany.)
  Breteuil, Louis- Auguste  le  Tonne-
lier, baron de; bom  in 1733; a French
diplomatist; at first,  minister plenipoten-
tiary at the court of the elector of Cologne,
afterwards at the Russian court, then suc-
cessively ambassador  in Sweden, HoUand,
Naples, at Vienna, and the congress at
Teschen.   His embassy to Vienna ex-
plains his attachment to the queen Marie
Antoinette.  As minister and secretary of
state, he was a zealous defender of the
monarchy:  he was, therefore, considered
as one of the greatest enemies of the rev- 
BRETEUIL—BREVE.
259
olution.  After the 14di of July, he escap-
ed the fate of Foulon by a hasty flight.
In 1790,  Louis XVI intrusted him with
several secret negotiations at the prin-
cipal northern courts.  The  convention
issued a decree against him.  In Bertrand
de Moleville's history of the revolution,
there is valuable information with respect
to his last diplomatic labors.   In 1802, he
returned, with the permission of the gov-
ernment, to France, and died at Paris, in
1807.
  Bretschneider,  Henry  Godfrey von,
born at Gera, March 6, 1739,  died at the
castle of Krzinitz,  near  Pilsen, Nov. 1,
1810.   He was a  soldier, a provincial
counsellor, Ubrarian  at Ofen and Lemberg,
the adviser and confidant of Joseph II, a
travelling adventurer,  a poet, a writer of
songs, a collector of engravings  and pic-
tures, an author of reviews and  satires, a
Peregrinus-Proteus, in a hundred different
colors; yet, withal, an upright friend to
what he  considered the  truth;  a sworn
enemy to all political and priestly impos-
ture, which he unmasked  without mercy;
an  encyclopedist, without having ever
been connected with d'Alembert and  Di-
derot ; an instructer and benefactor of his
age; in his writings and conversation, an
enemy of Napoleon; hated by thousands;
loved by all who  were  intimately  ac-
quainted  with him ; courted on account
of his  wit and social talents; feared by
aU fools and hypocrites.   He received his
first instruction in the academy at Ebers-
dorf, under the  care of the Bohemian
brethren, where he was taught by hunger
to steal, and, by hypocritical cant, to doubt
all that is holy.  He has written a great
deal, and no folly  of the times escaped
him.  All were boldly exposed and forci-
bly attacked.  His Journey  to London
and Paris  (Berlin,  1817)  was translated
and published in the Edinburgh Magazine.
If B. had written nothing but the Alma-
nac of the Saints,  for the year 1788, in
which, in compliance with the wish of the
emperor Joseph, he unsparingly  attacks
priests and priestcraft, he would deserve,
for this work alone, to be known to en-
lightened foreigners.
  Breughel ; the name of a celebrated
Dutch family of painters, the first of whom
adopted this name from a village  not far
from  Breda.   This was  Peter  B.,  also
caUed, from the character and subject of
most of  his representations, the Droll, or
the Peasants' B.  He was born in  1510
(according to Mechel, in 1530), was a pu-
pil  of  Peter  Koeck van Aelst, travelled
into Italy and France, copying the beau-
ties of nature, and, after his return, fixed
his residence at Antwerp, where he was
received into the academy of painters in
that place.   He subsequently married the
daughter of his instructer Koeck, and
removed to  Brussels, where he died in
1570 (according to some,  in 1590).  In
his rural weddings, his rustic feasts and
dances, he strikingly represents the gay-
ety of the  vUlagers,  as he himself had
frequendy observed them,  in disguise, in
his youth.  He also etched, but many of
his pictures have been  engraved by oth-
ers.  He left two sons—Peter and John.
The former, (called the  Younger B.,) pre-
ferring subjects  affording striking con-
trasts,  painted  many scenes in which
devds, witches or robbers are the princi-
pal figures.  This particular turn of ge-
nius procured him the  name of Hell B.
Among his pieces are Orpheus playing on
his Lyre before the infernal Deities; also,
the Temptation of St. Anthony.  The for-
mer picture hangs in the gallery of  Flor-
ence.   The second brother, John, was
distinguished by his landscapes and  smaU
figures.   From his usual dress, he re-
ceived the  title of Velvet B.   He] also
painted  for other masters  landscapes, as
back-grounds to their pieces, and some-
times Uttle  figures in them. He was a
very prolific artist.  In connexion with
Rubens, he represented Adam and Eve in
Paradise.  The figures in this picture are
painted by Rubens.  This piece, his Four
Elements, also  Vertumnus and Pomona,
which were  all executed jointly with Ru-
bens,  are among  his principal perform-
ances.  He is said to have been born in
1568.   He visited Italy, and enriched his
imagination  with beautiful scenery. He
is said to have died in 1640. Other mem-
bers of this  famUy, belonging to a later
period, are Ambrose and Abraham, who,
for a time, resided in Italy, and died in
1690;  the  brother of  the latter,  John
Baptist, who died  in Rome; and Abra-
ham's son, Caspar B., known as a painter
of flowers and fruits.
  Breve ; a note of the third degree of
length, and  formerly of a square figure,
as H ; but now made  of an oval shape,
with a line perpendicular to the stave on
each of its sides:  |ol •   The breve, in its
simple state, that is, without a dot after it,
is  equal  in  duration to one quarter of a
large, or to  two semibreves, and is then
colled imperfect; but, when  dotted, it is
equal to three  eighths of a large, or to
three semibreves, which being the greatest
length it can assume, it  is then called per-
fect. 
260
BREVET—BREWING.
   Brevet; a  term bonowed  from the
 French, in  which it signifies a royal act
 granting some favor or privilege; as, brevet
 d'invention.   It is appUed, in England and
 the U. States, to nominal rank in the army
 higher than that for which pay is received.
 Thus a brevet major serves as captain, and
 draws pay as such.  In the army  of the
 U. States, officers, having brevets or com-
 missions of a prior date to those  of the
 regiments in which they serve, may take
 place in courts-martial,  and on detach-
 ments composed of different  corps, ac-
 cording to  the rank given them in their
 brevets, or dates of their former commis-
 sion ; but, in the regiment,  troop or com-
 pany, to which they belong, they shall do
 duty and take rank according to the com-
 missions by which they are mustered in
 such corps.   (Rules and Art. of War, 61.)
 By act of congress, April 16, 1818,  brevet
 officers shall receive the pay and emolu-
 ments of their brevet commissions only
 when on duty, and having  command ac-
 cording to their brevet rank.  The same
 act provides that brevet commissions shall,
 from that date, be confened only with the
 consent of the senate.
   Breviary;  the book containing the
 daily service of the church of Rome, mat-
 ins, lauds, prime,  third, sixth, nones and
 vespers, which all Catholics were formerly
 bound to read daily.  This obUgation is
 now restricted to the beneficiary clergy.
   Brewing. The juices of fruits contain
 sugar, which is essential to the vinous fer-
 mentation.   But this does not exist, in
 any important quantity, in seeds. Instead
 of it, however, we have starch, and this
 may combine with water, so as to forin
 sugar.  This combination  is performed
 very perfectly by a vital process ; that is
 to say, it takes place only in  a living seed,
 and not in one which is frozen, burned, or
 otherwise killed.  It  is  known by the
 name of germination or growing, and  is
 of famiUar occurrence, being what takes
 place in every seed that is successfully
 planted.  The seeds of wheat, rye, barley,
 &c. consist  principally of starch.  If a
 grain of these is examined, we  find near
 one end of it a small body, which  is the
 rudiment of the  future  plant,  and the
 microscope shows us that this consists of
two parts—the plumula, which is destined
to ascend through  the earth to form the
stalk,  and the  radicle, which  is  to  be
spread abroad below, and form the root
Whenever a grain of barley, oats, or cer-
tain other of the  gramineous seeds, is
exposed to water, it begins to swell and
absorb the moisture; and, at the same time,
 if the temperature of the air is not too
 cold, the radicle thrusts itself out at the
 lower end; the plumula, on the other hand,
 pushes itself along beneath the  husk of
 the grain to the other end, before it thrusts
 itself out.  There are several curious con-
 siderations in regard to this process.  The
 one which concerns us at present is  this,
 that, as the plumula is passing along
 through the husk, the part of  trie seed
 along which it  passes becomes  changed
 into the substance known in chemistry by
 the  name  of starch sugar;  that is, when
 the plumula has passed along one third
 of the length of the grain, that third is
 starch sugar, while the remaining  two
 thirds are still starch; and so with the rest.
 The starch sugar seems to be some com-
 bination of starch and water.  The final
 cause  of the change is undoubtedly the
 support of the growing plant, sugar being
 evidently necessary to  the  growth  of
 plants, as it is always found in their sap,
 and  sometimes, as in the sugar maple, in
 great quantities.   The moment, however,
 the plumula  begins to protrude beyond
 the end of the grain, the sugar diminishes,
 as it is consumed by the young stalk; and
 the substance of the seed is also consumed,
 though by no means to the same extent,
 by the growth of the  root.  To  produce
 this  change in seeds, and thereby to fit
 them for yielding a sweet  fluid, when
 mixed with water, is the  business of the
 maltster; and it  is an operation of great
 delicacy, upon the successful perform-
 ance of which the success of a manufac-
 tory  of ale  or  beer in a great measure
 depends.  The first operation in  malting
 is, to plunge the barley, or other grain to be
 malted, into  a large cistern, containing
 water enough to cover the whole mass.
 The  barley  immediately  separates into
 two parts; one is heavy, and remains at
 the bottom of the water, while the lighter
 portion,  consisting of  chaff, defective
 grains, &c floats on the top.  This latter
 is skimmed off as of no use.  The heavier
 part, or sound barley, is suffered to remain
 till it has absorbed a portion of the water,
 sufficient for the purpose of enabling it to
 germinate.  This is steeping.  It is  the
first process, and  usually occupies about
two days. When the grain is sufficiently
steeped, the water is let off, and the grain
thrown out of the cistern, and piled  in a
heap, or, as it is technically called, a couch.
After a few hours, the bottom and inner
part of the heap begin to grow warm, and
the radicle or root to make its appearance:
and the  germination thus  commenced
would go on rapidly but for the labor of 
BREWING.
261
the malster, who, with a view of making
aU  the  grains  grow alike,  checks  the
growth of such  as are in the middle of
the heap by turning them to the outside,
and vice versa.   For this reason, malting
cannot be performed, with any success, in
summer, which would, at first sight, seem
to be the fittest season.  On the contrary,
the best maltsters prefer the coldest weath-
er ; for, at this season, they can always
keep the germination going on at the rate
they wish, by heaping  up the  grain;
whereas, in warm weather, it  grows so
rapidly, that no effort can  make the pro-
cess equal and regular.  Thus  the grain
is turned backwards and forwards  for 14
days, at the end of which period the acros-
pire, as it is called, or the plumula, having
nearly reached the end of the  grain, and
the latter having acquired a sweet taste,
the process of growth  is suddenly  and
effectually stopped by spreading the whole
upon a kiln, which is a floor of iron or
tiles, perforated with small  holes,  and
having a fire beneath it.  There the life
of the  grain  is destroyed, and it is thor-
oughly  dried.—The malt thus made  is
ground, or rather crushed, by passing it
between a pair of iron rollers.   It is then
prepared for brewing.  The first step in
brewing is called mashing.  It consists in
stirring up the malt with a quantity of hot
water,  which  dissolves  the starch sugar
of the malt,  and forms a sweet  liquor
caUed wort, similar to the  must, or sweet
juice of the grape,  from which wine  is
made.  The manufacture differs, however,
in some essential particulars, at this stage
of the  process, from that of wine;  for, if
the wort were allowed, as  the must is, to
ferment without obstruction, it contains
so much  of the mucilage and starch of
the grain, that it would run into the ace-
tous, and from thence into the putrefac-
tive fermentation, and would be foxed, as
it is technically termed; that is, it  would
become  ill-smelUng vinegar instead of
beer.   To prevent this, it is first boiled.
This process renders it stronger, by evap-
orating  a portion of the water; and, fur-
ther, it coagulates or curdles the mucilage,
which  subsides afterwards, and  is not
again dissolved, thus separating an injuri-
ous ingredient.  While boiling, a portion
of hops is added. One object of this is to
give an aromatic, bitter taste to the  Uquor,
which habit has rendered agreeable. The
principal object of adding the hops, how-
ever, is, to check the tendency  to the ace-
tous fermentation, which is always  far
greater, in Uquor so compound in its char-
acter as beer, than in the simpler Uquors,
as wine and cider.   It is further a com-
mon opinion, that hops add to the intoxi-
cating  qualities of the article;  and this
opinion is probably well founded.—After
the worts are sufficiently boiled, they are
poured out into large shaUow cisterns or
coolers, till they become cool, and deposit
much of the curdled mucilage.  They are
then allowed to  run into a deep tub or
vat to fennent.   If left to themselves,
however, the process would take place
very imperfectly, and it is therefore assist-
ed by  the  addition of yeast.  The true
nature of this substance, notwithstanding
much attention and some laborious anal-
yses, is not yet understood.  It excites fer-
mentation, however, which continues for a
period of time longer or shorter, according
to the fancy of the brewer, and is then
checked by drawing off' the liquor into
barrels or hogsheads.  In these the fer-
mentation still goes on, but it is now called
by brewers cleansing.  With a view to
take advantage of this  process,  the casks
are  placed  with their  bung-hole3 open,
and  inclined a little to one side.  The
scum, as it rises, works out at the bung,
and runs over the side, and thus the beer
is cleansed from a quantity of mutilage,
starch, and other  unfermented  matters.
What does not run out at  the bung sub-
sides to the bottom, and  constitutes die
lees.  After this cleansing is completed,
the clear beer is racked off into barrels,
and preserved for use.  The scum and lees
are collected, and the former constitutes
the yeast for the next brewing.—Such is
the general history of brewing, whether
the  product is  to be beer, ale,  porter or
wash, except that in the latter the cleans-
ing is not necessary.—Even this racking,
however, does not remove all the unfer-
mented matter.  Some starch and gluten
still  remain; of course, the liquor soon
begins to ferment again in the banels;
but, as these are closely stopped, the car-
bonic acid gas, or fixed air, cannot escape,
but becomes mingled with the beer. Ev-
ery successive fermentation causes some
lees, from which the beer may be racked
off, and, by repeated racking, the ferment-
ative matter may be completely removed,
and  such beers become clear, transparent,
and  somewhat Uke the German wines, as,
for instance, that commonly called  hock.
But, the disposition to ferment being thus
entirely  destroyed,  they are, Uke these
wines, perfectly  still, and acquire no dis-
position to  froth by being bottled. Hence
old sound beers may remain in bottles for
years without coming up, as it is techni-
cally caUed.  The object of the  brewer is 
262
BREWING.
to produce an agreeable beverage, distin-
guished not so much for absolute strength,
or quantity of alcohol, as for color, flavor,
transparency,  Uveliness, and power of
keeping  well.  Some  of these qualities
are not compatible with the developement
of the  greatest quantity  of alcohol or
ardent spirit, which is the main object of
the whiskey-distiller.  To effect this pur-
pose, he  makes a kind of beer, which is
called wash.  This differs  from brewers'
beer in some important particulars.  In
the first place, the grain is not all malted:
in England, only a part of it is so; in the
U. States, generally, none at all.   In the
next place, it is ground a great deal  finer
dian in brewing.  If the brewer were to
grind his grist as fine as the distiller, he
would run  great risk  of setting his mash,
as the phrase is; that is, he would make
paste of his grain, and entangle  the solu-
tion  of sugar so effectually, that he could
not get it out again.   The distiller does
not run  the same risk, because  he  does
not use such hot water as the brewer, and
he can mash  and stir his goods a great
deal  longer without injury, and even with
benefit to his  liquor.  Again, he does not
need to boil or add hops to his worts, for
he does not care about precipitating the
mucilage, or  making his beer keep.  In
the next place, he  adds a  great deal of
yeast, and ferments violently and rapidly,
so as to decompose  the sugar as quickly
as possible, and is quite indifferent wheth-
er the worts even become somewhat sour-
ish in  the  process,  as, when  sufficiently
fermented, the alcohol is removed at once
by distillation.  If raw grain  be  ground,
mixed with water at a certain heat, and
allowed to stand, the change of the starch
into  starch sugar, or the combination of
starch and water, takes place in the same
way  as in  malting.  It takes some time,
however, and hence the distUlers' mashes
stand longer than the brewers'.  It would
seem, therefore, from  this, that the malt-
ing of grain  is not  necessary  for  the
making of beer; and, accordingly,  this
method of proceeding has been recom-
mended by an eminent chemist, one who
has paid much attention to this  subject,
and there can be no doubt  that a certain
description of small beer may be so made.
But  the  process is  not apphcable to the
finer and more valuable kinds of malt
Uquors, for reasons which it would require
too many details to explain perfectly.—
Besides the kinds of beer  and wash al-
ready mentioned, there are others in very
common use in the U. States.   These are
made by mixing honey, molasses or sugar
with water, and fermenting with yeast, or
some other  leaven.  Beers made in this
way are commonly mingled  with some
vegetable substance,  as  ginger, spruce,
sarsaparilla, &c to give them a particular
flavor, and are familiar to all by the names
of ginger beer, spruce beer, sarsaparilla
mead, &c &c.  The wash of this kind is
made from molasses and water, fermented
in large vats under ground, by means, not
of yeast, but the remains or returns  of
fonner  fermentations.  The  liquor thus
fermented is pumped up at once into the
still, and the product is  common  under
the name of rum.  Of the beers manufac-
tured from  grain, as an  article of con-
sumption in that state, there are a great
many varieties.  These, however, may be
aU  comprehended under  three principal
ones—beer, ale and porter.  Beer  differs
from the other two in the  circumstance of
its  being made for immediate consump-
tion.  There are two or three kinds of it,
known by the names of strong beer, table
beer, half-and-half, &c These differ only
in their relative strength, being aU brewed
upon the same  general   principle, and
adapted to be used  soon after they are
made.   It is of no consequence, so  far as
regards the principle of brewing beer,
whether the malt of which it is made  be
of one color or another: it may be pale, or
high-dried, or amber, or  any thing else.
It is not even of the first consequence
whether the malt be  good or bad, for the
beer is drank soon after it is made,  and if
it is not, it is lost; so that there is little
opportunity  to  discover  any  particular
flavor.   Moreover, it  is a common and
necessary practice to color it so highly
with burned molasses or sugar, that the
original taste of the  Uquor is, in a great
measure, concealed.  There is also a sort
of fulness of taste which is given to beer,
by this practice in part, but still more by
the mode of fermentation.  This mode is
to stop the progress  of the latter before
the sweet taste is entirely gone, by remov-
ing the beer from the fermenting tun to
the smaller casks. In some places, indeed,
where the beer  is to be  sent out very
weak, it does not go  into the  fermenting
tun at all, but the yeast is mingled with
the worts in the small casks, and it is sent
out at once in full fermentation, and  drank
up, in fact, before this has time to subside
entirely.  Ordinarily,  however, it is fer-
mented a Uttle in the tu n, and then cleansed
and racked  in a  very short time.  When
beer is  sent out  in this state, it is always
necessary to mingle with it a quantity of
what are called finings,  that is to say, 
BREWING.
263
isinglass, or something of the sort, which
has the same effect as the fish-skin or isin-
glass commonly put into coffee—it settles
it;  that is, it causes the dregs to subside
to the bottom.  Beer made in this way is
an agreeable Uquor, and well adapted to
the purposes  of draught in cold weather,
especially when its briskness is  increased,
as it usuaUy is, by warming it a little. How-
ever, beer, properly so called, is an imper-
fect liquor. The process is not complete,
and very sUght variations alter its charac-
ter.—The other varieties of malt liquor are
ale  and  porter, or, as they are commonly
called, stock liquors. These are not in-
tended for immediate consumption, but to
be  kept for a longer or shorter period,
during  which they do  or  ought to im-
prove in quality.  Ale is a sweeter liquor
than porter, and much  stronger, the best
London brown stout being  about 25 per
cent, weaker  than  Burton ale.   The first
part of  the process, on which the differ-
ence in the liquors depends,  is the drying
of the malt: for ale it must be dried very
carefully and  slowly, so as to be of a pale
color; and the article is inferior if any of
the grains are scorched or burned, so as
to communicate a harsh taste to the Uquor.
In the next place,  the heat of  the water,
when poured on the grain or mash, must
lie higher.  The reason given for this is,
that it renders the worts clearer when
they are drawn off from the mash-tun.  It
is not clear why  this is of any conse-
quence, for it  would seem that the boiUng,
to which the  worts are afterwards  sub-
jected, would be sufficient to curdle and
precipitate any mucilage dissolved during
the mashing.  Such, however, is not the
case; and a low heat in mashing is always
apt to be followed by violent fermentation,
very difficult  to check,  and very apt to
produce acidity.   The higher the heat of
the mashing-water the better, provided it
is not so high as to set or make paste of
the mash.  The exact point can be deter-
mined only by experiment, and must vary
with the comparative softness of the wa-
ter  and comparative paleness of the malt.
In the next place, the mashing or stirring
must not be long continued,  as it is  only
desirable to dissolve the sugar; and the
effect of long  mashing is to mix the starch
and mucilage with the  worts, and, of
course,  to  diminish their  comparative
sweetness.  For the same reason, the first
mash  only is  proper for fine ales, as the
last always contains much  more starch
and mucilage.  These ales thus acquire a
sweetness which cannot be removed, ex-
cept by very long fermentation, and, there-
fore, they  long  continue more generally
palatable than porter.—The fermentation
of ales is conducted very differently from
that  of beer.  They are let down, or put
into  the fennenting tun, at  a lower tem-
perature, and  the fermentation is made to
go on slowly and graduaUy.   They are
then drawn off clear, and cleansed, till the
yeast is as much  as  possible  removed
Hence these  Uquors,  when well made,
require no finings, but are racked off so
clear that they become fine of themselves,
and much higher flavored than they can
possibly be when finings ore used.  Lastly,
ale  can only  be had in perfection from
bottles.  Its sweetness, high flavor and
effervescing quality cannot long  be  pre-
served on  draught, any more than the fine
quaUties of Champagne.—Porter, the fa-
vorite drink of  Londoners, to be  perfect,
in the first place, requires a large  propor-
tion of brown or bigh-dried malt; i. e., malt
which has been scorched on the kiln; but
it is rarely, or, rather, never made so at the
present day.  It is a wasteful and expen-
sive  practice  to dry malt in this  way, as
very much of its  valuable constituents is
wasted by this  high-drying, which ope-
rates, in feet,  Uke distillation, carrying off
in the steam  what ought  to be  left be-
hind.  Only a small portion of such malt
is, therefore,  now used, and sometimes
very  little indeed, the  color  of porter
being produced artificially, by means of
burned sugar.  Low heats are used in the
mashing, for the liquor is not to be sweet,
and  it is, therefore, most profitable to get
as much starch  as possible.  For the same
reason, the products of all the mashings
are  mingled  together, thus constituting
entire porter.   Formerly, it was the prac-
tice, in  London, to take  the separate
mashes, for porter, of three different qual-
ities, which were mixed by the  retailer,
to form porter of three  threads;  but, after-
wards, the brewers, disliking this practice,
made the  porter entire at once.  It is ob-
vious that ale could not be made entire.
Again, porter is fennented with  more
rapidity than ale, and hence it requires
very careful  watching,  lest it suddenly
pass the bounds of the vinous, and run
into the acetous fermentation.  It requires
to be cleansed off sometimes at a mo-
ment's warning, or else it gets that acidity
which is  its  most common fault  After
all, it abounds hi unfermented matter, and
requires a length of time to ripen, that is,
to change this  matter into alcohol; and
diis it does best  in large masses. Whether
from this  reason, or some other that does
not appear, it seems to be pretty generaUy 
264
BREWING—BRIBE.
admitted, that no brewery, either in Eng-
land or elsewhere, has been able to make
porter equal to the large porter-breweries
of London.  This superiority has been at-
tributed to the use of the Thames water;
ibut, in the first place, the small London
[breweries, which do not make good por-
ter, have this advantage in common with
the larger ones;  and, secondly, these last
have long since ceased to use the water
of the river, as it contains too much vege-
table matter, and is Uable to cause acidity
in the liquor.  The superiority,  as far as
it exists, is doubtless owing to command
of capital, and consequent power of choice
in the malt-market, and system in con-
ducting  the business: as to the rest, a
wealthy  concern,  like a London brew-
ing company, has always means  of per-
suading  bottlers and  retailers of aU de-
scriptions, that it is for their advantage to
sell and praise their porter  in preference
to that of  a  small estabUshment, whose
liquor may be equally good, but not  quite
so cheap.  Of the two stock liquors, por-
ter is generally considered  more  whole-
some, and more easUy digestible.  It keeps
better, and, in  London, is generally pre-
fened for common use.  The ales manu-
factured  in many parts of the U. States
are colored by the addition of brown malt
or burnt sugar.  This is to suit the taste
of the consumers, who obstinately  asso-
ciate the idea of strength and body with
high color.   It is impossible that ales thus
colored should be without a harsh  taste,
which is a defect.   Ales, to be perfect,
must be  pale, and the fine EngUsh ales
always are so.  No  very good porter is
made in  the U. States, so far as is known
to the writer of this article.   Three mash
tuns are  necessary to make it perfect, and
only one is commonly used in this coun-
try.   (See Ale, Beer, Porter.)
   Brewster, David;  secretary  of the
royal society of Edinburgh ;  one of the
most  learned  natural  philosophers  in
Great  Britain;  bora  about 1785.  The
great number of treatises which  he has
written,  on various  subjects in  natural
philosophy, are chiefly inserted  in the
Transactions of the Edinburgh Royal So-
ciety.  He  is the editor of  the much
esteemed Edinburgh Encyclopedia.  He
is also the  principal editor of the Edin-
burgh Philosophical  Journal, which ap-
pears quarterly.  His fame became gene-
ral by his invention of the kaleidoscope.
(q.v.)  Among  the many  learned  men
who render  a residence in  Edinburgh
agreeable to foreigners, B.  is one of the
most eminent, as he has a great fund  of
general information, and is a man  of the
most poUte manners.
  Breze, marquis de; grand master of
ceremonies at the court of Louis XVI;
known in consequence of the famous re-
ply of Mirabeau  to the message which
he brought, June 23, 1789, from the king
to the deputies of the tiers elat, ordering
the dissolution of their body:  " Tell your
master,"  said Mirabeau, in a voice of
thunder, " that we are here by the will of
the people, and that nothing but the bay-
onet shall drive us out." The court, in-
timidated by this  bokl answer,  which
produced the highest enthusiasm  in the
assembly and the public, became waver-
ing and inesolute in its measures.  Mira-
beau, on the other  hand, taking advan-
tage of the excitement, carried the decree
declaring the persons of the deputies in-
violable,  and that whoever should dare
issue  or  execute  a warrant  of arrest
against a part  or the whole of diem
should be deemed guilty of treason. The
marquis  de B. followed  Louis XVIII
abroad, and, after the restoration, was re-
instated in his former office.
  Briareus (also called JEgaon); a giant
with 100 arms and 50 heads,  the  son of
Uranus and Tena.  His two brothers, Cot-
tus and Gyges* were formed in a similar
manner;  and their formidable appearance
struck their father with such terror,  that
he imprisoned them, at their birth, in the
bowels of the earth.  (Hes. Theog. 147.)
In the war with the Titans, Jupiter set
them  free, and, by their assistance, gain-
ed the victory*   When Juno,  Neptune
and Minerva conspired to bind the sove-
reign  of  the gods, Thetis  brought Bria-
reus from the depths of the sea (how he
came  there is not known), to the relief of
the trembling Jove. (II. a. 402.)  Virgil
places B. in the vestibule of hell. (JEn. vi,
287.)   He was employed, with his hun-
dred-handed  brothers  (Centimani),  in
watching the Titans in Tartarus. (Hes.
Theog. 734.)
  Bribe  ; a reward given to a pubUc of-
ficer,  or  functionary, to induce him to
violate his official  duty for  the benefit
or in  compliance  with the  wishes of
the party by whom, or on  whose be-
half, the bribe is given or promised. The
term bribery is appUcable aUke both to the
receiving and to the giving of the reward.
A corrupt bargain for the votes of electors
in the choice of persons to  places of trust
under the government is bribery.   In this
instance, the electors, as such, are  a kind
of public functionaries.  Particular  spe-
cies  of bribery  are expressly forbidden, 
BRIBE—BRICK.
265
with penalties, by the positive laws of
every state that is governed according to
a written  code.  The corrupt discharge
of a public trust, in consideration of brib-
ery, is  punishable  at  the  common law,
though  not  prohibited by any positive
statute.  A clerk to the agent for French
prisoners in England  was indicted  and
punished for taking bribes given for the
purpose of inducing him to procure them
to be exchanged out of their regular turn.
An attempt to influence jurymen in giv-
ing their verdict, by rewards, is a species
of bribery, denominated embracerif. Even
offering a reward  to  a  revenue officer,
to induce him to violate  his duty, though
the  reward was not received, has been
held to be an indictable offence.  (2 Dal-
las's Reports, p. 384.)  A similar doctrine
is held in England.  (3 Coke's Institutes,
part third, p. 147, and 4 Burrow's Reports,
p. 2500.)  The same was held of a prom-
ise of money to a member of a corpora-
tion, to induce him to vote for a mayor.
(2 Lord Raymond's  Reports,  p.  1377.)
The British laws,  as well as  those of
the  U. States, speciaUy  prohibit bribery
of the  officers of the revenue; and the
forfeiture, on the part of the  offender of-
fering the bribe, in England, is  £500;
the officer receiving the  bribe  incurs the
like forfeiture, and is disqualified for pub-
lic employment, civff or military.  Under
the U. States' laws, the party offering or
receiving a bribe, in such case, incurs a
pecuniary penalty, and becomes disquaU-
fied for any place of trust  under the gov-
ernment.  The laws of  many of the U.
States  contain special provisions against
bribery of judges or jurymen, or of elect-
ors in the choice of public officers.
  Briceno Mendez, Pedro, was bora in
1792, in Varinas, capital of the province
of that name in Venezuela, of a wealthy
and  distinguished  family. At the com-
mencement of the Colombian revolution,
he was pursuing the study of law in Ca-
raccas.   Having concluded   his  studies
there, he returned to Varinas in 1812, and
obtained the office of chief secretary to
the provincial  legislature.  But die suc-
cess of Monteverde dissolved that body,
and compelled him to emigrate into New
Grenada.  Here he joined Bolivar after
his  victories in Cucuta, and, making a
tender of his services as a volunteer, Bo-
livar appointed him  his  secretary.  In
this capacity, Briceno served through the
campaign of 1813.  After the disastrous
battle of La Puerto, he followed BoUvar
back to Carthagena,  and continued at-
tached to him, as secretary, through all
  vol. ii.          23
his vicissitudes of fortune, until the form-
ation  of  the  congress of Angostura, in
1819.   At this period, he was made sec-
retary of war and  the marine, with the
rank  of  colonel, and accompanied the
liberator in his campaigns, as before.  In
1821,  he received the same appointment
under the constitution, but remained at
the seat of government when Bolivar de-
parted for- die campaign of Quito, after
having been confidentially attached to his
person for eight years.   In  1823, he be-
came  general of brigade.  In 1825, he
resigned  his office of secretary of war,
and was succeeded by general Soublette.
(Restrepo's Colombia, vi, 29.)
  Brick  is a sort of artificial stone, made
principally of argillaceous earth, formed
in moulds, dried in the sun, and baked by
burning.   The  use of unburnt bricks is
of great  antiquity.  They are found in
the Roman and Grecian  monuments, and
even in the ruins of Egypt and Babylon.
They were dried in  the sun, instead of
being burned, and mixed with  chopped
straw, to  give them tenacity.  On account
of the extreme heat and dryness of the cli-
mate, they acquired a great hardness, and
have  lasted for several  thousand  years;
but they are unsuitable for more northern
latitudes.  The  most  common bricks,
among the Romans, were 17 niches long
and 11 broad, and,  in later  periods, they
were  burned.   Modern bricks ore gener-
ally about twice as long as they are broad,
and twice as broad as they are  thick;
their  length is ordinarily about 10 inches.
The best are made of a mixture of argil-
laceous earth and sand.  Their red color
is owing  to the presence of oxyde of iron,
which is  turned red  by burning.—The
best season for making them is  spring or
autumn,  since the process of drying then
takes place more  gradually and equably.
The clay should be dug in autumn, and
exposed to the influence of frost and rain.
It should be worked over repeatedly with
the spade, and not made into bricks until
the ensuing spring, previously to which it
should be weU tempered by treading it
with  oxen, or by a horse mill, till it is re-
duced to a  ductile  and  homogeneous
paste. The clay may have too great or
too  small a proportion of argillaceous
earth or of sand to form a paste of proper
consistency;  it will then be necessary to
add the one or the other, as the  case may
be.   When the mass has thus been thor-
oughly mixed, the  moulder throws it into
the mould, presses it down till it fills all
the cavity, and removes the overplus with
a stick.  The bricks are then arranged on 
206
BRICK—BRIDGE.
hacks to dry, disposed diagonally, to al-
low  a free passage to the air.  In about
nine or ten days, they are  ready for the
burning, for which  purpose  they are
formed into clamps or kilns, having flues
or cavities at the bottom for the insertion
of the fuel, and interstices  between them
for the fire and hot air to  penetrate.   A
fire is kindled in these cavities, and grad-
ually increased  for the first 12 hours, af-
ter which  it is kept at a uniform height
for several days and nights, till the bricks
are  sufficiently  burned.  Much  care  is
necessary in regulating the fire, since too
much  heat vitrifies  the bricks, and too
Uttle  leaves  them soft  and  friable.—
Pressed bricks are those which, after be-
ing moulded in the common  manner, are
placed in a machine, and  subjected to a
strong pressure, by  which they become
regular in  shape, and smooth, and more
capable of resisting the action of the at-
mosphere.—Floating bricks are so called
on account of their property of swimming
on the water;  They ore made of Agaric
mineral, or fossil farina, which  is found
in some parts of  the  U.  States.  Their
infusibiUty at  the highest temperatures
renders them useful in constructing rever-
beratory furnaces, pyrometers, and maga-
zines  of combustible  materials.  Their
lightness  and  non-conducting  property
render  them particularly  useful for the
construction  of  powder-magazines  on
board of ships.
  Bridewell  Hospital,  situated   in
Blackfriars, London,  is now used as a
house of correction for dissolute persons,
idle  apprentices   and  vagrants.  The
building is a large quadrangle,  one  side
of which is occupied by the hall, contain-
ing  a picture by  Holbein, representing
Edward VI, who founded  the hospital in
1553, deUvering the charter to the corpo-
ration of London.  The other  sides of
the quadrangle are occupied  by the mas-
ters  of the trades, with  whom several
youths are placed as  apprentices, and by
the prison, where  disorderly persons are
made to work during their confinement.
  Bridge.  It is needless to investigate
ancient authors  for a description of the
primitive bridge, as its origin and  ele-
ments are to be found in uncultivated na-
tions of modern times.  Stepping-stones,
in shallow rivers, covered  with planks
from stone to stone, exhibit the  incipient
principles of piers and arches, which sci-
ence has brought to their  present perfec-
tion.  In deeper rivers, an accumulation
of stones forms a loftier pier; and, where
the  openings  were  sufficiently  narrow,
and the slabs of stone sufficiently long,
or the art and strength of the untaught
architect sufficient to the task, a roadway
was  formed  from pier to pier, Uke the
Vitruvian architrave of the primitive Tus-
can temple.   With the Greeks, who were
a more maritime people, and more accus-
tomed to  navigation  than  the Romans,
there  is no doubt that  ships  and boats
preceded,  if they did  not supersede, the
use of bridges.  In their brightest days,
when their fine style of architecture was
complete,  when  their  porticoes  were
crowded with paintings, and their streets
with statues, die people  of Athens wad-
ed  or fenied  over   the Cephisus,  for
want  of a bridge.  The Greeks do not
seem  to have valued the construction of
the arch sufficiently to  excel  in bridge-
building.   No people  of  the  ancient
world carried the power of rearing the
stupendous  arch  and the  magnificent
dome to such an extent as the Romans.
After the construction of their great sew-
ers, their aqueducts, and the cupola over
the Pantheon of M. Agrippa, a bridge
over  the Tiber was of easy execution;
and the invention of the architecture of
stone bridges, as practised in its best and
most  effectual manner, must be conceded
to this  great and indefatigable  people.
The  most celebrated bridges of ancient
Rome were  not distinguished by the ex-
traordinary size of their arches,  nor the
peculiar Ughtness of their piers, but, like
the rest of the magnificent works  of this
city, as far as  construction is concerned,
they are worthy of study from their ex-
cellence and  durability.   The span  or
chord of  their arches seldom exceeded
70 or 80  feet, and  the  versed  sine  or
height was nearly half of the chord,  so
that they were mostly semicircular,  or
constituted a segment nearly of that form.
—Among the most celebrated  bridges in
modem times, or those built subsequently
to the destruction of the Roman empire,
are those of the Moors in Spain, who im-
itated and rivalled the best constructions
of the Romans.   The bridge of Cordova,
over the Guadalquivir, is an eminent ex-
ample of their success.  The bridge over
the Rhone, at Avignon, is one of the most
ancient bridges of modem  Europe.  It
was built by a reUgious society, called the
brethren of the bridge, which was estab-
Ushed upon  the  decline of the second,
and the commencement of the third race
of French kings, when a state  of anarchy
existed, and there was Uttle security for
travellers, particularly in  passing  rivers,
on which they were subject to  the rapaci- 
BRIDGE.
267
ties of banditti.  The object of this soci-
ety was, to put a stop to these outrages,
by forming fraternities for the purpose of
buSding bridges and establishing fenies
and caravansaries on  their banks. The
bridge of Avignon was commenced in
1176,  and completed in  1178.  It  was
composed of 18 arches.  The length of
the chord of the largest was 110 feet 9
inches, and  its height 45 feet 10 inches.
France can  boast  of many fine  bridges,
built during the last two centuries.—In
Great Britain, the art of building bridges
appears to have been diligently studied
from  early  times.   The most  ancient
bridge in England  is the Gothic triangu-
lar bridge at  Croyland in Lincolnshire,
said to have been built in 860.  The as-
cent is so steep that none but foot-passen-
gers can go over it.  The longest bridge
in England is that over the Trent at Bur-
ton in Staffordshire,  built in the 12th
century,  of  squared  free-stone.  It con-
sists of 34 arches, and is 1545 feet long.
London bridge was commenced  in 1176,
and was  incumbered  with  houses  for
many years.   These were removed be-
tween 175d and 1758. The other bridges
over the Thames are highly ornamental,
as well as necessary, to the metropolis.
Blackfriars bridge is both novel and hand-
some  in design,  and its elliptical arches
are weU suited to its situation, but its ma-
terial  is bad and perishing.  This bridge
was designed  and erected  by  Robert
Milne, an able Scotch architect   It was
commenced in 1760,  and  completed  in
1771.  It  is 995 feet long, and 43 feet 6
inches broad between the parapets. The
centre arch  is 100 feet in span, and 41
feet 6 inches in height  Waterloo bridge
is one of the greatest architectural works
of our times.   It is the  only bridge over
the Thames which has a flat  surface  in
its whole course..  Its length is 1250 feet.
It consists of 9 elliptical arches, each of
120 feet  span,  and  32  feet in  height
Westminster bridge is one of the hand-
somest as well as most scientifically con-
structed bridges in Europe, and forms an
era in English bridge architecture, from
the success  of the method employed  in
laying the foundations in deep water and
a  rapid current.  It  was commenced  in
1740, and completed in 1750.  It is 1220
feet long, and  44 feet between the para-
pets, has 13  large and 2 small arches, aU
semicircular.  The middle arch is 76 feet
in span.
   Metal  bridges are  the  invention  of
British  artists.  The true elements  of
their  construction are as yet but imper-
fectly understood.  The first bridge  of
cast-iron ever erected  is  that over the
Severn, about two miles below Colebrook-
dale, in Shropshire.   It is  an arch com-
posed of five ribs, forming the segment
of a circle.  Its  chord  is 100  feet long,
and its height 45 feet.  It was erected in
1777.  The  second  cast-iron bridge was
designed by Thomas Paine, the famous
poUtical writer, and was intended to have
been taken to America; but, the specula-
tor failing in his  payments, the materials
were afterwards  used in constructing the
beautiful bridge  over the  river Wear at
Bishop's Wearmouth,  in the county of
Durham.  The chord of the arch is 240
feet long; the height, 30 feet  The South-
wark or Trafalgar bridge over the Thames
at London is, at present, the finest iron
bridge in the world.  It consists of three
arches.  The chord of the  middle arch is
240  feet long, and  its height 24 feet
There are several other fine bridges of this
kind in England.  Mr. Telford proposed
an iron arch of  much larger dimensions
than any now existing,  to  take the place
of London  bridge.   The  length  of  the
chord was to be 600 feet, and  its height
65.  The plan has not been executed.
   Timber bridges.   Timber  is the most
ready, and perhaps the most ancient ma-
terial used for the construction of bridges.
The earliest timber  bridge on record is
that thrown by Julius Caesar over  the
Rhine, and described in his Commenta-
ries.  Germany is the school for wooden
bridges, as England  is  for those  of iron.
The most celebrated wooden bridge was
that over the Rhine  at  Schaffhausen.
This was 364 feet in length, and  18 feet
broad.  The plan  of the  architect was,
that the bridge should consist of a single
arch.  The magistrates of the place, how-
ever, required that he should make it of
two, and use the middle pier of a stone
bridge, which had previously stood there.
He did so, but contrived to  leave it doubt-
ful whether the bridge was at all support-
ed by the middle pier.  It was destroyed
by the French,  in  April,  1799. The
same architect and  his brother have also
erected several other fine arched wooden
bridges.  Several others have been erect-
ed, in Germany, by  Wiebeking,  perhaps
the  most  ingenious carpenter  of  our
times.—In the United States, the Trenton
bridge over  the Delaware, erected  by
Bun in 1804, is  the  segment of a circle
345 feet in diameter.  Its chord measures
200 feet; its height, or versed sine, is 32
feet, and the height of the timber framing
of the arch, at its vertex, is no more than 
268
BRIDGE.
2 feet 8 inches.  The timber bridge over
the SchuylkiU, at Philadelphia, is of the
extraordinary  span of  340 feet.  The
versed sine is only 20 feet, and the height
of the wooden framing, at the vertex, 7
feet.  Its architect was Wernwag, who
built it in  1813.   The bridge  built by
Palmer, over the  Piscataqua, near Ports-
mouth, New Hampshire, in 1794, is  the
segment of a circle 600 feet in diameter.
Its chord Une measures 250 feet, its versed
sine 27 feet  4 inches, and the height of
the timber frame-work of the arch 18 feet
3 inches.  It is put together with wooden
keys.   The same ingenious mechanic
erected two other wooden bridges, one
over the Merrimack, at Deer Island, near
Newburyport, of  160 feet diameter, fin-
ished  in 1792,  and the other over  the
Schuylkill  at Phfladelphia, of 194 feet
chord, and 12 feet versed sine, being  the
segment of a circle 796 feet in diameter.
This was finished  in 1803.
  Pendent bridges, or bridges of suspen-
sion, although held, by some persons, to
be a modern invention, or derived from
the rope bridges of South America and
the East Indies, were in use in Europe in
the time of Scamozzi, as may be  seen in
his Del Idea Archi, 1615; yet the  princi-
ples requisite to determine the structure
of this kind of bridges had not been made
pubUc  before  the  time of BeraouilU.
The use of these bridges is of great an-
tiquity  in  mountainous countries.  The
most remarkable bridge of suspension in
existence is that lately constructed by Mr.
Telford over the  Menai strait, between
the isle of Anglesea and Caernarvonshire
in Wales.   It was finished in 1825.  The
roadway is 100 feet above the surface of
the water at high tide.  The opening be-
tween the points of suspension is 560 feet.
The platform is about 30 feet in breadth.
The whole is suspended "from 4 lines  of
strong iron  cables by perpendicular iron
rods, 5 feet apart  The cables pass over
rollers on the tops of pillars, and are fixed
to iron  frames under ground, which are
kept  down  by masonry.  The weight of
the whole bridge,  between the points  of
suspension, is 489 tons.  There are sever-
al other bridges of suspension in Great
Britain. In 1814, a chain-bridge, 1000
feet long, was projected by Mr. Telford,
to cross the Mersey at Liverpool, but it
has never  been  executed.—In  the  U.
States, such bridges  are to  be found,
though not of the dimensions of the Eng-
Ush.  That over the Merrimack, at New-
buryport, is a curve whose chord meas-
ures  244   feet.   That  over  the  river
 Brandy wine, at Wilmington, has a chord
 of 145 feet; that at Brownsville, over the
 Monongahela, measures 120 feet between
 the points of suspension.  Another, in its
 vicinity,  forms  an  inverted  suspended
 arch, with a chord of 112 feet.  Besides
 these there are some others.
   The following remarks on  the con-
 struction of bridges are from Bigelow's
 Technology,  (Boston, 1829):—The con-
 struction of small bridges is a simple pro-
 cess,  while that of large  ones is,  under
 certain circumstances, extremely difficult,
 owing to the  fact, that the strength of ma-
 terials does not increase in proportion to
 their  weight,  and that  there  are  limits,
 beyond which no structure of the kind
 could be carried, and withstand its own
 gravity.  Bridges differ in their construc-
 tion, and in the materials  of which they
 are composed.  The principal varieties
 are the following:—1.  Wooden bridges.
 These, when  built over shallow and slug-
 gish streams, are usually supported upon
 piles driven into the mud at short distances,
 or upon frames of timber.   But, in deep
 and powerful currents, it is necessary to
 support them on strong stone piers and
 abutments, built at as great a distance as
 practicable from each other.  The bridge,
 between these piers, consists  of a stiff
 frame of carpentry, so constructed, with
 reference to its material, that it may act
 as one piece, and may not bend, or break,
 with its own weight and  any  additional
 load to which it may be exposed.  When
 this frame  is straight, the upper part is
 compressed by the weight  of the whole,
 while the lower part is extended, like the
 tie-beam  of a roof.   But the  strongest
 wooden bridges are made with curved
 ribs, which rise above the  abutments in
 the manner of an arch, and are not sub-
jected to a longitudinal strain  by exten-
 sion.  These  ribs are commonly connect-
 ed and strengthened with diagonal braces,
 keys, bolts and straps of iron.   The floor-
 ing of the bridge may be either  laid  above
 them  or suspended by trussing under-
 neath them.   Wooden bridges are com-
 mon in this countiy, and  some of them
 are of large size.  One of the most re-
 markable is the upper SchuylkiU bridge
 at Philadelphia, already mentioned.—2.
 Stone bridges.  These, for the  most part,
 consist of regular arches, buUt upon stone
 piers  constructed in  the water, or upon
 abutments  at  the  banks.   Above  the
 arches is made a level or sloping road.
 From the  nature of the material, these
 are the most durable kind of bridges, and
 many are now standing, which were buUt 
BRIDGE—BRIEF.
269
by the ancient Romans.  The stone piers,
on which bridges are supported, require
to be of great  soUdity,  especially  when
exposed to rapid cun-ents, or floating ice.
Piers are usually built with  their greatest
length in the direction of the stream, and
with their extremities pointed or curved,
so as to divide the water, and allow it to
glide easily past them.  In building piers,
it is often necessary to exclude the water
by means  of a coffer-dam.  This is  a
temporary enclosure, fonned by a double
wall  of piles and planks,  having their
interval  filled  with  clay.  The interior
space is made dry by pumping, and kept
so till the structure is finished.—3. Cast-
iron bridges.  These have been  construct-
ed, in England, out of blocks or frames of
cast-iron, so shaped as to fit into each oth-
er, and, coUectively, to form ribs and arches.
These bridges possess great strength, but
are  liable  to be disturbed by the expan-
sion and contraction of the metal with
heat and  cold.—4.  Suspension bridges.
In these the flooring or main body of the
bridge is supported on strong iron  chains
or rods, hanging, in the form of an invert-
ed arch, from one point of  support to an-
other.  The points of support are the tops
of strong pillars or small towers, erected
for the purpose.  Over these  pillars the
chain passes, and is  attached, at each ex-
tremity of the bridge, to rocks or massive
frames of iron, firmly secured  under
ground.  The  great advantage  of sus-
pension bridges consists in their stability
 of equilibrium, in  consequence of which
 a smaller amount of materials is necessary
 for  their construction than  for that of any
 other bridge.  If a suspension bridge be
 shaken, or thrown out of equilibrium, it
 returns by its weight to its proper place,
 whereas the reverse happens in bridges
  which are built above the level of their sup-
 porters.—5. Floating bridges.  Upon deep
  and sluggish water, stationary rafts of tim-
  ber are sometimes  employed, extending
  from one  shore to  another, and covered
  with planks, so as to form a passable bridge.
  In military operations, temporary  bridges
  are often formed by planks laid upon boats,
  pontons, and other buoyant supporters.
   Bridgetown; a seaport town, and cap-
  ital  of the  island of Barbadoes, in the
  West  Indies,  lying in  the S. W. part,
  and in the  parish of St. Michael.  Lon.
  59° 407 W.; lat. 13° 3 N.  Population, 15
  or 20,000.   It is situated on the innermost
  part of Carlisle bay, which is large enough
  to  contain  500 ships, being 4 mUes in
  breadth, and 3 in depth;  but the bottom
  is foul, and  apt to cut the  cables.  It suf-
fered greatly by fire, on  Feb. 8th, 1756,
May 14th,  1766,  and Dec.  27th, 1767,
when the greatest part of the town  was
destroyed;   before  which time, it  had
about 1500 houses, mostly brick, very ele-
gant, and ssiid to be  the finest and largest
in all the Caribbee  islands,  the greatest
part of which  have  been rebuilt.  It has
a college, founded liberally, and endowed
by  colonel  Codrington.   Here are  com-
modious wharves for loading and unload-
ing goods,  with  some forts  and castles.
The town is subject to  hurricanes.  On
the east side of the town is a  small fort of
eight guns, where the magazines of pow-
der and stores are  kept under a strong
guard.  This is the  seat  of the  governor,
council, assembly, and court  of chancery.
   Bridgewater  ; a borough town in the
county  of  Somerset, England, on the
Parret,  over which  is  an  iron bridge.
Although the  town is 12 miles from the
sea, the tide rises  six fathoms at high wa-
ter, and  flows in  with such impetuosity
as frequently to injure the shipping.   This
rapid motion is called the bore, and is not
uncommon  in the rivers which flow into
the Bristol  channel, (q. v.)  It has little
coasting, but considerable foreign  trade.
In the castle built by king John, the duke
of Monmouth lodged, and was here pro-
claimed king, in 1685,  before  the  battle
of Sedgemoor, which was fought about
three miles from the town.   B. then be-
came the theatre  of Feversham's and Jef-
feries' barbarity.  The borough sends two
members to parliament.  Population, 6155.
Lon. 2° 59' W.;  lat. 51° 7' N.
   Bridgewater, duke of, (See Egerton.)
   Bridle ; the head-stall, bit and reins, by
 which a horse is governed. The origin of
 it is of high antiquity.   The first horse-
 men guided their horses with a Uttle stick,
 and the sound of their voice. A cord
 drawn through the nose  is sometimes used
 for other animals.   The  ancient  Thes-
 salian coins often represent  a horse with
 a long rein trailing on the ground.  The
 Romans were trained  to fight without
 bridles, as  an exercise in  die manege.
 On Trajan's  column,  soldiers are thus
 represented at full speed. The parts of a
 modern bridle are the  snaffle or bit; the
 headstall, or leathers from the top of the
 head to the rings  of the bit; the fillet,
 over the forehead, and under the fore-top;
 the throat-band,  which  buttons under the
 throat; the reins; the nose-band, buckled
  under the cheeks; the trench, the cavesan,
  the martingal and the chaff-halter.
    Brief,  from  the  French  bref, which
  conies from the Latin brevis, denotes a 
270
BRIEF—BRIENNE.
thing of short extent or duration.  It is
more particularly used for a summary or
short statement—Brief, in law, signifies
an abridgment of the client's case, made
out for the instruction of counsel on a trial.
In this, the case of the party is to be con-
cisely but fully stated;  the proofs are to
be placed in due order, and proper  an-
swers made to whatever may be objected
against the cause of the client.  In pre-
paring the brief, great care  is requisite,
that no omission be made which may en-
danger the case.—Briefs, apostolical; writ-
ten messages of the pope, addressed to
princes or magistrates, respecting matters
of public concern.  Such brevia as  are
despatched by the datarii or secretarii, and
called rescripts, despatches, concessions,
mandates, &c, are written on parchment,
and sealed, with the fisher's ring, in red wax.
Pastoral  letters,  directed to princes and
bishops, are without seal.  These papers
derive their name from the shortness of
their forniaUties, since  they have no in-
troductory preamble, but commence with
the pope's name, and these words: dilecto
filio salutem et apostolicam benediclionem.
Briefs are not subscribed by the pope, nor
with his name, but with that of his secre-
tary.
   Briel, or Brielle, a town of the Neth-
erlands, near  the mouth of the Maese,
with a good harbor, well buUt and strong-
ly fortified.  It is remarkable, in history,
as the place where the confederates  laid
the foundation of the  Dutch republic, in
1572.  Having been  expelled by Alva
from the Low Countries, they equipped a
small fleet  in England, and were carried
accidentaUy, by an  unfavorable wind, to
B., which  capitulated to them, and thus
became the cradle of Dutch liberty.—Van
Tromp was bora  here.—The population
is 3200, principally engaged in the fish-
eries.  Lon. 4° W E.;  lat. 51° 54' N.
   Brienne, a small town in the depart-
ment of the Aube (Upper Champagne), con-
sists of Brienne-la-Ville and Brienne-le-
Cbateau, containing together 285 houses,
and 3200 inhabitants, with a number of
manufactories and vineyards.  In the mili-
tary academy for young noblemen,  for-
merly existing at B.-le-Chateau, Napoleon
received his first instruction in the mili-
tary art  B. afterwards became celebrated
as the scene of the last struggles of his
long and oppressive domination.  There
die  first battle within  the boundaries of
France was gained by the allied powers,
the  last trust  of  the  army in Napoleon
shaken, and the charm, which, it was sup-
posed, would render the French invinci-
ble at their  own  hearths, was  broken.
The way to  Paris and the overthrow of
the imperial dignity were prepared.  After
the battle at Bar-sur-Aube (Jan. 24,1814),
where the allied annies met with the first
resistance after tlieir  entry into France
by the way of Switzerland, they advanced
rapidly. Napoleon, having left Paris, com-
pelled Bliicher to retreat, on the 26th,
near Vitry, before superior numbers, and
concentrated  his forces on the 28th at B.;
Schwarzenberg took up his  position at
Chaumont, Bliicher at  St. Dizier, Wrede
at Andelot, and Witgenstein at Vassy.
On the 29th, the French made an impetu-
ous attack on  the allies.  The  struggle
on both  sides was obstinate  and bloody.
Night came  on, but the flames of B.,
which had been  set on fire, shed  their
light  over  the  field  of battle.   General
Chateau, with two battalions,  had  taken
the castle of B., but  was soon forced to
relinquish it  The battle continued till
11 o'clock.  It was renewed  on  the fol-
lowing day, and Bliicher was compelled,
by  superior numbers, to fall  back  upon
Trannes.  On the 31st, Napoleon arrayed
his whole  force  in  the plains between
La Rothiere and Trannes. The corps of
the crown-prince of Wiirtemberg, count
Giulay, and the Russian reserves of gren-
adiers, having  effected  a junction  with
Bliicher on the 1st of Feb., prince Schwar-
zenberg  gave orders  to commence the
battle.  About noon, Blucher's forces ad-
vanced in three  columns; general Sacken
leading one  upon La Rothiere, Giulay
another upon Dienville, and the crown-
prince of  Wiirtemberg  another  upon
Chaumreil.   In the mean time, general
Wrede took  up his line of march  from
Doulevent  upon B.   Only a few field-
pieces could  be brought into action, on
account of the nature of the ground ; but
the courage of  the soldiers compensated
for this  deficiency.   The crown-prince
of Wiirtemberg first drove the enemy from
his position, which was covered by woods,
and deprived him of the important point
of La Gibrie.  Although  he  was imme-
diately assailed in this position, he re-
mained in  possession of it after  a strug-
gle of more  than  an  hour.  Giulay took
Unienville, and Sacken  forced his way to
La Rothiere.  By 3 o'clock, all the  lines
were brought into action.  A heavy snow-
Btorm silenced  for a moment the fire of
the artillery, but could not  paralyse the
activity of the combatants. Napoleon di-
rected all the operations of his army, and
repeatedly exposed his person, with a full
conviction of the importance of success. 
BRIENNE—BRIGHTON.
271
The allied monarchs, also, encouraged
their troops by their presence in the field.
La Rothiere  was repeatedly taken, lost
and recovered.  Sacken renewed his ef-
forts to gain possession of it: the cavalry
of the enemy had  already  encountered
the bayonets of his infantry, when he re-
ceived succor.  The French cavalry was
forced back as far as Old B., and threw
the infantry into disorder.  Sacken took
32 pieces of cannon.   Meantime, Bliicher
had brought  up fresh troops against La
Rothiere, and captured that position.  The
crown-prince of  Wiirtemberg  got pos-
session of Petit Masnil, Wrede of Chaum-
reil, Giulay  of Dienville.   The victory
was decisive for the allied powers.  Dur-
ing the night, the French retreated on all
sides upon the road of B., leaving there a
small detachment as a rear guard, which,
however, on  the following  morning, was
compelled to retreat with the main  army.
The loss was great  on both sides.   The
alUes took 60  pieces of cannon and  a
considerable number of prisoners.
   Brienne, cardinal de Lomenie de. (See
Lomenie.)
   Brig, or Brigantine ;  a square-rigged
vessel, with two masts.  The term is ap-
plied to  different kinds of vessels, by
mariners  of different countries.   The
term brigantine is also applied to a light,
flat, open vessel, with 10 or 15  oars on a
side, furnished also with sails, and able to
carry upwards of 100 men.   The rowers,
being also soldiers, have their muskets
lying ready under the benches.   Brigan-
tines are frequently made use of, especial-
ly in the Meditenanean, for the purpose
of piracy, from which they derive their
name.   They are very fast sailers.
   Brigade ;  in general, an indeterminate
number of regiments or squadrons.  In
the English  army, a  brigade of infantry
is generally composed of 3  regiments;  a
brigade of horse,  of from 8  to 12 squad-
rons ; and one of artillery, of 5 guns and
a  howitzer.—In the U. States' army, the
brigade is  commonly composed of two,
but  sometimes of  more regiments.  A
number of brigades form a division, and
several divisions an army corps.  A brig-
ade-major is the chief of the brigade-staff.
A brigadier-general is the officer who
commands a  brigade.   In the British ser-
vice, this rank is  now abolished.   In the
U. States' service, he  is next in rank to
the major-general, who is the highest of-
ficer under the president, as commander-
in-chief.  Brigadier-general is also  the
title of the chief of the staff of an  army-
corps.   In the French military  language,
brigade, in the cavalry, signifies a  cor-
poral's guard.   Hence brigadier signifies
a corporal.
  Brigandine ; a kind of defensive armor,
consisting of thin, jointed scales of plate,
pliant and easy to the body.
  Brigantine. (See Brig.)
  Brighella.   (See Mask.)
  Bright, in painting; a picture is  said
to be bright, when the lights so much
prevail as to overcome the shadows, and
are kept  so  clear and distinct as to  pro-
duce a brilliant appearance.
  Brighthelmstone, or Brighton ; a
seaport town  in  the county  of Sussex,
England, much resorted to for sea-bath-
ing.   It was not long since a mere village
of fishermen ; but, under the patronage of
George IV, when  prince of Wales, it  rap-
idly increased,  and, by the returns of 1821,
the population was 24,429.  It is situated
on a gentle eminence, at the base of which
is the  Steine,  a lawn  surrounded  with
elegant buildings.  The Steine  and  ma-
rine  parade are fashionable promenades.
The esplanade, extending from the Steine
to the pier, which is 1154 feet long, and
supported by  8 chains, is  1250 feet in
length.  The  king has a  palace here,
called  the marine pavilion.  B.  contains
several public libraries and reading-rooms,
and hot, cold, vapor and salt-water baths,
air-pump water baths,  for the gout  and
violent scorbutic affections, and a swim-
ming bath.  The streets are clean  and
well  paved, and the hotels numerous and
well  fitted up.   Travellers embark hence,
in the steam-packets, for France.   The
number of visitors is greatest towards the
end of July.  B. is 52 miles south of
London.
  Brighton, in England.   (See Bright-
helmstone.)
  Brighton;  a post-town in Middlesex
county, Massachusetts, A\ miles west of
Boston.  Population, in  1820, 702.   It is
a pleasant town, and contains a number
of elegant country  seats.—A cattle fair
was begun here during the revolutionary
war, and  has  been increasing since the
peace of 1783.  Most of the cattle for the
supply of Boston market  are driven to
this place. Often from 2 to 3000, and even
5000, have come in one week; and sheep,
also, in great numbers.—In 1816, the trus-
tees  of the Massachusetts  agricultural
society commenced a cattle-show and ex-
hibition of domestic manufactures at this
place; and a commodious house, 70 feet
by 36, has been erected, for the accommo-
dation of the trustees, and the exhibition
of cloths, implements of husbandry, &c 
272
BRILLIANT—BRISACH.
  Brilliant.  (See Diamond.)
  Brimstone.  Sulphur (q. v.), as first
obtaiiied, is mixed with foreign bodies,
and, for the purpose of purification, is
melted in a close vessel, by  which the
impurities are allowed to subside.  It is
then poured, in the liquid state, into cylin-
drical moulds, in which it becomes hard,
and is known in commerce by the name
of roll brimstone.—The  Jewish history
(Gen. xix, 24) relates that Sodom  and
Gomorrah were  destroyed by fire  and
brimstone from heaven.  Showers of fire
have been observed by Bergmann (occa-
sioned by electricity) (Geog.  Phydque ii,
45, § 115), and showers of brimstone may
be  produced from  the  sulphuric acid
which exists in the atmosphere.
  Brindley, James, a native of Tunsted,
near Wormhill,  Derbyshire,  an eminent
engineer and mechanic, was bora in 1716.
The poverty of his family prevented his
receiving  more than the  rudiments  of
education, and, at 17, he became appren-
tice to a miUwright  On the expiration
of his indentures, he commenced busi-
ness as an engineer, and, in 1752,  dis-
played great talent in contriving a  wa-
ter-engine for draining a coal-mine.  A
silk-mill, which he constructed on a new
plan, and other works of the same de-
scription, introduced him to the patronage
of the duke of Bridgewater, then occupied
in planning a communication  between his
estate at Worsley and the towns of Man-
chester and  Liverpool by water.  This
immense  work,  the  idea  of which  was
ridiculed  by most of the  scientific men
of the period as impracticable, B. under-
took, and, by means of an  aqueduct over
valleys, rivers, &c,  completed, so as to
form a junction with the Mersey.  This
success caused him  to  be employed, in
1766, to unite the  Trent and Mersey,
upon which he commenced the "grand
trunk navigation canal,"  but, dying before
its completion, the work was  finished, in
1777, by his brother-in-law, Mr. Henshaw.
From this main branch B. also cut an-
other canal near Haywood in  Stafford-
shire, uniting it with the  Severn in the
vicinity of Bewdley,  and finished it in
1772.   From this  period scarcely  any
work of the kind in the  kingdom  was
entered upon  without  his  superinten-
dence or advice.  Among  other designs,
he prepared one for  draining the fens in
Lincolnshire and the  Isle of Ely, and
another for clearing the  Liverpool docks
of mud, which was especially successful.
The  variety of his inventions, and the
fertiUty of his resources, were only equal-
led by the simplicity of the means with
which he carried his expedients  into
effect.  He seldom  used any  model or
drawing, but, when any material difficulty
intervened, generally retired to bed, and
there  meditated on  the  best  mode of
overcoming it.   On such occasions, he
has been known to  seclude himself for
days; and so  partial  was he  to  inland
navigation, that he is said, to a question
humorously put to  him on his examina-
tion before the house of commons, " For
what  purpose did he consider rivers to
have  been  created," at once to have re-
plied, "Undoubtedly  to  feed  navigable
canals."  The intensity of his application
to business brought on a  hectic fever, of
which he died in 1772.
   Bring-to ; to check the  course of a
ship, when she is advancing, by arranging
the sails in such a manner, that they shaU
counteract each other, and  prevent her
from  moving forward or backward.  In
this situation, she is  said to  lie  to,  having
some  of her  sails aback, to oppose the
force of those which are full.
   Brinkmann,  Charles Gustavus,  one of
the most eminent living scholars of Swe-
den,  born in  1764,  was for a  long time
ambassador in France (in the time of the
republic),  England  and Germany.  He
now lives retired in Stockholm,  and keeps
up an  extensive  correspondence with
many of the  most distinguished persons
of our times.   He carried on a  lively cor-
respondence with the baroness de Stall.
He is distinguished  in the literary world
by works in German as well as in Swe-
dish.
   Brion, Luis, a native of the island of
Curacoa, distinguished for his love of
freedom, early took  part with  the patri-
ots of Carthagena.    When Bolivar set
on foot the celebrated enterprise  against
Margarita, the command of the maritime
forces was intrusted to Brion, who, being
possessed  of considerable property, con-
tributed largely from his private resources
towards defraying  the expenses  of the
expedition.   He had previously  served
on board  the repubUcan  flotilla,  and re-
ceived the privileges of citizenship in ac-
knowledgment of his bravery and con-
duct, and continued to be actively engag-
ed in the naval operations of the patriots
until  near the close  of  the war.  (See
Colombia.)
   Brisach, Old; a town of the  grand-
duchy of Baden, once included in  the
Brisgau, formerly on the  west  side of the
Rhine,  but, since the river changed its
course, near  the east bank. It was for- 
BRISACH—BRISTOL.                       273
merly a very strong place, and has sus-
tained several sieges.—New B.  is in the
department of the Upper Rhine, in France,
on the west side  of the river.  Vauban
fortified it  in 1699, and it is considered
one of his master-pieces.   It  is 30 miles
south of Strasburg.
  Briseis.  (See Achilles.)
  Brisgau, also Breisgau, with the dis-
trict  of Ortenau,  formerly constituted a
landgraviate in the south-western part of
Suabia, between the Schwartzwald and
the Rhine.   This is one of the  most fer-
tile parts of Germany, containing 1,272
square miles, and  140,000  inhabitants.
Though chiefly in possession of Austria
since the  15di  century, it was governed
by its own laws.  At the peace of Lune-
ville, 1801, Austria  ceded B.,  one of the
oldest possessions of the house of Haps-
burg, to the duke of Modena, after whose
death it feU  to his son-in-law, the arch-
duke Ferdinand of Austria,  as duke of
Brisgau.   By  the  peace of Presburg,
1805, it was assigned to Baden, with the
exception  of a  small part, and still be-
longs to the grand-duchy.
  Brissac   (See Cosse.)
  Brissot de Warville, Jean Piene;
born in 1754, at  Ouarville, a village in
the vicinity of Chartres, where his father,
a pastry-cook, and keeper of an ordinary,
possessed  a small  estate.  This circum-
stance  led  him to assume the surname
d'Ouarville, which he  afterwards, while
in England,  changed into de Warville.
At the age of 20, he had already publish-
ed several  works,  for one of which he
was  thrown into the Bastile,  in  1784.
Madame de Genlis, in her memoirs, says,
that  she procured his Uberty through her
influence with the duke of Chartres. He
married one of the household  of madame
d'Orleans, and  went to  England, where
he was in  the  pay of the lieutenant of
the police in Paris.  At the same time, he
was  engaged in literary pursuits, and at-
tempted to establish a lyceum in London;
but,  being disappointed  in his  plans, he
returned to France.  In 1788, he travel-
led in America, as it is asserted, to study
the principles of democracy.   After his
return, he pubUshed, in 1791, a work on
the United States.  On the  convocation
of the states general, he published several
pamphlets  in Paris, and afterwards a
journal—the  French Patriot.   When the
municipal government  of Paris was es-
tablished, July, 1789, he was one of the
members,  and was one of the principal
instigators  of the  revolt of the Champ
de Mars,  where  the dethronement of
Louis XVI  and the estabUshment of a
repubUcan constitution were demanded.
He constantly displayed a  hostile dispo-
sition towards foreign  powers,  and the
first  declaration of  war against Austria
was owing to him.   On the  10th of Au-
gust, the new ministiy was almost entirely
composed of his partisans.  In the con-
vention, he was at the head of the  diplo-
matic committee, in the name of which
he made a motion for war against Eng-
land and Holland.  On the trial of Louis
XVI, he endeavored to refer the sentence
to the decision of the people, and voted
for the  king's death,  proposing, at the
same time, that the execution should be
deferred till the constitution should  be
sanctioned by the  whole people in pri-
mary assemblies.   In  the  midst of the
revolutionary ferment, the ground where-
on his party  stood was insensibly under-
mined.  After several charges had been
brought against him, Robespierre accused
him, May 28, 1793, of favoring a federa-
tive  constitution, with two parliaments,
&c, and demanded that  he should  be
brought before the revolutionary tribunal.
The 31st of May completed  his  ruin.
He endeavored to  reach Switzerland in
the disguise  of a merchant of Neufchatel,
but was arrested at Moulins,  and  led to
the guillotine, in Paris, October 31, at the
age of 39.   He was a  great admirer  of
the Americans, assumed the  habits  of
the Quakers, and introduced the fashion
of wearing tbe hair without powder. His
personal qualities were below his  fame :
he was indeed a leader among the Girond-
ists, but many others of this party were
far superior to him in courage and talents.
  Brissotins, or Brissotists ; a name
sometimes given to the Girondists (q. v.),
from the subject of the preceding article.
  Bristol ;  a city and county of England,
situated on the Avon.  The river is here
deep and rapid, and the tide flows to the
height of 40  feet, so that a vessel of 1000
tons can come up  to the city.  It was
constituted a bishop's see by Henry VIII,
and part of a monastery founded by Ste-
phen, in 1140, has been converted into a
cathedral.   The church  of St. Mary's,
Redcliffe,  is one of  the  finest Gothic
structures in the kingdom.   The city has
long been distinguished for its well con-
ducted  and  extensive charities, and  is
adorned with many  handsome public
buildings.   Manufactories  of glass and
sugar, distilleries and  brass-works, the
largest in Engkind, give employment to
many of its inhabitants.  Its foreign trade
is also  considerable,  principally to the 
274
BRISTOL—BRITAIN.
West Indies.  It returns 2 members to
parliament, and is governed by a mayor,
2 sheriffs, 12 aldermen, and 28 common
councilmen. Here the famous Chatterton
was  bom:  his father was sexton  of St.
Mary's.  About a mile from B. stands the
village of the  Hot-Wells, famous  for its
medicinal   spring, the  temperature  of
which is from 72° to 76°: it discharges 60
gallons a minute.   The  Hot-Wells,  and
the village of Clifton, on the hill  above,
are fashionable resorts.  At the time of
the earthquake at  Lisbon, in 1755, the
water of the spring  became red and tur-
bid, the tide of the Avon flowed back,
and the water in the vicinity turned black,
and was unfit for use for a fortnight.  The
extensive commerce and  fine harbor of
B. rendered it desirable to obviate the in-
convenience attending ships lying aground
at every tide.  By constructing extensive
works, and opening a new channel for the
Avon, the  flux and  reflux of the  tide at
the quays have been prevented, and mer-
chant-ships of any burden may now con-
stantly lie  afloat.   B. is  very  ancient.
Gildas mentions it, in 430, as a fortified
city.  By  the Britons it  was called Caer
Brito, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, or
Pleasant Place.  It  was erected into an
independent county by Edward III, in
1372, and  has  since been endowed with
various privileges.   All persons are free
to trade here,  and  the markets  are un-
equalled in plenty and variety by any in
England.   Many of the  houses  in the
older part of the town are built of wood,
and crowded together in narrow streets,
but those of more recent erection are of
brick and stone, and disposed in spacious
streets and squares.  The common sew-
ers, which  run through the town, render
it  remarkably  clean.  Carts are not ad-
mitted into the city for fear of damaging
the arches of vaults and gutters under the
streets, and every thing  is conveyed by
sledges. The population, in 1821, includ-
ing the suburbs, was 52,889.  It  is 117
miles west from London; lon. 2° 4G7 W.;
lat. 51° 30^ N.
   Bristol  (Indian names,  Pocanocket
and Sowam); a seaport town, and capital
of a county of the same name in Rhode
Island, on the continent: 15  miles S.
Providence, 15 N. Newport, 56 S. S. W.
Boston ; lon. 71° 12' W.; lat 41° 3& N.;
population, in  1820, 3197. It is  a very
pleasant town, finely situated, and hand-
somely built, has a safe and commodious
harbor, and is a place  of considerable
trade.  The shipping  belonging  to this
port in 1820  amounted to 10,701 tons.
The trade  is chiefly to the West Indies
and  to  Europe.   It  contains a court-
house, a jail, a market-house, a masonic
hall, an academy, a public library, con-
taining  about  1400  volumes,  and four
nouses of public worship.  Great quanti-
ties of onions are raised here for exporta-
tion.  Mount Hope, which lies two miles
N. E. of Bristol, within the township, is a
pleasant  hill of a conical form, and is fa-
mous for having been the residence of the
Indian king Philip.
  Bristol Channel ; an arm of the Irish
sea, extending between the southern shores
of Wales and the  western peninsula of
England, and terminating  in the estuary
of the Severn.  It is about 90 miles long,
and  from 15 to 50 miles wide.  It  is re-
markable for its high tides  and the rapid-
ity with  which they rise.   (See Bridge-
water.)
  Britain, according to  Aristotle,  was
the name  which  the Romans gave to
modern England  and Scotland.   This
appellation  is, perhaps, derived  from the
old word brit, party-colored, it having been
customary with the inhabitants to  paint
their  bodies with  various  colors.   Ac-
cording to  the  testimony  of Pliny  and
Aristotle, the island, in the remotest times,
also bore the name of Albion, (q. v.)  The
sea, by which B. is surrounded, was gen-
erally called the Western, the Atlantic, or
the Hesperian ocean.   Until  the time of
Caesar, B.  was  totally unknown to the
Romans.  But the  Phoenicians, Greeks
and  Carthaginians,  especially  the  first,
were acquainted with it from the earliest
period, being accustomed  to obtain  tin
there.  On  this account,  they called  it
Tin island, as  Herodotus informs  us.
Caesar undertook two expeditions to B.
He defeated  the inhabitants, whom  he
found entirely savage, and  continued a
short time  on the island.  It was not,
however, until the time of Claudius, that
the Romans gained a firm footing there.
At that period, they extended  their pos-
sessions in the countiy, and caUed the
territory under their dominion Britannia
Romana.  The  most  important acquisi-
tions were afterwards made under Adrian
and Constantine.  At last, the inhabitants
assumed the manners of their conquerors.
The countiy was very populous in the
time of Caesar, and, according to the tes-
timony of Tacitus, fertile.   It was divided
into Britannia Romana and B. Barbara.
The Romans, from the time of Adrian,
anxiously endeavored  to secure the for-
mer against the invasions of the barbari-
ans, by a wall or rampart of earth fortified 
BRITAIN—BRITANNICUS CAESAR.
275
with tunets and bulwarks.  Lollius Urbi-
cus, in the reign of Antoninus, extended
tills wall; but Septimius Severus restored
its former  limits.  In his time, the  Ro-
man province was divided into the east-
ern (prima, or inferior) and the western
part (secunda, or superior).  Two prov-
inces were added  by Constantine.  The
inhabitants of ancient  B. derived  tlieir
origin partly from an original colony of
Celtee, partly from a mixed body of Gauls
and  Germans.  The Celtic colonists, or
the Britons, properly so called, living in
the interior of the country, had less inter-
course with foreign  merchants than the
Gauls, who Uved along the coasts. They
are therefore represented by the Romans
as less civilized.  The Gallic inhabitants,
who had settled nearer the sea-coast, pos-
sessed some property, and were therefore
more easily intimidated than  those tribes
that were dispersed  through  the forests.
None of them  cultivated  the  ground:
they all Uved by raising cattle and hunt-
ing.   Their dress  consisted of skins.
Their habitations were  huts made of
wicker-work and  covered  with  rushes.
Their priests, the Druids, together with
the sacred women, exercised a kind of
authority over them. (For  the  modern
kingdom  of Great  Britain, see Great
Britain.)
  Britain, New; a group of islands be-
longing to Australia (q. v.), and separated
by  Dampier's strait  from New  Guinea.
The situation of these  islands has not
been  very  exactly  ascertained; but they
stretch from about 1° 307 to 6° S. lat, and
from 148°  to 153° E. lon.  Their extent
is equally uncertain.   Some geographers
include in this group  the island of the
same name, New Ireland, New Hanover,
Admiralty islands, and some smaller ones.
Some of the group are  volcanic.   The
natives are Papuas, and manage their ca-
noes, some of which are 80 feet  long,
with  great skiU.   They are black; their
hair is curled and woolly; but they have
neither the thick lips nor the flat noses of
the Negroes.  Those of the Admiralty
islands are gende and peaceful; those of
New  Holland are warlike.  The islands
contain some high  mountains,  covered
with lofty trees  to  their  summits.   The
bread-fruit-tree, die fig-tree, pepper, aloes,
nutmeg, &c, are  found here. The seas
abound in coral reefs, which often render
the navigation dangerous.  Dampier first
discovered that this archipelago was sep-
arate  from New Guinea.   Carteret first
showed that New Ireland was separated
from New  Britain by the strait which he
called St. George's channel.  These islands
have been also visited by d'Entrecasteaux,
Bougainville, Hunter,  &c.   (See Labil-
hrdiere's Voyage, 2 vols., 4to., 1798.)
  Britain, New; a vast country of North
America, lying round Hudson's bay, north
and north-west of Upper and Lower Can-
ada, comprehending Labrador, New North
Wales and New South Wales, attached to
the government  of  Lower Canada, and
belonging to Great Britain.—The face of
the country is various.  On the south-
west of Hudson's bay, from Moose  river
to ChurohiU's river, in some parts, for die
distance of 600 miles inland, the country
is flat,  marshy, and wooded, in many
parts, with  pines, birch, larch and  wil-
lows.  North of Churchill's river, and on
the eastern  coast, it is high, rocky and
banen, every where unfit for cultivation,
covered with masses of rock of amazing
size, composed of fruitless  vaUeys and
frightful  mountains,  some of diem of
great height  The  vaUeys  are  full of
lakes formed by rain and snow, and are
covered with stunted trees, pines, fir, birch
and  cedar, or juniper.  The mountains
have here and there a blighted shrub, or
a little moss.  The cUmate is extremely
severe, and, in lat. 60., on the coast, veg-
etation ceases.—The principal rivers are
Mackenzie's  river,  Copper-Mine  river,
Nelson's,  Churchill's,  Albany,  Moose,
Seal, Severn,  Rupert and Pokerekesko.
The most considerable lakes are Winni-
peg, Slave  lake,  Great Bear  lake, and
Athapescow.—The  principal article of
trade is fur.   The trade is careied on by
two  companies, who have several  forts,
viz.  forts Prince of Wales,  Chippeyan,
Alexandria,  Churchill, Albany, Nelson,
Severn, &c.—The wild animals are nu-
merous,  such  as  bears, beavers,  deer,
raccoons, &c.  The Esquimaux Indians
occupy die coasts of Labrador: the inte-
rior is inhabited by various tribes of a di-
minutive and miserable race.
   Britannicus Cesar (Tiberius Claudi-
us  Germanicus),  son  of the  emperor
Claudius and Messalina, was born a few
days after the accession  of  Claudius to
the throne.  After the return of the em-
peror from  his expedition to Britain, the
surname Britannicus  was bestowed on
the father and son.  As the eldest son of
the emperor, B. was the  legitimate heir
to the throne; but Claudius was prevailed
upon by his second wife, the ambitious
Agrippina, to  adopt Domitius Nero, her
son by a former marriage, who was three
years older than B., and declare him his
successor.   The venal  senate  gave its 
276
BRITANNICUS CAESAR—BRITTANY.
consent  In the mean time, Agrippina,
under the pretext of motherly tenderness,
strove to  keep B.,  as much as possible,
in a state of imbeciUty.   She removed
his servants, and substituted  her  own
creatures. Sosibius, his tutor, was mur-
dered by her contrivance.  She did not
permit him to appear  heyond the pre-
cincts of  the palace, and even kept him
out of his father's sight, under the pre-
tence that he was insane and  epileptic.
Although the weak emperor showed that
he penetrated the artifices of Agrippina,
yet his death, of which she was the au-
thor, prevented him from retrieving his
error.  Nero  was  proclaimed  emperor,
while B.  continued in close confinement
In a dispute with Nero, Agrippina tiireat-
ened to place B., who was then 14 years
old,  on the  throne, upon  which Nero
caused him to be poisoned.
  Britinians ; a body  of monks of the
order of St. Augustine, who received their
name from Britini, in Ancona, which was
the place of their institution. Their man-
ner of Uving was very austere.  They ab-
stained from all kinds of meat, and fasted
from the  festival of the Exaltation of the
Cross  to Easter, besides observing  the
fasts prescribed  by the church, which
they were strictly enjoined to do  by the
rules of  their order.   Their dress was
gray;  and,  to  distinguish  themselves
from the Minorites, they wore no girdle.
When Alexander IV, in 1256, effected
the union of the different congregations
of the order of St. Augustine, the Britini-
ans became members of this union.
  British America.  Under die general
name of British America is comprehend-
ed all that part of the continent of North
America  which lies to the north of the U.
States, with the exception of the Russian
possessions in the north-west, and Green-
land in the north-east.  It consists of four
provinces: 1. Lower Canada, to which is
annexed New Britain ; 2. Upper Canada;
3. New Brunswick; 4. Nova Scotia; to-
gether with the island of Newfoundland.
The whole country is under a governor-
general, whose  residence is at Quebec.
Each of the  four  provinces has also a
lieutenant-governor; and  Newfoundland
is governed by an admiral.
  British Channel. (See English Chan-
nel.)
  British Museum was founded by  sir
Hans Sloane, who, in 1753, bequeathed
his coUection of natural and artificial cu-
riosities,  and his Ubraiy,  consisting  of
50,000 volumes of booka and  MSS., to
the  nation, on condition of the payment
of £20,000 to his heirs.  Montague-house,
one of the largest  mansions in  the  me-
tropolis, was appropriated to its recep
tion, and it has since been gradually in-
creased by gifts, bequests, and purchases
of every  species  of curiosity—animals,
vegetables, minerals, sculptures, books,
MSS.,  &c.  The main  building is  216
feet long and 57 high;  the wings are oc-
cupied by the  officers of the establish-
ment.  The library of printed books oc-
cupies  16 rooms.   The upper floor  is
composed of 11 rooms, 2 of which con-
tain  miscellaneous-collections, 4 contain
collections of natural history, and 5 the
library of MSS., which is extremely val-
uable, besides the saloon, containing the
minerals.   The Lansdowne  Ubraiy of
MSS. consists of 1245 volumes, exclusive
of rolls and charters, and  contains the
Burleigh,  Caesar  and   Kennet  papers.
(Catalogue of Lansdowne  MSS.,  folio,
1819.)  The Sloane  and Birch MSS.,
consisting of 4437 volumes, are valuable.
(See Ayscough's  Undescribed MSS.,  2
vols., 4to., 1782.)  The Harleian  MSS.
were collected  by  Harley, lord Oxford,
and form 7639 volumes, containing 40,000
documents. (Catalogue of Harleian MSS.,
A vols., foUo, 1809.)  The Cottonian  col-
lection was injured by fire in 1751.  The
number of articles is upwards of 20,000,
among which is the original of the Magna
Charta, and original documents connected
with it.  (Catalogue, folio, 1802.) There
are  many other very valuable collections,
which  we cannot enumerate.   The galle-
ry, or  department  of antiquities, is  dis-
tributed in 15 rooms; 6 of which contain
Greek and Roman sculptures and antiqui-
ties,  and  2 are  occupied with Egyptian
sculptures and antiquities, many of which
were collected  by  the French, and fell
into the hands of the English at the cap-
ture  of  Alexandria,  September, 1801.
Salt's  Egyptian antiquities  have  also
been lately added.  The famous Rosetta
stone belongs  to  the  collection.  Other
rooms  are occupied by terracottas, the
Hamilton vases, coins and medals, prints
and drawings, the Phigalian marbles, and
the Elgin marbles.  The anteroom con-
tains the famous Barberini vase, or, as it
is generally called, the Portland vase.
  Brittany, or Bretagne ; formerly one
of the  largest provinces of France, being
a peninsula washed by the Atlantic on all
sides except the  east,  where  it joined
Poitou, Anjou, Maine  and  Normandy.
It now forms  five departments (q. vi),
containing 2,532,500 inhabitants, on 1775
square miles.   It  is supposed to have 
BRITTANY—BR0EKHU1ZEN.
277
received its name from the Britons, who
were expeUed from England, and took
refuge here in the fifth century.  It form-
ed one of the duchies of France, till it
was  united to the crown by Francis I, in
1532.  The  province was divided  into
Upper and  Lower B.  Agriculture, in
this territory, is very backward, and it is
estimated, that about one half of the sur-
face  lies waste.   Corn and wine are pro-
duced in small quantities.   Flax and
hemp, apples and  pears,  are abundant,
and  of good quality.  Cider is the prin-
cipal drink.   Salt is made on the coast,
and coals, lead and  iron are found in va-
rious parts.   There are manufactures of
hemp, flax and iron. The fisheries, also,
employ many of the inhabitants. The
Bas-Bretons speak a dialect of the Celtic.
There is also a patois among them, called
Lueache, of which the words are princi-
pally Greek.  The lower classes are poor
and  ignorant.
  Brizard.   (See French Theatre.)
  Broach ;  a large, ruinous town in Gu-
zerat, Hindostan, on the Nerbuddah.   It
contains a Hindoo hospital for sick and
infirm beasts, birds and insects, which has
considerable  endowments  in land,  and
accommodates not only animals consid-
ered  sacred  by  the Hindoos,  such as
monkeys, peacocks, &c, but horses, dogs
and cats:  it has, also, in Uttle boxes, an
assortment of lice and fleas.   These ani-
mals are fed  only on vegetable food, and
are,  generally, in a miserable condition.
Near B. is  the  celebrated  banian-tree,
which has been renowned  ever since  the
first  anival of the Portuguese in India,
and  which, according to the  natives, was
capable of sheltering 10,000 horsemen
under its shade.  Part  of it has been
washed away by the river,  but  enough
yet remains to make it one of the noblest
groves in the world.  B. was captured by
the EngUsh in 1803. Lon. 73° 6' E.; lat
21° 41' N.
  Broach ;  any thing which will pierce
through ;  a pin ; that part of certain orna-
ments by  which they are  stuck on;  the
ornament itself.  Among the Highlanders
of Scotland, there are preserved, in sev-
eral  families, ancient broaches  of rich
workmanship, and   highly  ornamented.
Some of them are inscribed with charac-
ters  to which particular virtues were at-
tributed, and seem to have been used as
a sort of amulet or taUsman.
  Broach-to ; to  incline suddenly to
windward of the ship's course when she
sails with a  large wind;  or, when she
sails  directly before  the wind, to deviate
  vol. n.          24
 from her line of course with such rapid-
 ity as to bring her side to windward, and
 expose her to the danger of oversetting.
 The masts act  Uke levers on  the ship,
 sideways,  so  as to overturn her, unless
 she is relieved by the rending of the sails,
 or the carrying away of the masts.
   Broad Piece ; a denomination that has
 been given to some English gold pieces
 broader than a guinea, particularly Caro-
 luses and Jacobuses.
   Broadside, in a naval engagement ;
 the whole discharge of the artillery on one
 side of a ship of war, above and below.—A
 squall of wind is said to throw a ship on
 her broadside, when it presses her down
 in the water, so  as nearly to overset her.
   Broad-Sword ; a sword with a broad
 blade, designed  chiefly for cutting, used
 by some regiments of cavalry and  High-
 land infantry in the British service.  It
 has, in general, given place  to the 3abre,
 among the cavalry.   The  claymore or
 broad-sword  was formerly the national
 weapon of the Highlanders.
   Brocade ;  a stuff of  gold, silver or
 silk, raised and enriched with flowers,
 foliage  and other oniaments.  Formerly,
 it signified only a stuff wove all of gold
 or silver, or in which silk was mixed ; at
 present, all stuffs, grograms, satins, taffe-
 tas and lustrings are so called, if they are
 worked with flowers or other figures.
   Brocken.   (See Hartz.)
   Brody,  a  town  in  Austrian Gallicia,
 situated in the circle of Zloczow, border-
 ing on the Russian frontier, includes 2600
. houses, and  16,500  inhabitants, half of
 whom are Jews, who have a college and
 a school for the  instruction of artists and
 mechanics.  The  commerce, can-ied on
 principally by Jews,  is  important,  the
 town being very favorably situated for the
 exchange of the products of Poland for
 the  horses, black  cattle, wax, honey, tal-
 low, skins, fins, anise, preserved  fruits,
 &c, of Walachia, the Crimea, &c.   B.
 belongs to count Potocki.
   Broekhuizen, Jan van (better known
 as Janus Broukhurius); born at Amster-
 dam in  1649.  When  young, he lost his
 father,  a hatter, and was put  under the
 guardianship of one of his relations, who
 placed  him with an apothecary, though
 he desired to study a learned profession.
 While  in this situation, he wrote verses,
 and was encouraged by the applause of
 the  pubUc.  He  subsequently entered the
 military service of his native country.  In
 1674, he embarked under the command
 of the  famous admiral de Ruyter, as a
 marine,  on on  expedition to the  West 
278
BROEKHUIZEN—BROGLIO.
India islands.   In the autumn of the same
year,  he went into winter  quarters at
Utrecht   Here  he became  acquainted
with several scientific men, and published
a collection of his poems  Utrecht, 1684).
A splendid edition of them appeared at
Amsterdam in 1711, 4to.  He afterwards
received a miUtary appointment at Am-
sterdam, which afforded him leisure for
literary pursuits.  He  published an edi-
tion of the poems of  Sannazarius, and
also of Palearius's works, an edition of
Propertius (Amsterdam, 1702 and 1726,
4to.),  and  Tibullus  (Amsterdam, 1708
and 1727, 4to.),  with  critical notes.  In
these  works, he displayed  extensive
knowledge.  After the peace  of Ryswick,
he received his dismission, with the rank
of a captain.  He died in 1707.
  Broglio ; a family distinguished in the
annals of French wars and  French di-
plomacy, which derives its  origin from
Piedmont—1. Francois Marie, marshal
of France, born in 1671, died in 1745;
from 1689, fought with distinction  in the
Netherlands, in Germany and Italy.  He
was also employed in diplomatic affairs.
He rose by degrees, tiU, in 1734, he be-
came marshal of France.  In the Austrian
war of succession, he had the chief com-
mand of the armies of Bavaria and Bohe-
mia ; but leading them back  to the fron-
tiers of  France,  he feU into disgrace at
court.—2.  Victor Francois, the eldest son
of the preceding, Ukewise  marshal  of
France,  born  in  1718, commenced his
career in the battles of Guastalla and Par-
ma (1734); was engaged  in  all the wars
of France, and was  always distinguished
for his valor,  though not  uniformly suc-
cessful.  During the seven years' war, he
fought under  d'Estrees at  Hastenbeck,
and  at  Rossbach  under  Soubise.  He
was  more successful as commander-in-
chief at Bergen.  The emperor, to reward
him for the victory obtained at that place,
created him a prince of the empire.  Dis-
putes with Soubise, who was in particu-
lar favor with madame de Pompadour,
caused his recall and banishment.  In
1789,  when  the  revolution  broke  out,
Louis XVI  appointed him  minister of
war;  at the same time, he received the
command of the troops that were to keep
Paris  in  check.  The desertion of the
national guards rendered all his  efforts
vain,  and  B. left France. In the cam-
paign of 1792, he commanded a division
of the emigres without success. After its
close, he withdrew entirely  from  pubUc
Ufe, and died at Minister in  1804, in the
86th year of his age.—3. Claude Victor,
the third son of Victor Francois, on the
other hand, entered wholly into the views
of the revolutionary party.   He was dep-
uty of the nobUity of Colmar to the states
general.  After the dissolution of the con-
stituent assembly, he was appointed field-
marshal in the army of the Rhine,  but,
upon his refusal to acknowledge the de-
crees of the 10th of August, was deprived
of his  command, and  afterwards, on the
same account, summoned before the rev-
olutionary tribunal, and led to the guillo-
tine in June, 1794.—4.  Charles Francois,
a brother of Victor Francois, is known in
the histoiy of French  diplomacy as the
head of the secret ministry of Louis XV.
Although B. discharged the duties of this
difficult office with much  ability, yet, as
his views were often in direct opposition
to those of the public ministiy, the great-
est and the most ridiculous confusion was
often produced.  He was, therefore, for-
mally banished by the  king; but,  at the
same time, received secret instructions to
continue his usual duties  in  his exile.
Under Louis XVI, he was not employed,
and  died in  1781.—5.  Victor, peer of
France, a son of Claude Victor: see the
following article.
  Broglio,  Victor,  duke  of,  peer of
France, born in 1785, manied a daughter
of the celebrated madame de Staeh  His
grandfather was the marshal duke  of B.,
who was distinguished in the seven years'
war.  His father, Victor, notwithstanding
the patriotism which he had always dis-
played, fell a victim to  the  revolutionary
tribunal.  The son received an excellent
education, and devoted himself, at first, to
literature and the fine arts.   But he soon
engaged in  more serious studies, and in
political  affairs.  He became counsellor
of state, auditor, military intendant in II-
lyria and Valladolid, and was attached to
the French embassies in Warsaw, Vienna
and Prague.  In 1814, he took his seat in
the chamber of peers, where  he gave
splendid  proofs of his intimate acquaint-
ance with the present state of society, and
with the  legislation adapted to it. In the
trial of Ney, he was one of the few peers
who voted for his acquittal.  He spoke
with energy against the laws of exception
and  the  proscription lists.   At the time
when the ministry was making efforts to
extend the power of the police, the fol-
lowing observation of his met with great
approbation: "The existing government
(said he) wish to know all things, and tc
confine  this  knowledge to themselves.
Hence arises the inconvenience, that the
pubUc remains ignorant of facts by which 
BROGLIO—BRON NER.
279
the government are guided, and the gov-
emment  of the opinions of the public."
In the debates upon the censorship of the
pubUc journals,  he observed: " A new
government may more readily grant free-
dom of speech, as k is not called upon to
defend former abuses.   Restrictions on
the Uberty of the  press prevent the min-
isters from acquiring a knowledge of their
real situation, and discredit them with the
nation. The restraint of the press can only
be of importance to ministers, who throw
themselves into  the arms  of a violent
party, with the intention of allowing it an
unlimited Ucense."  The duke  is pro-
foundly versed in the whole department
of poUtical economy.
  Broker ; an agent who is employed to
conclude bargains, or transact other busi-
ness, for his employer, for a  certain fee or
premium.  Brokers are of several kinds—
merchandise, money, exchange, ship, in-
surance, real estate, pawn, stock brokers,
&c.  Exchange  brokers negotiate notes
and  bills of exchange ; money brokers
exchange different kinds of money; these
two  classes are not unfrequently united.
Merchandise brokers make  contracts for
the sale of merchandise. Pawn brokers
make it  their business  to  lend money
upon pawns.   Insurance  brokers  are
those whose business it is to procure in-
surance of vessels at sea or bound on a
voyage.   They are, at once, the agents
of the underwriters (who  expect  from
them a full  disclosure of all circum-
stances affecting the risk, and the pay-
ment of their premiums), and of the party
insured (who trusts to them  for the regu-
larity of the contract, and a  proper selec-
tion of underwriteis). An agent or broker
should not, therefore, be an insurer; for
he then becomes too much interested to
settle with fairness the rate  of premium,
the amount of partial losses, &c  Stock
brokers  are those who are  employed to
buy and sell shares  in the stocks, includ-
ing  the public funds  of their own and
other countries, bank stock, &c  In the
U. States, brokers are not required to be
Ucensed, nor to give bonds.  In France,
the brokers who deal in money, exchange,
merchandise,  insurance  and stock, are
called agents de change, and their number
at Paris is fixed at 60.   The company of
agents de change is directed  by a chamber
of syndics (chambre syndicate), chosen an-
nually by die company. They are obliged
to give bonds to the amount of 125,000
francs, for the prevention of abuses. They
are also obUged to keep books, and are
restricted to from J to { per  cent, for each
negotiation.  They are aUowed to deal in
the pubUc funds, foreign and domestic,
and the different kinds of merchandise,
&c.   In London, the brokers must be
Ucensed by  the  lord mayor, who takes
bonds for the faithful execution of their
duties.  In Egypt, the Arabs are the ex-
change  brokers,  and are called consuls.
In the Levant and the  Indies, the Jews,
Armenians and  Banians are the chief
brokers.
  Brome ; a peculiar substance  discov-
ered in 1826, and named from the Greek
Ppwpos, in consequence of its disagreeable
odor.  It is obtained from the bittern of
sea-water, or the washings of the ashes
of sea-weed.  It is a dark-red liquid, of
a specific gravity of 2.965, highly volatile,
and emits copious red fumes  at the ordi-
nary temperature of the air.   It boils at
116°.  The  vapor does not sustain the
combustion of a candle, though  several
of the metals burn in it.  It possesses the
bleaching  powers of chlorine, and,  Uke
that  substance, is eminently hostile to
Ufe ; a single drop of it, placed upon the
bill of a bird, being  sufficient to kill it
With oxygen and hydrogen it forms acids.
Its properties have led to the opinion, that
it might be a compound of chlorine  and
iodine ;  but, as neither of these substances
have been detected in it, we  are,  for the
present at least, obliged to regard it  as  a
simple element
  Bromelia.  (See Pine-Apple.)
  Bromius ; a surname of Bacchus.
  Bronkhorst,  Peter  van; a  Dutch
painter, born at Delft in 1588, and  died
in 1661.  He painted, with great success,
perspective views of temples and church-
es, enlivened with small but well  exe-
cuted human figures.  In the town-house
of Delft is hie representation of Solomon's
judgment.—John van B., born at Leyden
in 1648, learned the art  of painting with-
out any instruction, and attained to a high
degree  of perfection.   He  principally
painted animals, and  was  particularly
successful in his birds.  The lightness
and  briUiancy of the feathers ore repre-
sented with much  truth.   He  was  a
pastry-cook, and  painted merely for his
amusement—Another John van B., born
at Utrecht in 1603, was a painter on glass.
His works in the new church at Amster-
dam are much esteemed.   He has  also
engraved some works of Cornelius Poel-
enburg.
  Bronner, Francis Xaver,born in 1758,
at Hochstadt, on the Danube, of the  low-
est extraction, while a  boy, entered the
Jesuit college  at Dillingen,  as a singer 
280                      BRONNER-BROOKLYN.
He  afterwards became  a  Benedictine
monk, and  devoted himself,  with the
greatest zeal, to the study of philosophy
and mathematics, as well jis to music and
poetry.  He fled twice  from the monas-
tery, and  took shelter in  Zfirich.   In
1810, he was made professor in Kazan,
in Russia, whence he returaed in 1817.
His  poems, in particular his piscatory
idyls, are interesting for  their truth and
simplicity,  and  the refined  feeling of
moral and natural beauty which pervades
them.  He wrote his own life, in 3 vols.
  Bronze.  For the mode in which this
metal is prepared, see Copper.
  Bronzes, in archaeology ; works of art
cast in bronze.  The ancients used bronze
for a great variety of purposes: arms and
other instruments, medals and statues, of
this metal, are to be found in all cabinets
of antiquities.  Egyptian idols  of bronze
are contained in  the  British museum.
The most  celebrated  antique bronze
statues are, the sleeping satyr; the two
youthful athletes; the colossal equestrian
statue of Marcus AureUus, at Rome; the
Hercules of the capitol; the colossal head
of Commodus; the statue of  Septimius
Severus in  the Barberini palace.  The
horses of St. Mark, at Venice, are of pure
copper.  On tables of bronze  were in-
scribed  laws, edicts, and treaties.  3000
of these were destroyed by fire in the time
of Vespasian.  Bass-reUefs,  vaults,  and
doors of public edifices, were ornamented
with decorations of the same metal.  Ur-
ban VIII took from  the Pandieon alone
450,000 pounds of bronze, which he used
for the ornaments  of St Peter's, and for
the cannon  of the castle of St. Angelo.
One of these was composed wholly of
bronze nails, taken from the portico, and
bore the inscription, Ex clavia  trabatibus
porticus Agrippa.   The ancients consid-
ered this  metal as naturally  pure;  all
tiieir instruments of sacrifice, and sacred
vessels, were therefore of  bronze.  They
also beheved it endowed with the power
of driving away spectres  and malignant
spirits. (Ov.Met.vii.226,andFast.v.AAl.)
The words moneta sacra  are found only
on bronze medals.  It was sacred to the
gods; and  the  Roman emperors,  who
struck  gold and silver  coins, could not
strike them of bronze without the per-
mission of the senate; hence the inscrip-
tion  S.  C.  (Senatus consulto).   (For the
method of casting in bronze among the
ancients, see Winckelmann's History of
Art,  book ii.)  The  moderns  have also
made much use of bronze,  particularly
for statues  exposed to  accidents, or the
influence of the atmosphere, and for casts
of celebrated antiques.  The moulds are
made on the pattern, of plaster and brick
dust.  The parts  are then covered on the
inside with a coating of clay as thick as
the bronze is intended to be.  The mould
is now closed, and filled on its^inside with
a nucleus or core of plaster* and brick-
dust,  mixed with water.  When  this is
done, the mould  is opened, and the clay
carefully removed.  The mould, with its
core, are then thoroughly  dried, and die
core secured in  its position by bars  of
bronze,  which pass  into it through  the
external part of  the  mould. The whole
is then  bound with iron hoops, and  the
melted  bronze is poured  in through  an
aperture left for  the  purpose:  of course,
the bronze fills  the  same  cavity  which
was previously occupied by the clay, and
forms a  metallic  covering to the core.  It
is afterwards made smooth by mechanical
means.
  Bronzing.  Bronze  of a good quality
acquires, by oxydation, a fine green tint,
called patina antiqua, or, by the Romans,
arugo.  Corinthian brass receives in this
way a beautiful clear green color.  This
appearance is imitated by an artificial
process, called bronzing.   A solution of
sal ammoniac and salt  of sonel in vine-
gar is used for  bronzing  metals.  Any
number of layers may be applied, and
the shade  becomes deeper in proportion
to the  number  applied.   For bronzing
sculptures of wood, plaster, figures, &c a
composition of yellow ochre,  Prussian
blue, and  lampblack, dissolved in  glue-
water, is employed.
  Bronzino, Angelo,  a  painter of  the
Florentine school, and imitator of Michael
Angelo,  flourished about 1550.  He paint-
ed a great number of portraits; and his
historical paintings are distinguished  by
the striking and  pleasing features of the
heads which they contain.  One of his
best paintings  is a Christ, in the church
Santa Croce, at  Florence.   It is remark-
able for  its grouping and coloring, as well
as for the  heads,  many of  which are the
portraits of his friends and contempora-
ries;  yet  it is not altogether  free from
mannerism and affectation. Some persons
have found fault with  the  nakedness of
his figures.  He  died at Florence, 1570.
  Brooding.  (See  Ornithology.)
  Brooklyn, a post-town  of New York,
in King's county, on the   west end of
Long Island, separated from the city of
New York by East river.   Population in
1810, 4,402; in 1820, 7,175.  The village
of B., within the  township, is incorporat- 
BROOKLYN—BROOM.
281
ed, and has  a pleasant  and somewhat
elevated situation, opposite to the city of
New York, from which it is three fourths
of a mile distant  It is a flourishing vil-
lage, compactly and  handsomely  built,
having various manufactures, and an ex-
tensive trade;  and contained,  in  1825,
8,800 inhabitants, and 5 houses of pub-
Uc worship.   To the east of the village is .
a tract  of land called  the  Wallaboght,
which  is  the  site of a navy-yard, and
public  store-houses, belonging to the U.
States.  Between B.  and Flatbush, on
the south, a  severe  battle  was fought
during the  revolutionary war,  between
the British and Americans, in which the
latter were defeated with great loss.
  Brooks, John, was born  in Medford,
Mass. in the year 1752.  His father was
a respectable  farmer.  After receiving a
common education at the town school,
young B. was indented as an apprentice,
according to  the prevaiUng custom,  to
doctor Simon Tufts, for the space of seven
years.  He here contracted  an intimacy
with the celebrated count Rumford, which
was continued by correspondence until
the latter's death.—After completing his
studies,  he commenced the practice of
his  profession in the  neighboring  town
of Reading; but he had not been long so
engaged, when  the  revolutionary war
broke out, and he was appointed to com-
mand a company of minute  men, whom
he soon had an opportunity of exercising
against the British, on their  retreat from
Lexington and Concord.—He was soon
after raised to the rank of major in the
continental service, and was distinguish-
ed for his knowledge of tactics,  being
considered as second, in  that respect,  to
baron Steuben alone, with whom he was
associated in the duty of introducing a
uniform system of exercise and manoeu-
vres.—In 1777, he was appointed lieuten-
ant-colonel, and had no small share in the
capture of Burgoyne,  on the 7th of Oc-
tober, at Saratoga.—When the conspiracy
of some of the officers against the com-
mander-in-chief,  in  March, 1783,  had
well nigh ruined the  country, Washing-
ton rode up to Brooks, and requested him
to keep his officers within  quarters,  to
prevent tlieir  attending  the  insurgent
meeting.  Brooks replied, "Sir, 1 have
anticipated your wishes, and my orders
are given."   Washington took  him by
the hand, and said, " Colonel Brooks, this
is just what  I expected from you."  He
was one of the committee who  brought
in the resolutions of the officers, express-
ing tlieir abhonence of this plot, and also
                 24*
one of that appointed by the officers to
adjust  their accounts  with congress.—
After the army  was disbanded, colonel
Brooks resumed the practice of medicine
in Medford and the neighboring towns.
He was soon  after elected a member of
the Massachusetts medical  society, and,
on its  extension,  and new  organization,
in the  year 1803, a counsellor.  He was
for many years major-general of the mi-
litia of his county, and his division, during
the insunection  of 1786, was  very  effi-
cient in the protection of the  courts of
justice, and the  support of the govern-
ment.  General Brooks also represented
his town in the general court, and was a
delegate in the state convention, for the
adoption of the  federal constitution, of
which  he was one of the  most zealous
advocates.  In the late war with England,
he was the adjutant-general of governor
Strong, and was chosen to succeed him
on his retirement  from  office, almost
without  opposition.   As  governor,  he
discharged his duties with  signal ability
and excellent temper.—He was president
of many literary, religious,  patriotic, be-
nevolent  and professional  societies.—
After discharging, for  seven  successive
years,  the duties  of chief magistrate, he
retired to private Ufe, and  spent his re-
maining  years in the town of Medford,
where  he was much beloved.  The in-
habitants refened  to him  all their dis-
putes, and his decisions generally satisfi-
ed both parties.   The death of this ex-
cellent man took place in  the 73d year
of his  age, March 1st, 1825.—As a phy-
sician,  he was judicious and accurate m
his investigations, and clear in his dis-
cernment ; prudent rather than bold, and
kind and attentive to his patients.   His
mind'was active, ardent, and indefatiga-
ble.  His whole conduct was  regulated
by the  purest  sentiments of  morality and
religion, imbibed at an early period.
  Broom;  a  genus of plants which in-
cludes numerous  species.   The common
broom  (spartium scoparium) is  a shrub
growing abundantly on sandy  pastures
and  heaths in England.   It  is distin-
guished by having large, yellow, butterfly-
shaped flowers, leaves in threes, and sin-
gle, and the  branches  angular.   This is
a handsome shrub, and one of the most
useful  of the common  plants of Great
Britain.   Its twigs are tied in bundles,
and formed into brooms.   Some persons
roast the seeds,  and make them into a
kind of coffee.  The  fibrous and elastic
parts of the bark, separated by soaking
hi water, may be manufactured into cor- 
282                       BROOM—BROUGHAM.
 dage, matting, and  even into a coarse
 kind of cloth.  The twigs and young
 branches have been successfully employ-
 ed as a substitute for oak bark in tanning
 leather.  They may also be rendered ser-
 viceable as thatch for houses and corn-
 ricks ; and some persons mix them with
 hops in brewing; but it is doubtful wheth-
 er, in this  respect, they are wholesome.
 The  flower-buds, when pickled,  have,
 occasionally, been used as a substitute for
 capers.  The wood, when the dimensions
 arc sufficient for the purpose, is employed
 by cabinet-makers for veneering; and  it
 is stated, by doctor Mead, that a decoction
 of the green tops, in conjunction  with
 mustard, has been found efficacious in the
 cure  of dropsy.—Spanish broom, or sport
 (spartium junceum),  is  an  ornamental
 flowering shrub, common in EngUsh gar-
 dens, which has opposite round branches,
 that flower at the top, and spear-shaped
 leaves.  In the province of Valencia, and
 other parts  of Spain,  great attention is
 paid to the manufacture of various articles
 from  the twigs  and bark of this shrub.
 They are plaited into mats, carpets, cov-
 ering for plants, baskets, ropes, and even
 shoes.  A great portion  of  these  twigs
 was  formerly  exported  to  different
 French ports in  the  Mediterranean, par-
 ticularly  to  Marseilles; but,  in 1783, on
 account of the employment of which it
 deprived the Spanish people in working
 them, their exportation was prohibited by
 the government.
  Brosses, Charles de, first president of
 the parliament of Burgundy, was born at
 Dijon in 1709.  He applied himself to the
 study of law, and, at  the same time, did
 not neglect  the  arts and sciences.   His
 intimate acquaintance with Roman his-
 tory produced in him a desire of visiting
 Italy,  whither he  went in 1739.  On his
return, he published his Letters on the
present Condition of the subtenaneous
City Herculaneum (Dijon, 1750).  Ten
years afterwards appeared his treatise on
die religious worship called Fetisch  At
the request  of Buffon, who had been his
friend from youth, he wrote a History of
the Voyages to Australia (1756).  At that
time, it was generaUy believed that there
was a southern continent, to which De B.
gave the name of Magellania.  The  erro-
neous nature of this supposition was first
made  known  by Cook.  A  work  of a
very different kind succeeded this,  and
displayed the extent and variety of the
author's learning.  This was a treatise on
the mechanical formation of languages.
It contained, together with many imper-
 fections, numerous curious and profound
 investigations, ingenious conjectures, and
 penetrating views.  De B. employed him-
 self, through his whole life, on a  work
 which was held in no slight estimation
 by die  learned.  This was a translation
 of SaUust, in which he labored to supply
 the lost parts of this historian.  For this
 purpose, he collected above 700 fragments
 of Sallust, by means of which, with some
 important additions, he composed  a his-
 tory  of the 7th centuiy  of the Roman
 republic,  displaying  a great  extent  of
 erudition.  The work would  have  been
 received with greater approbation,  if the
 graces of style  had been joined to the
 depth and sagacity of research which it
 manifests. Though these various  labors
 claimed a large portion of his time, yet
 they did not hinder him from attending
 to the duties of his office.   He died in
 1777.  The manuscripts which he left
 were lost during the revolution.
   Brothel.  (See Bawdy-House.)
   Brotherhood, Holy.  (See Herman-
 dad.)
   Brotherhoods.  (See Fraternities.)
   Brothers ; male children of the same
 father  or  mother, or both.  Among the
 ancients, the term was employed to denote
 more remote relations.   Thus, among the
 Jews, Abraham was called the brother  of
 Lot, his  nephew.   By the civil  law,
 brothers and sisters  stand  in the second
 degree of consanguinity:  by the canon
 law, they are in the  first degree.  In the
 monastic and military orders, the members
 were  called brothers, as being united  in
 one family. In Europe, the  kings  ad-
 dress each other by the title of  brother:
 the president of the U. States uses the
 same title in addressing the Indian chiefs
 who arc sent to talk with him.
  Brougham, Henry, was born at  Lon-
 don, in 1779.  He attracted public notice,
 originally, as one of the principal contrib-
utors to the Edinburgh Review.  Sound
learning, a terse and expressive  style,
logical reasoning, vigor and independence
of thought, were the distinguishing  traits
of his compositions.  But his efforts as a
parliamentary orator, as an advocate, and
as a public benefactor, have given him
the most extensive reputation, and raised
him to an  enviable height in public opin-
ion.  As an advocate, he stands in the
 front rank of the EngUsh  bar; and the
variety of his  talents and  acquisitions
have served to reflect credit upon his char-
acter as a lawyer;  while the soUd foot-
ing of professional eminence has commu-
 nicated authority and weight to bis exer 
BROUGHAM—BROUSSONET.
283
tions in other walks of life.  His profes-
sional course has been, to  a  considerable
degree, associated with his  political ca-
reer, in consequence  of the differences
between George IV, when prince-regent,
and the then princess  of Wales.  During
the discussions relative to her conduct and
affaire, he acted as her counsel;  and af-
terwards, on the accession of George IV,
when queen Caroline claimed the rights
and privileges of queen-consort, B. was
appointed her attorney-general, and acted
in that capacity at her trial.  Of course, he
belonged to the opposition party; and he
has consistently maintained the principles
of the whigs  down to  the  present mo-
ment   The responsible part he  took in
behalf of queen Caroline secured to him
the regard  of her friends and of the op-
position. But he possesses more solid
claims to the respect of the liberal party,
from his labors as a member  of the house
of commons. Among  these may be men-
tioned  his  efforts to procure  a repeal of
the orders  in council; his opposition to
the leather  tax; his opinions  on the liber-
ty of the press; his efforts in behalf of
popular education ; and, recently, his at-
tempts to procure a reform in the admin-
istration of the laws.  On all occasions,
he has acted with purity and independ-
ence, and has proved himself above mere
personal considerations.   Although  he
never took  office, yet he is, unquestiona-
bly, the most  prominent  man in  the
house.   The variety  of his  powers and
attainments is not the  least of his claims
to attention.  Preeminent  as a man of
science, a literary man, a statesman, law-
yer and orator, and  throwing himself,
with energy and success, into all  these
different departments  of intellectual pur-
suit, he necessarily occupies a large space
in the  public  eye.  As  an orator,  he is
neither finished nor accurate  in style, but
his characteristics are  ingenuity and force
of argument, quickness and strength of
sarcasm, and a prompt, vigorous, impas-
sioned  style  of reasoning,  which  ren-
der him, as an antagonist in debate, al-
ways redoubtable, and often inesistible.
In addition to his contributions to  the
Edinburgh  Review, and to various scien-
tific journals, we may mention, among his
publications, the  following:—1.  An  In-
quiry into the Colonial Policy of the Eu-
ropean  Powers;'  2 vols., 8vo., 1803.  2.
On the  State of the Nation.  3. Speech
on the  State of Commerce and Manufac-
tures ;  1812.  4.  Speech  at Liverpool;
1812.   5. Practical Observations on  the
Education  of the  People ; 1825.   6.
Speech on the State of the Law; 1828.
The reputation which he has hitherto ac-
quired by his occasional efforts,  upon
temporary and transient subjects, is splen-
did ; but he is now laying  the foundation
of a deeper and  more brilliant feme, by
his unwearied industry in the  cause of
popular instruction and of legal reform.
As to the first, it  is sufficient to say, that
his principles on the subject of extending
the  elements  of  knowledge among  the
middling or lower classes, have met with
the most decided support, and are  the
basis of much that is now  doing for their
improvement  His propositions of legal
reform having been brought  forward  but
lately, the result remains to be seen ;  but
the reception they have met with augurs
auspiciously for the result  His life,  we
hope, will long be spared to his country.
  Bro.ughton's Archipelago ;  an  ex-
tensive range of islands, rocky islets and
rocks, in  an arm of the Pacific ocean, on
the west coast of North America; so call-
ed from  an Englishman, who discovered
them in  1790.  Lon. 232°  5& to 233° 40*
E.; lat 50° 33' to  51° N.
  Broussonet, Piene  Marie  Auguste,
physician and naturalist, bom at  Mont-
pellier in  1761, first introduced the Lin-
naean system  into France.  Daubenton,
though an opponent of Linnaeus, made
him his substitute in the college de France,
and, in 1784, his assistant in the veterina-
ry school.  B. read  several valuable  pa-
pers before the academy, and was chosen
a member. As secretary of the agricul-
tural society  at Paris,  he  published  the
useful  L'Annee rurale  ou Calendrier a
V Usage des Cultivateurs, and caused  the
first nock of Merino sheep to be introdu-
ced from  Spain,  and Angora goats from
the Levant.  In 1789, he became a mem-
ber of the national  assembly,  and,  al-
though he did not distinguish himself in
political disputes,  he was imprisoned by
the convention as  a Girondist.  He escap-
ed to Madrid, but was obliged, by  the
royalist emigres,  to  fly  from that place.
By the assistance  of hie friend sir Joseph
Banks, he embarked in an English  ves-
sel  for India.  A  storm forced the vessel
into the harbor of Lisbon, where he soon
met with new persecutions.  Under  the
title of physician to the American  consul
at Morocco, he went to  Africa, and reas-
sumed his botanical studies.   His name
was finally struck from the  list of emi-
grants.  He was made  consul  at  Moga-
dore, and at the  Canaries, and, in  1805,
member of the corps legislatif   He died,
in 1807, from the  consequences of a  fall 
284
BROUSSONET—BROWN.
he had met with some time before, by
which he lost his memory for all proper
names and other substantives, but had ad-
jectives in abundance at his  command.
His manuscripts are of great value.
  Brower.  (See Brauwer.)
  Brown, Charles Brockden, greatly dis-
tinguished as a novelist, and the editor of
various periodical works, was born in the
city  of Philadelphia, in 1771.  He was
remarkable in his childhood  for his at-
tachment to books, and, at the age of 16,
after having received a liberal education,
had  already formed  plans of extensive
Uterary works.  The profession of which
he made choice  was the law.   He was
apprenticed to an eminent member of the
Philadelphia bar, but,  during the teim
intended for preparatory legal study, was,
in fact, principally occupied with literary
pursuits; and, when the time approached
for his admission into the courts, he re-
nounced, altogether, the legal career from
constitutional timidity, and an invincible
dislike to the scenes which courts present
1 lis friends remonstrated and reasoned in
vain.   The youth desired only retirement
and the employments of a student and an
author.  The delicacy of his frame, more-
over, incapacitated him for the bustle of
business and  all  athletic  amusements.
During frequent visits to New York, he
became intimate with a literary club, who
fostered his devotion to  letters,  and in-
creased his eagerness to  be conspicuous
as a writer.  He kept minute journals,
indited essays  and dissertations, and cul-
tivated, with  unremitting assiduity, the
arts  of  composition.—The  first  novel
which he wrote was entitled  Sky Walk.
It was never published,  owing to the
death of the printer, who had undertaken
to issue it at  his own risk.   Parts  of it
were afterwards  incorporated in  the pro-
ductions by which B. became so advan-
tageously known to his country and Great
Britain.  The  first of these was the novel
called Wieland, which appeared  in 1798.
It soon acquired the reputation of a pow-
erful  and original romance.   The  next
published, in the following year, was Or-
mond, or the Secret Witness, which had
neither the success nor the merit of the
other, but still  exhibits uncommon pow-
ers of invention and description.  At this
time, B. had begun no less than five nov-
els, two of which—Arthur Mervyn and
Edgar  Huntley—were  completed  and
sent forth almost immediately.  In Ar-
thur Mervyn,  the ravages of the yellow
fever, which the author had witnessed in
New York and Philadelphia, are painted
with tenific truth.  AU these composi-
tions abound both with excellences and
faults, and bear a character of originality.
In 1801, he published another novel—
Clara Howard—less open to exception,
but also less deserving of praise.  Its form
is different from that of the others, being
cpistolaiy.   The last  of his novels was
Jane Talbot, originally published in Lon-
don, in 1804.   It is deficient in interest,
and, indeed, in all respects, inferior to its
predecessors.   In April, 1799, B. pub-
lished  the first number of the  Monthly
Magazine and  American Review.  This
work he continued with great industry
and ability until the end of the year 1800.
He wrote  abundantly for  it   Circum-
stances compelled him to relinquish it;
but,  in 1805,   he commenced another
journal, with  the title of  the  Literary
Magazine and  American Register; and,
in this  undertaking, he persevered for five
years.   His prolific pen gave  birth to
three   large  political  pamphlets in the
same interval.   Their respective titles are,
an Address to the Government of the U.
States on the Cession of Louisiana to the
French, and on the late Breach of Treaty
by the  Spaniards;  the British Treaty;
and an Address to the Congress of the U.
States  on the  Utility and Justice of Re-
strictions  on Foreign  Commerce, with
Reflections on Foreign Trade in general,
and the future Prospects of America.  In
1804, B. married Miss Linn, a sister of
the amiable and popular poet, the rever-
end doctor John Blair Linn.  The match
proved eminently happy.   In 1806, he
entered upon a new work, a semi-annual
American Register, five volumes of which
he lived to. complete and publish.   It is
now and  must  long  be consulted  as a
valuable  body of annals.—We  have al-
ready mentioned the delicacy of B.'s con-
stitution.  It had a tendency to consump-
tion of the lungs, which his sedentary and
studious habits unfortunately aggravated.
In 1809, it was discovered that his  lungs
were seriously affected, and he then con-
sented to travel for the recovery of his
health.  The remedy, however, was ap-
plied too late.   In November of that year,
after an excursion into the states of New
Jersey and New York, he betook himself
to his chamber, as he  thought, for a few
days;  but his confinement lasted  until
February, and ended only with his life.
He expired on the 22d of that month, at
the age of 39.  Among his manuscripts,
an unfinished system of geography was
found, to which his friends have ascribed
rare merit  He was widely and critically 
BROWN.
285
conversant with geography and history,
and, therefore,  particularly qualified to
produce a superior system of this  kind.
His knowledge of the French language is
• vinced in his accurate  translation of
Volney's Travels in the U. States.—B.
was a man of romantic temper, benevo-
lent heart, pregnant invention, extensive
attainments and prodigious industry.  His
colloquial powers were considerable, but
rarely indulged in  mixed society.  He
was reserved, but not unsocial.  He could
be taxed with no excess, save that  of ap-
pUcation.   His moral character has no
stain.  He  was one of the gentlest of
human beings.  In person, he was of the
middle  size,  and  bore the marks of a
valetudinarian and  literary devotee.—The
writings of B. were admired and current
during  his life.  Even his novels,  how-
ever, fell, after his death, into comparative
oblivion at home, and remained so until
they began, not long since, to be read and
praised in England.  An edition of them
in 6 vols. 8vo. was printed in Boston in
1828.  Their leading traits are, a rich and
correct diction, variety of incident, vivid
scenes of joy and sonow, a minute devel-
opement and strong display of emotion,
and a powerful use of wonderful phe-
nomena  in the physical  faculties  and
habits of man.  Almost all is new and
strange in his machineiy and  situations ;
but he deals too much in the horrible and
criminal.  Extravagant and consummate
depravity actuates too many of his char-
acters.   His scenes may  rivet attention,
and his plots excite the keenest curiosity ;
yet they pain  the heart beyond the privi-
lege of fiction, and leave in the imagina-
tion only a crowd  of terrific phantasms.
None of his novels can be said to possess
unity in the details, or to  be finished in
the general design and execution.   These
merits  were  incompatible with the ex-
treme rapidity of his workmanship, and
the number of distinct performances in
which  his  fancy and  pen were engaged
at the same time.
  Brown,  George, count, an  Irishman,
born in 1698, studied at  Limerick, and
entered the Russian service, in 1730, as
lieutenant,  where  he  distinguished him-
self in  several wars, and was three times
made prisoner and sold as a slave by the
Turks.  In reward for the discovery of
some secrets  of the divan, he was  made
major-general in the  Russian army.  In
the batde of Zorndorf, he was taken pris-
oner by the Prassians, and disabled, by
wounds,  for  future  military  services.
Notwithstanding his bold  remonstrances
against the Danish war, Peter HI made
him governor of Livonia, in which post
he remained 30 years,  and was not less
honored by  Catharine  II.  He died in
1792.
  Brown, John, M.  D-, the founder of
the Brurionion system in physic, was born
at Buncle in Berwickshire, in 1735.  His
parents apprenticed him to a weaver, but,
it being discovered that he possessed abil-
ities superior to his occupation, he  was
sent  to a grammar-school.  Having im-
bibed a considerable  portion of religious
enthusiasm,  he looked forward to  the
ministerial office, among the strict sect of
seceders.  Upon some  disgust, however,
he changed his mind,  and, in 1756, en-
tered  himself as a student of divinity in
the university at  Edinburgh.  His theo-
logical predilection  gradually forsaking
him, after officiating  as the usher  of the
school in which he had been educated,
he returned to  Edinburgh in  1759, and
commenced the study  of physic.  He
was admitted, as an indigent scholar, to a
gratuitous attendance on the lectures, and
obtained the patronage  of  doctor Cullen,
who employed him as a tutor in his own
family.  During this  course of study, he
married, and set up a boarding-house, but
failed, and became bankrupt.  About this
time,  by a long  course  of  meditation on
the animal  system, and the vigor of his
own mind, directed by  some reading, but
seconded by little or no  aid from practical
observation, he elaborated  a new  theory
of medicine.  The. result was the publica-
tion of his  Elementa Medidna, which he
further explained  in  a  course of private
lectures.  B. scrupled  at  no means to
push his doctrines.  A  new medical  lan-
guage was  introduced; ideas totally at
variance with former opinions were main-
tained ; and the  most  virulent abuse of
the regular professors  of the university
was  perseveringly uttered.  At length,
ruinedin reputation and involved  in his
circumstances, he repaired, in  1786, to
London.  Here he endeavored to excite
attention  by his Observations on the Old
Systems  of Physic, but without success,
and died  suddenly of apoplexy, probably
produced by laudanum, which he  was in
the habit of taking when common spirits
failed to excite him sufficiently.  The opin-
ions  of B., although not admitted to the
extent and in the form  in which he pro-
posed them^ made a considerable change
in medical language and  doctrines, not
only in Great Britain, but in the principal
schools of Europe, his Elementa and Ob-
servations having been translated  and 
286
BROWN.
pubUshed at more than one place on the
continent  His object  was  to  simplify
medicine, by arranging both diseases and
remedial powers into large and strongly-
marked classes. He divided all diseases
into  sthenic and  asthenic,  or those in
which excitement  is too great or too little,
and all curative means into such as in-
crease or diminish excitement.  The sys-
tem has been useful in  overturning false
and trifling analogies, and in leading to
a fuU  trial of vigorous remedies; but
in practice it  is found impossible to act
on ideas so general and abstract.  The
best edition of the English translation of
the Elementa is that revised and correct-
ed by doctor Beddoes, with  a biographi-
cal preface.
  Brown, Robert, the founder of a reli-
gious sect, first called Brownists, and af-
terwards Independents, was born  of an
ancient family in Rutlandshire, and studied
at Cambridge,  where, in 1580, he began
openly to attack the government and lit-
urgy of the church of England as anti-
Christian.  He first ascended the pulpit
at Norwich in  1581, where he succeeded
in converting  a number of Dutch, who
had a congregation there, to his opinions,
for which he was  brought before the ec-
clesiastical commissioners, to whom he
behaved so rudely, that he was sent to
prison, but soon obtained a  release.  He
then went to  Middlcburg,  in  Zealand,
with his  followers, and  wrote a book
called  A Treatise  of Reformation without
tarrying for any Man.   In  1585,  he re-
turned to England, and, as he still labor-
ed to gain converts, he was excommuni-
cated by the  bishop of Peterborough.
This censure,  joined, perhaps,  with the
evaporation of his zeal, induced him to
submit; and, in 1590, he was presented to
a living in Northamptonshire, of which
he received the emoluments without dis-
charging the duties.  In  other  respects,
too, his morals were licentious, so that he
retained Uttle  of the  austerity of the
founder of a sect   After leading a turbu-
lent life, this extraordinary character died
in 1630, in Northampton jail, where he
had been sent for assaulting a constable and
insulting  a magistrate.  The  sect of
Brownists was far from expiring  with
their founder,  but spread so as to become
a great object  of alarm; and a bill was
brought into  parliament which inflicted
on them very  severe pains and  penalties.
In process of time, however, the name of
Brownists was merged in that of Congre-
gationalists or  Independents (q. v.), under
the  latter of which titles they  fonned  a
powerful party in the commonwealth, and
were very obnoxious to the Presbyterians,
whose successors, it is remarkable, have,
for  the  most  part,  gradually  adopted
Brownist principles in relation to church
govemment
  Brown, doctor Thomas;  an ingenious
writer on metaphysics and  morals.  He
was bom in Scotland, in 1778,  and was
educated at the high-school, and subse-
quently at the university of Edinburgh,
where he obtained  the professorship of
moral phUosophy.  He distinguished him-
self} at a very early age, by an acute re-
view  of the  medical and  physiological
theories of doctor Darwin, in a work en-
titled  Observations  on Darwin's Zoono-
mia, 8vo.  This work introduced him to
the academy of physics, of which  Mac-
kenzie, Jeffery and Brougham were mem-
bers.   It was this society which  gave rise
to the Edinburgh Review,  to which the
first contributors sent their papers gratu-
itously.  B. wrote die review of the phi-
losophy of Kant, in the second number,
but, being displeased with some liberties
taken  with one of his papers intended for
the fourth number, his  connexion with it
was terminated.  He also published some
poems, which displayed considerable tal-
ent.   His principal  poetical work is the
Paradise of Coquettes,  London,  1814.
But he chiefly deserves notice on account
of his metaphysical speculations; and his
last work, on the Philosophy of the Hu-
man Mind,  affords  ample  proof of his
merit  as a profound and original thinker.
He died at Brompton, near London, April
2, 1820.
  Brown, WilUam, the celebrated admi-
ral of Buenos Ayres, was born in Ireland,
from whence he emigrated to Baltimore,
in the U. States, in 1793, being then about
14 years of age.  He was  employed in
the American  mercantile marine   until
1796,  when he was impressed by a British
man-of-war.  He continued partly in the
English navy and partly in the merchant
service until 1814, when, being at Buenos
Ayres,  in the command of an  English
merchant-ship, during the  war of inde-
pendence, he was induced  to enter into
the naval service of the country.  Being
appointed to the command  of the repub-
lican  flotilla of two brigs, three corvettes
and a schooner, he put to  sea  in  April,
1814,  and engaged some  ships of the
Spaniards, off the island of Martin Garcia.
In the ensuing May, a more decisive en-
gagement took place off Monte  Video, in
which  four of the  enemy's vessels were
either taken or destroyed,  and the rest 
BROWN—BROWNE.
287
dispersed.  This victory enabled B. to
blockade Monte Video, and thus contrib-
ute essentially to bring about the sunen-
der of that city, which  speedily took
place.—B. was now raised to the rank of
admiral; and, there being  no  further oc-
casion  for  his services  in the river La
Plata, after the destruction of the Spanish
fleet, he  planned an  expedition against
the Spaniards in  the Pacific ocean.  For
some time he cruised with great success,
making many rich  prizes from the Span-
iards, who had no force in those seas ad-
equate to oppose him.  He was  daring
enough to attack Callao, but without suc-
cess ; and afterwards  made a similar at-
tempt  to gain possession of Guayaquil.
But, on the latter occasion, his flag-ship,
the Trinidad, grounded on the sands un-
der the guns of a battery, and he was
obliged to surrender  at discretion.  He
remained in confinement but  a few days,
being  exchanged  for the governor of
GuayaquU, don  Manuel Mendiburu, who
had  been made  prisoner  by  one of his
cruisers.   In May,  1816, he anchored in
the harbor of Buenaventura with the cor-
vettes Hercules and Hawk, and entered
into communication with the government
of Popayan, for the  purpose of selUng
some  of the  property token from his
prizes, and obtaining supplies.   At this
time, the patriot cause in New Grenada
was in its most desperate  condition, Mo-
rillo having overrun the whole country,
and  obtained  possession  of Santa Fe.
Some  of the most eminent republican
leaders, who were flying  for their lives,
took the road for  Buenaventura, hoping
to escape on board B.'s vessels.  But, the
Spaniards  having  gained possession of
Choco, B. found it necessary to put to sea
precipitately in the Hercules, scuttling the
Hawk, and abandoning  a  number of his
seamen, who were on shore, with a large
quantity of valuable merchandise.—After
having greatly annoyed the Spanish com-
merce in the Pacific, and sent a number
of his prizes to Buenos Ayres, he return-
ed in the Hercules, with a rich booty on
board, to enjoy the fruits of his intrepidity
and  enterprise.  Finding the  La Plata
blockaded  by die Portuguese, and his
vessel needing repairs, he determined  to
proceed either to the West Indies or the
U. States.  On the way, he was captured
by the British ship of war Brazen, cap-
tain  Sinclair, carried  into Antigua, and
condemned by the admiralty  court, upon
allegations so frivolous and unreasonable
as to afford good cause to  charge the
captors  or the  court with corrupt and
arbitrary conduct.—Owing to this unjust
proceeding, B. lived at  Buenos Ayres in
retirement, and almost in poverty,  until
the war with Brazil commenced.   This
event brought him once more into notice,
and gave him an opportunity of acquiring
no small share of naval reputation.—As
admiral of the naval forces of the repub-
Uc during  this war, B. has displayed un-
common bravery, activity and skill,  hav-
ing  been   generaUy successful  in  his
military enterprises. But, owing to the
straitened  means of the republican  gov-
ernment, his courage has generally been
wasted  upon  small enterprises, which
have signaUzed his talents and prowess on
many brilliant occasions, but produced no
decisive effect  upon the war.
  Browne,  Maximilian  Ulysses, count,
field-marshal  in the Austrian  service,
born at Bale, in 1705.  His father, Ulys-
ses de Browne, left  Ireland  in  1690, as a
follower of king James II, became  colo-
nel in the Austrian service,  and died in
1721.   The son served  from  his  early
youth in the imperial army; distinguish-
ed himself in the Italian war, in particu-
lar, in the  battles of Parma and Guastalla;
and, in  1739, was  made lieutenant-field-
marshal.  In  the  Silesian wars, B. serv-
ed with zeal and abiUty; the 15th June,
1746, he  gained the battle of Piacenza
against  the French, took  the pass of
Bochetta,  and  made himself master of
Savona.   In 1752, he was made governor
of the city of Prague, and commander in
chief of the forces  in Bohemia; and, in
1756, when king Frederic  II  attempted
to penetrate through Saxony to Bohemia,
he was appointed  field-marshal.  Octo-
ber 1,1756, he lost the battle of Lowositz,
but,  seven days after, advanced towards
Saxony, to rescue the Saxon troops, who
were surrounded   between Pima  and
Konigstein.  Although he did  not effect
this  purpose,  he forced the  Prussians to
evacuate  Bohemia, and was,  in conse-
quence, rewarded  with the order of the
golden  fleece.  Frederic invaded  Bohe-
mia a second time  with his  whole force,
and, May 6, 1757,  the battle of Prague
was fought. B. was obUged to leave the
field, and  was carried to Prague, mortally
wounded, and  died in June, 1757.  Fred-
eric II called him his master.
   Browne, Simon; a  learned  and inge-
nious dissenting divine, remarkable for
an extraordinary  sjiecies of mental de-
rangement, born about 1680.  He preach-
ed for some time  at Portsmouth;  after-
wards at the Old Jewry, one of the prin-
cipal congregations of Dissenters in Lon- 
288
BROWNE—BRUCE.
 don.   Here  he pubUshed  a volume of
 hymns, and  one of sermons.  In 1723,
 the loss of his wife and only son direw
 him into a settled  melancholy, attended
 with the persuasion, that God had anni-
ihilated in  him  the thinking substance,
 and utterly divested him of conscious-
 ness ; and, although he  retained the hu-
 man shape, and the faculty of speaking
 in a manner  that appeared to others ra-
 tional, he had all the while  no more no-
 tion of what  he said than a parrot  He,
 therefore, thought  himself  no longer  a
 moral agent,  or a  subject  of reward  or
 punishment, and, desisting from his func-
 tions, could not be prevailed upon to join
 in any act of worship, public or private.
 This  peisuasion, which remained with
 him to the end of his life, at first tempted
 him to commit suicide;  but he at length
 became calm, and appeared uneasy only
 when  his friends appeared  to doubt the
 truth of his assertions.   Notwithstanding
 this aUenation of mind, his faculties,  in
 other respects, were in full vigor, which
 he proved by various  publications,  in-
 cluding the compilation of a dictionary.
 This, he observed, " was nothing that re-
 quired a reasonable soul."   Towards the
 close of his  life, he published several
 clearly-written theological  pieces, and,
 among the rest,  a defence  of revelation.
 So strong, however,  was  his delusion,
 that, in a  dedication to queen Caroline,
 which his friends would not permit him
 to publish, but  which  appeared  in the
 88th number of the Adventurer, he de-
 scribes his  deprivation of  a soul with
 great force of expression, and even pa-
 thos.   He died in 1732, aged 55.
   Browne, sir Thomas, a physician and
 writer,  was  born in  London, in  1605.
 He was educated at Winchester school,
 whence he was  removed to Oxford, and
 afterwards received the  degree of M. D.
 at Leyden.   On  his return  to  England,
 he settled at Norwich, where he acquired
 extensive  practice  and  reputation.   In
 1642, he pubUshed  his famous work, en-
 titled  Religio Medici, which was trans-
 lated  into various  languages.  In 1646,
 his Uterary character was still further ex-
 alted by his Pseudodoxia Epidemica,  or
 Treatise on Vulgar Enors,  a work of ex-
 traordinary learning.   In 1658, his Hy-
 driotaphia, or Treatise on Urn-Burial, ap-
 ?eared, with  his Garden  of Cyrus.  In
  665,  he  was constituted an  honorary
 member of the college of physicians, and,
 in 1671, Charles II conferred on him the
 honor of knighthood.  He died in 1682.
 Fancy and feeUng  predominated in him
over judgment; he believed  in the exist-
ence of guardian angels, in the reality of
witchcraft, and the appearance of spectres.
The Treatise on Vulgar Enors ably dis-
cusses the causes of enor.  A folio edi-
tion of his works was published in 1686.
Doctor Johnson, who has written his life.
speaks highly of his exuberance of knowl-
edge and plenitude of ideas.
  Browny, in  the  Hebrides,  and the
Highlands of  Scotland;  a spirit who
cleaned the house,  churned,  threshed,
and did other good-natured  offices.  He
seems to  be the same as the English
puck, hobgoblin, or Robin  Goodfellow,
whom Reginald Scott(Discovery ofWitch-
craft) describes  as one, who, for his pains
in grinding malt and mustard, and sweep-
ing the house, had a  bowl of milk set for
him.  When Johnson visited the  Hebri-
des, nothing had been heard of the browny
for  many years.
  Bruce,  James, a  celebrated modem
traveller, was bom at Kinnaird-house, in
Scotland, in 1730.  He received his early
education  at Harrow, whence he was re-
moved to the  university of Edinburgh,
where he studied with  a view to pursue
the profession   of the law.  His  object,
however, changing, he entered  into part-
nership  with a wine-merchant,   whose
daughter he manied; but, upon his wife's
death within a year, he made  a tour
abroad,  during  which  absence he suc-
ceeded, by the death  of his father, to the
estate of  Kinnaird.  On  his  return to
England, he sought public employment,
and at length was indebted to lord Hali-
fax  for the appointment of consul at Al-
giers.   He repaired to his. post in 1763,
and employed himself there for a year in
the  study of the Oriental languages.  He
commenced travelling by visits to Tunis,
Tripoli, Rhodes, Cyprus, Syria, and several
parts of Asia Minor, where, accompanied
by an  able Italian draughtsman, (of whose
labors he  is now known to have assum-
ed the merit,) he made  drawings  of the
ruins of Palmyra, Baalbec, and other re-
mains of antiquity.  These were deposit-
ed in  the  king's library at Kew, and, in
the  language of boast and hyperbole,
which formed the great weakness of this
able and adventurous character,  consti-
tuted  "the most magnificent present in
that line ever made  by a subject to his
sovereign."  Of his first travels he never
published  an account.    In  June, 1768,
he set out on his famous journey to dis-
cover the  source of the Nile.  Proceed-
ing first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile
to Syene, thence crossed the desert to 
BRUCE.
2f9
 the Red sea, and, arriving at Jidda, pass-
 ed some months in Arabia Felix, and,
 after various detentions, reached Gondar,
 the capital of Abyssinia, in February, 1770.
 In that  countiy, he ingratiated himself
 with the sovereign,  and  other influential
 persons, of both  sexes, in the several ca-
 pacities of physician, courtier and soldier.
 On November 14, 1770,  he obtained the
 great object of his wishes—a sight of the
 sources of the Nile.  Claiming to be the
 first  European  who  had accomplished
 this interesting discovery, his exultation
 was proportionate, and he records it with
 singular strength of expression.  The
 right of the fountains which he visited to
 the tide of the principal sources of the
 Nile is rationally controverted; but, wheth-
 er they be so  or not, they had been previ-
 ously visited by the  missionary Jesuits of
 Portugal, a fact of which he could scarce-
 ly have been  ignorant  On his return to
 Gondar, he found the country  engaged
 in a civil  war,  and was  detained two
 years before he could obtain permission
 to leave the country.  Thirteen  months
 more were occupied in travelling back  to
 Cairo, in which journey he endured ex-
 cessive privations.   He returned to his
 native country in 1773, and retired to his
 paternal seat.  He  married again, and
 maintained  the  character of an  elegant
 and hospitable host,  and  an amiable man
 in private life, but capricious in his friend-
 ships, and haughty and arrogant to stran-
 gers.  His long-expected Travels did not
 appear until 1796, in four large quarto
 volumes, decorated  with plates.   These
 volumes are replete with curious infor-
 mation concerning a part of the world
 but little known  to Europeans, and con-
 tain  much  interesting  personal  adven-
 ture, and fine description.   It  is to  be
 lamented that the authority of the work,
 in regard to facts of natural  history and
 human manners, is  not altogether  satis-
 factory ;  and, the pride of the author not
 aUowing him  to  remove  objections, it is,
 perhaps, entitled to  more credit than  it
 has received.   Whatever its portion  of
 accuracy and merit,  the nature of its re-
 ception may serve  to guard oU future
 travellers against the  indulgence of too
 much egotism  and personal vanity in their
 narrations ; for, with little direct evidence
 against either his facts  or his veracity,
 those faults have greatly  obscured the
 fame of B.,  who, after escaping the most
 momentous danger in a  long peregrina-
 tion through barbarous countries, lost his
 Ufe in consequence  of an accidental faU
down stairs, as he was attending the de-
   vol. n.           25
parture of some guests whom he had
been entertaining.   His death took place
in April, 1794.
  Bruce, Michael,  a  British  poet of
the last  century,  distinguished for  the
plaintive elegance of his compositions.
He was born at Kiunasswood, in Scotland,
in 1746; and,  his  friends being persons
in low circumstances, he had to struggle
with poverty, which,  together with con-
stitutional disease, gave a melancholy turn
to his mind, and influenced the character
of his writings.   For a short time, he was
engaged in the occupation of a village-
schoolmaster, the fatigues of which prob-
ably shortened his Ufe.  He became con-
sumptive, and died in 1767.  His poems,
which arc few in number, were published
by the reverend John Logan, together with
some of his own, at  Edinburgh, in 1770.
One, composed on the anticipation of his
own death, is pecufiarly  affecting.
  Bruce, Robert; the competitor of John
Baliol  for the throne of Scotland.   On
the death of Alexander III, without any
Uneal descendant, the right to the crown
devolved on the descendants of David
earl of Huntington, who were John Baliol
descended from his oldest daughter, and
Bruce, descended, tiiough one generation
nearer, from his second daughter. Baliol,
therefore, claimed  as issue of the elder
branch; Bruce as one degree nearer the
common stock.   If the principle of rep-
resentation  were regarded, the former had
the better claim; if propinquity were con-
sidered, the latter was entitled to  the pref-
erence.   The dispute was referred to the
decision  of Edward  I of England, who
decided in favor  of Baliol; and  the new
king took the oath of fealty as vassal of
England. The oppressions of the English
induced Baliol  and  his  countrymen to
have recourse to anns, and Brace served
in the anny of Edward.  Scotland was
subjected, her  king imprisoned, her  de-
fenders reduced, slain, or made captive,
when an obscure individual arose to re-
venge  her  wrongs.   WilUam  Wallace
(q. v.), having succeeded in delivering his
countiy,  was accused by Brace of aspir-
ing to the  throne, and, in the  dreadful
battle of Falkirk, B.  was in the English
ranks.  In  the pursuit,  Wallace had the
celebrated  interview  with him on  the
banks  of the  Carron.   Hume (ch. 13)
relates that the  interview was  between
WaUace and the younger Bruce ; but the
Scottish  historians Drummond,  Lesly,
Buchanan, &c, give the account as here
stated:   WaUace displayed such eleva-
tion of sentiment, such  disinterestedness 
290                         BRUCE—BRUGES.
of patriotism, that Brace melted into tears,
and swore to embrace  the cause of his
oppressed country.
  Bruce, Robert; son  of the preceding.
Seven years of alternate  resistance and
submission, of wars and truces, had pass-
ed, from the batde of Falkirk, when Ed-
ward I returned to London, in 1305, vic-
torious for the third time over Scotland,
and  deUvered  by treachery from  the
dreaded WaUace.  In  his train, among
other  Scotch nobles,  were Robert Bruce
and John Cumyn, who, formerly rivals,
now conspired to deUver themselves from
the perfidious  Edward.   They agreed
that B. should be declared king, and that
Scotland should be summoned  to arms.
Cumyn betrayed  his accomplice, who,
without being informed of the discovery
of the plot, was ordered not  to leave the
court.  He received  the first intimation
of his danger by the present of a pair of
spurs and a  purse of gold from one  of
his friends;  and, understanding  the hint,
he had his horses shod with  their shoes
inverted, that the traces on the snow might
baffle his pursuers, and escaped  to Scot-
land.   He  immediately  assembled  his
friends at Dumfries,  and all the nobles,
except Cumyn, encouraged his resolution,
and promised their aid.  Cumyn endeav-
ored to dissuade them from so desperate
an undertaking; and, after the assembly
was dismissed, he was attacked by B. hi
the cloisters of the Gray Friars, and ran
through  die body.   B. was  soon after
crowned at Scone.  Being twice defeat-
ed, he dismissed his troops, and retired to
the Hebrides, accompanied only by two
friends.  His wife was  canied captive to
London, his three brothers were hanged,
and he himself  was supposed to  be dead,
when he reappeared in Scotland, collect-
ed an army, put to the sword the English
garrisons, and raUied all Scotland under
his banners.   Edward set out to subdue
the thrice-conquered Scots,  and was on
the point of  entering the kingdom, vow-
ing revenge, and secure of success, when
he sickened and  died, enjoining it with
his last breath on his successor  never to
desist till he had  subjected aU Scotland.
B., though obliged to be carried in a litter,
defeated the  English  at Bannockburn,
near Stirling, and secured the  indepen-
dence of his crown, June 24,1314.  The
distracted state of the country  required
vigorous measures.  The Scottish nobles
had encroached on the possessions of the
king and the commons.  The king called
upon them  to show the tides by which
they held their  lands.  " By  these," they
exclaimed,  drawing their swords,  "we
have acquired  our lands, and with these
we will preserve them!"  King Robert
was once more obliged to defend his ter-
ritories from the EngUsh, who, encour-
aged by these  disputes, had again passed
the Scottish borders.  On the plains of
Byland, 1323,  he gained anodier memo-
rable victory over those formidable ene-
mies.  On the accession of Edward HI,
1329, he obtained from that king the rec-
ognition of the independence  of Scot-
land, and the  renunciation of all claims
of sovereignty  on the part of the English.
He died in the course of the same year.
   Bruges ; a city of the Netherlands, and
capital of West Flanders, situated about 6
miles from the sea.  It is the centre of
an extensive canal commerce.  The prin-
cipal canals are those which lead to Sluys
and Ostend, on  the latter of which ves-
sels of 300 tons can come up to B.  In
the 14th centuiy, it was one of the chief
commercial places in Europe, and an im-
portant member of the Hanseatic confed-
eracy.   Towards the end of the 15th cen-
tury, it began to decUne.  It now carries
on a considerable trade with the north of
Europe. The population is about 34,300.
The exchange is supposed to have been
one of the earliest estabUshments of the
kind in Europe, and is  still a fine build-
ing. B. has also a chamber of commerce,
a large insurance company, a navigation
school,  and a  dock-yard; likewise an
academy of painting,  sculpture and ar-
chitecture ;  a  national  literary  society,
&c, and  many valuable  specimens of
architecture and sculpture.  I n the church
of Notre Dame, with its elevated spire,
are the splendid tombs of Charles the
Bold,  and  of Mary  of Burgundy, his
daughter,  constructed  in  1550.  Philip
the Good here founded the  order of the
golden fleece, in 1430; and the celebrated
John van Eyk,  or John of  Bruges, the
supposed inventor of painting in oil, was
born here.   (See CoUection de  Gravures
au Trait representant les prindpaux Man.
d' Architect, et  de Sculpt, de Bruges, depuis
le  lAme jusqu?  au \7me Siecle, 1824.)
The chief articles manufactured at B. ore
lace and Unen. It also exports much grain,
and, when the EngUsh ports are open,
immense quantities are shipped.   Lat.
51° 12/ N.; lon. 3° 14' E.
   Bruges, viscount of;  one  of the prin-
cipal persons  of the French  court He
was a  lieutenant in  the  marine  when the
French revolution broke out, and served
among the English troops on the expedi-
tion to St  Domingo,  where his family. 
BRUGES—BRUHL.
291
had  great possessions.   He  afterwards
married the countess  Golofkin, in Ger-
many.  After the restoration of the Bour-
bons, the viscount, who drew  his origin
from one of the oldest families, was ap-
pointed inspector of the  eighth military
division of Provence.  He could not pre-
vent the landing of Napoleon, on his re-
turn from Elba, in  1815.  He served in
the army of the duke  of Angouleme,
in the south of France, and attempted to
take Marseilles in June, 1815, when mar-
shal Brune compelled the duke to capit-
ulate.  In 1816, he was sent by the French
government on an important mission to
Berlin.  His elder brother, count Bruges,
became, in 1815, inspector-general of the
national guards.
   Brugmans, Sebald Justinus; a learned
Dutchman, physician-in-chief of the army,
of the marine, and of the colonies; mem-
ber of the institute of the Netherlands, and
of many learned societies.  He was born
at Franeker,  iri  1763, and graduated, in
1781, at Groningen.   His  dissertations,
Lithologia  Groningiana;  On hurtful and
poisonous  Plants in  Pastures; On the
Symptoms of Decay  in  Trees, and  De
Puogenia, in 1785, procured him distinc-
tion.  He became professor of philoso-
phy and  physics  in Franeker, where he
formed a cabinet of comparative anatomy,
one of the first in Europe.  In 1795, he
went to Leyden as professor of chemistry.
His  labors for the organization  of  the
medical department of the army com-
menced in 1794.  He was an active con-
tributor  to  the  Pharmacopaia  Batava.
King Louis made him his physician, and
confirmed  all his institutions.  After  the
union  of Holland with France, Napoleon
made him inspector-general of the hospi-
tals, and rector of the university of Ley-
den, for which he procured large sums of
money from the state, and, in later times,
the return of its collection of natural his-
tory from Paris.  During the many years
he was director of the military hospital,
the number of deaths by wounds and dis-
eases  was never increased by  hospital
fevers.  After the battle of Waterloo, he
promptly procured medical aid for more
than 20,000 wounded men.  His treatise
On  the Nature of the Miasma of Hospi-
tal Fever gained the prize of the acade-
my  in Haarlem.  His original views on
the organization of fishes are to be found
in  the transactions of the  national  in-
stitute of the Netherlands.  He died  in
1819.
   Bruhl,  Frederic  Aloysius, count of,
born at  Dresden, 1739, sou  of Henry
count of Bruhl, described in the next arti-
cle, was very unlike his father.  Educated
by his mother, an estimable and enUghten-
ed lady, with prudence and strictness, and
happily endowed by nature, he became
the ideal of an accomplished man of the
world.  He was remarkable for his beauty
and strength, wrote and spoke almost  all
the European languages, was skilled in
music,  painted with taste, and was well
acquainted with mathematics and  gun-
nery.  He worked a whole year incognito
in a  cannon foundery.  His activity and
temperance were both extraordinary. He
excelled in writing, and stiU more in con-
versation.
  Bruhl, Henry, count of, minister of Au-
gustus  lit, king of Poland and elector of
Saxony, was bora in 1700, in  Thuringia.
His family not being very rich, he entered,
as a  page, the service of the duchess Eliz-
abeth, whose favor, as well as that of Au-
gustus  II, he gained by his Uvely and grace-
ful manners.  On the death of the  king)
at Warsaw, in 1733, the crown of Poland,
with the other regalia, being, through the
good fortune of B., intrusted to him, he car-
ried them  immediately to the new elector,
Augustus  III, and showed the greatest ac-
tivity in  promoting his election.  From
this time, fortune never deserted him. He
had  cunning and skill sufficient to govern
his master and get rid of his rivals. While
he felt himself not  sufficiently powerful
to remove his rival, count Sulkowski,  he
acted as his friend; but, after his marriage
with the countess Kollowrath, the favor-
ite of the queen, he effected the dismissal
of Sulkowski through her influence. He
now succeeded in keeping every body at
a distance from the king.  No servant
entered his service  without  the consent
of B.;  and, even when  he went to the
chapel, all approach to him was prevent-
ed.  The  monarch's wish that  his minis-
ter should make a great parade was grat-
ified in the widest  extent.  B. kept 200
domestics; his guards were better paid
than those of the king himself, and  his
table more sumptuous. Frederic II says
of him, "B. had more  garments, watches,
laces,  boots, shoes and slippers than any
man of  the  age.  Caesar would  have
counted  him  among those  curled and
perfumed heads which he did not  fear."
But  Augustus III was no Caesar. When
this  idle  prince  loitered  about, smoking,
and  asked, without looking at his favor-
ite, " Bruhl, have I any money ?" " Yes,
sire," was the continual answer; and, to
satisfy  the king's demands, he exhausted
the state,  plunged the country into debts, 
292                          BRUHL—BRUNE.
and  gready reduced the army.  At the
beginning of the seven years' war, it com-
prised  but  17,000 men, and these were
compelled to sunender, at Pirna, from
want of the necessary supplies.  B. fled
with the king, the pictures and the china,
to Poland;  but the archives of the state
were left to the victor.   He was no less
avaricious of tides  and money than of
power.  He\died a  few weeks after his
king, in 1763.  An examination, after his
death, showed that he owed his immense
fortune to  the  prodigaUty of the king,
rather  than to unlawful means  of accu-
mulation.  His own profusion was often
beneficial to the arts and sciences.  He
had four sons.  An account of the eldest
is contained in the preceding article.
  Bruhl, John Maurice, nephew of the
minister, died in 1809, while Saxon  am-
bassador in London, is known by his in-
genious improvements of several instru-
ments, by his essays in the Philosophical
Transactions, and by his Recherches sur
divers Objets de VEconomic politique (Dres-
den, 1781).
  Brulotta.  (See Fire-Ship.)
  Brumaire, the 18th (Nov. 9),  1799.
On this day, general  Bonaparte overthrew
the directory. The next day, he dispeised,
at the point of the bayonet, the council of
the five hundred, and was elected consul.
(See Napoleon and France.)
  Brun.  (See Lebrun.)
  Brunck, Richard Francis PhiUp, one
of the  most ingenious  critics of modern
times,  born  at Strasburg, in 1729, made
rapid progress in learning, when he stud-
ied with the Jesuits  in Paris, but neglect-
ed study as soon as he entered into active
life.  While  in winter quarters at Giessen,
as commissary of war, during the French
campaigns, he resided with a professor,
who, by his advice and example, revived
his love of letters, and led him to the study
of the classics.  When B. returned to
Strasburg, he devoted all his leisure time
to Greek, and, at the age of 30 years, and
while holding a pubUc office, attended the
lectures of the  Greek  professor of the
university.   The zeal which had encour-
aged him to undertake this laborious study
was increased by the pleasure of overcom-
ing difficulties, and he became fixed in the
conviction, that all the instances of appar-
ently careless writing in  the Greek poets
were only errors of the transcribers.  En-
tertaining this opinion, be altered what-
ever displeased him, overthrew the order
of the verses, and permitted himself liber-
ties which  criticism must needs  reject
To this rage of altering he gave himself
up, particularly in the marginal comments
of" his books, and in the numerous copies
which he made of die Greek poets, more
for his own  pleasure than for use.  This
arbitrary process is so visible, even in the
editions he has published, that much cau-
tion  is required in using them.  B. has
nevertheless been of essential service to
Greek literature; and, since the revival of
letters, few  scholars have so effectually
promoted  it.  It is wonderful how much
he has done in the space of 20 years.  He
published also a valuable edition of Virgil.
Of his Greek editions we may mention
those of the Analecta, Apollonius Rhodius,
Aristophanes, the Gnomic poets, and his
masterpiece, Sophocles, for which the king
allowed him a pension of 2000 francs. A;
this time, the French revolution interrupt-
ed his studies. He adopted the new ideas
with enthusiasm, and was one of the first
members of the popular society in Stras-
burg, without deviating,  however, from
the principles of moderation.   This is
proved by the circumstance  that he was
anested at Besancon, during the reign of
terror, and did not obtain  his liberty until
after the death of Robespierre.  In 1791,
economical  reasons obliged  him to  sell
part of his Ubraiy, and, in 1801, he way
obliged to adopt the same resource a sec
ond time.   As he was passionately fond
of his books, and his former fortune had
enabled him to collect an excellent libra-
ry, this was a severe privation.  If he
was reminded of an author he had oner
possessed, tears came into  his eyes. From
this time, Greek became his aversion;  but
he prepared an edition of Terence, and
had Plautus ready for publication, when
he died, in  1803.  Many of the papers
which he left are in the library at Paris.
  Brundusium (now Brindisi); a city in
Terra di Otranto, in the kingdom of Na-
ples, on the  Adriatic sea, very celebrated
in the time  of the ancient Romans.  It
had then  an excellent harbor, which is
now almost filled up  with sand.  From
this place  the  Romans usually embarked
for Greece and Asia.   The  Appian way
led to this city.  It was also on the nearest
route from  Constantinople to Rome, by
the way of the mountains of Macedonia
and Albania. Virgil died here.  The pop-
ulation, in the 12th century,  was 60,000,
but is now  reduced to about 5900.   It is
the seat of an archbishop.
  Brune, WUliam Maria Anne,  marshal
of France, son of a lawyer at Brives la
Gaillairde, was born there March 13,1763,
and  went while young to Paris.  At the
breaking out of die revolution, he was a 
BRUNE—BRUNEHILD.
293
printer, and had made himself known by
some small pieces of his own composition.
He now devoted himself ardently to poli-
tics, became a member of the club des Cor-
deliers, was connected with Danton,  and
played an active part in the tempests of
that period.  Till Aug. 10, 1792,  he  was
engaged in publishing a daily newspaper.
Afterwards, he went  as a commissary to
Belgium.  In 1793, he entered the mili-
tary service in the revolutionary army, in
the Gironde.   Oct.  10, 1795, he aided
Barras to put  down the  Jacobins, who
had assaulted the camp of Grenelle.  Af-
terwards, he distinguished himself as gen-
eral of  brigade  in the Italian army, in
1797,  in,the attack of Verona, and in the
battle of Arcoli.  When the directory of
Switzerland declared war, B. received the
chief command  of an army, entered the
country, without much opposition, in Jan-
uary,  1798, and effected a new organiza-
tion  of the  government  In 1799, he
received the chief command in Holland,
defeated  the English in the north  of Hol-
land, Sept. 19, near Bergen, and compel-
led the  duke of York to agree to the
treaty of Alcmaer, Oct. 18, by which the
English and Russians were to evacuate
the north of Holland.  In January, 1800,
he was  made  a counsellor of state, and
was placed at  the head of the army of
the west.  The restoration of tranquillity
to the provinces, torn by civil war, was,
in a great degree, effected by him. Aug.
13, he was appointed commander-in-chief
of the Italian  army.  Towards the  end
of December, he led his troops over the
Mincio, conquered the Austrians, passed
the Adige, Jan. 8, 1801, took  possession
of Vicenza and Roveredo, and concluded
an armistice, Jan. 16, at Treviso, with the
Austrian general Bellegarde,  by which
several fortified places in Italy were  sur-
rendered to  the French troops.  When
peace recalled him to the council of state,
towards  the end of November, 1802, he
laid before the  legislative body for con-
firmation  the treaty  of peace with the
court of Naples.  The next year, he went
as ambassador to the court of Constanti-
nople.   He prevailed there at first over
die English party, and received from the
Turkish  ministiy the highest marks of
honor; but, when new  dissensions arose
between  the two powers, he left Turkey.
During his absence, May 19,1804, he was
appointed marshal of the empire.  At the
end of  1806,  Napoleon appointed  him
governor-general of the Hanseatic towns,
and, soon after, commander of the troops
in Swedish Pomerania, against the king
                 25*
of Sweden.  This monarch invited the
marshal to a personal interview, in which
he  endeavored to convert him to the
cause of Louis XVIII.  B. refused every
proposal.  He may, however, have drawn
upon himself the indignation of Napoleon
by  his conduct in this interview, or by
favoring the EngUsh contraband trade in
Hamburg.  At any rate, he was recalled,
and suffered to remain without employ-
ment  After the revolution of 1814, he
recognised  Louis XVIII, and received the
cross of Louis, but no appointment  This
was the cause of his declaring himself for
Napoleon,  immediately upon his return.
He  received the  chief command of an
important army  in the south of France,
and was made a peer.   When circum-
stances changed again, he delayed a long
time before he gave up  Toulon, which
was in his possession in 1815, to the troops
of Louis XVIII, and sent in his resigna-
tion to the king.   This circumstance, and
the severities exercised  by his command,
might  well have excited  against him the
rage of the  people. While  retiring from
Toulon to  Paris, he  was recognised, at
Avignon, by the people who favored the
king; and they immediately collected to-
gether about the  hotel where he had en-
tered.  The excited populace were heated
still more,  when a  report was spread
among them, that B. was the murderer of
the princess Lamballe.  The marshal was
permitted, however, to  go away quietly.
But scarcely had his carriage left the city,
before  a mob of the rabble which had
followed compelled the  driver to turn
back to the hotel.  When the marshal
had alighted, and retired, with his two ad-
jutants, to his former  chamber,  the doors
of the  house were locked. The  insur-
gents had,  in the mean  time,  gained a
powerful accession to their numbers, and,
with loud shouts, demanded the death of
the marshal.  In vain did the prefect and
the mayor strive to defend him (as  there
were no  troops in the city)  for the space
of four hours and a  halt} at the peril of
their lives.   The door was at last broken
open, a crowd of murderers rushed into
the chamber, and the unhappy marshal
fell under a shower of balls, after a  fruit-
less attempt to defend himself and justify
his conduct.  His body was exposed to
the most shameful insults, and then drag-
ged from the hotel to the bridge over the
Rhone, from which it  was thrown into
the river.
  Brunehaut.   (See Brunehild.)
  Bru.nehild, Brunichild;  married to
Siegbert  I, king of Austrasia,  in 568, a 
294                     BRUNEHILD—BRUNINGS.
        Visigothic princess, of powerful  mind,
        enterprising spirit, heroic resolution, deep
*       political  knowledge,  and  unrestrained
        ambition.  She involved her husband in
        a war with his brother Chilperic, in the
        course of which he was murdered, A. D.
        575; but she continued to Uve and rage
        till 613, when she fell into the hands of
        Clothaire II, king of Soissons, who put
        her to a most terrible death, as having
        been the murderess of 10 kings and royal
        princes.  (See Fredegonde.)
          Brunelleschi, Philip,  born  1377, at
        Florence, devoted himself to the study of
        the works of Dante, to natural philosophy
        and perspective, the rules of which were
        then scarcely known. He formed various
        figures, and invented ingenious machines.
        He devoted himself particularly, however,
        to architecture, and learned the art of
        drawing, to make his architectural plans;
        statuary, to adorn them; and mechanics,
        that he might be able to raise the materi-
        als.  He was also profoundly versed in
        mathematics and geometry.  He is said
        to have  drawn views of the finest monu-
        ments in Florence in perspective—an art
        which  then  excited much astonishment.
        This various knowledge prepared him for
        bold and difficult undertakings, and gain-
        ed him the name of the restorer of archi-
        tecture.   As a statuary, he was  much
        indebted to his intimate connexion with
        Donatello, who was then very young, but
        very able.  Both went to Rome.  Here B.
        conceived the idea of restoring architect-
        ure to the principles  of the Greeks and
        Romans. When the architects assembled,
        in 1407, at Florence, to consult upon the
        building of  the dome of  the cathedral,
        the plan which B. proposed received but
        Uttle attention, and  he went  back to
        Rome.  It was found necessary, however,
        to have recourse  to him,  as the under-
        taking  far surpassed the powers of the
        other architects.  He engaged to erect a
        dome, which, by its  own weight, and by
        the strong connexion of its parts, should
        hang suspended.   This proposal seemed
        so wonderful, that the author was regard-
        ed as insane.  As all other  plans, howev-
        er, failed to  answer the expectations of
        the magistrates, B. was again recalled, and
        ordered to explain the  mode in which he
        intended to  execute his plan.   This he
        refused  to  do,  but  built  two  smaU
        chapels according to  his  new system,
        upon  which the charge of erecting the
        dome was committed to him.  As he ob-
        served that the higher the buffeting was
        raised the more time was lost in  going up
        and down, he erected some small lodg-
ings on the dome itself, and by that means
saved the laborers  the time thus spent.
Aided only by his own genius, he accom-
pUshed the work, which remains one of
the boldest creations of the human mind.
But the ingenious lantern, which formed
the upper part of the dome, was not fin-
ished when he died, in 1444, aged 67.  It
was completed, however, according to his
first design.   No monument of ancient
architecture is so noble as this wonderful
building.  Only the dome of St. Peter's
at Rome, which was built since, excels it
in height, but is inferior to it in lightness
and grandeur of style.  Michael Angelo
said it was difficult to imitate B., and im-
possible to excel  him.   B. is the  author
of a great number of other masterpieces
of architecture.
  Brunet, James Charles, bookseller at
Paris, began his bibliographical career by
the preparation of several auction cata-
logues, of which the most interesting is
that of the count d'Ourches (Paris, 1811),
and of a supplementary volume to Cail-
leau's and Duclos's Dictionnaire Biblio-
graphique (Paris, 1802).  In 1810 was pub-
lished the first edition  of his Manuel du
Libraire  et de VAmateur de Livres, in 3
vols., which  gained such  universal ap-
plause, diat,  in 1814,  a second,  and, in
1820, a third edition, of four volumes each,
were demanded.  This work showed him
the worthy successor of the meritorious
Debure (from whose works  those of B,
are distinguished only by the alphabetical
form.)  An attempt to unite the plan of
his work  with the considerations which
must guide the man of learning  in  his
studies and labors, is contained in the Bib-
liographical  Lexicon,  by  Ebert,  since
published.
  Brunet.  (See Paris, Theatre of.)
  Brunhildis. (See Nil>elungen.)
  Bruni.  (See Bruno, Giordano.)
  Brunings,  Christian; one of the great-
est hydraulic  architects of Holland; bom
1736, at Neckerau, in the Palatinate.  In
his childhood, he devoted himself to the
sciences connected with hydraulic archi-
tecture.  In 1769, the states of Holland
appointed him general inspector of rivers.
This introduced him to a share in several
important commissions; for instance, that
for the improvement of the dike system,
in 1796; that for draining the tracts be-
tween  Niewskogs and Zevenhoven, in
1797, &c.   His most important  water-
works  are his improvements in the diking
of the lake of Haerlem,  the  improved
diking and deepening of the Oberwasser,
so  called, in the  Netherlands, which, at 
BRUNINGS—BRUNO.
295
high tides, often inundated vast extents
of country, together with the change in
the course of the Waal-stream and the
canal of Pannerde, by which the beds of
the Rhine, the Waal and the  Leek were
improved.  He introduced  into his de-
partment  the use of the stream  measure,
so called.  His  many official duties per-
mitted this worthy officer but seldom to
appear as  an author.  Yet we find scien-
tific essays written by  him in the 14th,
19th and 20th volumes of the Memoirs of
the Haerlem Society  of Sciences,  and
some other pieces.  He died  in  1805.
The directory of the then republic wish-
ed  to erect a monument to him in the
cathedral  church at Haerlem ; but it has
never been completed,  on account of the
political disturbances that occuned soon
after his death.
   Brunn  ; the capital of Moravia, and of
a circle of the same name, which contains
a population  of 300,000, and is  fertile in
corn and  flax.  The  population  of the
city, with  the suburbs, is 33,300.  It con-
tains the  government offices, the house
for the meeting of the states, the palace
of  prince  Lichtenstein,  a  gymnasium,
many fine houses, &c.  There are at B.
several flourishing manufactures of fine
woollen cloths and kerseymeres, one of
which  employs 5000 individuals.   It is
the centre of the Moravian  commerce, a
great part  of  which is canied on by fairs
held at B. every three months.   On a hill
near it is the fortress of Spielberg, now
used as a prison.  Lat. 49° 11'  N.; lon.
16° 35' E.
  Bruno  the Great, archbishop of Co-
logne and duke of Lorraine, third son of
Henry the Fowler, and  brother  of the
emperor Otho I, had a great share in the
events of  his time, and surpassed all the
contemporary bishops  in  talents  and
knowledge.  A numerous train  of learn-
ed  men  from  all  countries,  even from
Greece, continually  followed him,  and
his excellent example was  imitated  by
many prelates,  lie died at Rheims, Oct.
11,965. Commentaries on the five books
of Moses, and the biographies  of some
saints, are ascribed to him.
  Bruno, St  Among several individuals
of this name, the most famous is the one
who established the order of Carthusian
monks.  He was born  at Cologne, about
1030, of an old and noble family, which
still flourished in  the middle of the 18th
century;  was educated in the school of
the collegiate church  of St. Cunibert; in
which, also,  he afterwards  received a
canonship, and then  studied at Rheims,
where he distinguished himself to such a
degree, that Gervais, the bishop, appoint-
ed him to superintend all the schools of
the district.   He attracted many distin-
guished scholars, and, among others, Odo,
afterwards pope Urban II.   The immo-
rality of his times induced him to go into
solitude.  He retired,  therefore, with six
friends of the same disposition, to the res-
idence of St. Hugo, bishop  of Grenoble,
who, in 1084, led  them  to a desert,  four
or five leagues distant from the city,  call-
ed Cliartreuse, whence the order of monks
received  its  name.   Here,  in  a narrow
valley, overshadowed by two steep rocks,
covered with snow and thorns, B. and his
companions  built an oratory, and small,
separate cells to dweU in, and founded, in
1086, one of the severest orders of monks.
In the mean time, Urban II became pope,
and, in 1089, invited his former instructer
to his court.  B. reluctantly obeyed, but
refused every spiritual  dignity, and, in
1094, received  permission   to  found  a
second Carthusian  establishment in the
solitude of della Torre, in Calabria.  Here
he lived  in his  former mode, ruled his
new colony with wisdom, and died in the
arms of his scholars, A. D. 1101.  Leo X,
in 1514, permitted the Carthusians to cel-
ebrate a mass in honor of him; and Greg-
ory XV, in 1623, extended it to the whole
Catholic  church.   He  was  afterwards
canonized.   B. gave his scholars no par-
ticular laws.  A complete set of regula-
tions for the Carthusians was first formed
A. D.  1581,  and  confirmed   by  Inno-
cent XL
  Bruno, or  Bruni (Brunus, Leonardo),
of  Arezzo,  whence  his name Aretino
(Aretinus), was  one of the most famous
of the literati at  the period of the revival
of classic literature in  Italy.   He  was
born in 1370, and, in  his childhood, was
excited by the character of Petrarch, to the
pursuit of those studies to which he  con-
secrated his  life.  He first studied law at
Florence  and Ravenna; but the anival of
Emanuel Chrysoloras at Florence gave
him a decided turn for classical  learning.
He afterwards filled many offices in the
Roman Catholic church, and accompani-
ed pope John XXIII to Constance, where
the latter was deposed, and B. escaped to
Florence.  Here he wrote his Florentine
History,  received,  in  consequence, the
rights of  citizenship, and afterwards, by
the favor of the  Medici, became secretary
to the republic.  In this important  post
he died, A. D. 1444. Florence and Arez-
zo vied with each other  in honoring his
memory by splendid obsequies and mon 
296                               BRUNO.
uments.  The merits of B., in spreading
and advancing the study of Greek litera-
ture, consist particularly in his literal Latin
translations of the classics; for instance,
the writings of Aristotle, the orations of
Demosthenes, the biographies of Plutarch,
&c.  The other works on which his fame
rests are, his Florentine History, also  a
history of his times, from 1378 to 1440,
and his speeches.  His coUection of let-
ters, also, is valuable.  His  writings are
in the Latin language, with the exception
of two biographies of Dante and Petrarch.
His chief work is Historia Florentina (12
books, Strasb., 1610, folio), with which is
connected the Commentarius Rerum sua
Tempore Gestarum, published in Italian,
it Venice, 1476, folio.
  Bruno, Giordano; a philosopher of the
!6th century, distinguished by the origin-
ality and poetical boldness of his specula-
tions ; born at Nola, in the Neapolitan ter-
ritory ; entered the order of Dominicans;
took refuge, probably, from the persecu-
tions which he drew upon himself by his
religious doubts and bis satires on the life
of the monks, at  Geneva, in 1582, where,
however, he was soon persecuted, by the
Calvinists, for his paradoxes  and his vio-
lence ; stood forth, in 1583, at Paris, as the
antagonist of the Aristotelian philosophy,
and as teacher of the ars Lulhana.  Here
he found many opponents, went to Lon-
don, returned to Paris, and, from 1586 to
1588, taught  his philosophy at Witten-
berg.   Why  he  left  Wittenberg  is not
known ;  but it is certain that he went, in
1588, to Helmstadt, and he seems to have
visited Prague before that year.  Protect-
ed by duke Julius of Wolfenbfittel, he
remained in Helmstadt till  his  protector
died, in 1589.  He was then engaged, at
Frankfort on the Maine, with  the publi-
cation  of some works, but left  this  city,
also, in  1592, and  returned (it  is not
known for what purpose) to Italy.   He
remained for some time at Padua in tran-
quillity, until the inquisition of Venice ar-
rested him, in 1598, and transfened him
to Rome.  After an imprisonment of two
years, that he might  have opportunity  to
retract his doctrines, he was burnt, Feb.
16th, 1600, for apostasy, heresy, and vio-
lation of his monastic vows.  He suffered
death, which he might have averted, even
eight days before, by a recantation, with
fortitude.  Whilst  his violent attacks on
the prevailing doctrines of the Aristotelian
philosophy, and on  the  narrow-minded
Aristotelians  themselves, every  where
created him  enemies, his rashness and
pride threw him into the hands of his ex-
ecutioners    His philosophical  writings,
which have become very rare, display a
classical  cultivation of mind, a deep in-
sight into the spirit of ancient philosophy,
wit and  satire,  as well  as a  profound
knowledge of mathematics and  natural
philosophy.   Most of them were publish-
ed between 1584  and 1591, as appears
from  the enumeration of the oldest edi-
tions  in  the  Bibliographical Lexicon of
Ebert (Lps.,  1821, quarto,  vol.  i, p. 238
et seq.).  In  1584 appeared, at  Paris, his
famous Spacrio delta Bestia trionfante (a
moral allegory, with many satirical strokes
on  his own times), also  his work De la
Causa, Principio  et  Uno (Venice and
London,   1584),  besides  De  I'Infinito,
Universo, et Mondi.  The  former con-
tains the  foundation, the  latter the appU-
cation, of metaphysics to the natural world.
The doctrine is a pure Pantheism, con-
nected with  truly  dignified  notions of
God—a more complete Pantheistical sys-
tem than had been previously exhibited,
and which, since his time, Spinoza only,
who, like Descartes, borrowed his ideas,
has carried to a greater perfection.  The
notion that God is the soul of the uni-
verse, and the world  endowed  with or-
ganization and life, might have  been for-
given by  his contemporaries; but his in-
ference that  the  world  is  infinite and
immeasurable, and his doctrine  of  the
plurality of worlds, at the moment when
the new  system of Copernicus  was at-
tacked from all quarters, could not but be
looked upon  as a  crime.  His writings
are mostly in  the form of dialogues, with-
out any methodical order.   His  language
is a strange mixture of Italian and  Latin.
His style  is violent and fiery.  The orig-
inality and loftiness of his ideas take  a
powerful  hold on those who can under-
stand  him.  His logical writings, in which
he boldly and skilfully applies Raymond
Lully's art of topical  memory, are more
obscure and less interesting.  His belief
in magic and astrology, notwithstanding
his enlightened views of the nature of
things, is to be attributed  to the spirit of
his age.  He has also written poems, He-
roin Furori, and, among  others, a come-
dy, 11 Candelajo.  The most eminent phi-
losophers since his time  have bonowed
much from him.  Among recent writers,
Schelling resembles him  the most  in his
metaphysics and  his philosophical views
of nature, and has given  his name to one
of his philosophical writings  (Bruno,
oder iiber das  gdttliche  und  natiirliche
Prindp  der  Dinge, Berl.,  1802).   On
Bruno and  his  writings, see  Sieber's 
BRUNO—BRUNSWICK.                       297
and Thanner's Lehrmrinungen beriihmter
Physiker (5 vols., Sulzb., 1824.)
  Brunonian System. (See Excitement.)
  Brunswick, Family of.   The true
founder of this ancient house was Azo II,
marquis of Tuscany, who, in  the 11th
century, married Cunigunda,  heiress of
the counts of Altorf, and thus united the
two houses  of Este  and  Guelph.  The
previous histoiy of the Este family is un-
certain.  Guelph, the son of Azo,  was
created duke of Bavaria  in 1071.  He
married Judith of Flanders, who was de-
scended from Alfred the  Great  of Eng-
land.  His posterity acquired Brunswick
and Luneburg, and William, or his son
Otho (1235), was the first  who bore the
title of duke of B.  John, eldest  son of
Otho, founded  the  house of  Luneburg.
Albert the Great, a younger son of Otho,
conquered Wolfenbuttel, and, on his death
(1278), his three sons divided his domin-
ions.  Henry founded the house of Gru-
benhagen ; Albert became duke of Bruns-
wick, and  William duke  of Brunswick-
Wolfenbiittel.  Henry JuUus, of this last
branch,  inherited Grubenhagen  (1596).
Ernest of Zell,  of the second branch,
who  succeeded  (1532), conquered  the
tenitories of Wolfenbuttel, and  left  two
sons, by whom the family was divided into
the two  branches of Brunswick-Wolfen-
buttel (II) and Brunswick-Hanover; from
the latter  of which  comes the  present
royal family of England.   The former  is
the German family, now in possession of
the duchy  of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel.
(q. v.)   Charles William married  Au-
gusta, sister of George III of England
(1764). His descendants are presumptive
heirs  to the throne of Great  Britain in
case of a failure of the direct line.  Er-
nest Augustus,  of the Brunswick-Hano-
ver house, was created elector of Hanover
in 1692.   He manied Sophia, daughter
of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I of
England.  George Louis,  son of Ernest
Augustus and Sophia, succeeded  his fa-
ther, as elector of Hanover, in 1698, aud
was called to the throne of Great Britain
in 1714, by act of parliament passed in
the reign of queen  Anne, which  vested
the succession in the Protestant line of
James I.  George IV, the present king
of Great Britain and Ireland, and of Han-
over (made a kingdom in 1815), is the
23d of the family of Brunswick by lineal
descent from Azo ; the 53d king of Eng-
land from Egbert, and is descended from
Woden, the head of the  ancient  Saxon
family, from which  so many  sovereigns
of Europe have sprung,  by 52 genera-
tions.  (See the articles George, Hanover,
England, &c.)
  Brunswick; the duchy of Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel, in Germany, situated in the
former circle of Lower Saxony, and bor-
dering upon Luneburg on  the north and
WestphaUa on the west.  The duke holds
the 12th rank among the members of die
German confederation. The duchy com-
prises 1500 square miles, and 232,000 in-
habitants.   It is divided into six districts,
besides the two cities of Brunswick and
Wolfenbuttel, which are also considered
as districts.  The family of B. (q. v.)  is
one of the most ancient in Europe.  In
1806, the  duchy was annexed, by Napo-
leon, to the kingdom of WestphaUa, but
its native prince, Frederic William (q. v.),
was  restored  by  the peace of Leipsic,
1813.  The reigning duke, Charles, bom
Oct. 30th, 1804, succeeded  to the govern-
ment in  1824.  The  revenue, exclusive
of Oels (q. v.), is 2,000,000 florins.  The
circumstances and manners of the inhab-
itants  resemble those of  the adjacent
countries.  Most of the people are Luther-
ans.    The whole  number of Catholics
and  Calvinists does not probably exceed
4000.  The  ducal  house  is Lutheran.
(For the form of government, see Consti-
tutions.)—B. has, with Nassau, one vote
in the diet of the German states ; and has,
by itself, two votes in  the general assem-
bly.   Its contingent of troops to the army
of the confederacy is 2096 men.  The
most important articles of trade and man-
ufacture are corn,  rape-seed, flax, tobac-
co, chicoiy,  hops,  madder and  wood.
The country affords sheep, swine, goats,
poultry and bees in sufficient quantities
to supply the inhabitants.  Some  fat cat-
tle and horses are imported.  In  the for-
ests  there  are  wild  boars, deer, hares,
heath-cocks, black-cocks, partridges and
hazel grouse; but, as no attempts are made
to preserve the game, the quantity gradu-
ally decreases.  The mountainous tracts
yield iron, copper, salt, marble, coal, por-
celain earth and other minerals.   In the
Rammelsberg are  found silver,  copper,
lead, arsenic,  vitriol  and sulphur, and
small  quantities of gold.   Large tracts
are  covered  with   peat,  in the  sandy
regions in the northern  districts.  The
breweries and  distilleries  of  spirit, the
spinning  of linen yarn (the most exten-
sive  branch of industry), the manufacture
of linen and  leather, the preparation  of
paper, soap, tobacco, sal-ammoniac, mad-
der and chicory afford the principal em-
ployment  of the people.   The lackered
wares  and porcelain  of B. are  famous 
298
BRUNSWICK.
even in foreign countries.  B., the capital,
is  the  centre of trade.  The  country  is
provided with good roads.
  Brunswick, capital of the duchy of the
same name, is situated on the Ocker, and
contains 3041 houses, with 32,500 inhab-
itants.  It was formerly one of the free
cities of Germany, but it is now subject
to  the duke, and  has been the ducal resi-
dence  since 1754.  The principal build-
ings are  the  ducal palace, the mint, the
house  in which  the  diet assembles, the
town-house, the arsenal and the cathedral,
the public  wine-cellars.  The collegium
Carolinum was founded in  1745, and in-
tended as a medium between the com-
mon schools and the universities.  It has
enjoyed a high reputation even in foreign
countries, particularly  in  England and
Russia.  The principal manufactures are
wool,  yarn, linen,  porcelain, pasteboard,
paper  hangings  and chemical  prepara-
tions.   The traffic in  home produce, and
the carrying  trade, are of some  conse-
quence, and  the great Brunswick fairs
rank next to those of Leipsic and Frank-
fort  Lat. 52° 1& N.; lon. 10° 29' 30" E.
  Brunswick ; a post-town of Maine, in
Cumberland county, on the south-west
side of the Androscoggin, 26 miles N. E.
of Portland ;  lat. 43° 53' N.; lon. 69° 55'
W.; population,  2931.  The fells  of the
Androscoggin, at this place, afford excel-
lent seats for  several  mills and manufac-
tories.   Bowdoin college,  in  this town,
was incorporated in 1794, and went into
operation in 1802.  It is pleasantly situ-
ated on on elevated plain, about  half a
mile from  the Androscoggin, is a well
endowed and  flourishing institution, and
has a medical  school connected with it.
The officers, in 1829, consisted of a presi-
dent, a professor  of mathematics, natural
philosophy, chemistry  and mineralogy, a
professor of the learned languages, a pro-
fessor of moral  and  intellectual philos-
ophy.
  Brunswick, New.  (See New Bruns-
wick.)
  Brunswick, Charles  WilUam  Ferdi-
nand, duke of, was born in  1735.  He
was the eldest son of the  reigning duke
Charles of Brunswick and a sister of
Frederic the Great.  At the age of 7, his
education was committed to the abbe Je-
rusalem,  then chaplain  to  the  court at
Wolfenbuttel. At the  age  of 12, he en-
tered, under the superintendence of Jeru-
salem, the collegium Carolinum, then re-
cently estabUshed.   His tutor  was the
chamberlain von Wittorf—a man  of tal-
ents, but without  principle.  His ambi-
tion was early kindled  by the achieve-
ments of Frederic II.  The seven years
war afforded him the first opportunity of
cultivating his military talents.  He com-
manded the Brunswick troops in the alli-
ed army, and, in  the fatal battle at Has-
tenbeck,  July 28th, 1757,  in which he
recaptured a battery that had been taken
by the French in the centre of the allied
army, " he showed" (such was  the  ex-
pression  of Frederic) "that  nature had
destined  him for a hero."  June  23d,
1758, he  decided the victory  of Crefeld.
He took  the  most active part in all  the
enterprises of his uncle Ferdinand; and
Frederic's esteem for him  continued to
increase, as appears from his Geschichte
des Siebenjdhrigen Kriegs (History of the
Seven Years' War), and his Ode  auf den
Erbprinzen von Braunschweig (Ode on the
hereditary Prince of Brunswick).  In 1764,
he married the princess Augusta  of Eng-
land. Having early become  acquainted
with the real situation of his native coun-
try, and drawn salutary instruction from
the constant embarrassments of his father,
before he entered upon the  government,
he practised the greatest economy, living
mostly retired from public business, and
devoted to the  arts and sciences.   In
1773, he entered the Prussian service, and
became general of infantry, but  had no
opportunity  of cultivating  his  military
talents.  After the death of  his father (in
1780), he entered upon  the government
with zeal and activity.   Anxious above
all for the  improvement of the finances,
he diminished his household, discharged
the debts of  the state, encouraged agri-
culture, extended the liberty of commerce,
undertook or assisted in  the erection of
considerable buildings, and, by  causing
Italian operas, masquerades,  &c. to be
exhibited gratis,  provided  also  for   the
amusement of the public.  Yet, with  the
best intentions, he was often unsuccessful
This was the case with his plans for the
improvement of pubUc  education.    He
invited men of learning  into the  country
at great expense, but, the projected refor-
mation  having  met  with  innumerable
obstacles, they became a burthen to the
state.  In 1787, he was obliged  to place
himself at  the head of a Prussian army
for the support of the stadtholder of Hol-
land. The facility with  which this cam-
paign was terminated procured the duke
more reputation than he perhaps deserved.
High expectations  were entertained of
him when the wars of the French revo-
lution broke out  The duke received the
chief command of the Austrian and Pros- 
BRUNSWICK.
299
sian army, and issued at Coblentz, July
15, 1792,  the  famous manifesto, drawn
up in a very harsh and haughty style  by
a  Frenchman, De  Limon.  It certainly
did more injury to  the allied forces than
a hostile army could  have done.   It  in-
flamed the French  nation almost to fury
against the insolent conquerors, who  in-
tended " to make every city, that dared to
resist, level with the ground, and to cut
their way  to Paris."   The emperor Fran-
cis approved it, and  so did the king  of
Prussia; but the duke considered the ex-
pressions  too strong.  The severest pas-
sages were  expunged; but its tone was
still very insolent  The duke designed to
press forward  from Lorraine to Paris, to
cut off its  suppUes, and thus to force it to
sunender  by  famine.   Aug.  23, 1792,
Longwy was taken,  and, Sept 2, Ver-
dun.  But, in Champagne, a country of
itself unproductive, the transport of pro-
visions for the army from  the frontiers
was rendered difficult by mountains and
forests.  Dumouriez  was encamped  in
the vicinity  of St. Menehould,  and skir-
mishes took place daily ;  but Dumouriez,
not willing to hazard the fate of France,
and foreseeing that the Germans would
be forced  to retreat by want and disease,
avoided  a  decisive action, notwithstand-
ing the efforts of the enemy to provoke
him to it.  The Germans were, therefore,
obUged to conclude an armistice, and to
evacuate   Champagne.    Custines  took
Worms  and Spire  during this  retreat,
and, Oct.  21,  captured the  fortress  of
Mentz, and  soon afterwards  Frankfort,
which latter city, however, was  retaken
by the Prussians and Hessians Dec. 2.
The endeavors of the Germans, therefore,
were principally directed to the recapture
of those places.  To this end the duke, in
conjunction  with the Austrians, opened
the campaign  on the Upper  Rhine  in
1793, took  the  fortress  of Konigstein
March  7,  conquered Mentz  July   22,
and prepared to attack the strong fortress
of Landau,  then in  the power of the
French.   The  French,  on  the other
hand, Sept  14, made a  general attack
on the duke and Wurmser, from Stras-
burg to Saarbriick.  On that day,  the
duke had  a sanguinary engagement with
Moreau, in the vicinity of Pirmasens, a
town belonging  to  the  landgraviate  of
Hesse-Darmstadt   The  French were
driven from their camp  near the viUage
of Hombach, as  far as to the Saar.  A
month  later, the duke, having formed a
union with  Wurmser,  succeeded, Oct
13th, in  his attack on the Unes of Weis-
senburg, and his attempt to draw nearei
to Landau.  In  order  to  gain another
strong  point of support, he ventured, on
the night of Nov. 16, to make an assault
upon  the  mountain-fortress of Bitsch,
which  is the key of the Vosges, as the
roads from Landau, Pirmasens,  Weissen-
burg and Strasburg unite at that  place.
This attempt miscarried.   Between the
28th and the 30th of November, however,
he defeated a division of the army of the
Moselle, at  Lautern, which was pressing
through the mountains, under  the com-
mand of Hoche, with the intention  of re-
lieving Landau.  But the daily attacks of
Hoche  and Pichegru, without regard to
the sacrifice of men, and the successful
attempt of the latter to break the Austrian
Unes near Froschweiler, Dec 22, forced
the Austrians to retreat beyond the Rhine,
and occasioned the  retreat  of  the duke
also. As some difficulties  had already
risen between Austria  and  Prussia, he
laid down  the chief command of the
army in the beginning of the year 1794.
Mollendorf  was  his  successor.   The
duke continued to labor for the welfare
of his country  until  the fatal year 1806.
Although he was now of such an age that
he might have retired without  reproach
from public life, yet he assumed burthens
beyond his powers.  At the beginning of
the year 1806, commissioned by the king
of Prussia, he made a journey to Peters-
burg relative to  the war that soon  broke
out with France.  He was then  placed at
the head of the Prussian army.  But his
physical strength was not  equal  to his
moral energy, as was proved by the bat-
tles of  Jena and Auerstadt  (q. v.)   He
was mortaUy wounded, and closed his
life at Ottensen, near Altona,  Nov. 10,
1806.   As a civil ruler, he  was distin-
guished for good intentions; yet the want
of consistency, which is evident in most
actions of his  life, may have been the
cause of the many failures of his benevo-
lent purposes.  The duke's subjects were
also offended by his foreign partiaUties,
particularly his fatal incUnation for the
French nation, which had been instilled
into him by Frederic II.
  Brunswick, Ferdinand, duke of, born
at Brunswick, Jan. 11th, 1721, fourth son
of duke Ferdinand Albert, was educated
for the  military profession.   In  1739, he
entered  into the Prussian  service, was
engaged in the Silesian wars, and became
one of the most eminent generals in the
seven years' war.  He  commanded the
allied army  in Westphalia, where, always
opposed to  superior  forces, he displayed 
300
BRUNSWICK.
 superior talents.  He drove the  French
 from Lower Saxony, Hesse and West-
 phalia,  and was  victorious  in the  two
 great battles of  Crefeld  and  Minden.
 (See Seven Years'  War.)—After the peace,
 he resigned his commission, on account
 of a misunderstanding between him and
 the king.  From  that  time he Uved at
 Brunswick, the patron of art and litera-
 ture.  He died in  1792.
   Brunswick,  Frederic  WilUam, duke
 of;  fourth  and youngest son of duke
 Charles  William  Ferdinand of  Bruns-
 wick.  He was born in 1771, and receiv-
 ed the  same education with his second
 and third brothers, who were a few years
 older, till the miUtary career, to which he
 was destined, gave his studies a particular
 direction.  He was loved by his father
 with  great  tenderness, but very strictly
 treated.   In 1786, he was appointed, by
 the king of Prussia, successor of his uncle,
 Frederic Augustus, duke of Oels  and
 Bernstadt  He then went to Lausanne,
 remained two years  in Switzerland, and,
 upon his return, was made captain in a
 Prussian regiment of foot.  During the
 war against France,  in 1792, and the fol-
 lowing year, he fought in  the Prussian
 armies, and was twice wounded.  After
 the peace of Bale, he received a regiment,
 and, in 1804, married the  princess Maria
 EUsabeth Wilhelmina  of Baden.  The
 offspring of this maniage  were two prin-
 cesses, born in  1804 and  1806, who are
 still living.  In 1805, his uncle died, and
 he became duke of Oels  and Bernstadt.
 In 1806, he took part in the war against
 France,  with all the fire  which the op-
 pression of Germany and his father's un-
 happy fate had kindled in him. He finally
joined the corps of Bliicher, and was made
 prisoner with him at Liibeck.  By the
 death of his eldest brother, the hereditary
 prince, who died  in September  of the
 same year, without leaving any children,
 and  by  an  agreement adjusted  by his
 father between him and his elder broth-
 ers, who, on account of their blindness,
 were unfit to govern, and  were unmarri-
 ed, he would have  succeeded his father in
 the government of  Brunswick, had  not
 the peace of TUsit  and Napoleon's  will
 prevented.  After  that time, he lived at
 BruchsaL where, in  April, 1808, his wife
 died.  In 1809, at  the breaking out of the
 war between Austria and France, he rais-
 ed  a  body  of  volunteers in Bohemia.
 Schill had already perished in Stralsund,
 when the duke made an  invasion  into
 Saxony.  He was, however, compelled,
 by the king of WestphaUa, to  evacuate
 Dresden and Leipsic, with his black hus-
 sars.  The duke, in conjunction with the
 Austrian  general Am  Ende, forced his
 way from Dresden to Franconia, whither
 the Austrians, under Kienmayer, had pen-
 etrated from Bohemia.   After the armis-
 tice of Znaim (July 12), the Austrians
 again evacuated Dresden, which they had
 occupied for the second time, and retreat-
 ed behind the frontiers  of Bohemia.  But
 the  duke, renouncing  his alliance  with
 the  emperor  of Austria, advanced  with
 his corps, consisting of 1500 men, among
 whom were 700  horse, from Altenburg,
 towards Leipsic.  After a slight  skirmish
 with the garrison  there, he continued his
 march to Halle, where he arrived  July
 27, and  immediately pushed on to  Hal-
 berstadt,  where  he  arrived July  30.
 The Westphalian colonel  WeUingerode,
 with the fifth regiment of infantry, had
 entered  the  place  the same morning.
 Although this regiment made a gallant
 resistance, it  was overpowered,  and its
 commander  taken prisoner.  The  duke
 then proceeded to Brunswick, his native
 city, where he arrived  July 31, and  biv-
 ouacked on the ramparts.  He did not al-
 low  himself any rest, for  he was closely
 pursued on all  sides.   The Westphalian
 general Reubel  assembled  4000  men of
 his division at Ohof, in die vicinity of
 Brunswick; general Gratien, with a Dutch
 division, had set out from Erfurt; and the
 Danish general Ewald, marching  from
 Gliickstadt into the territories of Hano-
 ver, crossed the Elbe in order  to cover
 that river. Aug. 1, Reubel met the duke
not far from Brunswick, near the village
of Oelper, and an action ensued (the 11th
since he had  left Saxony),  in which a
corps of 4000 men not only retreated be-
fore  1500, but also opened to them the
only way by  which they could  escape.
Aug. 2, the duke left Brunswick.  From
the road he took, it was conjectured  that
he would march towards Celle, whither
he was pursued, therefore, by the West-
phalian troops.  Instead, however, of do-
ing this, he took his way through Hano-
ver immediately to Nienburg, crossed the
Weser, and, having destroyed the bridges
behind him,  marched  down the river.
He reached Hoya  Aug.  4,  and hastened
his march  upon  the left  bank of the
Weser, while  part of his corps,  to make
a demonstration, turned towards Bremen.
Here the black hussars entered  on the
5th, and occupied the  gates, but on the
next day continued their march.  Mean-
time the duke advanced through the ter-
 ritory of Oldenburg.  He passed the night 
BRUNSWICK—BRUSSELS.
301
of the 5th of August at Delmenhorst, and
appeared to be directing his course to
East Friesland, in order to embark there.
But, contrary to expectation, he crossed,
at Huntebrfick, the small  river Hunte,
which falls into  the Weser, seized the
merchant ships which were lying at Els-
fleth, principally unloaded, embarked his
troops in the night of the 6th, leaving be-
hind the horses, and  procuring, in that
countiy, which is inhabited by seamen,
the necessary sailors by force.  On the
7th, in  the morning,  the duke himself,
having die English flag hoisted, set sail,
and,  on the 8th,  landed at Heligoland,
whence he sailed, on the 11th, with his
coq>s, for England. In England, the duke
was received with great distinction. His
corps immediately entered the EngUsh
service, and was afterwards employed in
Portugal  and Spain.   The parliament
granted him a pension of £6000, until he
returned  to his  hereditary dominions,
Dec. 22,  1813.  He was a prince of an
uncommonly open character.  In  his he-
reditary states, he acted with the best
intentions; but his frequent enors disap-
pointed the great expectations which had
been formed of him, and nanow-minded
counsellors contributed to lead him astray.
He wished to sow and reap at the same
time.   His military spirit and penetrating
mind led  him to foresee  new dangers
from the great oppressor of Europe.  His
 great preparations must be explained from
 this view  of circumstances in  1814 and
 1815.  His  finances were thrown  into
 great disorder by his maintaining so many
 troops; and even the interest of the pub-
 lic debt was not paid.  Thus he  became
 unpopular as the sovereign of a  country
 which had  been prosperous under his
 father's sceptre.  The  events of 1815
 called  him  again to arms, and  he fell
 June  16, 1815.  (See Quatrebras, and

    Brunswick,  Louis  Ernest, duke  of;
 third son of Ferdinand Albert, duke  of
 Brunswick-Luneburg; born in 1718 ; en-
 tered  the imperial service in 1750; be-
  came  field-marshal  of the republic  of
  Holland; during seven years from 1759,
  was captain-general  of the United Prov-
  inces ; was regent during  the minority of
  the stadtholder,  and had  previously pre-
  served the neutraUty of the republic dur-
  ing the  long war  of  the  neighboring
  powers from 1754.  After the stadtholder
  became  of age, B. was made counsellor
  by the states-general.  Having, however,
  incurred the hatred of the people by  his
  partiaUty for the nobility, and some other
    vol. n.          26
enors, he was obliged to leave the stadt-
holder in 1772.  He died in 1788.
  Brunswick (31. J. Leopold), prince of,
major-general in  the Prussian  service,
youngest son of duke Charles of Bruns-
wick, bom at Wolfenbuttel in 1752, was
instructed by the abbe Jerusalem.  He
studied in Strasburg miUtary science and
other branches  of knowledge, travelled
through Italy under the  care of Lessing,
and entered the Prussian service, in 1776,
as commander of a regiment of foot,  at
Frankfort on the  Oder.   In  this  city,
where he resided after his return from
the Bavarian war of succession  in 1779,
he gained universal  esteem by his amia-
ble character, his talents, and his zeal for
Uterature.  In 1780, Frankfort was pre-
served, by his activity, from an inunda-
tion which threatened to  overthrow the
dikes and deluge the suburbs.  He dis-
played the same vigilance on the occa-
sion of several conflagrations, with which
this city  was afflicted.  He visited the
poor in their most miserable haunts, and
his Ufe was devoted to works of benevo-
lence.  He fell a sacrifice to his humanity
in the inundation of 1785, in which  he
was drowned while hastening to the as-
sistance of the suburbs.  The monuments
that  have been  erected to him will bear
 witness to future generations of the es-
 teem of his contemporaries.
   Brush-Wheels.  In light machinery,
 wheels sometimes turn  each  other  by
 means of bristles or brushes fixed to their
 circumference.  They  may, also,  com-
 municate circular motion by friction only.
 The surface brought in contact  is then
 formed of the end grain of wood, or is
 covered  with an  elastic  substance, and
 the wheels are pressed together  to  in-
 crease the friction.
   Brussels, formerly the capital of the
 Austrian Netherlands, with 75,000 inhab-
 itants,  principally  Catholics,  and, after
 Amsterdam, the second city of the king-
 dom of the Netherlands, is a handsome
 city of South Brabant  During 20  years,
 from 1794 to 1814, it was in the posses-
 sion of the French, and the chief town in
 the department of the Dyle.  It is now,
 alternately with the Hague, the royal res-
 idence, and the place  of meeting of the
 states-general  of  the  kingdom.   It is a
 favorite  resort of the  English,  many of
 whom have resided here  since  the peace
  of 1814.   The gloomy forest of Soignies,
  so memorable since the battle  of Water-
  loo, lies  on  the south  and south-west of
  the town. It was formerly sunounded
  by a wall, which  has been demoUshed, 
302
BRUSSELS—BRUTUS.
 and the ramparts laid out in public walks.
 The upper part of the city is magnificent
 The park is a spacious square, laid out
 with shaded walks, and surrounded by
 the  palaces, pubUc offices and principal
 private houses.  In the lower part, lying
 on a plain watered  by the Senne, the
 streets are narrow and crowded, but the
 great market-place  is very  beautiful.
 This part of  the city is intersected by
 several canals, connected with the Senne,
 and  the great Scheldt canal.  The other
 principal squares are Oorlogo plaats, Mi-
 chael's plaats and Sands plaats.   The
 principal churches are St. Michael's and
 the church of St. Gudule.  B. also con-
 tains an academy of arts and sciences, a
 foundUng hospital, and a central school
 with a library of 100,000 volumes, a valu-
 able gallery of paintings and a cabinet of
 natural histoiy.  The school of medicine
 and that  of botany have also apartments,
 and  there  is  a  public  botanic garden.
 The town is  ornamented with 20 public
 fountains, all embellished with sculpture.
 The manufactures of B. are celebrated
 throughout Europe and America, partic-
 ularly its lace, camlets and carpets; the
 first  alone  employs 10,000  individuals.
 Its carriages surpass even those of Lon-
 don and Paris.  The other articles  mode
 here are ticking,  various kinds of cotton
 and  woollen  stuffs,  silk  stockings, gal-
 loons, earthenware,  &c  It carries on
 considerable trade with the interior  of the
 Netherlands, and also with foreign  coun-
 tries, by means of its  canals.  The  prin-
 cipal of these was constructed in  1560
 and 1561, and leads to Antwerp: it is 110
 feet above the level of the sea.  The city
 owes its origin to St. Gery, who, in the
 7th century, built a chapel on an island
in the Senne, and preached  to the peas-
ants.  As the numbers collected here be-
came great, it was sunounded with a wall
in 1044,  and became, in process of time,
the residence  of the dukes of Brabant,
and of the Austrian governors. It was
several times captured by the French, and,
in 1789—90, took the lead in the troubles
which broke out  in the Netherlands.
  Brutus, or Brute, in the fabulous his-
tory of Britain, was the first king of the
island, according to  Geoffrey of  Mon-
mouth.  He is said to have been the son
of Sylvius, and grandson of Ascanius, the
son of ./Eneas, and to have been born in
 Italy. He landed at Totness, in Devon-
shire, destroyed the giants who then in-
habited  Albion,  and   called the island
 from his  own name.   At his death, the
 island was divided among his three sons:
 Locrine had  England, Camber Wales,
 and Albanact Scotland.
   Brutus, Lucius Junius, son of Marcus
 Junius and the  daughter of the  elder
 Tarquin, saved his life from the perse-
 cutions of Tarquin the Proud by feign-
 ing himself insane, on which account he
 received the  surname Brutus (stupid).
 During a plague that broke out at Rome,
 he accompanied the son of Tarquin to
 the  oracle  in  Delphi.   When Lucretia,
 the wife of Collatinus,  plunged a dagger
 into her bosom, that she might not  out-
 live the insult which  she had suffered
 from Sextus, the son of Tarquin, B., being
 present, threw off the mask.  He drew
 the dagger, all bloody, from the wound,
 and swore vengeance  against the Tar-
 quins, explaining to the astonished spec-
 tators the reason of his pretended imbe-
 cility, and persuading all who were pres-
 ent to  take the same oath.  The people
 submitted to his guidance, and he caused
 the gates to be shut, the inhabitants to be
 assembled,  and the body to be publicly
 exposed. He then urged the banishment
 of the Tarquins.   After this had been
 resolved on,   B.   proposed to  aboUsh
 the regal dignity, and  introduce  a  free
 government.   It  was  then  determined
 that two consuls should exercise supreme
 power for a year, and Junius Brutus  and
 Tarquinius  Collatinus  were chosen  for
 the first term.   Tarquin, who  had seen
 the gates shut against him, and found
 himself deserted by his army, sent ambas-
sadors to Rome to  demand  a restoration
of his private property, and, at  the same
time, to promise that he would make no
attempt against the republic.  His request
was granted. The ambassadors, however,
set on foot a conspiracy, and drew into it
many young men, among whom were the
two sons of B. and the nephews of Col-
latinus.  But a slave named Vindex  dis-
covered the plot   The criminals were
 imprisoned, and the consuls caused  die
people the next morning to be called to
the comitia,   All were deeply shocked
to see the sons of B. among the prisoners,
 and their father on the  judgment-seat to
 condemn them.   Collatinus wept,  and
 even the stern Valerius sat silent   But
 B. arose firmly, and, after their crime had
been proved beyond a doubt, ordered the
 lictors  to execute  the law.  Nefther the
 entreaties of the  people nor of his sons
 could alter bis  resolution.  He witnessed
the horrible spectacle without emotion,
and did not leave the assembly untU after
the  execution.  He was  called  bock,
 however, when Collatinus wished to save 
BRUTUS—BRU YERE.
303
 his  guilty nephews.   The people con-
 demned them oil, and chose Valerius
 consul in  place  of Collatinus.   In the
 mean time, Tarquin, supported by Por-
 senna,  collected an army, and marched
 against Rome. The consuls advanced to
 meet him.  B. led the cavalry;  Aruns,
 son  of Tarquin, commanded the body
 opposed to him.   They pierced each
 other with their spears at the same mo-
 ment, and both fell, A. C. 509.  The Ro-
 mans came off conquerors, and B. was
 buried with great splendor.  The women
 lamented him a whole year, as the avenger
 of the honor of their sex.
   Brutus, Marcus Junius.  This repub-
 lican resembled in spirit, as well as in
 name, the expeller of Tarquin.  He was
 at first an enemy of Pompey, who had
 slain his father in Galatia, but forgot his
 private enmity, and  was reconciled  to
 him, when he undertook the  defence of
 freedom.  He did not,  however, assume
 any public station, and, after the unfortu-
 nate battle of Pharsalia, surrendered him-
 self to Caesar,  who received him with the
 tenderest  friendship,  as he  had always
 loved him, and regarded him almost Uke
 his own son, because the mother of Bru-
 tus,  sister of the rigid  Cato, had been  the
 object of his affection.  In the distribu-
 tion  of the  offices of state, the dictator
 appointed B. to the government of Mace-
 donia.  Notwithstanding these benefits,
 B. was the head of the conspiracy against
 Caesar,  deeming the sacrifice of private
 friendship necessary for the  welfare of
 his countiy.  He was led into the con-
 spiracy by  Cassius,  who,  impelled  by
 hatred against Caesar, as well as by the
 love of freedom, sought, at first, by writ-
 ing,  and then by means of his wife, Junia,
 sister of B., to gain his favor; and, when
 he thought him prepared for  the propo-
 sal, disclosed to him, verbally, the plan of
 a conspiracy against Caesar, who was then
 aiming at the supreme power.  B. agreed
 to the design, and his  influence led many
 of the most distinguished Romans to em-
 brace it also.   Caesar was assassinated in
 the senate-house.   In pubUc speeches, B.
 explained the reasons of  this deed, but
 he could not appease the dissatisfaction of
 the people, and retired, with his party, to
 the capitol.  He soon after took courage,
 when the consul P. Cornehus Dolabella,
 and  die praetor L. Cornelius Cinna, Cae-
sar's brother-in-law, declared  themselves
in his favor.  But Antony, whom B. had
generously spared, was reconciled to him
only in appearance, and obtained his leave
to read Caesar's will to the people.  By
 means of this instrument,  Antony  suc-
 ceeded in exciting the popular indignation
 against the murderers of Caesar, and  they
 were compelled  to flee  from Rome. B.
 went to Athens,  and endeavored to form
 a party there among the Roman nobility;
 he gained over, also, the troops in Mace-
 donia.  He  then began to  levy soldiers
 openly, which was the  easier for him, as
 the remainder of Pompey's troops, since
 the  defeat  of their general,  had been
 roving about in Thessaly.   Hortensius,
 the  governor of Macedonia, aided him;
 and thus B.,  master of aU Greece and
 Macedonia, in a short time stood at the
 head of a powerful army.  He  went  now
 to Asia, and joined Cassius, whose efforts
 had been equaUy successful.   In  Rome,
 on the contrary, the  triumvirs  prevailed.
 All the conspirators had been condemned,
 and the people had taken up arms against
 them.  B. and Cassius, having  with diffi-
 culty subdued the Lycians and  Rhodians,
 returned to Europe to oppose the trium-
 viri.  (Plutarch informs  us, that a spirit
 appeared to B., on his  march  from
 Sardis to Abydos, in Asia Minor.)  The
 army passed over the HeUespont, and 19
 legions and 20,000 cavalry  were assem-
 bled on the plains of PhiUppi, in Macedo-
 nia, whither, also, the triumvirs Antony
 and  Octavianus  marched with their le-
 gions.  Although the Roman  historians
 do not agree in their accounts of the  bat-
 tle of PhiUppi, so much as this appears
 certain, that Cassius  was beaten by  An-
 tony, and caused himself to be killed by
 a slave ;  that B. fought with greater  suc-
 cess against  the division of the army com-
 manded by Octavianus, who was hindered
 by indisposition from conducting the  bat-
 tle in person; that B., after the engage-
 ment, took possession of an advantageous
 situation, where  it was difficult  for an
 attack to  be made upon him ; that he  was
 induced,  by the  ardor of his soldiers, to
 renew the contest, and was a second time
 unsuccessful.  He was  totally  defeated,
 escaped with only a  few friends, passed
 the night in a cave,  and, as he saw his
 cause inetrievably ruined, ordered Strato,
 one of his confidants, to kill him.   Strato
 refused, a long time, to perform the com-
 mand ; but, seeing B. resolved, he turned
 away his  face, and held  his sword, while
B. fell upon it. Thus died B. (A. C.  42),
in the 43d year of his age.
  Brut ere, John de la,  the famous  au-
thor of the Characters and Manners of his
age,  was  born, 1639, in a  viUage near
Dourdan, not far from  Paris.  He pur-
chased the  place of treasurer at Caen: 
304                        BRUYERE—BUBNA.
but, a short time  after, through the influ-
ence of Bossuet, he was employed in the
education of die duke of Burgundy, with
a pension of 3000 Uvres, and was attached
to his person during the remainder of his
life.  In 1687, he translated the Charac-
ters of Theophrastus into  French,  with
much elegance, and  accompanied them
with a succession of characters, in which
he represented the  manners of his time
with great accuracy, and in a style epi-
grammatical, ingenious and  witty.   B.
often took his characters from living per-
sons, although  he denied it,  and seems,
by this means, to have gained  many ene-
mies.  He was a man  of pleasant man-
ners and amiable disposition.  In 1693,
he was elected a member of die  French
academy, with some opposition, and died
in 1696.
  Bruyn,  Comeille  le, a painter  and
traveller, born  at  the Hague in  1652,
went, in 1674, to Rome, where he studied
his art for two years and a half.  He then
followed his inclination for travelling, vis-
ited Naples, and  other cities of Italy, em-
barked  for  Smyrna,  travelled  through
Asia Minor, Egypt, and the islands of the
Archipelago, noting down and  drawing
all that he found worthy of his attention.
He afterwards settled in Venice, and be-
came a disciple of Carlo Lotti.  In 1693,
he  returned to his native country, and
published his travels in 1698.   The favor-
able reception of this work excited in hiin
the desire to travel anew.  He visited, in
1701, and  the  following  years, Russia,
Persia, Lidia, Ceylon and other Asiatic
islands.  In Russia, he painted Peter the
Great, and different princes of his family;
in 1706, in Batavia, some of the  prin-
cipal men.   In 1708, he returned to  his
country, where he  published an  account
of his second journey, the value of which,
like that of the first, consists more in the
beauty and correctness of the drawings
than in the trustworthiness of the  state-
ments. During the rest of his life, Le B.
was  occupied exclusively with his art,
passed his  time alternately at the Hague
and at Amsterdam, and died  at  Utrecht,
in the house of his  friend and protector
van Mollem.
   Bryant, Jacob, a philologist and anti-
 quary, born at Plymouth in 1715, died, in
 1804, at his country-seat, near Windsor.
 He studied at Eton and Cambridge, be-
 came afterwards tutor  of the sons of the
 famous duke of Marlborough, the eldest
 of whom he also accompanied to the con-
 tinent as his secretary.  After his return,
 he received, by the influence of his pa-
tron, a lucrative post in the ordnance,
which gave him leisure for his researches
into BibUcal, Roman and Grecian antiqui-
ties.   His most  important  work is the
New  System  of  Ancient  Mythology,
which appeared  in 3 vols.  4to., 1773 to
1776.  Whatever may be the ingenuity
and the learning of the author, it is justly
objected, that  he has taken conjectures
for proofs, and, in particular, that he has
trusted too much to the deceptive conclu-
sions of etymology.   He was engaged in
a famous dispute on the veracity of Ho-
mer and the existence of Troy, in which
he endeavored to show, that tliere never
was such a city  as  Troy,  and that the
whole expedition of the Greeks was a
mere fiction of Homer's.  The object of
one of his earher treatises, which appear-
ed in 1767, is to show, that the island Me-
lita, on which Paul was wrecked, was not
Malta, but situated in the Adriatic  He
endeavored to illustrate die Scriptures by
explanations drawn from Josephus, from
Philo the Jew, and from  Justin Martyr;
but in this, as  in  all his  writings, his
learning and his  ingenuity are misled by
his love of controversy and  paradox.
  Bubna, count of,  descended  from an
old family in Bohemia, was, early in Ufe,
the chamberlain of the emperor of Aus-
tria, afterwards entered the  military ser-
vice, and  rose to die rank of field-mar-
shal-lieutenant  At the end of 1812, he
was sent, by his court, with extraordinary
commissions, to Napoleon, at Paris, and,
in May, 1813, was sent again to him at
Dresden.  In  the war of 1813, he com-
manded an Austrian  division with much
honor,  and, in 1814, received the  chief
command of the Austrian army which
was to pass through  Geneva to the south
of France.  Here he showed as much
caution in his movements as  forbearance
and humanity towards  the  inhabitants.
He advanced upon Lyons, which was de-
fended  by marshal  Augereau, but was
unsuccessful in his attacks upon the city,
till the corps of Bianchi and Hessen-Hom-
berg came to  his assistance, upon which
the prince of Hessen-Homberg took the
chief command.  B. remained at Lyons
till the  return of the aUied  forces, and
then retired to Vienna.  After the land-
ing of Napoleon in  1815, he again led  a
corps, under Frimont, against Lyons, and
in  Savoy opposed marshal  Suchet, tiU
Paris was conquered, and the marshal
retreated  beyond Lyons.   He then took
possession of Lyons without opposition,
established a court-martial to punish the
 disturbers of pubUc order, and proceeded 
BUBNA—BUCCANEERS.
305
 with greater severity than on his former
 campaign.  In  September,  he marched
 back to Austria, and received, for his ser-
 vices, valuable estates in Bohemia, from
 his emperor.  In the insurrection of Pied-
 mont (q. v.), 1821, the count  de B. receiv-
 ed the chief  command of  the Austrian
 troops destined to restore  the  ancient
 government.  After the accomplishment
 of this commission,  he was  appointed
 general commandant  of Lombardy.  He
 died at Milan, June  6, 1825, in the 56th
 year of his age.
   Buccaneers ; a band of English and
 French  freebooters in  America, whose
 exploits form  one of the most remarkable
 parts of the history of the  17th century.
 After the  assassination of Henry IV, in
 France,  in  1610, several  Frenchmen
 sought a residence on  the  island of St.
 Christopher, one of the  Antilles.  Driven
 thence in 1630, some of them fled to the
 western  coast of St Domingo, others to
 the small island of Tortugas, in the vicin-
 ity.   Several Englishmen, led  by a simi-
 lar disposition, associated themselves with
 the latter.  The fugitives at  St. Domingo
 employed  themselves especially  in  the
 chase of wild cattle, of which tliere were
 large herds on the  island.  They sold the
 hides to the mariners who landed on the
 coast, and,  because they did  not  boil the
 flesh, but roasted it before the fire, like
 the American  savages, they were called
 buccaneers.  Without  a  captain, without
 laws, without the society of women, these
 hunters lived in the rudest state of nature,
 associating two by two,  and enjoying in
 common all that they had taken in  the
 chase or  acquired  by  robbery.   The
 Spaniards,  who could not conquer them,
 determined to extirpate all the cattle on
 the  island, and  thus obliged the  bucca-
 neers either to cultivate the land  as hus-
 bandmen, or to join the other freebooters
 on the island  of Tortugas.  These bold
 adventurers attacked, in small numbers,
 and  with small means, but with an intre-
 pidity which bade defiance to danger, not
 only single merchant vessels, but  several
 of them together, and sometimes armed
 ships.  Their  common  mode  of attack
 was  by boarding.   They  directed their
 efforts especially  against the  Spanish
 ships which sailed for Europe laden with
 the treasures of America.  By the repeat-
 ed losses which they suffered, the Span-
 iards were at last  so discouraged,  that
 they seldom offered a serious resistance.
 It happened once that a ship  of the buc-
caneers fell in with two Spanish galleons,
each of which had 60 cannon  and 1500
                26*
 men on board.  To escape was impossi-
 ble, and the pirates could not think of
 sunender.  Their captain, Laurent, made
 a short speech to them, sent one of his
 men to the powder-room with orders to
 set fire to it upon the first sign which he
 should give him, and  then placed his
 men in order of battle on each side. " We
 must  sail  between the enemy's  ships,"
 cried he to his crew, "and fire upon them
 to  the right and left."  This manoeuvre
 was executed with extraordinary rapidity.
 The fire of the pirate killed so many peo-
 ple, on board  both ships, that the Span-
 iards were struck with  a panic, and  let
 him escape.  The  Spanish  commander
 was afterwards put to death on account
 of the disgrace  which he  had brought
 upon  his  nation.  Their frequent losses
 greatly reduced the trade of the Spaniards
 with America.   The buccaneers now be-
 gan to land on the coast, and to plunder
 the  cities.   Their manner  of dividing
 tlieir booty was  remarkable.  Every one
 who had a share in the expedition swore
 that he had reserved nothing of the plun-
 der.  A false oath was of extremely rare
 occunence, and was punished by banish-
 ment  to an  uninhabited island.    The
 wounded first received their share, which
 was greater according to the severity of
 their wounds.   The remainder was di-
 vided into equal parts, and distributed by
 lot.  The  leader received more than  the
 others  only when he had particularly dis-
 tinguished himself.  Those who had per-
 ished in the expedition were not forgotten.
 Their part was given to  their relations or
 friends, and, in  default  of them, to the
 poor and  to the  church.  ReUgion  was
 strangely blended with  their vices,  and
 they always began their enterprises with
 a prayer.   The  wealth  which they ac-
 quired  was spent in gambling and de-
 bauchery,  for it was the principle of these
 adventurers to enjoy the present and not
 care for the future.  The  climate  and
 their mode of Ufe gradually  diminished
 their number, and the vigorous measures
 of the English and French governments
 at last put  an end to their outrages, which
 had, perhaps, been  purposely tolerated.
 From  this band of pirates arose  the
 French settlements on the western half
 of St. Domingo.  In the beginning of the
 18th centuiy,  the piracies of the bucca-
neers had  entirely ceased.   An account
of their mode of life, and of many of then-
deeds, is to be found in the 10th volume
of Raynal's History of the  two  Indies,
and in the 2d volume  of Archenholz's
Historical Writings. 
306
BUCENTAUR—BUCHANAN.
  Bucentaur, in mythology ; a monster,
half man and half ox or ass.  The splen-
did gaUey in which the doge of Venice
annually sailed over the Adriatic  on As-
cension-Day also bore this name.   Drop-
ping a ring into the sea, he espoused it in
the name of the republic,  with the words
Desponsamus te, mare, in signum veri per-
petuique dominii.  The custom originated
in 1176, when the doge,  having  refused
to deUver up the pope, who had taken
refuge in Venice, to the emperor, encoun-
tered and  defeated  the  imperial  fleet
which was sent to reduce the Venetians.
  Bucephalus ; the  horse of Alexander
the Great, which he bought for 13 talents
(about 10 or 11,000 dollars).  Philonicus,
a Thessalian, offered to sell him  to  king
Philip;  but Philip,  who  considered the
price too great,  commanded the  unman-
ageable steed to be led away, when the
young Alexander offered  to mount  him.
He leaped up, in fact, and, to the aston-
ishment  of all,  the  horse  obeyed  him,
and wUlingly submitted to his guidance,
though  he  had never before obeyed a
rider. Alexander, from this circumstance,
conceived such an affection for him, that
he never rode upon any other horse; and
Bucephalus, also, when  caparisoned for
battle, endured  no other  rider.  He died
of a wound, and Alexander caused him
to be buried near the Hydaspes, and built,
over his grave,  a city, which he called
Bucephala.
   Bucer, Martin; bora, 1491, at  Schlett-
stadt, in Alsace.  He died in the office of
professor of theology at Cambridge, 1551.
At the time of die reformation, he left the
Dominican order, and  became a convert
to Lutheranism.  He was, at first, preach-
er at the court  of Frederic, the  elector
of the Palatinate, afterwards in Strasburg,
and at the  same time professor in the uni-
versity  there for 20 years, tUl king Ed-
ward VI of England, at the suggestion
of archbishop Cranmer,  invited  him to
Cambridge.  In 1557, queen Mary caus-
ed his bones to be burned, to show her
 detestation of Protestantism.  The cardi-
nal Contarini called him the most learned
 divine among the heretics.  He  wrote  a
 commentary on the  Psalms,  under the
 name of Aretius Filinus. His first wife
 had been a nun in her youth.  After her
 death, he married again.
   Buch, Leopold von; born in  1777, in
 Prussia;  one of the most distinguished
 geologists  of Germany.  He has studied
 the structure of the earth, by personal ob-
 servation,  for more tiian  30 years, in his
 travels through aU the provinces of Ger-
many, through Scandinavia to the North
cape,  through ports of  Great  Britain,
France, Italy and the Canaries.  In the
possession of a happy independence, he
sets out every spring, from Berlin, where
he usually passes the winter, on  his sci-
entific travels.  Simple in his habits, fru-
gal, accustomed to hardships, he travels
in the carriage, on horseback, on  foot, as
his  purpose  requires.  He was the first
geologist who clearly explained  the dif-
ferent volcanic phenomena, particularly
their effects  on the elevation of the sur-
face and the nature of the soil.  He di-
vides  volcanoes  into central  volcanoes
and volcanic chains.  The latter appear
to him  to follow the direction of great
clefts in the earth, which, in turn, cone-
spond with the direction of the primitive
mountains.  His  central volcanoes are,
Etna, the isles of  Lipari,  Iceland, the
Azores, the  Canaries, &c  The results
of his geological  labors are contained in
his Geognostical Observations on  Travels
through  Germany and Italy (1802), and
his Physical  Description of the Canaries,
where   he lived,  in 1815, for  several
months.  He was afterwards  accompa-
nied by  the Norwegian botanist  Chris-
tian Smith,  who, some years later, was
among the victims of the unhappy expe-
dition of captain  Tuckey in the Congo
river.   Buch's Travels through Norway
and Lapland (2  vols., Berlin, 1810, with
copperplates) is one of the best works on
the structure of the earth in the high
northern regions.
  Buchanan,  George, an eminent  poet
and historian, and one of the great mas-
ters  of modern  Latinity, was bora in
Scotland, in 1506.  His parents were in-
digent, and he owed his education to an
uncle,  who  sent  him to Paris.  He af-
terwards repaired to St. Andrew's.  He
became tutor or companion of the earl of
Cassilis, with whom he Uved  five years,
and obtained the notice of James V, who
appointed him tutor to his natural son,
afterwards the  famous  regent,  earl of
Murray.  His satires against  the monks
exposed him  to the vengeance of the
clergy, and  he was imprisoned for here-
sy; but, contriving  to escape, he with-
drew to Bourdeaux, where   he taught
three years, and  composed his tragedies
 of Baptistes and Jepthes, and  his transla-
 tions of the Medea and Alcestes of Eurip-
 ides.   In 1543, he quitted Bourdeaux on
 account of the pestilence, and became, for
 a while, domestic tutor to the celebrated
 Montaigne, who  records the fact in his
 essays.  In 1544, he went to Paris, and, 
BUCHANAN—BUCHAREST.                    307
for some time, taught in  the  coUege of
Bourbon.  In 1547,  he accompanied his
friend Govea to  Portugal.  He  had not
been there a year before Govea died, and,
the  freedom of B.'s  opinions giving of-
fence, he was thrown into prison, where
he began his translations of the Psalms
into Latin verse.   He obtained his liberty
in 1551, and spent four years at  Paris, as
tutor to the son of the marshal de Brissac.
In 1560, he returned to Scotland, where
he openly  embraced Protestantism, yet
was well received at court, and assisted
the queen  in  her studies.  He  was also
employed in regulating the universities,
and was made principal of St. Leonard's
college, St Andrew's.  He even obtained
a pension from Maiy, which did not pre-
vent  him from  connecting himself with
the party of Murray.   Though a layman,
he was made, in 1567, moderator of the
general assembly, which appointed him
preceptor  to  James  VI, who  acquired,
under his  tuition, the scholastic  knowl-
edge on which  he so much  prided him-
self.  It is said that Buchanan,  on being
subsequently told that he had made the
king a pedant, replied, that" it was the best
he could make of him."  He next accom-
panied Munay to England, in order to pre-
fer charges against  Mary,  and, in 1571,
published  his Detectio Maria Regina, a
virulent attack  upon the character and
conduct of that  unhappy queen;  and, al-
though his patron Murray had been assas-
 sinated in  1570, he continued in favor
 with the prevalent party, who made him
 one of the lords of the council and lord
 of the privy seal. He likewise received a
 pension of £100 per annum  from queen
 Elizabeth.   In  1579, he published his
 celebrated De Jure Regni, a work which
 will  ever  rank  him  among  the  spirited
 defenders of the rights of the  people to
 judge  of the conduct of their governors.
 He spent the last 12 or 13 years of his
 life in composing his great work, entitled
 Rerum Scoticarum  Historia, in  90 books,
 which was published at Edinburgh, in
 1582.  He died the same year,  at the age
 of 76, in very poor circumstances; and the
 city  of Edinburgh intened him at the
 public expense.—The moral character of
 B. has been the subject of much obloquy
 with his enemies ;  and the charge of early
  licentiousness  seems countenanced by
  several of his poems. Conscious of his
  great abiUties, he was also querulous and
  discontented widi his circumstances, and
  by no means scrupulous in  his attempts
  to  amend them ;  added  to which,  his
  temper was harsh and unamiable, and his
conduct, as a party man, exceedingly vir-
ulent.  As a writer, he has obtained high
applause  from all parties; and as a Latin
poet, in particular,  he stands among the
first of the  moderns.  His Psalms are in
all kinds  of measure, and some of them
are extremely beautiful.  As a historian,
he is considered to have united the beau-
ties of Livy and Sallust as to style ; but
he discovered a great lack of judgment
and  investigative spirit,  taking up all the
tales of the chronicles as he found them,
and affording to  their legendary absurdi-
ties  the  cunency of his  own eloquent
embellishment  On the whole, however,
B. may justly be deemed an honor to his
country; as a man whose genius burst
through  all disadvantages to  the attain-
ment of a wide and justly-celebrated dis-
tinction.  Of his different works in verse
and prose, various editions  have been
given; and a valuable edition of the whole
was pubUshed at  Edinburgh,  in 2 vols.
folio, 1714, and reprinted at Leyden, in 2
vols. 4te., 1725.
   Bucharest (i. e. city of joy), the chief
city of Walachia, the residence of the
hospodar and of a  Greek bishop, contains
10,000 meanly built houses,  and 60,000
inhabitants, including Greeks, Jews and
Armenians.  The  streets are not paved,
but covered with logs.  The  Greeks for-
merly had  an academy here with 12 in-
structers, which, in 1810,  contained 244
students.  It has declined  since the pres-
ent  hospodar  Ghika, a native of Wala-
chia, took  possession of its funds in 1825.
The trade  in wine, skins, and  other pro-
ducts of die country, is very brisk.   May
28,  1812,  a peace was concluded  here
between Russia and the Porte.
   Bucharest, Peace of, May 28, 1812, be-
 tween Russia and the Porte.  In Novem-
 ber, 1806, the emperor Alexander took  up
 arms for the protection of Moldavia and
 Walachia,  and  on account of the viola-
 tion of the free navigation of the Bospho-
 rus.  He occupied Moldavia, upon which
 the Porte declared war against Russia,
 Jan. 7,  1807.   An  armistice, however,
 was agreed upon at Slobosia, Aug.  24,
 1807, in  consequence  of the peace of
 Tilsit, by  which the Russians evacuated
 the principaUty.   After the expiration of
 the truce, in April, 1808, it  was  tacitly
 continued; but when  Napoleon,  in  the
 congress  at Erfurt, had   agreed to  the
 union of the two principalities with Rus-
 sia, the Russian court opened a congress,
 to deUberate upon peace at Jassy, in Feb.,
 1809, and demanded  the  cession of both
 principahties by the Turks,  and the  re- 
308
BUCHAREST—BUCHARIA.
moval of the  British ambassador  from
Constantinople.   Upon  this,  the Porte
broke off the negotiations, and in April,
1809, the war  was renewed.  The Rus-
sians advanced to Bulgaria, and, after two
bloody campaigns, remained masters  of
the  Danube.   The  Porte  now  offered
terms of peace.  A congress was opened
at B. in Dec, 1811.  Napoleon soon after
turned his arms against Russia, and con-
cluded an alliance with Austria, March
14, 1812, by which both  powers guaran-
tied  the integrity of the  Porte.  He also
did all in his power to induce the Porte
to continue the war.  But the interposi-
tion  of Great Britain and Sweden, as well
as the  concessions of Russia,  and die
distrust of the Porte towards Napoleon,
brought to a conclusion the peace of B.,
which was signed, on the part of the Rus-
sians, by Andri Italinski, Sabanejeff} and
Jos.  Fonton, May 28.  The Porte gave
up to Russia all Bessarabia and a third
of Moldavia, with the fortresses of Choc-
zim, Bender, Ismail and Kilia, so that the
Pruth, as far as to its confluence with the
Danube, became  the boundary between
the two powers, and from thence the left
bank of the Danube as far  as Kilia, and
even to its entrance into the  Black sea.
The Russians  gave back the  remainder
of their conquests.  In Asia, the bounda-
ries were established as  before the war.
The Porte granted the Servians, who had
fought for their independence as allies of
the  Russians,  a full amnesty, with the
right of administering their internal af-
fairs themselves, and of raising, in the way
which they should judge best, the small
tax which the Porte imposed upon them.
The Servians, however, would not accept
these conditions, and continued the con-
test,  but were  soon  overpowered by the
Turks.
  Bucharia, Great ; a country of Cen-
tral Asia, lying between the parallels  of
35° and 44° N. lat.,  and  from  60° to 72°
E. lon.  It comprehends the three prov-
inces of Bucharia  Proper, Samarcand and
Balkh, conesponding to the country of
the  nomade  Scythians,  Sogdiana and
Bactriana of ancient geography.  It forms
the  south-eastern part  of Tartary, and,
being occupied chiefly  by the  Usbeck
Tartars (q. v.),  is sometimes called Us-
beckistan.   The  original inhabitants,  or
Taujiks, a Persian colony, are handsomer
than the Tartars, and stiU speak the Per-
sian  language.   They live in  cities, and
carry on a trade with Russia, China, Hin-
dostan and Persia.  There are also many
Jews in the country.  The rivers are the
Gihon or Oxus, the Sir, or Jaxartes, and
the Sogd.  The Bucharians or Taujiks
lead a fragal  life, their food consisting
chiefly of rice, wheat, millet, and, above
all, fruits, such as melons, grapes and ap-
ples :  they are fond of horse-flesh, but it is
expensive, and beef is more used. Tea and
wine, the fornier  flavored with anise, are
their principal drink: they intoxicate them-
selves with opium, and their bread is not
fermented.   Besides these articles, which,
except tea, are produced in the country,
the principal  vegetable productions are
the Judas tree, the rhubarb, assafcetida,
&c.  B. is  supposed  to be the  native
country of the camel, and a large, shaggy
variety, called luk, has  the peculiarity of
blowing a large bladder from  its mouth
when it utters a cry.   Other varieties of
the camel, and dromedaries, fine horses,
and asses, of various sorts, abound.  Sheep
and cows are scarce.   Several rare birds
are found here, particularly the tetraopar-
adoxus.  This bird  resembles  the  par-
tridge of the desert, except in the structure
of its  feet, which consist of one large toe,
placed between two diminutive ones, rest-
ing on a hard sole, and enabling it to run
with great speed over the dry, gritty sand.
The province of Balkh, which is described
by geographers as forming a part  of B.,
lies on the south of the Oxus, and belongs,
at present,  to the Afghans.   The  two
provinces on the north of that river form
the Transoxana, famous in Arabian  and
Tartar histoiy, under the Arabian name
Maweralnahr  (beyond the  river), where
Timur received the homage of so  many
conquered princes. His descendants were
driven out  by the Tartars  in  the 15th
centuiy.  The government, as in other
Mohammedan states, is despotic.   The
population,  extent and  revenue  of the
state have not been ascertained.  (Evers-
mann's Reise nach Buchara, Berlin, 1823;
Elphinstone's Caubul; Meyendorf's Jour-
nal (in French), Paris, 1826.)  Bucharia,
or Bochara, a large and populous city, has
often  disputed with Samarcand the  title
of capital.   Its population has been stated
at from 100,000 to 200,000.  The streets
are so narrow, that a loaded camel fills
the space from side to side.  The houses
are low, and built of mud and brick.  The
number of mosques is said to be 360, and
that of medreses, or schools, 285.  It has
always been distinguished  for the study
of theology and Mohammedan law.  B. is
the commercial emporium of Central Asia
for the Hindoos, Afghans, Persians, Rus-
sians, Chinese  and Arabians.  The trade
is carried on by caravans, and  there are 
BUCHARIA—BUCKINGHAM.
309
10 large caravansaries in  the city.  The
caravans bring Russian and EngUsh manu-
factures from the Russian towns, and re-
turn silk, wool, Cashmere shawls, indigo,
&c.   About 500  camels bring silk and
woollen cloths, shawls, &c from Meschid
and Herat, and Russian manufactures are
carried back in return.   China ware and
tea from Cashgar, and shawls, calicoes,
muslins, from Caubul and Cashmere, are
the other principal articles of import.—A
description of the city is contained in the
work  of Meyendorf, above referred  to,
who was attached to the Russian mission
to B.  in 1820.
  Bucharia, Little,  as it is improperly
called, lies east  of  Great B., stretching
from 73° to 100° E.  Ion., and from 38° to
44° N. lat.  It is very imperfectly known,
but appears to be bounded on the north
and east by the Calmuck country, on the
south by Thibet, and on the west is sep-
arated from Great Bucharia by the Beloor
mountains.  It is a very elevated country,
forming a portion  of the great central
plateau of Asia, which constitutes a sixth
part of the old continent, yet shrouds from
the curious philosopher its mineral, ani-
mal and vegetable productions.  The cli-
mate is very rigorous, owing to the great
elevation of the countiy.  It was ovenun,
in 1683, by the Calmucks, who were sub-
dued  by the Chinese in  1759.  Little is
known of the origin and manners of the
native inhabitants,  who still  form the
principal part of the population.   The di-
visions into provinces are very differently
stated by  different authors.   Cashgar,
with a town of the same name, Yarkand,
also with a town of the same name, which,
by some, is thought to  be the capital of
Little B., if, indeed, Yarkand is not merely
another name for Cashgar, and the  other
provinces, are little known.  Both  sexes
wear long drawers,  and a garment reach-
ing to the calf, bound round the waist by
a girdle.   The  women  dye  their nails
with henna.  The houses are  chiefly of
stone, and furnished with articles of Chi-
nese  manufacture.   Tea is the general
beverage, taken, in the manner of Central
Asia, with milk, butter and salt
   Bucher, Anthony von, a well known
and  much  esteemed  Catholic  writer
against the Jesuits, born in Munich, Jan.
8,1746, was educated in the Latin schools
of the Jesuits, studied at  Ingoldstadt, and
was consecrated priest in 1768.  In his dif-
ferent offices as a pubUc  teacher, he  has
done a great deal to instruct and enlighten
his country.  His  contributions to  the
history of the Jesuits in Bavaria (Bdtrage
zur Geschichte der Jesuilen in Baiern) are
of great historical value.  His works were
published  in  6 vols.,  Munich,  1819 et
seq.
  Buchholz, Paul Ferdinand Frederic;
bora,  Feb. 5,  1768, at  Altruppin (Old
Ruppin).  At the age of 32, he  resigned
the office of teacher at Brandenburg, and
went  to Berlin, where, for 21 years, he
has been  an author.  He is best known
to foreign countries as the publisher of
the New Monthly Journal for Germany.
In many of his writings, he tries to prove
the existence of a law of gravitation in
the moral as well as the natural world.
   Buck ;  the  male of the fallow deer,
also of rabbits and other animals.  (See
Deer, Rabbit, &c)
   Buckeburg.   (See Lippc)
   Buckets, in water-wheels, are a series
of cavities into which the water  is deliv-
ered,  on the circumference of the wheel
to be set  in motion.  By the revolution
of the wheel, the buckets will  be alter-
nately erected so as to receive water, and
inverted so as to discharge it; the loaded
side will descend, and present the empty
buckets in succession to the cunent, and
thus keep up a constant revolution of the
wheel.
   Buckinck, Arnold, the first artist who
engraved  geographical maps on copper.
He brought this art to a high degree of
perfection.   Schweynheym,  who  had
learnt the secret  of  printing  from the
inventors, Faustus and Schoeffer, wished
to publish an edition of Ptolemy.  Wood
cuts  were too imperfect  for the  maps
contained hi the expensive manuscripts
of it.   Sweynheym determined  to  en-
grave them on copper, and, for that pur-
pose, associated himself with  B.   The
former died during the progress of the
work. B. completed it.  The first edition
of Ptolemy with maps (for the edition of
1468  is certainly dated wrong)  at length
appeared  in folio, at  Rome, 1478, and
concluded as follows: Claudii  Ptolcmai
Alexandrini phUosophi geographiam, Ar-
noldus Buckinck e  Germania Roma tab-
ulis aneis in piduris formatam impressit
sempiterno ingenii artificiique monumento,
&c   These  charts are also   added  to
some Roman  editions of Ptolemy pub-
lished afterwards.
   Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of;
the unworthy favorite of James I and
Charles  I of England;  born,  1592, at
Brookesby, in Leicestershire, of a family
which came thither, from Normandy, in
the time  of WilUam the Conqueror.  In
his youth, he showed  little taste or little 
310
BUCKINGHAM.
 aptitude  for Uterature.  Nature had lav-
 ishly bestowed upon him  beauty,  ease
 and grace.   By means of these qualities,
 he so  effectually won the  affections of
 James I, that,  in less dian two years, he
 was made a knight, a gendeman  of the
 bedchamber, baron, viscount, marquis of
 B., lord high-admiral, lord warden of the
 cinque ports, &c, and, at last, dispenser
 of aU the honors, offices, favors and reve-
 nues of the three kingdoms, according to
 the dictates of bis  ambition, his cupidity
 and his caprice.   The nation was indig-
 nant at seeing merit undervalued, the
 people trampled  upon, the nobiUty hum-
 bled, the crown impoverished  and de-
 graded, to elevate and enrich a weak and
 insolent favorite.   To complete the cata-
 logue of his misdeeds, B. became a traitor
 in 1623, the eighth year of his favor.  He
 desired to remove the earl of Bristol, an
 able  and virtuous  minister, from  office.
 Bristol was then negotiating the marriage
 of a  Spanish princess with the prince of
 Wales, afterwards Charles I.  The design
 of B. was, not  only to reconcile  to him-
 self the prince,  against  whom  he  had
 dared to lift his hand in a fit of passion,
 but  also to make him dependent upon
 himself, that he might secure the contin-
 uance of his power, in cose of the  death
 of James.   He therefore inspired young
 Charles with the  romantic idea of going
 to Madrid himself} and removing all the
 difficulties of negotiation by his presence.
 The king's consent to this measure was
 gained  in an   hour of weakness, and,
 though  he was long angry, on this  ac-
 count, with B.,  he soon after made him a
 duke.   Thq event was what James had
 anticipated.  While the young  prince de-
 lighted  the  royal family and the whole
 nation by the gentleness and modesty of
 his manners, B., who  accompanied him,
 offended them  by his arrogance and li-
 centiousness. He attained his purpose:
 the negotiation, which was far  advanced
 by means of Bristol, was broken off; and,
 that no  one  else might afterwards  com-
 plete it with success, he indulged himself
 in the grossest insults against the Spanish
 ministry, speedily left the kingdom with
 the prince, deceived James  by false  re-
 ports, and instigated the parliament to
 declare, that, instead of fonning a connex-
 ion with Spain,  it was  necessary to make
 war against it,  which was  accordingly
done by James.   The house of commons
peremptorily refused the  requisite sup-
plies, although they had consented to the
war.  B. connected himself with the Pu-
ritan party, and formed the project of
 abolishing the episcopal  dignity,  selling
 the possessions of the  church, and con-
 tinuing the war with the money raised in
 this way.  Thus the policy, the feelings
 and conscience of James were  betrayed
 by his favorite, and in the midst of these
 disorders he  died.  He had succeeded,
 indeed, in concluding  a treaty for  the
 maniage of his son witii  Henrietta of
 France; but had  the grief of seeing an
 English army, which was intended to re-
 cover  the hereditary  dominions  of  his
 son-in-law, the  unhappy elector palatine
 Frederic V, rained by the mismanagement
 of B.,  while a union with  Spain  might
 have effected a peaceful restoration of the
 temtories.  After the death  of James, B.
 continued to be the  arbitrary minister of
 Charles I; but the  time had now come
 for the fulfilment of the prophecy of his
 former king.  After having been declared
 the savior of the prince and the nation, in
 the house of commons of the last parlia-
 ment,  B. was declared, by the new  one, a
 seducer of the king, a traitor to the liberty
 of his country, and a public enemy.   This
 took place during a war which required,
 more than ever, the fullest harmony with
 the house of commons.  Hence the dis-
 solution of two parliaments, the imprison-
 ment  of  the  members who had  been
 most distinguished  for their  zeal, illegal
 taxes and forced loans, instead of supplies
 granted by parliament, the arbitrary im-
 prisonment of those who refused to pay
 them;  in short, every thing that  could
 conspire to bring a virtuous king to the
 most  fearful  end.   But  B.,  who  had
 learned, by his  disgraceful  attempt on
 Cadiz,  that  he was unequal to a war
 against Spain, did not hesitate to engage
 in a war against France.  He hod gone
 to Paris to solemnize, in  the name of the
 king, his maniage with the daughter of
 Henry IV.  Here he dared  to raise his
 eyes to the queen  of France.  As this
 princess dismissed him with indulgence
 rather than indignation, he desired to re-
 turn to the French court as EngUsh am-
 bassador.  His rashness, however, did not
 remain  unobserved ; and Louis  XIII
 wrote to him to forbid his cherishing the
 thought of this journey.   In order to
 avenge  himself for this prohibition, B.
 engaged with die Protestants of Rochelle
in a war against France.   This enterprise,
and the assault of the island Rhe (1627),
was more disgracefully  conducted  than
the attempt on Cadiz.  B., at die  same
time minister, admiral and general, seem-
ed to make it his object to dishonor  him-
self in  aU three capacities.  After having 
BUCKINGHAM—BUCKLER.
311
excited the people  of Rochelle to a sedi-
tion, only to deUver them  to the ven-
geance of Richelieu, and after having sa-
crificed a third of the British army, he
returned to England, despised and exe-
crated as much by his fellow-citizens as
by  his  enemies.   Pecuniary  necessity
compelled him to caU a new parliament.
B.  opened it with the declaration, that
the king might have done without it, and
that, if money was refused, his majesty
would  find  other  means to supply his
wants.  Thus he  scattered  the seeds of
discord between the king and people.  In
die course of the debates, he was obliged
to hear himself called the author  of the
public distress, while the king's heart was
acknowledged to  be the sanctuary of all
the virtues.  Without knowing when to
yield and when to resist, he contended
most violently against the famous petition
of rights; but he suddenly ceased his re-
sistance, when he heard that an impeach-
ment was preparing against him in the
house  of commons.   The complaints
against him, however, continued ; but the
bouse  of commons contented  itself, in-
stead of a solemn impeachment, with a
petition, that the king would remove him
from his person  and his  council, as the
author of the pubUc calamities.   The
only reply of the monarch was a sudden
dissolution  of  the parUament  Charles
resolved to attempt anew the relief of the
Protestants of Rochelle.  Count Denbigh
was appointed  to  command the expedi-
tion, but soon  after returned without ac-
compUshing any thing, after having dis-
graced  the banner of England by his
inefficiency. The  king now ordered B.
to put himself at the head of a new arma-
ment, which was fitted out with incredible
despatch. The duke was obliged to sub-
mit  to  the command,  and was on the
point of embarking at Portsmouth, when, in
Aug., 1628, surrounded by courtiers, guards
and soldiers, he fell under the dagger of
Felton, a subaltern officer.—Thus died  a
man, whose name suggests the idea of the
most unlimited power; who had braved
the denunciations of the  two houses of
parUament, the hatred of Richelieu and
OUvarez, and even the displeasure of the
two kings in whose names he ruled.  At
the moment of his death, he had regained
the favor of  his master by the activity of
his  zeal, and, confiding in the immense
resources with which he was surrounded,
was looking forward to victory.
  Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of,
son of the preceding, was born at Wal-
ungford-house, in  Westminster, Jan. 30,
1627.   After studying at Trinity college,
Cambridge, he travelled abroad, and, on
his return home, after the commencement
of the civil war, he was presented to the
king at Oxford.   He served in the royal
army, under prince Rupert and lord Ge-
rard.  His estate was seized by the parlia-
ment ; but, having obtained the restoration
of it, he travelled, with his brother, into
France and Italy.  In 1648, he returned
to England, and  was with  Charles II  in
Scotland, and at the battle of Worcester.
He  followed that prince  abroad, and
served, as a volunteer, in the French ar-
my in Flanders.  He afterwards returned
to England, and, in  1657,  manied the
daughter of lord Fairfax, by which means
he repaired the rain of his fortune in the
royal cause.   He, however, preserved the
favor  of Charles II, and, at the restora-
tion, was made master of the horse. He
also became one of the king's confidential
ministers,  who were designated by the
appellation of the cabal.  His political
conduct was, like  his general behavior,
characterized  by  unprincipled levity and
imprudence,  fn 1666,  he engaged in a
conspiracy to  effect a change of the gov-
ernment ; notwithstanding which, he re-
covered the favor of king Charles, which
he repeatedly abused.   The  profligacy
of his private  life was notorious.   He se-
duced the countess of  Shrewsbury, and
kiUed her husband in a duel; and he was
more than suspected of having been the
instigator of the  infamous  colonel Blood
to his brutal outrage against the duke of
Ormond, whom  he attempted, with the
assistance  of  other ruffians, to cany  to
Tyburn, and  hang on the common gal-
lows.   In 1676,  he was, together  with
the  earls of Shaftesbury and  Salisbury,
and lord  Wharton,  committed  to the
Tower for a contempt,  by order of the
house of lords;  but,  on petitioning the
king, they  were  released.   After plotting
against the government with the Dissent-
ers, and making  himself the object of
contempt to all parties, he died, neglected
and unregretted,  at Kirkby Moorside, in
Yorkshire, April 16, 1688.  Pope (Moral
Essays, epistle 3d) has strikingly describ-
ed his death.  His  abilities were far su-
perior to those of his father; and, among
his literary compositions, the comedy of
the  Rehearsal may be  mentioned  as a
work which displays no  common powers,
and which  greatly contributed to the
conection of the public  taste, which had
been corrupted  by Dryden,  and  other
dramatists of the age.
  Buckler.   (See Shield.) 
312
BUCKLER—BUCKMINSTER.
  BfjcKLER, John, under the name  of
Schinderhannes, was the leader of a band
of robbers, on the banks of the Rhine,
towards the end of  the last  century.
Born of indigent parents, he entered into
the service of an executioner.  He stole
some skins from his master, and eloped,
but was apprehended, and condemned to
be scourged.  This punishment, pubUcly
inflicted on him, as  he  himself said, de-
tennined  the character  of Iris  future life.
Without  knowing what to  undertake at
this juncture, he wandered about stealing
sheep.  He was a second time brought
to justice, escaped, and connected him-
self, at Fink, with Rothbart, the leader of
a band of robbers.  Being seized again,
he again escaped, and returned to his old
acquaintance.  He was apprehended once
more,  and escaped anew.  He now  re-
solved upon highway robbery, and collect-
ed a large band, which soon struck terror
into all the sunounding  country.   He
was not entirely destitute of good quali-
ties.   He often assisted the  poor,  and
relieved the distresses of those who were
severely  treated by his band.  Political
commotions drove him  to the right bank
of the  Rhine, where he married one Ju-
liet Blasius. A song which he composed
on  her was played at  all the fairs  and
religious festivals throughout the adjacent
country.   About this time, his followers
began  to  rob houses; and carried on their
lawless trade  so publicly, that the Jews,
who were most annoyed by  them, sent
to treat with B.  At length Schinderhan-
nes was  taken prisoner, and  brought to
Frankfort.  He  confessed immediately
his true  name, and a  great part of  his
crimes.  He was then given up, with his
comrades, to the tribunal at Mentz. Here
he confessed many facts, thinking, that, as
he had never committed murder, he would
not be condemned  to  death.   After his
condemnation, he still  continued to hope
for pardon, and, till the last  moment of
his Ufe, showed the greatest presence of
mind.  He was guillotined Nov. 21,1803.
   Buckminster, Joseph  Stevens, cele-
brated as a  pulpit orator and man of
letters, was born at  Portsmouth, New
Hampshire, May 26,  1784.   His father
was eminent  among the clergy of that
state,  and he  himself manifested, in his
boyhood, such talents and dispositions as
gave assurance of his success  in the same
career.   In  1797,  he  entered Harvard
coUege,  Cambridge.  In the year 1800,
he received the honors of the university
with  the distinction due to  his uncom-
mon   proficiency in the  studies of the
institution, and to the excellence of the
oration which he delivered on the Uterary
character of different nations. After leav -
ing college, he devoted himself for more
than four years to  theology and  general
literature.   In Oct., 1804, at Boston, he
preached for the first time, and, in the fol-
lowing year, accepted an invitation from
a religious society in that place, to becoine
their minister.  The fatigue and agitation
which he suffered at his ordination threw
him into a severe  illness of two months
duration.  On his  recovery, he  devoted
himself ardently to his clerical duties, but
his zeal  aggravated a predisposition  to
epilepsy, which had been felt some years
before.   The  increase of this  dreadful
disorder  rendered  a  voyage to  Europe
expedient.   He  embarked  for  England
in 1806, remained  for some months  in
that countiy,  went through Holland  to
Switzerland,  and  thence proceeded  to
Paris, where he passed nearly half a year.
After revisiting England, he returned to his
native land, not, indeed, cured of his mal-
ady, but generally more vigorous in con-
stitution, and enriched with a large addi-
tional store of knowledge.  No American
of his age had made  a  more favorable
impression abroad.   His parishioners wel-
comed him back with enthusiasm, and
he requited their esteem by an admirable
discharge of all his duties.  His sennons
placed him in the first rank of  popular
preachers.  He also contributed valuable
and beautiful papers to the periodical
pubUcations of the day, besides  prepar-
ing a number of occasional  addresses of
distinguished merit.  In 1808, he super-
intended an American edition  of Gries-
bach's Greek Testament, and wrote much
in vindication and  praise of this author's
erudition, fidelity and accuracy.  In 1810,
he  digested a plan of publishing all the
best modern versions  of the prophetical
books of the Old Testament;  but  the
whole design failed for want  of public
patronage.  In 1811,  he was appointed
the first lecturer on Biblical criticism at
the university of Cambridge, on the foun-
dation  estabUshed by  Samuel  Dexter.
While he  was laboriously preparing for
the execution of this  office, a violent fit
of epilepsy at once destroyed his noble
and affluent  intellect, and gave  a  shock
to  his frame, which he survived only a
few days.  He died June 9, 1812, at the
completion of his 28th year.—Mr. Buck-
minster possessed a fine face, an easy and
winning address, a cheerful temper, and
the power of gaining a multitude of friends
 and admirers.  In 1814, his sermons were 
BUCKMINSTER—BUDDHA.
313
collected, and published in an octavo vol-
ume, to which is prefixed a  well-written
memoir of his life and character.  These
remains have been extensively circulated.
They are highly valuable in every re-
spect, and fitted to excite universal regret
at the premature fate of the accomplished
and virtuous author.  A second volume
has  appeared  very  recently  (Boston,
1829).
  Buckwheat, or Brank, is a black and
triangular grain, produced by a plant of
the persicaria  tribe  (polygonum fagopy-
rum), with somewhat arrow-shaped leaves,
and purplish-white  flowers.—Buckwheat
was first  brought to Europe from  the
northern parts of Asia, and first cultivat-
ed in England about the year 1600.   The
flowers appear about July, and the seeds
ripen in October; and  so tender are the
plants,  that a  single night's  sharp frost
will destroy a whole crop.  As a grain,
buckwheat has been principally cultivat-
ed for  oxen, swine and poultry;  and,
although some farmers state, that a single
bushel of it is equal in  quality to two
bushels of oats, others assert, that it is a
ture, compared with that of other grain,
is attended with little expense.
  Bucolics.  (See Pastoral Poetry.)
  Buda (in German, Ofen) is the Hunga-
rian name of the capital of Hungary, sit-
uated on the west bank of the Danube,
opposite Pest.  It consists of the Upper
Town, which is fortified, and lies, with the
castle, on aihill; of the Lower Town, or
Waterstadt/-which lies at the foot of the
hill, and is  connected with  Pest by a
bridge of boats ; of the Neustift, in which
is the remarkable  Trinity pillar, 52 feet
high; and of the  Taban, called,  in Ger-
man, Raitzenstadt,  from being almost en-
tirely occupied by the Rascians,  a Scla-
vonian race.  There ore three other parts
inhabited  by Germans  and  Hungari-
ans. The^population is 28,500, exclusive
of the court of the palatine, the  officers
of government, the military and the cler-
gy.  Among the public buildings are the
royal fortress, in which the crown is kept,
the arsena^ the cannon foundery, the new
observatory  on the  Blocksberg.  The
trade  in wine, which the environs pro-
duce of an excellent quality, is the chief
very unprofitable food.  Mixed with bran, 'oc/Jupation  of the inhabitants.   There
chaff or grain, it is  sometimes given to 'are  also  manufactures  of silk,  leather,
horses.   The flower  of buckwheat is oc- tobacco,* copper  and iron.   The baths
casionally used for bread, but more fre- are efficacious in palsy, weakness of limbs,
quently for  the thin cakes called  crum- jjnd similar  complaints.   The castle was
pets.  In Germany, it serves as an  ingre- chosen ,«as a place of residence  by  the
dient in pottage, puddings, and other food. emperokpLouis I; and  king Matthias  I
In  Pennsylvania, it  is very  extensively fbundedthe library, which was destroyed
used, throughout the  winter, in  cakes, by the Turfts, in whose hands B. remain-
which are cooked upon a griddle.  Be
may be brewed from it; and by distills
tion it yields  an excellent spirit—The
best mode of harvesting this grain is said
to be by pulling it out of the ground Uke
flax, stripping off the seeds with the hand,
and collecting these into aprons or cloths,
tied round the waist.—Buckwheat is much
cultivated in the domains of noblemen,
   from 1530 till 1686, when it was taken
   storm by the duke of Lorraine.   The
castle was then destroyed, but was rebuilt
$y the empress Maria  Theresa for the
university, which  was  removed from
Tyrnau!,to Buda in  1777, and which has
■subsequently been removed to Pest. Lon.
■19° 2? E.; lat. 47° 3C N.;  distant  120
miles S. E. from Vienna.
 Jiossessed of landed property, as a food • % Buddha, the founder of a very ancient
 or pheasants.   With some farmers, it is  religion, called after him.   His worship,
the practice to sow buckwheat for the  after th« Bramins had  put a stop to it in
purpose  only  of ploughing it  into the  India, spread to  Japan,  Thibet and Chi-
ground, as a manure for the land. Whilst^'na, where, as well as in Ceylon,  it exists
green,  it serves as  food for sheep and  Tat the  present day.  Ritter, in his Vor-
oxen; and, mixed with other provender, it  haUen Europctischer Vblkergeschichten (In-
may also be given with advantage to horses,  traduction to the Histories  of the Euro-
The blossoms may be used for dyeing a. pedn NStions), advances the opinion, that
brown color.  It is frequently cultivated iri^ the Buddhists also migrated to the N. W.
the Middle U. States as food for bees, who
are very fond of it, and to whose honey
it imparts a flavor by no  means unpleas-
ant—The principal advantage of buck-
wheat is, that it is capable of being culti-
vated upon land  which  will  produce
scarcely any thing else, and that its cul-.
  vol. ii.        27
 to the shores of the Black sea, to Colchis,
 to the modern  MingreUa, and  thence to
 Thrace, where they laid the foundation
,of the civiUzation of the Pelasgi and Hel-
 lenes. Even in the doctrine of Asa, in
 the extreme north, traces of Buddhism
 have  been thought to appear.  According
I 
314
BUDDHA—BUDGELL.
to Abel  Remusat, who cites the Japan  to the  emperors.  From this priesthood
Encyclopedia, in the Journal des Savans,  afterwards sprung the hereditary dignity
Jan. 1821, Buddha, whose historical name  of Grand Lama, in Thibet; and, in process
was Tshakia-muni,  was bom under the  of time,  the whole hierarchal system,
reign  of Tshao-wang, of the dynasty of  when the monastical life of the Buddhists
Tsheu, 1029  B. C,  and died under the  required  regular superiors,  or inferior
reign  of Mou-wang, 950 B. C.  Before  lamas.  Besides many other monuments
his death, he intrusted his  disciple Ma-  of the ancient worship of Buddha, there
hakaya,  a  Bramin  in  the  Ipngdom  of  are two particularly remarkable—the rains
Makata, which lay in the centre of India,  of the  gigantic temple Boro-Budor,  in
with  his mysteries.   This Mahakaya,  Java, with works of sculpture; and the five
who Uved  under  Hio-wang, 950 B. C,  large subterranean  halls, called Pantsh-
is the first saint or patriarch of Buddhism,  Pandu, probably an old temple of the
which was  left by him to  his successor,  Buddhists, near the city of Bang, on  the
Ananta.  The Japan Encyclopedia enu-  way from Guzurat to Malwa.  Tradition
merates 33 patriarchs,  including Maha-  ascribes these astonishing works of an-
kaya,  in  chronological  succession, each  cient Indian architecture  and sculpture,
of whom chose  his successor, and trans-  which far surpass the skill of the modern
mitted to him  the  secret doctrine  of  Hindoos,  to  the  Pandus,  the heroes of
Tshakia-muni, who was afterwards wor-  Indian mythology.  An accurate descrip-
shipped as a god,  under  the  name  of  tion of these monuments is contained in
Buddha.  Several of them died (or, to use  die second volume of the Transactions of
the language of the Buddhists, emigrated)  the learned society at Bombay (London,
voluntarily  ia the flames.  Ainqng them,  1819).
Maming, the successor of Buddha (by the    Bude,  GuiUaume ;  more  generally
Chinese caUed Phu-sa;  in Sanscrit, Deva-  known  under the  Latin  form Budaus;
Bodhisatua), who gave names to the gods  one of  the greatest  French scholars of
of the second class, was worshipped as * his time; born at Paris in 1467, died in
his son, born from his mouth, because lie  1540; was royal librarian,  and master of
perfected the  doctrine of Buddha by his  requites; studied at  Paris and Orleans at
own philosophy, which  is a metaphysical  first without  success, on account of his
allegorical mysticism.   His epoch must  dissipated life in his  early youth.  From
be fixed, according to the above-men-  his 24th year, he devoted himself to study
tioned work, in 332, under  thef eign of  with  the greatest zeal,  in  particular to
Hian-wang, 618 years after  tne death  belles-lettres,  to  mathematics,  and  to
of Tshakia-muni.    The 28th. patriarch*  Greek.  Among his philosophical, philo-
Bodhidhorma, was the  last  who lived in 'logical and jundical works, his treatise
Hindostan.  He afterwards fixed his re3K  De Asse et Partibus ejus, and his commen-
dence in  China, near the famous moun-  taries on the  Greek language, are of the
tain Sung.   He died A. D. 495.   The^  greatest importance.   By  his influence,
secret of his doctrine was left by him to *  the coUege royal de France was founded.
a Chinese,  who was the 29th patriarch.  He enjoyed,  not only as a scholar, but
After  him, the  above-mentioned book  also as  a  man and  citizen, the greatest
gives  the names of four Chinese,  who  esteem.    His works appeared  at Bale,
succeeded to the same dignity.  The last  1557,  4 vols. foUo.
of them  drfed A. D.  713.  Their history •   Budessin.   (See Bautzen.)
Uke diat of many  other saints,  is mixed    Budgell, Eustace, an ingenious writer,
with fables: their manner  of living was  was bom at St Thomas, near Exeter, about
the same as what the ancients report to  1685,  and educated at Christ church, Ox-
us of the Gymnosophists and Samaneans. -.ford; after which he went to London, and
They  devoted  themselves  to  religious  was entered of the Inner Temple, where
exercises and constant contemplation,  his inclinations led him to neglect his pro-
and condemned themselves to  the most  fession, and study poUte Uterature. Dur-
severe abstinence; nay,  several  of them,  ing his stay here, he  contracted a friend-
as we have  mentioned, sealed their beUef *ship with  Addison, who, in 1717, when
in the transmigration of souls with a vol-  principal secretary of state in England,
untary death.  From that Indian patriar-  procured for  B. the place of accountant
chate originated, A. D. 706,  the sacerdo-  and comptroller-general of the  revenue
tal dignity,  which  is common in China,  in Ireland.  He lost these places when
and among the Monguls, with the tide  the duke of Bolton was appointed lord-
spiritual prince of the law.  These priests  Ueutenant, in 1718, by a lampoon on his
are, at the same time, a sort of confessors  grace.   He then  returned  to England, 
BUDGELL—BUENOS AYRES.
315
 where, in 1720, he lost £20,000 by the
 South sea bubble.  He afterwards  tried
 to get into parUament, and spent £5,000
 more in unsuccessful attempts, which
 completed his rain.  In 1727, the duch-
 esss-dowager  of Marlborough  gave  him
 £10,000 for the purpose ofgetting him into
 parliament;  but his attempts were  inef-
 fectual.  In  1733,  he  commenced a
 weekly paper, called the  Bee, which
 was very popular.  On the death of doc-
 tor Tindal,  the  author of Christianity as
 old  as the  Creation,  £2,000 was left to
 B., by his  will.  This sum was so dis-
 proportionate to  the   testator's  circum-
 stances, and the legacy so  contrary to his
 known  intentions, that suspicions arose
 respecting the  authenticity of the testa-
 ment ; and, upon its being contested by his
 nephew, it was set aside.  The disgrace
 of this affair had such  an effect upon this
 unhappy man,  that, on May 4th, 1737,
 taking a boat at Somerset stairs, he threw
 himself overboard,  with  stones  in his
 pocket, and immediately sank.---Besides
 the above-mentioned works,  he also  pos-
 sessed a share  in the  Craftsman, wrote
 several papers in  the  Guardian, with the
 history of Cleomenes, (8vo.,) and memoirs
 of the lives of the Boyles, (8vo.)
  Budget, in the parliamentary language
 in England, means the minister's propos-
 ed plan of taxation for the ensuing year;
 and comprehends a general view of the
 national debt, income and expenditure,
 ways and means of raising supplies,  &c,
 with the actual product of the preceding
 budget. It is  brought  forward by the
 chancellor of the exchequer.  The term
 has  also been  introduced into  France,
 where the minister of finances presents
 the budget to the king and chambers.
   Budweiss ; a circle and city of Bohe-
 mia.  The circle is separated from Austria
 by high mountains, in which the Muldau
 has its source:  it contains  extensive  for-
 ests  and sheep-walks, and abounds in
 game and fish.  The city of B. is a min-
 ing town on the Muldau, with manufac-
 tures of saltpetre  and cloth.   Population
 of the circle, 170,000; of the city, 4,600.
 The latter  Ues in lon. 14°  2C  E.; lat
49° 2' N.
   Buenaventura ; a settlement,  and
 Spanish mission,  on  the coast of New
 California.   Lon. 118° 5&  W.;  lat. 34°
 l& N.  It was founded in 1782, and  con-
tains 950 inhabitants.   It has a tolerably
good roadstead, and the soil and climate
are very favorable to  the production of
a great variety of fruits.
  Buenaventura ; a  seaport in Colom-
bia, on the bay  of Choco, at the mouth
of a river of the same name; 90 mUes
W. N. W. Cali,  200  W. by  S. Santa Fe
de Bogota.  It is supported by the vessels
that touch at it;  the  entrance is difficult,
and the cUmate unhealthy.  It is the port
of Santa Fe de Bogota,  Popayan  and
Cali.  Lat. 3° 5&  N.:  lon. 77° 42' E.
There are  many small settlements and
viUages of this name  in Spanish America.
  Buen Ayre, or Bonair ; a small island
near the coast of South America, belong-
ing to die Dutch, 50 miles in circumfer-
ence, inhabited  chiefly by Indians, with
a small mixture of  Europeans; moun-
tainous;  producing  a  few cattle, goats,
large quantities of poultry, and a consid-
erable quantity of salt  It has springs of
fresh water.  On the  S. W. side is a good
harbor and road.  52 miles E. Curacoa.
Lon. 67° 3& W.; lat. 12° 2& N.
  Buenos Ayres ; an  extensive country
of South America, formerly belonging to
Spain, and styled the  viceroyatty of La
Plata, or of Rio de la Plata; but since the
declaration of independence, in 1816, it
has assumed the name  of  the United
Provinces of South America.  It is bound-
ed N. by Bolivia, E. by Brazil,  S. E. by
the Atlantic ocean, S. by Patagonia,  and
W. by Chili  and the Pacific ocean.  It
comprehends most of the vaUey or basin
of the great river La  Plata, and is water-
ed by tjhe river La Plata, and its tributa-
ries, the Parana, Paraguay, Uraguay, Pil-
comayo and Rio Grande, and also by the
Colorado and Negro.—The  great chain
of the Andes extends along the western
side, and the western and northern parts
of the  country  are mountainous. Most
of the other portions,  which comprise the
greater part of the whole country, consist
of one vast and uniform plain ; and exten-
sive tracts which border on the river are
liable to inundation.   In the southern di-
vision are  found immense pampas, or
plains, which extend  into Patagonia, and
are upwards of 1200  miles in length, and
500 in breadth.  They are covered with
tall, waving grass, which affords pasture
to vast numbers of cattle and wild horses,
and have few interruptions from forests
or eminences.—The  climate  is different
in  different parts, but generally healthy.
On  the plains, the atmosphere is moist,
and,  in summer, the heat is excessive,
with frequent rains, accompanied by tre-
mendous thunder and Ughtning.—A large
part of the country has a very fertile sofl,
adapted to the growth  of wheat, maize,
barley, tobacco, sugar,  wine and fruits;
but agriculture  is  much neglected.  A 
316
BUENOS AYRES—BUFFALO.
great portion of the wealth of this coun-
try consists in the immense herds of cat-
tle  and horses which graze  upon  its
plains.  The principal exports are hides,
tallow, beef, gold and silver.   It has val-
uable mines of gold,  silver, copper, lead
and tin.—Some of the principal towns are
Buenos Ayres, Monte Video, Cordova
and Assumption.  (Respecting the  rela-
tions of Buenos Ayres and  Brazil, see
Brazil.)
  Buenos Ayres,  or Nuestra Senora
de  Buenos Ayres ; a city of South
America, and capital  of the country to
which  it gives name, on the S. W. side
of the La Plata, 66 leagues  from  its
mouth; first built in the vear 1535.  Lon.
58° 31' W.;  lat. 34° 33 S.  The popula-
tion is uncertain, and, within a few years,
has  been  variously  stated  at  50,000,
70,000, and  100,000.   About one fourth
of the inhabitants are whites;  the rest are
Indians, Negroes  and  mixed  breeds.
The situation is  agreeable and healthy,
and the city derives  its name  from the
salubrity of its cUmate.  The temperature
is nearly the same throughout  the  year.
The city is  built  with great  regularity,
and the principal streets are straight and
regular, and some of them are paved.
They are  broad,  with side-walks, but,
from the great scarcity of stone, are gen-
erally  unpaved  in  the  middle.   The
houses are mostly built of brick or chalk,
with flat roofs, many of them of two sto-
ries, though the greater part of only one.
They are generally plastered  on the out-
side, but now appear somewhat shabby.
The public buildings are a palace, a royal
chapel, a cathedral, a college, 2"  hospitals,
4 monasteries, 2  nunneries, 10 or  15
churches, a pubUc Ubrary of nearly 20,000
volumes, an academy,  and  8  public
schools.  Some of these public buildings
are  large  and  splendid.—There is  no
harbor at Buenos Ayres, nor so much as
a mole to facilitate the landing of boats.
Ships  can  only  come  within  three
leagues of the town; there they  unload
their goods into boats, which enter a Utde
river named Rio Chuelo, from whence the
merchandise is brought in  carts to the
town, which is about a quarter of a league
from  the  landing places.   The ships
which want careening, or take lading at
Buenos Ayres, go to the bay of Baragon,
a kind of port about 12 miles S. E. of the
town.—The  environs of this city are well
cultivated, furnishing att the necessaries
of life  in abundance, except wine, which
is brought from Spain, or from Mendoza.
—The inhabitants have country-houses
there,  called  quintets.   Wood is very
dear at Buenos Ayres and at Monte Vi-
deo.  In the neighborhood of these places
are only some Utde shrubs, hardly fit  for
fuel.  All timber for building houses, and
constructing and refitting the vessels that
navigate  in  the river, comes from Para-
guay in  rafts.—After  the province  of
Buenos Ayres withdrew from  the gov-
emment of Spain, the city of B. was the
temporary seat of the central government,
and the congress of the United States of
South America.   In  1826, it was made,
by the congress of the United Provinces
of La Plata, the permanent seat of gov-
ernment, and  the capital of the confed-
eracy.  It is also the seat of a bishop.
The city has  an  extensive trade  in ox-
hides and tallow, which are  disposed of,
principally, to the British and people of
the U. States.  The Germans and  Dutch
likewise  trade with  B.  Much  of the
commerce of Brazil) ChiU, Peru and Par-
aguay is also canied on through this city.
From 300 to 400 foreign ships  annually
enter this port.—The  climate of B.  is
mild. There are very few days in winter
in which water is frozen.—In 1806, B.
was conquered by an English squadron,
under the command of admiral  Popham
and  general Beresford.  Soon after, the
inhabitants, having recovered from their
terror, attacked the English  by surprise,
and made a great slaughter among them.
In the following year,  V.hitelock and
Crawford came over with reenforcements.
They were quietly permitted  to enter the
city, and were then attacked with such
fury, that a third part of their number was
destroyed, and the remainder were glad
to conclude a truce.
  Buen Retiro ; a  royal summer-resi-
dence, on an elevated ground, near Ma-
drid, built, with  much splendor, by the
duke of Olivarez, at the beginning of the
17th century.  It has a theatre, park, and
some valuable pictures.   In  1808, when
the French  attacked Madrid, Dec. 5,  it
was  the centre of the conflict, and was
plundered.   The French afterwards for-
tified it, and used it as a citadel.
  Buffalo ; a post-town of New York,
the capital of Erie county, situated at the
eastern end of lake Erie, at the efflux of
Niagara river, and at the west end of the
Erie canal; 296 miles W. of Albany, 240
E. of Sandusky.  Population in 1810,
1508;  in 1820, 2095;  in  1825,  5140.
The village of B.  is very advantageously
and  finely situated on a handsome plain,
near the entrance of Buffalo creek or
river into lake Erie,  on the channel of 
BUFFALO—BUFFON.
317
communication  between  the  Atlantic
ocean and the lakes.  It  has been, for
several  years past,  a  very flourishing
place, and has an extensive trade.  In
1813, this village, which then contained
about 100 houses, was burnt  by the Brit-
ish, in retaUation for the burning of New-
ark, in Upper Canada, by the Americans.
—Black Rock is a considerable post-vil-
lage, within the township of B., two miles
from the village of B.   It is situated at
the ferry across the Niagara  river, which
is here  about three  quarters of a  mile
wide.
  Buffalo ; in America, a name  mis-
applied  to the bison, (q. v.)   It properly
belongs to a species of ox (bos bubalus),
found in various parts of India.  This
species, in the wild state,  lives in herds
of  considerable  numbers,   frequenting
moist and marshy situations.   It is natu-
rally fierce  and stubborn, and is  with
difficulty subjugated.  The bellowing of
the buffalo  is hoarser than  that of the
common  bull.  The  female begins  to
breed at 4 years of age,  and ceases at 12.
The term of Ufe in this species is from 18
to 25 years.   One variety of this species
has horns of vast size and length.  This
is the ami or arnee.   The horns ore turn-
ed laterally, and flattened in front.  They
are wrinkled on the concave  surface, 4 or
5 feet long, and 8 or 10 from tip to  tip.
The buffalo is 7  or  8  feet long, by 4 in
height, and is generally of a  black color.
The skin is covered by a harsh and thin-
ly-scattered hair.
  Buffet;  anciently, a Uttle apartment,
separated from the rest of the room, for
the disposing of china,  glass, &c.  It is
now a piece  of furniture in  the dining-
room, called also a side-board, for the re-
ception of the plate, glass, &c. In France,
the principal houses have  a detached
room, called buffet, decorated with pitch-
ers, vases, fountains, &c
  Buffon (George Louis Leclerc), count
of, one of the most celebrated naturaUsts
and authors of the 18th centuiy, born at
Montbard, in  Burgundy, 1707, received
from his father, Benjamin Leclerc, coun-
sellor to the parUament of his province, a
careful  education.   Chance connected
him, at  Dijon, with  the young duke of
Kingston, whose tutor, a man of learning,
inspired him with a taste for the sciences.
They travelled together through France
and Italy, and B. afterwards visited Eng-
land.  In order to perfect himself in  the
language without neglecting the sciences,
he  translated Newton's Fluxions  and
Hales's  Vegetable  Statics.  After some
                 27*
time, he pubUshed some works of his
own, in which he treated  of geometry,
natural philosophy, and rural economy.
He laid his researches on these subjects
before the academy of sciences, of which
he became a member in 1733.  The most
important were on the  construction of
mirrors for  setting bodies  on fire at a
great distance, as Archimedes is said to
have done,  and  experiments  on   the
strength of different kinds of wood, and
the means of increasing it, particularly by
removing the bark of the trees some time
before felling them.  B., in  his  earUer
years, was animated only by an undefined
love of learning  and fame, but  his  ap-
pointment as intendant of the royal gar-
den, in 1736,  gave his mind a decided
turn towards that science in which he has
immortalized himself.  Considering natu-
ral  history  in  its whole extent, he found
no works in this department but spiritless
compilations  and  dry Usts  of  names.
There were  excellent  observations,  in-
deed, on single objects, but no compre-
hensive work.  Of such an one he now
formed the plan, aiming to unite the elo-
quence of Pliny and the profound views
of Aristotle with  the exactness and the
details of modern observations.  To  aid
him in this work, by examining the nu-
merous and  often minute  objects  em-
braced in his plan, for which he had not
the patience nor  the physical  organs re-
quisite, he associated himself with  Dau-
benton,  who possessed the qualities in
which he was deficient; and, after an as-
siduous labor of 10 years, the two friends
published the three first volumes  of the
Natural History,  and, between 1749 and
1767, 12 others,  which comprehend the
theory of the earth, the nature of animals,
and the histoiy of man and the viviparous
quadrupeds.  The most brilUant parts of
them, the general theories, the descrip-
tions of the characters of animals, and of
the great natural  phenomena, are by B.
Daubenton  limited himself to the de-
scription of the forms and the anatomy
of  the animals.    The nine  following
volumes, which appeared from 1770 to
1783, contain the history of birds, from
which Daubenton  withdrew his  assist-
ance. The whole shape of the work was
thus altered.   Descriptions,  less detaU-
ed,  and almost  entirely without anato-
my,  were  inserted among the historical
articles, which, at first, were composed
by  Guenau de MontbeUlard,  and after-
wards by the  abbe Bexon.   B. published
alone the five volumes on  minerals, from
1783 to 1788.  Of the seven supplement- 
318                     BUFFON—BUGENHAGEN.
ary volumes, of which the last did not
appear until after his death, in 1789, the
5th formed  an independent whole, the
most.celebrated of all his works.  It con-
tains his Epochs of Nature, in which the
author, in a style truly sublime, and with
the triumphant power of genius, gives a
second theory of the earth, very  differ-
ent from that which he had traced in the
first volumes, though he assumes, at the
commencement, the air of'merely defend-
ing and developing  the  former.   This
 freat labor, with which B. was occupied
 uring 50 years, is, however, but a part
of the vast plan which he  had  sketched,
and which has been continued by Lace-
pede, in his history of the different spe-
cies  of cetaceous animals, reptiles  and
fishes,  but  has remained  unexecuted as
far as regards the invertebral animals and
the plants.  There is  but one opinion of
B. as an author.  For the elevation of his
views, for powerful and profound ideas,
for the majesty  of his images, for noble
and  dignified  expression,  for  the lofty
harmony of his style in treating of im-
portant subjects, he  is, perhaps, unrival-
led.  His pictures of the subUme scenes
of nature  are strikingly  true, and are
stamped with  originaUty.  The fame of
his work was soon universal.  It excited
a general taste for  natural histoiy, and
gamed for  this  science  the  favor and
protection of nobles and princes.  Louis
XV raised the author to the dignity of a
count, and d'Argivilliers, in the reign of
Louis XVI, caused his statue to be erect-
ed, during his life, at the entry of the royal
cabinet of natural curiosities, with the in-
scription Majestati natura par ingenium.
The  opinions  entertained  of B. as a nat-
ural  philosopher, and an observer, have
been more divided.  Voltaire, d'Alembert,
Condorcet,  have  severely criticised his
hypotheses,  and his  vague manner of
philosophizing from general views.  But
although the  views of B.  on the theory
of the earth can no  longer be defended
in detail, he will always have  the  merit
of having made it generally felt, that the
present state of the earth is the result of
a series of changes, which it is possible to
trace, and of having pointed out the phe-
nomena which  indicate  the  course of
diese changes.  His theory of generation
has been refuted by Haller and Spallan-
zani, and his hypothesis of a certain inex-
pUcable mechanism to account for animal
instinct, is not supported by facts; but his
eloquent description of the physical and
moral developement of man, as weU as his
ideas on the influence which the delicacy
and developement of each organ exert on
the character of different species of ani-
mals, are still of the highest interest   His
views of the degeneracy of animals, and
of the Unfits prescribed to each species
by climates, mountains and seas, are real
discoveries, which receive daily confirma-
tion, and furnish  to travellers a basis  for
their  observations,  which was entirely
wanting before.   The  most  perfect part
of his work  is the History of Quadru-
peds ; the weakest, the Histoiy of Miner,
als, in which  his  imperfect acquaintance
with chemistry, and his inclination to hy-
pothesis, have led him into many errors.
His last days were disturbed by the pain-
ful disease of the stone, which did not,
however, prevent the prosecution of his
great plan.  He died at Paris, April 16,
1788, at the age of 81  years, leaving  an
only son, who perished, in the revolution,
by the guillotine.  B. was of a noble fig-
ure,  and  of great dignity of manners.
His conversation  was  remarkable  for a
simplicity but  Uttle  in accordance with
the style of his writings.  The best edi-
tion of his Natural  History is that pub-
Ushed  from  1749  to  1788,  in 36 vol-
umes.
  Buffone (Italian);  buffoon ; a comic
singer in  the opera buffo,  or the ItaUan
intermezzo. The Italians, however, distin-
guish the  buffo cantante, which requires
good  singing,  from the buffo  comico,  in
which there is more acting.   Buffoonery
is the name given to the jokes which the
buffoon  introduces.  The word is,  no
doubt, borrowed from the  Low Latin, in
which the name buffo (cheeked),  was
given to those who appeared on the the-
atre,  with their cheeks puffed  up, to re-
ceive blows on  them, and to excite the
laughter of the spectators.   Hence  buffo,
cheeks; buffare,  to  puff up  the cheeks.
Afterwards, the name came  to signify a
mimic, a jester in general.
  Bugenhagen,  John, also  Pomeranus,
doctor Pommer, was of great  service  to
Luther in the reformation.   He was bom
in 1485, at Stettin, and, in  1505, was
made rector of the school in Treptow.
He  fled from  his Catholic  superiors to
Wittenberg, in 1521, where he was made,
in 1522, professor of theology.  Luther
derived  assistance from his profound exe-
getical learning, in preparing his transla-
tion  of the Bible.  In 1525, he gave oc-
casion for the controversies  about  the
sacrament, by a work against ZwingUus,
on the communion.   He acquired more
reputation by  his exceUent  Interpretatio
in Librum Psalmorum (Nuremberg, 1523). 
BUGENHAGEN—BULGARIANS.                  319
He effected the union of the Protestant
free cities with the Saxons, and introduced
into Brunswick, Hamburg, Liibeck, Pom-
erania and Denmark, and  many other
places, the Lutheran service  and church
discipline.  For the Lower  Saxons,  he
translated the Bible  into Low  German
(Liibeck, 1533).  He was a faithful friend
to Luther, and delivered his eulogy. To-
gether with Melancthon, he composed the
Interim  of Leipsic. He died in 1558. He
wrote also a History of Pomerania.
   Bugge, Thomas, born in  1740, at Co-
penhagen, professor of mathematics and
astronomy at  the university  in that city,
and  in  the royal  marine, has rendered
much service to astronomy  and  geogra-
phy by  his own observations, and by the
education of young men, from many of
whom we have valuable  observations in
Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and several
parts of the East and West  Indies.  He
caused more correct surveys to be made in
Denmark, for the equaUzation of the land-
taxes, and had  the principal part in the
preparation of the excellent map of Den-
mark.   His works are, Elementary Prin-
ciples of spherical and theoretical Astron-
omy  (1796),  Elementary  Principles  of
pure Mathematics (Altona, 1797), Descrip-
tion of the Method of Measurement in the
Construction  of the Danish Maps and
Charts.   He died in 1815.
   Bugle-Horn.  (See Horn.)
   Buhrstone.   (See Quartz.)
   Builth ; a small town of Wales, on the
Wye, 171  miles  W. N. W. of London.
It was  probably the Roman  station Bul-
laum, and Roman relics are yet occasion-
ally discovered there.  The Britons built
a castle there, when  driven from their
countiy by the Saxons, which was occu-
pied by the  English after the conquest
Llewellyn, the last Welsh  prince, was
slain  in the neighborhood, in an engage-
ment between the  Welsh and  English.
Lon. 3° Iff W.; lat 52° & N.
   Buinaah Point ; a cape  on the west
coast of Ireland, in the county of Mayo,
on the  south side of the entrance into
Newport bay.  Lon. 9° 45' W.; lat 53°
46'N.
   Bukharia.   (See Bucharia.)
   Bukowina.  (See Galicia.)
   Bulac, or Boulac, in Egypt;  the port
of Grand Cairo, on the Nile, where ves-
sels which bring goods to that city abide;
one  mile W.  of Cairo.   It is  a large,
irregular town, and contains a custom-
house, magazines, and a large bazar.  In
1799, it was  almost  destroyed  by the
French.  Niebuhr seems to  fix  on this
as the site of the ancient LitopoUs.  The
baths are fine.
  Bulama ; an island on the west coast of
Africa, one  of the  Bissgoes.   It is  24
miles long and 12 broad, and is situated
about two miles from the mouth of the
Rio Grande.  It is very fertile, but not
easy of access.  The Bulama association
attempted to colonize  it, in 1792r but it
was soon abandoned.   Lon. 14° 38 W.;
lat. 11° N.
  Bulgaria, European or Little, a Turk-
ish province, which owes its name to the
Asiatic race of Bulgarians (q. v.), who
overean it, was the Mada Inferior of the
Romans.  Its capital is Sophia, and it  is
divided, by the Turks, who conquered it
in 1392,  into four sangiacats, forming a
part of the  pachalic of Romelia.   It  is
nearly in the form of a triangle, enclosed
by  the Danube on the north, the Black
sea  on  the  east,  the  Balkan (q. v.)  or
mount Haemus on the south and west  It
is 36,870 square miles in extent, with a
population of  1,800,000 inhabitants, en-
gaged in agricultural labors, peaceful and
industrious,  and mostly members of the
Greek church.   The whole province, ex-
cept in the neighborhood of the Danube
and the Black sea, is rugged and moun-
tainous.  From the eastern  extremity  of
the Balkan, a branch runs north-easterly,
nearly parallel with  the Euxine, and the
streams flow northerly and westerly to the
Danube, or south-easterly to the sea.  The
soil is very productive; all  sorts of grainy
cattle, wool,  iron and wine are  raised in
abundance, and the province is considered
by the Turks the granary of Constantino-
ple.   About I'hilippopoli are large rice
farms. A very fine wool is brought from
the pastures  near Nicopoli, and silk, hon-
ey, wax and tobacco are important arti-
cles of produce.  Dobrudsha, the sandy
plain on the  Black sea, is famous for its
horses, which  are small, but strong and
well-shaped.   Some  of  the  principal
towns, besides those already mentioned,
are Silistria,  taken by the Russians,  June
28, 1829, 216 miles N.  of Constantinople,
Brailow (q. v.), Varna (q, v.), Chumla or
Schumla (q. v.),  which have  been the
objects of violent contest  between the
Russians and Turks in the war now ex-
isting between them.
  Bulgarians, or Voulgarians; an ancient
Turkish  or  Tartar nation, which, in the
fourth century, was settled  on the Volga.
The rains of their former capital may stiff
be seen in the neighborhood of Kazan.
Their kingdom, which occupied a part of
the  Asiatic  Sarmatia  of the Greeks,  is 
320
BULGARIANS—BULL-DOG.
called Great Bulgaria, and is now com-
prehended in the Russian government of
Orenburg. They afterwards removed to
the countries between  the Bog and the
Danube, and called their territories Second
Bulgaria.  They passed the  Danube in
539, made  themselves  masters  of  the
coasts of the Black sea, as far as  mount
Hsemus, subdued the Sclavonic tribes of
that region, and  founded the kingdom of
Black Bulgaria.  They penetrated Thrace,
Macedonia and Thessaly, and  their wars
with  the  Greek empire were  very san-
guinary.  Whole provinces were reduced
to deserts, called Bulgarian forests, and
the Greeks, not less barbarous, put out
the eyes of 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners in
one day.  Their kingdom, which extend-
ed, in 1010, over Macedonia, Albania and
Servia,  was destroyed  by the emperor
Basil  II,  and  the dispersed tribes took
refuge in  Turkey, in 1185. Those who
remained  in B. revolted, and formed, with
the Walachians, a new kingdom,  which
was sometimes  the ally  and  sometimes
the vassal of the  Byzantine empire, until
it was finally conquered by the Ottomans,
in the 14th century.
  Bulimia.  The persons attacked by
this disorder are  tormented with an insa-
tiable hunger.   When their stomach is
surfeited, they are seen to faint, and throw
off the food which they have taken, half
digested, and with violent pain.  It usual-
ly appears as a concomitant of other dis-
eases.   It occurs during certain intermit-
tent fevers, in  certain  diseases  of the
stomach and bowels, particularly in such
as are produced  by the tape-worm; and
is also common after fevers, by which the
strength of the patient is  exhausted.  In
this last case, it arises from the effort of
all parts of the body to supply the lost
flesh  and  strength.   In  certain  cases,
however, the extraordinary desire for food
seems to be caused by a particular  condi-
tion of  the stomach, which digests with
too great rapidity.  This is  observed
sometimes in women during their preg-
nancy, in young  people who exercise too
violently, and in  persons who take much
high-seasoned and heating food.  In this
case, the desire is not to be considered as
a disease, but only as an excessive appetite.
As a disease, its consequences are dread-
ful—leanness,  pulmonary  fevers,  con-
sumption, constipation, dropsy.
  Bulkh,  or  Balkh.   (See  Afghanis-
tanJ)
  Bulk-Heads ;   certain  partitions  or
waUs buUt up in  several places of a ship
between two decks, either  lengthwise or
 across, to  form and separate the various
 apartments.
   Bull ;  the name applied to the males
 of all the species of ox (bos, L.)  (See Ox.)
   Bull ; an instrument, ordinance or de-
 cree  of the  pope, treating of matters of
 faith or the affairs of the church, written on
 parchment, and provided with a lead seal.
 The word was originally the name of the
 seal itself.  The papal bulls are commonly
 designated by the words with which they
 begin; e. g., the bulls In cana Domini,
 Cum  inter, Unigenitus, Ascendente, &c  A
 collection of bulls is called bullary.  Cer-
 tain ordinances of the German emperors
 are also called bulls.  The golden bull,
 emphatically so called, from the seal at-
 tached to it being in a gold box, is that
 fundamental law of the German  empire
 enacted by the emperor Charles IV, in
 two diets, held in  succession, in 1356, at
 Nuremberg and at Metz, with the assist-
 ance of the electors, and, in part, with the
 assent of the empire.  The chief design
 of the golden bull was to fix,with certain-
 ty, the manner of electing the emperor,
 and whatever was connected with it.  An-
 other  object was to  check the  lawless
 violence of the times, which was not,
 however, then effected.  (For an account
 of the particular bulls of importance, see
 the separate articles.)
   Bull-Baiting ; the barbarous and un-
 manly sport of setting dogs on a bull, who
 is tied to  a stake, with the points of his
 honis  muffled,  and torn to death for the
 amusement of the spectators.  Bears and
 badgers are baited, even at the  present
 day, in the cock-pits  in  London, and
 dog-fights  also are exhibited  in the same
 places.
   Bull-Dog ; a variety of the common
 dog, called, by naturaUsts, canis molossus,
 remarkable for its short, broad muzzle,
 and the projection of its lower jaw, which
 causes the lower front teeth  to protrude
 beyond the upper.  The condyles of the jaw
are placed  above the line of the upper
 grinding teeth.  The head is massive and
 broad, and the frontal sinuses large.  The
lips are thick and pendulous; the  ears
pendant at the extremity; the neck robust
and short;  the body long and stout, and
the legs short and thick.  The bull-dog is
a slow-motioned, ferocious animal, better
suited  for savage combat, than for any
purpose requiring activity and intelligence.
For this reason, he is generally employed
 to guard houses, especially by the butch-
ers, tanners, &c, and this  office he per-
forms with great fidelity.  The butchers
 use bull-dogs in catching and throwing 
BULL-DOG—BULL-FIGHTS.
321
down cattle; and it  is surprising to  see
the apparent ease with which the dog
will seize an ox by  the nose, and hold
him perfectly still, or throw him  on  his
side, at his master's command.  In fight-
ing with other dog3, or in  attacking ani-
mals capable of exciting their fury, bull-
dogs  display  the most ferocious  and
indomitable  spirit.  It is  stated,  in  the
Sporting Calendar, that they have suffered
their limbs to be cut off, while thus enga-
ged, without relinquishing their hold on
the enemy.  They become very vicious,
and sometimes extremely dangerous, as
they advance in years, inflicting dreadful
bites for the slightest provocation. Indeed,
at no period of their lives, will bull-dogs
allow even their masters to take Uberties
with them.
   Bullen, Anne.  (See Boleyn.)
   Bullers  of Buchan, or Boilers of
B.; a large oval cavity in the rocks on the
coast of Aberdeenshire,  150 feet deep.
Boats enter  under a natural arch, near
which is a large rock, separated by a deep
chasm from the  land.  Through an ap-
erture, in the  middle of this  rock, the
waves rush whh a tremendous noise.
  Bulletin (French; diminutive of bul-
la) ; an  official  report, giving an account
of the actual condition of some important
affair; thus the bulletin of the army, of his
majesty's  health, &c  It  has acquired
great celebrity by the brilliant despatches
issued from  the French  head-quarters,
under  this  name, during  the imperial
domination.   All  Europe  and America
echoed  with their accents  of blood and
victory, until the 29th bulletin of the grand
army announced that the tide was rolled
back, and that Paris was to share the fate
of the other capitals of Europe.
   Bulletin Universel des Sciences et
de l'Industrie, le,  is divided into eight
sections, of each of which  a number is
issued monthly.  It is published at Paris,
by the  French society for the promotion
of useful knowledge, under the  general
direction of the baron Ferussac, assisted
by eight  editors,  one for each section.
These  divisions are—1.   mathematical,
physical and chemical sciences;  2. nat-
ural history and geology;  3. the medi-
cal sciences; 4. agriculture, horticulture,
fishing  and hunting;  5. technology; 6.
geography,  statistics, political  economy,
voyages and travels;  7. philology, anti-
quities  and  history; 8. military.  (See
Periodicals.)
   Bull-Fights are among the favorite di-
versions of the Spaniards, who, like all die
nations of the south of Europe, are pas-
sionately fond of public combats, and ex-
hibitions of strength and agility.  The ex-
communications of the popes have not
been sufficient to induce them to abandon
this amusement Charles IV abolished it;
but it was revived again by Joseph.  The
assailants are seldom killed in these sports.
The splendid bull-fights formerly exhibited
by the king on festival days were very cost-
ly.   The Spaniards distinguish the toreo,
in which the bull is killed, from the  corrida
de novillos, where he has his horns tipped
with leaden  balls (novillo embolado), and is
only irritated.   Bull-fights, in the capital,
and  in  all the  larger cities of Spain, are
got up by private persons, or for the ben-
efit of some  public institution.  They are
exhibited at Madrid twice a week through
the summer regularly, for the benefit of
the general  hospital.  The income  from
such a spectacle is commonly about 2000
dollars, and  the outlay, which goes prin-
cipally to the combatants, who have their
fixed wages, about 1000.  The bull-fights
are held, at Madrid, in the Coliseo de los
Toros, an amphitheatre  having circular
seats, rising one above another, and a row
of boxes over them.  All the spectators
are dressed  in  their best  The comba-
tants, who make bull-fighting their profes-
sion, march into the arena in procession,
with some magistrate at their head. They
are of various kinds—the picadores, com-
batants on horseback, in the old Spanish
knightly garb; the banderiUeros, comba-
tants on foot, in short, variegated  frocks,
with  banners; and, lastly,  the matador
(the killer).   As  soon  as the corregidor
gives the signal, the bull is loosed  from
the stall.  The picadores, who have sta-
tioned themselves near him, commence
the attack.   Sometimes a horse is wound-
ed, and the rider is obliged to run  for his
Ufe.   A peculiar kind of foot-combatants,
chulus,  assist the horsemen,  by drawing
the attention of the bull with their banners;
and, in case of danger, they save them-
selves by leaping over the wooden fence,
which sunounds the arena.   The bande-
riUeros then come into play.  They try
to fasten on the bull their banderillas—
hollow tubes filled with powder, having
strips of paper wound round them, and
smaU hooks at  the ends.  If they succeed,
the squibs which are attached to them are
discharged, and the bull races madly about
the  arena.  The matador now comes in
gravely, with a naked sword, and aims a
fatal blow at the animal.  If it is effectual,
the slaughtered bull is dragged away, and
another is let out from the stall.   If a bull
is too inactive, the dogs are set upon him; 
322
BULL-FIGHTS—BULOW.
if he is too violent, several horses are often
kUled.  The bull is more furious in pro-
portion as the  heat  of the  weather is
greater.   Burlesque scenes accompany
the spectacle: apes are trained to spring
upon the neck of the bull, without his
being able to reach them.  Men of straw
are set up before him, upon  which he
exhausts his strength.   Some of the foot
combatants, likewise,  dress  themselves
grotesquely, to irritate the bull, and amuse
the spectators.   (See  Doblado's Letters
from Spain, and A Year in Spain, by a
young American (Boston, 1829)1
  Bullfinch  (loxia pyrrhula;  L.);  a
weU-known European bird, which has a
short,  rounded,  robust bill, a  black cap,
and plumage on the back of an ash or
dark blue gray color:  the inferior parts
of the body are reddish.  The female is
of a grayish red beneath.  The bullfinch
builds its nest in hedges, and various trees,
and feeds chiefly on  different seeds and
buds of fruit-trees,  for which  its strong,
thick bill is well adapted.  The bullfinch
is remarkable for the facility with which
it is tamed and taught to sing, or even to
articulate words.   Its natural tones are
soft, and, when taught to repeat tunes, by
a bird  organ, nothing can be  imagined
more delightfully sweet and clear than its
piping.   In captivity,  it appears to be
rather a dull and  quiet bird, though it
displays much attachment to  its feeder,
showing evident marks of pleasure at his
approach,  and  singing at his  bidding.
Bullfinches thus taught are sold at high
prices, as much as $20 or $30 being de-
manded for a single bird.  There are spe-
cies of finch  found in America, which
 might, without much difficulty, be taught
to perform as weU.
   Bullfrog.  (See Frog.)
   Bull, John.  (See John Bull.)
   Bullion is uncoined gold or silver, in
 bars, plate,  or  other masses.   The word
 bullion was of frequent use in the pro-
 ceedings respecting the bank of England
 (see Bank), from 1797, when the order of
 council was issued, that the bank should
 discontinue the redemption of its notes
 by the payment of specie, to 1823, when
 specie payments were resumed; for, by a
 previous law, the bank was authorized to
 pay its notes in uncoined silver or  gold,
 according to its weight and fineness. The
 investigations of the  bullion committees,
 and the various speculations on the sub-
 ject of bullion, related  to the supply of
 gold and silver, whether coined or not,
 as the basis of the circulating medium.
 (See Currency.)
  Bullock.  (See Ox.)
  Bullock's Museum, Piccadilly, Lon-
don ; a private  establishment for the de-
posit of collections of all sorts, particularly
of natural history and ethnography.   The
following not very scientific classification
of the curiosities there is given in the Pic-
ture of London: curiosities from the sputh
seas, from America, from Africa; works
of art, natural history, specimens of quad-
rupeds stuffed, birds, reptiles, insects, fish,
productions of the sea, minerals, miscella-
nea, halls of arms.  This museum is open
for  the inspection of the  curious  eveiy
week-day (admittance, one shilling), and
continual additions are made to it  Here
Belzoni  deposited  his Egyptian collec-
tions.
  Bullrush.  (See Scirpus.)
  Bull's Bay,  or Baboul Bay ; a weU-
known bay in Newfoundland, a little  to
the north of St. John's harbor, on the east
side of the island.   Lon. 52° 20* W.; lat
47° 23 N.
  Bulmer, William; next to Bensley, the
most distinguished  printer in England.
One of the first productions of his press
was an  edition  of Persius,  1790, 4to.
Among his masterpieces  are the splen-
did editions of  Shakspeare (1792—1801,
9 vols., folio), from which his establish-
ment was  called the Shakspeare press;
and of Milton  (1794—97,  3 vols.,  folio).
He is a  particular  favorite of die  fancy
booksellers in  England (hence he has
most of the  printing for the  Roxburgh
club), and is supported almost solely  by
them.  The unprejudiced will, however,
not put him above Bensley.  The produc-
tions of his press, particularly the  works
of Dibdin, are disfigured by errors more
than is allowable in an artist who aspires
to tread in the steps of Didot and Bodoni.
  Bulow, Frederic William, count von
Dennewitz,  royal  Prussian general  of
infantry, knight of several military orders,
&c, famous  for his victories  in the last
French and  German war, was born in
1755, on his father's estate, Falkenburg, in
Altmark.   In his 14th year, he entered
the Prussian army, and, in  1793, was ap-
pointed governor of prince  Louis  Ferdi-
nand of  Prussia.  In  this  capacity,  he
served with  distinction in the campaign
on the Rhine.  In 1795, his charge of the
prince ended, and he received a battalion.
In the war of 1806, he was  a  lieutenant-
colonel at the siege of Thorn, and distin-
guished  himself in various battles.  In
 1808, he was  made major-general and
 general of brigade.  When the war against
 France broke out in 1813, he fought the 
BULOW—BUNYAN.                         323
first successful battle, at Mockern, April
5; May 2, took HaUe, and protected Ber-
lin  from the danger which threatened it,
by his victory at Luckau, June 4.  After
the armistice, he  commanded the third
division of the army, under the crown-
prince  of Sweden, and saved Berlin a
second time by the memorable victory of
Grosbeeren, Aug. 23.  He reUeved the
same city a third time, by the great vic-
tory at Dennewitz. (q. v.)   For this ser-
vice, the king made  him one of the  few
grand knights of the iron cross, and, after
the end of the campaign,  bestowed on
him the title  count Billow of Dennewitz,
and made the same hereditary in his fam-
ily.  At the storming of Leipsic, Oct. 19,
he  took an important part.  He  distin-
  Siished himself equaUy in  WestphaUa,
  oUand, Belgium, on the Rhine, at Laon,
and took  Soissons and Lafere.  After
the peace, he was commander-in-chief in
East  Prussia,  and  Lithuania.  At the
opening of the campaign of 1815,  he re-
ceived the chief command of the  fourth
division of the army,  with which he con-
tributed so essentiaUy to the victory of
Waterloo, that the king gave him the
command of the 15th regiment  of the
line, which was  to bear,  in  future, the
name of the regiment of Billow von Den-
newitz.  Jan. 11, 1816, he resumed the
chief command in Konigsberg, in Prussia,
and died there, Feb. 25, 1816. B.  was
highly  esteemed, both as a citizen  and as
a man.  He had learned the art of war, in
early youth, scientificaUy, and  continued
the same study   with  unremitting  dili-
gence, throughout his military course. He
was also devoted to literature and the fine
arts.  Music especiaUy attracted him, and
he  composed many motets, a mass,  and
the 51st and 100th psalms.
  Bulow, Henry von, born at Falkenberg,
in Brandenberg, 1770, studied in the mili-
tary academy at  BerUn, and afterwards
entered the Prussian service.  But he soon
retired, and occupied himself with the
3tudy of Polybius, Tacitus, and J. J. Rous-
seau, and then served for a short period in
the Netherlands.   He afterwards under-
took to establish a theatre, but immediately
abandoned his project, and visited  the U.
States;  from whence  he returned poor in
purse, but rich in experience, and became
an author.  His first work was on the Art
of War, in which he displayed uncommon
talents.   He wrote a book on Money,
translated the Travels  of Mungo Park, and
pubUshed, in 1801, his  History  of the
Campaign of 1800.   In  1804,  he  wrote
Lehrsdtze des neuern Krieges (Theory of
modern Warfare), and several other mili-
tary works, among which is Tactics of the
Moderns  as they should be.  In the for-
mer, he points out the distinction between
strategy and tactics, and makes the trian-
gle the basis of all mUitary operations.
This principle  of his was opposed  by
Jomini, and other French writers.  His
histoiy of the war of 1805 occasioned his
imprisonment hi Prussia, at the request
of the Russian and Austrian courts.  He
died in 1807, of a nervous fever,  in the
prison  of Riga.  He  was  a follower of
Swedenborg.
   Bulwark.  (See Bastion.)
   Bum-Boat; a smaU boat used to seU
vegetables, &c,  to ships lying at a distance
from shore.
   Bundelcund  ; a district of AUahabad,
lying between 24° and 26°  N.  lat.  The
country is mountainous and stony, and
produces all kinds of fruit.   It was ceded
by the Mahrattas to the British in  1804,
by whom it  was annexed to  the prov-
ince of Benares.  It is famous for the dia-
monds of Paunah.  Square miles, 11,000.
Chief towns, Banda, which is die resi-
dence of the officers of government; Cal-
linger, &c
   Bungalow ; an East Indian term for a
house with a thatched roof.
   Bungo ; a kingdom in Japan, and one
of the most considerable in the island of
Bungo, or Ximo.  The capital is Fumay.
The king of Bungo was baptized by the
name of Francis Civan, and sent a solemn
embassy  to pope Gregory  XIII, in the
year 1582.  Lon. 132° E.; lat. 32° 407 N.
   Bunk is a word used, hi the  U. States,
to signify a case or cabin of boards  for a
bed.  Thus,  in the army,  the soldier's
birth is called his bunk.
   Bunker Hill.  (See Charlestown.)
   Bunt ; the middle part or cavity of the
principal  square-sails, as the main-sail,
fore-sail, &c  If one of them be supposed
to be divided into four equal parts, from
one side to the  other, the two middle di-
visions, which comprehend half of the
saff, form the  limits of the bunt.
   Bunting ; a thin woollen stuff, of which
the colors and signals of a ship are usuaUy
formed.
  Bunyan, John, was the son of a tinker,
and was  born at  the  village of Elston,
near Bedford, in 1628.  He followed his
father's employment, and, for some time,
led a wandering, dissipated Ufe.  During
the civil war, he served as a soldier  in the
army of the parliament; and the danger
to which he was then exposed probably
brought him to reflection, in consequence 
324
BUNYAN—BURCKHARD.
 of which his conduct became reformed,
 and his mind impressed with a deep sense
 of the  truth and importance of religion.
 He joined a society of Anabaptists at Bed-
 ford, and at length undertook the office
i of a public teacher among them.  Acting
 in  defiance of the severe laws enacted
 against dissidents from the  established
 church, soon  after the restoration, B. in-
 curred  the  sentence  of  transportation;
 which was not executed,  as  he was de-
 tained in  prison more than twelve years,
 and at last liberated through the charitable
 interposition of doctor Barlow, bishop of
 Lincoln.  To this confinement he owes
 his literary fame ; for, in  the solitude of
 his cell, his ardent imagination, brooding
 over  the mysteries  of Christianity,  the
 miraculous narratives of the sacred Scrip-
 ture, and the visions of Jewish  prophets,
 gave  birth to that admired religious alle-
 gory,  the Pilgrim's  Progress—a work
 which, like Robinson Crusoe, has remain-
 ed  unrivalled amidst a host of imitators.
 His Holy War made by  Shaddai upon
 Diabolus, his other religious parables, and
 his devotional tracts, which are numerous,
 are now deservedly consigned to oblivion.
 There is a curious piece of auto-biogra-
 phy of B. extant, entitled,  Grace abound-
 ing to the Chief of Sinners. On obtaining
 his Uberty, B. resumed his functions as a
 minister at Bedford, and became extreme-
 ly  popular.    He died during a visit to
 London, in 1688.
   Buonaparte.  (See Bonaparte^)
   Buonarotti, Michelagnolo.  (See An-
 gelo.)
   Buoy ; any floating body employed to
 point out the particular situation of any
 thing under water, as of a ship's anchor,
 a shoal, &c.—The can buoy is of a coni-
 cal form, and pakited  with some conspic-
 uous color;  it is used for pointing  out
 shoals,  sand-banks, &c.—The cask buoy
 is in the  form of a cask; the larger  are
 employed  for mooring,  and are called
 mooring buoys ;  the  smaUer for cables,
 and are  known  as  cable buoys.  The
 buoy-rope fastens the buoy to  the anchor,
 and should be about as long as the depth
 of the  water where  the anchor Ues; it
 should  also be strong enough to draw up
 the anchor in case the cable should break.
 —The life or safety buoy  is intended to
 keep a person afloat tiU he can  be taken
 from the water.   It should be suspended
 from the  stern of the ship, and let go as
 soon as any person  falls  overboard.   A
 light may be attached to it, both to indi-
 cate its position to the individual in dan-
 ger, and to direct the course  of the boat
sent to relieve him, if the accident hap-
pens by night.
  Burats.  (See Burials.)
  Burchiello,  Domenico ;  one of the
most eccentric of poets.  Of the circum-
stances of his Ufe we know but little.   He
lived, at the beginning of the 15th centu-
ry,  at  Florence, where he was  probably
born.   He was the son of a barber named
Giovanni, and was called, originally, only
Domenico.  He assumed the name of B.
afterwards, for  reasons that  cannot be
assigned.   His fame began about 1425.
He was  first  registered as a barber in
1432.   Some writers have reproached him
for shameful vices,  and represented  him
as a low buffoon, who did every thing for
money.  Others have defended him.   His
shop was so famous, that learned and  un-
learned, high  and low, assembled there
every day,  and Cosmo the Great caused
it to be painted on one of the arches of
his gallery.  It appears here divided  into
two portions ;  in  one, B.  is acting  the
part of a  barber; in the other, that of a
musician and  poet.  The portrait of B*.
himself is painted over his shop.  It is
extremely difficult to decide upon the  ab-
solute value of his satires, as the local and
personal  allusions  in them are  obscure.
They  were composed for his  contempo-
raries,  with a studied obscurity and  ex-
travagance of expression.  His  style is,
nevertheless, pure and elegant.  His bur-
lesque sonnets are enigmas, of which we
have no intelligible explanation, notwith-
standing what Doni has done.   The nar-
rative  and descriptive parts are very easy
to be  understood ; but  the wit they con-
tain is, for the most part, so coarse, that
the satire fails of producing its effect
They  are, on the whole, lively, but licen-
tious.   The best editions of his sonnets
are those of Florence, 1568, and of Lon-
don, 1757.
  Burckhard, John Louis, born in 1784,
celebrated for his travels to Nubia, was
descended  from  a respectable family in
Bale.   As he was unwilling to enter into
the service of his country, at that time
oppressed by France, after having com-
pleted his studies at Leipsic and Gdttin-
gen, he went  to  London,  in 1806, where
the African association wished to make a
new attempt to  explore Africa, from  the
north  to  the interior, in the way already
trodden by Homemann.  They received
B.'s proposal to undertake this journey in
1808.   B. now studied the manners of
the East, and the Arabian language, in
their  purest school, at Aleppo.  He  re-
mained two years and a half in Syria, 
BURCKHARD—BURDETT.
325
visited Palmyra, Damascus, Lebanon and
other regions; after  which he  went to
Cairo, in order to proceed with a caravan,
through the northern part of Africa, to
Fezzan.  In 1812, he performed a jour-
ney up the Nile, almost to Dongola;  and
afterwards, in the  character of a poor
trader, and a Turk of Syria, proceeded
through  the  deserts of Nubia  (where
Bruce had travelled  before him), under
great hardships, to Berbera and Shendy,
as far as Suakem on the Red sea, whence
he passed through  Jidda to Mecca.  He
was  now  so weU initiated into the  lan-
guage and manners of the Arabians,  that,
when a doubt arose concerning his Islam-
ism, after having passed an  examination
in the theoretical  and  practical parts of
the Mohammedan  faith, he was acknowl-
edged, by two learned jurists, not only a
very faithful, but a very learned Mussul-
man.  In 1815, he returned to Cairo, and
afterwards visited Sinai.  Just before the
arrival of the long-expected caravan, he
died at Cairo, April 15, 1817.  The  Mo-
hammedans performed his obsequies with
the greatest splendor.  He had previously
sent  home all his  journals.   His last
thoughts were devoted to  his  mother.
B. was the  first modern traveller  who
succeeded in  penetrating to Shendy, in
the  interior of Soudan, the Meroe' of an-
tiquity (still, as it was 3000 years ago, the
depot of trade for Eastern Africa), and in
furnishing exact information of the slave-
trade in that quarter.  He found articles
of European fabric, such as the Zellingen
sword-blades, at the great fair of Shendy.
His  Travels in Nubia, in 1815, were  pub-
lished in  London  (1819) by the African
association, with his researches into the
interior of Africa.
   Burckhardt, John  Charles; member
of the royal French academy of sciences,
one  of the first astronomical calculators
in Europe, born  at Leipsic,  April 30,
1773, applied himself to mathematics, and
acquired  a fondness for astronomy  from
the  study of the works of Lalande.  He
appUed himself particularly to the calcu-
lation of solar eclipses, and the occultation
of certain stars, for the determination of
geographical longitudes.  He made  him-
self master, at the same tune, of nearly all
the  European languages.  Professor Hin-
denburg induced  him to write a Latin
treatise on the combinatory analytic meth-
od (Leipsic, 1794),  and recommended him
to baron von Zach, with whom he studied
practical astronomy at his observatory on
the  Seeberg near  Gotha, and whom he
assisted, from 1795 to 1797, in observing
   vol.  n.         28
the right ascension of the stars.  Von
Zach  recommended him to Lalande, at
Paris, who received  him at his house,
Dec. 15, 1797.  Here  he distinguished
himself by the calculation of the orbits of
comets, participated in  all the  labors of
Lalande, and those of his nephew, Le-
francois Lalande, took an active part in
the observatory of the ecole militaire, and
translated the two first volumes of La-
place's Mecanique  Celeste into German
(Berlin, 1800).  Being appointed adjunct
astronomer by the board of longitude, he
received letters of naturalization  as a
French citizen, Dec. 20, 1799.  His im-
portant treatise  on the comet of  1770,
which had not been visible for nearly 30
years,  although,  according to the calcu-
lations of its orbit, it  should have  re-
turned every  five or six, was rewarded
with  a gold  medal,  by the  institute, in
1800.   This  treatise,  which  proposed
some  improvements in doctor Olbers'
mode of calculation, is  contained in the
Mem.  de Vlnstitut,  1806.   During this
year, he was  made a member of the de-
partment of  physical and mathematical
sciences in the  academy; in  1818, was
made a member of the board of longitude,
and, after Lalande's death, astronomer in
the observatory of the military schooL
In 1814 and 1816, he published in French,
at Paris, Tables to assist in Astronomical
Calculations.  He also wrote  some trea-
tises in von Zach's Geographical Epheme-
rides.   His labors in the board of"  longi-
tude were particularly valuable.  He died
in 1825.
   Burden,  or Burthen ; 1. the  con-
tents of a ship; the quantity or number
of tons which a vessel will carry;  2. the
part of a song which is repeated at every
verse or stanza, is called the burden of the
song, from the French bourdon, drone or
base, because they are both characterized
by an unchangeable tone, and  bear upon
the ear with a simUar monotony.
   Burdett,  sir Francis, baronet,  mem-
ber of the British parUament, in which he
has long held a conspicuous place  in the
opposition, is descended from an ancient
and opulent  family, and was educated at
Westminster.  He entered on his parlia-
mentary career in 1796,  when  he was
chosen member from Boroughbridge. He
soon distinguished himself as an  ardent
and  enhghtened friend of reform, and
the steady opposer of the arbitrary meas-
 ures of the ministry, the suspension of the
 habeas corpus act, the sedition biUs, and
 the poUcy towards Ireland.  In 1802, he
 was returned member for Middlesex.  In 
326                       BURDETT—BURGER.
1804, he was wounded in a duel with Mr.
Paul], which arose from poUtical causes.
After the death of Pitt, he voted with the
Fox ministry, and, in 1807, was elected to
parliament from Westminster.  In 1810,
having addressed a  letter to his constitu-
ents, in which he accused the house of
commons of a usurpation of power in
committing to prison the author of a pub-
Ucation  derogatory  to the dignity  and
privileges of the house, a writ was issued
against him, ordering  that he should be
committed to the Tower.  The execution
of the writ was  resisted, during three
days, by crowds which surrounded his
house.   Several riots took place ; but he
was finally anested, and conducted to the
Tower, where he remained till the pro-
rogation  of parUament.   He has since
continued a vigilant and  bold opponent
of corruption and oppression on the part
of the ministry.  In 1815, he presented a
petition of the city of Westminster, in fa-
vor of peace and parliamentary reform,
with a speech, in which he advocated  a
peace with Napoleon,  accused the minis-
ters of a violation of treaties, by which, he
said, they had effected the downfall of the
emperor,  and placed  the Bourbons,  a
name synonymous with falsehood, on the
throne of France.
  Bureau ; a writing-table ; afterwards
used to signify the chamber of an officer
of government, and the body of subordi-
nate officers who labor under the direc-
tion  of a chief.—Bureau system, or bu-
teaucracy, is a term often applied  to those
governments  in which the business of
administration is carried  on  in  depart-
ments, each under the  control of a chief;
and is opposed to those in which  the offi-
cers  of government have a  coordinate
authority.  Sometimes a mixture of the
two systems is found.  Thus the business
of the executive branch of government
may be carried on by bureaus, while the
administration of justice is in the hands
of coordinate judges.—The  bureau des
longitudes, in France,  corresponding to
the English board of longitude, is  charged
with the publication of astronomical  and
Meteorological observations,  the  correc-
tion  of the astronomical tables,  and the
pubUcation of the Connaissance des Temps,
an astronomical  and  nautical almanac.
(See Almanac.)  According to the parlia-
mentary usage of France, at  the  opening
of each session, the chamber of deputies
is divided into nine bureaus, composed of
an equal number of deputies, designated
by lot  Each bureau appoints  its own
president, and discusses all matters refer-
red to it by the chamber separately.   A
reporter is appointed by each bureau, and,
after the discussion by bureaus, the nine
reporters meet, discuss the subject, and
appoint one of their number to report  to
the whole chamber, where the final dis-
cussion and decision of the subject takes
place.  (See Reglement pour la  Chambre
des Deputes, Pans, 1827, chap, v.)
  Burg, John Tobias ; an  astronomer,
born, 1766, in Treves; resolved, when
young, to become a mechanic, for the
purpose of  supporting his father, but was
prevented by his teacher, who perceived
his great talents ; studied mathematics
and astronomy under Triesnecker; was,
in 1791,  professor of natural phUosophy
in Clagenfurt,  and, in 1792, adjunct as-
tronomer at the imperial observatory. He
has distinguished himself by his theory
of the motion of the moon.  The national
institute  proposed, as a prize question,  in
1798, the determination, by at least 500
accurate  observations, the epochs of the
mean distance of  the  apogee  of the
moon and of her ascending node.  The
committee  who  examined  the  calcula-
tions of the competitors found those of
B. and of Alexander Bouvard  both  so
excellent, that they determined to divide
the prize between them ; but the consul
Bonaparte doubled  the prize, assigning
one to each. B.'s tables of the moon, ac-
cording  to  the theory of Laplace, were
published in 1806, by the national insti-
tute.
  Burgas, or  Bourgas ; a trading town
of European Turkey on the Black sea, in
the government of RoumeUa.  The bay
on which it stands is of sufficient depth
for  large vessels,  and  the exports are
grain, iron, butter, wine, and also woollen
 foods for Constantinople.  Lon. 27° 29
 1.; lat 42° 31' N.
  Burger, Godfrey Augustus, born Jan.
1,1748, at Wolmerswende, near Halber-
stadt, where his father was a preacher,
died June 18,1794, at Gottingen.  Before
his 10th year, he learned nothing but
reading and writing, but showed a  great
predilection for  soUtary  and  gloomy
places, and began early to make verses,
with no  other model than that afforded
by hymn books.   He learned  Latin with
difficulty.  In  1764, he  studied theology
at the university in HaUe, and,  in  1768,
he  went to Gdttingen, in order to ex-
change theology for law, but soon formed
connexions here  equaUy disadvantageous
to his studies and his morals, so that his
grandfather, who had hitherto maintained
him,  withdrew his  support  from him. 
BURGER—BURGLARY.                       327
The friendship of several distinguished
young men at the university was now of
  eat service to him.  In union with his
  ends,  he studied  the ancient classics
and the best works in French, Italian,
Spanish and  EngUsh, particularly Shak-
speare, and the old  English  and Scotch
ballads.  Percy's Relics was his constant
companion.   His poems soon attracted
attention.  In  1772, he obtained,  by the
influence  of  Boie,  the small  office  of
baily in Alten-Gleichen, and, by a  recon-
ciliation with his grandfather, a sum for
the payment of his  debts, which he un-
fortunately lost, and, during the rest of his
life, was involved in pecuniary difficulties.
In  1774, he  married  the daughter of a
neighboring baily, named Leonhardt, but
his marriage was unfortunate. He con-
ceived a violent passion for the sister of
bis wife, and manied her, in 1784, soon
after his first wife's death. She also,  his
celebrated Molly, died in the first year of
their marriage.  At the same time, he lost
his little property by imprudent manage-
ment, and was obUged, by intrigues, to
resign his place.  He was made professor
extraordinary in  Gottingen, but received
no salary, and this  favorite  poet  of the
nation  was obUged  to gain  a Uving for
himself and his children by poorly-reward-
ed translations for bookseUers.  A third
marriage, in 1790, with a young lady of
Suabia, who had pubUcly offered him her
hand in a poem, completed his misfor-
tunes ;  he was  divorced from her  two
years afterwards.   The  government of
Hanover afforded him some  assistance
shortly before his death, which took place
in June, 1794, and was occasioned by a
complaint of the lungs.—In the midst of
these  misfortunes  and obstacles, it  is
astonishing how much he did. He has
left us songs, odes, elegies, ballads, narra-
tive poems and epigrams.   In none of
these departments  does he  hold  a  low
rank;   in  some, the  pubUc voice  has
placed him in the  first.  Schiller criti-
cised  him very severely; he denied  him
the power of ideaUzing, and  reproached
his muse as being of too sensual a char-
acter.  The judgment of A. W. Schlegel
seems more just: he says, " B. is a poet
of a more  peculiar  than comprehensive
imagination;  of more honest and plain
than deUcate feeUngs;  his execution is
more remarkable than his conception; he
is more at home in ballads and  simple
songs than in the higher lyrical poetry;
yet, in some  of his productions,  he ap-
pears as a true poet of the people, and his
style, with some faults, is clear, vigorous,
fresh, and sometimes tender."  The first
collection of his poems appeared in Got-
tingen, 1778.  His poetical works have
been published several times by K. Rein-
hard ; last in BerUn, 1823—25, 8 vols.; so
also his Lehrbuch der JEsthetik (Compen-
dium of ^Esthetics), Berlin, 1825, and his
Lehrbuch des Deutschen Styls (Manual of
German Style), BerUn, 18#3.
  Burgess, in England; the holder of a
tenement in a borough: in a parUament-
ary sense, the representative of a borough.
The latter must have a clear estate to the
value  of £300 per  annum.  The bur-
gesses in parUament bear  a quadruple
proportion to the members for counties;
the former  being (from England alone)
339, the  latter,  80.   The whole number
of the former, from  the three kingdoms,
is 396; of the  latter,  186.  Before the
North  American revolution, the popular
branch of the legislature in Virginia was
called  the house of burgesses: it is now
called the house of delegates.
  Burghers.  (See Seceders.)
  Burglary (supposed  to  be  derived
from  the German burg, a  house, and
larron, a thief,  from the  Latin  latro) is
defined to be a breaking and entering the
mansion-house  of another, in the night,
with intent to commit some felony within
the same, whether such felonious intent
be executed or not.   This is the. modern
signification of the term, which  formerly
appUed,  also, to  the  breaking  into  a
church, fort or town;  and the breaking
into  a church  is said, by sir  WilUam
Blackstone (4 Com. 224), to be, undoubt-
edly, burglary.   Both  breaking and en-
tering are considered necessary to consti-
tute the offence. The opening a door or
window,  picking a lock, or unlocking it
with a key, raising a latch, or loosing any
fastenings,  constitutes a breaking.  Like-
wise, knocking at  the door, and, on  its
being  opened,  rushing in,  has  been  so
considered.  So, if a lodger in the same
house open and enter another's room; or
if a servant conspire with a robber and
let him into the house, it will be such a
breaking of a house, as, if done with in-
tent to commit a felony, wUl be burglary.
The breaking and entering must, how-
ever, be in the night, to make it burglary;
and, according to lord  Hale's opinion
(1 P. C. 550), if there be enough of day-
light in the evening twilight or dawn for
discerning  a man's  face, it wiU not  be
burglary.   But  this  does not extend to
moonlight,  since  such a  construction
would  secure impunity to many burgla-
ries.   The breaking open of a barn, shop. 
328
BURGLARY—BURGOYNE.
shed, or other bunding, is not burglary,
unless it be appurtenant  to a dwelling-
house.  A chamber in a college, or in the
London inns of court, is, for this purpose,
considered to be a mansion-house.  The
more usual punishment of burglary has
heretofore been death.  In the U. States,
there is some diversity of punishment for
this offence, the  penalty  being death in
some states, and imprisonment for life or
years in others.  In Maine, for the  prin-
cipal and accessary before the fact, where
the criminal  enters a dwelling-house by
night, with a deadly weapon, it is death.
In New Hampshire, the offence, accord-
ing to the common definition, is punished
by imprisonment and hard labor for life.
In Vermont, the punishment is imprison-
ment in the state prison  for a term not
exceeding 15 years, or a fine not exceed-
ing 1000 dollars; in  Massachusetts, im-
prisonment for life of the principal and
accessary before the fact, in case of being
armed with a deadly weapon ;  in  Rhode
Island, death;  in Connecticut, imprison-
ment in the state prison not exceeding  3
years; in New York, a fine, and impris-
onment with hard labor not exceeding 10
years; in Pennsylvania, for the first of-
fence,  imprisonment  not   exceeding 10
years; for the  second, not exceeding 15;
in Maryland, restoration of property, and
imprisonment  not  less than 2 nor ex-
ceeding 10  years; in Virginia, restora-
tion  of property, and imprisonment not
less than 5 nor more than  10 years ; and
in Louisiana, imprisonment not less than
10 nor more than 15 years; and the code
of this state makes the crime the same
where the culprit conceals himself in the
house  during  the day, until  night,  as
where he breaks into  it during the night.
The  British statute 7  & 8 Geo. IV, c 29,
makes the punishment death; and this
statute, pursuing that of 12 Anne,  c. 7,
makes the committing a felony in a house,
and breaking out of it by night, burglary.
This statute of Geo. IV  also alters the
definition of the crime, by substituting
dwelling for manrion-house.  [The Amer-
ican statutes generally adopt this descrip-
tion.]  It also defines what shaU be con-
sidered as part of the house, saying, that
no building within the same curtilage, and
occupied with the dwelling-house,  shall
be deemed a part of it for this purpose,
"unless there shall be a communication"
with the house " by means of a covered
and  enclosed passage."  This  provision
clears up a doubt that had hung over the
former law.  This act also provides (s. 12),
that, " if any person shall break and enter
a house and steal," &c, or shall steal any
property in any dwelling-house, any per-
son therrin bring put in fear," or " shall
steal to the value of £5," he shall suffer
death; and it does not appear,  by Mr.
Collier's edition of the criminal statutes,
1828, that any distinction is made, in this
section, as to the offence being  by day or
night.  This  crime  is punishable, under
the French code (Penal, lib. 3,  tit. 2, c. 2,
s. 1, No. 381, 383), either by death or by
hard labor for life,  according  to the cir-
cumstances of aggravation.
  Burgomaster ; the name  of the chief
magistrates of large towns in  the Neth-
erlands  and  Germany.  Their  num-
ber and  term of office are  different in
different  places.  They are sometimes
chosen for life, sometimes for a fixed pe-
riod.   They  preside  in the  municipal
counsels,  &c.   The  same officer, in
France, is called maire; in England and
the cities of North America, mayor.
  Burgos ; a city of Spain, the  capital
of Old  Castile, and once the residence of
its kings.  It stands  on the declivity of a
hill, on the right bank of the  Arlanzon.
The streets ore narrow and dark.  It con-
tains a college, numerous churches and
convents,  and  a population  of about
10,000.  The cathedral, one of the most
beautiful Gothic structures in Spain, was
buUt in the 13th century, and, as  well as
some of the other  churches, contains
splendid   mausoleums.  It is  so large,
that service can be performed in eight
chapels at once, without confusion.   The
wool of  Old Castile  passes principally
through B., and  it  has some woollen
manufactures. It was captured  by the
English in 1813.  Lat. 42° 21' N.; lon.
2° 407 W.
  Burgoyne, John; an English  general
officer  and dramatist.   He was the natu-
ral son of lord Bingly, and entered early
into the army.  In 1762, he commanded
a force sent into Portugal for the defence
of that kingdom  against the Spaniards.
He  also  distinguished himself,  in the
American war, by the taking of Ticonde-
roga, but was, at last,  obUged to  sunen-
der, with his army, to general Gates, at
Saratoga.   He was elected  into  parUa-
ment for  Preston, in Lancashire,  but, re-
fusing to return to America,  pursuant to
his convention, was dismissed the  service.
He published some pamphlets in defence
of his conduct, and is the author of three
dramas,—the Maid of the Oaks, Bon Ton,
and the Heiress,—aU in the Une of what
is usuaUy called genteel comedy, of which
they form Ught and  pleasing specimens. 
BURGUETTA—BURGUNDIANS.
329
  Burguetta, or Elburguetta ; a town
of Spain, in the valley of Ronceval, where
the  rear-guard of Charlemagne's  army
was defeated by the Saracens, and the fa-
mous Roland slain,  A. D. 778; 24 miles
N. E. of Pampeluna.
  Burgundians.  The Burgundians (call-
ed, by the ancients, Burgundi, Burgundi-
ones, Burngundi, Buganta, Bunticca, and
sometimes Urugundi), one of the princi-
pal branches ofthe Vandals, can be traced
back to the country between the  Oder
and the Vistula, in what is now the New
Mark,  and the southern  part  of  West
Prussia.  They were distinguished from
the other Germans by living together in
villages, burgen (whence, perhaps, they
received the name of Burgundians). The
others  Uved separately, and led a more
wandering life.  This is probably the rea-
son why they retained possession of their
country much longer than the neighbor-
ing Goths and Vandals, till,  at length,
they were no longer able to withstand the
Gepidae, who pressed in upon them from
the  mouths of the  Vistula.  In  conse-
quence of the loss of a great battle with
the  Gepidae, they emigrated to Germany,
where they advanced to the  region ofthe
Upper  Rhine, and settled near the AUe-
manni.  From them they took a consid-
erable tract of country,  and lived in al-
most continual war with  them.  In  the
beginning  of the 5th century, with other
German nations, they passed over into
Gaul.  After a long straggle, and many
losses,  they succeeded  in obtaining pos-
session of the  south-eastern part of this
country by a contract with the Romans.
A part of Switzerland, Savoy, Dauphiny,
Lionnais and Franche-Comte belonged to
their new kingdom, which, even in  the
year 470,  was known  by the name of
Burgundy.  The  seat of  government
seems  to  have been sometimes Lyons,
and  sometimes Geneva.—By their  old
constitution, they had kings, called hendi-
nos,  whom they  chose and deposed at
their pleasure.  If any great calamity be-
fell them, as a failure ofthe  crops, a pesti-
lence, or a defeat, the king was made re-
sponsible for it, and his throne was given to
another, under whom they hoped for better
times.  Before their conversion to Chris-
tianity (which happened after their settle-
ment in Gaul), they had  a high-priest,
called rinestus, whose person was sacred,
and  whose office was for life.  The trial
by combat even then existed among them,
and  was regarded as an appeal to the
judgment  of God.  Continually endeav-
oring to extend their limits, they became
                 28*
engaged in a war with the Franks,  by
whom they were finally whoUy subdued,
under the son of Clovis, after Clovis him-
self had  taken  Lyon6.  They still pre-
served  their constitution,  laws and cus-
toms for a  time.  But the  dignity  of
king was soon abolished, and, under  the
Carlovingians, the kingdom was divided
into provinces, which, from time to time,
shook  off their dependence.  In 879,
Boson, count of Autun,  brother-in-law
of king Charles  the Bald, and duke of
Milan,  with the assent ofthe Burgundian
nobles, succeeded  in establishing again
the royal dignity in this  kingdom.  He
styled himself king of Provence.  His res-
idence was at Aries, and hence is derived
the name kingdom of Aries.  He was  de-
prived of several provinces by Louis and
Carloman; but  his son Louis added to
his hereditary possessions the country ly-
ing beyond the Jura, and thus established
the kingdom of Burgundy, Cis-Jurana, or
Lower Burgundy, which included a part
of Provence, with  Aries,  Dauphiny,  Li-
onnais, Savoy,  and a part of Franche-
Comte. A second kingdom of Burgundy
arose when the Guelph   Rodolph von
StrettUngen  (duke of Swiss Lorraine)
gained possession of the rest of Lorraine,
namely, Switzerland beyond the river
Reuss, the Valais, and a part of Savoy,
and, in short, aU the provinces between
the Jura and the Pennine Alps, and caus-
ed himself, in 883, to be crowned king
of  Upper Burgundy (regnum Burgun-
dicum Transjuranum).  Both Burgundian
kingdoms were  united about the year
930, and, after the race of Rodolph  be-
came extinct (1032)  were incorporated
with Germany, under the emperor Con-
rad II.  But a third state, which had its
origin about the same time with Upper
Burgundy, consisting, principally, of the
French province Bourgogne (Burgundy,
properly so called), and the  founder of
which  is said to  have  been Richard,
brother of  Boson  (first king  of Lower
Burgundy), maintained its independence.
From   Ludegardis,  granddaughter  of
Richard, and her husband, Otho, a broth-
er of  Hugh  Capet, sprang the ancient
dukes  of Burgundy (Bourgogne).  They
became extinct,  in 1361,  with the death
of duke PhUip, and Burgundy was  im-
mediately united, by king John of France,
with the French crown, partly as a  fief
of the kingdom, and partly because his
mother was sister of the grandfather of
the last duke.  The dignity  of duke of
Burgundy was  restored in 1363, by his
grant of those domains, undbr the title of 
330                          BURGUNDIANS.
a dukedom, as an appanage to his young-
est and  favorite son, Philip the Bold.
Philip was the founder of the new line of
the dukes of Burgundy.  In 1368, he mar-
ried Margaret, the widow of the last duke
PhiUp of the  old line, only daughter and
heiress of Louis III, count of Flanders,
whereby he greatly augmented  his pos-
sessions.   At that time, Flanders, Mech-
lin, Antwerp and Franche-Comte fell to
him.  In  1402, he was  made regent of
France, on account  of  the  sickness of
Charles VI.  Louis, duke of  Orleans,
brother of the king, lieing obliged to
yield to him this dignity, conceived a bit-
ter hatred against him.   This  was the
occasion of the famous division of the
French into the Orleans and Burgundian
parties.   In 1404, Philip died, and  was
succeeded by his son, John the Fearless.
Orleans now became regent  of France.
But both cousins remained  bitter enemies,
till, under the walls of Montfaucon, at the
commencement of a civil war (1405), diey
embraced each other in the sight of the
whole army, and, as a pledge of entire
reconciliation, slept in the  same bed the
foUowing  night  Nevertheless,  Orleans
was assassinated in the street in 1407, and
duke  John of Burgundy declared  him-
self the author of the deed, which  was
the melancholy cause of the greatest dis-
turbances in Paris.   Indeed, John obtain-
ed a letter of pardon from  the king; but
justice overtook him as he was about to
repeat the farce of a public reconciliation
with the dauphin, on the bridge of Mon-
tereau.  While the first words of saluta-
tion were passing between  them, he was
stabbed by the companions  of the dauphin
(1419).  His son and successor, Philip, sur-
namedthe Good (previously count of Char-
olais), in the peace which was concluded
between England and France and Burgun-
dy (1420), succeeded in effecting the ex-
clusion of the dauphin, as a punishment
for the  murder  of  duke John.  In the
reign of Philip happened his memorable
dispute with Jacqueline  of Brabant, and
her second husband, the duke of Glouces-
ter, which was settled by a treaty, by virtue
of which  Philip was to become the heir
of Jacqueline (if she died childless), and
she was not to marry without his consent.
But JacqueUne  violated this last  stipula-
tion (1430), and Philip took possession of
her  territories, Hainault,  Holland  and
Zealand, setting aside a small portion for
her maintenance.  The year before, Phil-
ip had purchased Namur, and, in 1431,
Brabant  and  Limburg reverted to him,
when the Une of Anthony of Burgundy,
second son  of duke PhUip the Bold, be-
came extinct.  In the peace with France
(Anas, 1435), it was stipulated that king
Charles VII should sue for pardon on ac-
count of the murder of John,  and that
Philip should receive  from France the
valuable districts of Macon, St. Gengou,
Auxerre and Bar sur le Seine for himself
and  his lawful male and  female heirs;
Peronne, Mondidier and Roye  for his
lawful male  heirs; and, further, St. Quen-
tin, Corby, Amiens,  Abbeville, Ponthieu,
Dourlens,  St. Riquier,  Crevecceur, Ar-
leux and Mortagne, and the county of
Boulogne, for himself and his heirs.  To
these important possessions  he  added
also, in 1441, the duchy  of Luxemburg.
In 1430, PhiUp had contracted a third mar-
riage, as his two former wives had borne
him no children.  On his marriage with
Isabella (Elisabeth), daughter  of king
John  of Portugal, at Bruges (q. v.), in
Flanders, he founded the  order  of the
golden fleece.  Three sons sprang from
this marriage, of whom the two first soon
died.  The  third, Charles  count Char-
olais, after the death of Philip (at Bruges,
July 16th, 1467), became duke of Bur-
gundy.  (See Charles the Bold.)  He ac-
quired Gueldres in 1475, and left behind
him, in 1477, a daughter, Maria, the sole
heiress of his states.   Seven princes were
her suitors, among whom were the dau-
phin of France and  Maximilian  of Aus-
tria.   The  last obtained her hand and
the dukedom (the Netherlands and Upper
Burgundy).  The king of France receiv-
ed, of the  Burgundian  territory, nothing
except the cities in Picardy and the duke-
dom of Bourgogne, which he assumed as
being a male fief!  Maria died in her 25th
year,  in consequence of a fell,  leaving
three  children, Philip,  Margaret  and
Francis (who died soon after).  The Bur-
gundian provinces  would not all  recog-
nise Maximilian as  the  guardian  of bis
chUdren.   He  betrothed his daughter to
the dauphin, Charles, with the county of
Artois and  Burgundy, together with the
Maconnais, Auxenois, Salins and Bar sur
le Seine, as her dowry.  But his  object,
which was wholly to pacify the provinces,
was not attained.  The  people  of Flan-
ders were particularly obstinate, and they
went  so far that Maximilian, two years
after his election as king of the  Romans
(1488), was  retained a prisoner at Bruges
for more than three months.  Finally, the
people of Flanders acknowledged him as
guardian of his son Philip, and regent of
the government. Burgundy was, as we
have seen above, separated into two parts 
BURGUNDIANS—BURGUNDY WINES.
331
—Burgundy Proper, and Upper Burgundy
or Franche-Comte.  The  former was
transferred from Spain to France in the
ladies' peace, so called, of Cambray, 1529.
(See Francis I.)  The latter Louis  XIV
conquered,  and retained at the peace  of
Nimeguen.   Since  that  time, the  Bur-
gundies have never been separated  from
France.  (See Netherlands, Kingdom of.)
The baron Barante, peer of France, pub-
lished at  Paris, in 1824, in 10 volumes, a
Histoire  des Dues  de Bourgogne de la
Maison de Valois (1364—1477).
   Burgundy  (called,   also, Burgundy
Proper, or Lower Burgundy); formerly a
province  in the east of France, lying on
the west  of Franche-Comte, and on  the
south of  Champagne.  It was divided in-
to the duchy of B. and four counties.  It
now forms the four departments of Yonne,
Cote-d'Or,  Saone-et-Loire and Ain, con-
taining,  according  to official tables  for
1827,1,570,463 inhabitants.   It is watered
by a number  of navigable  rivers.  The
central canal joins the Loire  with  the
Saone ; that of B. will connect the Seine
and  the  Rhone; and that  or" Monsieur
will unite the Saone with the Rhine.  B.
is one of the  most productive provinces
in France.  The plains are rich in arable
land,  the sides of the  hills  are covered
with vineyards  and fruit-trees, while  the
summits  abound in pastures, wood and
game. The  principal  product  is  wine.
(See Burgundy Wines.)   Iron ore and oth-
er minerals are found in the mountains.
(See Burgundians.)
   Burgundy, circle of;  one ofthe 10  cir-
cles ofthe German empire, as divided by
MaximUian in 1512.  At first it compris-
ed the Franche-Comte  and  the 17 prov-
inces of the Netherlands.  The 7 Dutch
provinces having declared themselves in-
dependent, and the Franche-Comte being
conquered by France, the Spanish or Aus-
trian Netherlands  alone composed  the
circle.
   Burgundy, Louis, duke of, was bom at
Versailles, in 1682.  His parents were the
dauphin, son of Louis XIV,  and  the
princess  Anne of Bavaria.   In his early
childhood, he was stubborn, irascible, ob-
stinate, passionately fond of every kind of
pleasure, and inclined  to craelty, severe
in his satire, attacking with great penetra-
tion the follies of those about him.  The
education of the prince was intrusted, in
the seventh year of his  age, to  Fenelon,
Fleury, and Beauvilliers. They succeed-
ed in gaining his affection, and in giving
him a right turn of mind.  From this al-
teration in  his character, he  became amia-
ble, humane and modest, and  faithful in
the discharge of his duties.  In 1697, he
married the intelligent and amiable prin-
cess Adelaide of Savoy, who was the or-
nament of her court, and was beloved by
her husband with the tenderest affection.
In 1699, Louis XIV ordered an encamp-
ment at Compiegne for the instruction of
his grandson, to whom, in 1702, he gave
the command of the army in Flanders,
under die direction of marshal Boufflers.
In a battle between the cavalry, near Ni-
meguen, he  showed determination and
courage.  Afterwards,  under  the  most
difficult circumstances, he was appointed
commander-in-chief of all the forces in
Flanders, but with  instructions  which
made him dependent on the duke of Ven-
dome; Marlborough  and  prince Eugene
having command of the  opposing army.
The differences which arose between the
prince and Vendome  drew after them the
most disastrous consequences.  All France
accused the prince as the  author of these
misfortunes, censuring  his timid charac-
ter and his reUgious scruples.  He, how-
ever, appears to have succeeded in justify-
ing his conduct in the  eyes of the king.
Vendome, on the contrary, who had be-
haved very insolendy towards the  heir to
the throne, fell  into disgrace, but was fa-
vored  by the opposition party.  In 1711,
the duke of Burgundy became dauphin,
by the death of his father, and now be-
gan to attract the attention of the court,
and the confidence of his sovereign, who
appointed  him  a  counsellor of state.
France expected, from the virtues and ex-
cellent intentions of this prince, to enjoy
a long and general rest from her troubles;
but he was  suddenly  taken away, Feb.
18, 1712, by a disease to  which his wife
and eldest son had already fallen victims,
the one 6, the other  20 days before.  In
less than one year, France had seen three
dauphins;  and  the fourth, the youngest
son of the  duke of Burgundy, and  the
only heir to the throne, afterwards Louis
XV, was also  in a  dangerous situation.
The public voice loudly accused the duke
of Orleans, afterwards regent, as the cause
of these misfortunes, of which, however,
 Louis XIV himself declared him innocent.
   Burgundy Wines are produced in the
former provinces of Upper and  Lower
 Burgundy (q. v.), in a soil of a Ught-black
 or red loam, mixed with the debris of the
 calcarious rock on which it reposes.  In
 richness of flavor and perfume, and aU
 the more deUcate qualities of the juice of
 the grape, they are inferior to  none in the
 world.  It is to the great skUl with which 
332                  BURGUNDY WINES—BURIATS.
the cultivation of the vine and the fer-
mentation ofthe Uquor are managed, that
they owe those generous qualities, which
gave to the dukes of Burgundy the title
of princes des  bon mns, and which, as Pe-
trarch more than hints, contributed not a
little to prolong the stay of their holiness-
es at Avignon.  They are remarkable for
their spirituosity  and  powerful  aroma,
and  are, therefore,  more heating than
some other wines which contain more
alcohol.  The exhilaration  they produce
is, however, more innocent  than that re-
sulting from  heavier wines.  The finer
wines of Burgundy do not bear removal
except in bottles; and, as they are not pro-
duced in great abundance, they are rarely,
if ever, met with in foreign countries.  It
is the inferior growths  which are sold
under that name.  The Burgundy wines
are generally exported between January
and  May, chiefly in double casks.   They
keep only four or five years, and are very
apt to acquire a bitter taste, which Chap-
tal attributes  to the developement of the
acerb principle, and Henderson to that of
citric ether.  It  may sometimes be par-
tially removed by new  sulphuring and
fining.   The most numerous are the red
wines of Burgundy.  The finest growths
of diese are the  Romanee-Conty, the
Chambertin (the favorite of Louis XIV
and Napoleon),   the  Closbougeot,  the
Richebourg, the Romanee de St Vivant,
&c.   They are  distinguished  for their
beautiful color, and exquisite flavor and
aroma, combining more  than any other
wines lightness and delicacy with rich-
ness and fulness of body.  Of the  second
class are the vins de primeur, of which
the Volnay and  Pomard are  the best;
those of Beaune, distinguished  above all
by their pure  flavor, and formerly consid-
ered the most choice of the Burgundy
wines; the Macon wines, remarkable for
their strength and durability;  those of
Tonnerre and Auxerre, &c  The white
wines of Burgundy are less numerous,
but not inferior in aroma  and  flavor.
The famous Montrachet is equal  to the
finer red wines, and is distinguished for
its agreeable nutty flavor.  Ofthe  second
class are the  Goutte cVor, so caUed from
the splendor of its tint; La Perriere, &c
(See JulUen's Classification des Vins, and
Henderson's Ancient and Modern Wines.)
  Burial.  Great care should  be taken
not to bury the body too soon after death.
The ancient nations endeavored to satisfy
themselves, by many precautions, that
death had  really  token place.  The an-
cient Egyptians embalmed their dead; the
Romans cut off one of their fingers, be-
fore  they  burnt them ; other nations re-
peatedly washed and anointed them.  In-
terments should never be allowed before
the most  undoubted symptoms of putre-
faction have taken place.   We should
wait at least tiiree days in winter, and two
whole days in summer, unless the hot
weather  requires a  quicker  interment
It would be well to introduce the custom
of exposing the corpse  to the inspection
of a person regularly instructed for this
purpose, who should carefully and re-
peatedly examine it, and none should  be
interred without  the certificate of this in-
spector. In many cases, it is troublesome,
and  even  dangerous,  to keep  the body
long, as in case of contagious diseases, or
of want of room.  In many places, to ob-
viate this inconvenience, houses are erect-
ed,  where  the corpse is brought a few
hours after the  decease.  (See Trance;
also  Burying-Places and Sepulture).
  Buriats, Burats, or  Buratti.   This
nomadic Tartar nation consists of 77 tribes.
They submitted to the Russian sceptre in
1644, and  form  the  second  principal
branch of the Calmucs.   They  rove
about in the southern part ofthe govern-
ment of Irkutsk.   Their number is up-
wards of 100,000.  They can furnish 32,000
archers, and choose their own princes and
elders.   Their choice is confirmed, how-
ever, by  the government of  Irkutsk.
They support themselves by their flocks,
by hunting, and the mechanical arts, par-
ticularly the forging of iron.  Their dress
is leather  bordered with  fur.   The  B.
protect their  huts, which are  hexagonal
or octagonal, from heat and cold by cov-
ering them with  leather.   These  huts
they call juries.   The  religion  of this
people  is   partly  Lamaism  and partly
Shamanism.  They call their supreme
God Octorgon Burchan, or Tingiri Bur-
chan (God of heaven).   The planets are
inferior gods; and the chief of the evil
spirits is  called Ockodol.  The idols of
Lamaism,  like those of Shamanism, are
sometimes  painted on  cloth, and some-
times made  of  wood,  metal, felt and
sheep-skin.   The  smoke  of the juries
makes the idols, disgusting  in themselves,
still  more  disgusting.  The worshippers
of the Grand Lama have this peculiarity,
that  male  forms are the  basis of their
idols. As the female sex in this nation is
considered unclean, they  may  not ap-
proach the place where the household
gods are arranged.  The male B. always
burn incense, to purity any  place where a
woman has been sitting, before they sit 
BURIATS—BURKE.
333
there  themselves.  The poor  B.  some-
times  go over to the Greek church, but
continue to  use  their old  ceremonies in
reference to their new objects of worship.
Their number, in 1783, was estimated at
49,764 males, and 47,932 females.
  Burin, or Graver ; an instrument of
tempered  steel,  used for  engraving  on
copper.   It is of a prismatic form, having
one end attached to a short wooden han-
dle, and the other ground off obliquely,
so as to produce  a sharp point.  In work-
ing, the burin  is held in the palm ofthe
hand, and pushed forward so as to cut a
portion  of the copper.  The expressions
brilliant  burin, soft  burin,  are used to
characterize  the manner  of  a  master.
(See Engramng.)
   Burkard, Waldis,a fabulist of the 16th
century, was  born  at AUendorf, on  the
Werra.  In his  earlier  years, he was a
monk.  After having travelled over Eu-
rope, he became a zealous Protestant, and
died, in 1555, in the office of preacher at
Abterode.  His ^Esop, in rhyme, contains
400  fables and  amusing  stories, partly
from  iEsop and  other fabulists and nov-
elists, partly  original.  They are writ-
ten in a strain of happy humor and well-
directed satire, and  ip an  easy and often
peculiar style.  Eschenburg published a
collection of them in 1776.
   Burke, Edmund,  a writer, orator  and
statesman of great eminence, was born in
Dublin, Jan. 1,1730.  His father was an
attorney of reputation, and he received
his education under Abraham Shackle-
ton, a Quaker, at Ballitore.  In 1744, he
was entered at Trinity college, Dublin, as
pensioner, where he chiefly  occupied
himself with a plan of study of his own,
the principal  objects of which were the
 classics, logic, metaphysics, morals, history,
 rhetoric, and composition.  He left Trinity
 college, after taking a bachelor's degree,
 in 1749; and not much is recorded of this
 period  of his life, except that he made an
 unsuccessful application for the professor-
ship  of logic at  Glasgow.  At this period,
 he had planned a refutation of the meta-
physical theories of Berkeley and Hume.
 In 1750, he first entered the great the-
 atre  of London, as a  law student  a
 the  Temple, where he soon became the
 admiration  of his intimates, for the bril-
 liancy  of his parts,  and  the  variety of
 his  acquisitions.  Applying more to lit-
 erature than  to law, he supported  him-
 self  by his pen, and,  by  intense  occu-
 pation, brought himself into  a state of
 ill health.  This illness, by making him
 a guest  to  doctor  Nugent, an eminent
physician, led to his marriage with that
gentleman's daughter.  In 1756, he pub-
lished, without a name, his first avowed
work, entitled a Vindication of Natural
Society, in a Letter to Lord ****, by a no-
ble Lord.   This work exhibited so com-
plete  an imitation, although ironical, of
the style of Bolingbroke, that many per-
sons were deceived by it, not perceiving
B.'s intention to  prove that the same ar-
guments with which that nobleman had
attacked religion, might be applied against
all civil and political institutions whatever.
In the same year, he pubUshed his Essay
on the SubUme and  Beautiful.  The ele-
gance of its language, and  the spirit of
philosophical investigation displayed  in
it, introduced the author to  the best lite-
rary acquaintances.  In 1758, he suggest-
ed to Dodsley the plan of the Annual
Register, and took upon himself the com-
position of the historical part, which he
continued  for a  number of years.  He
was thus gradually forming himself for a
statesman.  His  poUtical career may be
said to have commenced in 1761, when
he went, to Ireland as confidential friend
to WilUam Gerard Hamilton, then secre-
tary to the lord  lieutenant, lord Halifax.
For his services in this unofficial capacity,
he was rewarded with a pension of £300
per  annum,  on the Irish establishment
On his return, in 1765, he was introduced
to the marquis of Rockingham, then first
lord of the treasury, who made him his
private secretary ; and, through the same
interest, he became M.P. for the borough
of Wendover.  The marquis also made
him  a  nominal  loan, but real gift, of a
large sum, which placed him in easy cir-
cumstances, and enabled him to purchase
his elegant seat near Beaconsfield. His first
speech in parliament was on the Gren-
ville stamp act;  and it was at his advice,
 that the Rockingham administration took
 the  middle and  undecided course of re-
 peaUng the act, and  passing a law declar-
 atory ofthe right of Great Britain to tax
 America.  This  ministry was soon dis-
 solved, to make  room for a new cabinet,
 under Mr. Pitt.   B.  concluded his official
 labors  by his pamphlet, entitled  Short
 Account pf a late short Administration.
 In the  proceedings against Wilkes, he
 joined  the remonstrants against the vio-
 lation of the  rights of election,  and,  in
 1770,  pubUshed  his  Thoughts  on the
 Causes of the present  Discontents, the
 sentiments of which are consistent with
 his future doctrines and conduct.   He
 opposed the ministerial  measures antece-
 dent and consequent  to the  American 
334
BURKE.
 war; and the whole powers of his elo-
 quence were exerted, first to prevent, and
 then to heal, the fatal breach between the
 mother countiy and her colonies.   In
 1774, he was chosen member for Bristol;
 and it is to his credit that he subsequently
 ventured to give offence to his Bristol
 friends, by his support  of the Irish peti-
 tions  for free trade, and for moderating
 the penal  statutes  agamst  the Roman
 CathoUcs.  He soon, however, recovered
 all  the  ground  thus lost by his famous
 reform bill,  which he unsuccessfully ad-
 vocated with an extraordinary union of
 wit, humor, and financial detail.  In 1783,
 lord North's ministiy was dissolved ; and,
 on the return of the marquis of Rocking-
 ham and his party to power, B. obtained
 the lucrative post of paymaster-general
 of the forces, and a seat at the council
 board.  He also embraced the auspicious
 opportunity to  re-introduce  his  reform
 bill, which passed, but not without con-
 siderable modifications.   On the death of
 the marquis of Rockingham, and the suc-
 cession of lord Shelbum,  B. resigned, and
joined the coalition:  the India bill form-
 ed the ostensible cause for dismissing this
 ill-judged combination; and Mr. Pitt suc-
 ceeded  to  the helm, and dissolved  the
 parliament   The  next  great political
 event of his Ufe was  his  share  in  the
 prosecution of Mr. Hastings, which trial,
 indeed, originated with him.  The Report
 of the Committee on the  Trial of  W.
 Hastings, 1794, was by B.   His conduct
 in this affair gained him Uttle in the pub-
 lic estimation, except increased fame as
an orator.  On the settling of the regency,
in 1788, he argued against  the  principle
 of the ministers,  that the  regency was
elective, and not hereditary.   The last
great act of his political life was, the part
ne  took in the French  revolution.  He
early manifested his dislike  to it, and, in
 1790,  loudly condemned the principles
and conduct of the revolutionists.   His
famous Reflections on the Revolution in
France appeared  in the following Octo-
ber ; and no work  ever  attracted  more
attention, or  produced  more effect.   It
exhibits both the merits  and defects of
the writer, and contains much justness of
argument, profundity of observation, and
beauty of style; but it is  equally obvious
that he commits the very fault which he
intended to reprobate, in his Vindication
of Natural Society, by making his argu-
ments  applicable to the defence of all
establishments,  however  tyrannical, and
 censure of every popular  struggle for lib-
erty, whatever  the  oppression.   It had
 an unprecedented sale, and obtained un-
 bounded  praise from  aU who trembled
 for  establishments, or were alarmed  at
 the odious character which the  French
 revolution was beginning to  assume.  On
 the other hand, it met with severe and
 formidable critics  and opponents, and,
 among other things, produced the cele-
 brated Rights of Man, of Thomas Paine.
 B. followed  up this attack  with a Letter
 to a Member of the National Assembly
 (1791); an Appeal from the New to the
 Old Whigs; Letter to a  noble Lord  on
 the Subject in Discussion with the Duke
 of Bedford (1796);  Letters on  a Regi-
 cide  Peace, &c.   In all these produc-
 tions, he  displayed  unabated powers of
 mind.  In 1792,  he pubUshed a Letter to
 Sir Hercules Langrishe, on  the Propriety
 of admitting Roman Catholics  to the
 Elective Franchise, and,  in 1794, with-
 drew from parUament, and  was succeed-
 ed in the representation of Malton by his
 only son, whose death soon  after hasten-
 ed the  decline of nature  which he was
 beginning to experience.  Decay, by grad-
 ual  approaches,  terminated his  life on
 July 8,  1797, in the 68th year of his age.
 He preserved his senses to the last; and, a
 few hours before he died,  he had read to
 him Addison's paper in the Spectator, on
 the immortality of the sou).   Amiable in
 private  Ufe, and exemplary in his domes-
 tic and social relations, he  was  gready
 beloved by his friends.  His  conversation
 was delightful and instructive.  He was
 exceedingly  charitable  and beneficent,
 and founded a school for the children of
 French emigrants, the permanent support
 of which formed one of his latest cares.
 His public character will be best collected
 from a study of his  political career, and
 his powers of mind from his  publications.
 His oratory was  preeminently that of a
 full mind,  which makes excursions to a
 vast variety of subjects, connected by the
 slightest and most evanescent associations,
 and that in a diction as rich and varied as
 the matter.  In delivery, however, the
 effect of his  speeches was by no means
 proportioned to  their  absolute  merit;
 their length, their copiousness, abundance
 of ornament, and wide field of specula-
 tion, producing  impatience  in  men of
 business absorbed in the particular sub-
ject of debate; added to which, his man-
 ner was indifferent, bis voice harsh, and
 his action,  though  forcible, inelegant
 On the whole, though the greatest genius,
 he was  by no means the  most effective
 orator, in  the house of commons. The
 entire works of this great man have been 
BURKE—BURMANN.                        335
 pubUshed by his executors, in 5 vols., 4to.,
 and 10 vols., 8vo.  (See Memoir of Burke,
 by J. Prior, 2d edition, 2 vols., London,
 1826.)
  Burleigh, Lord.  (See Cecil.)
  Burlesque  signifies  the low comic
 arising from a ludicrous mixture of things
 high and low.   High thoughts, for in-
 stance, are clothed in low expressions, or
 noble  subjects  described in a familiar
 manner, or vice versa.  The burlesque
 style allows ofthe mixture of foreign and
 domestic words, the introduction of pro-
 vincialisms, colloquial phrases, &c.  Its
 object may be, simply, to excite laughter,
 or to provoke derision and ridicule.
   Burletta; a light, comic species of
 musical drama, which derives its name
 from the Italian burlare, to jest.  It origi-
 nated in Italy, from  whence it  passed to
 the Transalpine countries.
   Burlington ; a post-town of Vermont,
 and capital of Chittenden county, situated
 on a bay, to which it gives  name, on the
 south side of the entrance of Onion river
 into lake Champlain; 38 miles W. by N.
 of MontpeUer, 100 S. of Montreal.  Lat.
 44° 27' N.; lon. 73° 13 W.  Population
 in 1820, 2,111.   B. is the most considera-
 ble commercial town in Vermont.  Its
 trade is principally widi  the city of New
 York, with which it  has a water commu-
 nication by means  of lake Champlain,
 the Champlain canal, and the river Hud-
 son.  The village is  very finely situated,
 lying in the form of a parallelogram, with
 its shortest side on the lake, and extend-
 ing back, up a gradual ascent, to the dis-
 tance of a mile  from the water.  It con-
 tains a court-house, a jail, a bank, 3 houses
 of  public  worship,  an academy, and  a
 university.—The university of Vermont
 was incorporated  and estabUshed at  B.
 in 1791, but it did not go into  operation
 till 1800.   It is finely situated on the east
 side of the village,  a mffe  distant  from
 lake Champlain, on  ground elevated 245
 feet above  the surface of the water, and
 commands an  extensive and delightful
 prospect, embracing a view of the  lake,
 with the high  mountains beyond on the
 west, and  the Green mountains on the
 east.   A  large  college edifice  of brick,
 which was completed in 1801,  was con-
 sumed by fire in 1824; since which time
 three brick edifices have been erected, two
 of them containing  rooms  for  students,
 the other containing a chapel, and other
 pubUc rooms.   The university posses-
ses  considerable endowments, consisting
chiefly of lands; but the  number of stu-
dents has never  been large.   Its officers
 are, a president, a professor of mathemat-
 ics and natural philosophy, a professor of
 the learned languages, a tutor, and four
 medical professors.
   Burman Empire. (See Birman Empire.)
   Burmann ;  the  name  of a family  of
 learned men, originally  from Cologne—
 Francis B., born in 1632, was professor at
 Leyden and Utrecht, where he died in
 1769,  and author of several theological
 writings.—His son Peter, born at Utrecht,
 in 1668, studied there and at Leyden.  He
 became doctor of law in 1688.  After trav-
 elling  in  Germany and Switzerland,  he
 began the practice of the law, without,
 however,  deserting  the study of the an-
 cients, as is proved by his  treatise  De
 Vectigalibus Pop. Rom.  In 1696, he was
 made professor of history and rhetoric at
 the university  of Utrecht.   At a later pe-
 riod, he became  professor of the Greek
 language  and  politics.  From this time,
 he pubUshed, annually, either some classic
 author, with  notes, or' masterly  Latin
 verses, or  some pamphlet against his ad-
 versaries,  of whom he had made many
 by his intolerant  vehemence.   His edi-
 tions of the classics are not so much dis-
 tinguished for taste, as for learning and
 accuracy.   He became professor of elo-
 quence, history, and the Greek language,
 in Leyden, 1715, and died in 1741.  His
 younger brother,  Francis, died in  1719,
 while professor of theology at Utrecht,
 and was the author of several theological
 writings.  He  left four sons, distinguish-
 ed Ukewise as scholars.—John, born  in
 1706, died 1780,  at Amsterdam,  was a
 physician, and professor of botany.  Lin-
 naeus makes honorable mention  of  his
 writings.—Peter,  born in 1713, devoted
 himself, like his uncle,  to philological
 pursuits.  In 1734,  he was made doctor
 of law at Utrecht.  In the following year,
 he  became  professor  of eloquence  and
 history  at the  university of Franeker.
 In 1742, he  went to Amsterdam, as pro-
 fessor of histoiy and  ancient languages,
 where he  became, in succession, professor
 of poetry,  librarian, and inspector of (he
 gymnasium.  Like his uncle, he has pub-
 lished many good editions,  particularly
 of the  Latin classics; like him, he was
 distinguished by learning, by his talent
 for Latin poetry, and by bis hasty dispo-
 sition.   He died in 1778.—Nicolaus Lau-
 rentius B. succeeded, in 1781, his  fa-
 ther, John B.,  as professor  of botany,
 for which science  he did much by his
 own writings,  and  by aiding  the  un-
dertakings of others.  In  particular,  he
encouraged Thunberg to visit the  cape 
336
BURMANN—BURNET.
of Good Hope and Japan.   He died in
1793.
  Burmann,  Gottlob WilUam, originally
Bormann, born in 1737, at Lauban, in
Upper Lusatia, resided in Berlin in great
I poverty.  He was small of figure, meagre,
lame  and deformed, but was  endowed
with  sensibiUty for every thing sublime
and beautiful.—He was highly eccentric.
His poems  were irregular,  and deficient
in taste and finish.  His  merits were ob-
scured by his singularities, and his vigo-
rous mind was forgotten before  he died.
He had a rare talent of improvisation.
Struck with palsy,  he passed the last ten
years  of his  Ufe in great misery.   His
most  celebrated works  are his fables,
songs, and his poems without the letter r.
He died in 1805.
  Burmhan.   (See Birman  Empire.)
  Burnet, Gilbert, was born at  Edin-
burgh, in 1643, and, having studied at Ab-
erdeen, he traveUed into HoUand in 1664.
On his return, he was made  fellow ofthe
royal  society, in London, and  ordained
at Edinburgh in 1665. In 1669, he was
made professor of divinity  at Glasgow,
where he published  his Conference be-
tween a Conformist and a Nonconform-
ist ; also, Memoirs of the Duke of Hamil-
ton ;  and was offered a Scottish bishopric,
wh ich he refused.   His Vindication of the
Church and State of Scotland, so inconsist-
ent with the general tenor of his  conduct
and  opinions, was much  approved at
court, and a bishopric was again offered
him, and refused.   In 1673, he was made
chaplain  in ordinary to  the king;  and
was  in high  credit,  both with  Charles
and the duke of York.   In  consequence
of the machinations  in favor of popery,
he inclined to the opposition party in the
Scottish  parUament,  and afterwards re-
moved to London,  where he was coldly
received by the king, and struck out of
his list of court chaplains.   The nation
being alarmed on  account  of the prog-
ress of popery, B. undertook a History
of the Reformation in England.   He gave
a first volume to the pubUc in 1679, when
the affair of the popish plot  was  in agita-
tion.  It procured for the author the un-
precedented honor of thanks from both
houses of parUament The second volume
appeared in 1681;  the diird, which was
supplementary, in 1714.  This is esteem-
ed the most  valuable of  his  writings.
The  high  character of B. as a divine
caused him to be  sent for  by the witty
and profligate earl of Rochester, when,
exhausted by a course of Ubertinism, he
was sinking into the grave, at the early
age of 33.  The result of his conferences
with the dying  nobleman he gave to the
world in his celebrated Account of the
Life and Death ofthe Earl of Rochester.
About this  time, he wrote a letter to the
king, censuring his  pubUc  mis-govern-
ment and private vices.   His connexion
with the opposition party was now very
intimate, and he attended lord Russel to
the scaffold, whose  speech there it is
thought that he penned.  He published,
during this period, several works in favor
of Uberty and  Protestantism, and wrote
the lives of bishop Bedell and sir Mat-
thew Hale.   On the accession of James
II, he made a tour in France and  Italy,
of which he published an account in let-
ters addressed to Mr. Boyle.  At the close
of his travels, he was invited to the Hague
by the prince and princess of Orange, and
had a great share in the  councils relative
to England.  James caused a prosecution
for high treason to be commenced against
him in England, and  demanded his per-
son from die states, who refused to de-
liver him up. In the revolution, he took
an active part, accompanying the prince
of Orange  to England as chaplain, and
was rewarded for his services with the
bishopric of Sarum.  On taking his seat
in the house of lords, he displayed his
usual moderation in  regard to the  non-
juring clergy and dissenters.  As a prel-
ate, bishop B. distinguished  himself  by
fervor, assiduity and  charity.  In 1699,
he pubUshed his Exposition of the Thir-
ty-nine  Articles.  The  scheme  for the
augmentation of poor Uvings out of the
first fruits and tenths due to the crown
originated with B.  He  died in  March,
1715, in  the seventy-second year of his
age,  leaving behind him his well-known
Histoiy of his own Times, with  an Ac-
count of his Life (2 vols, fol., 1723—1724).
He merits the praise of depth, vigor, and
variety of knowledge, but was hasty and
rough in his composition.  He was  ar-
dent, active and open, benevolent, liberal
and disinterested; but vain, self-important
and garrulous.   He  was the author of
numerous works besides those mentioned
WUUam, his eldest  son, originally bred
to the law,  became governor, first of New
York and New Jersey, and subsequently
of Massachusetts and  New Hampshire.
  Burnet,  Thomas,  a learned divine
and  philosopher, was born at Croft, in
Yorkshire,  about  1635,  educated under
doctor Ralph Cudworth, at  Cambridge,
and afterwards traveUed  as tutor to  seve-
ral young noblemen.  In 1681, he made
himself known by his Telluris sacra The- 
BURNET—BURNEY.
337
oria, which he  subsequently translated
into  EngUsh.  After the  revolution  of
1688, B. was appointed chaplain in  or-
dinary  and clerk of the closet  to king
William.  In 1692, he published his Ar-
chaologia Philosophica, sive Doctrina an-
tiqua de Rerum  Originibus.  The free-
dom of opinion  displayed  in this work
led to the removal of the author from the
clerkship of the royal closet  He died in
September, 1715, and was intened in the
charter-house chapel.  Two posthumous
works of this author appeared in 1727—
a treatise De  Fide  et OJjkiis  Christiano-
rum; and another, De  Statu  Mortuorum
et Resurgentium.   All the  works  of
B. exhibit him as an ingenious  specula-
tor,  rather than as a patient and sober
inquirer concerning the  moral and natu-
ral phenomena  of which he treats.  His
great work, the  Theory of the Earth, is
one  of the  many systems of cosmogony,
in which Christian  philosophers have at-
tempted to reconcile  the Mosaic account
ofthe creation, paradise, and  the deluge,
with the traditions of the  ancients,  and
the  principles of modern science.  His
speculations are recommended  by sub-
limity of description and eloquence of
style.  In  his Archaologia Philosophica,
the doctor has combatted the literal inter-
pretation ofthe history ofthe fall of man ;
and, to  expose its improbability, he has
introduced an  imaginary  dialogue  be-
tween  Eve and  the  serpent, which, as
coming from the pen of a divine, is sin-
gular enough.  It is  only  to be found in
the first edition ofthe work.
  Burnett, James; better known by his
official  title of lord Monboddo, as judge
of the court of session in Scotland.   He
was born, in 1714,  at. the family seat of
Monboddo,  in   Kincardineshire.  After
studying at Aberdeen,  he went to  the
university of Groningen, whence he  re-
turaed in 1738,  and commenced practice
as an advocate  at  the Scottish  bar.  In
1767, he was raised to the  bench on  the
decease of his relative, lord Miltown.   He
distinguished himself by his writings as a
metaphysician,  having pubUshed a Dis-
sertation on the  Origin  and Progress of
Language (1774-1792, 6 vols., 8vo.); and
Ancient Metaphysics (1778, &c, 6 vols.,
4to.)  Lord Monboddo was an enthusias-
tic admirer of ancient literature,  and es-
pecially ofthe works of Plato, and other
Grecian philosophers.  His works con-
tain  many interesting  observations,  but
also  exhibit some strange and paradoxical
opinions.   Thus he seriously advocates
the existence of satyrs  and  mermaids;
  vol. n.          29
and has advanced some whimsical specu-
lations relative to a supposed affinity be-
tween the human race and the monkey
tribe, which exposed  him to a good deal
of ridicule on the first pubUcation of his
theories.  Both his official  and his pri-
vate character were extremely respecta-
ble ; and he was, notwithstanding his ec-
centricities, a man of considerable learning
and ability.  He died, in consequence of
a paralytic stroke, at  Edinburgh, Mav
26, 1799.
  Burney, Charles,  a celebrated  com-
poser and writer on music,  born  at
Shrewsbury,  in 1726, began his studies
at Chester, under the organist ofthe cathe-
dral  there, continued them  at  Shrews-
bury,  under  the  direction  of his half-
brother, Burney, and  completed them in
London, between 1744 and 1747, under
doctor Arne.   In the latter year appeared
his first compositions.   His musical pieces
Alfred,  and  Queen  Mab, composed in
1749,  made  him known.  In  1751,  he
obtained the  place of organist  at Lynn
Regis, in Norfolk.  Here  he commenced
his General Histoiy of Music, and deter-
mined to visit all the  institutions in Eu-
rope, at which he could obtain important
information for his work.  In  1760,  he
returned to London, at the request of the
duke  of York, where his compositions,
and the musical skill  of his eldest daugh-
ter, then eight years  of age, excited ad
miration.   In 1769, the university of Ox-
ford bestowed on him the  honorary de-
gree of doctor of music.  In  1770,  he
visited France and Italy, and, two years
afterwards, the Netherlands and Germa-
ny, for the sake of his great work. He
published an account of both tours.  After
his second return, he became a feUow of
the royal society.   In 1776 appeared the
1st  volume of his  General Histoiy  of
Music from the earliest Ages to  the pres-
ent Period (4to.); the 2d in 1779, and
the 3d and 4th in 1789.  He is the author
also  of  several other  valuable  works,
among which are the Memoir of Handel,
and several musical  compositions.  He
died in April, 1814, in the office of organ-
ist at Chelsea college.  He wrote most
of the  musical articles in  Rees'  Cyclo-
paedia.  B. had a numerous family, seve-
ral members of which have highly distin-
guished themselves.  His second daugh-
ter, Francisca d'Arblay, is the authoress
of the weU-known  novels  Evelina, Ce-
cilia, and CamiUa.
  Burney, Charles;   second son of the
historian of music; a clessical scholar and
critic  of high reputation.  He was born 
338
BURNEY—BURNING-GLASS.
at Lynn, in Norfolk, in 1757, and receiv-
ed  his  education  at  the  charter-house
school, and the universities of Cambridge
and  Aberdeen; distinguished  himself
as a writer in the Mondily Review, to
which  he contributed many articles on
classical Uterature;  subsequently entered
into  holy  orders,  and obtained some
preferment in the  church.  He died in
December, 1817; and his valuable collec-
tion of books, many of them enriched with
manuscript notes, was purchased by par-
liament for the British museum.  B. pub-
lished an  appendix to  Scapula's Greek
Lexicon from the MSS. of doctor Askew;
a valuable edition of the choral odes of
^Eschylus, the   Greek tragedian ;  the
Greek Lexicon of Philemon; remarks on
the Greek verses of Milton; an abridge-
ment of Pearson's exposition of the creed;
and a  sermon preached  at St  Paul's:
besides which he printed, for private dis-
tribution, a small impression of the Latin
epistles  of doctor  Bentley and other
learned scholars.
  Burning-Glass ; a lens  which unites
the  rays  of light that fall  upon it in so
narrow a space as  to cause them to kin-
dle  any combustible matter coming in
their way, like fire.  The same name has
been sometimes  given, though improp-
erly, to the burning-mirror.  (See the next
article.)  The lenses  commonly used as
burning-glasses are convex on both sides;
these bring the rays upon a point with the
greatest force,  because of the shortness
of their focal distance.  The effects of a
burning-glass are more powerful in pro-
portion as its surface is greater, and its
focus  smaller.   That  such a glass may
produce its greatest effect,  it is necessary
that the rays of the sun should fall upon
it in a perpendicular direction, which is
the case when the image of the sun, that
appeals at the moment of burning, is cir-
cular.  If a second lens, of a smaller focal
distance, is placed between  the first and
its focus, so as to intercept the rays which
pass through the first, they are stUl more
condensed, and united in a still narrower
compass, so that the effect is greatly aug-
mented.   The Greeks and Romans seem
to have been acquainted with burning-
glasses, or, at least, with a kind of trans-
parent stones  similar  to them.   They
became more known in the 13th centuiy.
At the close of the  17th, von Tschimhau-
sen caused the largest burning-glasses,
consisting of one piece, that are known,
to be  polished  with  incredible pains.
Two of them, stifi in Paris, are 33 inches
in  diameter, and the  weight  of one
amounts to  160 pounds.   Both glasses
produce an  effect  equal to that of the
most intense fire.   They  kindle wood
which  is both hard and wet in a mo-
ment, and make cold water, in small ves-
sels, boil in an  instant; metals, placed
upon a plate of china,  are melted and
vitrified by them; tiles,  slates, and simi-
lar objects, become instantly red-hot, and
vitrified.   As  Tschirnhausen's  glasses,
however, are not perfectly  clear, and the
effect is thus considerably lessened, Bris-
son and Lavoisier undertook,  in 1774, to
put together two lenses, resembUng those
used for watch  glasses, filhng up  the
space between them with a  transparent
fluid.   In this manner, veins and impuri-
ties may be avoided, at less  expense.
They succeeded in making  a  burning-
glass of 4 feet in diameter, the greatest
thickness of which, in the centre, amount-
ed to 8 inches, and which, of itself, had a
much greater power than the glasses  of
Tschimhausen,  in  connexion  with a
smaller lens, or collective glass, but pro-
duced  an extraordinary effect  if joined
to a collective glass.—The experiments
made by means of large burning-glasses
are important in chemistry and physics.
The power of a burning-glass, however,
is almost four times less than that of a
burning mirror, or reflector (q. v.), of equal
extent  and equal curvature.  This reflects
more light than the glass  allows to pass
through it; has a smaller  focal distance,
and is free  from the dissipation of the
rays, which  takes place in the  burning-
glass, since it reflects  them all  nearly to
one point, while the burning-glass refracts
them to different points.  On the other
hand,  the burning-glass  is much  more
convenient, on account of the place  of its
focus,  which is  behind the glass.  The
burning point (focus) is an image of the
sun;  its diameter  is equal to the 108th
part of the  focal distance, and its cen-
tre is the focus, properly so called.  In the
higher branches of geometry and conic
sections, the foci are points in the parab-
ola, elUpsis, and hyperbola, where the
rays,  reflected  from  all parts  of these
curves, meet.  Several accidents in mod-
ern times have shown, that conflagrations
may be caused by convex window-glasses
or  water-bottles, &c,  which have the
form of burning-glasses, if the rays ofthe
sun are concentrated by them upon  com-
bustible substances  lying  withm  their
reach.  Since the casting and  polishing
of large lenses are attended with great dif-
ficulties, Buffon's plan of casting them in
pieces, or zones, and afterwards putting 
BURNING-GLASS—BURNS.                    339
them together, has lately been practised.
Lenses of this last kind have been inge-
niously applied, by Becquey, for augment-
ing the  light on light-houses, according
to the suggestion of Fresnel.  (See Pha-
ros.)  For the histoiy of burning instru-
ments, see the article Burning Mirrors.
  Burning Mirrors,  or  Reflectors ;
mirrors, the smoothly polished surface of
which reflects the rays of the sun that
fall upon it in such a direction, that they
unite  at some distance from the minor,
in a more limited space, and act upon
substances within this space  like  the
most  powerful fire.   Concave   minors
cause the rays that fall upon them  in a
direction  parallel to their  axes to  con-
verge.   Spherical mirrors of this  kind
are the most common;  but parabolic ones
are also used; and even plane minors may
be employed like concave ones, if several
of them are combined  in a proper man-
ner.   In order that  a  burning mirror
should produce its whole effect,  its  axis
must  be directed exactly towards the cen-
tre of the sun's disk.   This is the case if
the light, intercepted by a plane, perpen-
dicular to the axis of the  minor, at its
focal distance, forms a circle.  The focus
then lies in  a straight  line between the
sun and the mirror.  The ancients were
acquainted with such minors, as is mani-
fest from several  of their writings  still
extant   It is impossible, from  the  na-
ture of things, that Archimedes, during
the siege of Syracuse by Marcellus, should
have set on fire the fleet of the latter by
means of concave minors:  it would be
more credible, that it had  been effected
by a combination of plane minors.   Va-
rious experiments have shown, that great
effects may be produced, at a consider-
able  distance, by the  latter instrament
Kircher placed five plane mirrors, of an
equal size, in such a position as to reflect
the rays upon a spot one hundred  feet
distant,  and thereby  produced  a great
heat.   Buffon, in 1747, effected a combi-
nation of 168 plane minors, each of which
was 6 inches broad, and 8 long. With
40 of these mirrors, he set on fire, almost
instantaneously, a board of beech wood,
covered with tar, at a distance of 66 feet;
and,  with 128 mirrors, a board  of  pine
wood, likewise covered with tar, at a dis-
tance of 150  feet.  With 45 mirrors, he
melted  a tin  bottle, at a distance of 20
feet, and, with 117  minors, small pieces
of money.  He afterwards burned wood
with  this machine, at the distance of 200
feet,  melted tin at the distance  of 150,
lead at the distance of 130, and  silver at
the distance of 60 feet.  During the lost
centuiy, several large mirrors were made
in Italy, two of which are still in Paris
and  Cassel.  Von  Tschirnhausen  also
manufactured one in 1687, 3 Leipsic ells
(about 5£ English feet) in diameter, and
the focal distance  of which was 2 eUs
(3^ English feet).*  It consists of a thin
plate  of copper, nighly poUshed, and is
now in the mathematical haU in Dresden.
This  minor  sets wood  on fire, makes
water boil, melts tin three inches thick, as
well as lead, vitrifies bricks, bones, &c
Besides metals,  wood, pasteboard, gloss,
and  other  materials,  serve  for  burning
mirrors,  if their  surface  be  polished.
Burning minors have of late  been used
as reflectors (q.  v.), to throw Ught at a
great distance, and  may be very usefully
employed  in light-houses.   If} for in-
stance, a lamp is placed in the focus of a
parabolic mirror, the rays of light which
fall on it are all reflected in a direction
parallel to the axis;  thus the  reflectors
of Lenoir  appear like stars of the first
magnitude at the distance of 80,000 feet.
(For  further  information  on  burning-
glasses and burning minors, see Priestley's
History and present  State of Optics; and
the 5th vol. of the new edition of Gehler's
Phyrikalisches Lexicon, Leips. 1825).
   Burning of houses.  (See Arson.)
   Burnisher is  a blunt, smooth tool, used
for smoothing and  polishing a rough sur-
face by pressure,  and not by removing
any  part of the body.  Other processes
of polishing  detach the little asperities.
Agates, tempered steel, and dogs'-teeth,
are  used  for burnishing.  It is one  of
the most expeditious  methods of polish-
ing, and one which gives the highest lus-
tre.   The  burnishers  used by engravers
are formed to burnish with one end, and
to erase blemishes with the other.
   Burns,  Robert;  a  celebrated Scottish
poet, whose history affords a memorable
example of the  miseries  arising from the
possession of extraordinary talents, unac-
companied by habits of prudence and
self-control.  He was the son of WUUam
Burnes or Burns, a gardener and small
farmer, near the town of Ayr, and was
born January 25, 1759.  He was brought
up to rustic labor; but his education was
not neglected, as he was, at an early age,
instructed  in English grammar, by Mr.
Murdoch, (who died not long since in Lon-
don), to which he added an acquaintance
with the French language and practical
mathematics. Smitten with a passion for
   * Another account  gives diameter, 4J French
feet, focal distance,  12 feet. 
340
BURNS.
reading, he  devoted  every moment  he
could spare to the perusal of such books
as fell in his way, and, among them, meet-
ing with the works of some of the best
EngUsh poets, he  was enabled to culti-
vate and improve a taste for poetry and
romantic fiction;  which was, perhaps,
first inspired by the chimney-corner tales
of an old woman in his father's  family,
whose  memory  was  plentifully  stored
with adventures of fairies, witches, war-
locks, ghosts and goblins, which she  re-
ligiously believed, and therefore detailed
with the most  impressive effect to  her
admiring auditors.  Buras's first poetical
effusions were prompted by love, a pas-
sion of which  he was peculiarly suscep-
tible.   Having begun, he continued to
make verses, which attracted the  notice
of his neighbors, and gained him consider-
able  reputation.  His company was con-
sequently much sought—a circumstance
which  led hini to an indulgence in hab-
its of dissipation,  and a disgust at  the
plebeian occupation to which he seemed
destined by fortune.   He  then engaged
in business as a flax-dresser, in the town
of Irvine; but his premises were destroyed
by fin;, and he  was obliged to relinquish
the undertaking.   His father dying, he
rook a small farm in conjunction with a
younger brother;  and this scheme  also
proved unsuccessful.   In the mean time,
he had formed a connexion with a young
woman, whom, on her  becoming preg-
nant, he would have married;  but his
ruined circumstances induced her friends
to object  to it.   Thus unsuccessful at
home, he engaged himself as  assistant
overseer to a plantation in Jamaica.   To
obtain the funds necessary for the voyage,
he was induced to publish, by subscrip-
tion, a volume  of his poetical effusions.
It was accordingly printed at Kilmar-
nock in 1786, and Burns, having derived
from the  pubUcation  the assistance he
expected,  was about to  set sail from his
native land, when his purpose  was pre-
vented by the  communication of a letter
from doctor Blacklock to a friend of the
Ayrshire  poet,  recommending that he
should  visit Edinburgh, in order to take
advantage of the general  admiration his
poems had excited, and pubUsh  a  new
edition of them.  This advice was eagerly
adopted, and the result exceeded his most
sanguine  expectations.  After remaining
more than a year in the Scottish metrop-
oUs, admired, flattered  and caressed by
persons of eminence  for their rank, for-
tune or talents, he retired to the country
with the sum of £500, which he had re-
alized by the second publication of his
poems.  A part of this sum he advanced
to his brother, and,  with the remainder,
took a considerable farm near Dumfries,
and at the same time procured the office
of an exciseman.  He also now complet-
ed his matrimonial engagement with the
female to whom he had been contracted.
His convivial habits  ere long prevented
him from paying a proper attention to his
farm; and, after a trial of three years and
a half, he found himself obliged to resign
his  lease, and  remove  to the  town of
Dumfries, to follow  his employment as
an exciseman.  He continued to exercise
his  pen, particularly in the  composition
of a number of beautiful songs, adapted
to old Scottish tunes,  for  a periodical
work, published at Edinburgh.  His dis-
position to intemperate indulgence  was
too deeply  rooted to be overcome;  and,
in spite ofthe remonstrances of his friends,
and his own acknowledged conviction of
the folly of his conduct, he persisted in
the use of inebriating liquors till he had
ruined his  constitution, and brought on
a disease, which  occasioned his  death,
July 21,  1796.   The poems of B.  are
none of them of any great length, nor do
they appertain to the higher kinds of po-
etical composition.   It appears, indeed,
from his  correspondence, that he at  one
time meditated an epic  or dramatic ef-
fort, but the mode of spending his time,
to which he had  become habituated, ut-
terly prevented the necessary appUcation.
Whatever he has done, however, he has
done well.   His songs, his tales, and his
poetical epistles, display pathos, humor, a
vigor of sentiment, and  a purity and ele-
gance of style, which,  in spite of  their
being clothed in what may  be termed a
provincial dialect, will not only ensure a
permanent fame to their author, but ad-
vance him high in the  records of native
genius.   His prose compositions, which
consist entirely of private letters, never
intended for the  press, are  altogether as
extraordinary productions as his poems;
and those literary men who  were ac-
quainted  with him have  asserted,  that
his conversation  was not less calculated
to leave a powerful impression of the ex-
tent and accuracy of his knowledge  and
observation, and the strength and vivacity
of his genius.  He left a wife and  four
children unprovided for; but his friends
raised a subscription  for their support;
 and an edition of" the works of Burns, in
 4 vols. 8vo., was  pubUshed for their ben-
 efit, in 1800, with a life of the author, by
 doctor Currie, of Liverpool. 
BURRAMPOOTER—BURTON-UPON-TRENT.
341
  Burrampooter, or Bramafootra, is
the largest river in India.  Its sources, not
yet explored, seem to  be situated  near
lake Manasarovara, in Thibet, near those
ofthe Indus.   In Thibet, it is called the
Sonpoo, flows by  Lassa,  the  residence
ofthe Grand Lama, and, after being lost
to European knowledge,  re-appears in
Assam.  In  its rise and fall, its periods
coincide nearly with those ofthe Ganges.
Its  navigation is  rendered  difficult by
shifting sand-banks, and trunks of trees
sticking in  its bed.   After entering Ben-
gal, it joins the Ganges,  at Luckipoor,
where the united rivers form a wide gulf,
communicating with the sea of Bengal.
The course ofthe B. is estimated at about
1650  miles.   Rising from  opposite sides
of the same mountains, and separating to
a distance of 1200  miles, the B. and the
Ganges are destined  to mingle their wa-
ters again in the same channel.
  Burrill, James,a distinguished senator
ofthe U. States, was born in  Providence,
Rhode Island, April 25, 1772.   He re-
ceived his education at the coUege in Provi-
dence, now  Brown university, and  was
graduated in Sept. 1788. He then pursu-
ed the study ofthe  law, and was admitted
to practise in  the supreme court of the
state before he reached  his majority.   In
a few  years, he stood at the  head of his
profession in Rhode Island.  In October,
1797, he was elected, by the general as-
sembly, attorney-general ofthe state, and
annually after, by the people, for seven-
teen successive elections.   The decay of
his health, and other causes, induced him
to resign that  office  in May, 1813.   In
1816,  he  was appointed, by  the  general
assembly, chief justice of the supreme
court, having been, for  several years  pre-
vious, speaker of the house of represen-
tatives of Rhode Island.   In the next
year, he was placed in  the senate ofthe
U. States, of which he remained a highly
esteemed member until the period of his
decease,  December 25, 1820.
  Bursa, a city of NatoUa, in  Asiatic
Turkey, with a population of about 60,000
Turks,  Greeks,  Armenians  and Jews,
engaged in commerce, and the manufac-
ture of satins,  silk stuffs, carpets,  gauze,
&c.  The  bazars  are  filled with mer-
chandise, and the caravans, passing from
Aleppo and  Smyraa to Constantinople,
promote its  commerce.  It contains 140
mosques, two of which are magnificent,
and is adorned with an immense number
of fountains.  It is one of the most beau-
tiful cities in the empire, situated in a
fertile and finely-wooded plain, which is
            29*
enclosed by the ridges of Olympus, and
abounds in hot  springs.  The  castle,
which is about a  mile  in circumference,
is supposed to be die  Prusa  of the an-
cients, built, according to PUny (v. 22), by
Hannibal.  In the 14th century, it was
taken by the Turks, and became the cap-
ital of the  Ottoman  empire previous to
the capture of Constantinople.  Its por:
is Montagna, or Mondania, on the sea of
Marmora, 75 miles S. W. of Constantino-
ple.   Lon. 29° 1^ E.; lat. 40° 11' N.
  Burschen ;  the name  given to one
another by  the students at the German
universities.  It is derived from bursales
or bursarii, the name which the students
bore in the middle ages, from  the build-
ings  (bursa) in  which  they lived  in
common.   (See Universities.)
  Burton, Robert ; a writer of the 17th
century.   He was bom  at  Lindley, in
Leicestershire, 1576, educated at Oxford,
embraced the ecclesiastical profession, and
became rector of Segrave, in Leicester-
shire.  His learning,  which was various
and  extensive, is  copiously displayed in
the Anatomy of Melancholy, by Democ-
ritus Junior, first pubUshed  in  1621, and
repeatedly  reprinted.   B. died  in  1640,
and  was buried at Christ church, with
the following epitaph, said  to have been
his own composition:

      Paucis notus, paucioribus ignotus,
      Hie jacet Democritus Junior;
      Cui vitam pariter et mortem
      Dedit Melancholia.

He was a man of integrity and benevo
lence, but subject to strange fits of hypo-
chondriac melancholy, which rendered
his  conduct flighty  and  inconsistent
Sometimes  he  was  an  agreeable and
lively companion, delighting those around
hini with perpetual sallies of wit and hu-
mor; while, at other times, devoured with
spleen and  ennui,  he  sought  relief by
Ustening to the jests of the  bargemen on
the river near Oxford. He  is reported
also to have  undertaken the composition
of his Anatomy  of Melancholy  with a
view to the dissipation of his morbid feel-
ings.  Among those who have been most
deeply indebted  to B. is  the facetious
author of Tristram Shandy;  who has,
however, been perhaps too  harshly cen-
sured for a fault  which every man of
general  and extensive reading knows
to be common to almost  aU great writ-
ers.
  Burton-upon-Trent ; a town of Eng-
land,  on the north bank  of the Trent,
which is here crossed by a fine old bridge 
342           BURTON-UPON-TRENT—BURYING-PLACES.
of 36 arches.   B.  is a borough, and the
inhabitants have the privilege of exemp-
tion from county juries.  It is mentioned
early in Saxon history, and suffered much
in the civil wars.  It is chiefly celebrated
for its excellent ale, of which vast quanti-
ties are  made, both for home consump-
tion and exportation.  Contrary to com-
mon usage, the brewers, in  preparing it,
employ hard instead of soft water.  (See
Brewing.)  Population,  in  1821, 6700.
Lon. 1° 36' W.; lat. 52° 50' N.
  Bury St. Edmund's ; a town in Suf-
folk, England, formerly surrounded with
walls.  It contains  two  fine churches,
with numerous monuments, and, before
the reformation, had five hospitals.  Of
many benevolent institutions, the princi-
pal is a free school founded by Edward
VI.  It  is one of the greatest corn mar-
kets in the kingdom, and its great fair, in
October, which lasts three weeks, is at-
tended by the nobility and gentry of the
neighborhood.  The town is a borough,
returning two representatives.   It is an
ancient place, and is supposed to have de-
rived its name from St. Edmund, a king
ofthe East Angles, who was buried here.
The barons,  in John's reign, met  here,
and formed a league against him. B. has
been the seat of two parUaments, and con-
tains the remains  of an abbey, the  most
wealthy and magnificent in Britain, " with
gates of brass, towers and high walls, so
that one might think the monastery alone
a city."   Banen women,  desirous of off-
spring, offered a  white bull at the shrine
of St. Edmund's.   72 miles  N. N. E. of
London.  Lat. 52° 5(y N.
   Burying-Places.   The custom of bu-
rying the dead in public places prevailed
among  the most  ancient nations.   The
Romans had this custom in the earUest
times.   Afterwards, in the flourishing pe-
riods of the republic, they burnt their
dead, and only buried the ashes, collected
in urns (urna).   The ancient  Germans
buried their dead in the groves consecra-
ted by their priests.  With the introduc-
tion ofthe Christian religion, consecrated
places were appropriated for the purpose
of general burial; and it was regarded as
ignominious not  to be buried in conse-
crated  earth.  The deprivation of the
rites of burial was,  therefore, part of the
  Sunishment  of excommunication.   The
  Lomans were accustomed  to  provide
 their sepulchres  at least with a  stone,
 upon which was  inscribed  the name of
 the deceased, and the wish, May he rest
 in peace (Sit illi  terra levis, that is, May
 the earth rest Ughtly upon him).  This cus-
tom was preserved by the Christians. The
sepulchres in churches originate from an
inclination, common to men of all times
and nations, to honor their relations, even
in the grave.  The  Egyptians,  Greeks
and Romans erected over the graves of
men of rank, or persons otherwise  re-
markable, pyramids, mausolea or temples.
After the  introduction of Christianity,
Uttle churches, called chapels, were erect-
ed over the  dead.  The early Christian
martyrs were buried in caverns, which,
by degrees, were enlarged to spacious sub-
terranean vaults, and  called chambers of
repose.  In the sequel, others  considered
themselves happy if their bones were al-
lowed to repose near the ashes of a mar-
tyr.  The sepulchres of the martyrs were,
on this account, distinguished by a white
altar over them.  When the Christians
were allowed the pubUc exercise of their
religion,  they  erected  churches,  and
the heathen  temples  became places of
Christian worship.  As  early as the 4th
century, they built churches over the sep-
ulchres of the holy martyrs;  and, in the
beUef that a place was sanctified by their
ashes, they anxiously sought  out, on the
erection of new churches in cities, or the
transformation of heathen temples into
Christian churches, the  remains (relics)
of the martyrs, and buried them  under
the altar ofthe new church, to communi-
cate to it a character of greater sanctity.
It gradually came to be  universally con-
sidered, among the Christians, a privilege
to be buried in the neighborhood of a
saint.  The emperor  Constantine, who
died in 337, was the first person that we
know of, who ordered his sepulchre to be
erected in a church.   This was done in
the church of the apostles at Constanti-
nople, of which he was the founder, and
therefore, probably, considered himself as
peculiarly entitled to this privilege.   He
was soon imitated by the bishops, and, in
the sequel, all those who had enriched
the  church were  distinguished by this
honor.  The emperors Theodosius  and
Justinian, indeed, forbade the  erection of
sepulchres in churches, but in vain.  Leo
the Philosopher again permitted them to
every body.  It is only in later times that
men have become convinced how injuri-
ous it is to the health  of the  Uving to re-
main, for a  long time, in  the vicinity of
the dead;  particularly if the  corpses re-
main standing in simple  coffins, and  are
not placed deep in the earth,  as is com-
monly the case  in the sepulchral vaults
of churches.  From these the effluvia of
putrefaction escape  easUy, and  diffuse 
BURYING-PLACES—BUSCHING.
343
themselves in  the  air.   On the occa-
sion of opening such sepulchral vaults,
those  who stood near them  have some-
times  fallen dead  on the spot,  and  no
one could venture into the church, for a
long time after, without exposing himself
to dangerous consequences.   At present,
the burying in churches is almost every-
where suppressed, or, at  least, permitted
only under certain restrictions.  Even in
Naples and Rome, the general practice of
erecting sepulchres  in churches was for-
bidden in 1809, and the foundation of
burial-places without the city was provid-
ed for.  The custom of the communities
of Moravian  Brothers,  who form their
burial-places into gardens, is worthy of
imitation.  Several Catholic church-yards
in  Germany  are also distinguished  by
their  pleasing aspect; for instance, one in
Munich, where  every grave is covered
with  a bed of flowers, which  the relations
of  the deceased water  from a fountain
dug for the purpose.  The Quakers, it is
well known, erect no tomb-stones.  The
beautiful name  of the German Moravian
Brothers, friedhof, or field of peace, is  be-
coming more and more common in Ger-
many.  The celebrated burying-place of
Pcre  la Chaise, near Paris, is one of  the
most  beautiful  and  interesting spots in
the world.
  Busaco ; a convent in  Portugal, in  the
province of Beira.   The  monks are Car-
melites, and the prospect  from the  sum-
mit of the Sierra de Busaco is one of  the
finest in Portugal.   It is memorable  for
the battle, Sept. 27, 1810, between  Mas-
sena  and lord Wellington, who, on a  re-.
treat  before the superior forces of  the
former, availed himself of the favorable
position  of the Siena for checking  the
pursuit.  Two  attacks, one on the  right
wing, consisting of British, and the other
on the left, composed chiefly of Portu-
guese, were repulsed; but, Massena having
detached a force  to march round  the
mountain, and  cut off the British troops
from  Coimbra,  Wellington  retreated to-
wards that city, and afterwards to  the
lines  of Tones  Vedras. (q. v.)
   Busbecq,  or  Busbequius,  Augier
Ghislen; the natural son of  a nobleman;
born  in 1522,  at Confines,  in Flanders;
legitimated by  Charles V.  After having
studied in the most celebrated universities
of Flanders, France and Italy, he accom-
panied Peter Lassa, ambassador of Fer-
dinand, king of the Romans, to England
 In the  next  year (1555),  that prince
made him his ambassador to Soliman II.
 His first  negotiation was not very suc-
cessful.  He obtained only an armistice
for six months, and a letter, which he de-
livered immediately  to Ferdinand.  He
then returned to his  post,  and this time
his  negotiations  were  completely suc-
cessful.  After seven years, he returned
home, and was made tutor of the  sons of
Maximilian II.   When this prince be-
came emperor, B. was sent to accompany
the archduchess EUzabeth (who  was to
be married to Charles IX) on her journey
to France.  B.  remained there  in the
character of steward with Elizabeth, and,
when she left France, after the death of
her husband, he continued there  as am-
bassador of Rodolph II.   In 1592, he set
out on his return to Flanders, and was
attacked, on the way, by a party of the
Leaguers.  As  soon as  they had seen
his passports, they permitted him to con-
tinue his journey unmolested, from re-
spect to his character of an ambassador;
but  the terror  which he had  suffered
threw him into a violent  fever, of which
he  died several days afterwards.  We
have remaining two important   works
of his:—1. Legationis Turcica Epistola
quatuor, in which the policy,  the power
and the weakness of the Porte are so
profoundly and  clearly  explained, that,
even at present,  information may  be
drawn from them; and,  2. Epistola ad
Rudolphum II, Imp. e Gallia scripta (edi-
ta a Houwaert), a  veiy  important work
for the history of those times.  His style
is pure, elegant  and simple.  During his
stay in  Turkey, he  coUected Greek in-
scriptions, which he communicated  to
Andreas Schott, Justus Lipsius and Gra-
ter.  We are indebted to him for  a copy
ofthe celebrated monumentum Ancyranum,
which he had transcribed and brought to
Europe.  More than  a  hundred Greek
manuscripts, which he had collected, were
presented by him to the library of Vienna.
  Busching,  Anthony Frederic;  born,
1724, in Stadthagen, in Lippe;  studied
theology in Halle,  in 1744,  where  he
found a friend  and protector in  Baum-
garten.  On his travels, as tutor of the
young count of Lynar, he became con-
vinced  of the  defects of existing geo-
graphical treatises, and resolved to write
a new one, which he began, on his return
to Germany (1752), by publishing a short
Description of Sleswic and Holstein, as a
specimen.  In 1754, he was  made pro-
fessor  of philosophy in  Gottingen.  In
1755, he married Christiana Diltey, a lady
who was remarkable as a member of the
Gottingen  learned   society.   Notwith-
standing some difficulties about his hete- 
344
BUSCHING—BUSHMEN.
redox opinions, he received an invitation
to become pastor  in a  Lutheran church
at Petersburg.  In  1766,  he was made
director of the united  gymnasiums of
BerUn  and of the suburb  Koln, and dis-
charged his duties with great diligence.
He died in  1793. He is  chiefly distin-
guished  as  a geographer.  Before  his
great work, AUgemrine Erdbeschreibung,
which  he began  to publish in 1754, in
separate volumes, and which, though not
entirely completed by the author, passed
through eight legal editions during  his
life, neither the Germans  nor any other
nation  had a thoroughly scientific geo-
graphical work.
  Busembaum, Hermann,  a Jesuit, fa-
mous for his Medulla Theologia moralis,
ex variis probatisque Auctorwus conrin-
nata, bora  at Nottelen, in  WestphaUa,
1600, rector  of the  Jesuits' colleges at
Hildesheim and Minister,  died in 1668.
His work was much used in the semina-
ries ofthe Jesuits,  and had passed through
50 editions, when  father Lacroix publish-
ed it, increased from a single duodecimo
to two foUos by  his own  commentaries
and the additions of father  Collendall. It
was  published  at Lyons,  in 1729, with
further  additions  by father Montausan.
The latter edition  was reprinted, in 1758,
at Cologne.   It was now found to con-
tain principles concerning  homicide  and
regicide, which appeared the more repre-
hensible on account ofthe recent attempt
on  the  life of  Louis XV, by Damiens.
The parliament of Toulouse caused the
work to be publicly burnt,  and summon-
ed the superiois of the  Jesuits to appear
at their bar for trial.  They disavowed
the doctrines of the book, declared them-
selves ignorant of the author, and denied
that  any Jesuit  had  any  share  in  it.
The parliament of Paris  was satisfied
with condemning the book.  Against both
these sentences, father  Zacharia, an Ital-
ian Jesuit, with the permission  of his su-
periors, stepped forward as the defender
of B. and Lacroix; but his defence was
condemned by  the parliament of Paris.
B. was also the  author of  Lilium inter
Spinas, de Virginibus Deo devotis rique in
Saculo  inservientibus.
  Bushel ;  an  English  dry  measure,
containing 8  gallons  or 4 pecks.  It is
also used in the North American U. States.
The standard English bushel (12 Henry
VII) contains 8 gallons of wheat, each of
8 pounds troy, each of 12 ounces, each
of 20 pennyweights, each of 32 corns of
wheat that grew in the middle of the ear.
In 1696, a duty being laid  upon malt, it
became necessary to ascertain  the exact
contents of the  Winchester bushel, as that
of Henry VII was called.  It was found
that the capacity was 2151.7 cubic inches
of pure water, equivalent to 1131 oz., 13
dwts. troy.  (See J. Q.  Adams's Report
upon Weights and Measures, Washington,
1821.)  The  capacity  of the  Imperial
bushel, prescribed by the act of unifonni-
ty (5 Geo. IV, c. 74), which took effect
Jan. 1, 1826, is,  for coal, potatoes, fruits,
and  other goods sold by heaped measure,
2815 cubic inches, the goods to be heaped
up  in  the form of a cone, to a height
above the rim of the measure of at least
three fourths of its depth.  The imperial
bushel for all liquids, and for  corn  and
other  dry  goods  not   heaped,  contains
2218.20 cubic inches, and holds 80  lbs.
avoirdupois of pure water.
  Bushire, or Abushehr ; the principal
seaport of Persia, situated on the Persian
gulf, with 5000 inhabitants.  The princi-
pal exports  are carpets,  wine of Shiraz,
rose-water,  drags,  pearls and cotton.
The English East India company have a
factory here.  Lon. 50°  43' E.; lat.  28°
59'N.
  Bushmen, or Boshmen ; the  common
name of that  wild  race of people, who
dwell in the western part of South Africa,
in the immense plains bordering on  the
north side of the colony of the cape of
Good Hope, and are lost in the unknown
regions of the interior.  Janssens, former-
ly Dutch governor at the cape,  gives the
following account of them:—The Bush-
men are a wild, rude, cruel and miserable
people.  So far  from forming a nation,
they do not even form  societies.  They
live together in single families, and unite
in great numbers only for defence or for
pfflage.  They do not cultivate  the land,
and have no domestic animals except  the
dog.   Their usual food is locusts.  They
endure hunger for a long time, but  in-
demnify themselves by  their voracity if
they are so fortunate  as  to kill  any wild
game, or steal  an ox or  a sheep.  They
are entirely destitute of huts and house-
hold furniture.   The scorching heaven is
their tent, and the hot  sand  their bed.
Their weapons consist of .a small bow
and poisoned anows, which they shoot,
with astonishing accuracy, to a great dis-
tance.   Their language  is exceedingly
poor.  It  consists  of a   certain rattling
with the  tongue,  and   harsh,  gurgUng
tones,  for  which  we  have no letters.
They are, for the most part, of  low stat-
ure ; their skin is of a dark-yellow; and
their hair, which resembles wool, is twist- 
BUSHMEN—BUSTARD.
345
ed together in small tufts.  (See Hotten-
tots.)
  Bushwanas, or Boshuanas, or Bet-
jouanas ;  an African people, occupying
the country lying between 20° and 25°
S. latitude,  divided  into several tribes.
Though under the government of sepa-
rate chiefs, who  are often  at war with
each other, these tribes are united by lan-
guage, manners  and customs.  Less tall
than the Caffres, and as well proportion-
ed, their  form  is even more  elegant.
Their skin is of a brown tint, between the
shining black ofthe Negro and the yellow
color of the Hottentots.  They surpass
the Caffres in civilization and the arts of
life.   Some of their towns are considera-
ble.   Kurechanee was visited by Camp-
bell in 1821, who estimated the popula-
tion at 16,000.  Inoculation  for the small-
pox is practised there.  Old  and New
Leetakoo  contain each 4000 inhabitants.
The Bushwanas are inquisitive and intel-
ligent ;  without  any settled occupation,
yet always active. Their principal food
is the curds of milk  and the  produce  of
the chase: they rarely kill cattle, and have
an invincible aversion to fish.  The ashes
in which  their  meat  is cooked  serve
them  for  salt  Their clothes  are  made
ofthe skins of animals: the women cover
the breast, and leave the belly exposed.
Their ornaments are rings and  bracelets
of ivory and  brass.  Their houses are
light, clean, airy, and generally  of a cir-
cular  form.  They are very skilful  in
tempering iron,  and  making their  arms,
which consist  of a hassagay (javelin), a
shield  and a club.   Polygamy  is estab-
lished among diem; a young man buys a
wife for 10 or 12 oxen : her first business
is to build a house, for which she fells the
necessary  quantity of wood.  The  erec-
tion of the stable, the cultivation of the
fields, and all the household work, falls to
her.  As  soon as  he can afford it, the
Bushwana buys a second wife, who, in
like manner, must build a house and sta-
ble, and  cultivate  a piece of  ground.
Honesty,  loyalty and  Courage  are the
highest virtues, in their estimation.  They
have an idea of a soul, and believe  in  an
invisible Lord of nature, the sovereign
Dispenser of good and  evil, whom they
call Mourimo.   Their principal ceremo-
nies  are circumcision and  the blessing
of cattle.  They divide the year into  13
lunar months, and distinguish the planets
from  the  fixed  stars.  Christianity has
been introduced among them by mission-
aries, and  with it some degree of civihza-
tion.
  Buskin (in Greek and Latin, cothur-
nus) ; a kind of high shoe worn upon the
stage, by the ancient actors of tragedy, in
order to give them a more heroic appear-
ance.   It was introduced by Sophocles,
and, from this use, the word is figuratively
employed, by the  classic  authors,  for
tragedy itself (Juvenal, xv. 29), or for a
lofty and  elevated  style  (grande munus
Cecropio  cothurno, Hor.  Od. ii. 1, 12).
The buskin was also worn, by both sexes,
particularly by the ladies, for ornament
(Juv.  vi. 505).  The Melpomene in the
Villa Borghese has the  buskin.  Hunters
and soldiers  used  a different kind, re-
sembling the half-boot
  Bust (Italian, il busto,  from the  Latin
bustum), in sculpture; the representation
of that portion of the human figure, which
comprises the head and the upper part of
the body.  Busts  are of different extent:
1. such as consist of the head, the upper
part of the neck, and  the upper part of
the shoulders;  2. heads with the upper
part of the chest, to the  end of the breast-
bone  (busts properly so called); and, 3.
heads with the whole chest to the middle
ofthe body, often to the hips.  Between
the bust and its pedestal  is sometimes a
column, or a square prop; such a bust is
called Herme.   The figure  is sometimes
in relief.  The origin ofthe  bust may be
derived from the Herme, and from the
custom  of the  Greeks and Romans to
decorate  their shields with portraits, and
their vestibules with the images  of their
ancestors.  Busts were afterwards used
for the images of their gods, as being less
expensive.  The greater part have been
found in Rome and Italy. Some remarkable
ones have been obtained from Herculane-
um, in bronze.  The chief difficulty in the
execution of busts arises from this circum-
stance, that we are accustomed to estimate
the size  of the  head  by comparing it
with the  whole body.  In a bust, there-
fore,  the  head  appears  disproportion-
ately  large, and the artist is obliged to
yield, in some measure, to this ocular
deception, by  lessening its natural  pro-
portion.
  Bustard ; the trivial name of a species
of wader belonging to the genus otis, L.,
and to the family presdrostres, C.   The
great bustard (otis tarda, L.) is the largest
of European  land-birds, the male weigh-
ing, on an average, 25 pounds.  It is four
feet in  length, and measures nine feet
from tip to tip of the wings.  The head
and neck are ash-colored, and there is a
tuft of feathers about five  inches long on
each  side of the  lower mandible.   The 
346                         BUSTARD—BUTE.
back is transversely barred with black and
bright ferruginous colors, and the prima-
ries are black.   The  tail consists of 20
feathers,  broadly barred with  red  and
black. The belly is white, the legs dusky,
naked, and without a  hind toe.   The
female is but half the size  of the male,
and has the crown of the head of a deep
orange color, traversed by red lines; the
remainder  of the head  is brown.   She
otherwise resembles the  male, except that
the color of her plumage is less bright.
This species is found in most of the open
and level countries of the south and east
of England, where they  are  occasionally
seen, in autumn, in flocks of 50 and up-
wards.  They are very shy and vigilant,
and by no means easy  to shoot.  They
ran with great speed, and aid their course
with their  wings, like the ostrich.   Al-
though they rise on  the  wing with diffi-
culty, they are said to  fly  many miles
without resting.  They  feed  on grain,
seeds, worms, &c, and  lay two eggs, as
larjre as those of a goose: these are  of a
pale oUve tint, with dark spots.   The nest
is  merely a hole scraped in the earth.
They do not wander far from their accus-
tomed haunts, seldom  going to a greater
distance than 20 or 30 miles.  Their flesh
is considered fine eating.
  Butchers have been  much the same
in all ages  and countries, and we know
not of any great improvements that mod-
ern art or  science  has  introduced  into
the practice of slaughtering animals.  The
ancient Scythians, and their Tartar de-
scendants, seem to  be peculiar in their
taste for horse-flesh.  The Romans appear
to have loved beef, and veal, and mutton,
as well as  the modern   Europeans  and
their American descendants: cara omnia,
is the complaint of the old  comic writer,
agninam  coram, carom  bubulam,  vituli-
nam, porcinam, omnia cara.   In Paris, the
butcheries,  formerly receptacles of filth,
and  injurious  to health, were  remov-
ed by Napoleon, in 1809, to  the outskirts
of the city.  They are  called  abattoirs
(abattre, to  fell), and consist of spacious
buildings for the reception of the cattle,
preparing the tripe, tallow, &c, and reser-
voirs of water for the service ofthe estab-
lishments.  Of these  there  are five, in
which are  slaughtered  annually 75,000
black cattle, with a proportionate number
of sheep, &c.   The  larger animals are
felled by a  blow on  the head, and the ju-
gular vein is immediately separated with a
knife.  The flesh is then blown (gonfle),
by injecting air into the vessels through a
bellows, which gives it a plump appear-
ance.  Every part of the animal—bones,
horns, hoofs, blood,  intestines, hide, tal-
low—is used for the fabrication  of glue,
jelly, Prussian  blue, sal-ammoniac,  &c
In London, the carcass butchers kill the
meat, and sell  it out in  great quantities;
the retail butchers sell it out to the con-
sumers.   The  average number  of oxen
sold at Smithfield annually is 156,000;
sheep and lambs, 1,500,000; calves, 22,000;
hogs, 20,000.  The Jews in London have
their own butchers, who are licensed by
the rabbis.  They cut the throats of the
animals, never knocking them  down, ac-
cording to the usual practice.  In some
countries, the method of slaughtering cat-
tle  by penetrating the spinal marrow is
practised.
  Bute ; a small island of Scotland, lying
at the mouth of the Clyde, widi an area
of 29,000 acres, belonging principally to
the  marquis of Bute.  The climate is
moist and mild.  The herring fishery is a
profitable employment  The only town
is Rothesay, the  rains of the castle of
which, formerly inhabited by the Scottish
monarchs, still  remain.  It  gave the  title
of duke of Rothesay to the heir apparent
of Scotland.   The title is now transfened
to the prince of Wales.
  Bute (John  Stuart) earl  of; a British
statesman, bom in the beginning of the
18th century, in Scotland.   His ancestors
had been elevated to the peerage in 1703,
and were connected  with the  old  kings
of Scotland.   In his youth, B.  seemed
devoted to pleasure, and little inclined to
engage in politics; nevertheless,  in 1737,
after the death of a Scottish peer, he  was
chosen to fill his  seat in parliament.  In
consequence of  his  opposition to  the
measures of the ministry, he was left out
when a new parliament was convened,
in 1741.  Offended by this neglect, B. re-
tired to his estates, and lived there, wholly
secluded, till the landing of the Pretender
in Scotland, 1745, induced  him to  go to
London, and  offer  his  services to  the
government  Notwithstanding this man-
ifestation of zeal, he would not have been
brought  forward again, if he had not at-
tracted the notice of the prince of Wales,
at an exhibition of private theatricals, in
consequence of which he was invited to
the court. Here he soon gained influence,
and succeeded in making himself indis-
pensable to the prince. At his death, in
1751, he was appointed, by the widowed
princess, chamberlain to her son, and was
intrusted by her with his education. B.
never lost sight of his pupil, and possessed
so much more influence with the princess 
BUTE—BUTLER.
347
of Wales than her son's particular tutors,
the earl  of Harcourt and  the  bishop of
Norwich, that they resigned  their offices.
Lord Waldegrave and the bishop of Lin-
coln, who were chosen  in  their stead,
opposed  him unsuccessfully.   George II
died Oct. 25,1760, and, two days after,
B. was appointed  member of the  privy
council.  In March, 1761, the parliament
was dissolved.  B. was made secretary of
state, in the place of lord Holdemess, and
appointed Charles Jenkinson, afterwards
lord  Hawkesbury and  earl of Liverpool,
his under-secretary. Legge, chancellor of
the exchequer, was removed.  Pitt (the
great Chatham), who saw his influence in
the new  council annihilated, gave in his
resignation the same year.  This  event
made an unfavorable impression on  the
nation; but B., possessing the unbounded
confidence of his king, stood at the head
of the state.   Soon after, he removed  the
old duke of Newcastle, then first lord of
the treasury, and the only one of the for-
mer ministry remaining in office, and im-
mediately took  this important  post upon
himself}  receiving, at the same time, the
order of  the garter.  After a severe con-
test in parUament, he concluded a peace
with France.   The terms for England
were perhaps not disproportionate to  the
successes obtained during the war;  but it
was  disgraceful that the king of Prussia,
in violation of former treaties, should have
been left to his fate.   B. was obUged to
hear the  most  bitter reproaches; yet he
succeeded in winning the popular favor,
and  every thing seemed to promise  the
power ofthe minister a long continuance.
He had  rendered  the  whigs objects of
suspicion to the king, and excluded them
from the administration; on the contrary,
he  favored the tories, even the former
Jacobites, and thus sunounded the king
with persons whose principles coincided
with his  own, especially with his Scotch
countrymen.  The people murmured, and
numberless pamphlets  attacked the min-
ister with  bitterness, who  was slowly
gaining the confidence ofthe pubUc, when
new causes of dissatisfaction produced a
great irritation against him. To discharge
the debt  contracted by the war, he was
obliged to negotiate a loan, the interest of
which was to be paid by a tax on cider,
perry, &c.  In spite ofthe  opposition, the
mil passed both  houses.   The city of
London  in vain petitioned  the king to
refuse his consent.  The influence of B.
seemed unbounded, when it was  made
known, contrary to expectation, that he
had resigned his office as prime minister,
and  was,  in  future, to hve as a private
man.  George GrenviUe  succeeded him
in the ministry.   B. soon perceived the
weakness  of the administration, and en-
deavored to unite himself with Pitt. The
plan failed, and  the exasperation  of the
people was redoubled.  B. was still con-
sidered as the soul ofthe royal resolutions,
and  particularly  as the  author of the
stamp act, which kindled the  first flame
of discord between Great Britain and the
North  American colonies.  Certain it is,
that his friends spoke zealously against its
repeal.   Those  ministers who did not
support B.'s views were removed.  His
adherents, who called themselves friends
of the king, formed  a powerful party.
They were stigmatized with the old name
of cabal, and were denounced as the au-
thors of all the present evils.   In 1766, B.
declared, in the house of lords, that he
had wholly withdrawn from public busi-
ness, and no longer saw the king;  still it
was not doubted that his  great influence
continued.  On the death of the princess
of Wales, 1772,  he seems  first to have
given up all participation in the affairs of
government.  The public hatred towards
him  ceased, and he was forgotten.  He
spent his last years on his estate. A cost-
ly botanical garden, a  Ubrary of  30,000
volumes,  excellent  astronomical,  philo-
sophical and mathematical instruments,
afforded  him  occupation.  His favorite
study was botany, with which he was in-
timately acquainted.  For the queen of
England, he wrote the Botanical Register,
which  contained all the different kinds of
plants  in  Great  Britain  (9 vols., 4to.).
This work is remarkable,  both for its
splendor, in which  it excels  all former
botanical works, and for its rarity.   Only
12 copies were printed, at an expense of
more dian £10,000  sterling.  B. died in
1792.  He had more pretension than abU-
ity.  By engaging in politics, for which he
had neither talent nor knowledge, he lost
his own quiet, and his  imprudent meas-
ures brought trouble and confusion on the
nation.  He was reproached with haugh-
tiness ; but this was the fault  of a noble
spirit; and he steadily refused, during his
ministry,  to employ venal writers. Dis-
trustful and reserved, he has been describ-
ed as harsh, imperious and obstinate; yet
he was generaUy irresolute,  and even
timid.  His morals were  ineproachable.
In private life, he displayed an amiable
simpUcity.
  Butler, James, duke of Ormond; an
eminent statesman in the reigns of Charles
I and II.  He was born at London; sue- 
348
BUTLER.
 ceeded his grandfather, in 1632, and, al-
 though aft his connexions were Catholics,
 his wardship being claimed by James I,
 he was brought up  a member  of the
 church of England, to which he ever after
[constantly adhered.  When Strafford be-
 came lord-Ueutenant of  Ireland, B. was
 made  commander  of the  army,  which
 consisting of only 3000 men, he could do
 little more than keep the enemy in check,
 and was obliged to agree to a cessation of
 hostiUties; after which, having been cre-
 ated a  marquis, he was  appointed lord-
 lieutenant On the ruin of the royal cause,
 he retired to France.  After the execution
 of Charles, he returaed to Ireland, with a
 view  of raising  the people; but,  on the
 landing of Cromwell, he again returned
 to France.   While  abroad, he exerted
 himself to  further  the  restoration of
 Charles;  and,  when that event  was
 brought about by Monk, returned with the
 king.   Before the coronation, he was cre-
 ated duke, and assisted at  that ceremo-
 ny as lord high steward of England.  In
 1662, he  was again appointed lord-lieu-
 tenant of Ireland, which country he re-
 stored to  comparative tranquilUty, and
 was an active benefactor to it, by encour-
aging various improvements, particularly
the growth of flax  and manufacture of
linen.   On the  exile of lord Clarendon,
his attachment to that nobleman involved
 li.  in  much  of the  odium attached to
him, and although, on his  recall from Ire-
land, nothing, on the most rigorous inqui-
ry, could be proved against  him, he was
removed by the machinations of Bucking-
ham.   In 1670, a desperate design was
formed by the noted colonel Blood, whom
he had imprisoned  in  Ireland,  to  seize
his person,  and hang him at Tyburn.
The project succeeded so  far, that he was
one night  forcibly taken out of his coach
in St.  James's street,  placed  behind a
horseman, and canied some distance; but
at length he threw the man and himself
from the horse by his personal exertions,
and obtained  assistance before  he could
be replaced.   The king sent  lord Arling-
ton to request the duke  to  forgive the
insult;  who  calmly  replied, that, " If
his majesty could pardon Blood for  his
attempt to steal the crown, he might easi-
ly pardon that upon  his life;" adding,
that " he  would obey the king, without
inquiring his reason."  For six  years, he
was deprived of court favor, but at length
was again appointed  lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, which place he held during the
remainder of the reign of Charles; but
soon after resigned,  his  principles not
 suiting the policy of James.  He died  at
 his seat in Dorsetshire, in 1688, leaving
 behind him the character of a man who
 united the courtier and the man of honor
 and integrity better than any nobleman of
 the time.
   Butler, Joseph;  an English prelate of
 distinguished eminence as a  writer on
 ethics and theology.  He was born in
 1692, at Wantage, in Berkshire, where his
 father was a shopkeeper, and a Presbyte-
 rian dissenter.  After some previous edu-
 cation at a grammar-school, he was sent
 to an academy at  Tewkesbury, with  a
 view  to  ordination  as  a minister among
 the dissenters.  While occupied by his
 studies, he gave a proof of his talents by
 some  acute  and ingenious remarks on
 doctor Samuel Clarke's Demonstration of
 the Being and Attributes of God, in pri-
 vate letters addressed to the author.  He
 likewise  paid particular attention to the
 points of controversy between the mem-
 bers of the established church and  die
 dissenters, the result of which  was a de-
 termination to be no longer a nonconform-
 ist ; and he therefore removed to Oxford,
 in 1714.   Having taken orders, he was,
 in 1718, appointed preacher at the RoUs
 chapel, and,  in  1736, he was appointed
 clerk  of the  closet  to  the  queen. The
 same  year, he published  his celebrated
 work,  the Analogy of  Religion, Natural
 and Revealed, to  the  Constitution and
 Course of Nature.   In 1738, doctor B.
 was promoted to the  bishopric of Bristol,
 on the recommendation of queen  Caro-
 Une; and, in  1750, obtained his highest
 preferment—the bishopric  of  Durham.
 He died in 1752, and was interred in Bristol
cathedral.   A charge,  delivered  to the
clergy of the  diocese of Durham, on the
subject of external religion, together with
the circumstance of his setting up a mar-
ble cross in his chapel at  Bristol, gave
rise to suspicions that he was inclined to
the principles of popery;  and,  after his
death,  a report was  spread that he had
died in the Catholic faith;  but this story-
was satisfactorily contradicted by  arch-
bishop Seeker.
  Butler, Samuel, a celebrated English
poet was the son of a farmer in Strens-
ham,  in Worcestershire, where  he was
born in 1612, and educated at Cambridge.
He resided some time  with sir Samuel
Luke, a commander under Cromwell.  In
this situation, B. acquired  the materials
for his Hudibras, by a study  of  those
around him, and particularly of sir Sam-
uel himself, a caricature of whom consti-
tuted  the celebrated knight Hudibras. 
BUTLER—BUTTMANN.
349
The first part of Hudibras was pubUshed
in 1663, and was brought into the notice
of the court by  the well-known earl of
Dorset.   It  immediately became highly
popular with  the pfevaiUng party  in
church and state, and served as a general
source of quotation; the king himself per-
petually answering his  courtiers out of
Hudibras.   Celebrated as it  rendered its
author, it did nothing towards extricating
him from  indigence.  All the bounty of
Charles was a gratuity, said to amount to
£300.  Thus unpatronised, but respected
for his integrity, and beloved for his social
qualities, he died in 1680, and was buried
in St.  Paul's church, Covent garden, at
the expense of his friend Mr. Longueville,
of the Temple.  A  monument  was,  40
years after, erected  to his memory  in
Westminster abbey, by aldennan Barber,
the printer, lest,  as  the inscription  ob-
serves, ne  cui vivo deerant fere omnia, de-
esset etiam mortuo tumulus (he who, when
living, wanted every thing, should, when
dead, also want a tomb).  Of Hudibras it
is scarcely necessary to observe, that, both
in its style and matter,  it is one of the
most original works that was ever written,
and that it exhibits the faculty especially
denominated wit, meaning die power  of
rapid  Ulustration by remote contingent
resemblances, to a most remarkable de-
gree.  Possessed  of much  wit,  of great
knowledge of life, and extensive learning,
B. united  in himself all the requisites for
his very peculiar undertaking. As a work
intended to  ridicule the Puritans, the at-
traction of Hudibras was great, but tem-
porary.  As applicable to classes of char-
acter which exist for ever, its satire always
wffl be relished.  Fanaticism, hypocrisy,
and time-serving venality, are of aU ages.
Its diction, though coarse and negUgent, is
adapted for the conveyance of  the odd
and whimsical notions  and associations
with which the work abounds.   In fact,
the originality of B., as to matter, elicited
equal originality in its delivery.  In 1759,
appeared the Genuine Remains, in Prose
and Verse, of Mr. Butler, from the origi-
nal Manuscripts, fonnerly in the Posses-
sion of W. Longueville,  Esquire (2 vols.,
8vo.).
  Butter;  an  oily substance, produced
from the milk of kine.  Cream is composed
of an oily substance, a caseous matter, and
serum or whey.  If it be agitated about
an  hour  in  a  churn,  a separation  of
these parts takes place, and a soUd, called
butter, and a Uquid, called butter-milk, con-
sisting of the whey and the caseous mat-
ter, ore  the  products.  The proportions
  vol.  n.          30
of these products, in 100 parts of cream,
are,
  Butter,.................4.5
  Cheese,................3.5
  Whey,...............-.  92.0
                                 100.0
Chemical analysis  gives stearine, elaine,
and a small quantity of acid and coloring
matter, as the component parts of butter.
Beckmann  (History of Inventions,  372)
comes to the conclusion that butter is not of
Grecian nor of Roman invention; but that
the Greeks received it from the Scythians,
Thracians and  Phrygians, and that the
Romans derived it from the people of
Germany, and used it as a medicine, rather
than as a culinary luxury. In warm coun-
tries, the place of butter is  still, for the
most part, suppfied by oil. In Italy, Spain,
Portugal, and the south of France, it is
to be purchased in the apothecaries' shops.
The difficulty of keeping it  any length
of time is, indeed, an  effectual barrier
to its general use.   The ancients appear
to have  been wholly deficient in the art
of giving it consistency. The European
countries, in which oil or butter is used,
says Molte-Brun (Geog., liv. xcv), may be
separated by a line extending along the
Pyrenees, the Cevennes, the  Alps and
mount Haemus.  To the north, the pas-
turage is better; cattle abound, and the
food is  chiefly derived from them.   The
olive-groves to the south supersede  the
use of butter by that of oil.  The butter,
beer, and animal food, ofthe north of Eu-
rope, give way to oil, wine and bread, in
the warmer regions.  The word cliameah,
translated butter, in the English version of
the Bible, means some  liquid preparation
of milk or cream.  It was in general use
among  the Celts:—Spuma id est lactis,
concretiorque quam quod serum  vacatur,
barbararum  gentium  lautissimus cibus.
(Pliny, ix, 41, and xxviii, 9.) The Hindoos
make use of ghee, which means butter
clarified by boiling.  They boil the milk
two or three hours, which, when cool, is
fermented with curdled milk, left to sour,
churned, and, when it is sufficiently ran-
cid,  is boiled, and  mixed with salt, or
betel-leaf, and raddle, to improve its taste
and color.
  Butterfly.  (See PapUio.)
  Buttmann,  PhUip  Charles; born at
Frankfort, in 1764; studied at Gottingen;
was tutor ofthe princes of Dessau;  and,
in 1800, professor of the gymnasium of
Joachimsthal; at present, second librarian
and member of die academy of sciences
in BerUn.  (See Lowe's Autobiography of 
350
BUTTMANN—BUXHOWDEN.
learned Men in  Berlin (Selbstbiographie
von Berl.  Gelehrten), 1807, 3d number.)
B. is one ofthe most distinguished philol-
ogists of the present time, uniting with
comprehensive learning, penetration, per-
spicuity and conciseness  of style.   His
grammatical writings are known and used
in all the best schools.  The first edition
of his abridged Greek Grammar appeared
at BerUn (1792), the seventh, in 1824; the
tenth edition of the larger Grammar was
published in 1822; an English translation
of the School Grammar, by Everett, ap-
peared in 1822(Boston, N.E.),2ded.,1826;
reprinted in England, with the name of
the American translator struck out.  This
work owes its popularity to the philosoph-
ical clearness, order and unity with which
the elements ofthe language are iUustrat-
ed and combined.  The  philosophical
treasures, which were  excluded by the
limits of a school book, ere deposited in
two other works; his Lexilogus, particu-
larly intended for the explanation of Ho-
mer and Hesiod  (1st vol., Berlin,  1818,
and 2d ed., 1825); and his Complete Greek
Grammar (Berlin, 1819—1825). He was
also actively engaged in editing the clas-
sics, and in many works on the mythologi-
cal periods of antiquity.  They are spirit-
ed and elegant
   Buttons  are of almost all forms and
materials—wood, horn, bone, ivory, steel,
copper, silver,  similor, &c  The  tailor
covers them with stuffs, and the female
artisan envelopes them with a texture of
thread,  silk, cotton  and   gold or  silver
thread.   The non-metalUc buttons, called
also moulds, are  made of  the substances
first mentioned,  by  sawing them into
little slips, of the thickness of the button
to be made, which are then cut into the
form required, by  an instrument adapted
to the purpose.  Metallic buttons ore cast
in moulds, or cut by a fly-press.  Any
figure or inscription may be impressed on
them at the same time  that they are cut
The  Uttle wire ring, by which they are
attached to a garment, is caUed shank, and
is soldered  separately  on each button.
The details of smoothing, polishing, boil-
ing, &c, would occupy too much  room.
The face ofthe button is generaUy plated
or gilt.  Doctor  Church, on  American,
obtained a patent, in England (1829), for
an improved manufacture  of buttons with
a metaUic shank, the face being either of
   Silished  metal,  or covered  with any
   brie.  The various operations of shaping
the discs, forming the shanks, cutting the
cloth, and covering the faces of the but-
 tons, are all effected by one revolving shaft.
  Buttresses,  in  Gothic architecture,
are lateral projections on the outside  of
the woUs  of on edifice, extending from
the top to the bottom, at the coiners and
between the windows. They are neces-
sary  to support the walls, and prevent
them from spreading under the weight  of
the roof.
  Buttura,  Antonio; an Italian poet,
bom at Verona, 1771. When the com-
bined Austrian and Russian armies over-
threw the young Indian repubUcs in 1799,
B. took refuge in France.  At this time,
he was  known in  his own countiy  by
some pleasing  sonnets, and  an  ItaUan
translation of  Arnault's  tragedy of the
Venetians.  In  Paris, he translated  Boi-
leau's Art Poetique into Italian verse, with
a strict  adherence  to the ideas of the
original.   The attempt was the more dif-
ficult, as Boileau had so harshly censured
the master-work of Tasso.   Nevertheless,
the translation  met with approbation  in
Italy.  This approbation  of  the pubUc
induced him to translate, also, Racine's
Iphigenie en Aulide into Italian verse.   In
1811, he  printed a volume  of poems,
mostly odes, full of enthusiasm for France.
His  Essay on the Histoiy of Venice,  in
Italian prose, received the  highest appro-
bation in  Italy  and France, as likewise
did his Tableau de la Litterature Italienne,
which is  merely on introduction to  his
lectures at the Athenee, in Paris.
  Buxh6wden, Frederic WilUam, count
of; descended from an ancient  Livonian
family;  born on the  isle of Moen, near
Osel; was educated at St Petersburg, and
engaged  in the war against the Turks  in
1769, and for some time subsequent.   In
1783, he  was  made  colonel, owing his
promotion chiefly to his  marriage with
NataUa Alexijeff} 1777.  In 1790, he de-
feated the  Swedish  generals Hamilton
and  Meyerfeld, and rescued Fredericka-
ham and  Viborg.  In Poland, he com-
manded a Russian division in 1792 and
1794.  At the  storming of Praga, he re-
strained, as far as he was able, the fury of
the  soldiers.   Suwaroff  intrusted  him
with the  command of Warsaw and the
administration  of Poland.  His modera-
tion and disinterestedness gained him the
esteem of the Poles.   While miUtary gov-
ernor in Petersburg, he fell into disgrace
under the  emperor Paul.   Alexander
made him inspector of the troops in Li-
vonia, Esthonia and  Courland, with the
dignity of governor-general.   In 1805, he
commanded the left  wing at  Austerlitz,
which advanced, whilst  the  centre and
the  right  wing  w$re beaten.   In 1806, he 
BUXHOWDEN—BUYUKDERE.                   351
commanded 50,000 Russians, and with-
stood the French in the  eastern part of
Prussia.  After the defeat of Pultusk, he
was  unjustly superseded  by count Ben-
nigsen.  After the battles of Eylau and
Friedland,  he  was again made  com-
mander-in-chief.  In  1808, with  18,000
Russians, he conquered Finland, obliged
Sweaborg to capitulate, and terminated
the war at Tornea.  In 1809, he resigned
on account of his health, and died  in
1811.
  Buxton ; a market-town in the county
of Derby, England, situated in a valley,
celebrated  for its mineral waters.   The
springs discharge  60 gallons a  minute:
the temperature of the water is 82°.  It
is colorless, and devoid of taste or smell.
It contains calcarious earth, vitrioUc sele-
nite and sea-salt, and  is an active remedy
in nephritic and bilious complaints.  It is
used both externally and internally.  The
Crescent is an extensive edifice, divided
into three  hotels, and a private  lodging-
house.  The lowest story forms a colon-
nade, extending the whole length of the
front, the span of which is 257 feet.  The
season  for the  Buxton  waters  is  from
June to the end of October.  It was
known to  the Romans; and the unfortu-
nate Mary Stuart, while  in captivity, re-
sided some time at the Hall.  She left it
with the farewell,
                     Buxtona,
    Forte mihi posthac non adeunda, vale!
B. is 159 miles N. N.  W. of London.
   Buxton, Jedediah, an  extraordinary
calculator, was born in Eberton, in Derby-
shire.   His education  was wholly neglect-
ed : he was never taught  to read or write;
and how  he first learned the proportions
of numbers, their powers and denomina-
tions,  he  never could  remember.   His
power of abstraction was so great, that no
noise  whatever could disturb  him; and,
when asked any question, he would reply,
and immediately return to his calculation,
without the least  confusion.    He was
once asked  this question:—In a body,
whose three sides are 23,145,789  yards,
5,642,732  yards, and 54,965 yards, how
many cubical eighths of an inch ? He im-
mediately set to work, though in the midst
of a hundred laborers, and, in about five
hours, produced the  exact answer.  His
application to figures prevented  his mak-
ing the smallest  progress in any  other
branch of knowledge; and, on other sub-
jects, his ideas were as confined as  those
of a child.  In 1754,  he  walked to Lon-
don, and was introduced  to the royal soci-
ety.  He  was also taken to see Richard
III, at Drary lane, where, instead of pay-
ing attention to the entertainment, he was
engaged  in  counting  how  many  words
Garrick  uttered,  and the  steps of the
dancers.  He  died at about 70 years of
age.
  Buxtorf, John, an eminent Calvinistic
divine, was born  in 1564,  at Camen,  in
Westphalia,  Being very learned in He-
brew and Chaldaic, in the acquirement of
which he obtained the assistance of many
learned Jews, he was  engaged, by the
magistrates of Basil, in the professorship
of those  languages, which he taught with
great success.  He died at Basil, in 1629.
His works are, Lexicon Chaldaicum Thal-
mudicum et  Rabbinicum; Thesaurus Lin-
gua Hebraica; Hebrew Bible, with the
Rabbinical and Chaldaic Paraphrases, the
Massora, &c.; Hebrew and Chaldaic Dic-
tionary;  Hebrew Grammar;  Synagoga
Judaica,  a Collection of Modes and Cere-
monies ;  Bibliotheca Rabbinica; Institutio
Epistolaris Hebraica;  Concordantia He-
braica, &c. &c.
  Buxtorf, John, son of the preceding,
was born at Basil, in 1599, and was made
professor of the Oriental languages there.
He published a Chaldaic and Syriac Lex-
icon ;  Tractotus de Punctorum Vocalium et
Accentuum in Libris veteris Testamenti He-
braicis Origine, Antiquitate  et Auctoritate;
and Anti-critica, seu Vindicia Veritatis He-
braica ; in the two last of which he de-
fended his  father's opinions concerning
the  Hebrew vowel points.  He was also
the author of Dissertations on the Old and
New Testament; Florilegium Hebraicum;
Exerdtationes Philologico-critica, &c. He
died at Basil,  in 1664.  There were two
other Buxtorfs—John James, and John—
relations of the former, who both  were
professors in the same chair at Basil, and
both writers on Hebrew Uterature.
   Buyurdere (i. e.,  great valley,  from
buyuk, great, and dere, valley);  a charm-
ing little town on the western side of the
Bosphorus,  not  far from Constantinople
and the Black sea,  so called  from the
great valley in which it lies, whence also
the stream passing through it is called B-
The valley, as well as the  river, is called
 BaBvKoXnos, i. e., the deep-bosomed.  It was
formerly called the fair land (ko\os aypos).
This  splendid walk is now called the
meadows (Libadia, la prairie).   In the
lower part of this meadow is one of the
most splendid groups of trees on the Bos-
phorus,  consisting of seven plane-trees,
which are caUed, together, Jedi Kardasch,
i. e., the seven brothers.   According to a
 tradition not weU substantiated, Godfrey 
352
BUYUKDERE—BUZZARD.
 of BouiUon encamped in these meadows,
 in 1096, with an army of crusaders.  The
 place consists of the lower and the upper
 town.  In the former are  the houses of
 the Greeks, Armenians, and some Turks.
 In the upper part are the summer-houses
 and gardens of the European  amba-3sa-
 dors, besides which,  many also  have
 houses in Belgrade. Among these houses,
 the  most splendid is the palace of the
 Russian ambassador,  with its gardens.
 This and  several  other palaces lie to-
 gether on  the beautiful quay,  which is
 one of the most frequented walks of the
 people  of  B.   A long and handsome
 street, running through the place, con-
 sists of two rows of houses, built, for the
 most part,  in the  European  fashion.
 Foreigners often  pass the  winter here,
 on account of the beauty of the country.
 B. is also the general resort of the liigher
 classes, if a contagious disease prevails in
 Constantinople, Galata or Pera, as well
 as when an insurrection of the people is
 apprehended.  (See Frankland's Journey
 to and from Constantinople, London, 1829.)
  Buzzard (vultur aura, Wils.;  cathartes
 aura, IUig. ;  commonly called turkey-
 buzzard, or  turkey-vulture).  This bird is
 found over a vast  extent of territory on
 the American continent, in the West India
 islands, and in the southern  parts of Eu-
 rope and Asia.  In the U. 3tates, they are
 most numerous in the southern parts, and
 appear in the Northern States only during
 the summer.—The turkey-buzzard  is a
 perfectly hannless  creature, and derives
 its food exclusively from the putrid car-
 casses which are to be found within its
range.   It is, therefore, seldom disturbed
 by man, and does not exhibit much timid-
 ity, though by no means in  the habit of
frequenting the immediate vicinity of hu-
man dwellings, like its allied species, the
 black vulture, or  carrion crow  of the
south.   The  turkey-buzzard is gregari-
ous, and flocks of considerable  size ore
always found to feed and roost together.
For  the latter purpose,  they  generally
choose the  limbs  of dead trees,  upon
which they may be  seen sitting, with both
wings outspread, in the morning, as if for
the purpose of giving the fresh air free
 access to their bodies.—When  their fa-
 vorite canion is to be obtained, they are
 very voracious, gorging themselves until
 actually unable to contain more, and even,
 for a time,  rendering themselves unable
 to fly.   Under such circumstances, it is
 unadvisable  to approach them, as they
 are sure to  be revenged upon their dis-
 turbers by vomiting over them a torrent
 of horribly disgusting filth.  This is the
 only mode in which they attempt to de-
 fend themselves; and they especially re-
 sort  to it when any one interferes  with
 their nests.—The turkey-buzzard flies in
 a very beautiful manner, rarely flapping
 the wings, except in  rising  from   the
 earth, but sailing and dipping in beautiful
 curved lines, traversing a vast space  with
 wonderful celerity and ease, or soaring to
 the higher regions of  the atmosphere,
 until entirely lost to sight.  Like all the
 birds of their class, the buzzards possess
 strong powers of vision; but the sense of
 smelling is that by which they are princi-
 pally guided to their food.  This they are
 capable  of thus discovering  from  im-
 mense distances, and the most striking
 facts illustrative of the acuteness of their
 olfactory organs are on record.  Notwith-
 standing these, and the obvious evidence
 afforded  by the structure of their smelling
 apparatus, a recent writer has undertaken
 to assert  that they are  possessed of little
 or  no power of smelling.—The places
 chosen by the turkey-buzzard  for laying
 are  generally  in  remote  and solitary
 swamps,  or dense forests, where a hollow
 stump or rotten log serves for a nest
 The eggs are from two to four, of a dull-
 white  or cream color, splashed with
 chocolate and black, the patches of  this
 being  largest  and thickest towards  the
 larger end.  The egg resembles that of a
 goose, but is blunter at the small end:  it
 is two inches and three  fourths long by
 two broad.   The young are covered by a
 whitish down, somewhat similar to that
 upon a young gosUng.—Some years since,
 we obtained a young buzzard whUe  still
 covered with long, white down, with  the
exception of the wings, which were partly
feathered.  It was unable to fly, and  had
advanced  to  a party  of wood-cutters,
while at  work, having apparently  wan-
dered too far from the nest to  retrace its
steps.  As it seemed hungry, one of them
gave  it some meat, which it greedily
swallowed, and afterwards remained with
them until  they returned  home,  and
brought it with them.  This young buz-
zard speedily became domesticated, and
as importunately demanded food as any
 ofthe regular tenants of the poultry-yard.
 It ate all sorts of meat and garbage, uni-
 formly preferring the most filthy.  As it
 acquired  full plumage, it began to kill and
 devour the young ducks and  chickens,
 placing one  foot upon the victim, and
 leisurely tearing it to pieces with the bill.
 As this buzzard learned to fly, he  fre-
 quently made excursions, and returned to 
BUZZARD—BYLES.
353
roost upon a kitchen chimney.   At length
he one  day joined a  flock which was
soaring  over his residence, and never
after returned.—The turkey-buzzard is
two feet and a half long, and  his wings
are six  feet two inches from tip to tip.
The  head and neck, for  an inch and a
half below the ears, are furnished with a
reddish, wrinkled skin, beset with short,
black hairs, which also cover the bill, as
far as the anterior angle  of the nostrils,
which are oval.  The plumage is black,
the neck feathered equally aU round, and
the wings not reaching beyond the tail.
The tail is rounded.  There is no obvi-
ous difference between the  male and fe-
male.
   Buzzard's Bay ; a  bay  on  the south
coast of Massachusetts, opposite Barnsta-
ble bay.  It runs up between Seakonnet
point on the west, and Chatahunk, one
ofthe EUzabeth islands, on the  east; is 35
or 40 miles  long, and 7 wide. It ap-
proaches within 3£ miles of Barnstable
bay.  It has been contemplated to unite
these bays by a canal.  Lon. 70° 33' to
71° 10' W.; lat. 41° 25' to 41° 42' N.
   By-Law is a particular law made by a
corporation, or by any other distinct por-
tion of the community, for the regulation
of the affairs of its members in such of
their relations as are not reached by the
general  law of the land.  Such private
laws may legally be made  by all incor-
porated bodies, as civic corporations, trad-
ing companies, &c, and even by the body
of the  inhabitants of a town  or parish,
provided they involve  the  infraction of
no public laws, but are merely  calculated
to supply their want of application in the
particular instance. These private laws
are binding only on the members of the
body for which they are framed, and will
not  be recognised as  valid unless they
appear  to be  intended  for the general
good of that body, and not for the mere
furtherance of private  or personal inter-
ests.
   Byles,  doctor  Mather,  was  born in
Boston  in 1706, and educated at Cam-
bridge.   After  completing  his  studies in
theology, he was ordained the first pastor
of the church in Hollis street, Boston.  B.
contributed many essays to the New Eng-
land Weekly Journal,  and  several  occa-
sional poems, some of which were col-
lected in a volume.   He  corresponded
with Pope, Lansdowne  and Watts.  In
1776, his connexion with his congregation
was dissolved, on account of his toryism,
for any disaffection to the cause of the
colonies could no longer be tolerated.  In
                   30*
1777, he was denounced, in town-meeting,
as an enemy to his country, and after-
wards was tried before a special court.
The charges  against him were, that he
remained in the town during the siege,
that he prayed for the king, and received
the visits of the British officers.  He was
sentenced to confinement, with his fam-
ily, on board a guard-ship, and to be sent
to England with them.  On being brought
before  the  board of war,  he was treat-
ed with respect, and was ordered to be
confined to his  own house  for a  short
time.  He possessed, in a remarkable de-
gree, a ready and powerful wit, which he
sometimes  exerted where good  nature
would  have refrained, and left a lasting
sting by a transient jest  He exhibited
this love of ridicule in various ways.  On
one occasion, when sentenced, under sus-
picion  of toryism, to be confined to his
own house, with a sentinel over him, he
persuaded this sentinel to go on an errand
for him,  promising to  take his  place.
The sentinel  consented  to the arrange-
ment, and,  to the great amusement of all
who passed,  B. was seen very gravely
marching before his own door, the mus-
ket on his shoulder, keeping guard over
himself.  During his confinement in his
own house, a guard was placed over him,
and then removed.  On some fiirther com-
plaint,  a sentinel was again  placed over
him.  He was soon freed, and no further
noticed.   In  speaking of these transac-
tions, he said,  "he had  been guarded,
reguarded, and  disregarded."  Directly
opposite to his  house there was a very
bad slough in wet weather.   It happened
one day, that two of the select-men, who
had the care of the streets, stuck fast in
this hole, and were obliged to get out in
the mud to extricate  their vehicle.  B.
came out, and, making them a respectful
bow, said:—"Gentlemen, I have  often
complained to you of this nuisance, with-
out any attention being paid to it, and I
am very glad to see you stirring in this
matter  now."   A  ship  from  London
brought out 300 street lamps for the town
of Boston.  It chanced that, on the same
day, a female neighbor, who was a new
light, with a weak  mind  and a whining
manner, called to see  him.  Wishing to
get rid of the visitor, he soon asked, with
a tone calculated to excite  curiosity, if
she had heard the  news.  " O, no! dear
doctor,  what  news?"   "Why, 300 new
lights have come over in the ship that
arrived  this morning from London, and
the select-men have wisely ordered them
to  be  put in irons immediately."  His 
354
BYLES—BYRON.
visitor at  once hurried away, in great
anxiety, to make further inquiries.  B.
lived  in retirement the last 12 years of
his life, and died July 5, 1788, at the age
of 82.
  Byng, John,  served under his father,
admiral George B., and by his merits, as
well  as the influence  of  his name,  was
raised  lo the rank of admiral.  His at-
tempts to reheve fort St. Philip, in Minor-
ca, when  blockaded by a French fleet
under La  Galissoniere, proved abortive;
and his hesitation in engaging the enemy,
when a bold, attack might have perhaps
gained him the victory, excited the clamor
of the nation against him.   The ministry,
who  wished to avert  the public odium
from their unsuccessful measures, beheld
with  seeming satisfaction the unpopulari-
ty of B.; and, when he was condemned
by a  court martial, they  suffered him,
though  recommended  to  mercy,  to be
sacrificed to the general indignation, and
he was shot at Portsmouth, March 14,
1757, meeting his death  with calm res-
ignation.
  B ynkershoeck, CorneUus van; a Dutch
lawyer, born at Middleburg in 1675.  He
studied at the  university of Franeker,
and,  after practising as a banister at the
Hague, became professor  of law at Ley-
den,  and president of the  council of Hol-
land.   He died  in 1743.  B. was one of
the most learned among modem civilians.
His works were published at Geneva in
1761, and  at Leyden in 1766.  They are
written in Latin;  and his treatise De
Foro  Legatorum competente  was  trans-
lated, by Barbeyrac, into  French,  under
the title of Du Juge competent des Ambas-
sadeurs, 1728,4to.  B.  edited a periodical
publication, called  The New Mercury of
the Hague, which was  suppressed, owing
to the offence taken at the strain of satire
which it exhibited.
  Byron (George Gordon) lord, an Eng-
Ush peer and poet of elevated genius, was
born at London, Jan. 22, 1788. He  was
the grandson of admiral John B.  (q.v.),
and succeeded his  great  uncle, William
lord  B., while  at school,  in  1798.   His
father was the admiral's only son, captain
John B. of the  guards, notorious for his
gallantries and  reckless dissipation.  By
die eccentricity and misconduct ofthe old
lord  B., and of the captain his nephew,
the reputation  of  the famUy of  B., so
ancient and honorable in English history,
had  been considerably tarnished.   The
former was tried by his peers for  killing
his relation, Mr. Chaworth, in a  combat
with swords, after a tavern dispute, under
circumstances so equivocal, that he was
indicted for murder, and only saved from
the penalty attendant on manslaughter by
pleading his  peerage—an escape which
did not prevent him from being consigned,
by public  opinion, to a life of seclusion
and obscurity.  Captain B., the poet's fa-
ther, was  so  dissipated, that he obtained
the name ofthe mad Jack Byron.  He was
one of the handsomest men of his day,
but so immersed in all  the  fashionable
vices, that, at length, to be seen in his
company was deemed discreditable.  In
his 27th year, he seduced  Amelia, mar-
chioness of Carmarthen, daughter of the
earl of Holdernesse, to whom, on a di-
vorce following, he was united  in mar-
riage.  This  ceremony the ill-fated  lady
did not survive more than  two years,
when he  took, for a second wife, Miss
Gordon, whose fortune he  quickly dissi-
pated,  leaving her a destitute widow, in
1791, with a  son, the celebrated subject
of this article, then only three years of
age.  Previously to the death of her hus-
band, having  been  deserted by him, Mrs.
B. retired, with her infant son, to Aber-
deen, where she Uved in  narrow circum-
stances and great seclusion.  The singular
circumstances attendant  upon the early
childhood of B. seem to have operated
very materiaUy in the formation of his
very striking character.  Until seven years
of age, the care of his education rested
solely on his mother, to whose excusable,
but injudicious indulgence, some of the
waywardness, by which it was subse-
quently marked, was,  even by  himself,
attributed.  Being then of a weakly con-
stitution, that disadvantage, added  to a
slight malconformation in one of his feet,
naturally rendered him an  object of pe-
culiar  solicitude; and, to invigorate his
constitution,  he was  not sent  to school,
but allowed to  brace his limbs upon  the
mountains in the neighborhood; where
he  early acquired associations, and  en-
countered a mass of legendary lore, which
indisputably nurtured his poetical tenden-
cies.  At the  age of seven, he was sent to
the grammar-school at Aberdeen, where
he was more  distinguished for great occa-
sional exertions, in order to  make up for
the intervals  of absence,  rendered neces-
sary by his delicacy of health, than by
his general'  application.   In aU  boyish
sports, however, the ardor of his temper-
ament enabled him to surmount his natu-
ral disadvantages.  In 1798, the death of
his great uncle, without issue, gave him
the tides  and estates of the famffy ; on
which, being then ten years  of age, he 
BYRON.                               355
was removed from the immediate care of
his mother, and placed under the guardi-
anship of the  earl of Carlisle, who had
manied the sister of the late lord B., a
lady of considerable poetical abilities. On
this change, the youthful lord was placed
at Hanow, where he distinguished him-
self more by  his love of manly sports,
and by his undaunted spirit,  than by at-
tention to  his studies,  or submission to
school discipline ; but, although, in a sub-
sequent part  of his life,  he indulged in
some  animadversion  upon the tendency
of the system in public schools, he always
cherished an  affectionate remembrance
of Harrow, and  of its  master,  doctor
Drury.   While  yet at  school,  he  fell
deeply in love with Miss Chaworth, the
daughter and  heiress of the gentleman
who had fallen by the hand  of his great
uncle, whom  he met  with  on  his oc-
casional  visits to  Newstead.   This lady,
to whom he very  beautifully  alludes in a
well-known poetical  Dream, although
some  interviews and billets seem to have
passed between them, ultimately married
another and more mature suitor.  This
disappointment  exceedingly  wounded
the ardent spirit  of  the  youthful lover.
When between 16 and 17, he was entered
of Trinity coUege, Cambridge; and here,
as at Harrow, his dishke of discipUne
drew  upon him  much unavoidable  re-
buke, which he repaid with sarcasm and
satire ; and, among other  practical jokes,
kept a bear, which, he  observed, he was
training up for a degree.  At 19, he quit-
ted the university, and took  up his resi-
dence at the  family seat of  Newstead
abbey, where he employed himself chiefly
in amusement, and especially in  aquatic
sports and swimming.   In  1807, while
still at Newstead, he  ananged his early
productions, which he caused to be print-
ed at  Newark, under the title of Hours of
Idleness, by George Gordon Lord Byron,
a Minor.  These poems,  although exhib-
iting some  indication of the  future poet,
also betrayed several  marks of juvenility
and imitation, which induced the Edin-
burgh reviewers  to  indulge in  a cele-
brated attack, much less distinguished for
wit or acumen,  than  for unreasonable
causticity and ill-nature.  The ridicule
produced by this critique  roused  the an-
ger of the poet, who took revenge in  his
celebrated  satire  of  English Bards and
Scotch Reviewers. The  spirit of resent-
ment  is seldom very just; and the anger,
rather than the judgment of B., guided
his pen on this occasion. It happened,
too,  singularly enough,  that,  owing to
party and other predilections, a number
of the  persons satirized in this poem, no
long time after, were numbered among
the friends of the author; for which rea-
son, after it had passed through 4 editions,
he suppressed it  It is unpleasant to re-
late, that, about this time, B. gave into a
career of dissipation, too prevalent among
the youthful possessors of rank and for-
tune, when altogether uncontrolled. Thus
his fortune became deeply  involved be-
fore he had attained legal maturity, and
his constitution much impaired by the
excesses in which he spent it.  This,
however, was not  a course  to last; and,
in the year 1809, he determined to trav-
el.  Accordingly,  in  company with  his
fellow  collegian, John Cam  Hobhouse,
Esq., he embarked at  Falmouth for Lis-
bon, and proceeded through the southern
provinces of Spain to the Meditenanean.
His subsequent peregrinations in Greece,
Turkey, &c, need not be detailed here,
having been rendered so famous by his
fine poem of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage.
He returned home in June, 1811, after an
absence of two years, and had not long
arrived, before he was  summoned to
Newstead, in consequence of the danger-
ous illness of his  mother, who breathed
her last before he  could  reach her.  In
1812, he gave to the world  the two first
cantos  of Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage.
This assumption  of the  character of a
wayward  Ubertine, satiated,  by  an over
cultivation of pleasure, into misanthropy,
tedium and l'istlessness, and that in such
a manner, that  the   application would
necessarily be made to himself, afforded
proof both ofthe perverted feeling and of
the originality of B.   There  was, how-
ever, a boldness in the repulsive  personi-
fication, and a force and an energy in the
mode of supporting it, so indicative of
great powers, that it at once produced its
impression.  Eulogy now flowed in from
all quarters.  Even the readers who dis-
approved  the  misanthropy  and  sombre
views of human nature, displayed in this
extraordinary production, confessed  its
genius.  Thus the feeUngs of admiration
became general, and,  the strong current
of fashion turning  directly  in his favor,
his acquaintance was widely, not to say
universally, courted; and his first entry
on the stage of public life may be dated
from this era.  Nor were the manners,
person and conversation of B. of a nature
to dissipate  the charm with  which  his
talents had invested him.  Although easy
and affable in his  general manners, the
latent reserve  of conscious  genius  was 
356
BYRON.
always observable; added to which, the
associations connected with his identifi-
cation  with his own Childe Harold ex-
cited a mysterious and indefinable curios-
ity.  Even his physiognomy was emi-
nently calculated to keep up the interest
which  he otherwise inspired; the pre-
dominating expression of his fine features
being that of deep and habitual thought,
although,  when  engaged in interesting
discussion, they  as forcibly  exhibited
gayety, indignation and satire.  Thus, in
the imitative world of fashion, the enthu-
siastic  looked on him to admire, the seri-
ous to admonish,  and the soft  with a
desire to console.  The latter sympathy
he  excited  too  powerfully in  certain
quarters, and a course of noxious intrigue
was the consequence.  It is more gratify-
ing to observe, that, in the midst of all
this  license, he was capable of delicate
and generous actions, of which a number
of well authenticated instances  are  on
record.    The  quick  and scrutinizing
glance which he had  cast on  Eastern
character  and manners was now mani-
fested in the  Giaour, the Bride of Aby-
dos,  the Corsair (the copyright of which,
as well as that of Childe Harold, he gave
to Mr. Dallas), Lara, and the Siege of
Corinth, which followed  one another in
quick succession.   For parliamentary du-
ties  he seems to  have had a  decided
distaste; and it was not until his  return
from the  continent, that he ventured to
speak.  He made his maiden speech in
February, 1812, from the opposition bench,
against the frame-work bill, and was ar-
gumentative and lively, if not very origi-
nal.   Having now become a  character
whose support might be of considerable
consequence, he  was congratulated ac-
cordingly.  Another time, he addressed
the house in support of Catholic emanci-
pation, and a third and last time on pre-
senting a petition from major Cartwright
On the 2d of January, 1815, he married
Anna Isabella, only daughter of sir Ralph
Milbanke  Noel, baronet, to whom he had
proposed himself a year before, and been
rejected.  The fortune received with  his
lady was not large, and, his own having
been previously  much enthralled, the
reckless system of splendor which suc-
ceeded the marriage could not be long
maintained; and, after enduring consider-
able embarrassments, it was finally settled,
that lady B., who had presented his lord-
ship with a daughter on  the  10th of
December, should pay her father a visit,
until better arrangements could be made.
From  this  visit  lady  B.  ultimately re-
fused to return, and a formal separation
ensued.  This rupture  produced a con-
siderable sensation in the world of fashion,
and the most contradictory rumors pre-
vailed, in the midst  of which B. left
England, with an expressed resolution
never to return.   He crossed over to
France, through which he passed rapidly
to Brussels, taking, on  his way, a survey
of the field of Waterloo.  He then visited
the banks of the Rhine, Switzerland, and
the north of Italy,  and,  for some time,
took up his abode at Venice.  Here he
was joined by Mr. Hobhouse, who accom-
panied him on a visit to Rome, where he
completed his third canto of Childe Har-
old.   Not long after appeared the Pris-
oner  of  ChUlon, a Dream,  and other
Poems ; and, in 1817, Manfred, a tragedy,
and the Lament of Tasso.  In one of his
excursions  from Italy,  he resided, for
some time, at  Abydos, and thence pro-
ceeded toTenedos and the island of Scio,
where he likewise  staid three  months;
during which time he visited every clas-
sical scene,  and frequendy slept in the
peasants' cottages, to whom his liberality
made him  a welcome guest.  He also
visited several other islands, and at length
repaired to Athens, where he sketched
many of the scenes of the fourth and last
canto of Childe Harold, which poem was
published in 1818, and sustained the high
reputation of the author.   In the same
year appeared  the jeu d'esprit of Beppo,
in the mixed and pointed  manner of the
Italian style of poetical humor, and mark-
ed by a  tone  of loose morality, which
ripened into licentiousness in  Don Juan.
In 1819 was published the romantic tale
of Mazeppa, and  the same  year was
marked by the commencement of Don
Juan, which his  bookseller, Mr. Munay,
declined openly to publish.  Of this cel-
ebrated production, it is  as vain to deny
the profligacy  as the genius.   In  1820
was  published Marino  Faliero,  Doge of
Venice, a tragedy, written with an avow-
ed attention to the exploded system of
the dramatic unities, which too frequently
subtracts from the interest all that it gives
to more cold and classical qualities; nor
did this effort of B.'s prove an exception.
The next year, he addressed  a letter to
Mr. W. Lisle Bowles, in  defence of the
poetical character of Pope,  which  had
been rated very low in that writer's life
of him.  This dispute arose out of a dis-
position, in certain critics, to ground poet-
ical character exclusively on  a tendency
to deal with the primary associations con-
nected with natural objects and affections, 
BYRON.
357
rather  than  on the more complex and
factitious combinations produced by art
and cultivation.  This school not unfre-
quently pushes its  theory to an extreme,
as in the case of Pope, whom B., on the
other hand, may have somewhat hyper-
bolically exalted.  In the same year ap-
peared the drama of Sardanapalus, indis-
putably the finest of his  tragic offspring;
the Two Foscari, a tragedy ; and Cain, a
mystery.   The last is a production of
much  power,  but  marked  by the  same
rashness of speculation and  recklessness
of moral effect, which disfigure many of
die author's productions.—When B. quit-
ted Venice, after visiting several parts of
the Italian dominions of Austria, he set-
tled at Pisa; where he became connected
with the Gamba  family, in whose behalf
he endured  some  inconvenience, which
ended  in the  banishment of the counts
Gamba, and the open residence of the
countess with B.   In 1822, in conjunction
with Mr. Leigh Hunt, who,  on invitation,
had  become  his guest, and Mr.  Percy
Bysshe Shelly, the  periodical pubUcation
called  the  Liberal  was  commenced,
which, principally owing to  the unhappy
fate of Mr. Shelly  (who perished by the
upsetting of a boat in the Mediterranean),
extended only to four numbers.  In this
work first appeared the  Vision of Judg-
ment, caused by the singularly ill-judged
performance, under the same title, of Mr.
Southey.   The publisher was prosecuted,
and  fined  £100.  Heaven and Earth, a
mystery, also  first  appeared in the  Lib-
eral.   It is  founded  on the  supposed
intercourse  between  angels  and  the
daughters  of earth before the flood, and
possesses great force  and beauty.   The
later cantos of Don Juan, with Werner, a
tragedy, and the Deformed Transformed,
a  fragment, bring up  the  rear of B.'s
performances.  In  the  autumn of  1822,
he quitted Pisa,  and wintered at  Genoa,
and now began to indulge those feelings,
in regard to the  efforts  of the Greeks to
throw off the Mohammedan yoke, which
determined  him to lend them the aid
of his  person, purse and influence.  It
would  also appear, by some noble verses
which  have been printed since his death,
that a secret consciousness  of his  career
of action having too long been unworthy
of him, induced him to seek a nobler spe-
cies of distinction than one  of mere self
engrossment and successful  gallantry. It
is unnecessary to dwell upon the general
tendency of powerful minds, at a particu-
lar stage of existence, to break from the
enth raiments of pleasure and the senses,
because it has been the great theme  of
allegory ever  since allegory was invent-
ed.   In addition to being satiated with
the usual enjoyments of a dissipated man
of rank, and disgusted with the sameness
of common-place Ufe, many circumstances
contributed to render B. an enthusiast  for
Greece.  In common with many  more,
the associations connected with its illus-
trious histoiy doubtless served to  stimu-
late his concern for its  modern degrada-
tion ; but  in  him  these feeUngs were
quickened  by an  acquaintance with  its
grand and  beautiful scenery,  its various
races of wild and picturesque manners,
and by the personal interest which he had
already excited there.   Whatever may
have been the exact combination of mo-
tive, in  August, 1823, he embarked, ac-
companied by five or six friends, in  an
English vessel, which  he had hired  for
the  purpose,  and  arrived at the com-
mencement of the third campaign.  He
established himself some time in Cepha-
lonia, and despatched his friends, Messrs.
Trelawney and Hamilton Brown, with a
letter to the  Greek government.   The
result of their information induced him
to advance  £12,000 for the reUef of Mis-
solunghi.   The dissensions  among the
Greeks gave him great pain, and involved
him in considerable difficulties.  At length
he sailed from ArgostoU with two Ionian
vessels, and, taking considerable specie on
board, proceeded to Missolunghi,  where,
after considerable hazard and danger, and
the  loss of one of his  vessels, he  finally
arrived, and  was  received with  every
mark of honor Grecian gratitude could
devise.  His  influence  was immediately
salutary in  the mitigation of the ferocity
with which the war was waged  on the
part  of the Greeks ; but it was  much
more difficult to produce union  among
their leaders.   He immediately began to
form a brigade of  Suliotes, 500 of  whom
were  taken into his pay, with a view to
an expedition against Lepanto ; but such
was the disorderly and unsettled temper
of these troops, that he was  obliged to
postpone it This unexpected disappoint-
ment preyed  on his spirits, and, Feb.  15,
he was attacked with a  severe fit of epi-
lepsy.   He had, subsequently, other  at-
tacks, but at  length the violence  of the
disorder began to yield to the skill  of  his
physician, and he was  recommended to
remove, for a  while, from the flat, marshy
and  unhealthy site of Missolunghi,  to
Zante.  This  step, with his usual tenaci-
ty, he refused to take.   "I cannot quit
Greece (he wrote to a friend) whffe there 
358
BYRON
is a chance of my being even of (sup-
posed) utility.  There  is a stake worth
mUUons such as I am, and  while I can
stand at all, I must stand by the cause.
While I say this, I am aware of the diffi-
culties, dissensions  and defects of the
Greeks themselves; but allowance must
be made for them by all reasonable peo-
 Ele."  On the expedition against Lepanto
 eing given up, other projects were pro-
posed with reference both to military op-
erations and  to congresses  for  uniting
Eastern and Western Greece; but, un-
happily, the fetal moment was at hand
which was to deprive the Greek cause of
its firm and energetic friend.   On the 9th
of April,  B., while riding  out, got ex-
tremely wet;  and,  scarcely  recovered
from the effects of his former disorder, a
fever ensued, which, it  is thought, might
have yielded to copious bleeding in the
first instance, but which, owing either to
his own objection or the inaccurate opin-
ion of the physician of the nature of the
disease, was destined to  prove fatal on the
evening ofthe 19th of April, 1824.  During
his illness, some fine traits of humanity
and feeling for his attendants were exhib-
ited by B., and nearly his lost words, pre-
vious to sinking into the lethargy which
ended in  death,  were, "My  wife, my
child, my  sister!—you know  all—you
must say aU."   His  utterance  then failed
him, as it had previously done in refer-
ring to the same near connexions.  Thus,
in his 37th year, prematurely died this
extraordinary genius, to the deep afflic-
tion of the  people  whose  cause he had
espoused,  who  decreed  every' possible
public testimony of their sorrow. Nor
was his death a subject of less regret to
many, who looked for a  noble  recom-
pense, in the maturity of his life, for the
faults of its commencement and preced-
ing  progress.   Many of his enors were
evidently  the result of a too early release
from all discipUne  and control, and the
neglect which  family circumstances had
thrown round him.  In other respects,
the vices and faiUngs of B., undeniable, it
is true, were much magnified by the pe-
culiarity  of  his  genius  and  character,
which attracted an intensity of observa-
tion to all which concerned him. The
disposition of the pubUc at once to  ad-
mire and condemn, accompanied as it
was with  an involuntary tendency to con-
found the character of the poet with some
of the most  romantic creations of his
imagination, however it might annoy him
in the first instance, in  the sequel too ob-
viously nurtured  a degree of personal
vanity, which formed one of the greatest
weaknesses of his character.   Common-
place censure produces little effect when
coupled with great admiration, and still
less is effected by the  virulence of party
attack, or by direct  personal hostility.
The morals of B., on the  score of gal-
lantry, his carelessness of female reputa-
tion, and hasty and vindictive spirit of re-
sentment, are altogether indefensible; but
it is certain that they were mixed up with
great humanity, benevolence  and gen-
erosity.  It  was  evident,  too,  from  his
death, and  many other circumstances,
that, whatever his pride and  resentment
at being so decisively abandoned, he nur-
tured the natural feeUngs of a husband
and father deep in his bosom.   In respect
to several disputed points of his conduct,
the Memoirs, by himself (which he gave
to Mr. Moore to  raise a loan from Mr.
Murray,  the  bookseller, and  which that
gentleman, at the instance  of his family,
thought proper to destroy), would, doubt-
less, have given much  information  to the
world.  As it is, certain journals of visit-
ors, and  of temporary companions, pro-
fessing to  record his conversation, but
poorly supply their place.  The body  of
B. was brought to England, and laid  in
state  in  London.  It was  subsequently
interred near his  own seat of Newstead
abbey, where a plain marble slab merely
records his name and title, date  of death,
and  age.   Besides his only  legitimate
child and heiress, B. left another daugh-
ter  in Italy, to whom he bequeathed
£5000, on the condition of her not mar-
rying an  Englishman.   The successor to
his estate and title was his cousin, captain
George Anson Byron, of the royal navy.
  Byron, John, an English commodore,
born in the year 1723, embarked,  at the
age of 17, in one ofthe ships of lord An-
son, which  was fitted out  for  a voyage
round the world, but was wrecked on the
coast of the Pacific, north of the straits of
Magellan.  B., with some of his unfortu-
nate companions, was  conducted, by the
Indians, to Chili,  and  remained there  tiU
1744, when he embarked on board  a ship
of  St Malo, and, in  1745, returned to
Europe.  In 1758, he commanded three
ships of the line,  and  distinguished him-
self in the war against France.  George
HI, who wished to explore the part of the
Atlantic ocean between the cape of Good
Hope and the southern part of America,
gave B. the command of a frigate, with
which he set sail, June, 1764, having un-
der his  order the frigate Tamar.  Both
ships touched at Madeira  and the Cape 
BYRON—BYZANTINE  EMPIRE.                  359
Verd islands, and proceeded thence to the
Rio Janeiro, opposite  the  city of  that
name.  B.  then sailed  to the southern
part ofthe Atlantic ocean, and, after hav-
ing searched in vain for Pepys' islands,
he visited the Falkland  islands, and, pass-
ing through the straits of Magellan, con-
tinued his voyage in the South sea.  Here
he feU in with BougainviUe, who was en-
gaged in founding a colony in the Falk-
land islands.   B. directed  his  course
northward  to the  island of Masafuero;
then, sailing westward, he passed the Dan-
gerous Archipelago, lying on  the east  of
the Society islands, and discovered the
isles of Disappointment and King George's
islands.   Thence  he  directed his  course
north-west, and discovered the islands call-
ed Danger and Byron's island; sailed by
the  Carolinas  into  the  Chinese sea;
thence proceeding southerly, he passed
through the straits of Banca to Batavia;
from whence he set sad at the close of
the year 1765, and, in May, 1766, arrived
in England.  Although B.'s  voyage  was
not fruitful  in discoveries, it still deserves
an  honorable place in  the  history  of
voyages round  the world, since he  was
the first of those renowned circumnavi-
gators ofthe globe,including WalUs,Car-
teret and Cook, whose enterprises were
not barely mercantile, but  were directed
to scientific objects.
  Byron's  Island ; a small island in the
Pacific, about 12 miles in length, abound-
ing in cocoa-trees.  It was discovered by
commodore Byron (q. v.) in  1765.  Lon.
173° Iff E.; lat TIB'S.
   Byssus (gossypion and xylon), cotton,
was brought from India about the time
of Herodotus, and still earUerfrom Egypt.
In this latter country, it was used in  em-
balming, and the mummies are still found
wrapped in it.  As an article of dress, it
was worn  only by the rich.  Dives,  in
Christ's parable (Luke xvi, 19), was cloth-
ed in byssus, and it is  mentioned among
the riches  of fallen Babylon (Rev. xviii,
12).  Byssus was formerly erroneously
considered as a fine kind of Unen. The
fine stuff manufactured from the byssus
is called, more particularly, rindon.  Fos-
ter derives the word  byssus from the
Coptic.   Byssus was also used by the an-
cients, and is still used, to signify the hair
or thread-Uke  substance (called  beard),
with which the different  kinds  of sea-
muscles fasten  themselves  to the rocks.
The pinna marina, particularly, is distin-
guished by the  length and the silky fine-
ness of its beard, from which very durable
cloths, gloves and stockings are still man-
ufactured  in  Sicily and Calabria.  (See
Foster De Bysso Antiquorum, 1776.)
  Byzantine  Empire.  The Byzantine
or Eastern Roman Empire comprehend-
ed,  at first, in Asia, the country on this
side of the Euphrates, the coasts of the
Black sea, and Asia Minor; in Africa,
Egypt;  and in Europe, all the countries
from the Hellespont to  the Adriatic and
the  Danube.  This survived the Western
Empire 1000 years, and was even increas-
ed by the addition of Italy and the coasts
of the Mediterranean.   It commenced in
395, when Theodosius divided the  Ro-
man empire between his two sons, Arca-
dius and  Honorius.  The Eastern Em-
pire fell to the  elder, Arcadius, through
whose weakness it suffered many misfor-
tunes.   During his minority, Rufinus was
his  guardian and minister, between whom
and Stilicho, the minister of the Western
Empire, a fierce rivalry existed.  The
Goths laid waste Greece.  Eutropius, the
successor, and Gainas, the murderer, of
Rufinus, were ruined by their own crimes
(399).  The latter lost his Ufe in a civil
war excited by him (400).  Arcadius and
his  empire were now ruled by his proud
and covetous wife, Eudoxia, tiU her death
(404).   The  Isaurions  and   the Huns
wasted  the provinces of Asia  and the
country along the Danube.   Theodosius
the  Younger succeeded his father (4081
under the guardianship of his sister Pul-
cheria.  Naturally  of an inferior mind,
his  education  had made him  entirely im-
becile and unfit for self-command.  Pul-
cheria, who bore the title of Augusta, ad-
ministered the  kingdom  ably.  Of the
Western Empire, which had  been ceded
to Valentinian, Theodosius retained West
Ulyria (423).  The  Greeks  fought with
success  against the king of the Persians,
Varanes.  The  kingdom of  Armenia,
thrown  into confusion by internal dissen-
sions, and claimed, at the same time, by
the  Romans  and the Persians,  became
now on  apple of contention between the
two nations (440).  AttUa laid waste the
dominions of Theodosius,  and obliged
him to pay tribute (448).  After the death
of her brother, Pulcheria was acknowl-
edged empress  (450).  She was the first
female  who attained this dignity.   She
gave her hand to the senator Marcian, and
raised him to the throne.  His wisdom
and valor averted the attacks ofthe Huns
from the frontiers, but he did not support
the  Western Empire, in its wars against
the Huns and the Vandals, with sufficient
energy.   He afforded shelter to a part of
the  Germans  and Sarmations, who were 
860                       BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
 driven to the Roman frontiers by the in-
 cursions of  the Huns.  Pulcheria  died
 before him, in 453.  Leo I (457), a prince
 praised  by  contemporary authors,  was
 chosen successor of Marcian.  His expe-
[ditions against the Vandals (467) were un-
 successful. His grandson Leo would have
 succeeded him, but died a minor short-
 ly after  him, having named his father,
 Zeno, his coUeague (474).   The govern-
 ment of this weak  emperor, who was
 hated by his subjects,  was disturbed by
 rebellions and  internal disorders of the
 empire.  The  Goths  depopulated the
 provinces till their king Theodoric turned
 his arms against  Italy (489).  Ariadne,
 widow of Zeno, raised the minister Anas-
 tasius, whom she manied, to the throne
 (491). The nation, once excited to dis-
 contents and tumults, could not be entire-
 ly appeased  by the  alleviation  of  their
 burdens  and by wise decrees.  The forces
 of the empire, being thus weakened, could
 not offer an effectual  resistance to the
 Persians and the  barbarians along the
 Danube.  To prevent their incursions in-
 to the peninsula of Constantinople, Anas-
 tasius built the long wall, as  it is called.
 After the death of Anastasius, the soldiers
 proclaimed  Justin emperor  (518).   Not-
 withstanding his low birth, he maintained
 possession of the throne. Religious per-
 secutions, which he undertook at the in-
 stigation ofthe clergy, and various crimes,
 into which he was seduced by his nephew
 Justinian, disgrace his reign.  After his
 early death, in 521, he was succeeded by
 the   same Justinian (q. v.), to whom,
 though he deserves not the name of the
 Great, many virtues of a ruler cannot be
 denied.  He was renowned as a legisla-
 tor, and his  reign was distinguished by
 the victories of his general Belisarius; but
 how  unable he was to revive the strength
 of his empire, was proved by its rapid de-
 cay after his death.  Justin II, his succes-
 sor (565), was an avaricious, cruel, weak
 prince, governed by his wife.  The Lom-
 bards tore  from him part of Italy (568).
 His war with Persia, for the possession
 of Armenia (570), was unsuccessful; the
 Avari plundered the provinces on the
 Danube, and the violence of his grief at
 these misfortunes deprived him of reason.
 Tiberius, his minister, a man of merit,
 was declared Caesar, and the general Jus-
 tinian conducted the war against Persia
 with  success.  The  Greeks now allied
 themselves, for  the first time,  with the
 Turks.   Against his successor, Tiberius
 II (578), the empress Sophia and the gen-
 eral Justinian conspired in vain. From
the Avari the emperor purchased peace ,
from the Persians it  was extorted by his
general Mauritius or Maurice (582).  This
commander Tiberius declared Caesar in
the same year.  Mauritius, under other
circumstances,  would have made an ex-
cellent  monarch, but, for the times, he
wanted prudence  and  resolution.   He
was indebted for the tranquillity of the
eastern frontiers to the gratitude of king
Chosroes II, whom, in  591, he  restored
to the  throne, from which he hod  been
deposed by his subjects.  Nevertheless,
the war against the Avari was unsuccess-
ful, through the enors of Commentiolus.
The army was  discontented, and was ir-
ritated, now by  untimely severity and
parsimony, and now  by timid indulgence.
They finally proclaimed Phocas, one of
their  officers, emperor.  Mauritius was
taken in his flight, and put to death (602).
The vices of Phocas, and his incapacity for
 fovernment, produced the  greatest disor-
 er in the empire.  Heraclius, son of the
governor of Africa, took up arms, conquer-
ed Constantinople, and caused  Phocas to
be executed  (610). He distinguished him-
self only in the short period of the Persian
war.  During the first  12 years of his
reign, the Avari, and  other nations of the
Danube, plundered the  European prov-
inces,  and the  Persians conquered the
coasts of Syria and Egypt.  Having final-
ly succeeded in pacifying  the  Avari, he
marched against the Persians (622), and
defeated them ;  but, during this time, the
Avari, who had renewed the war, made
an unsuccessful attack on Constantinople,
in 626.  Taking advantage of an insur-
rection  of the  subjects  of Chosroes, he
penetrated into the centre of Persia.  By
the peace concluded with Siroes (628), he
recovered the lost provinces and die holy
cross.   But the Arabians, who,  mean-
while, had become powerful under Mo-
hammed  and  the   caliphs,  conquered
Phoenicia, the countries  on the Euphra-
tes, Judea, Syria and all Egypt (631—641).
Among his descendants there  was not
one able prince.  He was succeeded by
his son Constantine III,  probably in con-
junction with his step-brother Heracleo-
nas (641).   The former soon died, and
the latter lost his crown in a rebellion,
and was mutilated.  After him, Constans,
son of Constantine, obtained the throne
(642;.  His  sanguinary spirit of persecu-
tion, and the murder  of his brother Theo-
dosius (650), made him odious to the nation.
The Arabians, pursuing their conquests,
took from him part of Africa, Cyprus and
Rhodes, and defeated him even  at sea 
BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
361
 (653).  Internal disturbances obUged him
 to make peace.  After this,  he left Con-
 stantinople  (659),  and, in the following
 year, carried  on  an  unsuccessful war
 against the  Lombards in Italy, in which
 he  lost his  life, at Syracuse  (660).   Con-
 stantine IV, Pogonatus, son  of Constans,
 vanquished  his Syracusan  competitor,
 Mezizius, and,  in the  beginning  of his
 reign, shared the government with his
 brothers Tiberius and Heraclius.  The
 Arabians inundated  all Africa and Sici-
 ly,  penetrated  through Asia Minor into
 Thrace, and attacked Constantinople, for
 several successive  years, by sea (669).
 Nevertheless, he made  peace  with them
 on  favorable terms.   But, on the  other
 hand, the Bulgarians obliged him to pay
 a tribute (680).  Justinian II, his son and
 successor,  weakened the  power  of the
 Maronites (685), but  fought  without suc-
 cess  against the  Bulgarians  (688) and
 against the Arabians (692).   Leonitius
 dethroned this cruel  prince, had him mu-
 tilated and sent to tbe Tauric Chersonese
 (695).  Leonitius was dethroned by Ap-
 sirnar, or Tiberius  III (698), who was
 himself dethroned  by Trebehus, king of
 the Bulgarians, who  restored Justinian to
 the throne (705); but PhUippicus  Barda-
 nes  rebelled anew  against  him.  With
 Justinian  II the race  of Heraclius was
 extinguished.  The  only care of PhUip-
 picus was the spreading of  monotheism,
 whilst the Arabians  wasted Asia  Minor
 and Thrace.  In opposition to this prince,
 who was universally hated,  the different
 armies proclaimed their leaders emperors,
 among  whom Leo the Isaurian obtained
 the superiority (713—714).   Leo repelled
 the Arabians from Constantinople, which
 they had attacked  for  almost  two  years,
 and suppressed  the  rebellion excited by
 BasiUus and the former emperor Anasta-
 sius.  From 726, the abolition ofthe wor-
 ship of images absorbed his attention, and
 the ItaUan provinces were aUowed to be-
 come a prey to the Lombards, while the
 Arabians plundered the eastern provinces.
 After his death (741), his son Constantine
 V ascended  the throne—a  courageous,
 active and noble prince.  He vanquished
 his  rebellious brother-in-law Artabasdus,
 wrested from the Arabians part of Syria
 and Armenia, and overcame, at last, the
 Bulgarians, against whom be had been
 long  unsuccessful.   He died  (775), and
 was succeeded by his son Leo III, who
 fought successfully against the Arabians,
and this latter by his  son Constantine VI
(780), whose imperious mother, Irene, his
guardian and associate in die  government,
  VOL. II.           31
raised a powerful party by the restoration
ofthe worship of images.  He endeavor-
ed, in vain, to free himself from depend-
ence on her and her favorite, Stauratius,
and died in 796, after having had his eyes
put out  The war against the  Arabians
and  Bulgarians  was  long continued;
against  the  first it was  unsuccessful.
The  design  of the empress  to  marry
Charlemagne excited the discontent of
the patricians,  who placed one of their
own order, Nicephorus, upon the  throne
(802).  Irene died in a monastery.  Ni-
cephorus became tributary to the Arabi-
ans, and fell in  the war against the  Bul-
garians (811).   Stauratius, his  son, was
deprived of the crown by Michael I, and
he, in turn, by Leo IV (813).   Leo was
dethroned and put to death by Michael II
(826).  During  the reign of the latter, the
Arabians conquered Sicily, Lower Italy,
Crete and other countries.  He prohibit-
ed the worship  of images; as did also his
son Theophilus.  Theodora, guardian of
his son Michael III, put a stop to the dis- *
pute about images (841).  During a cruel
persecution of the Manicheeans, the Ara-
bians devastated  the Asiatic provinces.
The dissolute and extravagant Michael
confined his mother in a monastery.  The
government  was administered, in his
name, by Bardas, his  uncle, and, after
the death of Bardas, by Basil, who was
put to death by Michael  (867]. Basil I,
who came to the  throne in 867, was not
altogether a contemptible monarch.  He
died 886.  The reign of his learned son,
Leo V,  was  not  very happy.   He died
911.  His son, Constantine VIII, Porphy-
rogenitus, a minor when  he  succeeded
his  father, was  placed  under the guar-
dianship of his colleague, Alexander, and,
after  Alexander's death,  in 912,  under
that of his mother, Zoe.  Romanus La-
kopenus, his general, obliged him, in 919,
to share  the  throne with him and his
children.  Constantine subsequently took
sole possession  of it again, and reigned
mildly, but weakly.  His son  Romanus
II succeeded him in 959, and fought suc-
cessfully against the Arabians.   To him
succeeded, in 963, his general Nicephorus,
who was put to  death by his own general,
John  Zimisces  (970), who carried on a
successful war against the Russians.  Ba-
sil II, son of Romanus, succeeded this
good prince.  He vanquished the Bulga-
rians  and the  Arabians.    His brother,
Constantine IX (1025), was not equal to
him.  Romanus  III  became  emperor
(1028) by a marriage with Zoe, daughter
of Constantine.   This dissolute but able 
362                       BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
princess caused her husband to be exe-
cuted,  and successively  raised to  the
throne Michael IV (1034), Michael V
(1041) and Constantine X (1042).  Rus-
sians and Arabians meanwhile devastated
the empire.   Her sister  Theodora suc-
ceeded her on the  throne (1053).  Her
successor, Michael VI (1056), was  de-
throned by Isaac Comnenus in 1057, who
became a monk (1059).  His successor,
Constantine XI, Ducas, fought success-
fully against  the  Uzes.  Eudocia,  his
wife, guardian of his sons, Michael, An-
dronicus and  Constantine, was intrusted
with the  administration (1067), manied
Romanus IV, and brought him the crown.
He carried on an unsuccessful war against
the Turks, who kept him for  some time
prisoner.   Michael VII, son of Constan-
tine, deprived him of the throne (1071).
Michael  was dethroned  by  Nicephorus
III (1078), and the latter by  Alexius  I,
Comnenus (1081).  Under his  reign the
crusades commenced.  His son, John II,
came to  the  throne  (1118), and fought
with great success against the Turks and
other barbarians.  The reign of his  son,
Manuel I, who succeeded him (1143),
was, also, not unfortunate.  His son, Alex-
ius II, succeeded (1180), and was dethron-
ed by his guardian, Andronicus, as  was
the latter by Isaac (1185).  After a reign
disturbed from without and within, Isaac
was dethroned by his brother, Alexius
HI (1195). The crusaders restored him
and his son, Alexius IV; but the seditious
ConstantinopoUtans  proclaimed Alexius
V, Ducas Murzuphlus, emperor, who put
Alexius IV to death.  At the same time,
Isaac II died.  During the  last  reigns,
the kings of  Sicily had made many  con-
quests on the coasts of the Adriatic.  The
Latins now forced tlieir way to Constan-
tinople (1204), conquered the city, and re-
tained it, together with most ofthe Euro-
pean territories of the empire.  Baldwin
count  of Flanders was  made  emperor,
Boniface marquis of Montfenat obtained
Thessalonica as a kingdom, and the Ve-
netians acquired a large extent of terri-
tory.  In Attalia,  Rhodes,  Philadelphia,
Corinth  and Epirus, independent sove-
reigns arose.  Theodore Lascaris seized
on the Asiatic provinces, bore the title of
emperor at Nice,  and was, at  first, more
powerful than Baldwin.  A  descendant
ofthe Comneni, named Alexius, establish-
 ed a principality at Trebisond, in which
 his great-grandson John took the title of
 emperor.  Neither Baldwin nor his suc-
 cessors were able to secure the tottering
 throne.  He himself died in  captivity,
among the Bulgarians (1206).  To  him
succeeded Henry, his brother, with Peter,
brother-in-law of  Henry, and  his  son
Robert (1221).  With the exception of
Constantinople, all the remaining Byzan-
tine tenitoiy, including Thessalonica, was
conquered  by John,  emperor  of Nice.
Baldwin II, brother of Robert, under the
guardiansliip  of his colleague, John  Bri-
enne, king of Jerasalem, died in 1237.
Michael Palaeologus, king of Nice, con-
quered Constantinople in 1261, and Bald-
win died in the West, a private person.
The sovereigns of Nice, up to this pe-
riod,  were  Theodore Lascaris (1204);
John Ducas  Patatzes, a good  monarch
and successful warrior (1222); Theodore
II, his son  (1259), who was  deprived of
the crown by Michael Palaeologus (1260).
In 1261,   Michael took Constantinople
from  the  Latins.  He labored  to  unite
himself with the  Latin church, but his
son, Andronicus II (1282), renounced the
connexion.   Internal disturbances,  and
foreign wars, particularly with the Turks,
threw the exhausted empire into confu-
sion.  Andronicus III, his grandson, oblig-
ed him to divide  the throne (1322), and,
at length, wrested it  entirely from  him.
Andronicus died a monk (1328).  Andro-
nicus IV, who ascended the throne in the
same year, waged  war  unsuccessfully
against the Turks, and died 1341.  His
son John was obliged to share the throne
with  his   guardian,  John Cantacuzene,
during 10 years.   The son of the latter,
Matthew, was also made  emperor.  But
John Cantacuzene resigned  the crown,
and Matthew was compelled  to  abdi-
cate (1355).  Under the reign  of John,
the Turks first obtained a firm footing in
Europe, and conquered GaUipolis (1357).
The  family  of  Palaeologus,  from  this
time, were gradually deprived of  their
European  territories,  partly  by revolt,
partly by the Turks.  The sultan Amu-
rath  took  Adrianople (1361).   Bajazet
conquered almost all the European prov-
inces except Constantinople, and obUged
John to pay him tribute.  The latter was,
some time after,  driven out by his own
son, Andronicus, who was succeeded  by
 his second son, Manuel (1391).  Bajazet
 besieged Constantinople, defeated an ar-
 my of western warriors, under Sigismund,
 near NicopoUs  (1396),  and Manuel was
 obUged to place John, son of Andronicus,
 on his throne.  Timur's  invasion of the
 Turkish provinces saved Constantinople
 for this time (1402).   Manuel then recov-
 ered his throne, and regained some ofthe
 lost provinces from  the  contending sons 
BYZANTINE  EMPIRE—BYZANTINE HISTORIANS.        363
of Bajazet.  To  him succeeded  his son
John (1425), whom Amurath II stripped
of all his tenitories except Constantino-
ple, and extorted  a tribute  from him
(1444).  To the emperor John succeeded
his brother Constantine.  With the assist-
ance of his general, the Genoese Justin-
ian, he withstood the superior forces of
the enemy with fruitless courage, and fell
in the defence of Constantinople, by the
conquest of which, May 29,1453, Moham-
med II put an end to the Greek or Byzan-
tine empire.  In 1461, David Comnenus,
emperor of Trebisond,  submitted to him,
and, at a subsequent period, was put  to
death.   (See  Comneni.)
  Byzantine Historians ; a series of
Greek authors, whose works relate to the
history ofthe lower Greek empire, from the
fourth century until the conquest of Con-
stantinople by the Turks, and to the Turk-
ish  history until  the end ofthe 16th cen-
tury.  These authors display the faults of a
degenerate period; but they contain, also,
the relics of former excellence.  They are
the principal source of the history of the
decay of the Roman empire, and a correct
delineation of the condition and character
of the  modern Greeks requires  an inti-
mate acquaintance with them, of which
D'Anse de Villoison is an example. They
contain, besides,  an inexhaustible store of
materials relative to the great migration
of the nations, and the new political sys-
tem to which it gave rise  in the north of
Asia and in Europe, and illustrative of
ecclesiastical  history.   These too much
neglected authors have been collected in
an edition, published at  Paris—Corpus
Scriptorum Historia Byzantina  (Paris,
royal press, 1645—1702,23 vols.); reprint-
ed at Venice, with a different arrangement
ofthe works (1729—1733), and explained
by several French scholars,  particularly
by Du Cange, who have rendered great
service by their  commentaries and glos-
saries.   These collections, however, are
rarely to be  found complete.  Hase has
enlarged the list  of these writers, by his
edition of Leo Diaconus (Leonis Diaconi
Caloensis Historia, etc., e Bibl. Regia nunc
primum in Lucem edid. ill. C. B. Hase, Par-
is, 1819, folio), which, in form and the value
ofthe contents, approaches the great Paris
edition.   He has promised, also, to publish
Psellus.  Stritter, keeper of the royal ar-
chives at Moscow, under Paul, has prov-
ed, by an excellent extract (Memoria Pop-
ulorum ad Danubium, Pontum Euxinum,
Paludem Maotidem, Mare Caspium et inde
magis ad Septentrionem Incolentium, Pe-
tersb., 1771—79,  4 vols., 4to.), their im-
portance as  sources of ancient Russian
history.  Four of them form a continued
histoiy of the Byzantine empire to the
year 1470, viz.: 1. Zonaras; 2. Nicetaa
Acominatus  Choniates; A  Nicephorus
Gregoras; 4. Laonicus, or Nicholas Chal-
condylas of Athens. The other authors,
who have treated only single parts of the
Byzantine history, are almost  aU to  be
found in the Corpus Byzantinum, which
appeared at Paris, in 1648, from the royal
press, in three splendid  folio  volumes.
The most remarkable among these are in
chronological order: 1. Procopius of Cee-
sarea, rhetorician at Constantinople.  W^
have from him eight  books of histories,
viz., Persica, in four books, and Gothica,
in four books, published separately  by
Hoschel  (Augsburg, 1607);  and Secret
History  (Anecdota), in nine  books (in
which, contrary to the  opinions  expressed
in his first work, he shows himself very
inimical to the emperor Justinian), pub-
lished by Reinhard, at Erlangen  and Leip-
sic (1753).—2. Agathias, after the death
of Justinian, wrote an account of his reign,
in five books,  pubUshed at Paris (1660,
foUo).—3. Theophylact of Egypt.  We
have from him a history of the emperor
Maurice, in  eight books,  to 604 (Paris,
1644).—4. Nicephorus, patriarch of Con-
stantinople, who has left several learned
theological writings. His Breviarium His-
toricum extends from the death ofthe em-
peror Maurice  to 770 (Venice, 1759).—5.
Joh. Scylitzes held several offices at Con-
stantinople. We have from him an abridg-
ment of history, from 811 to  the  time
of Isaac Comnenus (1057.)  It  appeared
in a Latin translation (Venice, 1570).  The
same work he continued to the time of
Alexander Comnenus, 1081.  The  con-
tinuation is  yet in manuscript.—6. Anna
Comnena, daughter of the emperor Alex-
ius I, died about 1150.  She  wrote  an
Alexias, or a work on  the history of her
father, Alexius Comnenus, in 15 books,
edited by Hoschel in Augsburg, 1610.  (A
more complete edition, Paris, 1651, folio)
—7. George AcropoUta, a statesman in
Constantinople, wrote  an  abridgment of
the Byzantine history, from the capture of
Constantinople by the  Latins, 1204, to its
recapture, 1260 (Paris, 1651).—8. George
Pachymer held high offices in church and
state in Constantinople. He wrote Byzan-
tine History, in thirteen Books, from the
Birth of Michael Palaeologus, 1158, to 1308
(Frankfort, 1568, foUo).—9. John Canta-
cuzenus, the emperor, is the author  of
Byzantine History, in four Books, from
1320—54 (Paris, 1645).—10. George Co- 
364   BYZANTINE HISTORIANS—BYZANTINE  SCHOOL OF ART.
 dinus, intendant of the palace in Constan-
 tinople. We have from him several works
 on the antiquities of Constantinople. The
 most important of them is On the Offices
 and  Services appertaining to the Court
 and the Church of Constantinople (Paris,
 1648, foUo).—11. Constantinus Porphyro-
 gennetus,  or Porphyrogenneta, emperor,
 wrote the  Ufe of his grandfather Basilius
 Macedo, edited by John Meursius.   We
 have also a work  of his  on government,
 written for his son, and on the provinces of
 the Eastern and Western Empire, besides
 other writings and collections. The most
 important  treats of the ceremonies of the
 Byzantine court.  It was edited by Leich
 and Reiske (Leipsic, 1751—54, 2 vols.).—
 12. After the capture  of Constantinople,
 Ducas wrote a Byzantine history,  from
 1341 to the capture of Lesbos, 1462.—13.
 Anselm Banduri, a  Benedictine monk,
 left an extensive work on the antiquities
 of Constantinople, in which several works
 of more ancient  writers are contained.—
 14. Peter  Gilles.   From him we  have
 three  books on the Thracian Bosphorus,
 and four books on the  topography and
 antiquities of Constantinople.—15. Zosi-
 mus wrote a  Roman history, in six books,
 from Augustus to  Honorius.   This work
 is  of particular importance for the later
 epochs; published by Reitmeyer (Leipsic,
 1784).—16. George Phranza  died,  after
 the capture of Constantinople, in a mon-
 astery of  Corfu.   We have  from him
 a chronicle of the Byzantine history, in
 four books, from 1401—77, published  by
 Alter  (Vienna, 1796).
  A new and highly-improved edition of
 this important collection was commenced,
 in  1828, by  that distinguished  scholar,
 Mr. Niebuhr, to be published by Weber,
the well-known  bookseller at Bonn  in
 Germany.  Three volumes of this edition,
in  octavo,  have been received in the U.
 States, and will fully justify the high ex-
pectations  entertained by the  learned of
this Herculean undertaking.   By a sin-
gular  concurrence of circumstances, the
college at Cambridge, Massachusetts, hap-
pens to be  possessed of a valuable manu-
script of one of the Byzantine historians,
Michael Glycas, which, as we are inform-
ed by a gentleman who has cursorily
 examined  it, appears  never to have been
collated, and wUl furnish several various
 readings of importance in the emendation
 of the text.  This MS. is one of a number
 purchased  in Constantinople, and brought
 to the U. States by the Hon. Edward Ev-
 erett,  in the  year 1819, and a particular
 account of which is given by him in the
Memoirs of the American Academy, vol.
4, p. 413.  It is on parchment, and is sup-
posed to have been written as early as the
13th centuiy. A collation of it is now
begun, as we are informed, for the pur-
pose of being transmitted to the learned
editor in Gennany.
   Byzantine School of Art.   After
Constantine  the  Great had  made  the
ancient Byzantium the capital of the Ro-
man empire, and  ornamented that city,
which  was called after him, with all  the
treasures  of Grecian art,  a new  peri-
od commenced  in  the  history of art
From this time it became subservient to
Christianity, as the reUgion of the state.
All  the productions  of heathen artists,
which  formed  suitable  ornaments  for
Christian  cities and  temples, were now
employed in the service  of the invisible
God, and art began, by slow degrees, to
rise  from its degeneracy, under the influ-
ences of Christianity. At the time when
Constantine converted Byzantium into an
imperial residence, splendor and ornament
had already supplanted the simplicity of
ancient taste.  Asiatic luxury had become
predominant, and this laid more stress on
richness of material and decoration than
on purity  of conception.   Architecture,
which  adorned the forum Augusteum, in
Byzantium, with  a fourfold  colonnade,
and created splendid curia, imperial pal-
aces, baths, theatres  and  porticoes, pre-
served, for a long time, the grand forms
of classic times, and deviated from them
slowly and gradually, at first in the Chris-
tian churches, as a model  for which Jus-
tinian built the church of St Sophia, and
decorated  it with Oriental magnificence,
in 537.  But, even  in  architecture, the
costliness and color of the  marble was
soon considered  as of more importance
than the proportion of the  parts and the
distribution of the columns.  There are,
however, as late as the ninth centuiy, ad-
mirable works of Greek architecture, par-
ticularly those of Theodosius the Great
and Justinian.  This period was still less
favorable to the simpUcity of sculpture.
The mythology of ancient Greece afford-
ed sacred subjects to the statuary.  Gods
appeared in the human  form,  and the
human figure, in the Grecian model, was
raised  to  the classical ideal.   On  the
introduction  of  the  Christian  reUgion,
sculpture was confined to the imitation
of nature; afterwards to  portraits, and
to mere purposes of ornament; for Chris-
tianity is averse to sensible representations
ofthe Divinity.   Statues of emperors, of
great statesmen and generals, became the 
BYZANTINE  SCHOOL OF ART.
365
subjects ofthe sculptor, and seem, event-
ually, to have given rise to the introduc-
tion  of the worship  of  images in the
Christian churches, since the custom of
erecting monuments and statues to the
emperors, and distinguished bishops, was
extended to martyrs and saints, and was
afterwards, followed by the superstitious
worship  of  them.   (See  Iconoclasts.)
Though images of this kind became more
frequent in the third and fourth centuries,
there were yet many Christian teachers,
who, like Tertullion (q. v.), at on early
period, declared the fine arts inventions
of the devil, and the pagan statues pos-
sessed by  demons.   This  superstition
often caused the destruction ofthe noblest
statues of the Grecian gods by  popular
violence.  It was not until after many diffi-
culties,  that, in  the  ninth century, the
worship of images was established in the
Greek empire, and after that time  appear-
ed the  first  known  traces of Christian
sculpture and painting in the East.  But
even those statues, to which sculpture was
now confined, no  longer displayed the
freedom and dignity of ancient art.  The
pride of the emperors demanded statues
of gold and silver, as long as their treas-
ury,  filled  by exhausting tlieir subjects,
could supply them.   Images of bronze
and  marble were despised.   And how
seldom could the artist be inspired by his
subject, when flattery erected monuments
and busts to the most worthless of men!  It
was natural, that, with the loss of elevated
subjects, the dignity of art should be lost
in petty technical details.   Heyne, in his
treatise  on the later works of art, under
the Byzantine emperors (Commentat. Soc.
Gdtting., vol. xi), observes, that the repre-
sentations ofthe emperors, of distinguish-
ed men, or of saints, were uniform in fig-
ure and character. The vestiges of genius
were nowhere seen in free creations and
ideal forms,  in the desire of truth and
expression.  From the time of Justinian
downwards, the true measure and propor-
tion  of the parts, and the conectness of
the outlines, were so much neglected, that
the  representations  became constantly
more like masks, spectres and monsters.
The old Roman faces  were  seldom rep-
resented: the forms appeared to belong
to quite another race—to some new nation;
and  it was often necessary to write the
names under them.   In  the perspective
of die figures no rules  were observed.  It
became, at this time, the  great object to
imitate the  costly robes of the emperors,
bishops, and other noble persons, who
gratified their vanity not only with purple
                31*
 garments,  but by the extravagant use of
 pearls and precious stones, which were
 worn in long pendants from the ear, in
 bracelets and in necklaces.  The whole
 mantle was often garnished with precious
 stones, and round the edge ran a double
 row of pearls.  Such garments the empe-
 rors used to change several times a day.
 As such exterior ornaments are  foreign
' from sculpture, which prefers the naked
 figure, or  a simple  drapery, it is easy to
 see why the production of statues ceased
 so soon.  In the lists of Byzantine works
 of sculpture given by authors of the first
 centuries, there  are no images  of Christ,
 no statues of apostles and saints.  Instead
 of them, we find only crucifixes, painted,
 or ornamented  with mosaic work.   If
 there were any  such  images  in earlier
 times, they must have been  destroyed in
 the time of the Iconoclasts (q. v.), as was
 the case with the bronze statue  of Christ,
 near that of Constantine, which was de-
 molished by Leo, the general destroyer of
 images,  and the representations of  the
 Good Shepherd, praised by Eusebius, and
 that of Daniel among the Lions, with which
 Constantine adorned the public fountains.
 An  image of the Savior,  surrounded  by
 angels, and worked in mosaic, is  described
 by Photius.  We also find mention ofthe
 images of two angels upon the forum  of
 Constantine, the representation  of Adam
 and Eve, the bronze statue of Moses, with
 which Justinian is said to have ornament-
 ed the curia, and that of Solomon, of an
 earlier date. According to Eusebius, the
 roof of the palace in Constantinople was
 also decorated with rich mosaics of gold
 and costly stones,   representing  scenes
 from the passion of Christ; and another,
 which Justinian erected, in Chalcis, con-
 tained representations of events  in  the
 war against the Vandals.  The  most cel-
 ebrated of all the mosaics in the interior
 of St. Sophia's church in Constantinople
 has been preserved in fragments to mod-
 ern times.   The  taste of those  times in-
 clined, in general, more to mosaic works
 than to  sculpture; because  the  former
 were rendered attractive by the  costliness
 and colors of the stones.  Sculpture was
 employed particularly in ornamenting  al-
 tars,  tabernacles, holy vessels and urns,
 which were made ofthe most precious
 marble.  The art of engraving  on stones
 was also long preserved.  In the art  of
 painting, which  was imitated in mosaic,
 the  taste of this age was the same as in
 sculpture—pleased with  gold and lively
 colors, but careless about trutb  of repre-
 sentation, and beauty and grandeur  of 
366                  BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART.
conception.  The first germ of a Christian
style of art  was, however, developed in
the Byzantine pictures.  The ideal rep-
resentations of human figures, which the
ancient Grecian artists had exhibited in
their master-works, were necessarily given
up by Christian artists: another ideal was
to be formed, which should not recall the
odious  features of paganism.   But the
ideal ofthe Savior, ofthe mother of Christ,
and of his apostles,  could be formed only
by degrees.   The artists, who had nothing
real and  material before them, but were
obliged to find, in their own imaginations,
conceptions of the external appearance of
sacred  persons, could  give but  feeble
sketches of their ideas by means of their
imperfect art.  In their representations of
Jesus and his apostles, they finally adopt-
ed the national features ofthe Jews.  In
the figure,  and sometimes even in the
countenance, they  imitated the external
appearance of some revered bishop. The
bands were often lifted, as in blessing, or
one hand was  laid upon  the breast, or
holding a book.  Thus die figures ofthe
founders  of the Christian church  were
first represented in paintings.  They were
also exhibited in mosaic, but not in mar-
ble.  Christian subjects,  indeed, are gen-
eraUy more suited to painting, which gives
the outward expression of the  mind, by
means  of light, and  shade, and colors,
than to sculpture, which, on the contrary,
elevates the external form to a kind of
spiritual dignity. As the artists cared but
little for a faithful imitation of nature, but
were satisfied with repeating what was
once acknowledged as successful, it is not
strange that certain forms, introduced  by
the authority of some celebrated artists,
and approved by  the taste of the time,
should be made, by convention, and with-
out regard  to  truth and beauty, general
models ofthe human figure, and be trans-
mitted as such to succeeding times.  In
his  treatise  on the continuation of the
arts  in  Constantinople  (Comment. Soc,
Gdtting., vol. xiii), Heyne remarks, that art
continued to be exercised  here, as far as
it consists in mechanical skill, in the use
of instruments, in particular rules and
general precepts; but taste, and a sense
for truth and simple beauty, had vanished.
DeUcacy, elegance and  gracefulness in
design, proportion  of parts, harmony  of
the figures, and beauty of form, were lost.
The artists did not even aim at an accu-
rate representation, but  were contented
with rude and general outUnes, as may be
seen in the coins of the time.  These de-
formed and meagre figures were slavishly
copied, and labor was lavished on costly,
and often tasteless, ornaments.   A certain
propensity  to the  grotesque  prevailed,
even in architecture.  The influence of
ancient works of art continually decreased
as their  number  was diminished by the
violences of war, by superstition, by ava-
rice, and by the hand of time.  Most of the
theti existing works of antiquity perished
in the capture  of Constantinople, during
the crusades of 1204 and 1261; and thus
the city  had long  been deprived of its
most beautiful  ornaments,  when it was
taken by the Turks, in 1453.—This was,
in general,  the state of art in the Byzan-
tine empire.  Its  influence has been felt
ever since  ; in  earlier times, by the con-
nexion of  the  imperial  residence in the
East with the Western Empire, and after-
wards by commercial intercourse and the
crusades.—Let us first consider  this  con-
nexion of the lower Greek art  with the
west of Europe, and, in particular,  with
Italy.  According to StiegUtz (on German
Architecture), the character of the lower
Greek architecture  was tranquilUty and
simpUcity,  originating from poverty of
ideas and  materials, and terminating in
heaviness.  But this architecture, which
prevailed till the earlier part of the middle
ages, preserved  the  seed, from which, in
later times, a new and better style sprung
up.  Constantinople became a school of
architecture, from which artists  issued to
all parts of the  Roman empire, as far as
Britain, to erect churches after the model
of St. Sophia.  They also penetrated into
the countries of the  East, introducing
their art among the Arabians, who applied
it to the erection  of their mosques, and
among the  Moors in Spain, who fonned
their  own  style  from   it.  The lower
Greek or Byzantine style kept itself pure
and uncorrupted in Italy, under the Lom-
bards, as weU as under the Goths, whose
artists came from the East; and thence it
spread, during the reign  of Charlemagne,
to Germany, Gaul  and  England.   The
style of architecture introduced  by Char-
lemagne into Germany,  was a conniption
of that  prevaiUng  in the  lower Greek
empire,  from which,  together with the
Arabian and German style, sprang the true
German  or Gothic architecture, which
flourished from* the 13th to the 16th  cen-
tury.  (See  Architecture, History of.)  The
basso-relievos on  the oldest churches in
Germany, and some pictures in them, still
show the traces ofthe lower Grecian art
There are also to be found in Gori (e. g.,
Diptych, vol. 3,  p. 33 and 270, tab. iv and
xxni) and Ciampini (Vet. Moniment., part 
BYZANTINE SCHOOL OF ART—BYZANTIUM.          367
ii, p. 104, tab. xxix),  representations of
Italian  and  Gallic sculpture, which, in
their drapery, ornaments and architectural
forms, betray a Byzantine origin.  In re-
gard to  painting, we are indebted to the
Byzantines for the preservation of some
portion  of its ancient excellence.  As, in
the early period of Christianity, Grecian
and Roman art, in general, differed but
little, since both sprung from the ruins of
ancient  art,  so, in painting, no striking
difference is to be observed between them.
They became, however, constantly more
and more distinct, in later times, as Greece
and Italy became more and more separat-
ed. Short, thick bodies, stiff and forced at-
titudes, exaggeration of the characteristic
parts, in particular ofthe eyes, faces con-
tracted above and broad below, and mark-
ed with  overcharged tints, short thick
hair,  highly-arched eyebrows,  awkward
drapeiy, loaded with unnatural folds, dis-
tinguish the Greek pictures as far back
as the fifth century. The better paintings,
which  are  found particularly  in manu-
scripts, show a neat, accurate and diligent
execution.  When art declined in Italy,
particularly in the ninth century, painting
was still  cultivated by the Greeks, who,
driven  from home by the disputes con-
cerning images, carried it into Italy and
other countries, and adorned the churches
there.   Thus the lower Greek or Byzan-
tine school was  the  mother of the old
 ItaUan  school, and of the lower Rhenish,
 which  preceded  the German.   The rela-
 tion of both is seen  hi the similarity of
 die Italian  pictures to those of the lower
 Rhenish school.  According to the com-
 mon statement,  several Grecian artists
 passed over into Italy, in the beginning
 of the  12th century, and  adorned the
 churches of Florence and  Venice with
 their works.  These  were joined by the
 Italian artists, who founded, in the 13th
 century, a school of art and painting (see
 Italian Art), which, in its developement,
 acquired a peculiar character, distinguish-
 ed by beauty both of conception and exe-
 cution.   The lower Rhenish school, how-
 ever, which is also called the school of
 Cologne, as it  flourished chiefly, from
 the beginning of the 14th to  the begin-
 ning of the 15th centuries, in  the city of
 Cologne, appears to  have  retained stiff
more  closely  the  Byzantine  character
than the ItaUan did,  since there are tra-
ces of it even in the later German school,
exhibited in the symmetrical and  pyram-
idal grouping of the objects, in the close
drapeiy, and in the love of ornament and
splendor, shown particularly in the golden
back-grounds.   The  collection  of the
brothers  Boisseree (q. v.)  contains the
most excellent works of this school.  John
Van Eyck first set the example of a more
individual representation of natural ob-
jects, in opposition to the general repre-
sentations of the lower Greek, and the
ideal style ofthe old Roman school. More
exact accounts are wanting of the histori-
cal connexion of the  lower Rhenish and
ofthe old ItaUan school with the Byzan-
tine style of art. (On the eariier times of
the Byzantine art, see Histoire de VArt par
les Monumens  depuis sa  Decadence au
14me Siede,jusqu'a son RenouveUement au
16me; Paris, 1810, folio).
   Byzantium (from its original founder,
Byzas), lying on the Thracian Bosphorus,
on a triangular promontory, the present
 Constantinople, even  in ancient  times a
flourishing city, was  at first a Megarian
colony, and was afterwards enlarged and
embellished by the  MUesians  and other
 Greeks.  Near it was a small  bay of the
 Propontis, called  Keras,  forming three
 harbors.  The situation of B. was highly
 favorable to trade, and gave it the com-
 mand of the commerce of other nations
 in the  Black sea, and the opportunity of
 imposing tolls and duties.  These circum-
 stances  increased the resources of the
 city; but it suffered much from the  at-
 tacks ofthe Thracians,Bithynians, Gauls,
 and even  the  Greeks.  It was  severely
 treated in the Peloponnesian war, but
 afterwards rose again, and, under the em-
 perors, was in the most flourishing condi-
 tion.   From the time of Constantine, it
 was the second city in the Roman em-
 pire, and the residence of the emperor,
 who endeavored to give it the splendor
 of old Rome.   It was, like Rome, divided
 into 14 districts; had an amphitheatre, a
 Roman forum, a circus, and a multitude
 of splendid buildings and statues,  some
 of which had  been brought from Rome.
 (See Constantinople.) 
368
C—CABALA
C.
 C-, the third letter of the alphabet in
 most of the European dialects. " In Eng-
 lish," says Ben Jonson, "it might well have
 been spared, for it has no peculiar sound."
 It has the simple power  of k, before a,
 o, u,  and most of the consonants; and
 the power of s, before  e, i, y.   The
 Greeks had no c in their alphabet, and
 they supplied the use of it  in  Roman
 words by K or 2, as the  Romans often
 indicated the kappa and sigma, in Greek
 words, by a c.  The earUer Romans also
 used it in many words which  were at a
 later period written with a g;  as, leciones
 for legiones.  This renders it probable that
 it was originally the Greek gamma, as the
 lbrm ofthe letters, in ancient inscriptions,
 is very similar.  The  Roman g was in-
 vented, according to Plutarch, by Spurius
 Carvilius.  Q and C are often inter-
 changed on monuments;  thus we find
 Q VMfor C VM, cotidie for quotidie.  Its
 arithmetical significations, and its principal
 uses in abbreviations, have been explained
 \n the article Abbreviations (i\. v.). On med-
 als, it stands for many names of persons,
 as, Casar, Caius, Casrius, &c; of officers,
 as, censor, consul; of cities, as,  Carthago,
 &.c.; also for dves, civitas, colonia, cohors,
 clypeus, castra,  circensis.   In  the calen-
 dars and fasti, it  denoted the days in
 which the comitia might be held.   In tri-
als, the opinions of the judges were given
 by writing on a Uttle cube or die (tessera)
the initial C, condemno, A, absolvo, or N L,
non liquet.  For this  reason, Cicero (pro
Mil. 6.) calls C, littera tristis, and A, littera
salutaris.—C, in music; the name of that
note in the natural major mode, to which
Guido  applied the monosyllable  ui, but
which  has long since been relinquished
by the Italians for that of do, as softer and
more vocal.  C sometimes, in Italian mu-
sic, stands for canto, as C 1. canto prima.
It stands, likewise, when  placed at the
clef, for common time, and, with a line
ran through it perpendicularly,  for cut
time, or a quicker kind of movement
  Cabal ; the infamous English ministry
under Charles II (q. v.), which consisted
of five men  famous for their intrigues—
Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, ArUngton,
and Lauderdale, whose initial ietters form
 this word.  (Burnet, Own Times, An. 1672.)
 Some think the  use of the word cabal,
 to denote  an intrigue^  or a body of in-
 triguers, is derived from this circumstance.
 " Never," says Hume (ch. 65)," was there a
 more dangerous ministry in  England, nor
 one more  noted for pernicious counsels.
 Ashley (more known as the earl of Shaftes-
 bury), bold, ambitious, eloquent, insinuat-
 ing, subtle, united great industry with a
 sound judgment of business and  of men.
 Buckingham, with  the advantages of a
 graceful person, high rank,  splendid for-
 tune, and a lively  wit, but  without pru-
 dence  or principle, sacrificing,  in turn,
 honor  to interest, interest to pleasure, and
 pleasure to caprice, dissipated his fortune,
 and ruined his health, by his riot and de-
 bauchery, and destroyed his  character, in
 public life, by his want of secrecy and
 constancy.  Lauderdale, tyrannical, am-
 bitious, implacable, insolent, yet abject,
 had  a great  ascendency over the king.
 CUfford, daring, impetuous, yet artful, and
 eloquent, and ArUngton, of moderate ca-
 pacity, without courage or integrity, were,
 secretly,  Catholics.  Shaftesbury  was at
 once -a deist, and addicted  to astrology;
 Lauderdale a bigoted, and, earUer, a furi-
 ous Presbyterian."
  Cabal; a beverage made  in Portugal,
 by bruising 20 pounds of raisins, and sat-
 urating them with  white wine during 3
 months.  The mixture is rich, clear and
 agreeable.
  Cabala, or Cabbala, (i. e. oral tradi-
tion), is used by the Jews to denote some-
 times the doctrines of the prophets, some-
 times the  traditions of their ancestors,
sometimes,  and most commonly, tlieir
mystical philosophy.  The  opinions of
scholars  respecting  the origin   of the
cabalistic  philosophy ore  very various.
The Jews derive the cabaUstic mysteries
from the most ancient times of their na-
tion, nay, even from Adam himself. But,
although a secret doctrine existed  among
 the Hebrews in the earUest ages, this had
reference  merely  to religious worship.
The origin of the philosophical cabala is
 to be sought for in Egypt, and dates from
 the times of Simeon Schetachides, who
 conveyed it from Egypt to Palestine.   It 
CABALA—CABBAGE.                        369
 was first committed to writing in the 2d
 century, that it might not be lost with the
 dispersion  of  the Jewish nation.  Later
 expositors  have mingled with it  much
 foreign matter.   The  cabala is divided
 into the symboUcal and the real.   The
 symbolical portion  treats principally of
 letters, to which it gives  mystical signifi-
 cations. The real, which is opposed to the
 symbolical,  and comprehends doctrines,
 is divided into the theoretical and prac-
 tical.   The aim of the theoretical is to
 explain the Holy  Scriptures  according
 to the secret traditions, and to form there-
 from a philosophical system of metaphys-
 ics, physics and pneumatology.  The prac-
 tical portion, on the other hand, pretends
 to teach the art of performing  miracles,
 and that merely by an artificial applica-
 tion of the  divine names and sentences
 in the Sacred Scriptures.   After the revi-
 val of science, many scholars studied the
 cabala.   The  most famous modern cab-
 alists  are  Henry Moras  and  Christian
 Knorr,  the  last  of whom has  made a
 compilation of the most important parts
 of the  cabalistic writings, in two  Lathi
 volumes, in 4to.  (Respecting the myste-
 ries ofthe cabala, see Pet Beer's History
 of the Doctrines and Opinions of all the
 Jewish  Sects, and of the  Cabala, Briinn,
 1822, 2 vols.; also  Brucker's History of
 Philosophy,  by doctor  Enfield, vol. ii.
 Allen's Modern Judaism, ch. v.; and Bud-
 daei Introductio ad Historiam Philosophia
 Hebraorum.)
  Cabanis,  Peter John  George, physi-
 cian, philosopher, and literateur, born at
 Cognac, 1757, went to Paris in his 14th
 year, and devoted himself with zeal to
 the sciences.  In his 16th year, he went
 to Warsaw as secretary of a Polish lord.
 The proceedings of the stormy diet of
 1773 filled  him  with  melancholy and
 contempt of mankind.  He began at Paris
 a complete  translation  of the IUad.  In
 Auteuil, near Paris,  he became acquaint-
ed with madame Helvetius, and, through
 her, with  Holbach, Franklin and Jeffer-
son, and became the friend of Condillac,
Turgot  and Thomas.   In  his  Serment
d'un Mederin,  he  formally took  leave of
the belles-lettres.  He professed the prin-
 ciples of the  revolution,  and  was inti-
mately connected  with Mirabeau,  who
 made use of his ideas, and obtained from
him the work on pubUc education, which
 Cabanis published himself, in 1791, after
the death of Mirabeau.  He Uved in still
closer intimacy with Condorcet. At the
time of his death, May 5th, 1808, he was
a member of the senate.  His  Rapports
 du Physique  et du Moral  de  VHomme
 (Paris, 1802, 2 vols., improved in 1805),
 are highly esteemed.  His works appeared
 in Paris, 1824, complete, in 4 vols.
   Cabarrus,  Francois, count  of, born
 1752, at Bayonne, was destined for com-
 merce by his father, who  sent him to a
 commercial friend,  Galabert, at Saragos-
 sa, whose daughter  he married in secret,
 against the will of both families, in 1772.
 His father-in-law, however, gave him the
 charge of a soap manufactory, near Ma-
 drid.   The nearness of the  city enabled
 him to become  acquainted with several
 learned men and metaphysicians,  as  Ol-
 avides and the  count of Campomanes.
 During the North American war, in which
 Spain took part against England, and was
 consequently cut off from her resources
 in America, C.  advised the  minister of
 the finances to make an  issue of paper
 money, payable with interest, of which
 10,000,000  piastres were put in circula-
 tion with the greatest success.  He after-
 wards established the bank of San Carlos,
 1782,  and a company to trade with  the
 Philippine  islands.   After the death  of
 Charles III, in 1788, he fell into disgrace.
 In 1790, he was arrested; in 1792, releas-
 ed, and made a nobleman; and, in 1797,
 appointed minister plenipotentiary at  the
 congress of Rastadt.   He died in 1810, in
 the office of minister of finance, to  which
 he had been appointed by Joseph  Bona-
 parte.  He  had a daughter equally cele-
 brated for beauty and talents.
  Cabbage.   The  cabbage, including
 many species of the numerous genus of
brasrica,is a biennial  plant,too well known
to need description,  and constitutes one
of our most valuable classes of vegetables.
There are several species of the wild or
original stock, from which  the  garden
cabbage has been derived  by cultivation.
These are natives of various parts of Eu-
rope, Africa, &c, and, although very  re-
mote  in appearance from the full, round
head, which our plants present, are scarce-
ly more so than are the kale,  cauUflower,
brocoU, &c, aU  of which  belong to the
cabbage family.   In general terms,  we
may consider this plant as divided into
three  classes—the common headed cab-
bage of the field and garden; the cauli-
flower, brocoli,  &c, which  form  their
stalks into a loose  head;  and the kale,
colewort, &c,  which grow in a natural
branching way, without  forming any
heads at aU.  Of these, the common cab-
bage is by far the most valuable, both to
man and to the beasts, by whose  assist-
ance he is able to make the earth so fer- 
370
CABBAGE—CABIRI.
tile.  It is also the most productive; for
it is beUeved that an  acre of ground will
yield a greater weight of green vegetable
matter (and thus be  more  profitable to
the fanner), in the   shape  of cabbage,
than  in  that  of any  other  vegetable
whatever.  It is very abundantly produc-
ed by clay soils, which are unfit for tur-
nips, and the farmers who cultivate such
soils wffl find  it a vegetable worthy of
much attention.  The cabbage furnishes
green fodder for cows and sheep, which
is, at least, as  good as turaips or carrots,
fattening the  animals  equally fast, and
rendering their milk,  butter, &c, to the
full as sweet; and is far preferable, as it
keeps later in the spring, and thus sup-
plies green  food when no other can be
procured.   It  is eaten by men in three
forms, all of which have their admirers,
but which vary much  in  respect to their
wholesomeness and digestibiUty.  These
forms are, the sUced  raw cabbage, plain
boiled cabbage, and  salted cabbage or
sour-crout, the favorite dish of the whole
German nation.  In the first  form, of raw
cabbage, sUced fine, and eaten with vine-
gar, whether entirely cold, or hot enough
merely to wilt the vegetable, it is one of
the lightest and most  wholesome articles
of vegetable food, and,  in this shape, will
supply a green summer vegetable through
the whole of the winter.   Its use cannot
be too highly recommended.  Boiled cab-
bage,  is, on the contrary, one ofthe worst
articles of diet  that a  weak  stomach can
be tried with, and is rarely got rid of with-
out a troublesome coUcky pain.  Sour-
crout, or, properly, sauer-kraut,  is much
eaten by the Germans in the U. States,
and they  consider it  very  wholesome,
although it is nearly, if not quite, as diffi-
cult of digestion as boiled cabbage.   It is
prepared in the foUowing manner:—Cab-
bage is sliced up fine, and a layer of it placed
in the bottom of a barrel, which is plen-
tifully salted; it is then weU bruised with
a heavy  maU  or  pestle, or is  trodden
down by  a pair of heavy boots, tiU the
barrel is  half filled with  the froth  that
arises from  this operation.  Successive
layers of cabbage and salt are added in
this manner, each  receiving the same
treatment, till the vessel is nearly  full.
Some cold water is then poured in, and
the top ofthe barrel is pressed down with
heavy stones.   The contents undergo a
brisk fermentation, which continues for a
week or two,  during which time the
brine must be drawn off} and replaced by
new, until it remains perfectly clear, when
the process is  finished.  It must be kept
covered with brine, and is thus simply a
fermented, or half sour, salted mass of
cabbage.  The other forms of cabbage, as
the cauUflower, &c, supply the epicures
of all countries with some of their great-
est delicacies, while the hardy kale, which
endures all degrees of cold, affords the
poor, and the farmers of poor soils, a valu-
able fodder for cattle of all kinds.
  Cabbala.   (See  Cabala.)
  Cabello.   (See  Porto Cabello.)
  Cabenda ; a sea-port of Africa, in  Ca-
congo; lon. 12° 3(/ E. ; lat. 5° 407 S.  It
is situated on the coast, a little to the north
of the river Zaire, and has a safe and easy
landing.    It  is a  great  emporium for
trade in slaves.  The  situation  is  so  dis-
tinguished for beauty and fertility, that it
has been called the  paradise ofthe coast
  Cabin ; an apartment in a ship  for offi-
cers and passengers. In large ships, there
are several cabins,  the principal of which
is occupied by the commander. In small
vessels, there is only one cabin, which is
in the stern.  The bed-places in ships are
also  called cabins,  or,  more  commonly,
berths. Berth  is used, likewise, for  the
room where a  number of men  mess and
reside.
  Cabinet ; 1. a small apartment  adjoin-
ing a larger one ;  2. the most  retired
part of a  private  dwelling, designed  for
work, for amusement, or for collections
of valuable articles.  3. In the abode of a
prince, the cabinet is a room set apart for
the ruler's particular use ; also, the apart-
ment where  he  transacts  government
business, advises with  his privy counsel-
lors,  and issues his decrees.   Hence, in
political language, the cabinet  is put for
the government; as the cabinet of Lon-
don,  of  Vienna,  of the Tuileries, &c.
4. Finally, a cabinet is any part of a build-
ing,  or  one or more  whole  buildings,
where are preserved valuable collections
from  the kingdoms of nature or  art; as
paintings, plants, animals, coins, minerals,
and curiosities of every description ; and,
by metonymy, the name is applied to  the
collections themselves.   A  work  of  art,
and sometimes of nature, of uncommon
beauty,  and fitted  from its  size  to be
placed in a cabinet, is called a cabinet-piece.
A cabinet painter  is one who executes
small highly-finished  pictures, suitable
for cabinets.
  Cabiri ; sacred priests or deified  he-
roes, venerated by the pagans as the  au-
thors of reUgion and the founders  of  the
human race.  The multiplicity of names
appUed to the  same character, the inter-
change of the  names ofthe deities them- 
CABIRI-OABOT.                          371
selves  with  those  of their  priests, the
oracular law, which enjoined the preser-
vation  of ancient  barbaric  names, and
thus led to a double nomenclature, sacred
and profane, together with the profound
secrecy of the rites, have involved the
subject in great obscurity.   Some have
thought that the Eastern mythology and
the Druidism of Western Europe contain
traces of the Cabiri.  Herodotus (U. 51)
says that their worship was brought  to
Samothrace by the Pelasgi.  Strabo (x.
472) says they are  the same as the Cory-
bantes.  Others have identified them with
the Titans,  the  Dii Magni, the Penates,
the Dioscuri, &c  Some say there were
6, 3 male and 3 female, children of Vul-
can and  Cabira,  daughter  of  Proteus.
Others make  2,  sons  of  Jupiter  or
Bacchus.   In  Samothrace, 4 were vene-
rated.  In Egypt, their temple  was never
entered by any but the priests.   In Phoe-
nicia, Rome (where, according to Pausa-
nias, they had an altar in the circus maxi-
mus), and other countries of  Europe and
Asia, traces of their worship are found.
But the mysteries (Cabiria) celebrated at
Samothrace were die most famous.  The
mysteries of Isis, Ceres, Mithras, Tropho-
nius, Bacchus, Rhea, Adonis, Osiris, and
all the  similar customs of Egypt, Greece,
Hindostan and Britain, seem  to be merely
varieties of the Samothracian rites, which
were celebrated in the obscurity of night,
and with  the most  profound  secrecy.
(See Faber on the  Mysteries ofthe Cabiri,
Oxford, 1803, 2 vols. 8vo.; Potter's  Gre-
cian Antiquities, ii. c. 20.)   After a pre-
 vious  probation of  abstinence, chastity
and silence, the candidates for initiation
 were purified  by water and blood; they
then offered a sacrifice of a  bull  or ram,
and were made to  drink of two fountains,
called Lethe (obUvion) and Mnemosyne
(memory), to  wash away the memory of
their fornier guilt,  and  to enable them to
remember the new instructions.  They
were then transported  into a dark tower
or cavern,  where their ears were assailed
by the most appalhng sounds, the rushing
of" waters, the roar of thunder, dreadful
yells,  with  occasional  gleams  of Ught
flashing  through the darkness, and dis-
playing the  most horrible phantoms, with
a dead body  exposed on a bier.  Thus
filled with terror, they were suddenly hur-
ried into other scenes;  light  and cheerful
 music succeeded to darkness and the dis-
 mal sounds, the dead body revived, and the
 temple resounded  with rejoicings.  The
 hidden doctrines  and secret  rites were
 now communicated. Dances and orgies, in
which the mystic phallus or lingam, and
the yoni (ai&oiov ymiauctXov), were introduced,
closed the ceremony.
  Cable, in architecture; 1. wreathed cir-
cular mouldings, resembling a robe ; also,
the staff which is left in the lower part of
the flutings of some examples ofthe Co-
rinthian and Composite orders.—2. In na-
val affairs, it is a long, thick rope, formed
of 3 strands of hemp, which is employed
for confining a vessel  to  its place by
means of an anchor or other fixed body.
The long and heavy chains, which have
been recently introduced for this purpose,
are also called cables.  Large vessels have
ready for service 3 cables—the sheet cable,
the best bower cable, and the small bower
cable.  They should be at least 100—120
fathoms in length.   A best bower cable,
of 25 inches in circumference, is formed
of 3240  threads.  The invention of iron
cables is  of recent  date, and they have
supplanted those of hemp in ships of war.
They are stronger,  less  Uable to be de-
stroyed on rocks, &c.  It is sometimes
desirable to cut the cable when of hemp:
this contingency is  provided  for in  iron
cables by a bolt and shackle at short dis-
tances, so that, by striking out the bolt, the
cable  is  easily detached.—Cable's length
is used  to  signify  the measure of 120
fathoms, the usual length of a cable.
   Caboose ; the cook-room or kitchen of
a ship. In smaUer vessels, it is an enclosed
fireplace, hearth or stove, for cooking, on
the main deck.  In a ship of war, the
cook-room  is called a  galley.—Caboose
also signifies the box that covers the chim-
ney in a ship.
   Cabot,  George,  was  born in  Salem,
Massachusetts,  in  the  year 1752,  and
early manifested distinguished talents.
He spent the early  part of his life in the
employment of a  shipmaster.   But he
did not  neglect the improvement of his
mind, even amid the restlessness and dan-
ger of a  seafaring career.  Before he was
twenty-six years of age, he was chosen
to the provincial  congress, which met at
Concord, with the  visionary project of
ordaining a maximum of prices, in order
that commodities might be cheapened by
constraining the owners to sell at reduced
and fixed rates; and there he  first dis-
played  that intimate acquaintance  with
the true principles  of poUtical economy,
for which he was thenceforward preemi-
nent  Before Adam Smith was known
in the U. States, and Say and  the  other
continental writers  had formed any cor-
rect notions on the  subject, Mr. Cabot
maintained the present enUghtened doc- 
372
CABOT.
trines, and strenuously contended for the
entire liberty of domestic and international
commerce.  Mr. Cabot was a prominent
member of the state convention assembled
to deliberate on the adoption of the  fed-
eral constitution, and, soon after that event
took place, was elected  a senator of the
United States, an office  which  his sense
of public duty caused him to accept, al-
though  against his incUnations.  In that
station,  he enjoyed the  unUmited confi-
dence, not only of the august body  of
which  he was a  member, but  also of
Washington and Hamilton; and to his
commercial  knowledge  and  profound
views of finance and political economy,
the latter was greatly indebted hi the for-
mation  of his financial system.  With
Fisher Ames, also, Mr. Cabot  was long
linked  by ties of the most affectionate
friendship.  At a recent period, when, in
the late  war, the exigencies of the country
seemed  to him to require his co-operation,
he presided over a body of delegates from
New England, who, in a season of extreme
solicitude, attempted to provide means
for averting a dreadful  storm  of public
calamity.   Mr. Cabot  died at Boston,
April 18, 1823, in the 72d year of his age.
He was the deUght and veneration of all
who knew him, and his talents seemed
the most extraordinary,  his virtues the
most bright, to those who had the happi-
ness  to  see him  most  familiarly.   His
mind was capacious and elevated.   In
public life, he was pure and  disinterested,
all his  exertions  tending  to one single
object—public good ; in  private, he  was
endeared to his family and his friends by
his kindness, urbanity and  benevolence.
The study of poUtical economy and the
science  of government  was his favorite
pursuit   His eloquence, which was oft-
ener displayed in private than  in public,
was  remarkable  for its beauty  and  sim-
plicity. As a Christian, he was sincere and
devout; and the manner of  his  death
suited the exemplary character of his life.
  Cabot, Sebastian, a navigator of great
eminence and abilities, was born at Bris-
tol, about the year 1477.  He was the son
of John Cabot, a  Venetian pilot,  who
resided at Bristol, and was highly esteemed
for his skiU in navigation. Sebastian was
early  instructed  in  the  mathematical
knowledge required by a seaman, and, at
the age of 17, had made several voyages.
Iii 1495, John Cabot obtained from Hen-
ry VII  letters patent empowering  him
and his three sons, Lewis, Sebastian and
Sanctius, to discover unknown lands, and
conquer and settle them.  In consequence
 of this permission, the king supplied one
 ship, and the merchants of London  and
 Bristol a few smaller ones, and, in 1496,
 John and Sebastian sailed to the north-west.
 In July ofthe same year, they discovered
 Newfoundland, and explored  it  up to lat-
 itude 67°.  The accounts of  this  voyage
 are attended with much obscurity ; but it
 seems, that, in a subsequent  voyage, the
 father and son sailed as far as cape Flori-
 da, and  were actually the first  who saw
 the main land of America.  Little, how-
 ever, is known of the proceedings of Se-
 bastian Cabot for the ensuing 20 years;
 but it seems, that, in the reign of Henry
 VIII,  by the patronage  of sir Thomas
 Peart, vice-admiral of England, he  pro-
 cured another ship to  make  discoveries,
 and  attempted a southern passage to the
 East Indies,  in  which he failed.  This
 disappointment is supposed to  have in-
 duced  him to  quit  England, and  visit
 Spain, where he was treated  with great
 respect, and  appointed  pilot-major.   An
 opulent company of Spanish merchants
soon after gave him the command of an
expedition to the  Spice islands, through
the newly-discovered straits of Magellan.
Accordingly,  in 1525, he sailed from Ca-
diz to  the  Canaries  and Cape  de Verd
 islands; and,  failing, from the opposition
of his crew, in his view of reaching the
 Spice islands, he proceeded to the river
 La Plata, where he discovered St.  Salva-
dor, and  erected a fort there.  He  subse-
quently reached the great river Paraguay,
and remained on the American coast a
considerable time, with the view of form-
ing an establishment.  Being disappointed
in the expected aid from Spain, he ulti-
mately returned home with all his crew,
but was not very favorably received, owing
to his failure in respect to the Spice islands,
and his severe treatment of the mutineers
of his crew.   He notwithstanding contin-
ued in the service of Spain for some years
longer, but at length returned  to England
towards the latter  end  of the reign of
Henry  VIII.   At the  beginning  of the
reign of Edward VI, he was introduced,
by the protector Somerset, to the young
king, who took much pleasure in his con-
versation, and settled a pension on him as
grand-pilot of England.  From this time,
he was consulted on all questions relating
to trade and navigation; and, in 1552, be-
ing governor of the eompany of merchant
adventurers, he drew up instructions, and
procured a Ucense for an expedition to
 discover a passage to the East Indies by
 the north.  These instructions, which are
 preserved in  Hackluyt's  collection  of 
CABOT—CACAO.
373
voyages, form a very honorable proof of
his sagacity  and penetration.  He was
also governor of the Russian company,
and was very active in their affairs.  He
is supposed to have died in the year 1557,
at  a very advanced  age, leaving behind
him a high character, both as a skilful
seaman and a man of great general abili-
ties.  He was the first  who  noticed the
variations  of the compass; and, besides
the ordinances to be found in Hackluyt,
he published  a large map ofthe world, as
also a work under the title of Navigazione
neUe parte  Septentrionali, per Sebastiano
Cabota (fol., Venice, 1583).
  Cabrera ; one of the Balearic isles in
the Meditenanean, belonging to  Spain;
lon. 3° E.; lat. 39° 7' N.  (See Baleares.)
  Cabul, or  Caubul, capital ofthe king-
dom  of Afghanistan, is a very ancient
city,  situated in a  spacious  and weU-
watered plain, enclosed on three sides by
a semicircular range of bills, on the sum-
mit of which is a fortification.  The Bala
Hissar, or Upper Fort, contains the palace
and other pubUc buildings.  The houses
are mean, the bazars well suppUed, and
crowded by Usbecks,  Afghans and Hin-
doos.   The  vicinity  is famous,  in  the
East, for flowers and fruits.  Cabul is a
great mart for horses from Tartary, which
are brought for exportation to Hindostan.
(See Elphinstone's Caubul, ch. viii—xi.)
Lon. 69° 13 E.; lat 33° 307 N.
  Cabulistan.   The  country compre-
hended under diis name has already been
described in the  articles Afghanistan and
Bdujistan.   It is sometimes called Cabul,
or  Caubul, from the capital; sometimes
Cabulistan;  sometimes Candahar, from
another capital.   It  was formerly, also,
called  Ghizne, from another city, for the
same reason. The origin  of the name
Afghans is unknown.  Their own name
for their  nation  is  Pooshtoon, whence,
probably,  the Indian  name  for  them,
Patans  (See Afghans.)
  Cacao.   Chocolate is a kind of cake,
or hard paste, the  basis of which  is the
pulp of the  cacao,  or  chocolate-nut, a
production ofthe West Indies and South
America.  The cacao-tree (theobroma ca-
cao), both  in  size  and shape, somewhat
resembles a young cherry-tree, but sepa-
rates, near the ground, into four  or  five
stems.   The  leaves are about four inches
in length, smooth, but not glossy, and of
a duU green color.  The flowers are saf-
fron-colored,  and  very beautiful.   The
fruit of the cacao-tree somewhat resem-
bles a cucumber in shape, but is furrowed
deeper  on  the sides.   Its color,  while
  vol. n.           32
growing, is green; but, as it ripens, this
changes to a fine bluish-red, almost pur-
ple, with pink veins; or, in some of the
varieties, to  a  delicate yellow  or lemon
color.  Each of the pods  contains  from
20 to 30 nuts or kernels, which, in shape,
are not much unlike almonds, and consist
of a white and sweet pulpy substance,
enveloped in  a  parchment-like   shell.
These are the  cacao or chocolate-nuts.—
Plantations of cacao are numerous on the
banks of the river Magdalena, in South
America.  They  are usually formed in
morassy situations, and are sheltered from
the intense heat ofthe sun by larger trees,
which  are planted in them.  There are
two principal crops of cacao in the year;
the first  in June, and the  second in De-
cember.  As soon as the fruit is ripe, it is
gathered, and  cut  into sUces; and the
nuts, which are, at this time, in a pulpy
state, are taken out, and laid in skins, or
on leaves to  be dried.  They have now a
sweetish acid  taste,  and may be  eaten
like any other fruit.  When perfectly dry,
they are put into bags, each  containing
about a hundred weight, and, thus packed,
are exported to foreign countries.  Pre-
viously  to being formed into chocolate,
these nuts are generally toasted or parch-
ed over the fire in  an iron vessel, after
which process  their  thin external cover-
ing is easily separated.   The kernel is
then pounded in a mortar, and subse-
quently ground on a smooth, warm stone.
Sometimes a little arnatto is added ; and,
with the aid of water, the whole is formed
into a paste.   This is put whilst hot, into
tin moulds, where, in a short time, it con-
geals ; and in  this  state  it is the choco-
late ofthe shops.  In South America and
Spain,  other modes are  adopted : the
chocolate is mixed with sugar, long pep-
per, vaniUa, cinnamon, cloves, almonds,
and other ingredients,  according to the
taste of the  respective inhabitants.  Mr.
Edwards was  of" opinion, that the  cakes
of chocolate  used in England were  made
of about one half genuine cacao, and the
remainder of flour or castile soap.   That  f
from Caraccas is  considered the best.—  >
By the  natives of  South America, the  ?
chocolate-nuts  are  used  for  food.  A
white, oily matter, about the consistence
of suet, is also  obtained by bruising them,
and boiling the pulp.  The oil is by this
means liquified,  and rises  to the sur-
face, where it  is left to cool and congeal,
that it may the more easily be separated.
This, which is caUed butter of cacao, is
without  smell, and, when fresh, has  a
very mffd taste.  Its principal use is as 
374
CACAO—CACTUS.
 an ingredient in pomatums.  From the
 nuts, when  slightly  roasted, an oil  is
 sometimes obtained by pressure, which is
 occasionally used in medicine.
   Cachao, Kacho, Hecho, or Bac-king ;
 capital  of the kingdom of Tonquin,  on
 the river Songkoi, about  100 miles  from
 its mouth. It is an open, straggUng town,
 with wide streets, the houses of mud, or
 wood thatched with  straw.  It was for-
 merly the residence of the king; and the
 English and  Danes  had factories there.
 It is a commercial place  of some conse-
 quence.  Gold, beautiful silks, and the
 finest lackered ware, is exported.  Lat.
 21° 23 N.; lon.  105° 12' E.
   Cachelot.  (See  Whales.)
   Cachet, Lettres de ; secret  war-
 rants, by  means  of which, under the
 former kings  of France, and their minis-
 ters, any  body could be imprisoned  or
 banished to a certain place, without any
 reason given.  The introduction of them
 is ascribed to the famous Capuchin padre
 Joseph, under the ministry  of cardinal
 RicheUeu. In this sense, the term lettres
 de cachet is commonly used, but it has, in
 fact, a more extensive signification.  All
 despatches from the royal state-chancery
 were issued either openly, as lettres pa-
 tentes, or  sealed, as  lettres closes, or de
 cachet.   The  first were  always  written
 upon parchment, the name of the  king
 signed  by a  minister of state, counter-
 signed  by the minister, not folded, but
 only the  lower part turned  over, and
 stamped with  the great  seal  of state.
 They commenced with the words A tous
presens  et  a venir Salut! and ended with
 the form Cor td est notre plairir.   In this
 shape, aU edicts, ordinances, charters, priv-
 ileges, &c. were issued, but all had to be
 recorded  by  the parliament of the dis-
 trict to which they refened.  The repre-
 sentations  of the parUament often  pre-
 vented  these  lettres patentes  from being
 carried into effect.  The others, the lettres
 closes, were only written on paper, some
 in the name  of the king (who  spoke in
 the first person, and concluded with the
 formula Sur  ce je prie Dieu, qu'il vous
 ait dans sa sainte et divine  garde, and
 signed with his name), some by commis-
 sion from the king.   In the latter  case,
 they began with the words De par  le
 roi: U est ordonne a, and  were signed  by
 a minister. They were then closed, and
 sealed with the smaU royal seal,  so that
 the  contents  could not  be seen.  The
 lettres closes were used for many purposes
 besides  that  of anests.  AU the orders
 sent to officers and  private individuals
(e. g., to rejiort opinions, to repair to a
certain place, to leave their place of resi-
dence, or go into banishment) were issued
in this fonn.   Wanants also were often
issued in this  form, because the courts,
and particularly the  poUce,  could  not
have acted without such authority in ur-
gent cases.  To the lieutenant-general de
la police of Paris a number of them were
always  given, to fill  out the blanks as
occasion might require.  Without them,
he  would not  have been authorized to
anest suspected persons.   Frequently the
arrest by lettre  de  cachet  was a favor  on
the part of the king, as it withdrew the
accused  from the severer punislmient to
which he would have been liable upon a
trial before  the courts.  (See Linguet's
Memoirs sur la Bastille, London, 1783,
and Mirabeau's Des Lettres de Cachet et
des Prisons  d'Etat,  1782.) These  letters
were  detestable instruments of arbitrary
power, hostile to every principle of right.
(See Bastile.)
  Cacique ; in some parts  of America,
the title of the  native chiefs at the time
ofthe conquest by the Spaniards.
  Cacodemon.   (See Demon.)
  Cacophony ;  a  fault of style, which
consists in a harsh and disagreeable sound,
produced by the meeting of two letters or
two syllables, or by the too frequent repe-
tition  of the same  letters or syllables.  It
destroys  the harmony of the whole pe-
riod ;  it is unpleasant in  prose and intol-
erable in verse.  Thus the Roman was
shocked with the
    O forlunatam natam, me consule Rom am;
and, according  to  Juvenal,  a few more
such  cacophonies  would   have  saved
Cicero's head.   A French ear is offended
with Voltaire for the expression g-Zaca sa
main.   Pope says,
       And oft the ear the open vowels tire.
  Cactus, in botany; a genus of succu-
lent plants, containing 28 species, perma-
nent in  duration, singular and various in
structure, generaUy without leaves* hav-
ing the stem or branches jointed, for the
most part armed with spines in  bundles,
with which, in  many species, bristles are
intermixed.  They are natives of South
America and the  West Indies.  Several
of  the  species  are cultivated  in other
countries, for curiosity, in green-houses.
Gardeners  divide  them  into, 1.  melon-
thistles ; these are of a roundish form: 2.
torch-thistles;   erect,  supporting  them-
selves :  3. cereuses;  creeping with lat-
eral roots: 4. prickly-pears,  or Indian
Jigs;  compressed, with proliferous joints. 
CACTUS—CADA MOSTO.
375
The two  first  sorts appear  like large,
fleshy, green melons, with deep ribs, set
all over with strong, sharp thorns, setting
close to the surface of the earth, and dif-
fering in height, from a  foot to  a  yard.
When these plants are cut through the
middle, their inside is found to be a soft,
pale-green, fleshy substance, very full of
moisture, the taste of which is agreeably
acid.  The fruits  are frequently eaten in
the West  Indies.  One of the most re-
markable  species of cactus  is  the C.
grandiflorus, or night-flowering creeping
cereus, belonging to die third  class.  The
flower of this species, though very short-
Uved, is a  splendid production.   It  be-
gins to open in the evening, between seven
and eight o'clock, is fully blown by eleven,
and by three or four in the morning  be-
gins to fade;  soon after which, it hangs
down in a state  of irrecoverable decay.
When the plants  are large, several flow-
ers will open in the same night, and there
will be a succession of them for several
nights together.  The calyx, when  ex-
panded, is about six  inches, sometimes
nearly a foot, in diameter, yellow within,
and dark-brown without   The petals are
many, and of a pure white, and the great
number of recurved stamina surrounding
the style in the centre ofthe flower make
a grand appearance.   It generally flowers
in July.
   Cacus, a robber in  Italy, the terror of
the Aventine wood, of the surrounding
inhabitants and of strangers, a monstrous
giant, according to some, vomiting fire, of
enormous  strength and  terrible  appear-
ance, was a son of Vulcan.  A  deep,
winding cavern was his residence, over
the entrance of  which hung the  heads
and arms  of those whom he had slain.
This cave he closed with a stone, which
20 pair of oxen could not remove.  When
Hercules was driving the herds of Geryon
through Italy, C. robbed him of some of
them, and, to conceal their tracks, dragged
them backwards  into his cave.  But their
lowing betrayed them ; upon which Her-
cules attacked the robber, and, after a
terrible conflict (see Virgil's JEneid, b. 8),
killed him with his club.  To express his
gratitude for his victory, Hercules erected
die ara maxima, and  Evander, with his
Arcadians, performed divine honors to
Hercules as their benefactor.
   Cadalso, Jose, a man  of very respecta-
ble standing among the later writers of
Spain, was born  at Cadiz, in 1741, of an
ancient and  noble family, and educated
in Paris, where he made himself master
of Greek and  Latin, and the  principal
languages of modem Europe.  He after-
wards travelled through England, France,
Portugal, Germany and Italy.  At the age
of 20, he returned home, and joined the
Spanish  forces then  employed  against
Portugal.  He remained in the army till
his death, in 1782, attentive to his military
duties, though devoted to Uterature.  He
was the friend of the most distinguished
writers then living in Spain, and, by his
advice and example, contributed much to
bring out the talent of several among
them.  He was  killed by a sheU at the
siege of Gibraltar, in 1782.  He is the
author of Cartas Marruecas, a series of
letters written in the character of a Moor-
ish traveller in Spain, and containing re-
flections upon Spanish institutions and
manners.  It is  a work of much merit.
C. also wrote a satire called Eruditos a la
Violeta, in ridicule   of scioUsts ; also a
tragedy, and several poetical pieces under
the title of Orios de mi Juventud.
   Cada Mosto,  or Ca da Mosto, Louis
da, born at Venice,  about 1432, devoted
himself to commerce, after receiving a
careful  education, and made many voy-
ages into the Meditenanean sea and At-
lantic  ocean.  In 1454, he sailed in the
ship of his countryman, Marco Zeno, for
Flanders.  Contrary winds stopped the
progress of the  vessel in the straits of
Gibraltar, and she was compeUed to Ue to
near cape St. Vincent, where prince Hen-
ry had retired to devote  himself to Iris
studies, and to promote discoveries along
the  coast of  Africa.  C, a young man
full of the spirit of enterprise, offered his
services to the  prince, and  obtained a
ship of 90 tons. In 1455, he departed
from Lagos, sailed into the river Senegal,
which had  been discovered five  years
before, proceeded yet farther along the
coast,  and visited prince  Darnel, whose
states extended from the Senegal to cape
Verd.   After trading in slaves and gold,
he steered for cape Verd, where he joined
two other discovery-ships  of the prince,
and visited, in company with them, the
mouths  of the  Gambia,  the riches of
which  had been greatly  extolled.   As
they were attacked  by the  inhabitants,
and the mariners, weary  of then  long
voyage,  had  become discouraged,  the
commanders were compelled to return to
Portugal.  In 1456, C,  in company with
two other ships,  made a second voyage to
the  Gambia.  On the way thither,  tbey
discovered the cape Verd islands.  When
they entered into the Gambia this time,
they were well received; but the quantity
of gold which  they obtained  did  not 
376
CADA MOSTO—CADIZ.
 answer their  expectations.   The  three
 ships continued their course as far as the
 river Casamansa and the Rio Grande, and
 returned to Portugal.  C. remained there
 tiff 1463, in which  year  prince Henry
 died.  The description  of his travels,
 Prima Navigazione per VOceano allc  Terre
 de' Negri aula Bassa Etiopia,  di Luigi
 Cada Mosto (Vicenza, 1507, and Milan,
 1519), the oldest of the  voyages of the
 moderns,  is a master-piece.   The  ar-
 rangement is admirable, the narrative in-
 teresting, the descriptions clear and  accu-
 rate.
   Cade,  John  (better known  as Jack
 Cade); a man of low birth, who  had been
 obliged to fly into France for his crimes.
 Observing the discontents of the people
 on his return to England (1450), in  the
 reign of  Hemy VI (q. v.), he  took  the
 name of John Mortimer, published  com-
 plaints against the abuses of government,
 and soon  found  himself at the  head of
 20,000 men, common people  of Kent.
 Having defeated a force sent against him,
 he advanced to  London, which opened
 its gates; but  the riotous  disposition of
 his followers alarmed the citizens.  They
 drove out and defeated the rebels, who
 soon dispersed, and Cade was killed by
 one Iden, a gentleman of Kent.
   Cadence, or Reprise ;  a pause or sus-
 pension at the end of an air, to afford the
 performer an opportunity of introducing
 a  graceful extempore close. The  word
 cadence is also frequently applied to the
 embeUishment itself.
   Cader Idris ; a mountain of Wales;
 the commencement of a chain  running
 north-easterly.  There are here several
 small lakes,  abounding  in fish.   The
 height of the mountain is 3550 feet above
 the level of the  sea.  It  is three nines
 south of Dolgelly, Merionethshire.
   Cadet (French); 1.  a younger brother.
 —2. In the French service, a cadet was a
 gentleman who served in the ranks with-
 out pay, for the purpose of learning the
 art of war.—3.  It  is  now applied, in
 England  and  the  North  American  U.
 States, to the pupils of a military acade-
 my, (q. v.)
   Cadet de Vaux, Antoine Alexis, a
 chemist, member of the French coUege de
pharmade, and of many learned  German
 societies, born in Paris, 1743, was at first an
 apothecary, but for many years has been a
 successful practical agriculturalist, and ac-
 tive, even in his old age, in improving the
 soil and the manufactures of his country.
 He has discussed the effect of the destruc-
 tion of mountain forests in diminishing the
 copiousness of the springs in the valleys,
 the improvement of vineyards, the culti-
 vation of foreign plants, and the providing
 of substitutes for the usual articles  of
 food in times of scarcity.  He is one of
 the principal editors of the Journal d'Eco-
 nomie  rurale et domestique, and of the
 Cours complet d'Agriculture pratique.  He
 has also been engaged in politics.
   Cadi, in  Arabic ;  a judge or jurist.
 Among the Turks,  cadi signifies an infe-
 rior judge, in distinction  from the moUa,
 or superior judge.  They  belong to the
 higher clergy, as the  Turks derive  their
 law from their prophet.
   Cadiz, the principal port, and one  or
 the handsomest cities of Spain, is situated
 at the extremity of a long tongue of land
 projecting from the island of Leon.   The
 nanowness  of the land  communication
 prevents its capture by a military force,
 while the garrison is  master of the sea
 This was exempUfied  in  the long block-
 ade of 1810, 11,  12.   It is walled,  with
 trenches and bastions on the land  side,
 and, the population being large (70,000),
 the houses have been built high,  and the
 streets are  narrow.  It has been much
 extended, and  adorned  with handsome
 buildings, since 1786.   The chief build-
 ings are the great hospital, the custom-
 house, the churches, and 13 monasteries.
 From the harbor, the town  has a  fine
 appearance.   The bay of C. is a very fine
 one.  It is a large basin  enclosed by the
 main land on one side, and the projecting
 tongue of land  on the other.  It  is  from
 10 to, 12 leagues in circumference, with
 good anchorage,  and  protected  by the
 neighboring hills.   It  has 4 forts, 2 of
 which  form the  defence of the grand
arsenal, La Caraca, in  which are 3 basins
 and 12 docks.  This bay is the great  ren-
 dezvous of the Spanish  navy.   C.-was
the centre of Spanish American trade,
 and the commerce of the port was very
 extensive, before  the  separation of the
 colonies. An important branch of indus-
 try in the vicinity  is the  preparation of
 salt: the pits belong to the government,
 and supply many of the fishermen of dif-
 ferent countries of Europe.   The  city
 was taken by the earl of Essex in 1596,
 and from its bay Villeneuve sailed, previ-
 ous to the  battle of Trafalgar, in 1808.
 In 1809, it became the seat of the central
junta, and afterwards  of  the  cortes.  It
 sustained a long blockade from the French
 (Feb. 6, 1810, to  Aug. 25, 1812), which
 was not raised till after the battle of Sala-
 manca.   In  1823, the  French entered it
 (Oct 3), after a short siege.  In  1829, it 
CADIZ—CADWALADER.
377
was declared a free port  On  the island
of Leon, the  village  of Las Cabezas is
also  situated, where  Riego  began  the
military revolution, Jan.  1, 1820.   (See
Spain.)
  Cadiz, Straits of ; that part of the
Atlantic which has the coasts of Algarve
and Andalusia on the north, those of Fez
and Morocco on the south, and the straits
of Gibraltar on the  east.
  Cadmus ; the name of several persons
in mythology and history.  The most fa-
mous is the son of Agenor and grandson
of Neptune.  With his brothers, he was
sent, by his father,  to seek for his sister
Europa, who  had been carried  away by
Jupiter, and he was not to return without
her.  After several adventures, C. inquired
ofthe oracle at Delphi, which  command-
ed him  to desist from further search, to
intrust  himself  to the  guidance  of  a
heifer,  and where she should stop to
build a city.   He accordingly  went to
Bceotia, where he wished to sacrifice the
cow  to Minerva.  But his companions, in
attempting to  fetch water from the foun-
tain of Mars, for the purpose ofthe sacri-
fice, were slain by the dragon that guarded
it C. killed the dragon, and, at the com-
mand of Minerva, sowed its teeth in the
earth;  armed men immediately sprang
up, whom he called  Sparti (the sowed),
but who perished in a contest with  each
other, excepting only  five.  With the re-
mainder, he built the city of Cadmea or
Thebes  (see Thebes).   Jupiter then mar-
ried  him to Harmonia, and all the  gods
were present at his nuptials.  He became,
by this marriage, the father of Antinoe,
Ino,  Semele, Agave and Polydorus.   Af-
ter ruling,  for a time, the city which he
had  built, and the state  which he had
founded, he proceeded, at the command
of Bacchus, with Harmonia, to  the En-
chelae, conquered their enemies, the Illyr-
ians, became their king, and begat another
son,  Ulyrius.   Jupiter  finally  changed
him  and Harmonia into serpents, or, as
some say,  into  lions, and transported
them to Elysium.  Tradition states, that
C. came to Boeotia from  Phoenicia, 1550
B. C,  conquered  the inhabitants  who
opposed him, and, in conjunction  with
them, founded the  above-mentioned city.
To promote the improvement of his new
subjects, he taught them  the  Phoenician
alphabet, the employment of music at the
festivals of the gods, besides the use of
copper,  &c.—Another C. of  Miletus,  a
son of Pandion, was regarded,  among the
Greeks, as  the first who wrote in prose.
He Uved about 600 years before Christ
                  32*
  Cadsand ; an island near the coast of
Flanders, at the mouth of the Scheldt;
lon. 3° IS' E.; lat. 51° 23' N.   This island
is preserved by lofty dikes, constructed
at a vast expense,  from the inundations
of the sea; and yet is scarcely free from
danger when the N. W. wind blows with
violence.  The land is fertile, and  the
corn  is equal to  any produced  in  the
United Provinces; the meadows are luxu-
riant, and the farmers make a large quan-
tity of excellent cheese.
  Caduceus, a wand of laurel or olive,
with two Uttle wings on the upper end,
about which two  serpents  are twisted,
with  their heads  turned towards each
other, and their crests not bristled, served
for a symbol of peace.  It was borne by
the heralds, whose persons were  then
sacred and inviolable.  The fable tells us,
that Apollo gave this staff to Mercury, in
consideration of his resigning to him the
honor of inventing the lyre.  As Mercury
entered Arcadia with this wand in his
hand, he saw two serpents  fighting to-
gether ; he threw the staff between them,
and they immediately wound themselves
around  it in friendly union.  The ser-
pents which adorn this staff were, accord-
ing to Bottiger, originally, emblems of
the knots with which  the  oldest mer-
chants of the Mediterranean sea secured
their chests  and goods.  The C. is Mer-
cury's peculiar mark of distinction.  With
this he conducted the shades to the lower
world, and  from  it received the name
Cadurifer;  yet we find  it,  on ancient
coins, in the hands of Bacchus, Hercules,
Ceres, Venus and  Anubis.  Among the
moderns, it  serves  principally as an em-
blem of commerce.
  Cadwalader, John, was born in Phil-
adelphia, and, at the commencement of
the  revolution, commanded a volunteer
corps, of which almost  all the members
received commissions in the line of the
army.   He  was  afterwards  appointed
colonel of one ofthe city battalions, from
which rank he rose to that of brigadier-
general, and was intrusted with the com-
mand of the Pennsylvania troops  in the
winter campaign of '76—77.  He acted
in this command, and as a volunteer, in
the  battles  of Princeton, Brandywine,
Germantown, Monmouth, and on other
occasions, and received the thanks of
general  Washington, whose confidence
and esteem he always possessed.  C. was
appointed to command one of the divis-
ions into which the army was separated
when Washington  determined  to attack
the enemy  at Trenton ; but, in  conse- 
378
CADWALADER—CAERMARTHEN.
quence of the ice in the river, neither he
nor  general  Irvine, the commander of
another division, could cross the river in
time.  But, the day after Washington's
return, he effected the passage, suppos-
ing him stiU on the Jersey side, and pur-
sued the vanquished enemy to Burling-
ton.  In 1778, he was appointed by con-
gress general of cavalry—an appointment
which  he declined on the score of  being
more useful in the station which he occu-
pied.   He died Feb. 10, 1786, in the 44th
year of his age.
  Gelius Mons, one of the hills  of the
city  of Rome, received its name from
Caelius Vibenna, an  Etruscan, to whom
it was assigned.  The palace  of Tullus
Hostilius was on this mount. In the time
of Tiberius, it received the name Augus-
tus.  It is at present covered with  ruins,
which  serve to excite the  curiosity and
baffle the ingenuity of antiquaries.
  Caen ;  a large and well-built town of
France, the  ancient capital  of Lower
Normandy, and the  chief place in the
department of  Calvados.  According to
Dupin  (Forces  productives  commercials
de la France, 1828), it is one of the most
important  cities of the west of France,
with a  population of 37,890 inhabitants,
the  centre  of an  important  domestic
trade, the market  of a rich agricultural
district, a  seaport  and  a manufacturing
city.   Its institutions, literary,  charitable
and  scientific,  are numerous, and  very
well  organized.  The antiquarian society,
the Linnsean society, the agricultural soci-
ety, and the academy of science, arts and
Uterature, are distinguished.   C. also con-
tains one of the 26 academies ofthe uni-
versity (academie universitaire), a  royal
college, a large  and valuable public  libra-
ry, an academy of drawing,  architecture
and sculpture, a gallery of paintings, and
many other useful and liberal institutions.
The  hospital of the abbaye-aux-dames is
one of the best regulated in France.   The
noble hospital of the bon-sauveur is divid-
ed into the asylum  for the insane, the
dispensary for the sick and wounded, the
school  for the deaf and dumb, the lying-
in-hospital, a boarding school for young
ladies, and a free school  for 120 destitute
gir%ls.   The whole is administered by 125
charitable  females  (soeurs hospitaliers).
The  streets  are less narrow and crooked
than is usual in France, and the houses are
mostly of white stone.   It has 12 parish
churches, of which the principal are the
abbaye-aux-hommes, buUt by WilUam the
Conqueror,  who lies buried in it, and
notre-dam*.  The city was formerly forti-
fied, but  the fortifications are now in ru-
ins.   Henry  VI of England founded  a
university here in 1431, C. having been
in the possession of the English, of whom
it  is now a favorite retreat, from 1417 to
1448.  Admiral  de Coligni captured  it
for the Protestants in  1562, and, in 1815,
it was occupied by the Prussians.  Linen,
serges, particularly rich lace, with stock-
ings, caps, paper-hangings and oil, are the
principal articles of manufacture.  A su-
gar refinery has lately  been established,
in which a steam-engine is employed.  A
large fair is held here annually, and an
exhibition of  the  manufactures of  the
department  bienniaUy.   Malherbe,  De
Laplace,  VauqueUn,  were  bora in this
city  or in its  vicinity.  It is  132 miles
N. W. of Paris.   Lon. 21'  38"  W.;  lat.
49° 11' 12" N.
  Caerleon ;  a small town in England,
26 miles  from Bristol, on the  Usk,  in
which  the tide rises 30 feet.  (See Bris-
tol Channd.)   It was the site of  the Isca
SUurum, the chief Roman station in  the
countiy of the Silures.  The ruins of
baths, temples  and  a theatre were  to be
seen here in the 12th century; and Roman
coins, statues and sepulchral monuments
are yet found.  Tliere are also the vesti-
ges of an amphitheatre, which the inhab-
itants call king Arthur's round table, from
a tradition that he  instituted the round
table in this place.  Population, in 1821,
1062.
  Caermarthen ;  chief town of Caer-
marthenshire,  South Wales.  It  is situ-
ated  on the Towy, the picturesque beau-
ties of the vale of which  are seen to great
advantage from  the celebrated Grongar
hill and   the  ruins of  Dynevor castle.
The  streets are many of them steep and
irregular.  The river is navigable for ves-
sels of 300 tons  burden. In the history
of romance, C. is famed as the birthplace
of MerUn, and three miles from the town
is a spot called Merlin's grove, in which
tradition relates that the Lady of the Lake
intombeJ  the  unhappy  magician (Faerie
Queen, iii. 3).  Merlin's chair, from which
he uttered his prophecies, is also shown.
Roman roads, coins and sepulchral anti-
quities are found  in  the neighborhood.
About eight miles from the town there  is
an immense cairn, 18 feet high and 150 in
circuit, covered  with  turf.   The top  is
hollow, with a stone chest  in it, covered
with an  oval  stone nine feet long.   Be-
tween the Towy and the Cowen there  is
a barrow with a stone chest in it.  C.  is
212  miles west  from London.   Popula-
tion, in 1821, 8906. 
CAERNARVON—CAESAR.
379
     Caernarvon,  the principal town of
   North Wales, stands on the Menai strait,
   with a good harbor, but difficult of access.
   It is built in the form of a square, enclos-
   ed on three sides with walls.  Edward I
   built it in 1282, and his son, Edward II,
   first prince of Wales, was born here.  C.
   stands near the site of the ancient Segon-
   tium of Antoninus, the Caer Seiont ofthe
   Britons.  Being  formerly a strong hold,
   it was frequently attacked in the wars be-
   tween the Welsh and English, and in the
   civil wars.  Population, 5788.   Distant
   253 miles N. W. from London.
     Caerphilly, or  Caerphili ; a  small
   market-town in the county of Glamorgan,
   distinguished for the ruins of one of the
   most magnificent castles in Great Britain.
   The date of its foundation is  unknown ;
   but, till the time of Henry III, it was call-
   ed  the castle of Senghenydd.  The great
   hall, 70 feet by 30, and the hanging tower,
   nearly 80 feet high, and inclining about 11
   feet from the. perpendicular, are remark-
   able objects.  The position of the latter
   was produced  by the steam of a quantity
   of water which was thrown upon a fur-
   nace of melted  iron beneath the tower.
   Distant 158 miles west from London.
     Caerwent ; a village of England, sup-
   posed to have been the  Venta  Silurum of
   Antoninus.  The vestiges of a large Ro-
   man camp are visible.   A mosaic pave-
   ment of blue, white, yellow and red was
   discovered  here some years ago.  Distant
   17 miles N.W. of Bristol.
     Caerwys,  a  small  town  of  North
   Wales, is noted for the celebration of the
   Eisteddfod, or competition  of the bards
   (q.  v.).  They recited their  odes, or per-
   formed on  the harp, in presence of judges
   appointed  by  the native princes.   The
   prize was  a small  silver harp.  Distant
   212 miles N. W. from London.
     Cesar was the family name of the five
   first Roman emperors.  With Nero the
   imperial family became extinct (A.D.68),
   and Casar became merely a title of dig-
   nity.  The emperor, who bore the  title
   of Augustus, appointed his successor, with
   the title of Casar.   On medals and mon-
   uments we find the title Casar preceding
   the name of the emperor, as,  Imp. Casar
   Nerva Trajanus Augustus, and following
   that ofthe designated successor, as, Marc.
   Aurel. Antonin.  Casar.  In  the lower
   Greek empire, a new dignity  of Sebasto-
   crator was  confened, and that of Casar
   became the third rank in the state.
     Cesar, Caius Julius, a great general,
   statesman and historian, was bora July
S 10th (QuinctUis), B. C. 100.  He was the
son of the  pretor Caius  Julius Caesar,
and of Aurelia, a daughter of Aurelius
Cotta.   From his earUest boyhood, he
discovered  extraordinary  talents.   He
had a penetrating intellect, a remarkably
strong memory, and a lively imagination;
was indefatigable in business, and able, as
we are told by Pliny, to read, write, hear
and dictate, at the same time, from four to
seven different letters.  When  the party
of Marius gained the ascendency in Rome,
Cinna gave his daughter Comefia in mar-
riage to C, with the  view  thereby to
establish  his own  power  more  firmly.
Sylla, when he came  to Rome, tried to
prevail on him to repudiate her.   His re-
fusal provoked the anger of the usurper,
who was prevented only  by the earnest
entreaties of his friends from putting him
under proscription.   The saying of SyUa,
that "he saw  in  this stripling many a
Marius,"  hastened  the departure  of C.
from Rome.  He  travelled into the Sa-
bine territory, was seized by the soldiers
of Sylla, and was obliged to procure his
release  by  a bribe of two talents.  He
then proceeded to the court of Nicomedes,
king of Bithynia.   Thence  he went to M.
Minucius Thermus, the pretor in Asia,
who intrusted him with the command of
the fleet which was to blockade Mitylene.
In the execution of this trust, C. distin-
guished  himself highly, although but 22
years old.   He next visited Rhodes,  and
placed himself under  the  instruction of
Apollonius, to fit himself for speaking at
the bar.   On the way, he was taken  by
pirates, and compelled to pay 50 talents
for his release. To revenge himself, he
fitted out some vessels at  Miletus, over-
took the pirates, made the greatest part
of them prisoners, and had them crucified
before Pergamus.   He now returned to
Rome, and became military  tribune, ques-
tor and edile.  At the same time, he
had the address to win the favor of the
people  by affability, by splendid enter-
tainments and  pubUc shows; and, trust-
ing to his popularity, he ventured to erect
again the statues and trophies of Marius,
who was hated by the senate and the pa-
tricians.   By means of one of his rela-
tions, L. Julius Caesar, whom he had aid-
ed in obtaining the consulship, he caused
many of Sylla's followers to be banished
or put  to death.   In the conspiracy of
Catiline  he certainly had  a secret part
He defended the conspirators, who were
anested, and succeeded in raising a tu-
mult against Cato, who strongly opposed
him, so that he was  obliged to quit the
rostrum, and even his Ufe was  endanger- 
380
CiESAR.
ed.  Cato, however, prevailed, and C.
was for a time kept out of the pretorship.
But he was soon after chosen  pontifex
maximus, and was about to go as govern-
or to Farther Spain.  His creditors refus-
ing to let him depart, Crassus became his
bondsman for the enormous sum of 830
talents.  It was on  his journey to Spain,
that he expressed, on seeing a miserable
village, the well-known sentiment,  that
"he would rather  be  first  there,  than
second at Rome."  In Spain,  he made
several conquests, and returned to Rome
with money enough to  pay off his debts.
In order to gain the consulship, he now
found it expedient to bring about a recon-
ciliation between Pompey and  Crassus,
whose  enmity  had divided Rome  into
two parties.  He succeeded in his design,
and all three agreed to divide the sove-
reign  power  between them.  This  was
the first triumvirate in Roman history
(B. C. 60.)  C. then became consul with
M. Calpurnius  Bibulus, confirmed  the
measures of Pompey, and procured the
passage of a  law, in opposition to  the
senate  and his  colleague,  to distribute
certain lands  among the poor  citizens.
This brought  him into the highest favor
with the people.  With Pompey he form-
ed  a still  more intimate connexion by
giving  him his daughter Julia  in mar-
riage, and gained the favor of the eques-
trian order by remitting a third part of
their taxes. In vain did the heads ofthe
patriotic party, Cicero  and  Cato, raise
their voices against the triumvirate: they
only drew upon themselves their  ven-
geance. When  the year of his consul-
ship had expired, C. obtained the govern-
ment  of Gaul  for  five  years,  with the
command  of four  legions.   After  his
maniage with the accomplished Calpur-
nia, the daughter of one of the new con-
suls, Calpurnius Piso, he repaired to Gaul,
compelled the Helvetians, who had invad-
ed that province, to retreat to their native
countiy, subdued Ariovistus, who, at the
head of a German tribe, intended to settle
in the  country  of the .<Edui, and con-
quered the Belgians.  In nine years, he
reduced all  Gaul,  crossed  the Rhine
twice (B. C. 55 and 53), and twice passed
over to Britain, defeated the gallant  na-
tives of this island in several battles,  and
compelled them to give  him hostages.
The senate had continued his  govern-
ment  in Gaul for another period of five
years, while Pompey was  to have  the
command of Spain, and Crassus that of
Syria,  Egypt and   Macedonia  for  five
years also.  But the death of Crassus, in
his campaign against  the  Parthians, dis-
solved the triumvirate; and the death of
Julia, which took place about the same
time, cooled  the friendship between C.
and Pompey.  Meanwhile  the power and
authority of Pompey were constantly in-
creasing.  C,  too, strove  to  strengthen
and enlarge his own party in the capital
by enormous bribes.  He made Gaul a
Roman province, and governed the con-
quered  lands with policy  and kindness.
Pompey, on the other  hand, promoted
C.'s enemies to the consulship, and per-
suaded  the senate to  pass a  decree,  by
which C. was  to leave his army, and re-
sign his govemment of  the province.
He declared  himself  ready  to obey, if
Pompey would do the same.   Hereupon
the senate ordered that C. should resign
his offices and command within a certain
time, or be proclaimed an enemy to the
state, and appointed Pompey  general of
the army of the repubUc.  Upon this, C.
urged his soldiers to defend the honor of
their leader, passed the Rubicon (49 B. C),
and made himself master of Italy without
striking a blow, as Pompey, destitute of
troops to meet him, had left the city with
the consuls, senators and magistrates.  C.
then levied an army with the treasures of
the state, and hastened into Spain, which
he  reduced to submission  without com-
ing to a pitched battle  with  Pompey's
generals. He next conquered  Marseilles,
and returned to Rome, where he was
appointed  dictator  by the  pretor, M.
iEmilius Lepidus.  At the  same time,  he
was chosen consul for the following year
by the people.   In the meanwhile, Pom-
pey had collected an  army in the east,
and his rival hastened to Epirus with five
legions  by land.  But when  the vessels
which were intended to transport the rest
of his troops had been captured by Pom-
pey's fleet, C. proposed an accommodation,
which,  however, was refused.    Mean-
while C. received the expected reenforce-
ments, and challenged his antagonist to
battle.   Pompey declined  coming to  an
engagement, but, at last, being surrounded
in his camp, was forced to take a decisive
step, in  order to break through the ene-
my's line.  This measure was  successful,
and C. retreated to Pharsalia, where, in a
bloody but decisive engagement (48 B. C),
he  gained the victory.  Pompey fled to
Asia, and then  to Egypt, to raise a new
army.   As his party was only  weakened,
but not destroyed, C. hastened after him,
passed over  the Hellespont, where Cas-
sius sunendered to him with his fleet, and
then went to Egypt  Here he received 
CiESAR.
381
inteUigence of the murder of Pompey.
He shed tears at the tragical end of his
rival, gave his body an honorable burial,
and loaded his foUowers with favors, by
which  many of them  were won to  em-
brace his cause.  Being detained by con-
trary winds, he made use of the time to
compose the differences between Ptolemy
and his sister Cleopatra (q. v.). In Rome,
the senate and the people  strove eagerly
to gain the favor ofthe victor.  They ap-
pointed him consul for five years, dictator
for a year, and tribune of the people for
life.  Pharnaces, king of Pontus, a son of
Mithridates the Great, having attempted
to recover the territories of his father in
Asia, C. marched against him, pardoned
king Dejotarus, an adherent  of Pompey,
on his way,  and finished  the  war so
speedily, that  he announced his success
to his friends  in  the famous words Veni,
vidi, vici.  Returning to Rome, he grant-
ed an  amnesty  to all  the followers of
Pompey, and  gained, by  his clemency,
the universal  love of the people.  When
his dictatorship  had expired, he caused
himself to be chosen consul again,  and,
without changing  the ancient forms of
government, ruled with almost unlimited
power.  In Africa, however,  the friends
of the  republic had gathered under the
standard of Cato  and other generals.  C.
passed  over with an  army, and fought
several battles with various success, till
the victory at Thapsus over Scipio Me-
tellus decided the contest in his favor.
Cato, who was in Utica, stabbed himself,
and the city sunendered to the conqueror.
C. then made Mauritania and  Numidia
Roman provinces, and gave orders for the
rebuilding of Carthage and Corinth, which
was accomplished in a year. In Rome,
he was received with the most striking
marks  of honor.  The term  of his dicta-
torship was prolonged to 10 years, the of-
fice of censor confened on him alone; his
person was declared inviolable, and his
statue  placed by that of Jupiter  in the
capitol.  In a speech  to the people on
this occasion, he declared his resolution
to use  his power for the good ofthe state;
and  put an  end  to the apprehensions,
which  some still entertained,  by the par-
don of Marcellus, one of his most open
and bitter enemies.  He soon after cele-
brated  the four triumphs which had been
decreed him over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces
and Juba, all in  one month, and among
the most  magnificent ever  witnessed in
Rome.   He  now passed  many useful
laws,  and invited the  learned  men of
foreign countries  to  Rome.   Amongst
other  things, he undertook the reforma-
tion ofthe calendar (q.v.).  During these
peaceful occupations, the sons of Pompey
had collected new forces in Spain, so that
C. took the field in person against them.
Corduba was captured after a most obsti-
nate resistance ; and, soon after, the par-
ties came to a general engagement at
Munda.   A fortunate accident decided
the battle in favor of C, after victory had
been for a whole day doubtful.  In seven
months, Spain was conquered, and C. en-
tered  Rome in triumph.  He  was now
mode perpetual dictator, and received the
title of imperator, with full powers of sove-
reignty.    He continued,  meanwhile, to
conciliate  his enemies by clemency, and
to heap honors upon his friends.  The
number of senators he increased  from
300 to 900.  But this degradation  of the
senate offended  the Romans,  and their
displeasure was increased by  the arro-
gance with which he conducted towards
that order.  On  one occasion, as he was
sitting in the rostrum, in his chair of gold,
Mark Antony offered him a royal diadem.
He refused it, however, and his refusal
drew shouts of applause from the people.
The next morning, his statues were deck-
ed  with diadems.   The tribunes  of the
people, who had them taken  off} and im-
prisoned  the  persons who had done the
act, were deposed from their office by C.
This was  the occasion of an animosity,
which ended in a conspiracy, of which
Caius Cassius was the prime  mover.  C,
having no suspicion of the danger which
threatened him, was forming new projects.
He resolved to subdue the Parthians, and
then to conquer all Scythia, from the Cau-
casus to Germany and Gaul.  C.'s friends
gave out, that, according  to the Sibylline
books, the Parthians could be conquered
only by a king, and, therefore, proposed
that C. should  retain the title of dictator
with regard to Italy, but should be saluted
with  that of king in all the conquered
countries.  For this purpose, a meeting
of the senate was appointed for the 15th of
March; and this was the day fixed on by
the conspirators for the execution of the
plot.  A soothsayer warned C. of his dan-
ger ; and his wife, disturbed by  a frightful
dream, conjured  him not to  go to the
senate-house.    His  doubts,  however,
were  overcome by  Decimus Brutus, one
of the conspirators, and  he proceeded to
the capitol.  On his way thither, a billet
was handed him, giving him information
of  the conspiracy ; but, in the crowd, he
put it by without reading it  The con-
spirators had  concerted, that MeteUus 
382
CAESAR—CAFFARELLI DU FALGA.
Cimber should entreat a pardon for his
brother, and, if C. should refuse, he was
to tear  the mantle  from his shoulders,
which was to be the signal for their rush-
ing upon him with their daggers.  All
was done as they  had planned.  Casca's
dagger  first pierced him in the  neck.
Scarcely had C. turned, and  uttered the
words "Accursed  Casca,  what  doest
thou?"  when  the  conspirators  rushed
upon  him from all  sides.  He defended
himself,  however,  undauntedly.   But,
when he descried Brutus among the con-
spirators, he exclaimed, " And thou, too,
my son ?" covered his face with his man-
tle, and  fell, pierced with 23 wounds, at
the foot of Pompey's statue.   Thus died
this remarkable  man, the best who ever
aspired  to sovereignty in Rome, the vic-
tor in 500 battles, and the conqueror of a
thousand cities, B. C. 44,15th of March, in
the 56th year of his age.—Of C.'s writ-
ings, we have his history of his wars with
the Gauls and with Pompey, written in
a simple, noble style.  The most esteem-
ed editions are those of Clarke (London,
1712,  fol.), Gnevius  (Leyden,  1713,  2
vols.), and Oudendorp (Leyden, 1737,  2
vols. 4to.)  One of the best modern small
editions is that of Oberlin (Leipsic, 1805).
  Cesarea ;  the ancient  name of many
cities.—1. C. PhiUppi, or Paneas, built by
Philip, tetrarch of Galilee, son  of  Herod
the Great—2. C. Stratonis, on the  shores
of the  Mediterranean, about  75  miles
north-west from Jerusalem.  Herod the
Great enlarged it, and  it became the me-
tropolis  of Palestine, and  the seat  of the
Roman  proconsul.  (Joseph.  Arch. 15, 9,
6.)  It is the place where Herod Agrippa
was smitten by the  angel (Acts xu. 20—
23), where Cornelius the centurion re-
sided  (x.), and St. Paul was imprisoned
two years (xxiii.—xxv).   It is  now, ac-
cording to Clarke, in utter desolation.—
3. The  capital of Cappadocia,  and now
called Kaisarich.   It was  once  supposed
to contain 400,000  inhabitants.   Lucas
(2d Voyage, xviii.)says that all the moun-
tains in the environs are perforated with
grottoes, which  served as summer resi-
dences, and that there are 200,000 little
pyramids  in the  vicinity.  It  has now
25,000 inhabitants, and considerable trade
in cotton.—There were many other towns
of this name.
  Cesarean Operation. (See Midwife-
ry-)
  Cestus ; the boxing-glove ofthe Gre-
cian and Roman pugilists. The original
Greek caestus was  merely a raw hide, fas-
tened to the hand,  and  reaching  to the
wrists, intended for defence.   It was af-
terwards enlarged, so  as to reach  to the
elbow, and loaded with metal, to increase
the weight  of the  blow.  The combat
with the caestus was not more dangerous
than a  common EngUsh boxing-match.
Theocritus (Idyll. 22)  has described one
of these combats.
  Cesura, in Latin verse;  the separa-
tion ofthe last syllable of any word from
those which  preceded it, and the carrying
it  forward into another foot   It always
renders  the syllable on which it fells long,
and  is accompanied by a slight  pause,
hence called the casural pause, as in the
following Une:
   Hie \atus nivewm molli  fultus hyacintho.

In English poetry,  it  is equivalent  to a
pause.  (See Versification.)
  Caf ; a mountain, which, if we believe
the Mohammedans, environs the  whole
earth, which  is thus set within it like a
finger in a ring.  Its  foundation  is the
stone Sakhral, one grain of which enables
its possessor to work miracles.  The agi-
tation of this stone, which is an emerald,
whose reflection gives  the sky its tints, is
the cause of earthquakes.   The Dives, or
giants, and the Peri, or fairies, dwell in it
  Cafe.  (See  Coffee-Houses.)
  Caffa ; one ofthe principal ports of the
Crimea, formerly a large and rich city, now
much reduced.  On the south stood the
Genoese town, of which  ruined walls
and  massive  magazines  remain.   On
some neighboring heights was the Arme-
nian town, and near this the  Tartar city,
its magnificent baths and mosques falUng
into decay.  It  was  called, by the Tar-
tars,  Little Constantinople; but, from the
time of its capture by the Turks, in 1475,
it began to decline.  When Clarke  visited
it, in 1800, its population was diminished
to 50 families.   In 1783, it was ceded to
Russia, and called Feodosia,  from its an-
cient name, Theododa.
 _ Caffa, strait of, anciently  the Cimme-
rian  Bosphorus, discharges the turbid wa-
ters  of the sea of Azoph (Palus Maotis)
into the Black sea.  It is about 15 leagues
in length and 3 in breadth.
  Caffarelli.  (See  Majorano.)
  Caffarelli du Faloa.  Among five
brothers of this name, all of whom have
distinguished themselves in different de-
partments of politics  and  Uterature,  the
best known are,—1. Louis  Marie Joseph
Maximilian, born in 1756.  He was killed
in 1799, before St. Jean  d'Acre, while
general of division.  His works,  which
gained him a place in  the  national insti- 
CAFFARELLI  DU FALGA—CAFFRES.
383
tute, relate to mathematics, the necessity
of better public instruction, and various
political and philosophical subjects.  His
whole Ufe was devoted to learning, and to
the welfare of mankind.  He adopted the
principles of the revolution, and served
as a captain in the army of the Rhine;
but, when the national convention made
known to the  armies the condemnation
of Louis XVI, in 1793, he declared his
disapprobation of it, and was, on that ac-
count, deprived of his office, and  impris-
oned 14 months.  He was afterwards set
at liberty, employed in the department of
war, and finally returned to the army of
the Rhine.   The loss of a leg did not pre-
vent him from engaging in the expedition
to Egypt, as chief of the corps of engi-
neers.—2. His brother Augustus, lieuten-
ant-general, born in 1766,  served first in
the Sardinian troops, and afterwards in
almost aU the campaigns of the  revolu-
tionary war, under the standard of France.
In 1804, Napoleon sent him to Rome to
induce the holy father to go to France, to
anoint him  at his coronation.  He was
then made governor of the  Tuileries, re-
ceived a command in the anny, and was,
from 1806 to 1810, minister of war in the
kingdom of Italy, and afterwards in active
service  in the war in Spain.  Napoleon
gave him the command of the first mili-
tary division during the " hundred days."
   Caffe, Daniel; a painter in crayons;
bom  at Kustrin,  1750.   After  having
passed his childhood and youth in want,
he left a comfortable office  from his love
to painting, and was received, at  the age
of 32 years, as a pupil of the academy of
painting in  Dresden.  Here he studied,
chiefly, the pictures of Mengs, and soon
acquired a  great reputation by his por-
traits.   He also established a manufactory
of crayons.  He copied many pictures  in
the galleries of Dresden, with a vigor and
warmth uncommon in a painter in cray-
ons.  He died in 1815.
   Caffila ; a company of merchants  or
travellers who join together for security,
in some eastern countries.  It differs from
the caravan by being in the employ  of
some  sovereign or company,  while the
former is composed of merchants trading
each on his own account
   Caffraria ; a name adopted,  by the
Portuguese, from the Arabs, who called all
the  African continent,  southward from
Sofala  (their most southerly settlement),
the land of Cqfirs (infidels).  It was first
applied to  the whole width of the conti-
nent, from  cape Corrientes on the east to
cape Negro on the west.   As the names
of particular  states and people became
known, the extent of C. diminished; and
the term is now applied only to the territory
on the north-eastern borders of the Cape
Colony.  C. is  but imperfectly known.
(See Caffres.)
  Caffres.  In the south-eastern part of
Africa, there is a race distinguished from
the Negroes by a larger facial angle (the
head  being formed like that of Europe-
ans), a high nose, hair frizzled, but less
woolly than that  of the Negroes, and a
brown or hon-gray complexion, differing
from  the  shining black  of  that race.
They have  many Arab words in their dia-
lects, and the custom of circumcision pre-
vails  among them.  These  people were
called, by the Portuguese, Caffres, mistak-
ing the  Mohammedan term Cafir (here-
tics) for a national appellation.  It is now
retained, by geographical writers, to  de-
note  the savage  tribes, whose physical
characteristics have already been describ-
ed, extending from Quiloa southward,
and the Cape Colony eastward. The his-
tory,  origin and actual extent of this race
is unknown,  and  is reserved to instruct
or confound future explorers in these un-
known regions.  In a more Umited sense,
this name  has been given  to the tribe
whose true name is Koussas, living  on
the confines of the Cape Colony.  They
are a handsome, vigorous race, of simple
habits, their principal food being milk in
the form of curd.   They use no salt: wa-
ter is their  only drink.  They are all pas-
sionately fond of tobacco.  Their dress
is made of the  skins  of sheep.  Ivory
rings, worn on  the left  arm, are their
chief ornaments.  The women have their
backs, arms and breasts furrowed by tear-
ing up the  skin with a sharp instrument
Both sexes paint the  whole  body red.
Their dwellings are low, circular cabins,
constructed by the women.   PluraUty of
wives is allowed,  but it is  rare that they
have more than two.  Cattle are of  the
first importance, and the chief object of
affection to a  Caffre.  They  obey  and
feUow  their  master like  dogs.   The
ground is  cultivated by the women.  At
the age of  12, the boys are  appointed to
the care of cattle, and exercised pubUcly
in  the  use of die javeUn  and the club.
The  girls,  under  the inspection of  the
chiefs'wives, are taught to perform  the
work of the  hut  and the garden.  The
Caffres are of a peaceful disposition,  but
display great activity and skill  in the  use
of arms, when  necessary.   Then  weap-
ons are the hassagay, the shield and  the
club.  Previous to commencing hostili- 
884
CAFFRES—CAGLIOSTRO.
ties, they send  heralds  to  the enemy.
They are fond of the chase, pursuing the
Uon and  the elephant.  Each horde  has
a  hereditary  and absolute  chief  The
cupidity  of the  English colonists  has
,found  pretences  for depriving them of
•their  finest  territory (1821), now called
Albany;  and this lately kind and happy
people seem destined to extinction, or to
a miserable and degraded condition. (See
Lichtenstein's Travels in Southern Africa.)
  Caftan ; the well-known national dress
ofthe Turks, in the form of a night-gown,
and generally white,  with  pale-yellow
flowers.  It is made of wooUen or silk,
and sometimes  lined  with  costly  fur.
Such caftans  are presented as gifts, by
the Turkish court, to the Christian am-
bassadors, or to other persons on whom a
particular honor is to be conferred. And
ambassadors,  if they are not expressly
permitted to appear in  the dress of their
nation, are compelled to wear a caftan at
the audiences that are given them.
  Caglia, cape.  (See  Matapan, cape.)
  Cagliari, the capital of the island of
Sardinia, is situated on  a hill near the sea.
It consists of four parts,—1. the castle, on
the top  of the hill; 2. the Marina; 3.
Estempache;  4.  the Villa Nuova. It is
strongly fortified, and is the residence of
the viceroy,  of  an archbishop, and  the
seat of  a university with 300 students,
which was revived  and  remodelled in
1765.  It contains a royal society for the
promotion of agriculture, established in
1805, a museum  of natural  histoiy,  and
one of  antiquities.  Population,  28,000.
It has some manufactures.  C. is the em-
porium of all the Sardinian trade.  Here
are the  dock-yards and  the quarantine-
ground.   Its spacious and safe harbor is
defended by several forts.
  Cagliari, Paul; known under the name
of Paul Veronese; a painter of Verona,
bora, 1532.  His father, who was a sculp-
tor, wished to educate his son for the same
profession; but the young man betrayed
a  greater inclination  for painting, and
was, therefore, placed under the care of
his uncle, Antonio BadUe, a painter.  Un-
der this able instructer, Paul made con-
siderable progress;  but, as the school of
Verona  already possessed distinguished
artists, such  as  Forbicini, Giolsino,  Li-
gozzi, Brusasorci and  Farinato,  he  ob-
tained, at first, but little, celebrity.  He
went to  Mantua and Vicenza, and after-
wards to Venice.  Here  he  imitated Ti-
tian and Tintoretto, but, at the same time,
appeared desirous of surpassing them by
a more studied elegance, and a richer va-
riety of ornament  It soon became evi-
dent, from his works, that he had studied
the casts of ancient statues, and the etch-
ings of Parmesan and Albert Durer.  In
his first great works, which are  in  the
church  of St. Sebastian, in Venice, his
pencil  is  yet timid.  The History of
Esther,  in fresco, which  he  afterwards
painted  in  this church, excited  general
admiration;  and the execution  of  impor-
tant works was intrusted to him,  among
which are many that adorn the library of
St. Mark's.   He afterwards accompanied
the  Venetian ambassador Grimani to
Rome, where he  saw, with enthusiasm,
the beautiful models of Raphael and Mi-
chael Angelo, and painted, after  his re-
turn, his fine Apotheosis of Venice.  His
numerous banquetting pieces are also ex-
cellent.  Six, at least, of these are found at
Venice,  in the refectories of the  monas-
teries, among the  best of which  are the
Marriage at Cana, comprising 120 figures,
many of which  are  portraits, and  the
Feast of Christ idth Simon.  In the for-
mer piece,  the extravagant display of
Asiatic pomp, and the confusion of differ-
ent persons and dresses,  have been justly
censured.  In the latter, the air of pride
in the aspect of Christ, instead  of a sim-
ple expression of dignity,  the placing of
the principal personage in a comer of the
picture,  and  the running into each other
of the  white table-cloth and the archi-
tecture  of the  background, have been
considered  blemishes.  In  his Pilgrims
of Emmaus,  Paul violated  all the unities
of time, place and action.   But, with all
these faults,  he displays splendid  talents
and great fruitfulness of conception.  His
portraits ore spirited and noble, and his
coloring splendid. He died in 1588.  His
scholars were, Charles and Gabriel, his
sons, and Benedetto, his brother, besides
Michael Parrasio, Naudi, Maffei Verona,
Francesco Montemezzano.
  Cagliostro, count of (real name Giu-
seppe Balsamo), was born hi 1743, at Pa-
lermo.   His father  died when he was
young, and he was  educated  by his ma-
ternal relations.  He entered the order of
the Brothers of Mercy,  where he found
an  opportunity to cultivate his talents for
medical science, by which  he  afterwards
distinguished himself!  But  he showed,
at the same  time, a great love of dissipa-
tion, and was, at last, compelled to sepa-
rate from the order.   He returned to Pa-
lermo,  where,  among other  tricks, he
deceived some credulous persons by his
pretended skill in magic and the  finding
of  hidden  treasures.  He also  showed 
CAGLIOSTRO—CAGNOLI.
385
 himself adroit in  counterfeiting  hand-
 writing, and attempted to get possession
 of a contested estate by means of a forged
 document, but was discovered, and oblig-
 ed to flee.  He now determined to go to
 Rome, and, in his journey through Cala-
 bria, became acquainted with the beautiful
 Lorenza FeUciani,  daughter of a  belt-
 maker.   She appeared to him intended
 by fortune to assist  his  designs.   He
 formed  an intimacy with her, and soon
 compelled her to assist in the accomphsh-
 ment of his purposes  by  the  loss of her
 virtue.  They now began their travels, in
 which he assumed the character of a man
 of rank, first appearing under the name
 of the  marquis Pellegrini,  and  finally
 under that of the count  Cagliostro.  He
 travelled through many countries of Eu-
 rope, stopped in the capital cities, and, by
 his chemical mixtures, by his tricks, and
 by the amours of his lady, gained consid-
 erable sums.  We  find him  in Madrid,
 Lisbon, Paris, London,  and  many other
 cities.  He knew how to cheat with great
 ingenuity,  and  was always fortunate
 enough  to preserve himself by an early
 flight, if men's eyes began to be opened,
 or waking justice  threatened him  with
 imprisonment  The discovery of the phi-
 losopher's  stone,  the preparation of a
 precious elixir vitae, &c,  were the pre-
 tences,  under  which  he  extracted from
 credulous people considerable  sums in
 ready money.  Many had recourse to his
 assistance, not, indeed, to be initiated into
 the mysteries of magic, but to purchase,
 at a high rate, different kinds of medi-
 cine, one  of  which was  the water of
 beauty.   This  profitable  business  em-
 ployed our hero many years; but, with
 the  fading charms  of his lady,  many
 sources  of wealth  failed.   His trade in
 medicine also  began to grow less lucra-
 tive,  and he determined to seek his for-
 tune as the founder  of a new and secret
 sect  In pursuance of this plan, he passed
 himself off, during  his second residence
 in London, for a freemason,  and played
the part of a magician and  worker of
 miracles,  in which  character he  drew
 upon himself the eyes of all the enthusi-
asts in Europe. The countess C, on her
 port, did not remain idle.  She was the
 first and most perfect scholar of her hus-
 band, and played the  part of a priestess
to this new order in as able a  manner as
 she had before played that of a priestess
to another goddess.   His plan for reviving
an old Egyptian order, the founders of
which he declared to be Enoch and Elias,
contained a mass of the greatest absurdi-
  vol, n.         33
 ties and nonsense.  But his  pretensions
 to  supernatural power, the mystery with
 which his doctrines were enveloped, his
 pretended  ability  to work miracles, his
 healing the sick  without pay,  with  the
 greatest appearance of generosity, and the
 belief that, as the great Kophtha (this
 name  he had taken, as  the  restorer of
 Egyptian masonry), he could reveal  the
 secrets of futurity, gained  him many
 friends and supporters.   C. again travel-
 led through Europe, and  attracted great
 attention in Mittau, Strasburg, Lyons and
 Paris.  While in this last  city (1785), he
 had the  misfortune to be implicated in
 the scandalous affair ofthe necklace, and
 was banished the  country as  a confidant
 of cardinal Rohan.  He now  returned to
 London, and  sent many  epistles to  his
 followers, wherein he bitterly  complained
 of the injury he had received in France,
 and painted the   French  court  in  the
 blackest  colors.   From  London,  where
 he  could not long remain, he went to
 Bale, and  other  cities in that quarter.
 But, at length, listening to the  repeated
 entreaties of his wife and other friends,
 he  returned (1789) to Rome.   Here he
 busied himself about freemasonry; but,
 being discovered, and committed  to the
 castle of St Angelo, he was condemned,
 by a decree ofthe  pope, to imprisonment
 for  Ufe, as a freemason, an arch-heretic,
 and a man veiy  dangerous  to religion.
 He died, in the summer  of 1795, in the
 castle of St. Leo, a small city in the States
 ofthe Church.  A biography of madame
 von der Recke, in the Zeitgenossen, No. xi,
 contains an account  of C.'s residence in
 Riga, and  his connexion  with  madame
 von  der Recke; and in Casanova's me-
 moirs there is some  interesting informa-
 tion concerning him.
  Cagnoli, Anthony, astronomer, member
 ofthe French national institute, and«pres-
 ident of the Italian academy of sciences,
 was born at Zante, and was attached, in
 his  youth,  to the  Venetian embassy at
 Paris,  where,  after  the  year 1776,  he
 showed more love for astronomy than for
 diplomacy.   Having settled hi Verona in
 1782, he  constructed an  observatory in
 his  own  house, by his  observations in
 which he enriched  the science of astron-
 omy with many discoveries.  After the
 destruction  of his  observatory by  the
 French (1798), who, however, compen-
sated him for his  loss, his instruments
were  transferred to  the observatory  of
Brera,  in Milan, and he  was appointed
professor of astronomy in the  miUtary
school  at  Modena.  In  1814, he went 
386
CAGNOLI-GAILLE.
back to Verona, and died there  in 1816.
His best works are, Notizie Astronomiche
adat. all'  Uso  comune  (Modena,  1802, 2
vols^with plates); and his Trigonometria
Piana e Sferica (2d edition, Bologna, 1804,
with plates);  translated into French by
Chompre (2d edition, Paris, 1804, 4to.).
  Cagots ; an unfortunate race  of men,
resembUng the Cretins.  They are found
in the south of France, near the Pyrenees.
They are mostly poor  beggars, perform-
ing the meanest offices, and covered with
leprosy, king's evil, and vermin ;  confined
to the coarsest  food,   wandering  about
without habitation, without clothes or fire
in the depth  of winter, barely covered
with dirty rags, retiring, in  the  night, to
barns and  hovels;  of a thin  and pale
aspect, generally mutilated, lamed in their
limbs, despised, insulted, or pitied; cast out
of the race of men as  unworthy of life;
given up to the most beastly excess, and
accused of the most horrid crimes with
which the  human race can be stained.
In former ages, they were shut  out  from
society as lepers, cursed as heretics, ab-
horred as cannibals and pederasts ; their
feet were bored with  an iron, and they
were forced to wear an egg-shell on their
clothes, by way of distinction.  The very
name of Cagot, which Scaliger derives
from canis gottus, is a  proof of the detest-
ation in  which they  were  held.  Opin-
ions are much divided with regard to the
origin of this miserable race, living in the
midst of a highly cultivated people.  The
most plausible conjecture is that which
derives them  from some northern barba-
rians, whCmigrated into the south of Eu-
rope  in  the 3d or 4th century.   More
accurate researches have established the
fact, that they are not  without capacity to
become useful members of human soci-
ety ; and that, to accomplish this, it is only
necessary to remove them from the con-
dition in which they suffer so much mis-
ery and contempt, which alone would be
sufficient to hinder them from developing
their talents,  if, indeed, they are inferior
to  those  of other men.
   Cahoes, or Cahoos Falls.  (See JVlb-
hawk.)
   Cahors Wine  is that wine which is
 used to improve  the Pontac and other
 red French  wines.   It is  consumed in
 Bourdeaux and other places, where the
 Ughter and cheaper French wines  find a
 ready market
    Caiaphas, a Jew, was the high priest
  at the time when Jesus Christ was cruci-
  fied by the  Romans.  In the dismay
  which the resurrection of Lazarus pro-
duced among the priests and Pharisees,
he proposed the death of that obnoxious
person (John, xi. 49, 50); and, when the
officers of the Jewish hierarchy arrested
Jesus, they carried him first to Annas, and
then to C, from whom he was transfened
to the hands of the civil authority.  C.
was deposed, A. D. 35, and Jonathan ap-
pointed in his stead.
  Caic, or Caique ;  a skiff of a galley.
It was pointed at both ends, and was 25
feet long by 6 broad and 2£  deep.   It
went out  of use with the  galley.  The
name is now applied, in the Levant, and
particularly  in  the  Black sea, to  small
barks. (In the latter sea they are manned
by Cossacks.) It is also used in the French
navy for a small vessel.
  Caicos, or Cayos ;  a cluster of small
islands or rocks, called Little and  Great
Caicos, between Hayti, or St. Domingo,
and the Bahama islands.  The largest,
called Grand Caico, is 60 miles long, and
2 or 3 broad.  St  George's Key is the
principal harbor.  Population in 1803, 40
whites, and about 1200 slaves.   Lon. 72°
W.; lat. 21° 3& N.
  Cailas, or Cailasa ; the loftiest ridge
of the Himalaya mountains, (q. v.) On
its  eastern  side  is  a  remarkable  peak,
called the Lingam of Siva or Mahadeva,
an object of great veneration to his vota-
ries.  It is the favorite abode of Siva, and
blooms with eternal spring.
  Caillaud, Frederic; a French travel-
ler in Africa, who explored  the situation
of the ancient  Meroe, and penetrated to
the southern part ofthe kingdom of Sen-
naar.  He travelled  in Africa during the
years 1819, 1820, 1821, and 1822.  (See
Mero(.)
   Caille,   Rene;  a  French traveller,
and the only European who has returned
from Timbuctoo or Ten-Boctoo.  In 1819,
he accompanied major Gray  in his ex-
ploring expedition, and, being on  the
Senegal in  1824, determined to attempt
to  reach Timbuctoo and Jenna by his
 own exertions.  Having adopted the Ara-
 bian dress, and embraced the religion of
 the country, he joined a caravan, and  set
 out from Kakondi (Kokundi), April  19,
 1827.  He crossed the JoUba (Niger), and
 spent some time at Kankan, whence he
 travelled  about 200 miles  eastwardly, to
 Time.  Leaving this place, where he was
 detained five months by sickness, Jan. 10,
  1828, and taking a northerly direction,
  he again fell  in with the Joliba,  March
  10, and, crossing an arm of that stream,
  arrived  at Jenna.   Having  embarked,
  March 23, on  the Niger, and  passed, on 
CAILLE.
387
his way, the lake Delo (misplaced, on the
maps, under  the name of Dibbie),  he
reached Timbuctoo April  20.   Leaving
this city May 4, he crossed the Great Des-
ert, and reached Tafilet, July 23, whence
he  passed  through  Fez  to Tangiers.
Thus this intrepid young traveller, at the
age of 28 years, has achieved alone, and
by his own resources, what the exertions
of powerful societies, the aid of govern-
ments,  and the most devoted efforts of
experienced travellers, had  in  vain  at-
tempted.  This account is the substance
of the report of a committee of the geo-
graphical society of Paris, by whom  his
accounts have been examined. The prize
offered by  that society to the first travel-
ler who should reach Timbuctoo has
been awarded to him; the king has be-
stowed on  him the cross of the legion of
honor, and 3000 francs, with a pension
of 3000  francs for the years  1829 and
1830, to enable him to pursue the studies
necessary  to  prepare  him to renew  his
visit to those hitherto unknown regions.
   Caille,  Nicholas Louis de la, born at
Rumigny,  not far  from Rosoy, in Thie-
rache,  1713,  studied  at the college  at
Lisieux, and wished to dedicate  himself
to the service ofthe church.   But, at this
time, his attention was directed to astron-
omy, and he canied the spirit of geometry
into the scholastic philosophy, and even
into theology,  of which he wished to re-
form the language, and treat the proposi-
tions after the manner of Euclid.   He
soon renounced theology altogether. Cas-
sini and Maraldi  were his  friends, and
with them he drew up a  description  of
the coast of France, from Nantes to Bay-
onne.   On account of the accuracy and
skill which he displayed in this operation,
he was selected to take part in the verifi-
cation of  the meridian, which was then
beginning  to be  a subject of interest.  He
began this great  work April 30, 1739,
and, in this year, finished all the triangles
from Paris to Perpignan; measured the
bases of Bourges, Rhodez and Aries; ob-
served the azimuths and zenith distances
of the stars at Bourges, Rhodez and Per-
pignan, and took  the  principal  share in
the measurement of the degree of longi-
tude which terminates at the harbor of
 Cette.   During  the severe winter of 1740,
 he extended his triangles over the princi-
 pal mountains of Auvergne, to connect
 with the meridian a new basis measured
 at Riom.  The object of this  excursion
 was to procure additional information for
 the purpose  of clearing up the  doubt
 which he  entertained  concerning the ba-
sis of Juvisy, measured by Picard in 1669.
He had discovered and demonstrated that
this basis was a thousandth part too long,
from whence it  follows, that the toise
used by Picard was at least a Une shorter
than the toise  of the  academy.   This
assertion  of his, so long contested, was
now placed beyond  doubt  During his
absence, he was made professor of math-
ematics in the college of Mazarin, in con-
sequence of which, the continuation of
the meridian in the north was delayed tiU
the next  autumn.  C. ended his surveys
in the course  of some  months; during
which he measured two bases more, and
made the astronomical observations at
Paris and Dunkirk.   After his return, he
commenced the  calculations for  which
he had prepared the materials by these
long operations, and,  by a comparison of
the different arcs which he had measured,
he showed that the degrees increase from
the equator to the poles—a result diamet-
rically opposite to the old measurement.
His works  on geometry, mechanics, as-
tronomy  and optics, which followed each
other in a  few years, show with what
ability he discharged the duties of pro-
fessor.  His Ephemerides, and the numer-
ous and able memoirs which he presented
to the  academy of sciences, and his cal-
culations of the eclipses for 1800 years, in
the first  edition  of his  Art  de verifier les
Dates, prove with what ardor he pursued
his astronomical studies.  He had under-
taken the correction of the  list of stars,
according to the method of corresponding
heights.  In 1746, he was  in possession
of an observatory erected for him at the
college Mazarin.  True to  the laborious
method  which he beUeved  the best, C.
spent his days and nights, for 14 years, in
making observations on the sun, the plan-
ets and the stars, to rectify the astronomi-
cal catalogues and tables.   He  had re-
ceived the two six-foot sectors, with which
he had verified  the meridian of France.
Desirous of observing  the  stars  of the
southern hemisphere,  which never ap-
pear above the horizon at Paris, he formed
the plan of a voyage to the cape of Good
 Hope.  He saw immediately the advan-
 tage to be derived from this change of
 place, in determining the parallax of the
 moon, of Mars and Venus, and the refrac-
 tion of the rays  of Ught Lalande (q. v.),
 then 19 years  old,  was sent to Berlin,
 which Ues nearly under the same merid-
 ian as the cape, to take conesponding
 measures at the same time.  This astro-
 nomical undertaking cost four years of
 journeys and  labor.  C. determined the 
388
CAILLE—CAIN.
 position  of about 10,000 stars, in 127
 nights, with wonderful accuracy.  As his
 departure from the cape was delayed, he
 employed the interval  in  measuring a
 degree of the southern hemisphere.  He
 also received orders to superintend the
 construction of an accurate chart of the
 Isle of France and the Isle of Bourbon,
 though one had recently been  executed
 by the celebrated navigator d'Apres. Af-
 ter his return, he employed himself} with
 great assiduity, in comparing the different
 methods  which had  been  proposed for
 solving the  problem  of the longitude.
 (See Longitude,  Geograph.)   He chose,
 for this purpose, the distances ofthe moon
 from  the sun or the stars,  showed the
 advantage of this method, and  proposed
 a plan for a nautical almanac, since uni-
 versally adopted.  For the use of naviga-
 tors with but little knowledge, he  con-
 trived ingenious and  graphic means of
 assistance, by which they were  made
 acquainted, in an  easy  manner, with a
 method which must otherwise have terri-
 fied them by the  length of the calcula-
 tions.   C. divided his time between his
 observatory, his calculations, his  duties as
 an  academician and  professor,  and the
 pubUcation of his different works.  Now
 appeared  his tables of the sun, his As-
 tronomia  Fundamenta  novissima  Solis et
 Stdlarum observat. stabil. (Paris, 1757), the
 continuation of his Ephemerides.  He was
 particularly engaged  in  observations of
 the  moon, and the stars of the zodiac.
 Finding the  method  of conesponding
 heights too slow for the vast plan which
 he had formed, he fixed in his observatory
 a meridian telescope, which gave him the
 right ascension of the stars with much
 more ease.   But, in order to  attain the
 degree of accuracy at which he aimed,
 he made it a rale to admit no star into his
 new catalogue, which he had  not  ob-
 served for three or  four days, comparing
 it  each time with several of those, the
 places of which he had previously deter-
 mined  with so much care.  He thus at-
 tained a greater degree of accuracy  than
 his celebrated  rivals, Bradley and Mayer,
 who were furnished with better instru-
 ments, and  generally  contented them-
 selves with a single observation of the
 stars of lesser  magnitude.  It is to be re-
 gretted, that this great  work has not been
 edited with greater accuracy by the friend
and  scholar  of C.   Engaged in so many
employments, C. still found time for other
labors.   From the manuscripts of Bou-
guer, who had intrusted them to him at
the time of his death, he pubUshed Traite
  de la Gradation de la Lumiere, and wholly
  revised the Traite de Navigation.  He
  afterwards published the observations of
  the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel and Wal-
  ther, the  travels of ChazeUe to Egypt,
  and Feuillee's voyage to the Canary isl-
  ands.  A violent attack of the gout having
  intei-mpted his labors, he resumed them,
  as soon as he was able, with too much
  eagerness, exhausted his weak frame, and
  died in 1762.  He bequeathed his manu-
  scripts to his friend Maraldi, who pub-
  lished the  del Austral,  preceded by an
  eloge of the  author, by  Brotier.  Never
  was there a greater friend of labor  and
  truth than C.  The number, as well as
  the accuracy of his observations, is wor-
  thy of admiration, more particularly if
  we consider that all his astronomical la-
  bors took  place  within  27  years.   His
 Journal du Voyage fait au Cap de Bonne
 Esperance was edited by CarUer (Paris,
 1763).
   Caimacan (lieutenant); a  title of  the
 grand signior, the grand  vizier, and  the
 governor of Constantinople.
   Caiman.  (See  Cayman Islands.)
   Caiman.  (See Alligator.)
   Cain ;  the eldest son of  Adam and
 Eve; the first murderer.   Jealous of  the
 favor shown to his younger brother (see
 Abel), he murders him in the field.  The
 avenging voice of conscience asks him
 the terrible question, " Cain, where is thy
 brother?" which  he vainly endeavors to
 evade—"Am I my brother's keeper ?" The
 curse is pronounced upon him ; he is de-
 clared a fugitive  and a wanderer on  the
 face of the earth.  His remorse  and de-
 spair fill him  with the apprehension  of
 retribution—of death from the hand of
 whoever shall meet him.  But a mark is
 set upon  him, as  a sign, lest any one
 should  kill him.   He then, continues
 Moses (Gen. iv. 16—24), went out and
 dwelt in the land of Nod, on the east  of
 Eden. (q. v.)  His wife bore him a son,
 Enoch, who built  a city.   J aba),  one  of
 his descendants, is called the father  of
 those who live in tents (scenites).  Jubal,
 brother of Jabal,  was the  first musician,
 and Tubal-cain, another brother, was the
 first smith.  This is the last information
 which the Mosaic histoiy gives  of the
family of Cain, unless we suppose the
beautiful daughters of men (Gen. vi. 2),
or the giants (Gen. vi. 4),  to be his pos-
terity.  The conciseness ofthe sketch  of
antedduvian history in Genesis has left
a wide  field for conjecture.   Why was
Abel's offering preferred ?  What was the
sign  which indicated the  acceptance of 
CAIN—CAISSON.                          389
the one and the  rejection  of the other ?
What was to be the effect  of this prefer-
ence ?  Did Abel manifest  a more lively
feith ?  Was his  offering consumed by a
fire from heaven ? Were  the  privileges
of primogeniture transferred to  him from
the eldest born, as was frequently done in
the patriarchal times?  Who  were the
avengers whom he feared ? Preodamites,
as some have gravely conjectured (Bayle,
art Cain), or descendants of Abel ? Was
the  mark set upon  Cain, or does the
original signify that a sign  was  given him
to inspire  him  widi  confidence  in the
promise?  Josephus  relates, that  he be-
came the leader of  a band of robbers,
committed all sorts of licentiousness, cor-
rupted the  simplicity of primitive man-
ners by his luxury, established the  right
of property by setting up landmarks, and
was the  inventor  of weights  and meas-
ures.
   Caique, Grand ; a small island among
the  Bahamas; lon. 70° W.; lat  19° 50'
N.  The  Littie C. Ues south-west of the
former.
   Ca-Ira.   These famous revolutionary
couplets were written on the occasion of
the celebration of the capture of the Bas-
tile, when the civic oath was taken before
the altar of the country.  The  celebration
took place on the Champ de  Mars, July
14, 1790, in the midst of torrents of rain.
The refrain, or chorus, runs thus:—
      Ah! 9a ira, ca ira, 9a ira,
      En depit d' z'aristocrat' et d' la pluie,
      Ah !  9a ira, &c.
      Nous nous mouillerons, mais 9a finira.
 This, it will be seen, was directed against
 the aristocrats.  The famous Marseillaise,
 or  Marseilles hymn, which  resounded
 throughout Europe  during the wars of
 the young  republic against the coalition
 of sovereigns, was directed against foreign,
 as the ga-ira was against the domestic,
 enemies of the revolution. The author
 and composer ofthe Marseillaise (Rouget
 de l'Isle), an  officer of the engineers, nar-
 rowly escaped with his head,  during  the
 reign of terror.  (See Poesies Rev. et Anti-
 Rev., Paris, 1821, 2 vols.)    These poems
 were proscribed by the directory in 1797,
 and have not, of course, been restored to
 favor by the consulate,  the  empire,  or
 since the restoration.
   Cairn ;  a name  given  to heaps of
 atones, common in Great  Britain,  particu-
 larly in Scotland and Wales, generally of
 a conical  form, and erowned by  a  flat
 stone.   They are of various sizes, and
 were probably  constructed for different
 objects.   Some are evidently sepulchral,
                33*
containing urns, stone chests, bones, &c.
Others were erected to commemorate
some remarkable event, and others appear
to have been intended for reUgious rites.
(See Tumuli.)
  Cairngorm, or  Blue  Mountain ;  a
mountain of Scotland, belonging to the
Grampian hills.   It  is particularly cele-
brated for the crystals found on it, called
cairngorms,  of various colors and sizes.
They  have  now  become scarce.  They
are, in general, of a  smoky or yeUowish
hue (smoky quartz  and  yeUow quartz),
and are used for seals and other trinkets.
  Cairo (in Arabic,  Kahira, which signi-
fies victorious); the capital city of Egypt,
and one of the largest cities in the world
It lies on the east bank of the Nile, in a
sandy plain, and contains Old Cairo, Bou-
lac (the  harbor), and New Cairo, which
are, to a considerable degree, distinct from
each other.   The city itself, separate from
the gardens and plantations  which sur-
round it, is 34 leagues in circuit, has 31
gates, and 2400 irregular, unpaved streets,
which, during die night, are closed at the
 end of  die quarter, to prevent disturb-
 ances; also 25,840 houses, for the most
 part built of brick,  with flat roofs, and
 more  than   200,000 inhabitants—Arabs
 or Mohammedans,   Coptish Christians,
 Mamelukes, Greeks, Syrians, Armenians,
 Jews, and natives of various countries of
 Europe.  The castle, situated on a rock
 containing  Joseph's well, 276 feet deep,
 is  the residence of the pacha.   There are
 80 public baths, 300 mosques, 2 Greek,
 12 Coptish, and 1 Armenian church, 36
 synagogues, and  many silk, camlet, tapes-
 try, gunpowder, leather, linen and cotton
 factories.   The commerce of the city is
 veiy great,  since it  is the centre of com-
 munication between Europe,  the Medi-
 terranean sea, Asia,  and the north of Af-
 rica.  Here is also a Mohammedan high-
 school, a printing-office, and a  library of
 25,000  volumes.   A Une of  telegraphs
 extends from hence to Alexandria, about
 255 miles distant, by which intelUgence is
 communicated  in 40 minutes.   In  the
 neighborhood  is   an  aqueduct  of  317
 arches; also Boulac, the harbor of  C,
  which  contains  an institution  for  100
  scholars, supported by the pacha, and a
  printing-office.   In   1798, C. was taken
  by the  French.   (See  Egypt.)
    Caisson ; 1. a chest fiUed with combus-
  tibles, and  buried under ground, in order
  to explode  at a particular time.  It is also
  a  covered  wagon for the provisions  and
  ammunition of  an army.—2.   In  archi-
  tecture, a kind of chest, case, or flat-bat- 
390
CAISSON—CALABASH-TREE.
 tomed boat, used in the construction of
 bridges, large enough to contain an entire
 pier, which is built in  it; the caisson is
 then sunk to the bed of the river, and the
 sides removed from the bottom, which is
 left as a foundation for the pier.—Floating
 vessels, under the same name, are used to
 close the entrances of docks and basins.
 A groove is worked in the masonry of
 the entrance, and a vessel ofthe shape of
 the opening, with a projection correspond-
 ing to the  groove, a hanging scuttle on
 each side, and furnished  with pumps, is
 floated into it at  high tide.  The scuttles
 being opened, the caisson sinks, and fills
 up the groove. The scuttles are then shut,
 and the water is  prevented from entering
 the dock, or from discharging itself from
 the basin.  If the dock is to be filled, the
 scuttles are  opened, till the water is nearly
 on a level on each side, when the scuttles
 are again shut, the caisson emptied by the
 pumps, and then floated off.
  Caius, or, in  the Greek manner of
 writing, Gaius ;  a learned lawyer of the
 time of Adrian and Antoninus Pius (117—
 161), of whose Ufe but very little is known.
 Of his numerous works, his Institutes are
 particularly  important; first,  as having
 been, for centuries,  down to the  time of
Justinian, one of the most common man-
 uals of law; secondly, as having been the
 foundation ofthe official compendium of
the law,  which  occupies  an important
place in the reform ofthe judicial system
by Justinian; and, thirdly, as the only tol-
erably fuU, systematic and well-ananged
source  of the old Roman law.   Some
parts of this work have been known for a
considerable time. Two leaves of a man-
uscript of it were discovered in the library
of the  cathedral chapter at Verona, as
early as the beginning ofthe last century,
by Scipio Maffei;  but the  manuscript
itself was first discovered in 1816, by Nie-
buhr,  who  staid  two days at Verona, on
his way to Rome  as Prussian ambassador.
The parchment,  on which the Institutes
 of C. were written, had  been used to
 copy the letters  of St Jerome.  Maffei
 had perceived it to be a Codex Rescriptus,
 without, however, having very accurately
 examined it  Niebuhr saw  tiiat an old
juridical work lay here concealed, and von
 Savigny,  professor of law in Berlin, at
 that  time at Paris,  happily  conjectured
 that it might be the Institutes of C.   The
 academy of sciences at Berlin sent, in
 1817, two professors, Bekker, the philolo-
 gist, and  Goschen, the  jurist, to Italy, to
 investigate  this discovery with accuracy.
 The present professor, Bethmann Hol-
 weg offered his services to them, and, by
 their united efforts, the greatest part of
 the book has been brought into order, and
 that part which was before illegible whol-
 ly restored.  The fragments of C. were
 printed at Berlin, 1820.  The manuscript
 has  been  again examined, by  professor
 Blume, and many additional discoveries
 have been made, which have been intro-
 duced into a new edition (Berlin, 1825).
 They have opened new views upon many
 points of the history of Roman law, and
 have also destroyed many acute and learn-
 ed hypotheses.
  Cajeput Oil ;  the volatile oil obtained
 from the  leaves of the cajeput-tree—the
 cqjeputa ojfieinarum (the melaleuca leuca-
 dendron of Linnaeus). The tree which fur-
 nishes the cajeput oil is common  on  the
 mountains of Amboyna, and  the other
 Molucca islands.  It is obtained, by distil-
 lation,  from the dried leaves ofthe smaller
 of two varieties.  It is prepared, in great
quantities, in the island  of  Banda,  and
sent  to Holland in copper flasks.  As it
comes  to us, it is of a green color, very
limpid, lighter  than water, of a  strong
smell,  resembling camphor, and of a
strong, pungent taste.  It burns entirely
away, without leaving any residuum.  It
is  often adulterated with  other essential
oils, colored with the resin of milfoil.  In
the genuine oil, the green color depends
 on the presence of copper; for, when rec-
 tified, it is colorless.
  Calabar, Old ; a country of Africa, on
 a river ofthe same name, in Upper Guinea.
 Duke Town, the principal place  on the
 river, is in lon. about 8° E., lat. 5° 4' N., and
 contains 2000 inhabitants.  Creek Town,
 eight miles N.,  contains 1500 inhabitants.
 Old Town was formerly the capital.  The
inhabitants  are represented  as  cruel.
treacherous and dishonest. New Calabar,
 situated on a river of the same name, 80
 miles W.  of Old C, contains about 300
 houses, and is  the  eentre of the  Dutch
 commerce in this country.
  Calabash-Tree»  The calabash-tree
 (crescentia cujeta) is a production of the
 West Indies and the continent of Ameri-
 ca, about the height and  dimensions of
 an apple-tree,  with crooked, horizontal
 branches,  wedge-shaped  leaves,  pale-
 white flowers on the trunk and branches,
 and a roundish  fruit, from two inches to
 a foot in diameter.  The uses to which the
 fruit of the calabash-tree is applied are
 very numerous.  Being covered  with a
 greenish-yeUow skin, which  encloses a
 thin, hard, and almost woody shell,  it is
 employed for various kinds of domestic 
CALABASH-TREE—CALABRIA.
391
 vessels, such as water-cans, goblets  and
 cups of almost every description.  So hard
 and close-grained are these shells, that,
 when  they  contain any fluid, they may
 even be put several times on the fire as
 kettles, without any injury.  When in-
 tended for ornamental  vessels, they are
 sometimes highly poUshed, and have fig-
 ures engraven upon them, which are vari-
 ously tinged with indigo and other colors.
 The  calabash  contains a pale-yellow,
 juicy pulp, of an unpleasant taste, which
 is esteemed a valuable remedy hi  several
 disorders, both external and internal.
   Calabrese ; the appellation of a paint-
 er, by name Mattia Preti, a native of Ca-
 labria ; bom 1643, died 1699.
   Calabria ; a mountainous country, ly-
 ing on the sea-coast, about 164 miles in
 length, and  from 20 to 60 broad, forming
 the southern part of the ItaUan peninsula.
 It extends, in the southern part of Naples,
 along the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian
 sea, to the capes of Spartivento and Squil-
 lace on the south, and to the gulf of  Ta-
 rento in the Mediterranean sea  on  the
 east.   In a space of 6800 square miles, it
 contains more  than 890,000 inhabitants,
 among whom  are many Arnauts.  The
 accurate accounts of this country, so fa-
 mous in fable  and histoiy, but hitherto
 not very accessible to travellers, we owe
 to the war which the French, under Jo-
 seph  and Jerome, carried on against  the
 proud and fanatical natives, until 1810.
 In ancient times, C. was a part of Magna
 Graecia, the residence of Pythagoras, the
 birth-place of  Charonidas, of Zaleucus,
 Praxiteles,  Agathocles, and other distin-
 guished men.  The country where  the
 luxurious Sybaris once flourished  is now
 sunk in  deep  barbarism.  The climate
 was much esteemed in antiquity;  but, in
 some places, the stagnant  waters, to the
 draining off of which no  one  pays any
 attention, produce contagious diseases in
 the hot season.  The  heavy dews pre-
 serve, during the greater part ofthe year,
 a delightful verdure, which is increased
 by numerous springs and streams.  Pliny
 extols the fertility of the dark soil, which,
 with the exception ofthe great plain Mar-
 cesato, resembling an entire waste, covers
 the calcarious  rocks  of C.   Beautiful
 groves of pine, fir and larch, the  pitch-
 bearing trees ofthe wood of Sila, famous
 in ancient times,  shade the sides of the
 Apennines.  The evergreen-oak, the Ori-
 ental plane-tree, the Indian chestnut,  the
 beech, the  aloe,  the fig,  various nut-
trees, and others, flourish here.   The Ca-
labrian ash  affords  manna.  The fields
are beautifully adorned with herbage, the
cinnamon rose and  sage, and  the  hills
with  strawberries  and raspberries.   On
the coast grow the evergreen tamarisk and
arbutus.   With all the rich fruits of the
tonid zone, we find  here some of those
which belong to the north of Europe—we
wander amid orchards of fine apples, and
through  green  Alpine meadows,  with
their  soft herbage.  In the valleys, the
thorny caper  mingles its bright flowers
with  the  dark-green  rosemary, and the
laurel overshadows all the streams. From
the rush (sarrachio) the Calabrian manu-
factures  his ship-tackle, his baskets, his
mats, his ropes and his nets, in which he
catches the tunny.   The lazy and igno-
rant inhabitant of this beautiful land has
forgotten  the  Grecian mode of culture,
which produced  excellent wines and good
oil.  He has corn and rice, saffron, anise,
liquorice, madder, flax and hemp.   He
cultivates olives,  figs, almonds and cotton.
The noble sugar-cane wiU come to per-
fection here.  The silk of this country is
good.   The sheep,  horned-cattle  and
horses are numerous.  The waters  con-
tain tunnies and eels.  Near  Reggio a
kind of muscle is found, caUed pinna ma-
rina,  from whose silky beard a splendid
fabric is manufactured, which is as Ught
as it  is effectual in  affording protection
against the cold.   Coral is also fished up.
The quarries  and  pits afford  alabaster,
marble, gypsum, alum, chalk, rock-salt,
lapis lazuli, and the fine copper, renown-
ed  since the time   of Homer.    The
condition of the people is  a subject of
astonishment to  aU observers.   The Ca-
labrian,  scarcely 40  leagues from  the
gates  of the capital,  is wild as  a Tartar,
cruel as a Moor, rude and  ignorant  as a
Negro of Senegal;  yet he has some good
qualities.  He  is honest, hospitable, and
tender of his honor.   The corruption of
a race of men, naturally so energetic, is
the fault of the government, the church,
and the feudal system now abolished.  A
few rich individuals are found here among
a great number of miserable poor.   The
peasant  labors little,  and subsists  almost
entirely  on the spontaneous productions
of nature.   His habitation resembles the
pig-sties ofthe rest of Europe.  The feu-
dal lords  formerly exercised a  dreadful
tyranny over then vassals, who, weary of
suffering, fled to the mountains, and lived
by robbery.  Ignorance, love of revenge,
cruelty and cunning are the  principal
traits  in  the  character of the  people.
Once offended, a  Calabrian is ineconcila-
ble.  Hereditary hatred, therefore, divides 
392
CALABRIA—CALAMINES.
most of the families,  and an individual
never goes  abroad without carrying arms
under bis black mantle.   In the night,
they barricade their  houses.  They have
no idea of social pleasures, and the rich
think only  of scraping together  money.
The females are not beautiful: they marry
early, and soon  fade.  Even those of the
higher classes cannot,  in general, read or
write.  The husbands are so jealous, that
they always confine  then wives, and treat
them severely.  The recourse to lawsuits
and chicanery is common, although the
administration of justice  is  wretchedly
defective.   The clergy are as ignorant as
they are corrupt, and superstition rules all
classes.  Even  the  robber canies reUcs
in his bosom, which  he  supplicates for
assistance in his enterprises.  The people
are naturally intelligent.  Their language
is a corruption  of the ItaUan, difficult to
be understood,  but  full of original and
pointed  expressions.   The classes which
are in some degree well informed  express
themselves  with great ease and warmth.
Their gestures are extremely lively. They
have great powers of persuasion.  If they
cannot attain their end in this  way, they
revenge themselves by murder.  They are
well-formed,  muscular, and  of a brown
complexion.  They  have animated coun-
tenances, and eyes fuU of fire and expres-
sion, but passionate  hearts and giddy
heads.   They are, like the Sardinians and
the Corsicans, the savages of Europe. (See
Sejour  (Pun Officier Francois en Calabre,
Paris, 1810.)  In regard  to government,
the country is divided into Calabria Citra
on the north, and Calabria Oltra 1 and II
on the south.  The former contains Co-
senza, which  has 15,000 inhabitants; the
latter,  Reggio,  which has  16,500,  and
Catanzaro,  the  capital city, which has
11,000.   These, alone, among the few cit-
ies, are of importance, on account of their
manufactures and commerce.   There are
some  silk manufactories  at  Monteleone
(the Grecian Hipponium, called, by the
Romans, Vibona, now containing 15,000
inhabitants, and the ruins of a  temple of
Ceres).   The seaport Crotona has some
commerce.  The city of Gerace is buUt
of the ruins of Locri.  Pizzo, where Mu-
rat was seized, Oct. 13,  1815, is called,
from that event, the most faithful city, and
is freed  from aU city taxes and excise.
Many marks ofthe earthquake, which, in
February, 1783, hud waste the southern
part of C, destroyed 300 cities  and vil-
lages, and  buried 30,000 men, are stiff to
be seen.
   Calahorra  (anciendy Calagurris)',  a
town  of Spain, in Old Castile, near the
south side of the Ebro, on the borders of
Navarre;  136 miles N. N. E. of Madrid;
lon. 2° W.;  lat. 42°  W N.; population,
7200.   It  is a bishop's see, and contains
three parish churches and three convents.
In the year of Rome 682, this town, then
called Caldgurris, siding with Sertorius,
was besieged by Afranius, one of  Pom-
pey's generals, and the inhabitants reduc-
ed to such extremity, that they fed on
their  wives  and  children; whence the
Romans were wont to call any grievous
famine fames Calagurritana.  Quintilian
was bora here.
  Calais ; a French  sea-port  on the
channel which separates England from
France, called by the French the Pas de
Calais and La Manche; by the English,
the English channel.   This strongly-for-
tified  city is protected by a citadel and
the fort of Nieuvelet  It  contains 8,500
inhabitants,  and has  a harbor which is
too shallow for large ships, and is impor-
tant only because passage boats run con-
tinually from here to Dover.  The strait is
24 miles wide, and  the passage by the
steam-boat seldom exceeds 5  hours.  In
1346, C. was taken by Edward III, king
of England, after such a bold defence as
made the siege one of the most remark-
able in history.  It remained in the pos-
session of the English until 1558,  when
it  was lost, together  with all the  English
possessions in France.  Near  the harbor
a  monument has been erected to  com-
memorate the  return of  Louis  XVIII,
April 24,1814.   In the year 1819, 15,577
travellers  landed here, and 11,033 em-
barked from this port.
   Calais, Pas de (i.  e., straits of Calais);
a  department of France,  formerly the
province of Artois, lying east ofthe chan-
nel, and south ofthe straits.  Population,
in  1827,  642,969;  chief  place, Arras.
(See Departments.)
   Calais, straits of.   (See Dover, straits
of)
   Calaite.  (See Turquoise.)
   Calamanco ;  a woollen stuff, princi-
pally manufactured  in the Netherlands.
The English manufactures of it have de-
clined of  late years.   The warp  is  some-
times  mixed  with silk  or goats' hair.
This stuff is made plain, colored, striped
or watered.
   Calamata.  (See Greece.)
   Calamine.   (See Zinc.)
   Calamines, or Calamianes ;  a cluster
of islands in the Indian sea, among those
called the Philippine islands.   They are
 17 in number, one of which  is 30 miles 
CALAMINES—CALCHAS.
393
 long, and 12 broad, divided between  the
 king of Borneo  and the Spaniards, with
 some independent natives in the interior
 parts, who live without chiefs and with-
 out  laws: they  are black, and  have  no
 fixed places of  abode.   About  1200 on
 the sea-coast have submitted to the Span-
 iards, who  have a garrison at a place
 called Tatay.  The country is mountain-
 ous, and  produces some rice, and great
 quantities of wax and honey.  Lon. 120°
 20* E.; lat. 12° N.
   Calamus ; a reed.—1. The C. pastora-
 lis was  a simple reed or cane,  used as a
 musical instrument.  Thejistula, or shep-
 herd's pipe, was  made of this substance:
 it is hence figuratively used by the poets
 for the pipe itself.—2. The C. scriptorius,
 or chartarius, was used by the ancients to
 write on materials which the style would
 injure, as papyrus, parchment,  &c.   It
 was generally made of the Egyptian,
 sometimes of the  Persian reed.   It was
 sharpened with a knife, or a rough stone,
 and split like our pens.—3. The C. aro-
 maticus (the acorus of botanists) is an
 odoriferous reed, formerly brought from
 India, now found also in the north of Eu-
 rope, and in North America.  It is used
 by the distillers of Dantzic to correct  the
 empyreumatic odor of spirits, and  to give
 them a pecuUar flavor.
   Calandra.  (See Mosaic.)
   Calas, John.  This unfortunate man,
 who died on the  scaffold, a victim of fa-
 naticism, was born, 1698, in Lacaparede,
 near Chartres, in Languedoc, educated in
 the Protestant religion, and estabUshed as
 a merchant in Toulouse.  He had tliree
 sons and three daughters, whom he edu-
 cated himself, and was held in general
 esteem, when, in  his 68th year, he was
 suddenly  accused of the dreadful crime
 of murdering his son.  In 1761, his oldest
 son, Marc  Antoine, was found strangled
 in his father's house.   It was  reported
 that the unfortunate youth had been put
 to death by his father, because he had be-
 come a Catholic  John C. and his whole
 family were arrested, and a prosecution
 instituted  against  him,  in  support  of
 which numerous witnesses, whose insuf-
 ficiency was apparent,  appeared against
 him.  In vain did the old man plead  his
 affection for his son, and that son's mel-
 ancholy ; in vain did he assert that he had
 another son, who  had embraced the Cath-
 oUc religion, who still received his yearly
 allowance; that it was impossible for him,
a weak old man,  to execute such  a deed
of violence  on a youth full of strength,
and that he had not murdered a  Catholic
maid-servant whom he had in the house.
The parUament of Toulouse condemned
him, by 8 voices against 5, to be tortured,
and then broken on the wheel; and, on
the 9th of March, 1762, the sentence was
executed.  He  suffered the torture with
firmness, and ascended the scaffold with
these words:—" I die guiltless; my judges
have been deceived; but Christ, who was
himself guiltless, suffered a death even
more dreadful."  The youngest son was
banished for ever, but the mother and the
maid were  acquitted.  The family of the
unhappy man retired to Geneva.  Vol-
taire, who  was then at Femey, became
acquainted with them, and formed the de-
sign of defending the memory of C. He
brought the cause before the bar of pubUc
opinion, and directed the attention of men
to the defects of the  criminal  law.  The
widow and children of C. solicited  a re-
vision  of the trial.   Fifty judges once
more examined the circumstances, and
declared C. altogether innocent. The king,
by his Uberality, sought to recompense the
family for  their undeserved losses, and
people of  the first rank  emulated each
other in endeavoring to reUeve them.
  Calatrava.   (See Orders.)
  Calcar,  John van ; a Dutch painter of
the school of John van Eyk, born about
1500, at Calcar, in Cleves.  His paintings
are true to  nature.   He studied so  thor-
oughly  the works of Titian, that  their
pictures cannot always be. distinguished.
The Mater  dolorosa, in the collection  of
Boisseree (q. v.), in  Stuttgard, a perfect
work of art,  is by him.  Another  small
picture of his, the  Infant Christ with the
Shepherds, was a favorite of Rubens.  In
this piece, the Ught is represented as pro-
ceeding from the  chffd.   He designed
almost all the portraits in  Vasari's Lives,
and the figures for the anatomical  work
of Vesalius.   He died in Naples, 1546.
  Calcarious Spar. (See Lime.)
  Calchas ;  son of Thestor; priest and
prophet of  the Greeks at the time of the
Trojan war.  When the fleet destined for
Troy assembled in the harbor of AuUs,
the Greeks, before their departure, at-
tempted to propitiate the favor of the gods
by sacrifices  on  an altar under a plane-
tree, when a serpent, creeping from mi der
the altar, crawled up the tree, devoured a
spanow on  her nest, with 8 young  ones,
and was then changed into a stone.  The
prophet now  foretold to the Greeks that
Troy would not be subdued by them till
the 10th year of the  siege.  He himself
accompanied the army to Troy.  During
the siege, the Greeks  were attacked by a 
394
CALCHAS—CALCULI'S.
plague, and C declared that it was the
effect of ApoUo's anger, because they had
deprived his priest of his daughter Chry-
seis, whom Agamemnon had selected as
his mistress.  He counselled the Greeks to
appease Apollo by restoring the damsel;
and it was at his  advice that they after-
wards built the wooden  horse.   He
prophesied that the Trojan ./Eneas would
found an  empire in Italy.   After C.'s
death, an oracle was  dedicated to  him on
mount Drium in Daunia.
  Calcination.  Calcination, as com-
monly understood,  consists in heating
bodies in a steady fire, at a greater or less
temperature.  The product  is a powder
which is called cair.  In  a narrow sense,
we understand by this process a  change
of metals into a metalUc calx, or metallic
earth.  Metals are calcined in two ways—
by  the dry method, which consists in
burning them in the  open air, or  by the
wet method, which consists  in dissolving
the metal, and precipitating its calx. Take,
for instance, a quantity of lead, and melt
it in the open air in a flat vessel;  it  soon
assumes a grayish hue, the earthy  sub-
stance forming a coat  on  the surface.
Upon the removal of this, the  metal ap-
pears, having a brilUant lustre, and, after
some time, the same  gray coat reappears.
It may be removed as  long as any lead
remains.  This substance is the calx.  Cal-
cined lead is specifically Ughter than the
metal, but  its  absolute  weight is  consid-
erably greater, so that 10 pounds of metal
make 11  pounds  of  calx.  Platina, gold
and  silver ore not affected in this  way in
so great a degree, on which account they
are called the perfect metals.  Chemists
are now convinced, that, in this process,
the atmospheric air is decomposed, and a
portion absorbed by the metal, which ac-
counts for its increase of weight.  Calci-
nation is, therefore, nothing but oxydation;
and, as the body is not saturated with ox-
ygen, no acid is formed, but the result is
a metaUic oxyde.
  Calcography.   (See Engraving.)
  Calculus.   The  lower  or common
analysis (q. v.) contains the rales necessa-
ry to calculate quantities  of any definite
magnitude whatever.  But quantities are
sometimes considered as varying in mag-
nitude, or as  having arrived at a given
state  of magnitude  by successive varia-
tions.  This gives rise to the higher anal-
ysis, which is of the greatest  use in the
physico-mathematical sciences. Two ob-
jects are here proposed: First, to descend
from quantities to their  elements.  The
method of effecting  this is caUed  the dif-
ferential calculus.   Second, to  ascend
 from the elements  of quantities to the
 quantities themselves.   This method is
 called  the  integral calculus.  ,Both  of
 these methods  are  included under the
 general name infinitedmal analysis. Those
 quantities which retain the same value
 are  called constant; those whose values
 are  varying are  called variable.  When
 variable quantities are so  connected that
 the value of one of them is determined by
 the values ascribed to the  others, that va-
 riable quantity is said to be a function of
 the  others.  A quantity is infinitdy great
 or infinitdy small, with regard to another,
 when it is not possible to assign any quan-
 tity  sufficiently large or sufficiently  small
 to express  the ratio of the two.  When
 we consider a variable quantity as increas-
 ing by infinitely small degrees, if we wish
 to know the value  of those increments,
 the most natural mode is to determine the
 value of this quantity for any one instant,
 and  the value of the same for the instant
 immediately following.   This difference
 is called the differential of the quantity.
 The integral calculus, as has been already
 stated, is the reverse ofthe differential cal-
 culus.  There is no variable quantity ex-
 pressed algebraically, of which we cannot
 find the differential; but there are differ-
 ential quantities, which  we cannot  inte-
 grate : some, because they could not have
 resulted from differentiation; others, be-
 cause means have not yet been discovered
 of integrating them.   We have made
 these elementary observations for the pur-
 pose of introducing the histoiy of the dis-
 covery  of diis mighty instrument.  For a
 fuU  examination of  the subject, we refer
 to Lacroix's works, Camot's Metaphysiqut
 du Calcul Infinitedmal, Lagrange s Calcul
 des Fonctions.   Newton was the first dis-
 coverer, having pointed out the principles
 in a treatise written before 1669, but not
 pubUshed tiU many years after.  Leibnitz,
 meanwhile, made the same discovery, and
 published it to the world before Newton,
 and   independently  of Newton's  prior
 discoveries, with a much  better  nota-
 tion, which is now universally adopted
 The methods analogous to the  infinitesi-
 mal analysis previously employed  were
 that of exhaust-urns, known to the ancients,
 that of indivisibles of CavaUeri, and Des-
 cartes'  method  of indeterminates.  Leib-
 nitz  considered  the differences  of the
 variable quantities as infinitely small, and
 conceived that he might reject the higher
 powers of those differences without sen-
 sible enor; so that none of those powers
 but  the first remained in  the differentia] 
CALCULUS.                             395
equation finally obtained.  Instead ofthe
actual increments of the flowing or vari-
able quantities, Newton  introduced  the
fluxions of those quantities; meaning, by
fluxions, quantities  which had to one
another the same ratio which the incre-
ments had in their  ultimate  or evanes-
cent state.  The fluxions of Newton cor-
responded with the differentials  of Leib-
nitz ; and the fluents of the fonner with
the integrals of the latter.  The fluxionary
and the differential calculus are therefore
two modifications of one general method.
The problems which relate to the maxima
and minima, or the greatest and least val-
ues of variable quantities, ore among the
most interesting in mathematics.  When
any function  becomes either  the greatest
or the least, it does so by the velocity of
its  increase or decrease  becoming equal
to nothing: in this case, the fluxion which
is proportional to that velocity  must be-
come nothing.  By taking the fluxion of
the given function, and supposing it equal
to nothing, an equation may be obtained
in finite terms, expressing the relation of
the quantities when the function assigned
is the greatest or least possible.  The new
analysis is peculiarly adapted  to physical
researches.  The momentary increments
represent precisely  the  forces by which
the changes in nature are produced; so
that this doctrine seemed created to pen-
etrate into the interior of things, and take
cognizance of those powers which elude
the ordinary methods of geometrical in-
vestigation.  It alone affords the means
of measuring forces, when each acts sep-
arately and instantaneously, under condi-
tions that can be accurately  ascertained.
In  comparing the effects of continued ac-
tion, the variety of time and circumstance,
and the continuance of effects after their
causes have ceased, introduce  uncertainty,
and render the conclusions vague and un-
satisfactory.   The  analysis  of  infinites
here goes to the point; it measures the in-
tensity or instantaneous effort ofthe force,
and removes  all those  causes  of uncer-
tainty.  It  is  by effects, taken in  tlieir
nascent or evanescent state, that the true
proportion of causes must be  ascertained.
  Calculus.  Little stones,anciently used
for computation, voting, &c,  were called
calculi.   The Thracians  used to mark
lucky  days by white, and unlucky  by
black pebbles;  and the Roman judges, at
an  early period, voted for the  acquittal of
the accused by a white, and for condem-
nation by a block calculus: hence, n^fer
or albus calculus, a favorable  or unfavor-
able vote.  Sometimes  the ballots were
marked with characters,  and then were
made of wood.  Calculi lusorii or latrones
were counters used in a game, something
Uke backgammon.  Calculus Minerva was
an expression employed  to signify that
the accused escaped by an equal division
of the votes of the judges.   He was said
to be acquitted calculo Minerva (by the
vote of Minerva), because  Orestes was
acquitted  by the  vote of  that  goddess
when the judges were equally divided.
  Calculus, or Stone, is the name giv-
en  to  all  hard  concretions, not  bony,
formed in the bodies of animals.  Calculi
may be divided into two  classes, accord-
ing as they are found in  the gall-bladder
or in the  urinary bladder.  The  first are
called  biliary calculi, the  second urinary
calculi.—Biliary calculi are  of a  lamella-
ted structure, and are composed of a sub-
stance which is considered,  by M. Chev-
reul, as a peculiar principle, which he has
named cholesterine (from \oXv, bile, and
orcpeos, solid).   It is described as a white,
crystalUne substance,  with  much lustre,
insipid and inodorous, much resembUng
spermaceti, but  differing in being less
fusible, and in not forming a soap with
alkalies.   It is also converted, by the ac-
tion of nitric acid, into a peculiar acid,
called  cholesteric  acid.  This is sUghtly
soluble in water, and forms soluble salts
with the alkalies.  Cholesterine consists of
carbon 85.095, oxygen  3.025, and hydro-
gen 11.88.  It has lately been detected in
the bile itself, both in that of animals and
of  man.   Besides cholesterine,  biliary
concretions contain a portion of inspissa-
ted bile, and  the  yellow coloring matter
of the bile in a concentrated state, which,
from the beauty of its hue, and its perma-
nence, is  much  valued as  a pigment.—
Urinary calcidi are of very  variable char-
acters  and composition.  The following
substances enter  principally into their
composition: uric acid, urate of ammo-
nia, phosphate of lime, phosphate of am-
monia and magnesia, oxalate  of lime,
silex, sometimes oxyde of iron and animal
matter—these being more or less pure or
mixed, and being often diversified by me-
chanical structure, so as to render it diffi-
cult to constitute well-defined  species.
The six following species  embrace the
principal varieties  of urinary calculi:—1.
that composed chiefly of  uric acid; 2.
that consisting chiefly of  the triple phos-
phate of ammonia and magnesia;  3. the
bone-earth calculus, formed, almost en-
tirely, of phosphate of lime; 4.  the fusi-
ble calculus, composed of the  two pre-
ceding intermixed ; 5. the mulberry cal- 
396
CALCULUS—CALCUTTA.
 cuius, consisting of oxalate of lime; and,
 6. a rare species, the cystic oxyde calcu-
 lus.   Two others, still more rare, are, the
 xanthic oxyde and fibrinous calculus, dis-
 covered by doctor Marcet;  and,  lastly,
 calculi have been  met with formed  of
icarbonate of Ume.  In  all these calcuU,
 besides the saUne matter, there is present
 a portion of animal  matter, which is con-
 ceived to  be the mucus of the bladder.
 This seems to give them color and indu-
 ration.  It is found even in those which
 are white and  crystalline.  In the  mul-
 beny calculus  it is present  in a  larger
 proportion than in the  others.  The in-
 gredients  of calcuU are often, also, diver-
 sified by intermixture in layers.  These
 must, of course, be various, and, as their
 production is, in some measure, accident-
 al, irregularly  arranged.  Those  which
 have been the  most frequently observed
are alternations of uric  acid  with  phos-
 phate of magnesia and ammonia, or phos-
 phate of lime;  or of oxalate of lime with
 uric  acid,  or with either or  both of these
phosphates.
  Calcutta, the capital of Bengal, and
 of the whole British East Indies, is situa-
 ted on the west branch ofthe  Hoogly, an
arm  of the Ganges, on which  the largest
 East Indiamen  may come quite up to the
 city.  The navigation, however,  on ac-
count  of  several sandbanks,  which are
continually changing tlieir size and posi-
tion, is very dangerous.  This place, for-
merly the  insignificant village  of Govind-
pour, rose, in the last century, to the size
of a great city. The climate, when the
English first made a settlement here,  in
1690, was  as unhealthy as that  of Batavia;
but it  has been gradually becoming less
fatal  to settlers,  partly by the removal of
a forest near the city, partly by greater
attention,  in the settlers themselves,  to
their  mode  of living.  Notwithstanding
the unhealthiness ofthe place, it continu-
ed steadily to increase, quickly recovered
from its losses  in  1756, and  is now one
of the  most magnificent cities  in the
world.  In 1802, the population was com-
puted at 600,000; a few years after (in-
cluding the suburbs), at  1,000,000,  of
which about one half may be given to the
city.   The population of the surrounding
districts, within a space of 20 miles, was
estimated,  in the same year, at 2,225,000
inhabitants.  The houses of the English,
who  occupy a separate quarter of the city,
are of brick, elegantly bufft, and many of
them Uke palaces.  On account of the
heat  of the cUmate, they are  not joined
together, but stand at some distance from
 each other,  have high  and airy apart-
 ments, flat roofs, and are surrounded with
 verandahs.  With this  part of the city,
 " the black town,"  so called (the Pettah),
 which is the quarter occupied  by the na-
 tives, forms a striking  contrast.  It has
 extremely  narrow and  crooked  streets,
 interspersed with gardens and  innumera-
 ble tanks.  Some ofthe streets are paved.
 The  houses,  which are some  of brick,
 some of mud, but mostly  of bamboo or
 straw mats, present a motley appearance.
 Fort William, not far from the city, was
 begun by  lord  Clive, in 1757, and is a
 magnificent work, in the form of an octa-
 gon, but on too extensive a scale  for the
 purposes of defence.  It has bomb-proof
 barracks, large  enough  for 10,000 men,
 and would require 600 pieces of cannon
 for the  works.  It commands the river.
 A trench  is  drawn round the  whole,
 which may be filled, in case of need, with
 water from the Hoogly, to the depth of
 eight feet.  Between fort  WiUiam and
 the city there  is a plain, which forms a
 favorite promenade of  the inhabitants.
 Hindoos, blacks, Europeans,  equipages
 of all sorts, and palanquins, are here seen
 mixed together in a motley crowd.  On
 the western side stands  the new palace,
 built by die marquis of Wellesley, at  an
 expense of a million pounds sterling, and
 reminding one, by its grandeur, of the fa-
 bled palaces of Arabian  story.  The old
 fort is now a custom-house, and the infa-
 mous " black hole" has been turned into
 a ware-house.   An obelisk, 50  feet high,
 at the entrance, contains the names ofthe
 unfortunate captives, who, in 1756, when
 the city was taken  and plundered by Su-
 raja Dowla, fell victims to the most inhu-
 man cruelty.   Amongst  the other public
 buildings are  the court-house, an Arme-
 nian and an  English  church.  In the
 middle of the city is a large tank, for the
 purpose of supplying the  inhabitants dur-
 ing the hot season, when the river-water
 becomes offensive.  Here is the residence
 of the governor-general of India, and the
 seat  of the supreme court of justice,
 which decides causes  according to the
 EngUsh law, without regard to rank, sta-
 tion  or country.  Smaller  offences are
 tried by the superintendent  of police and
justices  of the peace.   Order is main-
 tained by several companies of seapoys,
 who make regular patrols through the
 city.  C. is the great emporium of Ben-
 gal, and the channel through which the
 treasures of the interior provinces are
 conveyed to Europe.  The port is fiffed
 with ships of all nations.  Mercantile en 
CALCUTTA—CALDAS DE MONBUY.
397
terprise is nowhere more active than here.
There are some houses which trade, an-
nually, to the amount of 4 or 5 milUon
pounds  sterling.  The  trade  in  sugar,
opium, sUk, musUn, &c. is very consider-
able.  Large quantities of salt are export-
ed to Assam, and gold, silver, ivory, musk,
and a pecuUar  kind of silky cotton, are
brought back in exchange.  Cowries, a
kind of small shells, passing as coin, are
received  in exchange for rice from the
Maldives.  The trade with Pegu, Siam,
and the  Malay isles, formerly so profita-
ble, has very much decUned.  The. Brit-
ish merchants are, as might be expected,
the most numerous; and many of them
have acquired fortunes which enable them
to live in a style of great splendor.  Next
to them, in number and respectability, as
well as in outward  show, are the Ar-
menians.  They are peaceable and indus-
trious  merchants.   Many of them have
large capitals, and carry on an extensive
trade to China and  the ports to the west,
as far as the Persian gulf  The Mongols,
however, are the wealthiest; and, as they
lend only at an enormous interest, their
profits, from  this source, are three times
as great as a  capital commonly  gives.
The Hindoos remain fixed, however rich
they may become, in their narrow views,
and  their accustomed  frugaUty.   Their
houses and shops are mean, and it is only
on occasion of their nuptials and religious
festivals, that they indulge in any extraor-
dinary expense.  Then they assemble un-
der magnificent, illuminated canopies, dis-
tribute rose-water and other perfumes in
profusion,  and  regale themselves with
confectionary from golden vessels, while
they are  entertained by  the  voices  of
singing girls, or the exhibition of a panto-
mime.  The petty trade of C. is  mostly
in the hands of the Banyans and Sarkars,
who are  constantly on the  watch  for
cheap  purchases, and make  use  of the
lowest artifices to impose  on their cus-
tomers.  This kind of deception is so far
from  being in  disrepute  among then
countrymen, that they honor the adepts
in it with the title of pucka adme, which
signifies a man  of great talent—Notwith-
standing the high price of all the necessa-
ries  of Ufe, and the  enormous expendi-
tures ofthe English merchants, we find a
multitude of institutions for the reUef of
the indigent  Of this kind are, an hospital
for those natives who are in want of medi-
cal aid, two  schools  for orphans whose
fathers were in  the service of the compa-
ny, a free school, &c.  The coUege  of
fort William, founded by the marquis of
   vol. u.            34
Wellesley,  has been changed, in  part,
from its original plan, which was, not on-
ly to instruct the youth in the service of
the company in the languages, and other
branches of study necessary for their pro-
fession, but also to watch over their beha-
viour, and to guard them from the dan-
gers to which they were exposed by their
inexperience.  The latter part of the plan
is now  given  up.  The Asiatic society,
founded by sir William Jones, in 1784, is
devoted to the study and  explanation of
the literature, history, antiquities, arts and
sciences of Asia.  The  papers already
published are, generally, of great value.
There is a botanical garden belonging  to
the society on  the  beautiful island of
Garden Reach, the summer residence of
the rich EngUsh.
  Caldara, Polidoro, called Caravaggio,
born in 1495, at  Caravaggio, in the Mil-
anese, went to Rome in his youth, carried
bricks, at first, for the masons who work-
ed in the Vatican, and felt a  great desire
to become a painter, from seeing Giovan-
ni da Udina and the other painters who
were occupied in the Vatican.  He  form-
ed a close friendship  with Maturin  of
Florence, who assisted  him with  his ad-
vice.  C. soon surpassed him, and exerted
himself to  introduce  improvements  in
drawing, having always in view the an-
tiques.  Raphael employed  him in the
galleries of the Vatican, where he paint-
ed, under his direction, several excellent
friezes.  At Messina, he executed an oil-
painting, which represents Christ  bearing
the cross, contains a number of beautiful
figures, and proves his abiUty to treat the
most elevated  subjects.   He  has ap-
proached, more than any one, to the style
and the manner of the ancients, particu-
larly in imitating their basso-relievos.  His
figures  are correct, well-distributed and
arranged; the positions are natural, the
heads fuU of expression and character.  It
is evident  that he would have acquired
great celebrity  if he  had undertaken
greater works.  He  appUed himself to
the chiaro-oscuro, particularly to that kind
of it, which  is called  sgrajfiato.  He
showed, also,  much talent in his land-
scapes.   At the sack of Rome, in 1527,
he fled to Naples, and, on his return from
that place to Rome, in 1543, he was mur-
dered by his domestic.
   Caldara, a celebrated composer ofthe
18th centuiy, was born at Venice, 1714,
and died 1763.   His church compositions
are still in repute.
   Caldas de  Monbut ; a small town in
Catalonia,  Spain, about 20 miles north 
398
CALDAS DE MONBUY—CALDERON.
of Barcelona.  It contains hot mineral
springs, of such a temperature that the
inhabitants bring eggs, vegetables, &c,
to boil them in the water.   When cooled,
it is drunk in  scrofulous  and rheumatic
complaints.
  Calder, or Cawdor;  a village  and
parish in Nairnshire, Scotland, in which
are  seen the remains of a castle, once the
residence of Macbeth, destroyed  by Mal-
colm ; 4 miles south of Nairn.
  Calderari (coppersmiths).  This name
was assumed  by one of the many secret
societies which have sprung up in Italy,
from the poUtical agitation of the times.
Of  late years, they have been most nu-
merous at Naples, and, indeed, more so
in the provinces than in the capital, where
they were once united, for a  long  time,
with  the  Carbonari,  but  were  after-
wards opposed to them.  All these so-
cieties, so far as they have any definite
political object, appear to  have  in  view
the  political union of Italy, and its libera-
tion from foreign dominion,  but differ
from each other so widely, in regard to
the  means and the results, that a decided
hostility has been the consequence.  Of
the  true character of each of these socie-
ties, among which the Calderari  and die
Carbonari have been the most famous and
extensive, it is as difficult to give any cer-
tain information, as it is to ascertain their
histoiy; for, though they  have both, and
particularly the Carbonari, published their
statutes  and proceedings  since 1817, yet
these  sources  of information have not all
reached us, nor are they entirely to be de-
pended  on.   Of the Calderari,  we are
told by count Orloff (Memoires sur le
Royaume de Naples, vol. ii. 286), that they
sprung from  the  Carbonari, towards the
end of the year 1813.  It  appears that a
change was then made in the form ofthe
society, which had become too large, and
a great  number of its former members
were  excluded in consequence.  These
united themselves into a new society, un-
der the  name of the Calderari,  and be-
came  the most bitter opponents  of their
former brethren.   After  the  return of
king Ferdinand to Naples, prince Canosa,
minister of police, favored the Calderari,
that he might more effectually put down
the Carbonari, who were  objects  of his
suspicion.  For this purpose, he organiz-
ed  them anew, divided them into wards,
appointed a central ward in each prov-
ince to oversee the rest, and  gave  them
the name of Calderari del contrapeso (Cal-
derari of the  counterpoise).  He distrib-
uted  20,000 muskets among them; but,
when the king was apprized of this haz-
ardous undertaking, which had been be-
gun  without  his knowledge, a stop was
put to any further proceedings by Cano-
sa's dismissal and banishment; but the as-
sociation was not then abolished.  This
account has been contradicted from other
quarters.  Canosa was turned out of his
office, which he had held but six months,
June 27, 1816; and, three months after his
banishment, a royal decree was issued,
renewing the prohibitions and penalties
against  all  secret societies, not excepting
the  Calderari,  and  commanding their
prosecution,  although  they had  lately
manifested their attachment to the king
and to good order.  Canosa himself, in an
anonymous work (I Pifferi di Montagna,
Dublin, 1820), has contradicted the state-
ments of count Orloff with regard to him
and the Calderari.   According to his ac-
count, they sprang up, not in Naples, but
in Palermo, when lord Bentinck abolish-
ed the  companies of tradesmen.  This
measure excited  great  dissatisfaction.
The 'coppersmiths' or Calderari, in partic-
ular, declared to the queen their readiness
to take up arms against the British, and
disturbances ensued,  in which the Nea-
politan fugitives took a conspicuous part.
Lord Bentinck had them sent to  Naples,
where  they became active  in the secret
associations against Murat; and,  on this
occasion, one of the old societies, which
had  hitherto bonie the name of Trinita-
rians, assumed that of Calderari.   When
it was  proposed, in the ministry of 1816,
to take strong measures against them, as
the remains of the party of 1799, prince
Canosa was for upholding the  party, not
for any selfish reason, but from die belief
that  they were a necessary counterpoise
to the more numerous and formidable Car-
bonari.  The society, however, has never
adopted the  name of Calderari of the
counterpoise;  and the story of the distri-
bution  of muskets  is contradicted by
prince Canosa, in the pubUcation above-
mentioned.  The Calderari, who,  accord-
ing to the above accounts, appear to be a
continuation of the body got together by
cardinal Ruffo, in 1799, are composed, al-
most entirely, of the lower classes, and,
hence, not so much has been pubUshed by
them, as by the Carbonari  A single un-
important pubUcation, by the jurist Pasqu.
TonelU (Breve Idea delta Carbonaria, sua
Origine nel Regno di Napoli, suo Scopo,
sua Persecuzione e Causa chefe' nascere la
Setta de' Calderari, Naples, 1820), has a
notice of them.
   Calderon.  Don Pedro Cakleron de 
CALDERON.
399
fa Barca Henao y Riano, descended from
an ancient family, was born at Madrid,
Jan. 1, 1601, received his early education
in the Jesuits' college  of his native city,
and studied at  Salamanca, where he de-
voted himself chiefly to histoiy, philoso-
phy  and  jurisprudence.   His  poetical
genius early discovered itself.  Before his
14th year, he had written his first play, El
Carro del   Cielo (vol.  9 of his  works).
His talent  for this species of poetry, which
has brought his name down to posterity,
and, perhaps, his powers of invention in
the preparation of entertainments for fes-
tivals, soon gained him friends and pat-
rons.   When he left Salamanca,  in 1625,
to seek employment at the court of Ma-
drid,many noblemen interested themselves
in bnnging forward the young poet  But,
having an inclination for the military pro-
fession, he entered the service in  1625,
and  bore   arms with distinction for 10
years in Milan and the Netherlands.  In
1636, he was recalled by Philip IV, who
gave him the direction ofthe court enter-
tainments, and, in particular, the prepara-
tion of plays for the court  theatre.   The
next year, he was made knight ofthe or-
der of San Jago, and served in the cam-
paign in Catalonia.  The unexpected ter-
mination ofthe war restored him  again to
his peaceful occupation.  The king now
conferred  on him a monthly  pension of
30 escudos de oro;  but  he still employed
his talents with unintermitted industry in
composing for the theatre and the church.
The king  spared no cost in the represent-
ation of his theatrical pieces.  Ten years
after, in  1651, he procured  permission
from the  order of San Jago to enter the
clerical profession, and, in 1653, obtained
a chaplain's office in  the  archiepiscopal
church at Toledo, without quitting, how-
ever, his former occupation.   But, as this
situation removed him too far from  court,
he received, in 1663, another at the king's
court-chapel (being still allowed to hold
the former); and, at the same time, a pen-
sion was assigned  him from  the SiciUan
revenue.   His feme greatly increased his
income, as he was sohcited by the princi-
pal cities of Spain to compose their autos
sacramentales, for which he was liberally
paid.  He bestowed particular pains on
the composition of these  pieces, and, in
fact, eclipsed all that  the Spanish  litera-
ture, so rich in  this department of fancy,
had  hitherto produced.  These  subjects
were particularly suited to his  reUgious
turn of mind; and he set a peculiar value
on his performances  of this kind, so as
even to disparage his other works, which
deserve no mean reputation.  Religion is
the ruling idea, the central point, of his
poems.  Whatever subject he handles, he
exhibits true  poetical  genius.  Even al-
lowing that he is inferior in richness of
invention to  Lope de  Vega, he certainly
excels  him in fineness of execution, ele -
vation of feeUng, and  aptness of expres>
sion.  If we  find in him much that is
foreign  to  our modes of thinking  and
feeUng, to  our accustomed views  and
manner of expression, we shaU have oc-
casion  much oftener to admire his unri-
valled gen i us. The Spanish nation esteem
C. among the greatest poetical geniuses.
Many faults in his writings are to be at-
tributed to the age and circumstances of
the author.   Among his dramatic works
are many pieces of intrigue, full of com-
plicated plots, and rich in interesting inci-
dents.   There are, besides, heroic come-
dies and historical plays, some of which
merit the name  of tragedies.  To this
class belongs the Constant Prince, which
deserves an  honorable place among ro-
mantic  tragedies of the first rank.  Be-
sides tfiese, C. has left 95 autos sacramen-
tales, 200 loas (preludes) and 100 saynetes
(farces).  He wrote  his last  play in
the 81st year of his  age.  The smaller
poems of C, his  songs, sonnets, ballads,
&c, notwithstanding the applause which
they received from his contemporaries, are
now forgotten ; but his plays have main-
tained  their place on the stage even more
than those of Lope de Vega.  The num-
ber of his collected plays amounts to 128.
He wrote, however, many more, some of
which  were never published.  The most
complete edition of his works is that pub-
Ushed  by D. Juan de Vera Tassis y Vil-
lanoel (Madrid, 1685, 9 vols.).  A.  W.
Schlegel and Gries  have given  masterly
translations  of his  pieces into  German.
The former  has published 5 plays in  2
vols. (Berlin, 1803—1806); the  latter, 10
plays  in  5  vols. (BerUn, 1815—1822).
These were followed  by the translations
of baron Malsburg,  of which 6  vols.
(Leipsic, 1819—1825)  have  appeared
G6the and Schlegel have  the merit of
having opened  the German stage to the
genius of C, as Schroder, before them, had
done to that of Shakspeare.  The Con-
stant Prince shows, perhaps, in the high-
est degree, the skill of C. as a tragic poet.
It turns on one ofthe  most perplexing of
all subjects, viz. the idea of destiny, man-
aged in a truly poetical way, in a tragedy
terminating happily.   The great fertiUty
of C.'s invention has heaped up an abun-
dance  of materials, from which foreign 
400
CALDERON—CALEDONIANS.
theatres might be much enriched.  It is
to be regretted that his works have not
been  chronologically  arranged.   We
might then have traced the growth of
mysticism in his mind, and seen it strik-
ing root more deeply as he advanced in
Ufe.  At the age of 62, he was admitted
into  the fraternity of San Pedro.   In
1687, he was elected their capelan mayor.
He left  them aU his property, for which
they erected a splendid monument to his
memory.  He  died May 25, 1687, aged
87.  Among his imitators, Tirso de Moli-
na is worthy of mention, as the author of
the Inflexible Stranger, which has  been
often imitated, and is the groundwork of
the celebrated opera of Don Juan.
  Caleb, ofthe tribe of Juda, born B. C.
1530, was sent with Joshua and  10 oth-
ers to  examine the  Land of  Canaan.
When Joshua had conquered the coun-
try, C. reminded the Jews of the promise,
which had been made by God, that  they
should enjoy  this countiy.  He obtained
the city of Hebron for his share of the
spoil, besieged and captured it, and drove
out three  giants, or Anakim.  He  then
marched against Kirjath-Sepher, and of-
fered his daughter Achsah to the first who
should enter it.  Othniel, his nephew, was
the successful aspirant for the fair Jewess.
  Caledonia ; the ancient name of Scot-
land, (q. v.)
  Caledonia ; a town in New York, on
the west side of the  Genesee, 20 miles
south-west of Rochester, 235 west of Al-
bany.   The  village  is situated  on the
great road from Albany to  Buffalo, pro-
duces wheat  in great quantities, and has
several  beds of gypsum ; also limestone,
iron ore, salt and sulphur springs.  Great
or Big springs, situated on the north side
of the village, are regarded as a curiosity.
The waters, which are impregnated with
sulphur and Ume, boil  up in great quanti-
ties from the earth in a pond or reservoir
of five acres.   In this pond, except at the
places where  the water boils up, grows a
singular weed,  five or six feet high, and
so thick as  to be almost impenetrable.
The surface ofthe water  is covered with
a  frothy substance, which, when dried,
has a very offensive smell.  The temper-
ature of the water is always nearly the
same, extremely cold, but never freezes.
A fine miU-stream issues from this pond;
and the quantity of water is little affected
by rain  or drought.
   Caledonia, New;  a countiy of North
America, west  of the Rocky mountains,
extending about 500 miles from  north to
south, and nearly 400 from east to west
It is mountainous; abounds in  lakes, the
largest of which are Stuart's  lake and
Natteotain lake.  The largest rivers are
Eraser's  and  Natteotain  rivers.   The
thermometer sometimes fells 32 degrees
below zero ; but the seasons are generally
milder than  in the same parallel east  of
the Rocky mountains.  The summer is
never very hot.  The natives call  them-
selves Td-cullies.  The whites call them
Carriers.  They are estimated at 5000.
  Caledonia, New ; a large island in the
Pacific ocean, from 220 to 250 miles long,
and 50 broad.  It is rendered dangerous
of approach by formidable reefs, extend-
ing 270 miles beyond  the island.  The
danger is increased by the current setting
directly on  the breakers.  Lon. 163° to
167° E.; lat. 20° to 22° 2& S. It was
discovered by Cook, in his second voy-
age (1774), who remained on the coast a
week.   D'Entrecasteaux  was  the first
who sailed completely round it (1792 and
1793).  A chain  of mountains, 2500 feet
high, extends through the island, from
the  summits of which the sea  is  visible
on both sides.  The island produces the
bread-fruit-tree, banana, sugar-cane, arum
and cocoa, although  the soil is by  no
means fertile.  The animals are very few.
A spider called nookee forms  threads so
large as to offer a sensible  resistance be-
fore breaking.  They  ore  eaten by the
people.  Their other  articles of food are
not more choice.  Like the Ottomacs of
South America, described by Humboldt,
they eat steatite—a soft, friable, greenish
earth, containing magnesia, silex and iron.
Cook and Forster described them as gen-
tle, simple, kind and  honest.   D'Entre-
casteaux represents them as cruel, perfid-
ious and  thievish.   The  women were
hired for a nail.  Recent observation has
Bhown them to be cannibals.   They are
armed with darts and clubs, but do not
use the bow. Their  huts  are smaU, and
filled  with smoke, to defend them from
insects.  Their language is different from
that of Polynesia, and is  described  as
harsh  and  croaking.   Their dress is a
girdle of fibrous bark.  They also wear
ornaments of bone or coral, and paint
their  breasts with  wide  black streaks.
Their hair is nearly wooUy,the surface of
their  bodies shiny and  black.  Some
have the thick lips of the African  Negro.
  Caledonians;  the  name of a confed-
eracy of tribes in what is  now Scotland
(Britannia Barbara).   Tacitus  supposes
them to be Germans;  others, with more
reason, Celts. They are the ancestors of
the modern Highlanders. 
CALEMBOURG—CALENDAR.
401
  Calembourg ; a kind of pun, in which
a word is employed in an unusual sense,
or by which, without  regard to grammar
or orthography, some letters are changed,
added  or left  out, without  changing the
pronunciation.   Thus a calembourg is dis-
tinguished from  the proper jeu de mot.
A Westphalian count Calemberg, who
Uved in Paris  under Louis XV,  is said
to have amused the circles there by his
blunders in the French language, and oc-
casioned the marquis Bievre to introduce
this  new kind of witticism.  As an in-
stance, we  adduce  the following:—A
robber demanded  from a  traveller his
purse, putting  a pistol  to  his breast, with
the words " La bourse, ou la vie."  " Pour
Vavis (la  vie)," the traveller answered,
dryly, " le mexlleur que je puisse vous don-
ner, est de quitter voire metier, sans quoi
vous sercz pendu, et pour la bourse (hair-
bag) je n'en ai pas, parcequeje porte un
cadogan (hair-knot).   The French lan-
guage  is rich in such puns, because it is
poor in words, and these, consequently,
may be taken in different  significations.
(See Pun.)
  Calenberg  ; a principality in the king-
dom of Hanover, which derives its name
from an ancient castle, now in ruins, situ-
ated 11 or 12 miles south of Hanover.  Its
extent is 1050  square miles.  It has about
139,222  inhabitants,  chiefly  Lutherans.
(See Hanover.)
  Calendar ;  the  division of time  into
years,  months, weeks and days; also  a
register of these divisions.  Among the
old Romans, for want of such a register,
it was the custom for  the pontifex maxi-
mus, on the first day of the month,  to
proclaim (colore) the month, with the fes-
tivals occurring in it, and the time of new
moon.   Hence  calenda  and  calendar.
The periodical occurrence of certain nat-
ural phenomena gave rise to the first di-
vision of time. The apparent daily revo-
lution of the starry heavens and the sun
about  the earth occasioned the division
into days.   But, as the number of days
became too  great  for convenience, some
larger measure of time was found neces-
sary.  The changes of the moon, which
were  observed to recur every 29 or 30
days, suggested the division of time into
months.  After  a  considerable  period,
these  also were found to multiply  too
much, and a still larger measure of time
was wanted.  Such a one  was found in
the apparent yearly revolution of the sun
round the earth in  the ecliptic.  The time
of this revolution, after several enoneous
calculations hereafter to be mentioned,
                  34*
was finally determined to be a little more
than 365 days.  This was  called a solar
year, or, simply, a year, which was divid-
ed, according to the former measures of
time, into months and days.   Now, on ac-
count of the great  influence of the sun's
course in the ecliptic, and its consequent
variations  of distance from us upon the
earth, and the affairs of its inhabitants in
all countries, the attention of men would
naturally be drawn to this phenomenon.
Hence it has happened that all nations, in
any degree civilized,  have adopted the
year as the largest measure of time.  It
is probable that the Phoenicians first, then
the Egyptians, and afterwards the Greeks,
made use  of this mode of reckoning, from
whom it was communicated to other na-
tions.  The division ofthe year, however,
into months  and  days, could not have
been very accurate at first, because it can
be settled  only  by  long and attentive ob-
servation.   The calendar of the oldest
nations was quite imperfect   They were
satisfied with one which enabled them to
manage the  common  business  of hus-
bandry.   The Greeks were the first who
attempted to adjust the courses ofthe sun
and the moon to  each  other.  For this
purpose, they reckoned 124 revolutions of
the moon round the earth for  one solar
year;  and, to  avoid the  fractions of  a
month, they made the year consist of 13
and 12 months alternately.   Solon,  per-
ceiving the defects of this arrangement,
fixed  the number of days in a month at
294, and  made the month consist of 29
and 30 days alternately.  Still the length
of the month and tiiat of the year were
not brought into  exact adjustment, and
new disorders soon  followed.  Various
plans for  the reformation of the calendar
were proposed from time to time; but all
proved insufficient, till Meton and Encte-
mon finally succeeded in bringing it to a
 much greater degree of accuracy, by fix-
 ing on the period of 19 years, in which
 time  the new moons  return upon the
 same  days of the year as before (as 19
 solar  years are very nearly equal to 235
 lunations).  (See Cycle.)  This mode of
 computation, first adopted by the Greeks
 (433 B. C), was so much approved of, that
 it was engraven with golden letters on  a
 tablet at  Athens.  Hence  the  number,
 showing  what year of the moon's cycle
 any given year is, is called the golden
 number.  This period of 19  years was
 found, however, to be about six hours too
 long.  This defect Calippus, about  102
 years later, endeavored to remedy, but
 still failed to  make the beginning of the 
402                            CALENDAR.
seasons return on the same fixed day of
the year.—Among the Romans, their first
king, Romulus, introduced a year of 10
divisions or months, of which 4 (namely,
March, May, July and October) contained
31 days; the rest (April, June,  August,
September, November and  December),
only 30.  When  he discovered that this
mode of reckoning was imperfect, he in-
serted as many days as were necessary to
complete the year, and bring it up to the
beginning ofthe following one.  His suc-
cessor, Numa Pompilius, aboUshed this
method, added 50 days more, took 1 day
from each  of  the 6 months containing 30
days, because  even numbers were sup-
posed to be unlucky, and out of the whole
56 days formed 2 new months of 28 days
each, which  he called January and Feb-
ruary.  Thus the year consisted of 12
months, and 350 days; and, to  make it
agree with the course ofthe sun, interca-
lations were  made use of, after the man-
ner ofthe Greeks.  These  intercalations,
however, were left to the discretion of the
priests; and, as they made them very arbi-
trarily, according to the exigences of the
state, or their own private  views, com-
 Slaints  and   irregularities  soon arose.
 Idtwithstanding this defect, the arrange-
ment continued to the end ofthe republi-
can constitution.  The calendar of the
Romans had a very peculiar arrange-
ment   They gave  particular names  to
3 days of the  month.  The first  day was
called the  calends.  In the 4 months of
March, May,  July and October, the 7th,
in the others, the 5th day, was called  the
nones; and, in the 4 former, the 15th, in
the rest, the 13th day, was called  the ides.
The other  days they distinguished in the
following manner:—they counted from
the above-mentioned days  backwards,
observing  to  reckon also  the one from
which  they  began.  Thus  the 3d  of
March, according to the Roman reckon-
ing, would be the 5th day before  the
nones, which,  in that month, feU upon
the 7th. The 8th of January, in which
month the nones happen on the  5th, and
the ides on the 13th, was called the  6th
before the ides of January.  Finally, to
express  any  of the days after the ides,
they reckoned in a similar manner from
the calends  of  the  following  month.
From  the  inaccuracy of  the  Roman
method of reckoning, it appears that, in
Cicero's time, the calendar brought the
vernal equinox almost two months later
than it  ought to be.  According to the
last letter  of the 10th book of  Cicero's
Epistles to Atticus, this equinox  was not
yet post, although it was near the end of
May, by their calendar.  To check  this
irregularity, JuUus Caesar, on being  ap-
pointed dictator and pontiff (A. U. C. 707),
invited the Greek astronomer Sosigenes
to Rome, who, with  the  assistance of
Marcus Fabius, invented  that mode of
reckoning, which,  after him who intro-
duced it into use, has been called the Ju-
lian  calendar. The chief improvement
consisted in restoring the equinox to its
proper place in March.   For  this pur-
pose, two months were inserted between
November  and December, so  that  the
year 707, called, from  this  circumstance,
the year of confusion, contained 14 months.
In the number of days, the Greek com-
putation was adopted, which made it 365^.
The  number and  names of the montiis
were kept unaltered, with the exception
of QuintiUs, which was henceforth called,
in honor of the author of the  improve-
ment, Julius.  To dispose of the quarter
of a day, it was determined to intercalate
a day every fourth year, between the 23d
and 24th of February.  This was called
an intercalary day, and  the year in which
it  took place was caUed an intercalary
year, or, as we term it, a leap year.  This
calendar continued in use among the Ro-
mans until the  fall of the empire, and
throughout Christendom till 1582. The
festivals ofthe Christian church were  de-
termined by  it.  With regard to Easter,
however, it was necessary to have  ref-
erence  to the course of the moon. The
Jews celebrated Easter (i. e., the Passover)
on the 14th ofthe month Nisan (or March);
the Christians in the same month, but al-
ways on a Sunday.  Now, as the Easter
of the Christians  sometimes coincided
with the Passover ofthe Jews,and it was
thought unchristian to celebrate so  im-
portant a festival at the same time as  the
Jews did, it was  resolved, at the council
of Nice, 325 A. D., that, from that time,
Easter  should be solemnized on the Sun-
day following the first full-moon after the
vernal equinox, which was then suppos-
ed to take place on the 21st of March.
As the  course ofthe moon was thus made
the foundation for determining the time
of Easter, the lunar cycle of Meton was
taken for this  purpose;  according to
which  the  year contains 365£ days, and
the new moons, after a period of 19 years,
return on the same days as before. The
inaccuracy of the Julian year, thus com-
bined with the lunar  cycle, must have
soon discovered itself, on a comparison
with the true time ofthe commencement
ofthe equinoxes, since the received length 
CALENDAR.
403
of 365$ days exceeds the true by about 11
minutes; so that, for every  such JuUan
year, the equinox receded 11 minutes, or
a day in about 130 years.   Inconsequence
of this, in  the  16th century, the vernal
equinox had changed its place in  the cal-
endar  from the 21st to the 10th; i. e., it
really took  place on the 10th instead of
the 21st, on which it was placed in the
calendar.   Aloysius LiUus, a physician of
Verona, projected a plan for amending
the calendar, which,  after his death, was
presented by his brother to pope Gregory
XIII.  To carry it into execution, the
pope assembled a number of prelates and
learned  men.  In  1577, the proposed
change was adopted by all  the Catholic
princes;  and, in 1582,  Gregory issued a
brief abolishing the Julian calendar in aU
Catholic  countries, and  introducing hi its
stead  the one now in use, under the name
of the Gregorian or reformed calendar, or
the new style, as the other was now called
the old style.  The amendment consisted
in this:—10 days were dropped after the
4th of Oct, 1582, and the 15th was reckon-
ed immediately after the 4th.  Every 100th
year, which, by the old  style, was to have
been a leap year, was now  to be a com-
mon year,  the  4th  excepted; i.  e., 1600
was to remain a leap year, but 1700,1800,
1900, to be of  the  common length, and
2000 a leap year again.   In this calendar,
the length of the solar year was taken to
be 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12
seconds.    Later  observations of Zach,
Lalande  and Delambre fix  the  average
length of the tropical year  at about 27
seconds less; but it  is unnecessary to di-
rect the attention of the reader to the er-
ror arising  from this difference, as it will
amount to a day only in the space of 3000
years.  Notwithstanding  die above im-
provement, the Protestants retained the
Julian calendar till 1700, when they also
adopted  the new style, with this differ-
ence,   that  they  assigned  the  feast of
Easter to the day of the first fuU moon
after the  astronomical equinox.   But this
arrangement produced new variations.
In 1724 and 1744, the Easter of the Cath-
olics was eight days later than that ofthe
Protestants.  On this account, the Grego-
rian calendar was finally adopted, 1777,
in Germany, under the  name of  the gen-
eral calendar oftlie empire, or, as it is now
called, the reformed calendar, in order that
the CathoUcs and Protestants might cele-
brate  Easter, and, consequendy,  aU the
movable  feasts, at the same  time.  Eng-
land introduced the new style in 1752,
and Sweden in 1753.   Russia only  re-
tains the old style, which now differs 12
days from the new.—In  France, during
the revolution, a new calendar was intro-
duced by a decree of the national conven-
tion,  Nov. 24, 1793.  The  time  from
which  the new reckoning  was to com-
mence  was   the  autumnal equinox of
1792, which  fell upon the 22d of Sept.,
at 18  minutes  and 30 seconds after 9
A. M.,  Paris time.  This day was select-
ed as that on which  the first  decree of
the new republic had been promulgated.
The year was made to consist  of 12
months of 30 days each, and, to complete
the full number of days, 5 jours comple-
mentaires were added to the end of it, in
common years, and 6 in  leap years.  Each
period  of 4 years, terminating with a leap
year, was called a franciade.  Instead of
weeks, each  month was  divided into 3
parts, called decades, consisting of 10 days
each;  the other divisions being also ac-
commodated  to the decimal system.   The
names  of the months were  so chosen as
to indicate, by their etymology, the time
of year to which they  belonged.  They
were as follows:—Autumn, from the 22d
Sept. to the 22d Dec.; Vendemiaire, vint-
age month (Oct.); Brumaire, foggy month
(Nov.); Frimaire, sleet month (Dec):—
Winter, from 22d Dec. to  22d March;
Nivdse, snowy month  (Jan.);  Ventdse,
windy  month  (Feb.);  Pluviose,  rainy
month (March):—Spring,from 22d March
to  22d  June;  Germinal,  bud  month
(April);  Floreal,  flower  month (May);
Prainal, meadow month  (June):—Sum-
mer, from 22d June to 22d Sept.; Mesri-
dor,  harvest  month  (July); Thermidor,
hot month (Aug.); Fructidor, fruit month
(Sept.).—The lOdays of each decade were
called,  1. Primidi, 2. Duodi, 3. Tridi, 4.
Quartidi, 5.  Quintidi, 6.  Sextidi, 7.  Sep-
tidi,  8. Octidi, 9. Nonidi,  10. Decadi (the
Sabbath). Besides this, each day in the
year had its particular name, appropriate
to the  time  when it occuned; e. g., the
7th of vintage month,  Vendemiaire, was
named carottes (carrots).  This calendar
was abolished, at  the command of Napo-
leon, by a decree ofthe senate, 9th Sept.,
1805, and the common  Christian or Gre-
gorian  calendar  introduced throughout
the French  empire.  (For  a  pretty full
historical  account of  this subject, 6ee
Biisch's Handbuch der Erfindungen, vol.
vii. p.  152 et seq.; also Gebelin's  His-
toire du Calendrier.  There are also astro-
nomical  calendars, to which  the Astro-
nomical  Year-Book  of professor Bode
belongs, and  of which  50 vols,  had ap-
peared in 1822. It is stiff continued. Of 
404
CALENDAR—CALICO.
the same class are the Paris Connoissance
des Temps, and  the London Nautical Al-
manac.   See Almanac and Chronology.)
  Calender.   Different fabrics,  before
they leave the hands ofthe manufacturer,
are subjected  to  certain processes, the
object of which is to make them smooth
and glossy, to glaze them, to water them,
or give  them a wavy appearance.  This
is done, in general, by pressing the fabric
between wooden  or metalUc  cylinders,
whence the  machine is called a calender,
and  the workman a calender or calen-
derer.
  Calenders ; a sect of dervises in Tur-
key and Persia.  They are not very strict
in their morals, nor  in very high  esteem
among the Mohammedans.  They preach
in the market-places, and Uve upon alms.
Their name is derived from their founder.
(See Dervise.)
   Calends, with the Romans, the first
days ofthe month ; so called because the
pontifex maximus then proclaimed (calavit)
whether the nones would be on the 5th or
the 7th.  This was the custom  until the
year 450 U.  C, when the fasti calendares,
or calendar (q. v.),  were affixed to the
wall of public  places.   The Greeks did
not  make use  of calends;  whence the
proverbial expression ad  Gracas calendas
(on the  Greek calends),  meaning never.
The calends of January were more sol-
emn than the others, and were consecrated
to Janus and Juno.  On  this day, the
magistrates  entered on their offices, and
friends  interchanged presents.   On the
calends, debtors were obliged to pay the
interest  of their debts;  hence tristes ca-
lenda (Hor. Serm. 1 Sat 3. v. 87).  The
book of accounts was called Calendarium.
—Calends,  in ecclesiastical history, de-
notes conferences, anciently held by the
clergy  of each deanery  on the first of
each month, concerning their  duty and
conduct (Du Cange, in voce.)
   Calenture ; a violent fever, incident to
persons in hot climates, especially to such
as are  natives of cooler climates.  It  is
attended with deUrium ; and the patient
 imagines the sea to be a green field, in
 which he is tempted to walk by the cool-
 ness and  freshness of its appearance.
 This is, at least, the poetical explanation of
 the matter.   The fact seems to be, that the
 intense inflammation of the fever prompts
 the patient to  plunge into cold water  to
 relieve his sufferings.
   Calepin (French) ;  a lexicon.   The
 name is derived from Calepino, a famous
  grammarian and lexicographer ofthe 15th
  century, who was the author of a poly-
glot dictionary, which has passed through
numerous editions, and been enlarged by
different  editors.   The most  complete
edition is that of Bale, 1590, fob, in 11
languages.  This work was usually called
the Calepin, and  such was its celebrity,
that the name became a common appella-
tion for a learned lexicon.
  Caliber ; the interior diameter of the
bore of any piece of ordnance, or the di-
ameter of a shot or shell.—Caliber or
calliper compasses are a sort of compasses
with  arched legs, used in the artillery
practice,  to take the  diameter  of any
round body, particularly of shot or shells,
the bore of ordnance, &c.  The instru-
ment consists of two thin pieces of brass,
joined by a rivet, so as to move quite
round each  other.  It contains a number
of tables, rules, &c, connected with the
artillery practice.
  Calico ; a cotton cloth, which derives
its name from Calicut, a city  of India,
from which it was first brought.   In Eng-
land, white or  unprinted cotton cloth is
called calico.   In the U. States, printed
cloth only is called by that name.  CoUco
printing  is a combination of the arts of
engraving and dyeing, and is used to pro-
duce, upon woven fabrics, chiefly of cot-
ton, a variety of ornamental combinations,
both of figure and color.  In this process,
the whole fabric is immersed in the dye-
ing liquid; but it is previously prepared in
such a manner, that the dye adheres only
to the parts intended for the figure, while
it leaves the remaining parts unaltered.
In  calico-printing, adjective colors are
most frequently employed.  The cloth is
prepared by bleaching, and other process-
es, which dispose it to receive the color.
It is  then printed with the mordant, in a
manner  similar to that  of copperplate-
printing,  except  that  the  figure is en-
graved upon a cylinder instead of a plate.
The cylinder, in one port of its revolution,
becomes charged with the mordant, mix-
ed to a  proper consistence with starch.
The  superfluous part of the mordant is
then scraped off by a straight steel  edge,
 in contact with  which the cylinder re-
 volves, leaving only  that part which re-
 mains in the  Unes  of the figure.   The
 cloth then passes in forcible contact with
 the other side of the cylinder, and receives
 from  it a  complete impression of  the
 figure in the pale color of the mordant
 The  cloth is then passed through the
 coloring-bath,  in which the parts previ-
 ously printed become dyed with the in-
 tended  color.   When  it is afterwards
 exposed and washed, the color disappears 
CALICO—CALIGULA.
405
 from those parts which are not impreg-
 nated with the mordant, but remains per-
 manently fixed to the rest.  When addi-
 tional colors are required, they are printed
 over the rest, with  different mordants,
 suited to the color intended to be pro-
 duced.   This secondary printing is  gen-
 erally performed with blocks,  engraved
 in the manner of wood-cuts, and appUed
 by hand to  the  successive parts of the
 piece.
   Calicut; a city of Hindostan,formerly
 capital of the kingdom of C, which was
 ceded to the British in 1792. From this
 port  the  first vessel  was freighted  with
 Indian commodities for Europe, by Vasco
 da Gama, in 1498.  The  ancient  city,
 however, is now buried beneath the sea;
 and, at low tides, the tops of temples and
 minarets are discernible.    The present
 town stands on a low shore, and has con-
 siderable trade.  It was token and de-
 stroyed by Tippoo Saib,  but was rebuilt
 when the country fell into  the hands of
 the  EngUsh.  Cardamoms, teak, sandal-
 wood, pepper and wax are the  principal
 exports.   It contains  5000  houses.  Lat
 11° 13 N.; lon. 75° 507 E.  The rajah of
 the C. district, or the Tamuri rajah, called
 Zamorin by the Europeans, iB a Bramin,
 who  pretends to be superior to the other
 Bramins, and inferior only  to the gods.
 The males of the family are called Tarn-
 burans,   and the  females  Tamburetties.
 These ladies are married at the age of 10,
 but  it would be scandalous for them  to
 have any intercourse with  their  hus-
 bands. 'The Namburi Bramins,  or the
 Nairs, are the fathers of their  children,
 who  ore all, of course, in the  dilemma
 described by Telemachus.
  Calif and Califate.  (See Caliph.)
  California, Gulf of;  a  gulf on the
 west coast of North America, in Mexico,
 lying on  the east side of the peninsula of
 CaUfornia, extending  from S. S. E. to N.
 N. W., between  lat 22°  40* and  34° N.
 It is  about  800 miles long, and, through
 most of its  length, is less than 100 miles
 wide.  It receives the river Colorado at
 its northern  extremity.  It contains nu-
 merous islands and shoals, and is of diffi-
 cult navigation.
  California, New;  a province of Mex-
 ico, on the coast of the N. Pacific ocean,
 called, by captain Vancouver, New Albion.
 It lies north of the peninsula, which  is
 called Old California, and is 600 mUes
 long, and only 30 broad.  Square leagues,
2,125.  Montery is the capital.  There is
not any countiy in the world which more
abounds in fish and game  of every de-
 scription.  Hares,  rabbits  and stags  are
 very common here;. seals and otters are
 also found in prodigious numbers.  To
 the northward, and during the winter, the
 inhabitants lull a  very great number of
 foxes, bears, wolves and wildcats.  The
 land possesses, also, great fertility; farina-
 ceous roots and seeds of all kinds abun-
 dantly prosper here.  The crops of maize,
 barley, corn and peas cannot be equalled
 but by those of ChUi.  European cultiva-
 tors can have no conception of a  sinular
 fertility. The medium produce of corn is
 from 70 to 80 for 1;  the extremes, 60 and
 100.   The population, in 1802, including
 Indians  who  had settled and begun to
 cultivate fields, was 15,562.
   California, Old; a province of Mex-
 ico, comprising a peninsula in die Pacific
 ocean, united, on the north, to the conti-
 nent of North America, from which  the
 other  part is separated by a narrow sea,
 called the gulf of California, and bounded
 S. and W. by the Pacific ocean; near 900
 mUes  in length, and, in different  places,
 30, 60, 90, and 120 miles wide.  A chain
 of mountains extends through the penin-
 sula, of which the  greatest height is from
 4500 to  4900 feet above the sea.  This
 peninsula is said to have been discovered
 by sir Francis Drake, and by him called
 New Albion; and  the gulf of California
 has been sometimes called the Vermilion
 sea, or Purple sea, or Red sea.  In a pen-
 insula of so great an extent, which reaches
 nearly from 23° to 34° N. lat, the soil and
 cUmate must naturally be found to vary.
 Some  parts are continually covered with
 flowers, but the greater part is wild,, rag-
 ged  and barren, overrun with rocks and
 sand, and destitute of water.   From cape
 St. Lucas  to the  Colorado, nearly 200
 leagues,  only two  streams run into the
 gulf of California.  Population, in  1803,
 9000.  The principal places are  Santa
 Maria, St. Ignatio, St  Isidore, Loreto,
 St. Estevan, St Xavier, St. Yogo, Rosa-
 lie, St. Juan Guadalupe and St Joseph.
  Caligula, Caius Caesar Augustus Ger-
 manicus, son of Germanicus and Agrip-
 pina, was born,  A. D. 12, in the  camp,
 probably in Germany, and  brought  up
 among the  legions.  Here he received,
 from die  soldiers, the surname of C, on
 account of his wearing the caliga, a kind
 of Uttle boots in  use among them.  He
 understood so well  how to insinuate him-
self into the good graces of Tiberius, that
he not  only escaped the cruel fete of his
parents and brothers and sisters, but was
even loaded with honors.  Whether, as
some writers inform us, he removed Ti- 
406
CALIGULA.
berius out of the way by slow poison, is
uncertain.  When the latter was about to
die, he appointed,accordingto Suetonius,
C. and the son of Drusus, Tiberius Nero,
heirs of the empire.  But C, universally
beloved  for the sake of his father, Ger-
manicus, was able, without difficulty, to
obtain  sole  possession  of the throne.
Rome received him joyfuUy, and the dis-
tant provinces echoed his welcome.  His
first actions, also, were  just and  noble.
He interred, in the most  honorable  man-
ner, the  remains of his mother and of his
brother Nero, set free all state-prisoners,
recalled  the  banished,  and forbade all
prosecutions for treason.  He  conferred
on the magistrates free and independent
power.   Although the wffl of Tiberius
had been declared, by the senate, to be
null and void, he fulfilled every article of
it, with the exception only of that above-
mentioned.  When he was chosen con-
sul, he  took  his  uncle  Claudius  as his
colleague.  Thus he distinguished the
first eight months of his reign by many
magnanimous actions, when he fell sick.
After his  recovery,  by a most  unex-
  Eected  alteration, he suddenly showed
  imself the most cruel and unnatural of
tyrants.   The most exquisite tortures
served him for enjoyments.  During his
meals, he caused criminals, and even in-
nocent  persons, to be stretched on the
rack and beheaded:  the most respectable
persons  were daUy  executed.   In the
madness of his anogance, he  even con-
sidered  himself a god, and caused the
honors  to be paid to him which were
paid to  Apollo, to Mars,  and even  to Ju-
piter.  He also showed himself in  public
with the attributes of Venus and of other
goddesses. He built a temple to his own
divinity.  At one time, he wished that
the whole Roman people had but one
head, that he might be able to cut it off at
one blow.  He frequently repeated the
words of an  old poet, Oderint dum metu-
ant.  One of his greatest  follies was the
building of a bridge between  Baiae and
Puteoli (PuzzuoU).   He himself conse-
crated  this strange  structure with great
splendor; and, after he had passed the
night following in a revel with his friends,
in order to do something extraordinary
before his departure, he caused a crowd
of persons, without distinction of age,
rank  and character, to be seized, and
thrown into the sea. On his  return, he
entered Rome in triumph, because, as he
said,  he had conquered  nature herself.
 After this, he made preparations for an
expedition against the  Germans, passed,
with more than 200,000 men, over the
Rhine, but returned after he had travelled
a few miles, and that without having seen
an enemy.  Such was  his  tenor, that,
when he came to the river, and found the
bridge obstructed by the  crowd  upon
it, he caused himself to be passed over
the heads of the soldiers.  He dien went
to Gaul, which he plundered with unex-
ampled rapacity.   Not content with the
considerable booty thus obtained, he sold
all the property of both his sisters, Agrip-
pina and Livilla, whom he banished. He
also  sold the furniture of the  old court,
the clothes of Marcus Antoninus, of Au-
gustus, Agrippina, &c.   Before he left
Gaul, he declared  his intention of going
to Britain.  He coUected his army on the
coast, embarked in a magnificent galley,
but returned when he had hardly left the
land, drew up his forces, ordered the sig-
nal for battle  to be sounded,  and com-
manded the soldiers to  fill their  pockets
and  helmets with  shells, while he cried
out, " This booty, ravished from  the sea,
is fit  for my palace  and  the capitol!"
When he returned to Rome, he  was de-
sirous of a triumph  on  account of  his
achievements, but contented himself with
an ovation. Discontented with the sen-
ate,  he resolved  to destroy the greater
part of the members, and the most dis-
tinguished men of Rome.  This is proved
by two books, which were found after his
death, wherein the names of the pro-
scribed were noted down, and of which
one  was entitled  Gladius (Sword), and
the other Pugillus (Dagger). He became
reconciled to the  senate  again when he
found  it worthy of him.  He  supported
public brothels and gaming-houses, and
received himself the entrance-money of
the visitors. His horse, named Inritatus,
was  his favorite.   This  animal had a
house and a servant, and was fed from
marble and gold.   C. had caused him to
be admitted into the college of his priests,
and was desirous of making him a consul
also.   He even had the intention of de-
stroying the poems of Homer, and was
on the point of removing the works and
images of Virgil and Livy from all libra-
ries: those of die former, because he was
destitute of genius and  learning;  those
of the latter,  because he was not to be
depended upon as a historian.  C.'s mor-
als were, from his youth upward,  corrupt;
he had committed incest with all his sis-
ters.  After he had married and repudi-
 ated several wives,  Caesonia  retained  a
 permanent hold  on  his  affections.   A
 number of conspirators, at the  head of 
CALIGULA—CALIPH.                       407
 whom were Chserea and  CorneUus Sa-
 binus, both tribunes of the pretorian co-
 norts, murdered him in the 29th year of
 his life, and  the fourth of his tyrannical
 reign (from A. D. 37 to 41).
  Caliph (i. e., vicegerent) is the name
 assumed by the successors of Mohammed,
 in the government of the faithful and in
 the high priesthood.  Caliphate is, there-
 fore, the name given, by historians, to the
 empire of these princes which the Arabs
 founded in Asia, and, impelled by religious
 enthusiasm, enlarged, within a few centu-
 ries, to a dominion far superior in extent
 to the' Roman empire. Mohammed (q. v.),
 in the character of the prophet of God,
 made himself the  spiritual and temporal
 ruler  of his people.  After the death of
 the prophet, the election of a successor
 occasioned considerable excitement  Ab-
 dallah Ebn Abu Koafas, called Abubeker,
 i. e.,  father of the virgin  (because his
 daughter Ayesha was the only one ofthe
 wives of Mohammed, whom he had mar-
 ried when a virgin), obtained the victory
 over  AU,  the  cousin and  son-in-law of
 Mohammed, and became the first caliph,
 A. D. 632 (year of the Hegira 11).   Victo-
 rious over aU enemies, by the aid of his
 general, the brave Caled, he began, as the
 Koran directs, to spread the doctrines of
 Mohammed by anns among the neighbor-
ing nations.  With the watch-word  con-
version or tribute, a numerous army, con-
sisting entirely of volunteers, inspired with
 zeal for the holy war, penetrated first into
 Syria.  Conquerors hi the first battle, they
 were subsequently several times defeated
 by the Greeks; but, having once acquired
 a strong  footing in the country  by the
 treacherous sunender of Bosra, they un-
 dertook, under Caled, the siege of Damas-
 cus, and,  having repulsed two large ar-
 mies,  sent by  the  emperor Heraclius to
 the reUef of the city, they obtained pos-
session of it  by a capitulation (A. D. 633,
ofthe Hegira 12), the terms of which were
perfidiously broken, Caled  pursuing  and
slaughtering the   retreating  Christians.
Abubeker died after he had filled the place
ofthe prophet two years and four months.
 By  his will, Omar, another father-in-law
ofthe prophet, became second caliph. He
 intrusted the command ofthe army ofthe
 faithful to the  humane Obeidah,  instead
 of Caled, and completed, by his  means,
 though not without a brave resistance on
 the part ofthe  Greeks, the subjugation of
 Syria (A. D. 638, of the Hegira 17).  Je-
 rusalem having been compeUed to surren-
 der (A. D. 636, Heg. 15), Omar proceeded
 thither in person to fix the terms of capit-
ulation, which have subsequently served
as a model in settling die relations of the
Moslems to the subject Christians. These
terms were carefully observed by the con-
scientious caliph. Equally successful was
another general, Amrou, in Egypt, which
was subjected to the caUphate in two
years (640).  Omar was the first who bore
the  appellation of emtr al moumenin (prince
of the  faithful)—a tide inherited by aU
succeeding caliphs,  and perverted into
miramolin by  the ignorant  Europeans.
After the murder of Omar by a revenge-
ful  slave (A. D. 643, Heg. 23), a council,
appointed  by him on his death-bed, chose
Osman, or  Othman, son-in-law of the
prophet, passing over AU.  Under him, the
empire ofthe Arabs  soon attained a won-
derful magnitude.  In the East, their arms
spread the doctrines ofthe Koran through
Persia.  At the same time, they advanced
along the northern coast of Africa, as far
as Ceuta.  Cyprus,  too (A. D. 647), and
Rhodes (A. D. 654) were conquered; but
the   former  was lost again two  years
after.  Thus Alexandria and all Egypt
were a second time, though not without
difficulty, torn from the Greeks, who had
regained their power there by the aid of
the  natives.  These reverses were caused
by the  measures of Othman, who, far in-
ferior to Omar in wisdom, intrusted the
provinces, not to the most capable,  but to
his  favorites.  The  dissatisfaction thus
excited occasioned a general insurrection
in the year 654 (Heg. 34), which terminat-
ed in his death.  AU, the son-in-law of the
prophet by  Fatima,  became the  fourth
caliph, by the choice of the people of
Medina, and  is regarded as the first legiti-
mate possessor ofthe dignity, by a numer-
ous sect of Mohammedans, which gives
him and his son Hassan almost equal hon-
or with the prophet.   This beUef prevails
among the Persians; whence arises the
hatred  in  which they are  held by the
Turks.  Instead of being able to  continue
the  conquests of his predecessors, AU al-
ways had to  contend with domestic ene-
mies.  Among these was  Ayesha, the
widow of the prophet, caUed the mother
of the faithful; also Tellah, Zobeir, and
especially  the powerful Moawiyah, gov-
eraor of Syria, who all laid claim to the
government  These were able to  create
suspicion,  and spread the report that AU
had instigated the murder of Othman.
In  vain did  he endeavor to repress the
machinations of his enemies, by intrust-
ing the government of  the provinces
to his  friends.  Nowhere were  the new
governors  received.  The  discontented 
408
CALIPH.
 collected an army, and made themselves
 masters  of Bassora.  AU defeated it, and
 TeUah and Zobeir fell;  but he could not
 prevent  Moawiyah and his friend Amrou
 from extending their party, and main-
 taining themselves in Syria, Egypt, and
i :ven in a part of Arabia.  Three men of
 the  sect  of the Khoregites proposed to
 restore concord among  the faithful, by
 slaying each one ofthe three heads of the
parties, AU,  Moawiyah and Amrou;  but
 Ali  only fell (A. D.  660, Heg.  40).   He
 was a man  of a cultivated mind.  The
 celebrated moral maxims, and the Giafa,
 as it was termed, are the most famous of
 his  works.  His son, the mild, peaceful
 Hassan, had no desire to defend the ca-
 liphate against the indefatigable Moawi-
 yah ; but vainly did he hope to obtain
 security  by  a solemn abdication of the
 government   He perished  by poison,
 said to  have  been  administered at  the
instigation of Moawiyah.   Moawiyah  I
 transferred the seat of the caUphate from
 the city of the prophet, Medina, where it
 had hitherto always  been, to Damascus,
in the province of which he had formerly
been governor (A. D.  673, Heg. 54). With
him begins the series of the caliphs called
 Omrniades, which name  this family bore
from Moawiyah's progenitor, Ommiyah.
 Not long after his  accession,  he  was
obliged to quell an  insurrection of  the
 Khoregites by a campaign, and a rebellion
at Bassora by  severe punishments.   He
then seriously meditated  the entire sub-
version of the Byzantine empire, (q. v.)
His  son Jezid marched through Asia Mi-
nor, meeting but little resistance; then
crossed the  Hellespont, and laid siege to
Constantinople, but was obliged to raise it
(A. D. 669, Heg. 49).  His general Obei-
dah was more successful against the Turks
in Chorasan: he defeated them, and pen-
etrated almost into Turkestan (A. D. 673,
Heg. 54). His son Jezid  was not alto-
gether a  worthy successor of the politic
Moawiyah (A. D. 679, Heg. 60).   At first,
he was not  acknowledged by  the  two
holy cities, Mecca and Medina, which, as
long as the caliphs had resided in the lat-
ter city, had enjoyed  a principal voice in
their election, but which had not been
consulted when Moawiyah, according to
the custom of the caliphs, appointed  his
successor in his Ufe-time.   The discon-
tented espoused the cause, either of Hous-
sain, the  famous son  of AU, or of Abdal-
lali, Zobeir's  son, both of whom laid claim
to the crown.  A rebeUion ofthe inhabit-
ants of Irak, in favor of Houssain, led by
Moslem  and  Hanni,  was suppressed by
the prudence and decision of Obeidallah,
governor of Cufe; and Houssain, who had
accepted the invitation ofthe conspirators,
was killed (A. D. 680, Heg. 61),  to the
great dissatisfaction of the caliph, who
sought to make reparation by acts of be-
neficence towards the children of Hous-
sain.  Abdallah  Ebn  Zobeir was recog-
nised as caliph in Medina, where Jezid
was detested for his voluptuousness and
scepticism.  On this account, Medina was
invested, stormed and sacked; but Hous-
sain's family, residing there, was spared,
at the express command of the  caliph.
After Jezid's death (A. D. 683, Heg. 64),
his son,  Moawiyah II, a  pious youth of
the sect ofthe Motagelites (who rejected
the fanaticism of the other Mohamme-
dans), voluntarily resigned the caliphate,
after a reign of a few months. As he hod
chosen no successor,  anarchy prevailed
Obeidallah, goveraor  of  Irak,  sought  to
found a  distinct empire  in Bassora, but
was soon driven  out  by  the inhabitants
themselves, who now, as  well as all Irak,
Hegiaz, Yemen and Egypt, acknowledged
Abdallah Ebn Zobeir as caliph. In Syria,
Dehac, regent to Abdallah,  was at  first
chosen caliph; but the people of Damas-
cus appointed Merwan I,  of the race of
the Omrniades, caliph, who made himself
master of all Syria and Egypt  Chorasan
separated from the caliphate, and submit-
ted to a prince of its own choosing—the
noble Salem.  In the following year (A. D.
684, Heg. 65), Soliman Ebn Sarad excited
a great rebellion of the discontented  in
Syria and Arabia, and pronounced Loth
caliphs deposed, but was defeated  by the
experienced soldier Obeidallah.  Merwan
had been compelled to promise, on oath,
to leave the caliphate to Caled, the son of
Jezid; yet he nominated his son Abdalme-
lek as his successor.  Under him (A. D.
684, Heg. 65), Mokthar,   a new rebel
against both caliphs, was subdued by one
of them, Abdallah (A. D  686, Heg. 67);
but this only made Abdallah more formi-
dable to Abdalmelek, who, in order to be
able to direct  all his forces against him,
concluded a peace with the Greek empe-
ror, Justinian II, in which, reversing the
order of the Koran, he conceded  to the
Christians a yearly tribute of 50,000 pieces
of gold.  He then marched against Ab-
dallah, defeated him twice, and took Mec-
ca by assault.  In this last conflict, Ab-
dallah  fell.  Thus he united under his
dominion all  the  Mussulmans; but  the
resistance ofthe governors—the curse of
all despotisms, and the symptom of the
future dissolution  of the caUphate—kept 
CALIPH.                              409
him  constantly occupied.   He  was the
first caliph that caused money to be coin-
ed.  He died A. D^705 (Heg. 86). Under
Walid I, his son, the Arabs conquered, in
the East, Charasm and Turkestan (A. D.
707, Heg. 88); in the North, Galatia (A. D.
710); and, in the West, Spain (A.D.711).
(See Spain).   He died in 716 (Heg. 97).
His brother and successor besieged Con-
stantinople, but his fleet was twice de-
stroyed  by tempests and the Greek  fire.
On the other hand, he conquered Georgia.
He died 718 (Heg. 99). Omar II, his suc-
cessor by Soliman's last will, incuned the
displeasure of the  Omrniades by his in-
dulgence towards the sect of Ali, and was
poisoned by them (A. D. 721, Heg. 102).
Jezid II, his successor, also, by the dispo-
sition of Soliman, died of grief for the loss
of a female favorite, of whose  death he
was the author (A. D. 723, Heg. 104.)  The
AUde Zcid, grandson of Houssain, now
contested the  caliphate with his brother
Hescham.  He was indeed overpowered,
and put to death ; but another house, the
Abbassides, descendants of Abbas, son of
Abdalmotaleh, uncle of the prophet, be-
gan  to  be  fonnidable.   Under Hescham,
an end was put to the progress of the
Saracens in the West, by  the energy of
Charles Martel, who annihilated tlieir ar-
mies at Tours in 732, and at Narbonne in
736.  The voluptuous Walid II was mur-
dered after a reign of one year (A. D. 743,
Heg. 124).  After the equally brief reigns
of Jezid III, and of the Abbasside, Ibra-
him, Merwan  II followed, with the sur-
name (respectable among the  Arabs) of
the Ass (al Hemar).   Ibrahim, being de-
throned and  imprisoned by this  prince,
appointed his brother Abul Abbas his suc-
cessor,  and was, shortly after,  murdered
ill prison.  Abdallah, Abul Abbas's uncle,
now took up arms against the caliph, who
was, at that time, fully occupied by a dan-
gerous  rebellion in Persia.  Merwan was
twice defeated, and  fell (A. D. 752, Heg.
133).  With him terminates the series  of
caliphs of the race of Ommiyah.   The
furious Abdallah treacherously destroyed
almost  all  the Omrniades, by  a horrible
massacre at a meeting where  they were
all  assembled.  Two only  escaped.  Ab-
deromes fled to Spain, where he founded
the independent caliphate of Cordova (see
Spain); another to  a coiner  of Arabia,
where  he  was acknowledged  as caliph,
and his posterity reigned tiU the 16th cen-
tury.  Abul Abbas, although mnocent of
that cruel action, which secured him the
throne, derived from it the name of Saffah
(the Bloody).  He died very soon, 18 years
   vol. ii.          35
of age, of the smaU-pox (A. D. 753, Heg.
134).  His brother, Abu Giafar, called al
Mansor (the Victorious), was obUged to
contend with a rival in his own  uncle,
Abdallah, whom he, however, overcame.
His avarice made him  many enemies,
whom he succeeded in suppressing by his
perfidious cunning.  He acquired his sur-
name by his victories in Armenia, Cilicia
and Cappadocia.  In the year 764 (Heg.
145), he founded the city of Bagdad on the
Tigris, and transferred thither the seat of
the caliphate  (A. D. 768, Heg. 149).  He
died on a pilgrimage to Mecca,  leaving
immense treasures (A. D. 775, Heg. 156).
Mahadi, his son and successor, a man of
a  noble character, had to contend with
the turbulent inhabitants  of  Chorasan,
under the pretended prophet Hakem, and
died A. D. 785 (Heg. 166); and Hadi, his
grandson, met with the same opposition
from the Ali party, under Houssain, Ali's
great-grandson.  Hadi caused  the Zen-
dists to be exterminated—a sect adhering
to the doctrine of two principles of nature.
According  to the usual order of succes-
sion, and  Mahadi's provision, Hadi was
followed, not by his son, but by his broth-
er Harun (A. D. 786, Heg. 167), who was
denominated al Raschid, on account of
his justice, and is famous for promoting
the arts and sciences.  He concluded a
truce  (an  actual  peace could never be
made  with Christians) with  the Greek
empress Irene  (788, Heg. 169), who con-
sented to pay him tribute.  Jahir, an Alide,
disputed with him the  possession of the
throne, but subsequently submitted.  Ha-
run, however, tarnished his reputation by
the murder of Jahir, and still more by
the murder of his  sister Abbassah, and
her favorite, the  Barmecide Giafar, and
by the  expulsion  and persecution of tlie
whole family of  the Barmecides, whose
services to the state and himself had been
of very great value.  Harun divided the
empire among  his three sons.  Al Amin,
as sole caliph, was to reign over Irak,
Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and the rest of Afri-
ca : under him, Al Mamun was to govern
 Persia, Turkestan,  Chorasan, and  the
 whole  East; and Motassem was  to rule
 Asia Minor,  Armenia, and all the coun-
 tries  on the Black sea.  The younger
 brothers were  to succeed Amin in the
 caliphate.  At Thus, in Chorasan, through
 which Harun  was passing, in order to
 quell  a rebeUion that had broken out in
 Samarcand, he was arrested  by death, of
 which he  had been forewarned by won-
 derful dreams  (A. D. 809, Heg. 190). Al
 Amin the Faithful (his proper name was 
410
CALIPH.
 Mohammed) was undeserving of this name.
 Untrue to his obligations as a ruler, and
 addicted to aU kinds of sensuality, he left
 the discharge of his duties to his vizier,
 Fadhel.   The vizier, from hatred of Ma-
 mun, persuaded the caliph to appoint his
 son his successor, and deprive  Motassem
 of his portion of tenitory.  A  war arose
 between the brothers.  Mamun's general,
 Thaher, defeated the armies of the caliph,
 took Bagdad, and caused Amin to be put
 to death (A. D. 813, Heg. 194). Mamun
 was recognised as caliph.  Nobler in his
 inclinations than Amin, he cherished the
 arts and sciences; but,like his brother, he
 left  the government and armies  to his
 ministers.   His measures to secure the
 caliphate to the Alides, in order to please
 Riza, his  favorite, excited the powerful
 Abbassidos to an insurrection.  They de-
 clared Mamun to have forfeited the throne,
 and proclaimed Ibrahim caUph, but sub-
 mitted again,  after  the death of Riza,
 when the  caliph had changed  his senti-
 ments.  The  vast empire of the  Arabs,
 embracing numberless  provinces in two
 quarters of the globe,  could  hardly be
 held under his sceptre.  There is but one
 step, and that an easy one, under a weak
 sovereign, from a viceroyalty to a king-
 dom. The wisdom ofthe former Abbas-
 sides could only retard this evil; the faults
 of the latter precipitated it.  Even under
 Harun  al  Raschid,  the Agladides  had
 founded an independent empire in Tunis
 (A. D. 800, Heg. 181), as had likewise the
 Edrisides in Fez.   Thaher, having been
 appointed  governor of Chorasan, made
 himself independent  From  him  the
 Thaherides derived their origin.  Maniun
 sent Thomas, a Greek exile, with an army
 against the Greek emperor, Michael If,
 the Stammerer.   Thomas  depopulated
 Asia Minor, and laid  siege to Constanti-
 nople ;  but a storm  destroyed his fleet
 (A. D. 823, Heg. 207).  A second  attack
on the imperial  city was repelled by the
aid of the Bulgarians. Thomas was taken
prisoner, and executed.  Towards the ma-
ny reUgious sects, into which the Mussul-
mans were then divided, Mamun acted
with toleration.  He died A. D. 833 (Heg.
218). During his government (about 830,
 Heg. 215), the African Arabs conquered
 Sicily and  Sardinia, where they maintain-
 ed themselves about 200 years, till the
 former island was torn from them by the
 Norman's, in 1035, and the latter island by
 the Pisans, in 1051.  Motassem,  at  first
 named Billah (by the grace of God), Ha-
 run's third son, built a new city, Samara,
 56  miles  from  Bagdad, and transferred
 thither his residence.  In his wars against
 the  Greeks and  rebellious Persians, he
 first used Turkish soldiers.   From grief
 at the death of his private physician, Mo-
 tassem became  insane, and  died A. D.
 842, Heg.  227.  Vathek Billah, his son,
 member of the  Motazelite sect, exerted
 himself to promote the advancement of
 science; but he was an enervated volup-
 tuary, and died of nervous weakness (A. D.
 846, Heg. 232).   A contest for the succes-
 sion, between his brother Motawackel and
 his son Mothadi, was decided by the al-
 ready  powerful  and  anogant Turkish
 body-guard in favor of the most unworthy
 competitor, the  former.  Under  Mota-
 wackel, it became more and more custom-
 ary  to cany on  all  wars by means of
 Turkish  mercenaries.   Thus the  Arabs
 were rendered unwarlike and effeminate,
 as must necessarily be the case, in a hot
 climate, with those who do not live in
 constant activity.  Motawackel manifested
 a blind hatred of the Alides, not sparing
 even the memory of the deceased.  He
 moreover evinced a malignant  spirit, and
 a proneness to sensuality and cruelty.  His
 own son, Montassar, educated in the in-
 dulgence of both these vices, and often
 barbarously  treated  by him,  conspired
 against him with the Turkish body-guards,
 and effected his murder  (A. D. 861, Heg.
 247).  The Turks, who now arrogated the
 right of electing the caliphs, called the
 murderer to the throne ofthe faithful, and
 compelled his brothers, who were inno-
 cent of the atrocious act, and whose re-
 venge they feared, to renounce the  suc-
 cession  which  had  been designed for
 them by Motawackel.   Montasser  died,
 soon after, of a fever, caused bv the goad-
ings  of remorse  (A. D. 862, *Heg.  248).
The  Turks then elected Mostain Billah,
a grandson ofthe caliph Motassem.  Two
of the Alides became  competitors with
 him  for the caliphate.   One of them, at
Cufa, was defeated and put to death; but
the other founded an independent empire
in Tabristan, which subsisted half a cen-
tury.  The discord ofthe Turkish soldiers
 completed  the  dismemberment of  the
empire.  One party raised to the throne
Motaz, second son of Motawackel,  and
 compelled Mostain to abdicate.  Motaz
 Billah soon found means to get rid of him,
 as weU as of his  own brother, Muwiad.
 He then meditated the  removal  of the
 Turkish soldiers; but, before  he  found
 courage to  execute his projects, they re-
 belled on account of their pay being in ar-
 rear, and forced him to resign the govern-
 ment  He soon after died (A. D. 869, Heg. 
CALIPH.
411
 255).  They confened the caliphate on
 Mohadi Billah, son of the caliph Vathek,
 but deposed this excellent prince, eleven
 months after, because be attempted to im-
 prove their military discipline.  Under Mo-
 tawackel's third  son, the sensual Motam-
 ed Billah, whom they next called to the ca-
 liphate, his prudent and courageous fourth
 brother, Muaffek, succeeded in overcom-
 ing the dangerous preponderance of these
 Turks.  Motamed transferred the seat of
 the caliphate from Samara back to Bag-
 dad, in the year  873 (Heg. 259),  where it
 afterwards continued. In the same year,
 owing to a revolution in the independent
 government of Chorasan, the  dynasty of
 the Thaherides gave  place to that of the
 Soffarides, who, eventually, extended their
 dominion over Tabristan and Segestan.
 The governor of Egypt and Syria, Ach-
 met Ben Tulun,  also made himself inde-
 pendent (A. D. 877, Heg. 263), from whom
 are descended the Tulunides.  The brave
 Muaffek annihilated, indeed, the empire
 ofthe Zinghians, in Cufa and Bassora, 10
 years after its formation (A. D. 881, Heg.
268); but he was unable to save the ca-
liphate from the rain to which it was con-
tinually hastening.  Motamed died soon
after him (A. D. 892,  Heg. 279),  and was
succeeded by Muaffek's son, Mothadad
Billah. He contended unsuccessfully with
anewsectdiathad arisen in Irak—theCar-
mathians (A. D. 899,  Heg. 286)—against
whom his son, Moktaphi Billah (A. D. 902,
Heg. 289), was more  fortunate.  He was
still more successful in a war against the
Tulunides, as he again  reduced  Egypt
 and Syria, in 905 (Heg. 292).  Under his
 brother, Moktadar Billah, who succeeded
 him  at  the age of 13 years (A. D.  909,
 Heg. 296), rebelUons and bloody  quarrels
about the sovereignty disturbed the gov-
 ernment of the empire.  He was several
times deposed and reinstated, and  finally
murdered (A. D.  931, Heg. 319).   During
his reign, Abu  Mohammed Obeidallah
rose in Africa, who, pretending to be de-
scended  from  Fatima, daughter of the
prophet (therefore from Ali),  overthrew
the dynasty ofthe Agladides in Tunis, and
founded that ofthe Fatimites (A. D.  910,
Heg. 298).   Not satisfied with  reigning
independent of the caliph, this  party, as
descendants of the prophet, asserted them-
selves  to be  the only lawful  caliphs.
Shortly afterwards,  the  dynasty of the
 Bouides, in  Persia, rose to authority and
power (A. D. 925, Heg. 315).  Chorasan
was stiU independent.  The only change
 was, that the Samanides had taken the
place of the Soffarides. In a part of Ara-
bia the heretic Carmathians ruled; in Mes-
opotamia, the  Hamadamites.  In Egypt,
which had just been recovered, Akschid,
from a governor, was called to be a sove-
reign.  From him descended the Akschi-
dites. Kaher Billah, Mothadad's third son,
merited his fate, on account of his malice
and cruelty. The Turkish soldiers, having
recovered their power, drove him from
the throne into exile (A. D. 934, Heg. 322),
in which he perished five years after-
wards.  Rhadi  Billah, his brother, bore
the dignity of an emir al omra (captain of
the captains), with which the exercise of
absolute power, in the name ofthe caliph,
was united; and dius the caliph was more
and more thrown into the back-ground.
The first who was  invested with this
dignity was Raik; but it  was soon torn
from him by the Turk Jakan, by force of
arms, in the year 939 (Heg. 327).  Jakan
extended the power of the office to such
a degree as to leave the caliph nothing but
the name of his temporal sway, and even
assumed the right of determining the suc-
cession to the throne.  Raik was indem-
nified by receiving Cufa, Bassora and
Irak  Arabi, as  on independent  govern-
ment  The next caliph, Motaki  BiUab,
Moktader's son, made an effort to regain
his independence by the murder of Ja-
kun;  but he was soon compelled, by the
Turkish soldiers, to appoint  Tozun, an-
other of their  countrymen,  emir,  who
made this office hereditary.  He formally
devised it to a certain Schirzad, but it soon
came into the possession of the Persian
royal house of the Bouides, whose aid the
succeeding caliph, Mostaki Billah, solicit-
ed against the tyranny of Schirzad.   The
first Bouide emir, Moezeddulat, left it as
an inheritance to his posterity.   Not the
caliph, but the emir, now reigned in Bag-
dad,  though over only a small territory.
In eveiy  remote  province, there were
independent princes.  To continue  the
catalogue  of the names  of those  who
were  henceforward caliphs, would  be
superfluous, for these Mussulman popes
had not by any means the power of the
Christian.  It would be too tedious to
pursue the branches into which the histo-
ry of the caliphate is now divided;  but
we must briefly show the great changes
which the different states and their dynas-
ties have undergone, and which gave rise
to the dominion of the Ottoman Porte.
During  the minority of the Akschidite
Ali, the Fatimite Morz Ledinillah, at that
time caliph in Tunis,  subjugated Egypt
in 969 (Heg. 358), and  founded Cairo,
which he made the seat of his caliphate. 
412
CALIPH—CALIXTINS.
There were, consequently, at this time,
three caliphs—at Bagdad, Cairo and Cor-
dova—each of which declared the others
heretics.  But the Fatimites, as well as
the Abbassides,  fell under the power of
their viziers, and, Uke them,  the Omrni-
ades in Cordova  were deprived of all
power  by the division of Spain into ma-
ny small  sovereignties, till they were en-
tirely subverted  by the Morabethun.  (See
Spain.)  Ukan, king of Turkestan, having
conquered Chorasan, and overthrown the
Samanides, was expelled again by Mach-
mud, prince of Gazna, who founded there
the dominion of the Gaznevides, in 998
(Heg.388), who were soon, however, over-
thrown in turn by the Seldjook Turks,
under Togral Beg, in  1030 (Heg. 421).
This leader conquered also Charosm,
Georgia, and the Persian Irak.  Called to
the assistance ofthe caliph Kajem Beme-
illah, at Bagdad, against the tyranny of
the Bouide emirs,  he proceeded to Bag-
dad, and became  emir  himself  in  1055
(Heg. 448), by which means the dominion
of the Turks was firmly estabUshed over
all  the Mussulmans.   To  his  nephew,
Alp Arslan (who defeated and took pris-
oner the  Greek emperor Romanus Dioge-
nes), he  left this  dignity, with  so great
power, that these  Turkish emirs al omra
were frequently called the sultans of Bag-
dad.  Turkish princes, who aspired to be
sovereigns  in the other provinces, were,
at first, satisfied with the title of atabek
(father, teacher), such as the atabeks of
Irak and Syria, of Adherbidschan, Far-
sistan (Persis) and Laristan.  It was the
atabeks of Syria  and Irak,  with whom
the crusaders had principally to contend.
The first was called Omadeddin Zenghi;
by the Franks, Sanguin.  They  were af-
terwards termed sultans.  The caUph of
Bagdad was recognised by all as the spir-
itual sovereign  of all Mussulmans:  his
temporal authority did not extend beyond
the walls of Bagdad.  Noureddin, Zen-
ghi's son, being requested, by the Fatimite
caUph Adhed, to protect Bagdad against
his vizier, sent to Cairo, in succession, the
Curds, Schirkueh and Salaheddin or Sa-
ladin;  but the  latter overthrew the Fati-
mites (asschismatic anti-popes), and usurp-
ed the authority of sultan  of Egypt in
1170 (Heg. 556), with which he united
Syria,  after Noureddin's death.  This is
the great Salaheddin (Saladin),the formi-
dable enemy of the Christians,  the con-
queror of Jerusalem. The dynasty which
commenced with him  was called, from
his father, Ayoub, the  Ayoubites.  They
reigned over Egypt tiff expelled by  the
Mamelukes in 1250.  The Seldjook sul-
tans  of Irak  were overthrown,  in 1194
(Heg. 590), by the Charasmians; and, as
those of Chorasan were extinct, there re-
mained of the Seldjook dominions noth-
ing but the empire of Iconium or Roum,
in Asia Minor, from which the present
Turkish empire derives its origin.  (See
Ottoman Empire.) The Charasmian sul-
tans  extended their  conquests  far into
Asia, until their territories were invaded
by the  Tartars, under Zenghis Khan, in
1220 (Heg. 617).  They were finally totaUy
destroyed by his son Octai. Bagdad, also,
the remains of the possessions of the ca-
liphs, became the easy prey of a Mongul
horde, under Holagou, in 1258  (Heg. 636),
by the treachery of the  vizier al Kami,
and  a  slave, Amram, under the 56th ca-
liph, Motazem.  The nephew  of the cru-
elly-murdered Motazem  fled  to Egypt,
where  he continued  to be called caliph,
under  the protection of the Mamelukes,
and  bequeathed the Mohammedan pope-
dom  to his posterity.  When  the Turks
conquered Egypt, in  1517, the last  of
these nominal  caliphs was  carried  to
Constantinople, and died, after returning
to Egypt, in 1538.  The Turkish sultans
subsequently  assumed the title of caliph,
and the padishah or grand sign or at Con-
stantinople retains it  to the present day,
with the  claim  of  spiritual supremacy
over all Mussulmans, though  this claim
is Uttle regarded out of his own domin-
ions, and strongly disputed by the Per-
sians.
  Calixtins, or UTRAquisTS ; a sect  of
the Hussites  in  Bohemia, who differed
from the Catholics principally in giving
the cup in the Lord's supper  to laymen.
(See Hussites.)  Under George of Podie-
brad, from 1450 to 1471, who declared
himself for them, the C. obtained the as-
cendency.  Under Wladislaw, they main-
tained  their religious Uberties, and, from
the  time of the  reformation in  the 16th
century, shared the  doctrines  as well as
the fate of the Protestants in Bohemia
Their  refusal  to fight against their own
sect  in the Smalkaldian war, at first drew
upon them severe persecutions;  but Fer-
dinand I, though unfavorable  to them in
other respects, permitted  them to partici-
pate in the advantages  of the  reUgious
peace of 1556 with  his other Protestant
subjects, and the excellent MaximiUan II
granted them  perfect liberty in the exer-
cise  of their reUgious beUef.   Their situ-
ation became more critical under Rodolph
II, and they found it difficult to prevail
on him pubUcly to acknowledge the Bo- 
CALIXTINS—CALIXTUS.
413
hemian confession, presented by them in
connexion with  the Bohemian Brethren
and  the Lutherans, and  to confirm the
church  government, under which they
had hitherto possessed teachers, churches
and schools of their own, and a separate
consistory at Prague.  When  Matthias
made many encroachments on the privi-
leges thus granted, the united Protestants,
under the count of Thurn, in  1617, un-
dertook to defend themselves. This final-
ly kindled the  30 years' war.  After a
short triumph   under Frederic of the
Palatinate, whom they had chosen king,
they were defeated, in 1620, near Prague,
and the Protestant cause completely over-
thrown.   Ferdinand  II- caused  many
C, Lutherans and Calvinists to be exe-
cuted  as rebels, and drove others  into
banishment; and Ferdinand III did not
extend the benefits of the peace  of West-
phalia to the Protestants  in Bohemia.
His  successors were not  more  favorably
disposed towards the Protestants; and the
edict of toleration of Joseph II, 1782, first
restored to the  Protestants in Bohemia
their religious liberty, of which they had
been  deprived   during  162 years,  and
which is enjoyed to  the  present day by
the  Calvinists  and  Lutherans, among
whom the remains of the old  C. have
been lost.
  Calixtus ; the name of several  popes.
—1.  The first was a Roman bishop from
217 to 224, when he suffered martyrdom.
—2.  Guido, son of count William of Bur-
gundy, archbishop of Vienna, and papal
legate in France, was elected, in 1119, in
the monastery of Clugny, successor of
the expelled  pope Gelasius II, who had
been driven from Italy by the  emperor
Henry V, and had died in this monastery.
He received the  tiara at Vienna.  In the
6ame year, he held councils at Toulouse
and  at  Rheims,  the latter of which was
intended to settle the protracted dispute
respecting the right  of investiture.   As
the emperor Henry V  would not confirm
an agreement which he had already made
on this subject, C. repeated anew the ex-
communication which he had pronounced
against  him  as legate, at  the council of
Vienna, in 1112. He excommunicated,
also, the anti-pope Gregory VIII, and re-
newed former decrees respecting simony,
lay investiture and the  marriage of priests.
Successful in his contest with the emperor
on the subject of investiture by means of
his alliance with  the  rebels in Germany,
in particular with the Saxons, he  made
his entrance  into Italy in  1120, and, with
great pomp, into Rome itself; took  Greg-
ory VIII prisoner, in 1121, by the aid of
the Normans, and treated him shamefuUy.
He availed himself of the troubles of the
emperor to force him, in 1122, to agree to
the concordat  of Worms.   (See  Investi-
ture and Concordat).  He died in  1124.—
C. Ill, chosen in 1168, in Rome, as anti-
pope to Paschal III, and  confirmed  by
the emperor Frederic  I,  in  1178, was
obUged to submit to pope Alexander HI.
As he was not counted among the legal
popes, a subsequent pope was called C. III.
This was a Spanish nobleman, Alphonso
Borgia, counsellor of Alphonso, king  of
Arragon and the Sicilies.   He was made
pope in 1455.  He was at this time  far
advanced in life, but equaUed in poUcy
and presumption the most enterprising
rulers of the church.  In order to appease
the displeasure of the princes and nations,
occasioned by  the  proceedings  of the
councils of Constance and Basil, he  in-
stigated them to a  crusade against the
Turks,  and  supported Scanderbeg,  for
this  purpose,  with  money  and  ships.
His intention was counteracted in Ger-
many by the discontent of the states of
the empire with the concordat of Vienna,
and in  France by the appeals of the uni-
versities  of  Paris and  Toulouse against
the tithe for  the Turkish war.  King Al-
phonso, moreover, was indignant at the
refusal of the pope to acknowledge  his
natural son Ferdinand as king of  Naples.
The Romans, also, were displeased at the
favors which he confened  on his worth-
less nephews.   After his death, in 1458,
a treasure of 115,000 ducats was found,
destined for the Turkish war.
  Calixtus (properly Callisen), George,
the most able and enlightened theologian
ofthe Lutheran church in the 17th century,
was born in  1586, at Meelby, in Holstein,
and educated at Flensborg and Helmstadt.
In 1607, in the latter university, he turn-
ed his thoughts to theology ; in 1609, vis-
ited the universities of the south of Ger-
many, in 1612, those of Holland, England
and France, where  his intercourse  with
the different religious  parties, and the
greatest scholars of his time, developed
that independence and Uberolity of opin-
ion, for  which  he  was  distinguished.
After a brilliant victory, in 1614, in a re-
ligious dispute with the Jesuit Turrianus,
he was  made professor of theology, and
died  in 1656.   His  treatises on the au-
thority  of the  Holy Scriptures, transub-
stantiation, cehbacy,  supremacy  of the
pope, and the Lord's supper, belong, even
according to the judgment  of learned
Catholics, to the most profound and acute 
414
CALIXTUS—CALLIOPE.
writings  against CathoUcism.   But his
genius, and the depth of his exegetic and
historical knowledge, exposed him to the
persecutions of the zealots of his  time.
His assertion, that the points of difference
between Calvinists and Lutherans were of
less  importance  than  the  doctrines in
which they agreed, and that the doctrine
ofthe Trinity was less distinctly express-
ed in the Old Testament than in the New,
and his recommendation of good works,
drew upon him the reproaches of crypto-
papism.  His heresy was termed Syncret-
ism, (q. v.)  The elector John  George I
of Saxony protected  him, in 1655, at the
diet  of Ratisbon, against the  Lutheran
theologians. His historical investigations
and  his  philosophical  spirit  shed new
light on  dogmatic dieology and the ex-
egesis of the Bible, and gave them a more
scientific form.   He  made Christian mo-
rality a distinct branch of science, and, by
reviving the study of the Christian fathers
and ofthe history of the church, prepared
the way for Spener, Thomasius and Sem-
ler.  He  educated his son Frederic Ulrich
Calixtus, and many other enUghtened the-
ologians.
  Calk; to drive a quantity of oakum
into  the  seams of planks, to prevent the
entrance of the water.  After the oakum
is driven in,  it is covered with melted
pitch or resin, to preserve it from the ac-
tion ofthe water.
  Calkar.  (See Calcar.)
  Calkoen, Jan  Frederic van  Beek, a
Dutch scholar and astronomer, born  1772,
at Groningen,  died  in  1811.  He was a
member  of many learned societies, pro-
fessor at Leyden,  and afterwards at U-
trecht  His Euryalus, on  Beauty, and
another work on the Time-Pieces of the
Ancients, are deserving of mention.  His
essay against the work of Dupuis, Origine
de tons les Cultes, obtained the Taylerian
prize.
  Call is the cry of a bird to its young,
or to its mate in coupling time, which, in
most instances, is a repetition of one note,
and is generally common to the cock and
hen.  Calls ore also a sort of pipes used
by fowlers to  catch birds, by imitating
their notes.  They are commonly formed
of a pipe, reed or quill, and blown by bel-
lows attached to it, or by the mouth. Hares
are also sometimes taken by a call.
  Callao ; a seaport town of Pera, on a
river of the same name, near  the Pacific
ocean.  It is the port of the city of Lima,
from which it is six miles distant.  Lon.
77° A! W.; lat. 12° 3' S.; population, about
5000.  The road is one of the most beau-
tiful, the largest and safest, in the South
sea.  Two islands, named St. Laurence
and  Callao, and  the peninsula,  which
nearly reaches them, defend vessels from
south winds: towards the west and north
is  open  sea, but the winds from these
points are never violent;  the water is al-
ways tranquil; is deep, and without rocks.
C. is the rendezvous of from 16 to 17,000
tons of shipping, 5000 of which  are  re-
served  for the  navigation of the Pacific
ocean.   The  town was  fortified  by 10
bastions and some batteries, and defended
by a garrison.   There are two fauxbourgs
inhabited by Indians.  In 1746, this town
was destroyed by an earthquake, when, of
4000 inhabitants, only 200 escaped.  Since
that time, C. has been rebuilt upon the
same plan, but  a Uttle farther from the
sea.
  Callimachus, a Greek poet and gram-
marian, born at  Cyrene, in Lybia, of a no-
ble family, flourished under the reign of
Ptolemy Philadelphus, about 250 years
before Christ  He opened, in Alexandria,
a school of grammar,  i. e., of the  belles-
lettres  and liberal sciences, and could
boast of several scholars of distinguished
attainments, such as Eratosthenes, Apol-
lonius Rhodius, Aristophanes of Byzanti-
um, &c  Ptolemy Philadelphus present-
ed him with a place in the museum, and
gave him a salary, as he did other men of
learning.  After the  death  of Philadel-
phus, he stood in equal favor with Ptole-
my  Euergetcs.   Under  these  circum-
stances, he wrote most of his works, the
number of which was very considerable.
With the exception of some  fragments,
all that we have of these  is 72 epigrams
and 6 hymns.   His poem on-the  hair of
Berenice (coma  Berenices) has been pre-
served in the Latin translation of CatuUus.
C.'s  poems bear the  stamp of their age,
which sought to supply the want of nat-
ural genius by a great ostentation of learn-
ing.  Instead of noble, simple grandeur,
they exhibit an  overcharged style,  a false
pathos,  and a straining after the singular,
the antiquated,  the learned.  His  elegies
are mentioned by the ancients with great
praise, and served Propertius as  models.
The best edition of C. is by J. A. Ernesti
(Leyden, 1761,  2 vols.), which, as well as
the edition of Graevius (Utrecht,  1697, 2
vols.), contains  Spanheim's learned com-
mentary.  Valckenaer also pubUshed Ele-
giarum Fragmenta, by this author (Ley-
den, 1799).
  Calliope; one  of the muses (q. v.);
daughter  of Jupiter and  Mnemosyne.
She presided over eloquence and heroic 
CALLIOPE—CALMAR.
415
 poetry.   She is said to have  been the
 mother of Orpheus by Apollo.  She was
 represented  with an epic poem in one
 hand, and a trumpet in the other, and
 generally crowned with laurel.
   Callisen, Henry, a physician and sur-
 geon, born in 1740, at Pentz, in Holstein,
 son of a  poor clergyman, educated  him-
 self by his own exertions, served in the
 anny  and in the fleet, afterwards in the
 hospitals  at  Copenhagen, was  made,  in
 1771,  chief surgeon in the Danish  fleet,
 and, in 1773, professor of surgery at the
 university in Copenhagen.  He wrote, in
 1777,  his Institut.  Chirurgia hodierna,
 which was received with applause by all
 Europe.  In Vienna, and at the Russian
 universities,  lectures are  given on them.
 There are also excellent essays by him in
 the medical journals.  He died at Copen-
 hagen, February 5, 1824, at the age of 84
 years.
   Callisthenes,  a  Greek  philosopher
 and historian, a native of Olynthus, was
 appointed to attend Alexander in his ex-
 pedition against Persia.  His republican
 sentiments  rendered  him  unfit  for  a
 courtier, added to which he had no small
 share  of  vanity.   But his  unpardonable
 crime  was his opposition to the assump-
 tion by that conqueror of divine honors.
 The conspiracy of Hermolaus affording a
 pretext for a charge of treason, he was
 apprehended. Historians disagree as to
 his fate; but most of them admit that he
 was for some time carried about with the
 army  in the  ignominious character  of a
 convicted traitor.  Aristotle states that he
 died of a disease  contracted under this
 treatment. Ptolemy asserts that he  was
 crucified; Justin, that he was disfigured
 and confined in a cage,  with a dog for
 his companion, until Lysimachus enabled
 him to terminate his sufferings by poison.
 He wrote a  History  of  the  Actions of
 Alexander, and other historical works.
  Callisthenics.  (See Gymnastics.)
  Callisto ; a nymph of Diana, daugh-
 ter  of Lycaon,  king  of  Arcadia.   Ju-
 piter  loved  her, assumed the shape of
 Diana, and seduced her.  The  fruit of
 her amour, called  Areas, was hid in the
 woods, but preserved.  She was changed,
 by the jealousy of Juno, into a bear.  Ju-
 piter placed her, with her son, among the
 stars, where she stiff  shines as the Great
 Bear.
  Callot, Jacques,  born in  1594, at
 Nancy, vanquished, by perseverance, ev-
ery obstacle which obstructed his perfec-
tion in his art.  He twice ran away from
his parents, who intended him for another
 profession, fled to Italy, and learnt draw-
 ing, in Rome, under Giul. Porigi, engrav-
 ing under Philip Thomassin, and became
 afterwards,  at  Florence, a  disciple of
 Canta-Gallina, and, at Nancy, of Claude
 Henriet  He soon gave himself up en-
 tirely to his love for engraving, and pre-
 fened etching, probably, because his ac-
 tive and fertile genius could, in that way,
 express itself more rapidly.  In the space
 of 20  years, he designed and executed
 about 1600 pieces.  (See the catalogue in
 the Cabinet  de Singularites d'Architecture,
 Peinture,  Sculpture  et  Gravure,  by Le
 Comte, vol. 2, p. 376  to 392, and  Ger-
 saint's Catalogue de Lorangere.)  In the
 composition, the disposition of the parts,
 and in the distribution of light, C. is not
 particularly  eminent; but, in  the single
 parts of his  pieces, he is very successful.
 His drawing  is conect; the attitudes
 mostly pleasing; the groups have consid-
 erable  variety; harsh contrasts are avoid-
 ed ; the expression is vigorous; and the
 execution displays the  ease of a master.
 He is  particularly distinguished  by the
 drawing of  the  little figures with which
 he has filled all his pieces.  Most of them,
 except  sacred subjects,  are representa-
 tions of  battles, sieges, dances, festive
 processions.  The Misires et Malheurs de
 la Guerre, in 18 pieces, are considered the
 best.  He executed works of this kind for
 Cosmo  II of  Florence,  Louis XIII of
 France, and the duke  of Lorraine.   He
 was so strongly  inclined to the  comic,
 that this disposition appears  even in his
 representations of sacred subjects, for in-
 stance, in  the  Temptation of St. Anthony.
 He not only introduced some burlesque
 and grotesque  figures in his engravings,
 but executed whole pictures in this style,
 in which his whole art is displayed.   His
 Fair and  his Beggars  are called his best
 pieces.   He was  the first who used, in his
 etchings, the hard varnish—the  vernice
grosso  dd lignaiuoli of the Italians.   He
died at Nancy, in 1635.   He was distin-
guished for piety, magnanimity, and regu-
 larity of Ufe.  (See the biography of C.
 by  Gersaint, or  that  of Husson, Paris,
 1766.)
  Callus is a  preternatural  hardness,
 whether caraeous or osseous.  The new
 growth  of bony  substance between the
 extremities of fractured bones, by which
they are united,  is an  instance  of the
 latter.  External friction or pressure pro-
 duces the former, as in the  hands of
 laborers, and the  feet of persons who wear
 tight shoes.  (See Corns.)
  Calmar,  the  principal city of Sma- 
416
CALMAR—CALMUCS.
land,  in  Sweden, on. the Baltic sea, is
situated opposite to Oland, on the island
of Quamholm, and  contains 4500 inhab-
itants. It has a small but good harbor,
and carries on considerable trade in  tim-
ber, alum and tar.  It has also manufac-
tures  of  woollen  cloth, and is  the  resi-
dence of a bishop, and of the governor of
the province.  The  well-fortified castle
of C.  lies outside ofthe city, on  the strait
of Oland.  (For the ordinance called the
Union of Calmar, see Margaret, queen of
Denmark and Norway.)
  Calmet, Augustine, distinguished as an
exegetical and historical writer, born in
1672,  at Mesnil-la-Horgne, in the diocese
of Toul,  entered, in 1688, into the Bene-
dictine order at Toul, and studied chiefly
in the abbey of Moyen-Moutier.   Here
he became, in 1698, teacher of philosophy
and theology ; in 1728, abbot of Senones,
in Lorraine, and  died, in 1757,  at Paris.
He was a judicious compiler of volumi-
nous works, such as Commentaire sur tous
les Livres de VAnc. etdeNouv. Test. (Paris,
1707—16,23 vols. 4to.), Dictionnaire Hist.
et Crit. de la Bible (A vols.), Histoire Eccl.
d Civile de Lorraine (A vols.)  Acuteness
and taste are wanting in his writings, and
they have been censured both in France
and in other countries.
  Calms, Region of.   In the Atlantic
ocean, between the tropic of Cancer and
lat. 29° N., and  on the confines of the
trade-winds, between  4° and  10° N. lat,
calms of long duration prevail; and hence
these  tracts are called  the calm latitudes,
or the .regions of calms.  In  the  latter
tract,  particularly, these perpetual calms
are accompanied  by a  suffocating  heat,
by thunder-storms and floods  of rain, so
that it is sometimes called the rainy sea.
The only winds that ocCur are sudden
squalls of short duration and little extent
In these calms, the provisions are conupt-
ed, the seams open, and the stagnant air
breeds disease.  When a ship is in this po-
sition, if the cunents set in towards rocks,
and the  sea is too deep to cast anchor,
her destruction is almost inevitable. In the
Mediterranean, where there are  no  tides,
dead calms are more common than in the
open ocean ; but they are often  the pres-
ages of approaching storms.
  Calmucs (Oelot, Eleuthes); the  most
remarkable branch of the Mongol race.
They themselves  maintain,  that  their
primitive residence was  situated between
the Koko-Noor   (the  Blue Lake)  and
Thibet   Long before the time of Genghis
Khan, a part of this people is said to have
made an expedition to the west, as far as
Asia Minor, and to have  lost themselves
there among the mountains of Caucasus;
but the rest, who had remained in Great
Tartary, received, from their Tartar neigh-
bors, the  name of  Khalimik (the  sepa-
rated).   In fact, they call themselves, to
this day, Khalimik,  though Oelot, which
signifies the same thing, continues to be
their proper appellation.  They have been
divided, at least since the dismemberment
of the Mongol empire, into four principal
branches,  called Khoschot,  Derbet, Soon-
gar, and Torgot.  The greater portion of
the Khoschot  Calmucs has  remained in
and  around Thibet and on the Koko-
Noor, and is said to have  been under  the
protection ofthe Chinese since the down-
fall of the Soongar Calmucs.  The smaller
portion of this tribe had, long before, re-
tired to the Irtish, and finally fell under
the dominion of the Soongar horde, with
which  it took  part  in the  war against
China, and was dispersed  with  them.
The horde of the Khoschots (warriors),
which is still  united under the Chinese
sovereignty, received its name from  the
courage which it displayed under Genghis,
and  is rated  at 50,000 souls.   For this
reason, and also because  the  family of
their princes  derives its  origin immedi-
ately  from  the brother  of  the  great
Genghis, the  Khoschots  maintain   the
first  rank  among the Calmuc tribes.   A
part  of them, about 1800 families, settled
on the Wolga in 1759, and voluntarily
submitted to the Russian sovereignty.  At
the dismemberment of the Mongol  em-
pire, the Soongar Calmucs constituted but
one tribe  with the  Derbets, which was
afterwards divided between two brothers
of their princely family.   In the 17th
century, and  the beginning of the 18th,
this horde  subjected a great part of the
other Calmuc tribes, especially the Khos-
chot, Derbet  and Khoit,  and carried on
bloody wars, both with the  Mongols and
with the Chinese empire,  which termi-
nated in their entire subjugation and dis-
persion.   They were  regarded as  the
bravest, richest and most powerful horde.
The Derbet   Calmucs,  whose pasture-
grounds were originally  situated  in  the
region of  the Koko-Noor, departed from
thence on account of the Mongol dis-
turbances  towards the Irtish,  and  sepa-
rated into  two parties.   One of them  be-
came united with the  Soongors, and was
finally destroyed with  them.  The other
settled on the Ural,  Don and Wolga, and
the majority of them joined the Torgots,
but afterwards separated from them.  The
Torgot (Wolgaic) Calmucs seem to have 
CALMUCS—CALONNE.
417
been formed into a distinct horde, later
than the other Calmuc branches.  In the
very beginning,  they separated from the
restless  Soongars, and  settled on  the
Wolga; for which reason, the Russians,
to whom they submitted in 1616,  called
them  the Wolgaic  Calmucs.   But, the
oppression  of  the Russian government
having   excited  dissatisfaction  among
them, they returned to Soongary in 1770,
and put  themselves under the Chinese
protection.  Here, however, strict meas-
ures were at first adopted against them.
All these different tribes were formerly,
or are at present, under the rule of their
own khans, who are tributary  to the gov-
ernment under which the horde  lives.
There is also  a colony of baptized Cal-
mucs, to which the Russian government
has granted a fertile territory, with the
city Stavropol,  in the Orenberg  district
ofthe government Ufa.  This colony has
been  much augmented  of late.  In the
same  district,  there is likewise a small
colony of Mohammedan Calmucs, formed
of proselytes which the  Kirghises have
made and received among themselves.
  Calomel.  (See Mercury.)
  Calonne, Charles Alexander de, bom
in 1734, at Douai, where his  father was
first president of  the parliament, studied
at Paris,  devoted himself to the duties of
an advocate at Artois,  went as attorney-
general (procureur general) to  the  parUa-
ment  of Douai,  and  was, in 1763, ap-
pointed  maitre  des requites, in  1768,
intendant of Metz,  and  afterwards of
Lille.  This was his  situation on the
death of Louis XV.  The minister Mau-
repas, returning from a long exile, had
placed successively in  the office of min-
ister  of finance,  Turgot and Necker,
Fleury  and Ormesson.   In  November,
1783, after the  death  of Maurepas, they
were  succeeded by C, who found the fi-
nances already in disorder. Besides the
loans and the arrears accumulated under
preceding ministers, 176 millions had been
raised in advance. C. concealed his embar-
rassment, and assumed an appearance as if
all was well. He despised the expedient of
retrenchment, paid the instalments which
were  due, supported the public paper by
secret advances of money, hastened the
payment of the  interest of the  public debt,
made great improvements in the farming
of the royal monopolies and ofthe public
lands, established the credit of the caisse
d'escompte, projected a sinking-fund, and
undertook a new coinage of gold money,
as if  no difficulties existed.   At first, he
followed the system of loons,  which was
begun before him.  According to his esti-
mate, the government had, from 1776 to
1786, borrowed 1250 millions.  The an-
nual deficit amounted, however, to 115
millions.  This, nevertheless, was to be
reduced, in 1797, to 55 milUons.  To this
end, the revenues of the state, which
might then amount to 475 millions, should
have been increased to 590 millions.   C.'s
first operations were  calculated  only for
the moment; the national debt rested on
no  good  security.  To provide  this, the
only means was a new system of taxation,
and C. proposed it.   His two principal
instruments were a general land-tax, pay-
able in kind, and an  increase  of the
stamp-tax.  Since, however, it was fore-
seen; that the execution of a plan which
called for sacrifices from the two highest
ranks of die nation, tiU this time unheard
of,  would  meet with  much  opposition
from them,  and yet  a general assembly
of the states seemed too dangerous, C.
chose a middle course, which seemed to
be favorable to the occompUshment of his
design.  He proposed on assembly of the
notables, chosen from the most respectable
members of the two first orders, the magis-
trates and the heads ofthe most important
municipaUties.  On the 22d of February,
1787, the notables held their first session
at Versailles.   The report of the minister
of finance was impatiently expected. He
deUvered it with all the ability of which
he  was capable; but this could not di-
minish the ill impression of his  explana-
tions.  The deficit of 115  millions was
greater than had been  feared.  C. traced
the origin of this from the administration
of Terray; asserted that it amounted then
to 40 millions; that, from 1776 to 1783, it
had increased about as much more;  and,
at last, confessed that he himself had in-
creased it  about 35  miUions from that
time till 1786. Lafayette appeared at the
head of those numerous complainants
who now came forward against C.; but
the  king seemed, at first, to support his
minister.  The keeper of the great seal,
C.'s constant adversary, was dismissed.
This triumph was, however, of short du-
ration.  Independently of the friends of
Lafayette and Necker, a third party came
forward  against him—that party which
brought into the ministry the archbishop
of  Toulouse,  Lomenie-Brienne.   The
court was alarmed  at the delays of the
assembly of the notables, and the ferment
which it excited.  C. was deprived of his
office, and banished to Lorraine.  Thence
he went to England, where he received a
flattering invitation  from  the  empress 
418
CALONNE—CALORIC.
Catharine II.   He now employed him-
self in refuting the  charges which were
brought against him.  In his petition ad-
dressed to the king about the end of 1787,
he  takes a review  of all his ministerial
operations, and endeavors to prove that
he had always for his object the improve-
ment ofthe finances.  The archbishop of
Toulouse, his successor, had informed
him of the  personal displeasure of the
king; the parliaments of Grenoble, Tou-
louse, Besancon, had made him the ob-
ject of public animadversion; the  parlia-
ment of Paris had come forward formally
against him.   C. defended himself against
aU these  attacks.  He besought the king
to declare, that he had  constandy acted
by his express command or with his con-
sent, and offered, in case the king should
be  silent, to justify himself  before the
tribunal of peers, before which he had
been accused.  To all the charges brought
against him, his friends opposed this fact,
which  is certainly true, that  he retired
from the  ministry poor.  In a letter of C.
to the king, Feb. 9,1789, containing po-
litical reflections, and principally directed
against Necker, he manifested the  inten-
tion of offering himself a candidate for
the states-general.   He  actually made
his appearance in the electoral assembly
of the  nobility  of BaiUeul, but returned
to London without effecting his purpose,
where he employed  himself in writing on
the state of affairs in France.  The revo-
lution had, in the mean time, begun.  C.
took part in it with a zeal which seemed
to exceed his powers.  His negotiations,
his  journeys to Germany, Italy and Rus-
sia, his perseverance, his attachment to
their cause, made him invaluable  to the
party which  he  served.   In  order  to as-
sist his unfortunate  party with the pen,
he wrote his Tableau de I'Europe en No-
vembre, 1795, remarkable on account of
its warmth, and its faithful deUneation of
events.  From that time  he Uved in Lon-
don, principally occupied with the  fine
arts, which he had always cultivated with
taste.  In 1802, he returned  to  Paris,
where  he died in October of the same
year.  Such was the career of a minister
who gave the first impulse to the French
revolution.  He possessed, in  a high de-
gree, the quaUties requisite to a great states-
man—an accurate acquaintance with de-
tails, together with comprehensive  views,
and the power of conceiving extensive
projects.  But, if wisdom which matures
the conceptions,  if a prophetic  glance
which  foresees all  the impediments,  if
consistency and a spirit of method which
provides for the success of the execution,
are essential to a statesman, then C. con
lay no claim to that title.  A knowledge
of  human nature was wanting  in  his
character.  His morals were far from be-
ing strict.  His works, among which his
speeches and  memorials  to the notables
deserve the first place, are valuable con-
tributions to the history of financial  ad-
ministration.
  Caloric is the name given, in chemis-
try, to  that agent which produces  the
phenomena of heat and combustion.   It
is hypothetically regarded as a subtile flu-
id, the particles of which repel one an-
other, and are attracted by all other sub-
stances.   It is  imponderable,  and,  by
its  distribution,  in various proportions,
among the particles of matter,  gives rise
to  the  three  general  forms of gas, U-
quids and soUds.  The particles of .water,
by losing caloric, have their cohesion so
much  increased,  that  they assume  the
solid form of ice; by adding caloric, they
again become fluid; and by a still further
addition, they are converted into vapor.—
Caloric exists in two different states—Tree
or uncombined, and t?i a state of combina-
tion.  In the former condition, it creates
the sensation of heat, and produces ex-
pansion in  other  bodies.  The  power
which any body has of exciting the sen-
sation of heat, and occasioning expansion,
is understood  by the  expression  of its
temperature.  This is  supposed to vary
with the quantity of free caloric in a giv-
en quantity  of matter; a high tempera-
ture being ascribed to  the presence of a
large quantity of free  caloric, and a low
temperature to that of a  small  quantity.
We  are ignorant, however, of the ex-
tremes of temperature, and may compare
it to a chain, of which a few ofthe middle
links, only, are exposed to our observa-
tion, while its  extremities are concealed
from our view.—The expansion  of bodies
is one of the most universal effects of on
increase of  temperature.   This increase
in bulk, however, is not die same in all
bodies.  The some increase of tempera-
ture causes liquids to  expand more than
soUds,  and aeriform bodies much more
than either.  On this  principle  are con-
structed the various instruments for meas-
uring temperature; since the  degree of
expansion produced by caloric bears a
sufficient proportion to its quantity to af-
ford us the means of ascertaining it with
tolerable accuracy.  Our senses, it is ob-
vious,  ore quite inadequate to afford us
this information;  for  we compare our
sensations of heat, not with any fixed or 
CALORIC.
419
 uniform  standard, but with those sensa-
 tions which we have  had immediately
 previous.  Hence, the same portion of
 water will feel warm to a hand removed
 from contact with snow, and cold to an-
 other hand which has been heated before
 the fire.  To convey precise notions of
 temperature, therefore, we are obliged to
 describe  the degree of expansion pro-
 duced in some one body which  has been
 previously agreed upon as a standard of
 comparison.  The standard  most gene-
 rally adopted is quicksilver, which.is con-
 tained in a glass ball, terminating a long,
 narrow tube.  This instrument is called
 a thermometer.   If quicksilver, or, indeed,
 any  other substance  except the gases,
 suffered equal  expansion  by equal incre-
 ments of the  calorific power,  then this
 instrument  would be  perfect;  but  the
 same increase  of bulk  is not effected in
 the same liquid  or. soUd, at all  tempera-
 tures, by adding similar  quantities of
 heat; for bodies expand,  by equal incre-
 ments of caloric, more in high than in
 low temperatures, because the force op-
 posing expansion  is diminished by  the
 interposition of caloric between the par-
ticles of bodies; and, therefore, when
equal quantities of caloric are  added in
succession, the  last portions meet with
 less  resistance  to  their expansive force
than the  first.   In gases, on the contrary,
 which are destitute of cohesion, equal in-
crements of heat appear  to  be attended
 with equal augmentations of bulk.—The
tendency to an equilibrium is a characteris-
 tic of free caloric.  Any number of dif-
 ferent bodies,  unequally heated, when
 exposed, in an  apartment, to the  same
 temperature, gradually arrive to an equal-
 ity of temperature.  It is in obedience to
 this law, that we experience the sensations
of heat and  cold when we  touch bodies
 which  are  warmer or colder than our-
selves.  There  exists  much diversity in
the rapidity with which  different sub-
stances abstract  caloric when in contact
with a body in  which it is accumulated.
Common air and gases abstract it but tar-
dily, while wood, stones  and metals  ac-
quire it more rapidly.  According to their
power of conducting  it off under these
circumstances,  bodies  are  divided into
conductors and non-conductors of caloric ;
and, in general, the power of conduction
varies with the  densities of bodies.  But
this tendency of caloric to an equilibrium
is not estabUshed solely by the agency of
intermediate bodies or communication.
A  part of it moves through  the atmos-
phere, Uke Ught, in right Unes, and with
immeasurable velocity, and  has,  there-
fore, been  called  radiant caloric.  The
comparative quantities lost by radiation
and by conduction may be approximated
by observing what time it takes to cool
any body through the same number of
degrees in air and in vacuo.  Thus doctor
Franklin imagined he had ascertained
that a body, which requires five minutes
to cool in vacuo, wiU cool  in  air, through
the same number of degrees, in two min-
utes.  Count Rumford's experiments, with
a Torricellian vacuum, give the propor-
tions of five  to  three.—Radiant caloric
passes  only through  transparent media,
or free space.  When, in  its passage, its
rays impinge upon the surface of a soUd
or a liquid substance, they are either  re-
flected from it, and thus receive a new
direction, or they lose  their radiant form
altogether, and are absorbed.  In the lat-
ter case, the temperature of the receiving
substance is increased  ; in the former, it is
unchanged.—The  nature  of the surface
of a body  has been  found to influence
powerfully both the radiation and absorp-
tion of caloric  The  energy of calorific
emanation  from  a cubical tin  vessel,
coated with different substances, and con-
taining  warm water  (as  determined by
the differential thermometer of Leslie),
gave, with a covering of
  Lampblack,.............100
  Isinglass,................75
  Tarnished lead,............45
  Polished iron,.............15
  Tin-plate, gold, silver or copper, . . 12

Similar results were obtained simply by
noting the rates of cooling in vessels of
similar shapes and capacities with various
surfaces.   Useful  lessons  have been  de-
rived from these discoveries.  Tea and
coffee-pots, which  are intended to retain
their heat, are made of bright and polish-
ed metals; and steam-pipes, intended to
Convey heat to  distant apartments,  are
kept bright in their course, but darkened
where they reach their destination.  The
power of different surfaces to absorb ca-
loric was  found,  by  coating one  of the
bulbs of the differential thermometer suc-
cessively with different substances, and
presenting it to an  uniformly heated sub-
stance, to follow the  same order as  the
radiating or projecting quality.—With re-
gard to combined  caloric, it has  been
shown that solids, during  liquefaction,
imbibe a quantity of caloric, which ceases
to be obvious, both to  our senses and to
the thermometer.   The same is also true
of soUds and liquids in their conversion 
420
CALORIC—CALPURNIUS.
into vapors or gases; a portion of caloric,
which is essential to the elasticity of the
new product, ceases to become apparent.
Whenever this effect takes place, cold is
said to  be  produced; by which  we are
only to understand the passage of caloric
from a free to a latent form.  The reverse
of these phenomena has also been satis-
factorily established ; viz. when the densi-
ty of bodies is increased, either by chemical
or mechanical means, caloric is evolved.
For example, a high temperature is pro-
duced  by  minghng cold sulphuric acid
and water;  metals become intensely heat-
ed by  the  augmentation of their density
through  hammering;   Uquids,  by  be-
coming solids,  or gases  by conversion in-
to liquids, also evolve caloric.   A pound
of water, condensed from steam, will ren-
der 100 pounds of water at 50° warmer
by 11°; whereas, a pound of boiling wa-
ter will produce the same rise of temper-
ature in no more than about 13.12 pounds;
and, since steam and boiling water affect
the thermometer in the same  manner,
this effect can be produced only from the
existence of a much greater quantity of
caloric in  the former than in the latter.
—The sources of caloric are six; viz. the
sun's  rays, combustion, percussion, fric-
tion, the mixture of different substances,
and electricity.
  Calorimeter ; an instrument to meas-
ure the capacity of a body for caloric, or its
specific caloric.   The thermometer (q.v.)
measures merely the variations of tem-
perature, or  sensible heat.  The body in
the calorimeter is placed in the innermost
of three concentric vessels, the two outer
ones containing ice ; the quantity of wa-
ter produced by the cooling of the body
a given number of degrees, determines its
specific caloric   This instrument was in-
vented by Lavoisier and Laplace.  In the
C. invented  by  Rumford, water  is used;
the capacity of the body is determined by
the number of degrees which the temper-
ature of the water is raised, in cooling the
body a given number of degrees.
  Calorimotor. (See Galvanic Battery.)
  Calottists,  or the Regiment de  la
Calotte ; a society which sprung up at
Paris, in the last years of the reign  of
Louis XIV, and formed a regiment under
the name La Calotte, signifying a flat cap
of a peculiar shape, which was the symbol
ofthe society.   All were admitted whose
ridiculous behavior, odd character, foolish
opinions, &c, had exposed them to public
criticism.  They had a singular  coat of
arms, on which was the sceptre of Momus,
with  bells,  apes, rattles, &c.:  on  their
principal standard were the words " Pa-
vet Momus, luna infiuit." Every one who
made himself particularly  ridiculous re-
ceived letters-patent, and those who were
most  angry  were most laughed at.  On
the death of Torsac, the colonel of the
Calottists, the eioge (a  spirited satire  on
the academical style), which the Calottists
pronounced  on this  occasion, was sup-
pressed.  Aimon, colonel of the  guards,
hastened to marshal  Villars  with their
complaints, and concluded with the words,
" My lord, since the  death of Alexander
and Caesar, the Calottists have not had any
protector besides you," and the order was
retracted.  They  became, however, too
bold,  attacked the ministers, and  even
foreign kings; and the regiment was, in
consequence, dissolved.  Of a  similar
character is the Academy of Fools, which,
for many years, has existed in Duisburg.
Some act of folly is necessary to procure
a man admission as a member.
  Caloters ; Greek monks, who chiefly
reside on  mount Athos, and lead a very
solitary and  austere Ufe, eating no meat,
and  observing  the  fasts of the  Greek
church very rigidly.  They do not even
eat bread,  unless  they have earned it.
During their 7 weeks of Lent, they pass
the greatest  part of the night in weeping
and lamentations for their own sins and
for those of others.  The Turks some-
times call their dervishes by this name.
  Calpe.  (See Abyla and Gibraltar.)
  Calprenede, Gauthier de Costes de la,
born in Tolgou, in Gascony, died at Paris
in  1663, in  the office of  royal cham-
berlain.  He was one ofthe authors who,
in the 17th century, brought into  fashion
a new kind of voluminous and long-spun
romances of chivalry.  Events from the
Greek and Roman history were treated in
the spirit and manner ofthe old romances
of chivalry.   C. wrote Cassandra, in 10
vols.,  Cleopatra, in 12 vols., Pharamond,
in 7, besides some tragedies.  His trage-
dies obtained little reputation by the side
of those of CorneiUe,  but his  romances
were highly celebrated, and are, certainly,
the best of their kind.  He is not desti-
tute of poetical imagination, and his char-
acters are often dignified and well drawn,
though  his Artaban  has become a pro-
verbial name for exaggeration.  He wrote
with great rapidity.  His plots, however,
are constructed with care, and his stories,
long as they are, are not deficient in keep-
ing.   His lady has surpassed him in bold-
ness of romantic nanation in LesNouveUes
de la Princesse Alddiane.
  Calpurnius, Titus JuUus, a native of 
CALP URNIUS—CALVERT.
421
Sicily, lived in the 3d centuiy.  We have
7  idyls  written by  him,  which are not
without  merit, and  approach  near  to
those of Virgil, although they are inferior
to them in elegance and purity, as well
as to those of Theocritus in simplicity
and conformity to nature.  The best edi-
tion is that of Beck (Leipsic, 1803).
  Caltrop ; a kind of thistle, armed with
prickles, which grows in France, Italy and
Spain, and is troublesome by running  in-
to the feet of cattle. Hence, in the mili-
tary art, C. is an instrument  with 4 iron
points, disposed in a  triangular form, 3
of them being turned to the  ground, and
the other pointing upwards.   They  are
used to  impede the progress of cavalry.
   Calumet;  the Indian pipe of  peace.
The origin of the word is doubtful.  Heck-
ewelder, in his Nareative of the Mission
of the United Brethren among the  Dela-
ware and Mohegan Indians  (Phil. 1820),
gives several  derivations.   Mr. Dupon-
ceau thinks it may come from the French
chalumeau, a  reed.  Upon all occasions,
when Indian chiefs and warriors meet in
peace, or at the close of a war with those
of another nation, in their talks and trea-
ties with the whites, or even when a sin-
gle person of distinction comes' among
them, the calumet is handed round with
ceremonies pecuUar to each tribe, and
each member ofthe company draws a few
whiffs.   To  accept the calumet, is to
agree to the terms proposed; to refuse it,
is to reject them.  Some symbols of ami-
ty are found among all nations: the white
flag, or flag of truce, of the moderns, and
the oUve branch ofthe ancients, are simi-
lar in character to  the Indian  calumet
The calumet is still in use among the  In-
dians, and was introduced at a late inter-
view between president Adams and  the
chiefs of some Indian  tribes.  Tobacco
is  smoked in the calumet, and the leaves
of various other kinds of plants.  The bowl
of this pipe is  made of different kinds of
marble,  and the stem of a reed, or of some
light kind of wood, which is  easily perfo-
rated.  This stem is adorned in various
ways; sometimes it is marked with the fig-
ures of animals, and hieroglyphical deline-
ations, and almost universally has beautiful
feathers attached to it, disposed according
to the taste of the individual, or of the tribe
to which he belongs. The calumet dance is
the least hideous  of the  Indian dances.
It is of a peaceful character, and seems to
be intended to represent,  by a series  of
movements, the power and utiUty of  the
calumet  It is rude and simple, as  are all
the dances ofthe Indians.
  vol. n.           36
  Calvados ; a dangerous ridge of rocks
on the north coast of Normandy, extend-
ing (lat. 49° 22' N.) to the west of Orne,
for the  space of 10 or 12 miles.  It is so
called from a Spanish vessel once wrecked
on it, and gives its name to the depart-
ment (q. v.)
  Calvados.  (See Departments.)
  Calvart, Dionysius, a painter, born at
Antwerp,  in 1555,  went, very young, to
Italy, as a landscape painter; where, in
order to learn  how to draw figures, he
entered the school of Fontana and Sabba-
tini, in  Bologna, with the latter of whom
he  visited Rome.   After having passed
some time in  copying the paintings of
Raphael, he opened a school at Bologna,
from which proceeded 137 masters,  and
among these Albano, Guido and Domeni-
chino.   The people of Bologna regarded
him as one of the restorers of their school,
particularly  in  respect to coloring.   C.
understood perspective, anatomy and archi-
tecture ; but the attitudes of his figures are
sometimes mean and exaggerated. He died
in 1619, at Bologna, where  are  his  best
paintings.   Agostin Caracci and Sadeler
have engraved some of his works.
  Calvary (in Heb., Golgotha, the skull,
Luke xxiii. 33., or t7ie place of the skull,
Matt, xxvii. 33.); a mountain situated with-
out the walls of Jerusalem, on which Je-
sus Christ was cracified.  Matthew re-
lates, that, at the  time when our Savior
expired, the earth  shook, and the rocks
split; and some modem travellers assert
that the fissures in this mountain do not
follow  the direction of the strata, but are
evidently supernatural.  Jewish traditions
affirmed, that Adam was buried on mount
Calvary (credat Judaus), and the  early
Christians believed tiiat Jesus Christ was
cracified here, that the blood shed for the
redemption of the world might  also pu-
rify the remains ofthe first sinner!—Cal-
varies  are small chapels, raised on  hills
in the  vicinity of cities, with a crucifix,
in allusion to  the place and  manner of
Christ's  death.  Thus   the  calvary  of
mount Valerian, near Paris, is composed
of 7 chapels, in each of which some mys-
tery ofthe passion is represented.
   Calvert, George, the first  baron of
Baltimore, was descended of a Flemish
family  settled  at Kipling, in  Yorkshire,
where  he  was born in 1582.  He  was
educated  at Oxford, and, after traveUing
abroad, entered into the service of Robert
Cecil, afterwards earl of SoUsbury.  He
was knighted by James I, and made clerk
of the  privy council, and, in 1619,  was
appointed one of the secretaries of state. 
422
CALVERT—CALVIN.
This post he resigned in 1624, in conse-
quence of having become a Roman Cath-
olic.  Notwithstanding  this,  he retained
the confidence of the king, who, in 1625,
raised him to the Irish peerage of Baltimore.
He had previously obtained a grant of
land  in  the island  of Newfoundland,
where he was prevented from making a
settlement by the invasions ofthe French.
He therefore resigned his claim, receiving,
instead of it, a territory on  the  Ameri-
can continent, now forming the state of
Maryland.  This country was  colonized
under  the  patronage of lord Baltimore,
who displayed justice and good  faith in
his deaUngs with the Indians, and liberal-
ity to reUgious sects in  his legislative ar-
rangements, highly creditable to his prin-
ciples and  character.  He died in  Lon-
don, in 1632.   He wrote some poUtical
tracts, and his speeches in parliament and
letters have also been published.
   Calvin, John (so called from Calvinus,
the Latinized form of  his family name
Cluzuvin), the  second great reformer of
the 16th century, was born at Noyon, in
Picardy, July 10,1509.  His father, Gerard
Chauvin, a cooper, dedicated him  early
to the church.  C. says,  in a letter to
Claude d'Hangest, abbot  of St. Eloi, at
Noyon, that he was indebted to the family
of this prelate for his first  instruction and
a  liberal education.   When hardly  12
years old, he received a benefice in  the
cathedral of his native city.  Six years
after, he was appointed to a cure, which
he soon  exchanged for another.  Thus,
by the means  of his benefactors, he  en-
joyed, even before  his 20th year, several
benefices, and even the title  and income
of a cure, whue he was yet pursuing his
studies in  Paris.   Here he  became  ac-
quainted with his townsman Peter Robert
OUveton, his senior by some years, from
whom he received the first  germ of the
new  doctrine,  which was  then begin-
ning  to spread in France.   He  was in-
duced, by this, to renounce the study of
theology, and to devote himself to law, at
Orleans, and afterward at Bourges.   He
made rapid progress therein, and, at the
same time, studied the Greek language,
under Melchior Volmar, a German, who
strengthened the inclination for innova-
tions already awakened in him by Olive-
tan.  In 1532, be returned to Paris, and
resigned his benefices.  In the same year,
he pubUshed a Latin  commentary upon
the two  books of Seneca, De dementia,
 in which he caUed himself by his Latin-
 ized name, Johannes Calvinus, and  was
 obUged, in 1533, to  flee  from Paris, be-
cause his friend Michael Cop, rector of
the university, was persecuted on account
of a  discourse in favor  of the new doc-
trine, in which he was suspected of hav-
ing participated.  C. took  refuge in the
house of Du Tillet, a canon at Angou-
leme, with whom he  quietly pursued his
studies, and began to collect the materials
for his Christian Institution, which ap-
peared two years afterwards. Thence he
went to  Nerac, to queen  Margaret of Na-
varre, the sister of Francis I, who, not so
much from a decided incUnation for die
new  doctrine, as from love for science,
afforded refuge  to several learned  men,
who  were obliged to leave  France on ac-
count of their opinions.   C. was very
well  received by her, and  here became
acquainted with several men, who, at a
future time, were useful  to his party; re-
turned to Paris, but, in  1534, was again
obUged  to leave France.  He retired to
Bale, where  he published his Christian
Institution, as the confession of faith of
those who were  persecuted in France,
and condemned to the stake; in which it
was his design to free them from the cal-
umny, which had been  circulated from
poUtical motives, that they were  rebels
and  Anabaptists, and had nothing in
common with the Lutheran doctrine. It
would be  difficult briefly  to relate how
he went farther than Luther in regard to
the doctrine  of free will,  of  imputative
justice, and the  merit of good works; but
it is more easy to display the bold conse-
quences which he drew from his doc-
trines.   He  attacked  not  only the  su-
premacy of  the pope, but  even  the
authority of  general councils;  he does
not recognise the character of a bishop or
a  priest any  more than  that of a visible
head of the church;  he  permits no vows
but those of baptism, and no sacraments
but those of baptism and the Lord's sup-
per; even these he does not regard as
indispensable to salvation.   The mass is
to him a profanation, and the honors paid
to the saints, idolatry.   This work, Insti-
tutio Christiana Religionis, appeared af-
terwards in  French, and almost  every
year was pubUshed by him with emenda-
tions and additions.  The  most  complete
edition  was  pubUshed  by Robert Ste-
phens,  in 1559.  The prefixed Prafatio
ad Christianisrimum  regem,  qua  hie d
liber pro confessione fidd  offertur,  could
not, however, put an end to the reUgious
persecutions in France; since Francis I,
although far from being actuated by reU-
gious fanaticism, was influenced, by poUt-
ical views,  to  continue them.  C. then 
CALVIN.                               423
went to Italy, to preach his doctrine there,
and met with a favorable reception from
the duchess Renata of France, the daugh-
ter of Louis XII, and  wife  of Ercole
d'Este, who subsequently  professed her
belief in  his  doctrines.  But  he was
obUged to save himself  by a hasty flight
from  Aosta, where he was  discovered.
He returaed to Paris about  the middle of
the year 1536.  Since, however,  he could
not live tliere in  security, he  resolved to
go to Bale, and took the  road  through
Geneva, where,  a year  before,  the new
doctrine had been introduced by a formal
decree of the government,  and Farel was
very active in effecting its  establishment
With him C.  united himself, and, soon
after, undertook a course  of theological
instruction, to  which he  devoted  himself
exclusively, while he left the pulpit to
Farel.  They attempted to  reform  the
manners of the inhabitants; but this enter-
prise, in which they had  connected them-
selves with an equally  zealous,  but less
able preacher, drew upon them  a crowd
of powerful enemies, by  whom they were
at last overthrown.  The cause  of this
was the following: the  Genevan church
made use of leavened bread in the eucha-
rist, and had removed the  baptismal font
from the  church, and, moreover, abol-
ished all holy-days,  except the Sabbath.
These innovations were  not approved by
the synod of Lausanne  The magistracy
of Geneva required Farel and C. to com-
ply with the decision of the synod, and
commanded them, on  their refusal, to
leave the city in three days.  This hap-
pened in  April, 1538.   They  went to
Berne; and, since the  exertions of  the
magistracy of Berne and of the  synod of
 Zfirich could not effect their recaU, C.
 went to Strasburg, where Luther's doc-
trine had been  introduced by Bucer 10
years before.  Bucer received him very
kindly, and caused him to be appointed
professor of theology.  At the same time,
he obtained permission  to erect  a French
church, which,  on account  of  the great
number of fugitives from France, was
very important.  Notwithstanding  the
 great esteem in which he was held here,
 his views were still  directed  to  Geneva;
 the inhabitants of which  he exhorted, in
 two  letters, to remain  true to  the new
 doctrine,  when  cardinal Sadolet invited
 them to return into the  bosom of the
 church.  Here, also, in 1540, C. published
 his work on the Lord's  supper,  in which
 he sought to  refute both  the opinion of
 Luther, who took this  sacrament in the
 literal sense, and that of ZuingUus (q. v.),
who understood it typically.  In a con-
ference  held at Zurich in 1549, he first
declared himself, unconditionally, in favor
of the opinion of the latter.  At last, in
1541, his friends in Geneva succeeded in
effecting his recall; a particular deputa-
tion besought the magistracy of Strasburg
to restore him  to his former flock.   But,
as C. was appointed a deputy to the diet at
Frankfort, and was afterwards obliged to
be present at die conference at Ratisbon,
he was  not able to return to  Geneva till
September of the same year.  He now
laid before the council the draft of his
ordinances respecting  church-discipline,
which were  immediately accepted, and
published in November.  In  pursuance
of the provisions of these, a consistory
was formed, composed half of clergymen,
half of laymen, in order to watch " over
the support of the pure  doctrine," and
over morals.  This tribunal called every-
body, without exception,  to account for
their sUghtest words  and actions, and re-
fened cases, where ecclesiastical censure
was not sufficient, to the council, with an
opinion upon them.  Thus C. made him-
self director of the conduct, as well as of
the opinions, ofthe Genevans. His spirit
governed exclusively in the councU as in
the consistory, and the judges never hes-
itated to punish every one who set him-
self in opposition to him.  Thus a magis-
trate was deposed and condemned to two
months' imprisonment, " because his Ufe
was hregular, and he was connected with
the enemies of C."  James  Gruet  was
beheaded, " because  he hod written pro-
fane letters and obscene verses, and en-
deavored to overthrow the ordinances of
the church."  Opinions were  judged with
equal  severity.   It is well known,  that
Michael Servetus, on his passage through
Geneva, in 1553, was arrested, and, on C.'s
accusation, was burnt aUve, because he had
attacked the mystery of the  Trinity in  a
book which was neither written nor print-
 ed at Geneva.  Numerous other  similar
 examples might be adduced,  to prove the
 bUnd and fanatical zeal which he had in-
 fused into  the  magistracy of  Geneva, for
 the support of good morals, and of what
 he esteemed sound doctrine;  and, by this
 means, he succeeded in putting a check
 upon innovations, and upon the spirit of
 inquiry, and in introducing  a character
 of austerity  among his  adherents.  He
 also proposed alterations in the civil legis-
 lation of the Genevans, and  in the form
 of their government,  in which  some
 French refugees were  useful to him.
 For the advancement of useful studies 
424
CALVIN—CALVISIUS.
he erected the academy so happily con-
ducted  by his friend Theodore Beza.—
When we consider aU that C. did during
his continuance in Geneva, we can hardly
conceive how he  could have accomplish-
ed so much.   He preached almost daily,
delivered theological lectures three times
a week, attended  all deliberations of the
consistory, all sittings of the association
of ministers, and  was the soul of aU the
councils.  He was consulted, too, upon
points of law as well as of  theology.
Besides this,  he found time to  attend to
political affairs in the name of the repub-
lic ; to pubUsh a multitude 6f writings in
defence  of his opinions,  of which his
commentaries on the Bible are  the  most
important; and to maintain a correspon-
dence through all Europe, but principally
in France, where he labored incessantly
to extend the new doctrine.  Besides his
printed sermons,  the library  of Geneva
contains 2025 in manuscript, and, like
that of Berne, several theological treatises
not printed.   Although  C. differed from
Luther in essential points, yet his adhe-
rents were not distinguished from the Lu-
therans in the edicts of Francis I and
Henry II, nor even in the edict of Rouen
in 1559.  They themselves, indeed, re-
garded C. as their head, but without con-
sidering  themselves as different, on this
account, from the adherents  of Luther.
A formal separation first took place after
the colloquium (conference) of Poissy, in
1561, where  they expressly rejected the
10th  article of the confession of Augs-
burg, besides  some others, and  took the
name of Calmnists.  C. died  May 27, in
the 55th year of his age.   He was of a
weak constitution, and suffered from fre-
quent  sickness.   In  Strasburg, he  had
married  a widow, Idelette de Burie, in
1539: a son} the fruit of their union, died
early.   In 1549,  he lost his  wife, after
which he never manied again.  He was
temperate and austere,  gloomy and in-
flexible.  He  knew nothing of friendship,
and had no other passion than to estab-
lish the opinions which he  believed to be
correct.  His  disinterestedness was rare.
He had a yearly stipend of 150 francs, 15
measures of corn, and 2 casks of wine:
he never received a larger one.   The
value of the  whole property which he
left, in books, furniture, money,  &c, did
not exceed 125 crowns.   His character
was impetuous, and impatient of contra-
diction.  " I have," he writes  to Bucer,
u no harder battles against my sins, which
are great and numerous,  than those in
which I seek to conquer my impatience.
 I have not yet gained the mastery over
 this raging beast"  The tone of his con-
 troversies is always harsh, bitter and con-
 temptuous.   He does not always succeed
 in concealing the feeling of his own su-
 periority.  As a theologian, C. was equal
 to any of his contemporaries in profound
 knowledge, acuteness of mind, and, as he
 himself boasts, in the art of making good
 a point in question.   As an author,  he
 merits great praise.  His Latin works are
 written with much method, dignity and
 conectness.  He was also a great jurist
 and an  able poUtician.   But  all these
 qualities would hot have been  sufficient
 to make him the head of a distinct reli-
 gious sect, had he not boldly rejected all
 religious ceremonies.   By this  means, he
 gained, on the one side, the highly culti-
 vated, who  were induced  to look upon
 visible forms in religion  as  something
 derogatory, and also gave the uneducated
 an  easy  means  of distinguishing them-
 selves  from the opposite party, without
 the necessity of examining the grounds
 of tlieir faith, for which they were neither
 inclined  nor qualified.—The chief doc-
 trines of C.'s system are those which were
 discussed at  the famous synod of Doit,
 under  the foUowing  heads: predestina-
 tion, particular redemption, total depravity,
 irresistible grace, and  the  certain perse-
 verance ofthe saints.  In succeeding con-
 troversies, these were denominated thefive
points. The doctrine of original dn, often
 set forth as pecuUar to C.'s system, is com-
 mon to those of many Protestant sects.
 The followers  of  C,  in Germany, are
 called the Reformed, but the doctrine of
 predestination, it may  be  safely said,  is
 every day losing ground in  that countiy.
 In France, it is well known, most Prot-
 estants are Calvinists.  Calvinism is the
 professed beUef of the greatest part ofthe
 Presbyterians both of Europe and Amer-
 ica ; the Particular Baptists, in England
 and India, and the Associated Baptists in
 America; the Independents of every class
 in England and Scotland, and the Con-
 gregationalists of New England.
  Calvinism.  (See  the conclusion  of
 the preceding article; also Protestants.)
  Calvisius, Seth ; a musician and chro-
 nologer ofthe 16th centuiy. He was the
 son of a Thuringian  peasant, Jacob Kal-
 wiz; was bora in 1556, and, after a lib-
 eral musical  and  scientific  education,
 became chanter at  the Schulpforta and
 at the Thomas school at  Leipsic.  He
 died in 1617.  His valuable works on the
 theory of music, written in good Latin,
 are mentioned in Gerber's Biographical 
CALVISIUS—CAMBACERES.
425
Lexicon  of Musicians.   He  composed,
also, many important  chronological and
other scientific works.  Zach calls him
an exact and zealous investigator of chro-
nology, possessed of as much learning as
penetration.
  Calx ;  properly Ume or chalk (hence
calcarious earth); but the term is  more
generally applied to the redduum  of a
metal or mineral  which has been subject-
ed to violent heat, burning or calcination
(q. v.), solution by acids,  or detonation by
nitre, and which  is or may be  reduced to
a fine powder.  Metallic calces are now
called oxydes.  (q. v.)   They weigh  more
than the  metal from which they are pro-
duced, on account of the oxygen which
they have absorbed.
  Caltdon ; an  ancient city of ^Etolia,
celebrated  in the stories of king GEneus,
the  Calydonian  boor,  and Dejanira and-
Hercules.  G5neus, as the fable runs, had
forgotten Diana  in a solemn sacrifice of-
fered to all the gods;  that goddess, in
revenge, sent a  terrible  boar, which laid
waste the fields and gardens.   In order to
slay this  monster, Meleager, the son of
GSneus, solicited the  aid  of the boldest
heroes of Greece—Theseus, Jason, Nes-
tor, &c  Several of the  assailants perish-
ed.  Meleager finally pierced  him in the
back with his javelin,  and  the  others
speedily  despatched  him.  (See Melea-
ger.)
  Calypso ;  a daughter of Atlas  (some
say of Nereus and Doris, or of Oceanus
and Thetis).   She inhabited  the woody
island Ogygia, situated deep in the ocean,
and lived remote from all intercourse with
gods and men.   Ulysses having suffered
shipwreck  on her island, she received him
kindly, and promised  him immortality if
he would consent to marry her.  But his
desire of beholding his  country and his
wife overcame the charms of the goddess.
Seven years he  had to  remain with her.
Mercury finally brought C. the command
of Jupiter,  that Ulysses should be permit-
ted  to return to his  home.  This com-
mand  she dared not oppose.  Ulysses
departed, but C, who  had borne him two
children, Nausinous and Nausithous, died
of grief.  This subject has been wrought
up in many different ways.
   Camaieu,  or  Cameo.  (See  Cameo.)
Camaieu is also used   for  a painting
wherein there  is  only  one   color, and
where the lights and shades are of gold,
wrought on a golden or azure  ground.
When the  ground is yellow, the French
call it cirage, when gray, grissaUe.   This
kind of work is  chiefly used to represent
                   36*
basso-relievos.  The Greeks call pieces ef
this Sort povoxpoitara.
  Ca'maldolites, Camaldulians, or Ca-
maldunians ; hermits and monks of the
order established, in  1012, by St Romu-
ald, a  Benedictine of Ravenna, in the
valley of CamaldoU, near Arezzo, in the
Apennines, and confirmed afterwards by
pope Alexander III.  They were origin-
ally hermits, living in separate cells; but,
as their wealth increased, the greater part
of them associated in convents.  They
existed in  Italy, France, Germany and
Poland.  In the 18th  century, there were
five independent fraternities  of them:—
1. at CamaldoU;  2. at Cronenberg, near
Perugia; 3. at Turin;  4. at Grandbois,
near Paris;  5. at Murano, in the Vene-
tian territory; besides 12 monasteries of
Camaldulian nuns. White garments and
the austere rules of the Benedictines they
all had in  common.  The hermits wore
beards, and had still more severe rules in
regard to fasting, silence and penances.
Their Ufe was devoted to contemplation
rather than to usefulness.  Joseph II and
the French revolution put an end to the
order.—There is, in  the vicinity of Na-
ples, a mountain which takes its name
from a convent of the CamaldoU, situated
on its top, from which  the  traveller en-
joys a prospect  of remarkable grandeur
and  beauty.  It seemed to us the  most
charming  of  all  the   beautiful  views
around Naples; yet the spot is not much
visited by travellers.
  Camargue, or Camarque, la ; a piece
of land,  insulated by the two principal
mouths of the Rhone, sometimes called the
Ddta of France.  It is a cluster of islands
extending over nearly 200 square miles.
  Cambaceres, Jean Jacques Regis; ex-
duke of Parma, prince and archchancellor
of the French empire, member of the in-
stitute ; born in 1753,  at Montpellier, of an
ancient/amiZ/e de robe (family of lawyers).
His  zeal and  talents soon obtained  him
distinction and the office of  a counsellor
at the cour des  comptes at  Montpellier.
At the beginning ofthe revolution, he re-
ceived several public offices, became, in
September, 1792, a member of the con-
vention,  and labored  in  the  committees,
particularly in  the committee of legis-
lation.   Dec. 12, 1792, he was  commis-
sioned to inquire of Louis XVI whom he
desired for his counsel, and it was on his
motion  that the counsel was allowed to
communicate freely  with the king.  In
January, 1793, he declared Louis guilty,
but disputed the right of the convention
to judge him, and voted for his provisory 
426
CAMBACERES—CAMBRIDGE.
 arrest, and, in case of a hostile invasion,
 death.  The 24th of January, he  was
 chosen secretary of the  convention.  As
 a member  of  the committee of public
 safety,  he reported,  in  the  session of
 March  26, the treason  of Doumouriez.
 In August and October, 1793, he present-
 ed his first plan for a civil code, in which
 his democratical notions were displayed.
 In an  intercepted letter  of Antraigue,
 these words were found: " I do not won-
 der  at  all that C. is among  those  who
 wish for the return of royalty.  I know
 him," &c   C. confuted  the charge, and
 the convention ordered his speech to be
 printed; but his character as a repubUcon
 had been shaken, and he was  not receiv-
 ed into the directory for which he was
 nominated.  He entered into  the council
 of the  five hundred, where he presented
 a new plan for a code rivile.  This Projd
 de Code dvile, 1796, became, subsequently,
 the  foundation   of the  Code Napoleon.
 May 20, 1797,  he left his seat in the
 council.  A  year afterwards, he appeared
 among  the electors of Paris; and, after
 the revolution of the 30th Prairial, VII
 (19th of June, 1799), he was made  minis-
 ter of justice. On the 18th of Bramaire,
 he was chosen second consul, and enter-
 ed on the office in December.  He made
 the administration of justice the chief ob-
ject of his attention.  After Napoleon had
 ascended  the throne, C. was appointed
 archchancellor of the empire, and after-
 ward, grand officer ofthe legion of honor,
 obtained, successively, almost all the dis-
 tinguished foreign  orders,  and,  in 1808,
 was  made duke of Parma.  He always
 Bhowed a remarkable attachment to  Na-
 poleon.   The  numerous  edicts which
 appeared during his government were
 drawn up by C.  During the campaign
 of Napoleon  against the aUied  powers in
 1813, C. was made president ofthe coun-
cU of regency.   At the approach of the
allies in 1814, he foUowed the government
to Blois, and, from that place,  sent his
consent to the abdication of the emperor.
When Napoleon returned, in 1815, C. was
again made archchancellor and  minister
of justice, and, subsequendy, president of
the chamber of  peers.  After the second
fall of Napoleon, he was banished.  He
went to Brussels.  In December, 1818,
the king permitted him to return to Paris,
where he Uved afterwards as a private in-
dividual, and died March 8,1824.
  Cambodia, or Camboge, or Camboja,
 or Cambota ; a  country in Asia, between
 10° and 15° N. lat, bounded N. by Laos,
 EL by Cochin-China and  Chiampa, S. by
 the sea, and W. by Siam; about 400 miles
 in length and 150 in breadth.  Population
 vaguely estimated at 1,000,000.   The air
 is exceedingly hot, which compels the in-
 habitants to reside chiefly by the sides of
 rivers or lakes, where they are tormented
 by mosquitoes.   The soil is very fertile.
 Gold of great purity, amethysts, hyacinths,
 rabies, topazes and other precious stones
 are  found.  Cattle are exceedingly nu-
 merous. Elephants, lions, tigers, and al-
 most all the animals of the deserts of Af-
 rica, are found here.  The capital is also
 called Cambodia, or Leveck.  Lon. 104°
 33 E.; lat. 13° N.
   Cambodia, or Donnai ; a river in Asia,
 called, also, in different parts of its course,
 Kiou-Long, May-Kanng, Mecon or Micon,
 which rises in  Thibet,  passes  through
 Yunnan, a province  of China, the coun-
 tries of Laos and Cambodia, and runs into
 the Chinese sea; lon. 104° 1C E.; lat. 10°
 N.   It is navigable for the largest vessels
 40 leagues,  and is generally two miles
 wide, and very deep.  (See Mecon.)
  Cambrat, or Camerich, a large and
 strongly fortified city (having 3000 houses
 and 15,600inhabitants), hes on the Scheldt,
 in the French Netherlands, department
 of the North, and contains a number of
 manufactories.   From this  place comes
 the Unen cloth known by  the name of
 cambric.  C. has been die seat of an arch-
 bishop since the  16th centuiy.   In the
 cathedral church is Fenelon's monument
 In 1508, the league (q.v.) against Venice was
 concluded at C.; in 1529, the peace with
 Charles V (see Francis 1); and, in  1724,
 negotiations  for peace were begun here
 by the emperor Charles VI and Philip V,
 which were terminated at Vienna, in 1725.
  Cambridge ; a post-town in Middlesex
 county, Massachusetts, on the north side
 of Charles river, three miles W. N. W. of
 Boston.   Population, in 1820, 3295.  C.
 consists  of three principal parts or di-
 visions,  namely,  Old Cambridge, which
 contains  the university, a state arsenal, a
 Congregational meeting-house, an Episco-
 pal church, &c ; Cambridge-Port, which
is a considerable trading village, contain-
 ing four houses of public worship, and is
connected with Boston by West Boston
bridge;   East Cambridge, a flourishing
 manufacturing village, which  is situated
 on Lechmere  point, is connected with
 Boston by Craigie's or Canal bridge, and
 contains a court-house, a jail, a large glass
 manufactory, and three houses of public
 worship. The university  in C, the oldest
 in the U. States, was incorporated in 1638,
 and named Harvard college, from its prin- 
CAMBRIDGE.      .                     427
cipal founder.  Its endowments have been
since greatly increased by donations from
the state, as well as by numerous acts of
private bounty ; and, with regard to funds,
Ubrary,  professorships, and literary  ad-
vantages in genera], it is the first institu-
tion ofthe kind in  America.  It compris-
es a  department for under-graduates, and
one for students preparing for each ofthe
learned  professions, theology,  law  and
medicine.  The principal college  build-
ings are, University hall, an elegant edifice
of granite, containing a chapel, lecture
rooms, dining halls, &c; Harvard hall, a
brick edifice, containing  the Ubrary, phi-
losophical apparatus and  mineralogical
cabinet; four other brick edifices, called
Massachusetts, Hollis, Stoughton and Hol-
 worthy  halls, each four stories high, con-
 taining rooms for  the accommodation of
 under-graduates;  Jhvinity  hall,  a large
 brick edifice for the accommodation of
 the  theological students;  and  Holden
chapel, containing the anatomical muse-
 um, chemical laboratory and lecture rooms.
 The library is the largest in the  union,
 and contains about 30,000 volumes.  The
 philosophical  apparatus is probably not
 surpassed  by any in the country.  The
 chemical laboratory, anatomical museum,
 and cabinet of minerals, are all valuable.
 The botanic garden comprises seven acres,
 laid out in an ornamental style, and is
 furnished with an  interesting collection of
 trees, shrubs and  plants, both native and
 foreign.  The legislative government is
 intrusted to  a corporation, consisting of
 the president  of  the university and six
 fellows, and to a board of overseers, com-
 posed of the  president,  the governor of
 the state, lieutenant-governor, members
 of the council and senate, and the speak-
 er ofthe house of representatives, ex offi-
 ciis, together with 30  others, 15 clergy-
 men and 15 laymen, elected for the pur-
 pose.  The  officers of the university, to
 whom the business of instruction is con-
 fided, are a president, 21 professors, 2 tu-
 tors, and several  instructers.  The presi-
 dent, a part of the professors and the tu-
 tors constitute the immediate government
 ofthe  institution. The course of educa-
 tion requisite to obtain the first degree in
 arts in this  university,  as in American
 colleges generally, is completed  in four
 years.   In  the  theological  school, the
 course of education is completed in three
 years, and the students  are divided into
 three classes, junior, middle and senior.
 Tuition is afforded free of expense to all
 pupils in this school, and  further assist-
 ance is given  to such  as are indigent.
Graduates of any college, of good moral
character, may be admitted to share in all
the benefits of this institution.  The law
school was  established in 1817.  Can-
didates for admission must be graduates
of some college, or qualified, according to
the rules of  court, to become students at
law.  Students in this department, who
are graduates ofa college, complete their
education in three years.   Those who are
not graduates complete it in  five years.
The lectures for the medical students are
deUvered in Boston, at the Massachusetts
medical college, which is a spacious edi-
fice of brick, and contains a medical U-
brary of about 4000 volumes.  They com-
mence annually on the third Wednesday
in November, and continue three months.
In order to  obtain a degree of M. D., it is
necessary for  a student  to  attend two
courses  of  lectures, and  to pass  three
years, including the time  occupied in at-
tending  the lectures, under the direction
of some  regular practitioner.  In  1829,
the number of under-graduates was 252,
theological  students 42, law students 24,
medical students 83;  total, 401.  Com-
mencement is on the last Wednesday in
August.  The academical year is divided
into three terms and three vacations. The
first vacation is of  two weeks, from the
 Wednesday preceding the 25th  day of
 December, die second of two weeks, from
 the first Wednesday  in  April,  and the
 third, the six weeks next preceding com-
 mencement.
   Cambridge ; a town of England, situ-
 ated on the river Cam, 51 miles  north of
 London. It  is an  ancient  place, and
 was a Roman station (Granta).  It  has a
 population  of 14,142 inhabitants, and re-
 turns two members to parliament.  This
 town  is celebrated for  its  university,
 which,  according  to some writers, was
 founded as early as 630;  but  the earliest
 authentic document relative  to  it bears
 date 1229.  The university consists of 17
 colleges, 4  of which are called halls, the
 schools, the public library, and the senate-
 house. . The following list contains the
 name of each  of these institutions, and
 the time when it was founded.
1. Peter house ... . .	. 1257
	. 1326
	. 1343
4. Gonville and Caius college .	. 1348
	. 1344
	. 1350
	
	
	. . 1475
	. . 1496
	. . 1505
	. . 1511
 
428
CAMBRIDGE.
  13. Magdalen college......• 1519
  14. Trinity college.......1546
  15. Emanuel college.......1584
  16. Sidney Sussex college ..... 1593
  17. Downing college.......1800

(See CoUeges.)—Previous to the  erection
of coUeges, the students resided in hostels
or inns,  which  were provided  by  the
townsmen  for their reception, of which
there Were 34.  The charges  of educa-
tion and  maintenance were paid by  the
students  themselves.  The university is
composed of a chancellor, vice-chancel-
lor, the masters or heads, fellows of col-
leges, and students, amounting in all (in
1823) to 4277 members,  and is incorpor-
ated as a society for  the study of all the
liberal arts and sciences.  Although each
college or hall is a body of  itself, and
bound by its own statutes, it is controlled
by the paramount law  of the university
(i*hiefly contained in the  statutes given by
EUzabeth), each funiishing members for
the government of the whole.  The gov-
ernment  is. administered by a chancellor,
who is a nobleman, a high steward, cho-
sen by the senate, a vice-chancellor, who
is usually  the head  of some college  or
hall, two proctors, who attend  to the dis-
cipline ofthe under-masters of arts, read
the graces, &c ; taxors, moderators, scru-
tators, a commissary, a public orator; the
caput, consisting of the vice-chancellor
and  several  doctors,  which  determines
what graces shall be brought before the
university.  There are also 23 professors
in the various departments of literature
and science.   The senate is composed of
all the doctors and masters, and is divided
into  two houses,  the regent-house and
the senate-house.  The  two members of
parliament, returned  by the university,
are chosen by the whole body  collective-
ly.   The election of officers, the admis-
sion to degrees, &c, take place in  the
senate-house.  The fellows, scholars, and
certain inferior officers, are maintained on
the foundation.  Besides which there are
other orders of students: the greater pen-
sioners are the young nobUity and gentle-
men of fortune, who dine with the fellows,
and are therefore called fellow-commoners;
the less  pensioners dine with  the schol-
ars ; the  sizars are scholars who receive
benefactions,   called  exhibitions.   Three
years' study at the university are necessa-
ry for taking  the degree of bachelor of
arts  (q. v.), and four years more for that
of master.  In divinity, a student may com-
mence bachelor seven years after receiving
the  degree of bachelor of arts; in law,
six years after; and, in  physic, five years
after.  The time for conferring these de-
grees is called the commencement.   The
nobility are entitled to  degrees without
waiting the statutable time.  The whole
number of students in  1823 was  1800.
(See  Universities.)—The public  library
occupies the four  sides of a quadrangle
over the schools,  and contains  140,000
vols.  (See Libraries.)  The Fitzwilliam
museum comprehends the collection of
books, paintings, drawings,  engravings,
left by the viscount FitzwHliam in  1815.
The observatory is placed under the Plu-
mian professor of astronomy and two as-
sistant observers.  (See Fuller's  History
of Cambridge University; Dyer's History,
London, 1814, 2 vols., 8vo., and the Uni-
verrity Calendar.)
  Cambridge  (Adolphus Frederic of
England),  duke of, earl  of Tipperary
baron  of Culloden, governor-general of
Hanover, chancellor of the university of
St. Andrews, and field-marshal, was born
Feb. 24, 1774.  He entered  the military
service as an ensign when 16 years old,.
and soon afterwards went to the university
of Gottingen.   After he had passed one
winter at the court of Fredenc William
II, he returned to London ; was present,
in 1793, in the campaign in  the Nether-
lands, and was taken prisoner in the bat-
tle  at  Hondtschoote (8th of September,
1793), but immediately released.  In 1794,
having attained  his majority, he was ap-
pointed colonel, and duke of C, and was
called  into the  house of lords.  Here he
enlisted on the side of the opposition, un-
der Fox, and adhered to this party until
it was almost dissolved.   He now joined
the other party, opposed to Pitt—that of
Grenville.  In 1803, he was sent without
an army to the defence of Hanover.  But
he soon transferred the chief command
to Wallmoden, and returned to England.
Being  always violent against  Napoleon,
he fluctuated between the parties of lord
Sidmouth,  Grenville, and the opposition ;
and, after the re-acquisition  of Hanover,
was raised to the office of governor-gen-
eral of this kingdom (Oct. 24,1816). The
city of Hanover was much benefited by his
residence, and by the protection and pat-
ronage which he bestowed on many arts,
particularly the dramatic.   He was mar-
ried, May 7,1818, to Augusta, the daugh-
ter of the landgrave Frederic of Hesse-
Cassel, who, in  March, 1819, bore  him a
son, and, in 1822, a daughter.
   Cambridge  Manuscript, or  Beza's
Manuscript ; a copy of the Gospels and
Acts of the Apostles in Greek and Latin.
Beza found it in the monastery of Irense- 
CAMBRIDGE—CAMDEN.                     429
 us at Lyons, in 1562, and  gave it to the
 university of Cambridge in 1582.  It is a
 quarto, and written on vellum.  66 leaves
 of it are much torn and mutilated, and 10
 of these are supplied by a later transcriber.
 The age of this MS. is differently estimat-
 ed by different writers, but aU agree that
 it is of great antiquity.   The most compe-
 tent  judges consider it one of the most
 ancient.  In the Greek, it is defective from
 the beginning to Matthew i. 20;  in the
 Latin,  to Matthew i. 12; besides which
 it has some other chasms.   Wetstein,
 Griesbach,  MichaeUs, and  several others,
 have written upon this MS.
   Cambronne, Pierre Jacques Etienne,
 baron, general, commander of the legion
 of honor, and field-marshal, born Dec. 26,
 1770, at  St. Sebastien, near Nantes, was
 descended  from an opulent family, and
 enjoyed a  good education.  Under the
 republic, and under Napoleon, he served
 in every campaign, and  became so cele-
 brated, on account of his personal bravery,
 that  the soldiers wished  to give him the
 title of first grenadier of France, after the
 death of Latour d'Auvergne. but he de-
 clined  the honor.  He was  made  com-
 mander of the chasseurs of the imperial
 guard,  and was  at Fontainebleau when
 Napoleon abdicated.  He went with him
 to the island of Elba as chief of the divi-
 sion ofthe old guard, which accompanied
 him  into his exile.  C. commanded the
 little corps with which Napoleon  landed,
 March 1,  1815, in  the gulf of St. Juan,
 and signed the address to the French ar-
 my, summoning them  to return to Napo-
 leon's standard.  On the field of battle at
 Waterloo, he was taken  prisoner by the
 British, among those who  were severely
 wounded.  His celebrated answer to the
 British proposal of capitulation is weU
 known—" La garde meurt,  die ne se rend
pas."  He was one of the 19 generals of
 Napoleon who, by the royal decree of Ju-
 ly 24, 1815, were to be tried by a court-
martial.  He returned from his captivity
as a prisoner of war, and  appeared in per-
 son before this tribunal.  As he had taken
 no oath of fidelity to  the  Bourbons, he
 was acquitted.  The sentence was revis-
 ed, and the acquittal confirmed.
  Cambyses,  1. the son  of Cyras the
 Great and of Cassandana, became, after
 the death of his father, king of the Per-
 sians and Medes, A. C. 530.  Soon after
 his accession to  the throne, he made an
 attack upon Egypt, killed the king of this
 countiy,  Psammenitus,  plundered  the
chief city, Memphis, and conquered the
whole  kingdom within six months.  He
now wished to send a fleet against Car
thage, to conquer Ethiopia, and to obtain
possession of the temple of Jupiter Am-
mon.  The first of  these expeditions,
however, did not take place, because the
fleet, which was manned with Phoenicians,
refused  obedience to him.   The army
which was  sent against the Ammonites
perished in the desert; and the troops, at
whose head he himself had set out against
the Ethiopians, were compeUed by hunger
to retreat  From this time, he gave him-
self up to the greatest cruelties.  On his
entrance into Memphis, seeing the Egyp-
tians engaged in  the celebration of a feast
in honor of their god Apis, whom they
had found, he believed that they were re-
joicing  at  his misfortunes.  He  caused
the holy bull to be brought before him,
slew him with his own sword, and caused
the priest to be scourged with rods.  To
drown his vexation, he indulged himself
in the most immoderate  enjoyment of
wine.  No  relation was held sacred by
him  when intoxicated.  He caused  his
brother  Smerdis, a  dream  concerning
whom had disturbed him, to be murder-
ed.  His sister and wife Atossa, who la-
mented  the death of Smerdis, he  killed
with a blow of his foot  These and other
actions of the most insane rage had irri-
tated his subjects. A Magian availed him-
self of this discontent, and obtained pos-
session of the throne under the name of
Smerdis, whose death had been conceal-
ed.  C. had resolved to go to Susa, in or-
der to punish him,  when, as he was
mounting his horse, he was wounded in
the hip by his sword.  He died of this
wound soon after, in 522, at Ecbatana, in
Assyria, without leaving any children.—
2. A  Persian of low descent, the  grand-
father ofthe former, to whom king A sty-
ages  gave his daughter Mandane in mar-
riage, in order to prevent  the fulfilment
of a dream, according to which he was to
lose his crown  by means of his daughter's
son, while he flattered himself with the
hope, that his grandson would constantly
hold  in remembrance  the  benefit confer-
red on his father.  He did not, however,
escape his fate, for Cyrus, the son of Man-
dane, dethroned him.
  Camden ; a post-town, and  capital of
Kershaw district, South Carolina, on the
E. side of the Wateree, 35 miles  N. E.
Columbia, 130 N. N. W. Charleston ; lon.
80° 33' W.; lat  34° 17' N.; population,
about 1000.  It is a pleasant town, regu-
larly laid out, and contains a court-house,
a jail, an academy, and four places of pub-
Uc worship.  The surrounding country is 
430                         CAMDEN—CAMEL.
fertile  and pleasant   The  Wateree  is
navigable  to  this place for boats of 70
tons.  Two battles were fought here dur-
ing the revolutionary war; one, Aug. 16,
1780, between  general  Gates and lord
ComwalUs, in which the Americans were
defeated;  the other, April 25, 1781, be-
tween general Greene and lord Rawdon.
The Americans had 126 men killed, and
100  taken prisoners.   The  British had
about 100 kUled.
   Camel  (camelus,  L.); a genus  of
mammiferous quadrupeds, of die rumi-
nant order, charactenzed by their size;
the possession of incisive, canine and mo-
lar teeth; the upper lip  divided; the neck
long and arched; by the absence of horns,
and by having one or two humps or protu-
berances upon the back, and naked callos-
ities at the joints  of the leg,  the inferior
part of the breast, &c.   The inferior ex-
tremities terminate in two toes, which are
not whoUy covered by hoof, as they have
only a small one at the extremity, and a
sort  of very hard, caUous sole,  common
to both.  There are six incisive  and two
canine teeth in the lower jaw; and, in the
upper, there are two incisors  in the inter-
maxillary  bone, with one or two canine
teeth on each side, which increase to a
considerable size with the increasing age
ofthe animal.  The camel is the only ru-
minant animal which has cutting teeth in
die upper jaw.—The native country of this
genus is said to extend from Mauritania to
China, within a zone of 900 or 1000 miles
in breadth.  The common camel, having
two humps, is only found in the northern
part of this region,  and exclusively from
the ancient Bactria, now Turkestan,  to
China.  The dromedary, or 6ingle-hump
camel, is found throughout the entire
length of this zone, on its southern side,
as far as Africa and India. Notwithstand-
ing this, the dromedary cannot sustain
either  the burning heat of the torrid, or
the rmld cUmate of the temperate zone,
while the  camel supports aU the vicissi-
tudes of cUmate with but little injury.   It
is highly probable that the camel has long
ceased to exist in its wild or natural state,
as it has been enslaved by man  from the
earUest times of which we have record.
Among the stock composing the wealth
ofthe  patriarch Job, we find 600 camels
enumerated.   UnUke the elephant, and
other animals which cease to breed in a
Btate of captivity, the camel is as proUfic
as if at liberty; and vast numbers are rais-
ed and employed throughout the Oriental
countries, especially in the commerce car-
ried on between the people residing in the
vicinity of the  great deserts.   To these
people the camel serves in the place of
ships, and  other modes of conveyance,
being especially adapted by nature for the
service in which it is employed.  In re-
gions where water  is exceedingly scarce,
and  wells  or springs  are several  days'
journey distant  from each other, it would
be impossible to traverse the country with
the usual beasts  of burthen.   But the
camel can abstain from drinking for seven
or eight days together without injury—an
important advantage, which  is owing to
the possession of a fifth pouch, or appen-
dix to the stomach, destined to receive
water, whenever it can be procured, and
capable of retaining it unchanged for a
long time.   From  this receptacle  a por-
tion of water can be thrown into the other
stomachs or  gullet  when necessary, and
thus avert the evils of thirst.   Possessing
strength and activity  surpassing that of
most beasts of burthen, docUe, patient of
hunger  and  thirst, and contented with
small quantities ofthe coarsest provender,
the camel is one  of the most valuable
gifts of Providence.  There is nothing,
however, in  the external appearance of
the animal to indicate the existence of any
of its exceUent qualities.  In form and
proportions, it is very opposite to our usual
ideas of perfection and beauty. A stout
body, having the back disfigured with one
or two humps; limbs long, slender, and
seemingly too weak to support the trunk;
a long, sUm, crooked  neck, surmounted
by  a heavily-proportioned head, are all
ill-suited to  produce  favorable impres-
sions.  Nevertheless, there is no creature
more excellently adapted to its situation,
nor is there one in which more of creative
wisdom is displayed in the peculiarities of
its organization. To the Arabs, and other
wanderers of the desert, the camel is at
once  wealth, subsistence and protection.
Their strength and fleetness render their
masters the tenor of enemies, and secure
them from  pursuit—a few hours  being
sufficient  to place leagues  of trackless
desert between them and their foes. The
milk  of the  females furnishes the Arab
with a large  part of his nutriment The
flesh  of the  young animal is one of his
greatest luxuries:  of the skins, he  forms
tents: the various  sorts of hair, or wool,
shed  by the camel, are wrought into dif-
ferent fabrics; and  its dried dung consti-
tutes excellent fuel, the only kind, indeed,
to be obtained throughout vast extents of
country.  In order to qualify camels for
great exertions, and  the  endurance of
fatigue, the Arabs begin to educate them 
CAMEL.                               431
at an early age.  They are first taught to
bear burdens, by having their limbs secur-
ed under  the  belly,  and then a weight
proportioned to their  strength is put on:
this is not changed for a heavier load till
the animal is thought to have gained suffi-
cient power to sustain it.  Food and drink
are not allowed at will, but given in smaU
quantity, at long intervals.  They are then
gradually accustomed to long journeys,
and an accelerated pace, until their qual-
ities  of fleetness  and strength  are fully
brought into action.  They are taught to
kneel, for the purpose of receiving or re-
moving their  load.  When too heavily
laden,  they refuse to rise; and, by loud
cries, complain of the injustice.  Small
camels  carry from 600  to 800  lbs.;  the
largest and strongest bear 1000 or 1200 lbs.,
from 30 to 35 miles a day.  Those which
are used for speed alone are capable of
traveUing from 60 to 90 miles a  day.  In-
stead of employing blows or ill treatment
to increase their speed, the camel-drivers
sing cheerful  songs, and  thus  urge the
animals to their  best efforts.   When  a
caravan of camels arrives at a resting or
baiting-place, they kneel,  and, the cords
sustaining the load being untied, the bales
slip down on each side.  They  generally
sleep on their bellies, crouching between
the bales they  have carried: the load is,
therefore,  replaced  with  great facility.
In an  abundant  pasture,  they  generally
browse as much in an hour  as serves
them for  ruminating all  night, and for
their support during  the next day.  But
it is uncommon to find such pasturage,
and they are contented with the coarsest
fare : nettles, thistles, wormwood, and va-
rious harsh vegetables are eaten by them
with  avidity,  and are even preferred to
ulbre deUcate plants.—Camels, designed
exclusively for labor, are  usually  gelded,
and females are also treated in  a  similar
manner. They are, it is true, not so strong,
nor  so spirited, as unmutilated animals,
but are much more manageable.  During
their  sexual season,  the  males become
furious and ungovernable: they  refuse
food, are spiteful, biting and kicking even
then keepers,  to whom they are, at other
times, very obedient  At  this time, also,
a foetid secretion is effused from a glandu-
lar  apparatus  on the neck; the  animal
foams at the mouth, and a red, membran-
ous vesicle, similar to a bladder, is  extend-
ed on each side ofthe mouth.   One mole
is reserved perfect for every eight females.
The female receives the male in the same
crouching  attitude, in which she  places
herself to  receive a  load, or for the pur-
pose of sleeping.  She goes with young
12 months, and brings forth one at a birth.
Her milk is very thick, abundant and rich,
but of rather a strong taste. M ingled with
water, it  forms a very nutritive article of
diet.  Breeding and milk-giving camels
are exempted from service, and fed as
weU as possible, the value of their milk
being greater than that of their labor. The
young camel usuaUy sucks for 12 months;
but such as are intended for speed ore
allowed to suck, and exempted from re-
straint, for two or three years.  The camel
attains the  full  exercise of its functions
within 4 or 5, and the duration of its life
is from 40 to 50 years.—The humps or
bunches on the back  of the camel are
mere accumulations of cellular substance
and fat,  covered by skin, and a longer
hair  than  that of  the general  surface.
During long journeys, in which the ani-
mals suffer severely from want of food,
and become greatly emaciated, these pro-
tuberances are graduaUy absorbed, and
no trace  of them left, except that the skin
is loose and flabby where tiiey were situ-
ated.  In preparing for a journey,  it is
necessary to guard the humps from pres-
sure or friction by appropriate saddles,  as
the slightest ulceration of these  parts is
foUowed by die worst consequences:  in-
sects deposit their larves in the sores, and
sometimes extensive and destructive mor-
tification ensues.—The Bactrian or com-
mon camel is larger than the dromedary;
the limbs are not so long in proportion to
the body;  the muzzle is  larger and more
tumid; the hair of a  darker brown, and
the usual gait slower.  A still more strik-
ing distinction is afforded  by the two
humps—the dromedary having but one.
This single hump of die latter occupies
the middle of the* back,  rising gradually
on all sides towards its apex, and never
inclining to one side. Both species are
occasionally  found in  collections of ani-
mals. The dromedary is more frequendy
seen than die camel.—During that season
ofthe year when these  gentle creatures
becoine violent, the Turks take advantage
 of this change in their disposition to set
 on foot  camel-fights—disgraceful exhibi-
 tions, indicative of the same spirit as the
 Uon-fights of Rome,  the  bull-fights  of
 Spain, the buU and badger-baitings and
 cock-fights of England.  These fights are
 common at  Smyrna and Aleppo.  The
 camels of Smyrna are led out to a large
 plain, filled with eager crowds.  The ani-
 mals are muzzled, to prevent their doing
 each qther serious injury, for their bite is
 tremendous, always  bringing the piece 
432
CAMEL—CAMELOPARD.
out.  A  couple, being let  loose,  ran at
each  other with extreme  fury.  Their
mode of combat is curious: they  knock
their heads together laterally, twist tlieir
long necks, wrestle with their  fore-legs,
almost Uke bipeds, and seem to be  princi-
jpaUy bent on throwuig down their adver-
sary.
  Camel, in mechanics; a machine used
 n HoUand and St. Petersburg for lifting
 Ehips over shallow bars. De Witt invented
 hese  machines, and Peter the  Great in-
 reduced them into Russia.  A  camel is
composed of two separate parts, the in-
sides  of which are shaped so as to em-
brace the hull of a ship on  both sides.
Each part has a cabin, with many pumps
and plugs. They are fastened to the ves-
sel  underneath, and entirely  enclose its
sides and bottom.  They are then towed
to the bar, and are sunk  with  the  vessel,
by taking out the plugs.  The water being
now pumped out, the camel lifts the ves-
sel, and the whole is towed over the bar.
  Cameleon.  (See Chameleon.)
  Camelopard ; also called giraffe (cam-
dopardalis  giraffa, L.);  a very remark-
able genus of mammiferous quadrupeds,
belonging  to  the  order of ruminants ;
characterized by having 8 incisive teeth
in the lower jaw; a bony prominence on
the frontal bone; horns somewhat inclined,
covered by the skin ofthe head,  and hav-
ing a-bristly fringe round their tips; cal-
losities upon the sternum and knee joints;
a tuft at the end of the tail; a reddish
mane, extending from the occiput along
the whole of the  neck and shoulders, as
far as  the root ofthe tail.  The body ofthe
giraffe having considerable resemblance
to that of the camel, and the color of its
skin being an impure or yellowish  white,
spotted with rhomboidal  patches of fawn
color,  something like that of the leopard,
ted  to its  bearing the names of these  ani-
mals conjoined.  In its manner of kneel-
ing for the purpose of  sleeping, in the
length of its  neck, and the presence of
callosities on the lower part of the  breast
and over the joints, it has a further simi-
larity to the camel.  Its horns, which, in
the male, are about a foot long, perma-
nent, and covered by the skin ofthe head
to their very tips, give the  giraffe some
analogy to the genus cervus or deer, under
which it was classed by Linnaeus.   Its
most striking peculiarity is the great ap-
parent height of its foreparts, which rise
very suddenly from the fore-shoulders.
Measured from the ground to the  top of
the head, the animal is from 15 to 17
feet high.  The posterior extremities  are
 not higher than 9 feet; but the difference
 in length between the anterior and pos>
 terior extremities is by no means as great
 as would be infeiTcd from the appearance
 of the  animal.   The great difference is
 owing to the length of die neck, which
 tapers upwards, and at its base is rendered
 exceedingly thick, by the long dorsal and
 cervical  spinous processes, that give at-
 tachment to its  powerful  muscles and
 Ugaments.  The trunk of the body is
 short in proportion to the  neck, and the
 fore limbs are more robust than the pos-
 terior.   The hoofs are rounded and cleft,
 Uke those of the ox.  The tail is slender,
 cylindrical, and terminated by a tuft 3 or
 4 inches long.  The head ofthe giraffe is
 not unlike that ofthe hoise; the eyes are
 large, fine and brilliant; the ears, both in
 length and figure, more resemble those
 of the ox.   It is a mild, timid and harm-
 less animal, choosing dense forests for its
 residence, and feeding on the leaves and
 shoots  of trees.   When it browses  the
 herbage  on the ground, it is  not, as has
 been supposed,  under the necessity of
 kneeling, though its natural mode of feed-
 ing, for which it seems to  be especially
 constructed,  is by browsing upon trees or
 shrubs of considerable elevation.—The
 giraffe is a native of the country lying be-
 tween Egypt and Ethiopia.  It is rare  in
 Abyssinia, and still  more so in Southern
 Africa.   It is hunted and killed by the
 natives for the sake of its large and beau-
 tiful skin, as well as for the marrow of its
 bones, considered by them  to  be an ex-
 quisite dainty.  The flesh of the  young
 camelopard  is said,  by travellers,  to be
 an acceptable article of diet  Little is
 known of the gestation of this animal,
 though it is said, like that ofthe camel„to
 endure for 12 months.—The  giraffe has
 long been known to naturalists, though
 opportunities of examining living speci-
mens have always been rare.  They were
brought Uving to Rome, to adorn the pub-
lic games and festivals, as Pliny  states,
during the dictatorship of Caesar.   Fig-
ures of the animal are still preserved in
 the Praenestine pavement, wrought under
the  orders of Sylla.  The figure of the
giraffe also occurs among the hieroglyphic
monumental drawings of the  Egyptian*.
The giraffe moves with great celerity, and
 it requires a swift horse to equal its speed,
 when only in a trot   It has not been
 tamed, or appUed to any useful purpose,
 as far as  we  know, though a  few speci-
 mens have, at different times, been  sent to
 Europe,  as presents  to sovereigns, or for
 exhibition.  The pacha of Egypt, not 
CAMELOPARD—CAMERARIUS.
433
long since, sent one to the king of France,
which is still living in the menagerie of
Paris.
  Camenz ; a village in the Prussian gov-
ernment of Reichenbach, circle of Frank-
enstein, on the Neiss;  remarkable for the
rich Cistercian abbey of the same  name,
now abolished, which was built  in 1094,
and numbered, from 1249 to 1810, 53 ab-
bots.  The most celebrated abbot was
Tobias Stusche, who acquired the favor of
Frederic the Great in a way till lately in-
explicable.  According to a manuscript
history in the Latin language, left by a
friar of C, during the war of 1741,  the
abbot suddenly summoned the monks, one
evening, to the chapel, at  an unusual
hour, by the sound of the bell.  With him
came a stranger in a clerical dress. Scarce-
ly had the monks begun to pray, when a
great tumult was heard.  Austrian troops
had arrived from Wartha, and were seen
in the monastery, and  even in the church.
They searched the buUding for king Fred-
eric, but found and seized his aids only.
The address of the abbot saved the king
of  Prussia and the monarchy.   Frederic
refers to this adventure in the Histoire de
man Temps, i. chap. 3.  The monastery
was dissolved by  the edict of Oct. 30,
1811.  The beautiful castle was burnt in
1817.
  Cameo, or  Camaieu ; in the  proper
sense, a gem  engraved in relievo.  The
ancients  generally used  the onyx for  this
purpose.  At first, such onyxes, and, af-
terward, all gems  carved in relief, were
called  cameos.   They were carved  ac-
cording to the layers of the stone, so that
the ground should be  of a different color
from the figure in relief.  One of the most
famous cameos  is the onyx at present in
Paris, called the Apotheoris  of Augustus,
1  foot  high and  10 inches wide:   its
history is also singular.  (See Gem Sculp-
ture.)
   Camera  ^Eolia;  a contrivance  for
blowing the fire, for the fusion of ores, by
means of water falling through a funnel
into a  vessel,   which emits a quantity
of air or vapor continually, sufficient to
keep up a strong fire.
   Camera Clara  (light chamber);   on
optical instrument invented by Reinthaler,
which supplies the  deficiencies of the
camera  obscura, and has this advantage
over that instrument, that the object to be
represented need not be illuminated by
the sun.  All objects appear in it with
great distinctness.  It can be used equally
well in bright and dark weather, in the
light of the sun or that of the moon.—
   vol.  n.            37
Camera lucida is the somewhat awkward
name of an instrument invented in Eng-
land, which only so far resembles the cam-
era obscura,  that it presents a complete
image of objects  on a very diminished
scale.  The chief part is a prism.  If this
is  placed in a  proper position, and the
spectator approaches his eye to it, he per-
ceives the image ofthe object before it
represented  with  the greatest clearness,
and perfect precision of outline, on a sheet
of paper fixed underneath, and can easily
trace it, whilst  the persons around  him
see only the drawing made  on the paper.
—Camera obscura (dark chamber) is either
a closed room, in which the light can fall
only through a small  aperture, or an opti-
cal box, in which exterior  objects are rep-
resented on  a smaller scale.   It is used
for amusement or for drawing landscapes
and  scenery, though  what is  gained  in
rapidity and ease of execution is lost in the
dimness of the coloring.  (For the theory
of this instrument see treatises on natu-
ral philosophy ana optics.)
   Camera lucida.  (See Camera clara.)
   Camera  obscura.   (See Camera cla-
ra.)
   Camerarius  (Joachim  I) ; born  in
1500, at Bamberg; one of the most dis-
tinguished scholars of Germany, who con-
tributed to the progress of knowledge, in
the  16th century,  by his own works as
well  as by editions of Greek  and Latin
authors with commentaries, and by a bet-
ter organization  of  the  universities  at
Leipsic and Tubingen, and of the gymna-
sium  at Nuremberg.  He  also took  an
important part in the political and reli-
gious affairs of his time.   He was a friend
of Melancthon, and  was held  in great
esteem by the emperors Charles V, Ferdi-
nand I, and Maximilian II.  In 1555, he
was  deputy  of the university of Leipsir
to the diet of Augsburg, and died in 1574.
He was naturally  grave and serious, and
had such a detestation of falsehood,  that
he could never endure  it, even in jest.
His works are estimated at  150, mostly
translations from Greek and Latin writers,
besides many poems, and a great number
of famiUar letters.
   Camerarius (Joachim II);  son of the
 preceding; bom in 1534, at Nuremberg ;
 one of the most learned physicians and
 greatest botanists of his time.  After hav-
 ing studied  in the  German and Italian
 universities, he practised with great suc-
 cess in Nuremberg, where he  instituted a
 medical academy, laid  out  a botanical
 garden,  and  published  many botanical
 works.  He died in 1598.  Several of his 
434
CAMERARIUS—CAMILLUS.
sons  and grandsons have  (Ustinguished
themselves in medicine and botany.
  Camerlingo (Italian) denotes the high-
est officer in the Ecclesiastical States. The
cardinale camerlingo stands,  in fact, at the
head  of affairs in this  government He
has the control of the treasury, adminis-
ters justice,  and exercises  almost  sove-
reign  power when the papal chair is va-
cant.
  Cameronians ; a sect in Scotland, who
separated from the Presbyterians in  1666,
and continued long to hold their religious
assembUes in the fields.  Their name  is
derived from Richard Cameron, a preach-
er, the founder of the sect.  They rebeUed
against  the government, and were nev-
er entirely reduced  till the  revolution.
They  adhered rigidly to the  form of gov-
ernment established  in  1648.—Cargillites
was another name for the same sect, de-
rived  from another preacher among them.
It is said, that not above 14 or 15 congre-
gations of them exist.
  Cames arc slender rods  of cast  lead,
of which glaziers make their turned or
milled lead, for joining the panes or quar-
rels of glass.
  Camillus, Marcus Furius.  This Ro-
man hero was chosen tribune of the peo-
ple in the year B. C. 401, and took part
in the siege of Veii. Three years  after,
itc was invested  with the same dignity,
and went against  the FaUsci.  After he
had become censor,  he proposed a law
to oblige unmarried  men to  many the
widows of those slain in battle.  After the
defeat of the military tribunes L. Atilius
and Cn. Genucius,  before  Veii,  by the
Tuscans, C. was made  dictator. lie de-
feated the Falisci, Capenates and Tuscans,
advanced to Veu, into which he penetrat-
ed by a subterraneous passage, and,  B. C.
396, obtained possession of a  place, winch,
for 10 years, had defied the Roman pow-
er.  The people murmured when  they
saw him make a triumphal  entry  in  a
splendid chariot  drawn by four white
iiorses,  and with his face  painted; for
both of these distinctions were appropri-
ated to the gods.  But the discontent of
the citizens rose  to the  highest pitch
when  the dictator demanded of them the
tenth  part of the plunder, to perform  a
vow which he had made to ApoUo in
case of success. After a long contention,
they agreed to consecrate to the god  a
golden cup, for which the Roman ladies
were obUged to give all  their jewels into
the public treasury.   Not long after, C.
was appointed miUtary  tribune.  He be-
sieged Folerii, the inhabitants of which
 defended themselves to the last extremity.  ,
 A schoolmaster deUvered into the power
 of C. the children of the most distinguish-
 ed Falisci, but he sent  back the traitor,
 with  his  hands bound, while the boys
 beat him with rods, as they returned to
 dieir parents.   This generosity  induced
 the besieged to surrender; and the senate
 allowed C. to determine their fate.  He
 contented himself with obliging them to
 pay the arrears due to his soldiers;  but
 this increased the number of his enemies.
 Some  time before,  C. had opposed  tho
 proposal of colonizing Veii with one half
 ofthe citizens of Rome: he did the same
 now, when that proposal  was renewed.
 For some time, he was invested with  the
 dignity of an interrex, and had to contend
 with all the consequences of hatred. The
 tribune of the people,  Apuleius, accused
 him of having embezzled a part  of  the
 plunder of Veii.  C, who foresaw his con-
 demnation, went into voluntary exile, al-
 though his friends offered to pay die sum
 demanded of  him.  Less  magnanimous
 than Aristides, in a similar situation, C.
 is said to have prayed the gods to compel
 his ungrateful country to a speedy repent-
 ance.   This wish was granted.   Brennus
 (q. v.) had obtained  possession of Rome,
 with the exception  of the  capitol.   C,
 who was residing  in Ardea, aroused the
 inhabitants of that city to resistance, and
 defeated  the Gauls,  who were carelessly
 encamped before  it.  The Romans, who
 had fled to Veii, besought him  to  place
 himself at their head; but he declared that
he was ready to do  this only in case  the
 Roman people, now  in the capitol, would
commit to him the chief command.  Pon-
tius Cominius, a young plebeian, had  the
courage and the good fortune to carry  the
message  from  the city.   C. was  unani-
 mously appointed  dictator, and  soon saw
himself at the head of an anny of 40,000
men, with which  he hastened to the  re-
lief of the capitol, where he found  the
besieged just on the point of purchasing
 peace,  and exclaimed,  " With iron,  not
 with gold, Rome buys  her freedom."
 The Gauls were  defeated, and  left tlieir
 camp by night. C. overtook them on  the
 next day, and obtained a complete victo-
 ry. He now made a triumphal entry into
 Rome, amidst the  acclamations  of  the
 people and the army, who greeted him
 with the name of Romulus, father of his
 country,  aud  second founder of the city.
 But the city was a heap of ruins, and  the
 tribunes renewed the proposal of remov-
 ing to Veii, while, at the  same time, they
 sought to excite in the people apprehen- 
CAMILLUS—CAMOENS.
435
 sions of the power of C.  The  senate,
 however, frustrated their designs, and  C.
 retained the dictatorship.  Rome was re-
 built  The iEqui, Volsci, the Etruscans,
 and even the Latins, united against Rome.
 C, for the third time dictator, armed the
 whole people, came to the assistance of
 the military tribunes, who were surround-
 ed, fired the enemy's camp, and gave the
 plunder  to his soldiers.   He  then took
 Bote, the chief city of the iEqui, defeat-
 ed the Volsci, and  compelled the  Etrus-
 cans  to retreat.  He now triumphed for
 the third time, restored, from the booty,
 to the Roman ladies, what they had for-
 merly contributed to the accomplishment
 of his vow, and retired into a private sta-
 tion.   Soon after, when the inhabitants of
 Antium attacked Rome, he was appointed
 military tribune, obtained from his col-
 leagues  the chief  command, and took
 severe vengeance  on  the enemy.  His
 glory  excited  the  jealousy  of Manlius.
 The senate, alarmed, once more raised C.
 to the miUtary tribuneship.  ManUus was
overcome;  but the people, who had  at
first rejoiced at his condemnation, soon
felt repentance.   It was resolved to attack
the Praenestines, allies of the Volsci.  C.
was obliged, notwithstanding his age,  to
take the chief command.   It appeared to
him hazardous to  venture a battle; but
Lucius Furius, his colleague, pressed him
to attack the enemy.  C. allowed him to
direct the engagement, and confined him-
self to the command of the reserve.  The
troops under the command of Furius be-
ing thrown into disoider, C. came up, and
 [irevented a total defeat.  On the day fol-
 owing, he  obtained a  complete victory,
being nobly supported  by his colleague.
The  inhabitants of Tusculum,  against
whom  he  then advanced, sunendered
without  resistance,  and  obtained  the
friendship of Rome, which they had lost
by  their own  fault  C. was appointed
dictator,  for the fourth time, on account
of the disturbances excited  by Licinius
and  Sextus, the  tribunes of the people;
but he soon resigned the power which he
was obliged to employ against Romans,
and not against enemies.  He was already
80  years old, when the  appearance of
a new anny of Gauls terrified Rome. He
opce more resumed the dictatorship, at-
tacked the Gauls, dispersed them entirely,
and obtained again the honor of a tri-
umph.  As new disturbances had broken
out, C. did not lay down his office till the
ferment was quelled.  After this, he caus-
ed a temple to Concord to be built near
the capitol,  retired  from public life, and
 died soon after,  B. C. 365, ofthe plague,
 greatly lamented by the Romans.
   Camisards ; Calvinists in  France (in
 the Cevennes), who, in the beginning of
 the 18th century, opposed the oppressive
 proceedings of the royal  deputies.   The
 collectors of taxes were attacked by night
 by the malcontents (who, to disguise them-
 selves, appeared only in their shirts—
 whence their name), dragged out of bed,
 and hung, with the tax-roUs about their
 necks.   The government sent troops to
 punish the authors of these acts.  A certain
 John Cavalier, a peasant, whom a fortune-
 teller had pointed out as the deUverer of
 Israel,  placed himself at  the head of th<:
 Camisards.  His unlimited authority with
 his adherents, and his talents and courage,
 enabled him to oppose the  measures of
 experienced generals with so much suc-
 cess, that negotiation was substituted for
 force.  The marshal Villars made a trea-
 ty with CavaUer, which conceded to the
 party all their demands, and by virtue of
 which  Cavalier himself was received into
 the royal service as a  colonel.  Sickness
 subsequently induced him to leave France,
 and he went to England, where queen
 Anne gave  him a  favorable  reception.
 Voltaire, who became acquainted  with
 him in  London, speaks of  him in  high
 terms.  At the time of his death, CavaUer
 was general and  goveraor of Jersey.
  Camlet, or Camblet (in French, cam-
 dot ; Italian, camellato)', a  fine stuff, com-
 posed of a warp and woof, and manufac-
 tured on a  loom with two treddles, so
 called because originally made of camels'
 hair only.  Camlets are of different kinds,
as goats'-hair, wool, silk camlets.
  Camma ; a river, and a kingdom, in Af-
rica : the former divides Benin from Loan-
go, and runs into the Atlantic;  lat. 1° 40'
 S.: the latter is near the river.
  Cam<en.e,  a name  often  given to 4116
Muses.   Properly, Camana was synony-
mous with Carmenta, a prophetess, whom
the oldest colony that  settled in Latium,
 under Evander,  brought  with  them out
of Arcadia;  therefore  tradition calls her
 his, mother.  Others mention two  Car-
menta as looking  into the past and future
—goddesses  of fete, who  afterwards be-
came goddesses of birth.  Numa conse-
 crated  to the Camcenae a fountain  and
 grove, and, from that circumstance, they
 became confounded with the Muses.
  Camoens,  Louis de; the most celebrat-
 ed poet of the Portuguese; one of the
 great men whose merit was first apparent
to after time, while their own age suffered
 them to starve.  He was born at Lisbon, 
436
CAMOENS.
probably in  1524 ;  for it appears, from a
catalogue of persons embarking for the
East Indies in 1550, that C, whose age is
tliere given at 25 years, offered himself as
a volunteer for the campaign. His father,
Simon Vaz de C, was a ship-captain, and
perished, by shipwreck, on the coast of
Goa, in 1556. C. studied at Coimbra.  At
that time, writers were esteemed in pro-
portion as they imitated the ancients.  C.
was inspired by the history of his countiy,
and by the manners of his age.   His lyric
poems, Uke the works of Dante, Petrarch,
Ariosto and Tasso, belong to the Uterature
formed under the influence of Christian-
ity.  After the completion of his studies,
he  returned to  Lisbon, where he fell
deeply in love with a lady of the palace,
Catharine d'Attayde.  Violent  passions
are often joined with  great talents: C. had
both.  He was  exiled to Santarem, on
account of disputes in which his love for
Catharine involved him.  From despair,
he  became a soldier, and served in the
fleet which  the  Portuguese sent against
Morocco.  He composed poetry in the
midst of battles;  and, as danger  kin-
dled his genius, so genius animated his
courage.  An anow  deprived him of his
right eye before Ceuta.  He hoped that
his wounds would receive a recompense,
though  his  talents were not appreciated ;
but envy opposed his claims.   Full of
indignation  at seeing himself neglected,
he embarked, in  1553, for India.   He
landed  at Goa.  His powerful  imagina-
tion was excited by  the heroic  deeds of
his countrymen  in this quarter ; and, al-
though he had much reason to  complain
of them, he could not resist the desire of
celebrating  their glory in an epic.  But
this vivacity of mind,  essential to the
poet, is not  easily united with the moder-
ation which a dependent condition de-
mands.   C. was  displeased  with the
abuses  of the government in India, and
wrote a satire,  which  caused  his ban-
ishment to  Macao.  Here he Uved sev-
eral years in no other society than that
of nature, which  showered round  him
in  abundance  all  the  charms  of  the
East.    Here,   too,  he composed  his
 Lusiad.   Vasco da Gama's expedition
to  India is the subject  of  the poem.
 The parts of it which are best known
 are the episode of  Ines  de Castro, and
 the appearance of Adamastor, who,  by
 means  of  his  power  over the storms,
 aims to stop Gama's voyage, when he is
 about to double  the Cape.  In conformity
 to the taste  of the time, C. united, in this
 poem, a narrative  of the Portuguese his-
tory with the splendor of poetic descrip-
tion, and Christianity with mythological
fables.   He pleased himself with tracing
the descent of the Portuguese from the
Romans, of whom Mais and Venus are
considered the progenitors and protectors.
Since fable ascribes  to Bacchus the first
conquest of India, it was natural to rep-
resent him as jealous of the  undertaking
of the  Portuguese.  If the imitation of
the works of classical antiquity has been
of any disadvantage to  the  Lusiad, the
injury consists, perhaps, in a diminution
of the  originality which one expects in a
work in which India and Africa are de-
scribed  by on eye-witness.   The versifi-
cation  of the Lusiad has something so
charming and splendid, that not only cul-
tivated minds, but even the common peo-
 le, are enraptured by its magic, and learn
 y  heart and sing  its beautiful  stanzas.
The general interest ofthe poem  consists
principally in the patriotic feeUng which
pervades it  The national glory of the
Portuguese appears here in  every form
which invention can lend to it; and there-
fore the countrymen of C. must naturally
admire  this poem more than foreigners.
Some critics pronounce the  Lusiad  a
more powerful and pure historical paint-
ing  than Tasso's Jerusalem DeUvered.
C. was at last recalled from his banish-
ment.  At the mouth of the river Mecon,
in  Cochin-China, he  was shipwrecked,
and saved himself by swimming;  holding
in one hand, above the water, the manu-
script of his poem,  the only treasure
which  he rescued from the waves, and
which  was dearer to him than life.  In
Goa, he encountered new persecutions;
he was  confined  in prison for debt, and
was not allowed, until his friends became
responsible for him, to embark  and return
to Lisbon in 1569.  King Sebastian, yet
hardly past the   age of childhood, took
an  interest in C.   He accepted the dedi-
cation  of his epic  (which  appeared in
1572), and, being on the point of embark-
ing on  his expedition against  the Moors
in  Africa,  he felt,  more sensibly than
others, the genius of the poet, who, like
him, loved dangers if they led to  glory.
But Sebastian was killed in a battle before
Alcacar, in 1578.  With him the royal
family became extinct, and Portugal lost
her independence.  Every source  of as-
sistance, as well as every hope of C, was
destroyed by this event.  So great was
his poverty, that, at night, a slave, whom
he had brought with him  from  India,
begged in the streets, in order to support
the life of his master.  In this misery, he 
CAMOENS—CAMPAGNA DI ROMA.                437
  yet  wrote lyric poems,  some of which
  contain  the  most moving  complaints.
  This hero of Portuguese literature, the
  ornament of his country  and of Europe,
  died, at lost,  in 1579, in the hospital at
  Lisbon, in the  62d year  of his age.   15
  years afterwards, a splendid monument
  was erected to his memory.—The best
  edition of the  Lusiad (Os Lusiadas, etc.)
  was published  by Jose Maria de Souza-
  Botelho  (Paris, 1807,  by  Didot,  small
  folio).  The best French  translation, with
  notes, is Les Lusiades, ou les Portugais,
  etc., by J. B. F. MilUe (Paris, 1825,2 vols.)
  The works of C, besides  the Lusiad, con-
  sist  of sonnets, songs,  odes,  elegies, ec-
  logues, redondillas, epigrams, satires, let-
  ters, and two comedies (Amphitryon, after
  Plautus, and the Love of Philodemus).—
  (See the article   Portuguese Language
  and  Literature.)  John  Adamson's  Me-
  moirs of the  Life and Writings of L. de
  Camoens  (London,  1820,  2 vols.),  of
  which the 2d volume contains a criticism
  on his works,  are valuable.  See, also,
  madame de Stael's article respecting him
 in the Biographic UniverseUe (6th vol.).
   Camomile (anthemis nobilis) is a well-
 known plant, the dried, daisy-like flowers
 of which are frequently used in medicine.
 The  principal  use, for which camomile
 flowers are applied, is to excite vomiting,
 and  promote  the operation  of  emetics.
 They have likewise been  substituted  for
 Peruvian bark, in the case of intermittent
 fevers or agues,  particularly on the conti-,
 nent  of Europe, but not with  much suc-
 cess.   Both the leaves and  flowers are
 employed  in fomentations and poultices.
 They each, but particularly the  flowers,
 have a powerful, though  not unpleasant
 smell, and a bitter taste.  They are  ad-
 ministered in  substance, as a powder or
 electuary; in infusion, as tea: in decoc-
 tion  or extract, or in  the  form of an es-
 sential oil, obtained by distillation.  So
 fragrant  is the camomile  plant, that the
 places where it grows wild, on  open,
 gravelly commons,  may easily be discov-
 ered  by  the somewhat  strawberry-like
 perfume which is emitted  by treading  on
 them. This quality  has  sometimes in-
 duced the cultivation  of camomile for a
 green walk in gardens.
   Camp means, generally,  the place and
 order of tents or huts for  soldiers in the
 field.   In  modern  times, a difference is
 made  between  camp and bivouac, the
 former signifying  the residence  of an
army  resting in tents;  the latter, the situ-
ation  of one which dispenses with them,
and remains either  entirely in the  open
 air, or, where time allows it, in huts built
 of branches, &c  (See Bivouac.)  On the
 continent  of Europe, tents are abolished,
 and the name of camp, therefore, is sel-
 dom used there at  present.—Camps, of
 course, are of very ancient origin,  since
 almost all nations, in their infancy, lived
 as nomades, dwelling in tents; as is the
 case with many tribes in Asia and Africa
 at the present day, e. g., the Arabs.  The
 Romans, probably, first carried the art of
 encampment to a high degree of perfec-
 tion, on account of their many wars in
 distant and thinly settled regions, where
 their large armies found no cities to quar-
 ter  in.  Caesar and several other Roman
 authors give  us much  information  on
 their way of constructing a camp, which
 they improved in strength and  conven-
 ience, according to the  time that  they
 were stationed in it, and which, at the
 same time, the want of fortresses obliged
 them to make,  hi some cases, the points
 of tlieir military operations.   From  such
 camps, it  is well  known,  many cities
 originated,  as  Cologne  on  the  Rhine,
 Treves,  Cambridge, Bristol,  and  many
 others.   It is a fact of much interest, that
 the  military art, after so many changes in
 tactics, and in the principles  of strategy,
 again resorts to something similar to these
 fortified camps ofthe ancients, as, in very
 recent times, it has been thought advisa-
 ble, besides providing fortresses, properly
 so called, to strengthen certain large cities
 on the chief roads, partly in order to de-
 fend them against the first attack of the
 enemy, and  to  prevent  his   possessing
 himself easily of the important resources
 which they afford, but chiefly to give to
 retreating armies raUying  points, able to
 furnish  support  to  numerous soldiers.
 They are also points  of assembly for the
 militia.  Thus the Prussians fortified the
 large city of Cologne.  Of all the Euro-
 pean armies, the English are the  only
 ones, we believe, who make use of tents,
 and  therefore  have  camps, in the  nar-
 rower sense of the word.   It  is to be ob-
 served, that camps have become  slighter
 and  simpler with the progress  of the mil-
 itary art.  The  camps  of the  Turks, or
 other Asiatic nations, are extremely cum-
 bersome, in comparison with the light bi-
 vouac of the Europeans, from which, at
 any moment, the whole army  can rise in
 arms, prepared for battle.
   Campagna  di  Roma ;  a territory in
 Italy, which  comprehends the  greater
part  of old Latium, about  70  miles wide
and  230  long.  We  usually  understand
by it the desert plain which commences 
438
CAMPAGNA DI ROMA—CAMPAIGN.
near Ronciglione or Viterbo, and, includ-
ing the Pontine marshes (q. v.), extends
to Terracina.   In  the middle of this re-
gion lies, half deserted, the ancient capi-
tal of the world.   The lakes of the C.
are evidently craters of extinct volcanoes.
Thus the lake Regillus, above  Frascati,
lies at the bottom of an inverted cone of
hard, black lava, rising in wild and naked
masses from  40 to 60 feet  high.  The
craters containing the  lakes of Albano
and Nemi, which lie from 400 to 500 feet
higher than the lake Regillus, have a very
regular conical form.   The  lake of Al-
bano is also remarkable for its  aqueduct,
or emissarium, one of the most ancient
and  excellent works   of  the   Romans,
which discharges the waters of the lake
through  the  mountains.   It   was  cut
through the lava, in a  year, by the com-
mand of an oracle, during the siege of
Ven, when the lake threatened to inun-
date even Rome.  (See Albano.)  It an-
swers its original purpose even at the
present day.  There are, also, many sul-
phur springs here, particularly between
Rome and TivoU, where the water issues
almost boiling from the earth, and forms
the  lake  of  Solfatara, which  contains
floating islands, consisting of a calcarious
deposit, which collects  round substances
thrown into the water.  The water ofthe
river, which issues from this lake, has the
same qualities, and was  considered, by
the  ancients,  as  particularly  salutary.
Near the  lake were   the baths of M.
Agrippa.  The soil of the C. is, in gen-
eral, dry, but very fertile in  the lower
 fiarts, though its cultivation is much neg-
 ected.  From Monterosi  to  the hills of
Albano, a tree is seldom to be seen.  AU
the efforts of the French to diminish the
malignity ofthe mal' aria in these regions,
by planting trees, have been unsuccessful.
There are no villages and towns in the C.
Here and there you find single huts lean-
ing  against the  ruins  of old  towers or
temples, and patched up from their frag-
ments.  In the middle of the summer,
when malignant fevers render a residence
in the C. very dangerous, the unhappy
inhabitants are obliged  to take refuge in
the neighboring towns, or in Rome, where
they seek shelter  under the porticoes of
the  churches  and palaces.   The  great
number of sick  persons who fill the Ro-
man hospitals during the months of July,
August  and  September,  are chiefly in-
habitants of the countiy.  Besides their
huts, innumerable ruins of temples, cir-
cuses and mohuments are scattered about
C, particularly near the Via Appia; and
long rows of aqueducts, some in ruins,
some in a state of preservation, ore over-
grown with ivy and other plants.   In the
winter, flocks of sheep pasture  in these
solitudes; during the summer, they are
driven up the Apennines.  Herds of  half-
wild cattle remain during the whole  year
in the C.  Their keepers, however,  soon
become a prey to  the pestilence, or lull
into a gradual  decUne.  They are mostly
natives  of the mountains, and serve the
proprietors ofthe herds for trifling wages.
Bonstetten  saw  at Torre Paterno,  very
near Rome, a herd  of several  hundred
cows, the proprietors of which  did not
consider it worth  while to milk them,
though  milk is  as dear  in Rome as  in
other large  cities.   The herdsmen are
mounted, and armed with long  lances,
with which  they manage  the cattle  very
skilfully.  Scarcely a ninth part of the  C.
is cultivated ; the rest is used  for  pastur-
age.  In the times of the ancient Romans,
this dreary sohtude  exhibited a smiling
picture  of abundance and fertility. Corn-
fields,  groves, villas, monuments, alter-
nated with each  other, and, according  to
the accounts of  Strabo, Varro and Pliny,
the air was remarkably healthy, with the
exception of a few  marshy tracts along
the coasts.  The  corruption  of the cli-
mate originated  as early as the 6th  cen-
tury,  according  to tradition,  after some
great inundations of the Tiber;  which,
however, still take place, without increas-
ing the evil.  The unhealthy air, the  fa-
mous aria cattiva, is most injurious in the
dry and hot seasons.   The most probable
supposition is, that it originated  after the
devastations of the barbarians, when the
waters  became  stagnant from the  want
of human industry.   The greatest obsta-
cle to the removal of the  evil  is in the
prejudices and indolence of  die  people.
Thus the conuption is continually spread-
ing, and has even attacked some quarters
of Rome.
   Campaign generally denotes the season
during which  armies keep the  field.  It
also means an  extensive level  country.
Formerly, when war was not canied  on
with  so much impetuosity as at presenf,
campaigns lasted only during  the warmer
months; and, towards winter, the troops
went into  winter-quarters, when the  of-
ficers of the opposing armies often met
very amicably at balls and other entertain-
ments ; but,  of late,  annies have  kept
the field through  the winter, till a deci-
sive victory has been gained.  Thus  the
 allies, in the winter of 1813—14, followed
 the French over the Rhine ; some battles 
CAMPAIGN—CAMPANILE.
439
were fought in January and February,
and  the armies remained,  for  several
months, without roof or tent, in the open
air of a cold winter.
  Campan,  Jeanne  Louise Henriette
(originally Genet), born  at Paris,  Oct. 6,
1752, became reader to the daughters of
Lou:s XV ; gained the favor of the wife
ofthe dauphin, afterwards the queen Ma-
rie Antoinette, who gave her in marriage
to the  son of her  private secretary,  M.
Campan, and appointed her the first lady
of the  bed-chamber.  Madame C. gave
her patroness many proofs of fideUty and
attachment, and wished to follow her into
the Temple after the 10th of Aug., 1792,
which, however, Pethion did not aUow.
After the fall of Robespiene, madame C.
established a boarding-school for the edu-
cation  of young ladies  at  St. Germain,
which  soon acquired a wide reputation.
"On this account, Napoleon appointed her
the principal of an institution founded by
him for the daughters of the officers of
the legion of honor, at Ecouen, which
she organized and superintended for seven
years.  After the restoration, Louis XVIII
abolished this institution, and madame C.
lost her situation.  Her only son  died in
1821, in consequence of ill treatment suf-
fered because he was a relation of mar-
shal Ney.   Madame C. died at Paris,
March  10, 1822.   Of her  Memoirs  re-
specting the Private Life of the Queen
Marie Antoinette, with Recollections of
the Times of Louis XIV, XV, and XVI,
in 4 vols, (translated  into English, 1823),
the fifth edition appeared at Paris, 1823.
They contain interesting contributions to
the history of the French revolution.  Her
Journal Anecdotique, also (Paris, 1824), is
rich in piquant  anecdotes of Napoleon,
Alexander I, and others.
  Campanella, Thomas; a native of Ca-
labria,  in Italy, famous for his talents and
misfortunes.  He displayed  great quick-
ness of parts when  quite young, and, at
the age of 15, entered into the order of
the Dominicans.  He  studied theology
and other branches  of knowledge with
assiduity, but was principally attracted by
philosophy.  The opinions of Aristotle,
then generally taught in the schools, ap-
peared to  him  unsatisfactory ;  and, in
1591,  he published,  at Naples, a work,
entitled Philosophia Senribus demonstrata,
intended to show the futility of the  pre-
vailing doctrines.   This book procured
him some  admirers, and more enemies.
He then went to Rome, and afterwards
to Florence, where he was well received
by  the grand-duke  Ferdinand; but not
obtaining some preferment which he ex-
pected,  he proceeded to  Bologna, and
then to Padua, where he gave lectures on
philosophy.  In 1598, he returned to Na-
ples, and revisited, shortly after, Calabria,
where, in  the following year, he was ar-
rested on a charge of conspiracy against
the Spanish govemment, to which Naples
was then  subject.  A scheme was  im-
puted to  him  of  having engaged  the
Turks to  assist him in making himself
master of  Calabria.   On this improbable
and apparently unfounded accusation, he
was imprisoned, and, after being repeat-
edly tortured,  condemned  to  perpetual
confinement.  In  this situation, he wrote
many learned works, afterwards pubUsh-
ed.  At length, in 1626, pope Urban VIII
procured his removal to  Rome, and, in
1629, gave him his liberty, and  bestowed
on him  a pension.  Dreading some fur-
ther persecution from the Spaniards, he
withdrew, in 1634, to France, where he
was honorably  received,  and  much es-
teemed by the learned men of that coun-
try.  He died at Paris in 1639.—C. was a
man of more imagination than judgment,
displaying his  talents rather by  under-
mining  the  systems of others than by
establishing his own.  He was a believer
in astrology, one of the follies of the age ;
and some of his  opinions were very ec-
centric.    His works are extremely  nu-
merous.
   Campania ;  the  ancient name of  a
province of Italy, in the present kingdom
of Naples, which,  partly on account of its
natural  curiosities, including  Vesuvius,
the Phlegreean fields, the lake of Avernus,
and partly for its remarkable fertility, was
a favorite  resort of the distinguished Ro-
mans, who built there magnificent coun-
try-houses.  Cuma, Puteoli, Naples, Her-
culaneum, Pompeii, Capreae,   Salernum
and Capua, the principal cities  of C, are
names rich in classical associations. The
Appian and Latin ways led into the inte-
rior of  this charming province.  Even
now, C, or Tena di Lavoro, is the most
beautiful and fruitful part of Italy; and no
traveller can wish for a more  deUghtful
country than the fields of C, filled, in the
month of April,  with barley  four  feet
high, and adorned with lofty poplars,
which are connected by luxuriant vines,
forming   a  canopy  over  the  fields.
" Tliere,"  says Gothe, " it is worth while
to tiU the  ground."
   Campanile ; a detached tower, in some
parts of Italy, erected for the purpose of
containing beUs.  Several of them have
deviated considerably from the perpen- 
440
CAMPANILE—CAMPBELL.
dicular, in consequence  of their  great
height and nanowness  of base.   The
campanile of Pisa, called  Torre Pendente,
or Hanging Tower, is the most remarka-
ble of these.  Its height  is 150 feet, and
it inclines  nearly 13 feet from  the  per-
pendicular.  The tower consists of eight
stories, each of which  is surrounded by
columns.  (See Bologna.)
  Campbell,  George, a  distinguished
Scotch divine, was born at Aberdeen, in
1709.  He was  educated at Mareschal
college, and afterwards articled to a writer
of the signet at Edinburgh.  In 1741, he
relinquished the law, and studied divinity.
In  1759, he was  appointed principal of
Mareschal college. In 1763, he pubUshed
his celebrated. Dissertation on Miracles, in
answer to the Essay on Miracles of Mr.
Hume.  This Dissertation was translated
iito the  French  and Dutch  languages.
In  1771, C. was chosen professor of di-
vinity, and, in 1776, gave to the world his
Philosophy of Rhetoric, which established
his reputation as an accurate grammarian,
a sound critic and a tasteful scholar.  He
also published occasional sermons.   The
last work which he lived  to publish, was
his Translation of the Gospels, with  Pre-
liminary Dissertations and Notes (2 vols.
4to.) He died in 1796.   Besides the works
already mentioned, his  Lectures on Sys-
tematic Theology and the Pastoral Char-
acter (folio) have been printed since his
ileath ; as also his Lectures on the Eccle-
siastical Character (2 vols. 8vo.), with his
Ufe prefixed.
  Campbell, John,  a  native of Edin-
burgh, was, when very young, brought to
England.   His earliest productions are
not  certainly known;  but, in 1736, he
published the Military History of Prince
Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough (2
vols, folio), which gained him so much
reputation, that  he was  engaged,  soon
after, to assist in writing the ancient  part
of the  Universal History, in 60 vols. 8vo.
In 1742, he published the first  two vol-
umes of the Lives of the Admirals and
other British  Seamen,  the  two  last vol-
umes of which  appeared  in 1744.  In
1745 commenced the pubUcation of the
Biographia Britannica, one of the most
important undertakings in which C. was
engaged.  The  articles written  by him,
extending through four volumes of the
work, are, both in point of style and mat-
ter, much superior to those of his coadju-
tors.  They are  liable,  however, to one
general censure, arising from  the .almost
unvarying  strain of panegyric, in which
the writer indulges,  and which has re-
peatedly subjected him to critical animad-
version.  In 1750, he published the Pres-
ent  State of  Europe, containing much
historical and  poUtical information.  He
was then employed on  the  modern part
of the Universal  History.   His last and
favorite work was a Political  Survey of
Great Britain (1774, 2  vols. 4to.)  C. died
Dec. 28, 1775.
  Campbell, Thomas, was born at Glas-
gow, Scotland, Sept  7, 1777,  and early
displayed a remarkable vivacity of imagi-
nation and vigor of mind.  He entered the
university of Glasgow  at the early age of
12, and immediately  distinguished him-
self by canying off the academical prizes,
particularly  for  translations  from  the
Greek poets.   Moral philosophy was one
of his favorite  pursuits; but he never ap-
pUed himself to any professional  studies.
After passing 7 years at the university, he
went to Edinburgh, and  produced, at the
age of 20, his  principal poem, the Pleas-
ures of Hope, which established his repu-
tation in England.  Harmony  of versifi-
cation, a polished and graceful diction,
and  an  accurate finish, are  united with
an  ardent  poetical sensibility,  in this
youthful production.  The  passage con-
cerning the partition and subjugation of
Poland  is f'uU  of the lyric fire,  which
afterwards  burst  forth  so  brilliantly in
the Mariners of England, the Battle of
the Baltic,  and Hoheiilinden.  In  1800,
he visited the  continent, and  passed a
year in  Germany, where he became ac-
quainted with the  principal poets and lit-
erati. Here he witnessed  the  bloody
fight of Hohenlinden, which  inspired one
of his finest  lyric  effusions.  On  leaving
the continent, he  visited London for the
first time, and resided  there till his mar-
riage, in 1803, when he  removed  to Sy-
denham, where he resided about 20 years,
receiving a  pension of £200 from  the
crown.  He  has lately lived in Londen.
In  1808 appeared Iris Annals of Great
Britain, from the Accession of George III
to the Peace of Amiens (3 vols., 8vo.)  In
1809, he published  a  volume  of  poems
containing Gertmde of Wyoming, a Penn-
sylvanian tale.  It is  full of pathos and
beautiful simplicity. In O'Connor's Child
he has touched a wilder string of passion
and despair.  His Theodric (1824) disap-
pointed every body ; and C. has, of late,
done nothing worthy  of his earlier pro-
ductions.  He  is remarkable for his severe
criticism of his own works, and this may
account for his having written so little for
the  last 25  years.  His poems have ali
been republished in America, where they 
CAMPBELL—CAMPER,
441
are very popular.   His  Specimens  of
British Poets, with biographical and criti-
cal Notices, and an Essay on English Po-
etry  (1819, 7 vols., 8vo.), contain  short
extracts from the poets, from  the time of
Chaucer to that of Anstey. His Lectures
on Poetry were written, originaUy, for the
London Institution, and afterwards deliv-
ered in different cities of the kingdom, to
his own  profit and honor.  They  were
printed, or at least a part  of them, in the
New Monthly Magazine.  This magazine
was originally projected by C.  It appear-
ed in 1821, and was edited by C. about
four years, with much reputation.  He
was  one of the early promoters of the
London university, and, by his letter to
Mr.  Brougham, which first appeared in
the Times, Feb. 9, 1825, and by his Sug-
gestions, which appeared in  the  New
Monthly soon  afterwards, materially fur-
thered that great  project.  In 1827, he
was elected rector of the university of
Glasgow—an office without labor or emol-
ument.   His rival  was sir Walter Scott,
and  the  election  was made entirely on
political  grounds,  C.  representing  the
whig interest, to which  he  has  always
been attached.—C. is a very amiable and
interesting person in private life, of lively
manners, and  devoted entirely to literary
pursuits.  Besides  his pension and  the
profits of his Uterary labors, he has a small
inheritance, received from on uncle.
   Campe, Joachim  Heinrich, born in
1746, at Deensen,  in the  territory of
Brunswick,  studied theology  at  Helm-
stadt, in  Halle.  In 1773, he  was a chap-
lain  in the Prussian service.  He founded
a private institution for  education near
Hamburg,  but left it, on account of his
health, in 1783, to  professor  Trapp.  He
died, Oct. 22,1818, at the age of 72 years.
His  philosophical treatises, as well as the
works which  he  composed for  the in-
struction of youth, display a  noble and
philanthropic spirit.  The services which
he has rendered to the cause of  educa-
tion have been universally acknowledged.
His  style is pure and flowing, artless and
animated.  He possessed a  rare faculty
of accommodating himself to the youthful
capacity.  His endeavors to  purify and
enrich the German language were carried
to excess.  His writings for the instruction
of childhood and  youth  were published
together, at Brunswick,  1806—9,  in 30
vols. 12mo., with copperplates.  His Rob-
inson the Younger has been translated in-
to almost all the European languages, even
into modern Greek.  His  Theophron  has
also had a wide circulation.  His W&rter-
buch der Deutschen Sprache (Brunswick,
1807—11,  5 vols. 4to.) is a production of
much merit.  His  letters written (1789)
from Paris, containing warm eulogiums on
the French revolution, are bold and  elo-
quent, but marked with the enthusiastic
exaggeration of the time, and drew upon
him many serious and satirical attacks.
  Campeacht, or Campeche ; a seaport
town of Mexico, in Yucatan, in a bay to
which  it gives  name,  on the  west coast
of the  peninsula of Yucatan; 90 miles
W. S. W. Merida; lon. 90° 31' W.; lat
19° 51' N.; population, 6000.  It  is de-
fended by a castle furnished with cannon,
and has several times  been  taken from
the Spaniards, and plundered.  Its port is
large, but  shaUow.  The houses are  well
built of stone.   The exportation of the
wax of Yucatan constitutes one of the
most lucrative branches of its trade. It
has  a  manufacture of cotton  cloth. It
was, for a long time, the chief mart for
logwood, of which great quantities grew
in the  neighborhood, before the EngUsh
landed here, and cut it  at the isthmus.
At the time when it  was taken by the
Spaniards, it was said  to  have contained
3000 houses, and considerable  monu-
ments of Indian art.—The bay of Cam-
peachy Ues on the south-west of the  pen-
insula  of Yucatan, and on the north of
the province of Tabasco.
   Camper,-Peter, born at Leyden, 1722,
died at the Hague, April 7, 1789,  was
one of the most learned and acute physi-
cians and  anatomists of the 18th century.
He  distinguished  himself in anatomy,
surgery, obstetrics and  medical jurispru-
dence, and also as a writer on the beauti-
ful.  He drew with great skill with the
pen, painted in oil, modelled in wax, and
knew how to handle the chisel of the
sculptor.  C. was  the  first who proved
that the ape, of which the ancients have
left anatomical descriptions, was a species
of orang outang. His essays on Uthotomy,
&c, have spread Ught  on  these  sub-
jects.  He was much  devoted  to  com-
parative osteology, and believed, what the
discoveries of  Cuvier have  confirmed,
that there have really existed  animals of
which the species are  at  present extinct
His Dissertation on the natural Varieties,
&c, is the first work which  has thrown
much Ught on the varieties of the human
species, which  the author distinguishes
by die shape of the skull. His Treatise
on the natural Difference of Features in
Persons of various Countries and Ages,
and on Beauty as exhibited  in ancient
Paintings  and Engravings, foUowed  by a 
442
CAMPER—CAMPHOR.
method of delineating various sorts of
heads with accuracy, is intended to prove
that the rules laid down by the most cel-
ebrated Umners and painters are very de-
fective.  His general doctrine is, that the
difference in form  and cast of counte-
nance  proceeds from the facial  angle.
(q. v.)   In his  essay on the organs of
speech in apes, he proves that nature has
rendered the pronunciation  of articulate
sounds impossible, even to those which ap-
proach nearest to man, by lateral pouches
connected with the windpipe.  C. wrote in
four languages, and received ten prizes
from  different academies.  He received
his education at Leyden, and travelled,
and obtained the acquaintance of many
of the most distinguished men of Europe,
after which he was made professor of
philosophy, medicine and surgery in Fra-
neker.   He  taught the same sciences, af-
terwards, in Amsterdam and Groningen.
  Campetti ; an  ItaUan, born at Garg-
nano, on lake Garda, who has attracted
much attention, in our time, by pretend-
ing to  be capable of ascertaining,  by his
feelings,  the  places where  metals  and
water exist under the ground.  Many ex-
periments seemed  to confirm  his state-
ments.  The king of Ba v aria  sent for him
in 1806, and he came  to Munich,  where
the experiments were renewed.  These
experiments were chiefly made with pen-
dulums of sulphurous pyrites, which are
said to  vibrate if brought near to met-
als.  Information on this subject is con-
tained in Aretin's Neuer Lilerarischer An-
tdger (1807), beginning  with  No. 22.
Gilbert also published, in 1808, interest-
ing elucidations of  these  experiments.
(See Rhabdomancy.)
  Camphor is a white, resinous produc-
tion, of pecuUar  and powerful smeU, not
unlike that of rosemary, and is extracted
from two or three kinds of trees  of the
bay tribe, that grow in the  islands  of the
East Indies  and China.   Of these, the
principal is the laurus camphora of Lin-
naeus.  It is of considerable height, much
branched, and has  spear-shaped leaves,
with nerves, of a  pale-yellowish-green
color on the upper side, and bluish-green
beneath. The flowers are small, white,
and stand on stalks which  issue from the
junction  of  the  leaves  and  branches.
Camphor is found  in every part  of the
trees; in the interstices of the perpendic-
ular fibres, and in the veins of the wood,
in the crevices and knots, in the pith, and
in the  roots, which  afford  by far the
greatest abundance.  The method  of ex-
tracting it consists in distilUng with water
in large  iron  pots, which  serve as  the
body ofthe still, with earthen heads fitted
to them,  stuffed with straw, and provided
with receivers. Most of the camphor be-
comes condensed in the solid form among
the straw, and part comes  over with the
water.  Its sublimation is  performed in
low, flat-bottomed  glass vessels, placed in
sand, and the camphor becomes concrete,
in a pure state, against  the upper part,
whence it is afterwards separated with  a
knife, after breaking the glass.—Numer-
ous other vegetables are found  to yield
camphor by distiUation.  Among  them
are thyme, rosemary, sage, elecampane,
anemone and pusatilla.  A  smell of cam-
phor is disengaged when the volatile oil of
fennel is treated with acids; and a small
quantity  of camphor may  be obtained
from oil  of turpentine by simple distilla-
tion, at a very gentle heat—Camphor has
a bitterish, aromatic taste, is unctuous to
the touch, and  possesses  a degree of
toughness which prevents it from  being
pulverized with  facility, unless a few
drops of alcohol be added, when it is
easily reduced to a powder.   It floats on
water,  and is exceedingly volatile,  being
gradually dissipated in vapor  if kept in
open vessels.   At 288° Fahr. it enters into
fusion, and boils at 400° Fahr.  It is insol-
uble in water, but is dissolved freely by
alcohol,  from  which  it is  immediately
precipitated, in milky clouds, on the addi-
tion of water.  It  is likewise  soluble in
the fixed  and  volatile oils, and in strong
acetic acid.  Sulphuric acid decomposes
camphor, converting it into a  substance
like artificial tannin.  With  nitric acid, it
yields  a  peculiar acid, called  camphoric
arid.  This acid combines with  alkalies,
and forms pecuUar salts, called camphor-
ales.  They have not hitherto been ap-
plied  to  any useful purpose.—As  an
internal medicine, camphor  has been fre-
quently  employed, in  doses of from 5
to 20 grains, with  much advantage, to
procure sleep in mania, and to counteract
gangrene.  In large doses, it acts as a
poison.   Dissolved  in  acetic acid, with
some essential oils, it forms  the aromatic
vinegar.  It promotes the solution of co-
pal ; and, from the circumstance that its
effluvia are  very noxious to insects, it is
much used to defend subjects  of natural
histoiy from  their ravages.—In a crude
state, camphor is  formed into irregular
lumps, of a yeUowish-gray  color, some-
what resembling nitre or bay-salt  It is
imported into Europe in canisters, and
the refining of it was long kept a secret
by the Venetians.  The Dutch have since 
CAMPHOR—CAMPO-FORMIO.                   443
 performed this work; and large quanti-
 ties of camphor are now refined by some
 ofthe English and American chemists.—
 For carpenters'  work the wood of the
 camphor-tree is  much used.  It is light
 and durable, and, in consequence of long
 retaining its aromatic smell, is  not  liable
 to be injured by insects.—Plants of the
 camphor and cinnamon  trees were cap-
 tured by admiral Rodney, in  1782, and
 afterwards carried to Jamaica, and propa-
 gated there.   The  camphor-tree  which
 grows veiy abundantly in the western parts
 of Japan, is a different species from that
 found in the islands of Sumatra and Bor-
 neo, with which we are principally ac-
 quainted.—Camphor  was  formerly in
 great repute as a medicine, but at present
 its virtues are less highly rated.  It is a
 cordial and stimulant of a decidedly heat-
 ing character, and is, therefore, improper
 in all fevers, unless the system is very
 low and weak.  In such cases,  if com-
 bined with nitre and other cooling articles,
 it is sometimes an excellent  diaphoretic
 But, in fevers in general, it is  an article
 rather to be avoided.  It was once, how-
 ever, and is now, in some parts of Europe,
 thought to be one of the best  medicines
 in fever of almost  all sorts;  but it is an
 article that could well be dispensed with
 in common practice.  As a domestic cor-
 dial  and medicine, it is, perhaps,  more
 used than any other, being still, in  fami-
 lies,  a  panacea for all  ailments of the
 smaller sort.
  Campistron, Jean Galbert de; a dra-
 matic poet, contemporary with Racine;
 born 1656, at Toulouse, died 1723, at the
 same place.   His tragedies, at the time of
 their appearance, met with extraordinary
 applause.  At present, however, they are
 much less esteemed; so that only two of
 his pieces—Anslronicus, a tragedy which
 represents, under fictitious names, the his-
 tory of don Carlos, and the comedy Le Ja-
 loux Desabuse—are admitted  into the se-
 lection ofthe Theatre Frangais desAuteurs
 du Second Ordre.  Laharpe says of C, "His
 plots have been commended as probable:
 they are so, but they are feeble in concep-
 tion and execution."
  Campo Chiaro, duke of; a NeapoUtan
 diplomatist.  In  1805, he served, in the
 royal guard, as captain ofthe Lipariots—
 a kind of mounted chasseius.  He remain-
 ed in Naples when the  king, on the ap-
 proach ofthe French, fled, with his fam-
 ily, to Sicily.  His Uberal sentiments placed
 him, the next year, in Joseph's council of
state, and he  was soon after  appointed
minister ofthe royal house.   Murat, also,
when Joseph  was  appointed king  of
Spain, placed  great confidence in him,
and intrusted to him the direction of the
poUce.  He was afterwards employed  on
the most important diplomatic missions,
among which was that to the congress of
Vienna.   The  imprudence  of the  king
himself, however,  frustrated all the nego-
tiations of the duke, which were conduct-
ed with great  ability.   After the revolu-
tion of Naples,  in 1820,  he was appointed
minister of foreign affairs.  His exertions
in this difficult post were not crowned with
success;  and,  after the departure of the
king for the congress of Laybacb, he was
summoned before the  parUament, on ac-
count ofthe circular of count Zurlo, which
he had countersigned.  He was, however,
acquitted.  He now lives in retirement.
  Campo-Formio ; a castle near (or rather
a suburb of) Udine, in  Friuli, a province
of the Austrian government of Venice,
celebrated for the peace, concluded  here
October  17, 1797, between Austria and
France, and signed, on the part of Austria,
by the ambassadors Cobentzl,  Meerveldt,
Degelmann,  and  the marquis of Gallo,
and, on the part of  France, by general Bo-
naparte.  The negotiations were begun at
Udine May 19, and were carried on alter-
nately there and in the castle of Passeria-
no, where Bonaparte  resided.  Austria
consented to cede Mantua,  when Bona-
parte  threatened to renew the war.  The
treaty of peace was signed at both places,
but it was dated at  Campo-Formio, be-
cause this place lay  between  Udine and
Passeriano, although the ambassadors had
never been there.  Austria  gave up the
Netherlands, Milan  and Mantua.   The
Cisalpine republic  was formed from Mi-
lan, Mantua, Modena,  Bologna, Ferrara,
Romagna, and  the  Venetian Tena Firma,
on the right bank of  the Adige.  The
republic of Venice was divided.  Austria
obtained Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and the
mouths ofthe Cattaro, and the Terra Fir-
ma, on the left bank of the Adige; France,
the Venetian Ionian islands, and the Ve-
netian possessions  in Albania.  To  effect
a peace with the  German empire, a con-
gress was to be  held at Rastadt  By secret
articles of agreement, the emperor con-
sented to the partial or total surrender of
the left bank ofthe Rhine to France, for
which Austria  was to receive Salzburg,
and a part of Bavaria  on  the Inn.  To
the duke of Modena, and other princes
who had lost a portion of their territory,
indemnifications in Germany were secur-
ed. Bonaparte had, of his own authority,
concluded this peace.   The reader will 
444
CAMPO-FORMIO—LOWER CANADA.
 find his explanation of this subject in his
 Memoires (4th  vol.)  dicte au Compte de
 Montholon (London, 1824, p. 242).   The
 directory was discontented with the trea-
 ty.  Later occurrences gave occasion to a
 second coalition against  France, in 1798;
 upon which France declared war against
 the king of Hungary and Bohemia, and the
 grand-duke of Tuscany, March 12, 1799.
 (See the articles Rastadt, Luneville, peace
 at; also, Scholl's Traites de Paix, vol. 5th.)
   Campomanes (don Pedro Rodriguez)
 count of, a celebrated Spanish minister,
jwhose learning, and profound and elevat-
'ed views in political economy, place him
 among the first writers of his countiy, was
 born early in the 18th century. He was
 director  of the academy of history, and
 his own works were a model of taste and
 industry.  As a statesman and a publicist,
 he enlightened his  countrymen by his
 writings on agriculture, manufactures, and
 the true principles of commerce.  He was
 chosen  a member  of the  academy of
 belles-lettres at Paris, and, on the proposal
 of Franklin, of the  philosophical society
 of Philadelphia.  C. raised himself solely
 by his own merits.  His reputation as the
 most learned lawyer in  Spain obtained
 him, in 1765, the appointment of fiscal to
 the royal council of Castile, by whose or-
 der he published, 1768, an Answer to the
 Letters ofthe Bishop of'Cuenca,in which
 that prelate asserted  that the immunities
 and revenues ofthe Spanish  church were
 attacked. He  had already  published a
 Treatise  on  Ecclesiastical   Mortmain
 (1765), which was translated  into Italian,
 by order ofthe senate of Venice.  He as-
 sisted Aranda in the expulsion of the Jes-
 uits from Spain, and labored to introduce
 a more  equal distribution of the taxes,
 to diminish  the number of mendicants,
 &c.  In 1788, on the accession of Charles
 IV,  C.  was appointed president of the
 council of Castile  and minister of state.
 With the rise of the count Florida Blan-
 ca, the  favor of C. began to decline.   He
 was removed from the council, and retired
 in disgrace.  His death  took place early
 in the 19th centuiy.   Among his numer-
 ous works are,  Dissertation on the Tem-
 plars (1747);  Commercial Antiquity of
 Carthage (1756), in which he controverts
 the opinions of Dodwell, on  the Periplus
 of Hanno; Discurso  Sobre el Fomento  de
 la Industria popular (8vo., 1774); and Dis-
 curso Sobre  la  Educacion popular de los
 Artisanos (1775); and a Sequel to the lat-
 ter work (4 vols., 8vo., 1775—77), which
 treats ofthe causes ofthe decline of the
 arts in Spain.
  Campus Martius (called also, by way
of eminence, Campus, merely) was a large
place in the  suburbs of ancient Rome,
between the mons Capitolinus and Pirius,
surrounded, in  a great measure, by the
Tiber.  Its name was  derived from a
temple of Mars, situated in it  The  first
meetings of the  people (comitia centuriata)
were held here, and the first lustrum was
celebrated in this place. (IAv. i.,24.) Tar-
quin the Proud sowed it with grain, but
Brutus and CoUatinus restored it  to the
people, who destroyed the grain, appro-
priated  it anew to its former destination,
and made it, at  the same time, a place of
exercise and gymnastic sports for the Ro-
man youth.  The bodies ofthe most dis-
tinguished men  were burned there.  Sit-
uated so near the city,  it soon became
covered with splendid buildings, of which
the  finest was  the circus Flaminius.   It
is now filled with memorable ruins, and
is one of the most interesting parts of
Rome.
  Camuccini, Vicenzo, is considered the
best  among the  living historical painters
of Italy.  He was born at Rome, and is a
follower of the  French school, from the
hardness and  exaggeration of which the
feeling of the beautiful, natural to an Ital-
ian,  has secured  him.  A.  W.  Schlegel
says of him, " He is conect, in the better
sense of the word, to a very high degree.
His drawing is accurate, his coloring vig-
orous and bright  without harshness, his
draperies well studied, the anangement
of his groups happy, as is his composition
in general; yet  he seems wanting in in-
vention."  He is a member of the acad-
emy of San  Luca,  and painted for Sr.
Peter's  his  Christ  with the unbelieving
Thomas.  He possesses a large collection
of pictures and casts, and is celebrated for
his success in restoring old pictures.
  Canaan.  (See Palestine.)
  Canada ; a country in North America,
belonging to  Great Britain; divided,  in
1791, into the  provinces of Upper and
Lower Canada.
  Lower Canada is  bounded N. by New
Britain, E. by New Britain and the gulf
of St. Lawrence, S. E. and S. by New
Brunswick, and the states of Maine, New-
Hampshire, Vermont and New York, and
S. W. and W.  by Upper Canada.  The
Ottawa river forms a great part of the
boundary between Upper and Lower Can-
ada.  Above  its source, the line runs due
north to Hudson's bay, about lon. 81° W.
Lon. 62°—81° W.; lat. 45°—52° N.  The
inhabitants, in 1763, were 70,000; in 1814,
335,000, of whom 275,000 were native or 
CANADA.
445
 French Canadians, the remainder being
 a mixture of English,  Scotch, Irish, and
 emigrants from  the U. States.  In 1823,
 the population was 427,465.—It is divided
 into  5 districts, viz.,  Montreal, Three
 Rivers, Quebec, Gaspe and St.  Francis,
 which were subdivided, in 1792, into 21
 counties.   The  minor divisions are,  1.
 seigniories, or the original grants ofthe
 French government under the feudal sys-
 tem; 2. townships, or grants of land made
 by the EngUsh  since  1796, in free and
 common soccoge.  The principal towns
 are Quebec, the capital, Montreal, Three
 Rivers, New Cariisle, William Henry, St.
 John's, Chambly and  La Chine.   The
 government is modelled on the principles
 of the British constitution.  The execu-
 tive power is vested in a governor, with a
 council of 10 members, all appointed by
 the king of Great Britain.  The legisla-
 ture, or provincial parliament, is compos-
 ed of a council of 28 members, appointed
 by the king, and a house of assembly of
 50 members, elected by the people. About
 nine tenths of the inhabitants are Catho-
 Ucs;  the majority of the  remainder are
 EpiscopaUans.   There are two  bishops
 residing at  Quebec, one Catholic, the
 other of the church of England.   The
 number of Catholic  clergymen, in 1811,
 was 140;  of  Episcopal  clergymen,  in
 1829, 25, and of Presbyterian, 4.  There
 are respectable seminaries  at Quebec and
 Montreal, but education is generally neg-
 lected by the French Canadians, the most
 of whom  are unable to read and write.
 The descendants of the ancient Canadian
 colonists retain the politeness, sprightli-
 ness, and easy manners of the old  French,
 from  whom they sprung.   Their houses
 are built of stone and  plastered,  seldom,
 except in the towns, of more than one
 story,  and made  extremely warm by
 means of stoves.   Their furniture is gen-
 erally  of  their own workmanship, and
 very simple.   Their  principal  article of
 food is peas soup, with a small quantity
 of pork boiled in it, and a dish of thick,
 sour  miUc.  The women  and children
 seldom moke use of any other drink than
milk and water, but the men are passion-
ately fond of rum. During the six months
 of winter, a great portion  of the time  is
devoted to amusement,  of which die most
 prevalent  is dancing.   The climate  is
 healthy, but the extremes of heat and cold
are very great; the thermometer some-
times rising, in summer, to 100° Fahr., and
sinking, in winter, to 40° below 0.—The
great river St. Lawrence forms a striking
feature of Canada.  The other principal
  vol. ii.          38
 rivers are the Ottawa or Uttawas, RicheUeu
 or Sorel, St. Francis, Chaudiere, Sague-
 nay,  St. Maurice, Black, Bustard, Betsia-
 mites, Harricanawand Rupert.  The prin-
 cipal lakes are St. John's, St Peter's, Abbi-
 tibbe, M istassin and Manicouagan. Lower
 Canada is intersected  by ridges of moun-
 tains, which generally extend from  the
 coast into the interior,  with intervening
 valleys of a fertile and pleasant appearance.
 The valley through which the St. Lawr-
 rence flows  is enclosed  on each side by
 mountains. It is mostly level, of a very rich
 soil, and is thickly settled.  The country
 lying upwards of 50 miles north of  the
 St. Lawrence has been but Uttle explored,
 and  is  only known to be  covered with
 immense forests.  The productions  are
 grass, wheat, peas, rye, Indian corn, bar-
 ley,  and culinary vegetables.  The com-
 merce has been  progressively increasing,
 since the country came into the posses-
 sion of Great Britain.  The exports, in
 1769, amounted  to  only  £163,000; in
 1808, to £1,156,000.  These consist chief-
 ly of lumber, furs, grain,  and  pot and
 pearl ashes; the imports, of wines, rum,
 sugar, molasses, coffee, tobacco, salt, coals,
 and  British manufactures,  amounting, in
 1808, to £610,000.
   Upper Canada is bounded E. and S. E.
 by Lower Canada,  S. by the U. States,
 from which it is separated by the St. Law-
 rence and the chain of the great lakes.
 New Britain lies on the north and west,
 but  the  limits are not well defined,  the
 regions  on these borders being unsettled.
 Lon. 74° to about 98° W.; lat. 42° to about
 50° N.  The population, in 1783, was es-
 timated at only 10,000; in 1814, at 95,000;
 and, in  1826, at 231,778.   The country
 has  been settled chiefly  by emigrants
 from Great  Britain and  Ireland, and  the
 U. States. It is  divided into 11  districts,
 viz.,  Eastern, Johnstown, Midland, New-
 castle, Home, Niagara, London, Western,
 Gore, Bathurst and Ottawa.  These  are
 subdivided into counties and townships.
 The  townships  contain, on an  average,
 about 61,600 acres each; total, 9,694,400
 acres.   Of these, about 3,000,000  acres
 are granted hi free and common soccage,
 2,769,828 reserved for the crown and cler-
 gy, and 8,924,572 still remain to be grant-
 ed.   The countiy which,  in  1818, had
 been laid out and surveyed, extends about
 570 miles along  the north  shore of the
 river  St Lawrence, lakes  Ontario and
 Erie, up to  lake St. Clair, varying  from
40 to 50 miles in  breadth.  The sod con-
sists, generaUy, of a fine dark loam, mixed
with a rich vegetable mould. The whole 
446
CANADA.
country presents a great degree of same-
ness, an almost uniform level, rising only
a few feet above the banks of the St. Law-
rence, and finely intersected,  in every
direction, by numerous streams, some of
which are  navigable.  The productions
are grass, wheat, Indian corn, flax, hops,
&c.  The climate is healthy, and  consid-
erably rrnlder  than  in Lower Canada.
Farther north, the  countiy is covered
with immense  forests, but is little known,
except to the Indians.  The principal riv-
ers are the St Lawrence, Ottawa, Niagara,
Trent, Ouse, Redstone and Thames. One
half of the lakes Ontario, Erie, St. Clair,
Huron, Superior, and lake of the Woods,
is included in Upper Canada.  There are,
besides, lakes  Nipissing,  Simcoe,  St. Jo-
seph's, &c   The principal towns are
York, the  capital,  Kingston,  Niagara,
Brockville,  Queenstown and Chippeway.
The Methodists are the  most numerous
religious denomination.  There are also
EpiscopaUans,   Presbyterians,  Baptists,
Quakers and Mennonists.  The  executive
power is vested in a lieutenant-governor
and a council of 7 members, all appointed
by  the king.   The  legislative  power is
vested in a  council the members of which
are appointed  by the  king, and a house
of  assembly,  or provincial  parliament,
consisting of upwards of 40 members, re-
turned from the counties.
  The French appear to  have  availed
themselves  of the  information derived
from Cabot's voyage to North  America,
before any other nation.  We hear of
their fishing for cod on the banks of New-
foundland very early in the 16th century.
About 1506, one Denys, a Frenchman, is
said to have drawn a map of the gulf of
St Lawrence, and, two years afterwards,
Aubert, a master of a vessel belonging to
Dieppe, canied over to France some of
the natives of C.  Several years, however,
passed away before public attention was
again turned to it  In  1524,  Francis I
sent four ships, under Verazani,  a Floren-
tine, to prosecute discoveries in this coun-
try.  The particulars of his first expedi-
tion are  not  known.   He returaed to
France, and, the next year, undertook a
second, which  appears to have  produced
no beneficial result.  On a third voyage,
he  and  all his company perished.   In
April, 1534, James Cartier, of St Maloes,
sailed, by  commission from  the king,
with two smaU ships and  122 men, and,
May 10, came  in sight of Newfoundland;
but the earth was covered with snow, and
great quantities of ice were  about the
shore.  Having sailed to the 51st degree
of latitude, in the vain hope of passing to
China, he  returaed  to  France without
making a settlement. In  the  following
year, he sailed a second time from France,
with three ships, proceeded up the St.
Lawrence 300  leagues,  to a great  and
swift fall; built a fort, and wintered in the
country.  The French were well received
by the natives, but were  soon infected
with the scurvy, of which disease 25 of
their number  died.   The next spring,
Cartier returaed, with the remains of his
crew, to France.  Between 1540 and 1549,
a nobleman of Picardy, de la Roque, lord
of Roberval, made an attempt to found  a
colony in C, but perished, on his second
voyage, with a great number of ad ventur-
ers.  At last,  Henry IV appointed  the
marquis de la Roche lieutenant-general
ofC. and the neighboring countries.  In
1598,  he landed on the isle of Sable,
which he absurdly imagined to  be a suit-
able place for the estabUshment of a colo-
ny, though  it was without  any port,  and
produced no other crop than briers. Here
he left about 40 malefactors, the gleanings
of the  French jails.  After cruising, for
some time, on the coast  of Nova Scotia,
without being able to reUeve these unfor-
tunate  settlers, he  returned to  France.
IBs colony must have perished, had not a
French ship been wrecked  on the island,
from which a few sheep  were driven
ashore.  With the boards of the ship they
erected huts, and, while the sheep lasted,
they lived upon them, feeding afterwards
upon  fish.   Their clothes wearing  out,
they  made garments of seal-skins, and,
in this miserable condition, spent seven
years, when Henry IV ordered them to be
brought home  to France, and,  on seeing
their miserable appearance, was so much
moved, that he  forgave them their of-
fences, and presented each with 50 crowns
to begin the world anew.   In 1600,  one
Chauvin, a commander in the French
navy, made a voyage to  C, from which
he returned with a profitable cargo of furs.
The  pubUc now began to turn more
attention  to this country.  An arma-
ment was equipped, and  the command
given to  Pontgran.   He sailed in 1603.
In 1608, the city of Quebec was founded,
and  from this period the establishment
of a permanent French colony commenc-
ed.  The settlement was, for many years,
in a feeble condition, and  was often in
danger of being totally exterminated by
the Indians.  The French, however, con-
cluded a treaty of peace with them, and,
finally, by  their  address, obtained entire
control over them, to the great inconven- 
CANADA—CANAL.
447
ience of the neighboring English settle-
ments.   In 1628, a company of French
merchants obtained a  patent for the ex-
clusive trade with Canada.   The  next
year, an EngUsh expedition, under  sir
David Keith, took possession of Quebec;
but  it  was surrendered  again to  the
French, by the treaty of St. Germain's.  In
1663, the charter ofthe company of mer-
chants  was  taken away, and new privi-
leges were granted, for 40  years, to the
West India company.   From this period,
C. appears to have remained in a state of
tranquilUty until 1690, when a bold at-
tempt was made by the people of New
England to reduce it to subjection to  the
crown of England.   An  armament was
equipped for this service, and the  com-
mand given to sir William Phipps.   The
effective men, to the number of between
12 and  1300, landed a little below  the
town of Quebec, and were fired on from
the  woods by the French  and Indians.
Having  found  the place too strong for
them, they reembarked with precipitation,
and returned to Boston.   The attempt
was renewed, in 1711, by a powerful
force of British veteran troops, assisted by
about 4000 provincials and Indians.  Such
were the difficulties and losses, however,
experienced in  passing up the river, that
the design was abandoned by the British
officers, to the great mortification of the
provincial troops.   C. continued  in the
occupation  of the French, without  any
further molestation, until the breaking out
ofthe  war between France  and England,
in 1756.  Great preparations were  then
made, on both  sides,  for attack and de-
fence.  In 1759, the British government
formed the  project of attempting the con-
quest of C. by three different but simulta-
neous attacks.  One division of the army
was to ascend the St. Lawrence, and lay
siege to Quebec. The central and main
body was to be conducted against Ticon-
deroga and Crown Point  The third was
to proceed against Niagara, and, after the
reduction of that place, to descend the
St. Lawrence to Montreal.  The division
which  ascended the  St Lawrence  was
commanded by general Wolfe, and  was
defeated in its first operations by the
French.  The  English, however, finally
obtained possession  of Quebec,  after a
gallant  resistance on the. part of the
French, whose brave commander, Mont-
calm, had been killed in the action.  The
EngUsh  general Wolfe was also killed.
Soon afterwards, the  whole province of
C. was  subdued by  the English forces,
and was confirmed to Great Britain by
the treaty of 1763.  In 1775, C. was in-
vaded by a body of provincial troops, un-
der general Montgomery.   Montreal was
taken, and a gallant but unsuccessful at-
tempt was made on Quebec, in which the
brave Montgomery was killed.  No other
attempt was made on this province during
the revolutionary  war.   We have  few
records of Canadian history from this pe-
riod untU the late war between the U.
States and England.  Upper C. then be-
came the theatre of a sanguinary contest.
The American troops were unable, how-
ever, to make any permanent conquests,
and the province has since remained sub-
ject to Great Britain.  In  1825, the re-
strictions upon its commerce, under which
it had labored, with the other colonies of
Great Britain, were principally removed,
and its trade has since greatly increased.
   Canaille ; a French word, signifying
the lowest class of people.  In the  time,
however,  which  immediately preceded
the revolution, when the anogance of the
nobihty was outrageous, canaille signified,
with them, all who were not noblemen.
The people adopted the word, during the
revolution, in contempt of the nobility. In
this sense, Napoleon said, at  St. Helena,
that he sprung from the canaille; i. e., he
did not belong to the feudal aristocracy.
   Canal.  A canal, in navigation, is an
artificial channel for transportation by
water.  The first inquiry in  the project
of such a* work, accordingly, relates to the
amount of transportation that wUl be ac-
commodated by  the  route proposed,  at
some given rate of toUs (for the quantity
wiU be in some degree influenced by that
rate).   If the project  be  a mere specula-
tion, or investment of capital by individu-
als for the sake of income, its expediency
will be determined by the net amount of
annual tolls it will probably yield; which
ought, in this view of* the matter, to  be
 equal to the ordinary rate of interest.  But
 the general utility or public expediency
 of a project of this sort is not determined
 wholly by this mode  of calculation; for,
 in this view, we must look at the indirect
 advantages, such as the  increased  value
 of lands on the borders of the canal, the
 increased profits of other works connected
 with or affected by  the one proposed; as
 in the case of the smaller branches of in-
 ternal  navigation in  England, many  of
 which, as will be seen by referring to the
 subjoined list, are  not  very productive
 investments,  but  doubtless  contribute
 to the large income of the great Unes
 of transportation between the principal
 towns, as London and Liverpool,  by  in- 
448
CANAL—CANALS OF EGYPT.
creasing the amount of goods that pass
along  those  lines.  To determine the
general public  utility of one of these
smaller branches, therefore, we must esti-
mate not only the  increased value which
it gives to coal mines, stone quarries, for-
ests, &c on its borders, but also its effects
in enhancing the  value  of other canals.
But a  work of this sort may be,  on the
whole, of public utility,  although an ab-
solute income, in consequence of the  in-
vestment,  can nowhere be  traced,  but
only a  reduction ofthe cost of some arti-
cle of general use, by means of a diminution
ofthe labor, the number of days' or hours'
work,  necessary to furnish the article, at
any place.  Thus  the proprietors of the
duke of Bridgewater's canal are under ob-
ligation to supply the inhabitants of Man-
chester with coals at the rate of Ad.  for
140 pounds, which is a great benefit  to
the inhabitants of that town.  This is one
of  the advantages of this work,  which
should be taken into the account in esti-
mating its public utility.  Another bene-
ficial consequence of any great improve-
ment of this description, as well as those
of other kinds, often is  to promote some
species of arts: for instance, a canal may
promote agriculture, horticulture, &c by
in-igation or opening a market.  In deter-
mining on any canal project, then, as well
as in estimating its utility, these various
circumstances are  to be taken into con-
sideration.  The motives, whether of pub-
lic utility or private emolument,-or a union
of them both, being sufficient to induce to
the undertaking, the next things to be con-
sidered are, the obtaining of an adequate
supply of water, the particular route to be
taken, and the mode of construction.  On
these subjects, the reader is referred to the
treatises more particularly relating to them.
The remainder of the present article wUl
be devoted to a general account of some
of die  most considerable works  of this
sort. Minuteness of detail and technical
accuracy, in regard to the dimensions, &c,
cannot  be expected in a book of this kind.
The length  of the canals  is probably
given  with sufficient conectness.  The
breadth is, in many instances, stated, in
the works to which a resort was necessa-
rily had, without distinguishing whether
it  was  that of the bottom or water line,
and, in these instances, it has been given
as it was found, the reader being left to
refer it to one or the other of these  di-
mensions, according to the breadth ofthe
locks, and other facts stated  respecting
such canals.
  Canals of Egypt.   Egypt has been
celebrated for its canals from the earUest
periods of history.  The principal are, the
canal of Alexandria, between that city and
Rosetta and the Nile ; that  of Jessvf, on
the western bonk of the Nile, and paral-
lel  to  it; and that of the Red sea and
Nile, across  the isthmus of Suez.   The
existence of this  last,  though a subject
heretofore of some  discussion,  is  now
established beyond doubt  It was begun
by Necho, son of Psammeticus, about 616
B. C.,  and the  work was continued by
Darius Hystaspes, but was afterwards
abandoned, from fear of inundating a great
part of Egypt, which is supposed to be
lower  than the surface of the Red sea.
The work was, however, resumed, and
completed  near  a century afterwards,
about 521 years before the Christian era, by
Ptolemy II ;  but a cunent from the Red
sea upon Egypt was prevented, it seems,
by a barrier or bank across the canal; or a
part of the route may have been left not
excavated.   This dam,  if narrow, might
have been passed  by boats on mcUned
planes, after  the Chinese method, or  oth-
erwise  ; but it seems to be more probable,
that boats did not pass between the canal
and the Red sea,  but  that  the  cargoes
were canied  by land across the interven-
ing barrier, or portion of ground not exca-
vated,  and reshipped.   Herodotus  says
this canal was of 4 days' navigation, and
wide enough to admit of 4 vessels to  pass
abreast. Strabo says it was 100 cubits wide,
and of sufficient depth for large vessels. The
breadth would probably vary very much,
as does that of the canal of Alexandria;
for  if it was made, for  any considerable
part ofthe distance, by embanking, instead
of excavating, additional breadth might
be given without increasing the expense of
construction; and, if navigated by saiUng-
vessels, like the canal of Alexandria, the
additional  breadth  would be convenient,
though not maintained through the whole
route.—The   canal of Jessuf leaves the
Rosetta outlet of the  Nile, near Rha-
meneh, passes a Uttle south of Demanhour
(the ancient Hermopolis parva), and thence
by the  north-east shore of the lake Mareo-
tis,  to  Alexandria.  Two branches  pass
off  in a north-west direction, and one in
a southwardly, which communicates with
the  lake  Mareotis.  This canal is navi-
gated by sailing-vessels, being,  in  most
ports, of a convenient  breadth for  this
purpose, though, at its entrance from the
Nile by its new channel, it is only 1% feet
wide.  The old entrance, a little north of
the  new, is not used, on account of the
height  of the banks, which intercept the 
CANALS OF EGYPT AND CHINA.
449
wind.  Afterwards, at the village of Leme-
dis, it spreads to the breadth of about 55
yards, and keeps  this  breadth  for 2<J
leagues, where the  banks are  13 feet
above the bottom of  the  canal,  and 10
above the surface of die ground.   Passing
over 2 leagues more, towards Alexandria
to Gabel, the breadth is contracted to 22^
yards.  It continues of about this  breadth
for  4 leagues, and  is very regular.  Be-
yond Leloha, it widens, varying in the
first half league from 109 to 273 yards in
breadth.   Near Beda, it is 55 yards wide,
and the banks  23 feet high.  Passing on
towards Alexandria, the country sinks by
degrees, until the bottom of the  canal is
on a level with  the adjacent territory, and
then rises above it, the canal being here
formed by embankments; but, for a league
before arriving at Alexandria, the ground
rises again, so that the canal is here formed
by an excavation in the ground.  It passes
very near the lake Aboukir, on the left, in
the course we  have been  following, and
is separated from it, near the western ex-
tremity of the lake, only by a wall  about
20  feet in thickness.—The  water  must
rise 13 feet above the lowest state of the
Nile to enter the Alexandria canal; and,
at high water in the  Nile, the water in
the  canal is  about 2 feet deep on an
average.   The distance, in a straight Une,
from Rhameneh to Alexandria,  is  about
15 leagues, but  by the course of the  canal,
20.   The  navigation of this canal  con-
tinues only about 20  or 25 days in the
year, during the highest water of the Nile.
The French, when in Egypt, were enabled
to navigate this canal for six weeks by
clearing away  about 18 inches  of mud
near Rhameneh, at the eastern extremity.
This canal, which now passes  through
ruins and deserts, and is navigable for on-
ly a few days of the year, was, as late as
the 14th century, bordered by  a  wealthy
and populous  tenitory, and, in die time
of the Roman  and Greek empires, was
the channel of an extensive transportation.
  Canals of China.  The Chinese seem
to  have  a more extensive inland  canal
navigation than any other nation,  if not
greater than  that  of all  other  nations.
The general course of the rivers is from
west to east,  the principal of which are
the Yang-tse, or Kiang-keo, to the  south,
the course of  which is said to  be 2000
miles, and its breadth 2-i miles at  a dis-
tance of 100 miles from its mouth; and
the Yellow river, to the northward, which
is represented to be still longer.  These
two rivers empty into the sea, within 100
miles of each odier, though they are more
                 38*
than 1000 miles apart in the interior ofthe
countiy.  The artificial channels of navi-
gation pass in a northerly and southerly
direction across the tenitory lying between
the natural streams, thus making Unes of
communication between these principal
rivers and their various branches, which
form the natural channels of transporta-
tion in the easterly and westerly direction.
As these canals pass over the summits of
the intermediate territories  between the
great  streams, the different parts of the
canals must be upon different levels, and
there  must, accordingly, be  some means
for boats to pass from one level to anoth-
er, which they do mosdy by means of
inclined planes and  rollers, over which
they are drawn by men. The ascent and
descent, at some of these planes, is 15 feet
The banks of the canals are, in many
instances, lined with  freestone, and con-
tain sluices to let the water off for irrigat-
ing the country and supplying the towns;
and in many parts, also, they are beautifully
ornamented with trees.   The barque in
which Le Compte passed from Nimpo on
a  canal, was  70  feet long  and  16 feet
broad.  The  management,  repairs  and
extension of the canals is a very impor-
tant branch of the internal economy of
the empire, and the description and his-
tory of these  works is said  to occupy 40
volumes; which does not, however, give
us a very definite idea of the extent of
these  records, as we are not told the size
of these volumes.  Some ofthe most ex-
tensive of these works  have been in ope-
ration about  2000  years,  having  been
completed 80 years before  the Christian
era; and, about A. D. 605, it is said there
were  completed  in the  empire  1600
leagues  of canal.—The Imperial canal,
and the  continuation of the  line of trans-
portation between Pekin and Canton, of
which that forms a part, is most frequent-
ly spoken of,  though the distance of the
whole route  is variously stated.  Malte-
Brun, in his  Geography, states it at 1660
miles, but it  is stated  by others at  920.
The navigation over  this route occupies
about 3 months.  The  part of this line
called the Imperial canal  is  said to be
about 500 miles in length from the vicinity
of Pekin to the Yellow river, which it
meets about 25 leagues from the sea, where
the river is about a mile wide and 9 or 10
feet deep.  This canal is caUed the Imperial,
from its being navigated only by the em-
peror's boats,  which Le Compte estimates
at 1000, of 100 tons  burthen each.  Be-
tween the Yellow river and Canton, the
navigation  is  interrupted, for about 30 
450
CANALS OF CHINA, ITALY, RUSSIA,  SWEDEN.
miles, by a mountainous district, causing a
portage of that distance.
  Canals of Italy.  In  ancient  Italy,
besides the canal of the Pontine marshes,
intended as a drain, and used also for navi-
gation, the region about the mouths of the
Po was intersected by the fossa Augusti,
fossa Philistina, and  numerous  other
'•anals.  It was  in Italy that the  great
improvement, in modern canals, over the
ancient and those of China, was first in-
troduced, in 1481, by the construction of
locks and sluices to pass boats from one
level to another. It was the invention of
two engineers of Viterbo, brothers, whose
names  have not  been  handed  down.
This improvement was soon after adopted
in the Milanese  territory, under the direc-
tion  of Leonardo da Vinci,  the  famous
painter, who was  also celebrated  as an
engineer.  Inland navigation became  so
important, that  the Italian governments
paid great attention  to  it, and enacted
many regulations on the  subject, and nu-
merous treatises were published on the
construction of locks and the art of mak-
ing and managing canals.  The following
are some of the principal canals of modern
Italy.  The  Naviglio  Grande,  between
Milan  and the  river Tesino, 15 miles  in
length, 130 French feet broad at the sur-
face, and 46 at  the bottom.  It was ex-
tended to Milan in  1257, and  enlarged, in
1269, with a branch of about 11 miles in
length, from Abiato southward. The Mar-
tesena canal branches  off from the right
bank ofthe Adda, near Concessa (ancient
Trizzo); is 24  miles  in length and 33
feet in  breadth, and is  raised,  in  some
places, by walls and  embankments, 110
feet above the level of the river.  In 1497,
5 locks were introduced into this canal.
The great canal of Tesino terminates  at
Milan.  The Muzza canal  is drawn also
from the river Adda, near Cassano, and
re-enters the river at Castiglione, 40 miles
distant.—In  Piedmont are the Naviglio
d'lnea, 38 miles in length,  uniting the
Dora Baltea and the Sessia, with a branch
of 13 miles, to the  Gardena river ; and a
canal of 27 miles from Dora Baltea, a little
above the falls ofthe Po, which, passing Tri-
no, unites with the Po 4 miles below Casal.
These 2 canals are parallel to the Po, and
substitutes for it There are 3 other short
canals in this territory.—In the duchy  of
Mantua is the fossa Puzzola, 15 miles  in
length,  from the Mincio to the Tartaro,
and the canal of St. George, 7 miles long,
branching to the lake of Mantua; also
the Montanaro,  8  miles from the same
lake to the Po,  at Borgo Fute ; the fossa
Maestra, 5 miles from Ozoma to the coital
Montanaro; and the Fossero, from the Min-
cio, 7 miles.—In the duchy of Modena is a
canal 16 miles in length, from Secchia by
Modena to  Panaro, which  has several
branches, one 5 miles long.—In the papal
territory is the fossa Rangone, parallel to the
Panaro, from which a branch passes off'by
Conteto Po Mort or Po di Jerana, and the
canal Di Giovanni Niginales, 22 miles long.
From Bologna to Ferrara is the canal Di
Naviglio, 24 miles long,  and terminating
in the great marshes.—There are, besides,
many short branches of the canals, already
mentioned, as well as locks and channels
for passing rapids in the navigable rivers.
  Canals of Russia. The canals of Rus-
sia began with Peter the Great, who had
observed their  useful effects in Holland.
He commenced three. The canal of Lado-
ga, begun by him A. D. 1718, and finished
by the  empress Anne, is 67£ miles long,
from the Volk to the Neva, 70 feet broad,
and the water 7 feet deep in summer, and
10 in winter.—The canal of Vishnd- Volo-
sholk, completed under Peter the Great,
but much improved, afterwards, by Cath-
arine, forms  a communication, by water,
between Astracan  and  Petersburg,   or
between the  Caspian  and  the  Baltic,
which  is effected, as will be seen by re-
fening to the map, by passing from the
Caspian up the Wolga, then turning into
the river Ivertza; leaving which, the ca-
nal  passes  over to the river  Schlina,
which flows towards the Baltic into the
lake  Martina, from which flows the river
Mista, which, after a course of 234 miles,
discharges itself  into lake Ilmen, from
which  issues  the Volk, that runs 130
miles, and empties into the lake  Ladoga,
which again gives rise to the Neva, that
discharges itself into the Baltic at Peters-
burg ; so that these three rivers  are,  in
fact, the same stream,  passing  through
three lakes in its course.  It is said that
3485 barques have passed through this ca-
nal in one year.—There are many other ca-
nals  in Russia, which we have not space
to describe.  The canals and rivers supply
the channels of a very extensive inland
navigation in Russia; so that goods may be
transported,  by rivers and canals, from the
frontiers of China to Petersburg, a distance
of 4472 miles;  and the Une of navigation
from Astracan to that capital is 1434 miles.
  Canals of Sweden.  Canals were early
opened in Sweden, and the improvement
of the  inland navigation has always been
a subject of great interest to the govern-
ment   Among the modern canals of this
country is that of Stromsholm, 60 miles 
CANALS OF SWEDEN, DENMARK, HOLLAND, GERMANY, SPAIN.   451
long, the descent 336 feet, the number of
locks 25, breadth 18 feet, and depth 4 feet
4 inches.—The  Kindac canal and the
Gotha canal, intended to open a commu-
nication between the lake Wenner and
the Baltic, have been commenced under
the superintendence of the English engi-
neer Mr. Telford.—The canal of  Trol-
hatta makes a navigable  channel round
the rapids of Trolhatta, in the river Gotha,
consisting of successive cascades, one of
60 feet in height, and, in all, 114 feet, and
situated N. E. of Gothenburg, about 45
miles.  The project of constructing works,
by which to pass these rapids, was long
contemplated,  and  finally accomplished
in 1800.  These rapids  interrupted the
navigation of the Gotha for  about two
miles; and the difficulty of making a ca-
nal past them was  owing to the banks
being bold and rocky, as is usual  at falls
of such extent   They are now passed by
nine locks, mostly excavated out  of solid
rock.   This is considered a gigantic work,
and was executed by a private  company,
to tlieir own emolument, as well as the
public benefit
  Canals of Denmark.   The principal
canal in this countiy is that of Keil, which
commences about 3 miles north of Keil,
and passes 204 miles across the duchy of
Holstein to the river Eydar, which, run-
ning by Rendsburg, falls into the German
ocean at Jonningen. The Keil canal thus
opens a communication between  the two
seas.  It was begun in  1777, and  com-
pleted in 1785; is 100 feet  broad at the
top, 57 at the bottom, and the least depth
of water is 10 feet.  The descent from
the summit towards the Baltic is 254 feet,
and towards the  German ocean 23 feet
It has 6 locks.
  Canals of Holland.   This countiy,
it is well known, is intersected, in all direc-
tions, by canals, which serve for  naviga-
tion in summer, and roads of ice in winter.
The surface of  the water, in many of
these  canals, is  above  that of the  sur-
rounding country;  the  lands  of which
are drained by pumping the water up into
the canals; for which purpose numerous
windmills are scattered about the countiy,
and kept in  operation.  (For the  great
ship  canal  from  Amsterdam to  Niewe
Diep, see Amsterdam.)
  Canals of Germany.  The improve-
ment of inland navigation in Germany has
been obstructed by the division ofthe ter-
ritory into numerous small jurisdictions,
which are, in many respects, independent
of each other.—The canal between Vienna
and Neustadt is 40  miles in lengtii; and
that of Francis, completed in 1802, be-
tween the Danube and Jeysse, is of the
same length, and has 3 locks.—In Prussia
are the canals of Stecknitz, Planer, Pots-
dam, Finow, Muhlrose, Frederic William,
and the Bromberg.  This last was con-
structed under Frederic the Great, by the
engineer Breekenhaaff  It is 16 miles in
length, has a descent of 67  feet, and 9
locks.  (See Fossa Carolina.)
  Canals of Spain.   Spain has done al-
most nothing towards improving its inter-
nal navigation.  Some canals  have  been
projected, but only a part of the Arragon
canal has been completed, consisting of
two pieces of canal, both commencing at
Navarre.  Though this partial execution
of the projected  navigation  has had  a
sensible effect in promoting the populous-
ness, fertility and wealth of the neighbor-
ing tenitory, the work stands still; and
there seems to be little prospect of the
completion of the project.
  Canals of France.   The canals of
France, next to those of Great Britain,
are the most important in  Europe, in
respect to their extent and the difficulties
overcome in  their construction.   The
whole  length of  canal navigation  in
France is about 900 miles, or about one
third part of that of Great Britain.—Canal
of Briare.  The first important work of
this kind, constructed in France, was the
canal of Briare, called, also, that of the
Loire and  Seine, because its object was
to connect those two  rivers.  It was 37
years in execution, being begun in  1605,
during the reign of Henry IV, and  com-
pleted in 1642.  It is 344  miles in length.
From the Loire, about  a mile from Briare,
it ascends along the river Frezee, by Ou-
zonne and Rogny, where are 7 locks; then
by Chatillon and Montargis, and, near Ce-
pay,  meets the river Loing,  which falls
into the Seine.  The locks of this canal,
40 or 42 in number, were the first exe-
cuted in France.   They vary from 124
to 164^ feet in length, and from  5 feet 4
inches to  more than 13  feet in lift, and
are, according to some authorities, 14 feet
5 inches, or, according to others, 15-r\vfr
feet, in breadth.  The bottom ofthe  canal
is 25-^^ wide.  It is supplied with water
principally by lakes; one of the feeders,
that of Prive, is 12 miles in length.  The
cost of this canal is estimated at 20,000,000
francs, or about $3,700,000, which, con-
sidering the difference in the value of
money, is nearly equal to that ofthe Erie
canal of New York.   It is important for
the supply of provisions  to Paris.—The
canal du Midi, or Languedoc canal, makes 
452
CANALS OF FRANCE.
a communication between the Mediterra-
nean at the city of Cette, and the Atlantic
ocean at the mouth ofthe Garonne, pass-
ing through the  province of Languedoc,
and is supplied by the rivers Garonne and
Gironde, and their tributaries.   It was
undertaken in 1664,  22 years after that
of Briare was completed, and finished in
1680; being 148 English  miles in length,
from the coast  of the  Mediterranean to
Toulouse, where it meets the Garonne;
64 feet wide at  the surface of the water,
and 34 or 35 feet at the bottom; rising, at
the summit, 200 metres, or about 640 feet,
above tide-water, and having 114 locks,
varying in Uft from 4 to 12 feet, and nav-
igated  by  boats  85 feet long, and from
17 to  19 broad, drawing 5 feet  4  inches
of water, and of 100 tons burthen.  The
reservoir of St  Fenol  is situated at the
summit-level, where a body of water more
than five French leagues  in length is ac-
cumulated,  for  the supply of the canal,
from the streams falling from the  neigh-
boring mountains.    This reservoir  and
the basins  at  Castelnaudary cover 595
acres.  The canal passes  under a moun-
tain at Beziers, by  a  tunnel  of  720 feet
in  length,  lined throughout with free-
stone—a kind of construction novel at the
time when  the  canal was made, though
now common.   The canal is  crossed by
92  road-bridges, and has 55 aqueduct
bridges.  It was completed under Louis
XIV, under the direction  of  Francois
Andreossi,  as engineer.   It is estimated
to have cost 33,000,000 francs,  or about
$6,160,000; in   comparing which with
the cost of similar works in Great Britain
and the U. States,  allowance must, as
above suggested, be made for the  differ-
ence in the value of money, the same
nominal cost, in France, being a much
greater actual cost,  in diis comparison.—
The canal  of Orleans  was the next in
order of time, having been begun in 1675,
and completed  in  1692,  12  years after
that of Languedoc  It branches from the
Loire, near to Orleans, 36  miles  below
the place where the canal of Briare meets
that river, and joins the canal of Briare at
Montargis,  being 45 miles   long.  One
object of its construction  was to save the
difficult navigation on the Loire, between
Orleans and the junction of the canal of
Briare  with that river, and  to open a
shorter route of communication between
the Lower Loire and Paris.  It has 28
locks, varying from 1364 to 1774 feet in
length, and of lifts from 5  feet 4 inches to
12 feet 7 inches.  From the Loire  to the
summit, the ascent is  98 feet 2 inches.
The breadth  is from 25  feet 7 inches to
32 feet, at the surface  of the water, and
the depth from 44 feet, when full,  to 2
feet, when lowest  The boats  are from
96 to 102 feet long, and 13 feet 10 inches
broad.   The  expense of its  construction
is stated at  8,000,000  francs, or about
$1,500,000.—The  canal of  Loing  is a
continuation of the navigation of that of
Orleans, and  the northern part of that of
Briare,  commencing from the  northern
extremity of that of Briare, and extending
to the  river  Seine, terminating in  the
neighborhood of Fontainebleau.  It was
completed in 1723, is  33 miles long, 44
feet broad at the surface, 34 at the  bot-
tom, and from 4  to 5 feet  deep.   The
towing  path, on each  side,  is  6  feet 5
inches broad, outside of which, on each
side, is an embankment, Uke  the levees on
the Mississippi, or  the dykes of HoUand,
3 feet high, 19 feet broad at the base, and
12 feet 9 inches at  the top, to prevent the
waters  from  overflowing during floods.
The whole  descent is  136 feet 8 inches,
divided  among 21  locks, which vary in
lift from 4 to  7 feet, and in breadth from
154 to 16.  The cost is stated at 2,500,000
francs, or about $466,000.   It was con-
structed about the same time with the
canal of Orleans.—The canal of the  cen-
tre,  called,  also, that of  Charolois,  and
likewise a branch of the " Grand Naviga-
tion," completed in 1791, leaves the Loire
at Dijon, follows the banks of the Arran,
then the left bank ofthe Bourbonne, and
passes  by Parce,  Genelard, Aire  and
Blauzey, to the lakes of Monschamin and
Long-pendu,  which form the  suinmit-
level, the rise being 240 feet,  by 30 locks,
in 6300  metres.  The  summit-level  is a
distance of 3940 metres, whence the ca-
nal descends,  by the river Dheune, to St.
Julian, where it crosses  that river, and
passes along the right bank by St. Benain,
St.  Leger  and  St. Gilles,  to  Chagny,
leaves  the  valley  of the Dheune,  and
crosses towards the river Halia, which it
follows to its  junction with the Soane at
Chalons, the  descent  from  the summit
being 400 feet by 50 locks, in a distance
of 47,000 metres; the whole length of the
canal being about 71 miles, the breadth,
at the surface ofthe water, 48 feet, at the
bottom  30 feet, the depth of the water
5| feet, the length  of each lock  100 feet,
and its breadth 16.   The cost of this canal
is stated at  11,000,000  francs, or about
$2,060,000.—The  canal of  St. Quintin
unites   the Scheldt with the  canal of
Flanders.  It was  projected, in  1727, by
the  miUtary  engineer  Devieq, but  not 
CANALS OF FRANCE  AND GREAT BRITAIN.
453
constructed  until 1810.   The  original  brook navigable from Worsley miU to the
 Elan,  which has  been very nearly fol-  river IrwelT, for the purpose of faciUtating
 »wed, was to proceed from Maquincourt,  the transportation of coals from his estate
near the Scheldt, to mount St. Martin,  to  Manchester;  but, seeing the  advan-
there pass through a tunnel 3440 toises,  tages of still-water navigation over that
or a Uttle more than 3| miles, long; then  of a  river, he conceived  the project of a
foUow the valley of Bellinglise and  Haut  canal over dry land, passing the river Ir-
Court to the heights of Tronquoy;  there  well by an aqueduct, and thus making a
pass through a  tunnel 700 toises, a little  communication between his coal-mines
more  than 1 of a mile, in length, coming  and the town of Manchester on one level.
out at Ledin ; making  the distance of the  The  plan was subsequently extended, and
summit-level 7090 toises, or a little over 8  the duke, who lived 14  years after the
miles, of which 2950 are open, and 4140,  commencement  of the execution of his
or  more than  44 miles,  subtenaneous.  project (he died in 1772, at the age of 56),
The length  of this canal is 28 miles; in  devoted his  time and  his fortune to the
the rise from St. Quintin  to the summit-  execution of his great  work,  with the
level,  there  are  5 locks, and in the  assistance of an engineer distinguished for
descent  to  Cambray,  17.  The cost is  his genius.  He diverted aU his resources
stated  at  12,000,000  francs,  or  about  into  this channel, and, to  enlarge his
$2,250,000.—Besides  the  above canals,  means for the undertaking, he Umited his
42  others are enumerated in the Ency-  personal expenses to £400 a year, and is
clopedie  Moderne, as  completed,  or in  even supposed to have shortened his life
the course  of construction, in France, in  in consequence  of the toils and  anxiety
1825.                                  attendant upon so arduous an enterprise.
  Canals  of  Great  Britain.   The  It was a grand project, worthy of the sac-
EngUsh were a century after the French  rifices he made to it  And it is a stupen-
in commencing the construction of canals  dous monument, whereby his memory is
upon a large scale.  The first considera-  associated with the wealth and prosperity
ble work of tliis description was die San-  of England.  The works were projected
key canal, for which an act of parUament  by the celebrated engineer John Brind-
was passed in  1755; the object of the  ley, and executed under his direction, and
act being the improvement of the naviga-  constitute a lasting memorial of bis genius
tion of Sankey brook;  which plan was  and skiU.
afterwards changed to that of a separate     The following are the principal canals
canal of 12 miles in length.  While the  in Great Britain.  (Originally denotes the
work on this canal was in progress, in  first assumed cost per share, where the
1758, the duke of Bridgewater obtained  actual cost is not ascertained.)
an act of parUament for making Worsley
Name.	1793 1805 1790 1805	7\ 19 224 40|	Ascent tf Ducent, in fat and deci-mal parts.		to 1	| 34	
			Toul. IJft.Bile.				
Aberdare, . . . Aberdeenshire, Andover, . . . Ashby-de-la- ) Zouch, >			40 170 177 224	5.5 8.8 7.8 5.6	20		From Glamorganshire to Aben-nant. Length of the boats, 12 feet; breadth, 5. Number of shores, 221; originally, £100; value in 1824, £25. From Aberdeen harbor to Don river, at Inverary bridge; 17 locks. From Southampton water to An-dover ; has been portioUy abandon-ed. Number of shares, 350; ori-ginally, £100; value in 1824, £5. From the Coventry canal, at Marston bridge, to an iron railway, 34 mUes long, at Ticknall. The first 30 miles are level, forming, with the Coventry and Oxford canal, a level
of 73 miles, without including the branches.  It has tunnels at Ashby-de-la-Zouch and
Snareton (the length of the two is 700 yards), and an iron railway, 6 miles in length,
to the Cloudshill mines.  It has 2 aqueduct bridges.  At Boothorpe, a steam-engine
is erected, to convey the water to a feeder for the summit-level.  Number of shares,
1482; cost, £113; price in 1824, £20, 
454
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Ashton-under-,
  Une, or Man-
  chester and
  01dham,and
  branches,

Barnesley and ?
  branches,   £
Birmingham,
Birmingham )
andFazeley, J
Brecknock    }
   and       >
Abergavenny,)
Bridgewater,
1797
1799
1790
1772
1790
1776
1758
18
18
37
224
Ascent <y Descent,
 in feet and deci-
 mal parti.
Total. IPr.mile,
152
120
195
204
8.4
6.7
5.3
164
33
40
248
68
83
9.07
15
30
44
                                               From Rochdale canal, at Man-
                                             chester,  to Huddersfield, at Duck-
                                   33—15  5 enfield;  has  3 aqueduct bridges;
                                             boats of 25 tons burthen.  Num-
                                             ber of shares, 1760; average cost,
                                             £97 18s.;  price in 1824, £150.
                                               From  river Colder, below Wake-
                                             field, to Barnby bridge; has 1 aque-
                                             duct bridge and 20 locks.  Num-
                                             ber of shares, 720; cost,  £160;
                                             price in  1824, £215.
                                               From Wye to Basingstoke; has
                                             72 bridges  and 29 locks.  Number
                                             of shares, 1650; cost, £100; price
                                             in 1824, £6.  The Tingis branch is
                                             54 miles in length.  The boats are
                                             of 45 tons burthen. It has a tunnel
                                             of I mile.
                                     40  44   Commences in the Birmingham
                                             and Staffordshire canal, and termi-
                                             nates in the Birmingham and Foze-
                                             ley canal.  The boats are  70 feet
                                             long and 7 wide, and of 22 tons
                                             burthen.  Number of shares, 4000;
                                             originaUy £140;  price in 1824,
                                             £315.  The tonnage is not to ex-
                                             ceed 14rf. per Hide.
                                              From  the  Coventry  canal,  at
                                             Whittington  brook,  to  Birming-
                                             ham  canal, at Farmer's bridge;
                                             has 44 locks; boats 22  tons bur-
                                             then.
                                              From  the Monmouthshire canal
                                             to Brecon.  There is, at Abergaven-
                                             ny, an iron raUway a mUe in length;
                                             at Wain Dew another  4|  miles,
                                             and at  Llangroiney another  1J
                                             mile.   It  has a tunnel of  220
                                             yards,  and 3 aqueduct bridges.
                                             Number of  shares, 958 ; originaUy,
                                             £150; price in 1824, £100.
                                    52    5   From the tide-way of the  Mer-
                                             sey, at Runcorn Gap; and at Long-
                                             ford bridge  divides into 2 branches,
                                             one terminating at Manchester, the
other at Pennington, near the town of Leigh.  The whole lockage is the 83 feet at
the Mersey, in rising from tide-water, by  10 locks.  This canal, with a part of the
Trent and Mersey canal connected with it, makes a level of  70 miles,  30 of which
are on this canal.  Mr. Cary states that there are about  16 miles of canal under
ground within the mountains at Worsley.  It  has  3  principal aqueduct bridges,
and  several  smaUer ones.   Arched  branches  pass off  from  it at  considerable
distances,  under the town of Manchester,  from  one of  which coals are hoisted
up to supply the  inhabitants, which  the  proprietors,  successors to the duke  of
Bridgewater, are bound to furnish them at Ad. for 140 lbs.—an advantage to which
much of the prosperity of that town has been attributed.  The embankment over
Stratford meadows is 900 yards long,  17 feet high, and 112 feet wide at  the base;
that  at Barton  bridge is 200  yards long and 40 feet  high.   The tonnage is
2s, 6d. 
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.                  455
                                                From Taunton bridge to  the
                                              mouth of the Avon, below Bristol.
                                              The operations on this canal were
                                              at a stand in 1824.

                                                From Ancholme to Caistor.
                                                A branch of the Grand Trunk
                                              canal, terminating at Uttoxeter.
                                                This stupendous  canal passes
                                              through a chain of lakes, or lochs,
                                              and nanow arms of the sea; and,
 by making 215 miles of ca*al, and deepening the beds of the rivers Lochy and Oich,
 and dredging to deepen a part of Loch Ness (in  the whole a distance  of 4 J miles,
 making the total length of excavation 25 miles, with a lockage, up and down, of 190
 feet), an interior navigation of 250 miles is opened across the central part of Scotland,
 from the Murray Firtb, on the eastern coast, to Cantyre, on the western, and about
 opposite to the northern coast of Ireland; being one half of the distance ofthe navi-
 gation between the same extreme points, round the northern coast by the Orkneys.
 It has 27 locks, including the tide-locks, one of them 170, but  most, if not aU, the
 others 180 feet long, and all 40  feet wide ; thus  opening a ship-navigation through
 the midst  ofthe country, rising, at the summit-level, 94 feet above the tide-water of
 the eastern coast, and 964 feet above that ofthe western, showing the ocean to be  24
 feet higher on the eastern.  At fort Augustus, where it leaves Loch Ness in a north-
 westerly direction, this canal is cut through the  glacis ofthe fortification, thus adding
 to the miUtary defences as well as to the appearance of the fort, which, with the five
 locks of masonry rising behind, presents a grand  combination of civil  and military
 engineering amid romantic  mountain scenery.  From  Loch Ness, passing in the
 westwardly direction of  die canal to Loch Oich, 1| mile, the land is 20 feet above
 the water  Une, which, with the depth of water in  the canal, makes an excavation, in
 this distance,  of 40 feet in depth, with a bottom  of 40 feet in breadth.  To save rock-
 cutting, in descending, in the westwardly direction, as before, from Loch  Oich  to
 Loch Lochy,  the natural difference of the surfaces  of the two lakes being 22 feet,
 the whole area of Loch Lochy, which is 10  miles in length and 1 hi breadth, is
 raised 12 feet.  In the last 2  miles, before the canal, in  its westerly direction, enters
 Loch Eil, tliere is a  descent of 64 feet, which is passed by 8 connected locks, each
 180 feet long  by 40 in breadth.   These locks are founded on inverted arches, exhib-
 iting a soUd and continuous mass of  masonry 500  yards in length and 20 yards wide,
 in which, as late  as 1824, and 5 years after its construction, no flaw had been dis-
 covered.  The gates are of cast-iron.  This system of locks has received the fanciful
 appellation of Neptune's Staircase; and the appearance of large vessels, with then
 masts and rigging, descending these  stupendous locks,  from the hUl towards Loch
 Eil, is most, majestic and  imposing, exhibiting a striking instance of the triumph  of
 art.   In the distance of  8 miles, from  Loch Lochy to  tide-water in Loch Eil, the
 canal, in passing along the north-westerly bank  of the river Lochy, crosses, by aque-
 duct bridges,  3 large streams and 23 smaller ones. Since the construction of this
 canal, upwards of a mUlion of forest-trees have  been planted along its borders.   The
 cost of this great national work was,  for
  Management and traveUing ex-         Purchase and damage of land,  . . 47,900
    penses,............£29,000   Horse  labor,..............3,000
  Timber,..............68,600   Road-making,.............4,000
  Machinery, cast-iron work, &c, 121,400   Incidental expenses,.......* .2,000
  Quarries and masonry, ....  195,800                                .nni. onn
  Shipping,.............11,000   ...        ,.*..».»•    * 5'oSS
  Labor and workmanship,. .  .  418,000  Add>t0 complete the dredging,. . . 7,200
  Houses and buildings,.......4,600                               £912,500

 Assuming die number of miles operated upon  to be 25, the canal cost £36,500 per
mile.   It was constructed under the direction of Thomas Telford, Esq,
Nam*.	1790 1793 1822	41 7 9 28 21J	Atcent Sf Detcent, in feet and deci-mal parti.		|
			Total. 136 190.5	Fr.mile. 4.8 8.6	
Bristol and) Taunton, £ Burro wstonness, Caldon and ) Uttoxeter, \ Caledonian, . .					40 bot
 
456
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Cardiff, or Gla-)
 morganshire,)
Chester,
Chesterfield,. .
1775
1775
1776
 s-fc"
 3£
If.

25
m
46
Coventry,  . . .

Crinan,.....


Cromford, . . .



      • * A v
1790

1805


1794
Ascent ty Dtscent,
 in feet and deci*
 mal parts.
Total. iPr.oulc
600
170
380
 96

117


 80
Croydon,
Dearne and
  Dove,
Derby,
Dorset  and
  Somerset,
1801
%
1804  94
1794
1803
42
150
125
78
24
9.7
8.2
 3.6

13


 4.4
15.8
6.6
8.6
26
44—24
  From a sea-basin on the Severn,
near Cardiff,  to Merthyr; is con-
nected with various railways, one
of which is 26$ miles long.  Num-
ber of shares,  600;  cost, £172 13a.
Ad.; price in 1824, £265.
  From  the  Dee,  at  Chester,  to
Nantwich, where it communicates
with  the Whitchurch branch  of
the EUesmere canal.
  From the Trent, at Stockwith,
to Chesterfield ; has 65 locks and
2 tunnels, together 2850 yards long,
and 94 feet wide.   The lower part
of the canal is navigable for boats
of from 50 to  60 tons burthen, and
the higher,  being but 26 or 28 feet
broad, is navigable for boats  of on-
ly 20  or 22 tons burthen.   These
boats  are 70 feet long and  7 feet
broad.  Number of shares,  1500;
cost, £100 ; price in 1824, £120.
  A part of the line of canal be-
tween London and  Liverpool.
  From lake Gilp to lake Crinan.
Number of shares, 1851; cost, £50;
price  in 1824, £2 10s.
  From  the  Erewash canal,  at
Langley, to Cromford.  It has sev-
eral tunnels, and passes the river
Derwent by an aqueduct 200 yards
long and 30 feet high.  The arch
over  the channel  of the river is
80  feet  broad. Another aqueduct
over  a branch of the  Derwent is
200 yards long and 50 feet high.
Each aqueduct cost about £3000.
Number of shares, 460; cost, £31
2s.  10rf.; price in 1824, £270.
  From Grand  Surry  canal  to
Croydon.  It has 23 locks.  Num-
ber  of shares,  4546; originally,
£100; price in 1824, £4 10s.
  From the  river  Dove,  between
Swinton and Mexburgh to Barnes-
ley canal.  The boats are from 50
to  60 tons burthen.  It  has two
branches, of  3i and 1|  miles in
length.
  From the river Trent to Derby.
Number of shares, 600; cost, £110;
price  in  1824,  £140.  It  has a
branch, the Erewash,  84  miles in
length.
   From the Kennet and Avon ca-
nal to  the river Stour; but not
completed in 1824; has a branch
9 miles long. 
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
457
Dublin and )
  Shannon, £
Lawton branch,
Miltoun branch,
Bog of Allen br.,
Edenderry br.,
Kildare br.,. . .
Dudley,  .  . . .
Stourbridge br.,
Dudley br., . . .
Edinburgh & )
         r,   5
Glasgow,
Ellesmere and)
  Chester, and >
  branches,   }
Erewash,
Fazeley, .
Forth and  >
  Clyde,   I
Glasgow branch
1776
1776
ll
654
21
 7
 3
 1
 6
104
 2
 n
Ascent fy Descent
 in feet and deci-
 mal pat ti.
35
50
3.3
1804
1777
1790
1790
109
35
 2|
755
181
6.9
15.4
   From Dublin, at the mouth ofthe
 Liffey, to the river Shannon, near
 the town of Moy. It passes 24 miles
 across a marsh, in which the absorb-
 ing nature of the soil  rendered
 the work enormously expensive.

   From the  Worcester  and Bir-
 mingham canal.  It has 61 locks;
 3 tunnels, one 3776 yards in length,
 another 623  yards, and the other
 2926 yards, all 134 feet wide; and
 near one of them, the Laplat tun-
 nel, it  passes 9 locks, nearly con-
 tiguous.  Number of shares, 2060;
 originally, £100; price in 1824, £63.
   This canal is proposed to com-
 mence at Leith, hi the Forth, and
 terminate in the Clyde, at Glasgow.
 The enterprise was suspended on
 account of a supposed insufficiency
 of water, and is not known (1829)
 to have been resumed.
   This canal is  said to be the first
 constructed in England  for agri-
 cultural purposes, as well as trade.
 It  has  1262  yards of tunnelUng.
 Number  of  shares, 3575; cost,
 £133; price in 1824, £68.
  From the Trent toCromford canal.
   Is a part of the Liverpool  Une,
 joining the Grand Trunk with the
 Coventry canal.   It is entirely lev-
 el.  The Fazeley and Birmingham,
 and the Birmingham, are continu-
 ations of this.
  From the tide-water, at the junc-
 tion of the river Canon  with the
 Forth, to Glasgow.  It was the
 first considerable work of the kind
 undertaken  in  Scotland, having
 been  commenced  in  1777  and
 completed  in 1790.  It  ascends,
 from the Forth to the summit, by
 20  locks, 156 feet, in 104 miles,
 and keeps this level 18 miles, to
 Glasgow, and, one mile beyond
 that city, terminates in the Monk-
 land canal basin.  About 2| miles
 north of the port of Dundas, near
 Glasgow, a branch of the canal
 passes off 8| miles, crossing  the
 Kelven  by a magnificent  stone
 aqueduct, to  the  tide-water  at
 Bowling bay, to which it descends
by 19 locks, 74 feet  in length and
20 in breadth.  When full, it  has
8 feet of water.
vol. II.
39 
458
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Foss Dyke,  . .

Glasgow and)
  Saltcoats,  £
Glenkenns,  . .

Gloucester,  . .
Hockcrib branch,
Grand Junction,
Paddington br.,
b' other branches,
1812
1802

1793
1805
Grand Sui-rey,
Grand Western,
Tiverton br.,  ,
Grand Trunk,
Its branch, . .
Grand Union,
1801
Ascent Sf Descent,
 in feet and deci-
 mal parts.
11

33*
27

184
 2
93|
13|
40
12
1796
1777
Total. |Pr.mile.
  0

168
587
93  642
37
6.3
70
36—24
23^
130
6.9
5.5
44
  From the Trent, at Torksey, to
the Witham.  It is a level.
  From the Dee, at Kirkcudbright,
to Dairy.
  A channel for ship navigation,
to avoid the windings of the Sev-
ern from  Berkley  Pill,  where  it
leaves  that  river,  to  Gloucester,
where  it joins the river  again.
Number of shares, 1960; price in
1824, £100, and a loan of £60 per
share, making the investment £160
per share.
  A part of the line between Lon-
don and Liverpool, from Brentford
to the Oxford canal at Braunston.
It has 101 locks; passes the river
Ouse and its valley by an embank-
ment about half a mile in length and
30 feet  high.  It has a tunnel at
Blisworth, 3080  yards  in length,
18 feet high, and 164 wide; and an-
other at Braunston, 2045 yards long,
the other dimensions  being  the
same as those of  the Blisworth
tunnel.  Number of shares, 11,6574;
originally, £100;  price in 1824,
£270.
  From the Thames, at Rother-
hithe, to Mitcham.  It is of large
dimensions, being navigable by the
Thames boats. The company pays
to London, annually, £60, for the
junction of the canal  with the
Thames.
  From the mouth of the  Ex,  at
Topsham, to Taunton  bridge;  in
1824, was but partially  finished.
Number of shares,  3096; cost,
£79; price in  1824, £6.
   A part of the line between Lon-
don and Liverpool.  It has 4 tun-
nels, in length 3940 yards, and 9
feet wide.   Number  of  shares,
13004 ; price in 1824, £2150.  The
tonnage is  from  3d.  to  44rf. per
mile.
   From the Leicester and  North-
ampton Union canal, near Foxton,
to  the Grand Junction,  east  of
 Braunston  tunnel.  Number  of
 shares, 1521;  cost, £100; price in
 1824, £50. The canal has, besides,
 a loan, at 5 per cent interest,  of
 £19,327. 
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
459
Grantham,
Haslingden,
Hereford and)
  Gloucester, $
1799
1793
1790
331
Huddersfield,
Kennet  and ?
  Avon,     $
Kingston and )
  Leominster, $

Lancaster, .  . .
1798
1801
1797
1799
13
364
Ascent ty Descent}
 in fat and decs'
 mat parts.
Total. Pr.ro ile.
148
194
57
45|
76
Leeds and
  Liverpool
,\
1771
225
770
4.4
6.1
39.5
263
544
287
130
841
4.6
11.8
3.8
6.4
                                             From  the  Trent, near  Holme
                                           Pierpoint, to Grantham.  It has
                                           divided 8 per cent, and left a clear
                                           surplus of £3000 to meet unfore-
                                           seen accidents.  Number of shares,
                                           749;  cost, £150;  price in  1824,
                                           £160. It is  suppUed with water
                                           wholly from reservoirs.
                                             From  the  Manchester, Bolton
                                           and Bury canal, at Bury,  to the
                                           Leeds and Liverpool, at Church.
                                             From the Severn, at Gloucester,
                                           to the Wye, at Hereford.  It has 3
                                           tunnels,  of 2192,  1320  and 440,
                                           making, in all, 3952 yards.  In con-
                                           sequence of the opening of this
                                           canal, the price of coals  at Ledbu-
                                           ry  was reduced from 24s. to 6s.
                                           per ton.   Shores, originally, £100;
                                           price in 1824, £60.
                                             From Ramsden's canal, at Hud-
                                           dersfield, to the Manchester, Ash-
                                           ton and Oldham canal, at Ducken-
                                           field bridge, near Marsden.   It has
                                           a tunnel of 5280 yards  in length.
                                           Number  of shares,  6312;  cost,
                                            £57 14s.; price in 1824, £26.
                                              From the  Avon, at Dole-mead,
                                            near  Bath, to  the  Kennet and
                                            Newbury.  It has an  aqueduct
                                            bridge over the Avon.  The boats
                                            are of 25  or  26  tons burthen.
                                            Number  of  shares, 25,328;  cost,
                                            £35  5s.; price in 1824, £24.
                                              From the Severn, at Areley, to
                                            Kingston.  It has two  tunnels of
                                            3850 and 1250, making 5100 yards.
                                              From Kirby Kendall  to Hough-
                                            ton.   It has tunnels  at Hincaster
                                            and Chorley, 800 yards long in the
                                            whole.  It passes  the Loyne by a
                                            stone aqueduct, 50 feet high, on 5
                                            arches, each of 70 feet span.  It
                                            has  also a  road  aqueduct, near
                                            Blackmill,  60  feet   high.   The
                                            boats are 56  feet long  and  14
                                            broad. Number of shares, 11,6994;
                                            cost,  £47 6s. 8d.;  price in 1824,
                                            £29.
                                              From Liverpool to Leeds. The
                                            boats navigating  between  Leeds
                                            and^igan are of 42 tons burthen;
                                            those below Wigan, and on  this
side Leeds, of 30 tons.  The tunnels at  Foulbridge and Finnloy are, in the whole,
1609 yards long.   It has a beautiful aqueduct bridge over the Ayre. The locks are
70 feet long and 154 wide.  The number of shares is 2897|; originaUy, £100 each;
price in 1824, £380.  Tonnage on  merchandise, \t\d. per mile; on coals and lime,
Id.; on stone, id.
42
44 
460
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Leicester,
Leicestershire!
  and North-'
  amptonshire/
  Union,
Loughborough,
Manchester, 5
  Bolton and >
  Bury,     )
HasUngden br.,

MarketWeigh- J
  ton,        J
Monkland,. . .

Monmouthshire,
Montgomery-
  shire,
Welshpool br.,

Neath, ....
North Wilts,

Nottingham,.
Oakham,
Oxford,,
1805
1776
1797
1770
1796
1797
1798
1798

1802
1803
1790
214
43!
94
15
11
12

171
27

 31

14
Ascent te Descent,
 in feet and deci-
 mal parts.
15
15
914
230
407
41
187
  35
  96

1057
225
126
269
10.7
9.3
4.3
12.4
 3.2
 8

53.5
8.3
8.4
2.9
                                               From  the  Loughborough basin
                                             to the Soar,  which has been ren-
                                             dered navigable as far as Leicester.
                                             Number of shares, 545;  cost, £140;
                                             price in 1824, £330.
                                               From Leicester to  Market Har-
                                             borough.  It  has  4 tunnels, 1056,
                                             990, 880 and 286, in  the whole
                                             3212, yards in length.  Number of
                                             shares, 1895; cost, £83  10s.; price
                                             in 1824, £82.
                                               From the Trent, near Sawley, to
                                             Loughborough. No. shares, 70; cost,
                                             £142 17s. 8d.; price in 1824, £4000.
                                               From  the  Mersey and IrweU
                                             navigation to Bolton.  The locks
                                             have been reconstructed and  en-
                                             larged.   Number of shares, 477;
                                             originally, £250; price in 1824,
                                             £112.

                                              A continuation ofthe Forth and
                                             Clyde canal.
                                              This canal is remarkable for the
                                             extent of its railways and inclined
                                             planes.  Number  of shares, 2409 ;
                                             cost, £100; price in  1824, £198.
                                             It has, besides, a loan of £43,526,
                                             at an interest of 5 per  cent.
                                              From a branch of the  Ellesmerc
                                             canal  to  Newtown.   Number of
                                             shares, 700; originaUy, £100; price
                                            in 1824, £71.
                                              From the river Neath, at the  Gi-
                                            ant's Grave, to the Aberdore canal,
                                            at Abernant  It  serves  for  the
                                            transportation  of copper and lead
                                            ore from Cornwall to  Glamorgan-
                                            shire.  Number of shares, 247; cost,
                                            £107 10s.; price in 1824, £333.
                                              From the Thames and Severn
                                             canal to the Wilts and Berks.
                                              From the Trent, at Nottingham,
                                            to the Cromford canal, near Lang-
                                            ley bridge.
                                              From Melton Mowbray to Oak-
                                            ham.   Number of shares, 522;
                                            cost, £130; price in 1824, £50.
                                  30—16  5   From the Coventry canal to  the
                                            river Isis at Oxford, and a part of
the grand Une between Liverpool and London.  It has 3 aqueducts of very consid-
erable magnitude, a tunnel at Newbold  125 yards long and 124 feet wide, and one
at Fenny Compton 1188 yards long and 9i feet wide.  It rises, from the level of  the
Coventry canal, in 454 miles,  to the summit at Marston Tolls, 74 feet 1 inch, by 12
locks; and descends, from the summit at Claydon, in 35 miles, to the Isis,  195| feet, by
30 locks.  It has 188 stone and brick bridges.  It cost £178,648 stock, besides £130,000
loan, above half of which has been paid off.  Number of shares, 1786;  originaUy
£100; price in 1824, £780. 
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
m
Ascent Sf Descent,
 in feet and deci-
 mal parts.
Total. |Pr.mile.
Peak Forest,
1800
21
Portsmouth &?
  Arundel,   $
Ramsden's,  . .


Regent,  ....
1815



1774


1820
144
56


86
Ripon, . .

Rochdale,
1767

1804
613
Royal Irish,
68
614
1760
12i
78
7


9.5
19.7
6.2
48
  From the Manchester, Ashton
and Oldham canal, at Duckenfield,
to the Chapel  Milton basin.  It
has a  railway 6  nrfiles  long.  It
passes the Mersey, by a bridge 100
feet high, of 3  arches, each  of
60 feet span.  Number of shares,
2400;  cost,  £77; price  in 1824,
£94.
  From the river Aran, near Little
Hampton, to the bay connected
with Portsmouth harbor.  Number
of shares, 2520; cost,  £50; price
in 1824, £25.
  From the Calder and Hebble
navigation  to  the  Huddersfield
canal.
  The last link, near  London, of
the chain connecting that city and
Liverpool.  It commences at Pad-
dington, from the  Grand Junction
canal, and meets the  Thames at
Limehouse, descending, by 12 locks,
to a basin communicating  with a
ship lock.  The locks have double
chambers, which are estimated to
make a saving of one third of the
usual quantity of water.  It has 2
tunnels, one at Maida HiU,  370
yards long, the other under Isling-
ton, 900 yards.  Number of shares,
12,294; cost, £40 10s.: price in
1824, £49 10s.        f
  From the  river  Ure, at  Milby,
to Ripon.
  From the  Bridgewater canal, in
the town  of Manchester,  to die
Calder and Hebble  navigation, at
Sowerby bridge.   It has  49 locks,
8 aqueducts, a tunnel of 70 yards
in length, and several reservoirs.
Number  of shares, 5631;  cost,
£85; price in 1824, £94.
  From DubUn, in a westward di-
rection,  to the Shannon, at  Tas-
monbarry, nearly parallel  to the
Dublin canal, and about  10 miles
distant from it.   Its greatest eleva-
tion above the  sea is 307  feet, to
which it ascends  from Dublin by
26 locks,  and  descends  to the
Shannon by 15 locks.
  From the Mersey and  Irwell
navigation, at Fiddler's Ferry, to
Sutton Heath  mines.  It has  10
locks, and also  a tunnel, near St.
Helen's.  It" was the  first canal
constructed in England.
39* 
462                  CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Ascent tf Descent,
 in feet and decs.
 mat parts.
Total. Pr.mile.
ShorncUff and
  Rye, or Roy-
  al MiUtary,
1809
18
Shrewsbury,
Shropshire. .
Somerset Cool,
Radstock br.,.  .
Southampton
 &SaUsbury,
Stafford and
  Worcester,
Stainforth and )
  Keadby,    $
Stourbridge,.  .
Stover,.....
Chudleigh br., .
Stroudwater,  .
Swansea,  . . .
Llansaralet br.,
1797
174 155
1792
1802
1804

1772
74
174

464
453
138
138
60.4
16.2
18.4
1798
1776
1792

1796


1798
174
 3
394
191




 50

108


366
8.4
38.2




 8

13.5


20.9
30
28
   From the ses, at Hythe, to the
 mouth of the river Rother.  It is a
 level, having locks to keep in the
 water at low  tide.  It is  large
 enough  to receive vessels of 200
 tons burthen.  Each of its extrem-
 ities is defended by strong batteries.
 It was constructed on account of
 Bonaparte's projected descent on
 England, and hence its name of
 Royal Military canal.
   From Shrewsbury to the Shrop-
 shire canal.  One half of the ascent
 is effected by locks, the other half
 by incUned  planes.   It has  one
 tunnel.   Number of shares, 500;
 originaUy, £125;  price  in 1824,
 £180.
  From  the  Severn,  at Coalport,
 to the Shrewsbury canal, at Down-
 ington wood.  It has several  in-
 clined planes and  railways, but no
 locks.
  From the Kennet and Avon  ca-
 nal, at Monkton Coombe, to Paul-
 ton.  The boats are  72 feet long
 and  7 broad.  It  has 22  locks.
 Number  of shares, 800; original
 cost, £50; price in 1824, £135.
  From  the  Itchin,  at Northam,
 to the Avon, at SaUsbury.
  From the river Severn, at Stour-
 port, to the Grand Trunk canal.
 It has 44 locks.  Its boats are of
20 tons  burthen.   It has 3  tun-
nels. Number of shares, 700; cost,
£140; price in 1824, £800.  The
tonnage  is not to exceed l>\d.  per
 mile.
  From the river Trent, at Kead-
 by, to the Don, at Fishlake.
  From the Stafford and Worces-
ter canal, at Stourton, to the Dud-
ley canal. It has 20 locks. Num-
 ber  of  shares,  300;  originaUy,
 £245 ; price in 1824, £212.
  From the river Teign, at New-
town, to Bovey Tracey.
  From the river Severn, at Fra-
miload, to the Thames and Severn
canal, at Wallbridge.
  From  Swansea  harbor to Hen
Noyadd.  Like the Neath canal, it
serves to transport copper ore from
Cornwall to Glamorganshire foun-
deries.  Number  of shares, 533;
originally, £100;  price  in  1824,
£195. 
CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
463
Ascent if Descent,
 infect and die*.
 mil parts.
Total. Pr.mile.
Tavistock,. .  .
Mill Hill branch,
1810
237
52.7
Thames and ?
  Medway,  $
Thames and
  Severn,
1800
1789
84
304
377
Warwick and)
 Birmingham, <
Warwick and ?
  Napton,    $
Wey & Aran ?
  Junction,   <J
Wilts and Berks,
Calne branch, .

Worcester and)
 Birmingham, $
Wyrley and j
  Essington, <
Hayhead br.,.
Lordshery br.,
Wyrley  Bank
  br.,
Essington br.,
Norwich and'
  Lowestoff
  Navigation,
1799
25
1799	15
	16
1801	52 3
1797	29
1796	23
	54 2*
	4
	1
1829	50
376
128
270
12.3
40—30
7.2
4.3
11.6
42
28
44
  From the river Tamar, at Cnl-
stock, to Tavistock.  It  has a tun-
nel at Morwellham, 460 feet below
the surface.  This tunnel  led to
the discovery  of a copper-mine.
Its boats are 154 feet in length and
5 in  breadth.   Number of shares,
350;  originaUy,  £100;  price  in
1824, £150.
  From the Thames, at Gravesend,
to the river Medway. Number of
shares, 2670 ; cost, £42 9s. 5d.;
price in  1824,  £26. This  canal
has loans to a large amount.
  From the Stroudwater canal to
the Thames and Isis navigation.
The boats are of 70 tons burthen,
being 80 feet  long  and 5 broad.
It has a tunnel at  Sapperton, 250
feet  below the top of the hill of
rock under which it passes.  The
bottom of this tunnel is an invert-
ed arch.
   From the Warwick and Napton
canal, near Warwick, to the Dig-
beth branch of the old Birming-
ham  canal.  It  has a  tunnel at
Fazeley 300  yards  in length.  It
has 32 locks.
   From  the  Warwick  and Bir-
mingham  to  the  Oxford  canal.
Number of shares, 980; originally,
£100; in 1824, £215.
   From the river Wey, near God-
aiming, to the north branch  of the
Arun river navigation.  Number
of shares, 905; cost, £110;  price
in 1824, £25.
   From the Kennet and Avon ca-
nal,  at Semington,  to the Thames
and  Isis navigation.
   From the Severn, at  Diglis, be-
low  Worcester,  to the Birming-
ham and Fazeley canal, at Farmer's
bridge.
   From  a detached part of the
Fazeley canal, at Huddlesford, to
the Birmingham canal,  at Wolver-
hampton.  The  boats  are  of 18
tons burthen.  It has 28 locks.
                                              The works near Yarmouth open
                                            an inland navigation in two  direc-
                                            tions ;  one  30 miles, by the Yare,
                                            the other 20  miles, by the Wave-
ney, without a lock.  The river Yare discharges at Yarmouth, about 30 miles  below
Norwich, but the navigation is  obstructed by shoals and shifting sands  at  its 
464      CANALS OF GREAT BRITAIN—AMERICAN CANALS.
mouth.  To avoid these  obstructions, the
river  is to be made navigable for sea-
borne vessels from Norwich to a place 20
miles lower down the river, called Reed-
ham Ferry, where a new cut of 24 miles
is to be made across the marshes, to join
the river Waveney at St. Olave's bridge,
whence the water communication pro-
ceeds by a small stream (Oulton Dyke)
and two  lakes (Oulton  Broad  and  Lo-
thing), from  the latter  connected  with
the sea by a channel 700 yards long  and
40 feet wide, with a sea-lock 50 feet wide
in the clear and 24 feet deep, for the pur-
pose of admitting sea-borne vessels.  Oul-
ton Dyke and Oulton  Broad are to be
deepened.  The lock constructed at the
outlet of lake Lothing makes an artificial
harbor, the first that has been formed in
England.  This  lock  has  folding gates
pointing both landward and seaward, so
as to admit of vessels passing in or out at
any time of tide, and whether  the water
be higher on the outside  or inside.  The
harbor covers about 200 acres, the whole
contents of which it is proposed, occasion-
ally, to let off at low water, to keep open
the channel from the sea.
  American Canals.  It is proposed to
give a more particular description of the
American canals under the  article In-
land Navigation. In the  mean time, a
very  general enumeration  will  be  here
made of the principal works of this kind
already completed or in progress, which
will show the astonishing extent to which
canal navigation has been opened in the
U.  States, during the short period, now
(1829) only  13 or  14 years, since these
works began to be undertaken upon a
large scale.  It will appear, from the fol-
lowing outline, that not less  than 2500
miles of canal are constructed, or in the
progress  of execution in the  U. States,
and wiU  probably soon  be completed,
making a liberal allowance for a suspen-
sion of some of the works projected  and
commenced.  The extent of canal in the
U.  States  will soon equal  that in Great
Britain.  The canals constructed and now
in progress in the state of Pennsylvania
have been estimated at a length of 900
mUes; very nearly equal to  that of the
canals of France, but doubtless inferior in
the style and durability of execution.—
The Wetland canal, in Canada, is intended
for opening a sloop navigation between
lakes  Erie and Ontario.  It is not com-
 Eleted.—The Middlesex  canal  opens a
 oat navigation between Boston and the
Merrimack river, and runs 28 or 29 miles,
in a northwesterly direction, from its out-
let into the harbor of Boston, in the town
of Charlestown.—The Blackstone  canal
is constructed along Blackstone river from
Providence, in Rhode  Island, north-west-
erly 45 miles, to Worcester, in Massachu-
setts.—The Farmington canal leaves the
coast of Long Island sound at New Ha-
ven, in Connecticut, and takes a  north-
easterly course, towards Northampton in
Massachusetts, 65  miles distant, where it
is to communicate with Connecticut river.
A great part of it is finished and in opera-
tion, but a portion, towards  the  north-
eastern termination, remains to be con-
structed.—The Hudson  and Erie  canal
passes from Albany, in the state of New
York, along the western bank of Hudson
river,  until it  meets the Mohawk; then
runs, in a north-westerly direction, up the
south-western bank of that  river, to the
town of Rome, where  it turns more west-
erly, on a summit level of about 60 miles,
without a lock, and, passing in a line cor-
responding, in some measure, to  the di-
rection of  the southern  shore of lake
Ontario, and  crossing the Seneca and
Genesee rivers in  its  course, communi-
cates with lake Erie at Buffalo, 363 miles
from Albany.  This canal is connected
with lake  Champlain  by  the  Champlain
canal, 63 miles in length ;  with lake  On-
tario by the Oswego canal, about 38 miles
long;  and with Seneca lake by the Seneca
canal, about 20 miles long.—The Hudson
and Delaware  canal begins at the west
bank of Hudson river, near Kingston, in
New York, about  85  or 90 miles north
of the city of New York, and runs in a
south-westerly direction 65 miles, to the
Delaware  river,  near  to  the north-east
corner of  Pennsylvania, and  the  north-
west of New Jersey.   It then takes a
general direction a Uttle to the north-west,
and keeps the northern bank ofthe Dela-
ware river for 25 or 30 miles, to the en-
trance of Lackawaxen creek, from the
opposite side ; crosses  the Delaware at a
point  about 110  miles  north of Phila-
delphia, and, leaving that river, keeps the
northern bank of Lackawaxen creek; then
crosses it, in a westerly direction,  to Rls-
cis Gap, a distance, added to the  former,
of between 40 and 50  miles, as nearly as
can be estimated from Mr. Tanner's map
of Pennsylvania, of 1829.  This  canal
opens the  Lackawaxen coal  district to
Hudson river.—The Morris canal, now in
progress, commences, at  its western ex-
tremity, at the river Delaware, near Eas-
ton, and passes across the state of New
Jersey in a north-easterly, then in an east-
erly,  then in a southerly direction, 86 
AMERICAN CANALS.
465
miles, to Newark, in that state.  Its west-
ern extremity is at the eastern termination
ofthe Lehigh navigation in Pennsylvania,
and it is intended for the transportation
of Lehigh coal to New York.—The Ohio
state canal commences  at the mouth of
Sciota river, where it discharges  into the
river Ohio, and takes a northerly course,
for about 306 miles,  to lake Erie, at the
mouth ofthe Cuyahoga river, in the town
of Cleveland.   This work is in rapid
progress.—The Miami canal is also a line
of communication between the river Ohio,
which  it leaves  at  Cincinnati, and lake
Erie.   Its northerly  termination  is in the
Maumee, which discharges into the west-
erly  part  of lake Erie.  The proposed
length  of this canal is  265 mUes.  It is
now in progress.—Illinois and Michigan
canal.  An act was  passed in the legisla-
ture of UUnois, Jan. 22,1829, authonzing
commissioners," as soon thereafter as they
could command funds, and might deem
it  expedient to commence the work, to
effect a navigable communication between
lake  Michigan and the  Illinois river."
This is the fourth  projected work  for
making a  communication between the
great northern and  western waters; one
of the  others  being projected by Penn-
sylvania, from  Pittsburg to Erie, of which
a very small part is  executed; the other
two are undertaken  by Ohio, and both in
progress.—The Lehigh canal commences
at the Maunch Chunk coal-mine, on the
river Lehigh, and runs  to Easton, on the
Delaware ; the  whole distance of this
navigation being  46| miles ; but a part of
it  is river navigation, the length of the
canal being 37 miles.  Its eastern  termi-
nation at Easton meets the western ter-
mination  of  the Moms  canal  in  New
Jersey.—The Delaware canal commences,
at its northern extremity, at Easton, about
55 miles in a right line  nearly north from
Philadelphia, on the north-western bank
of Delaware river, the general course of
which, for about 50  miles from this place,
is south-easterly, when  it turns, in nearly
a south-westerly direction, about 30 miles,
to Philadelphia.  This canal,  which is
now (1829) in progress, is to foUow the
general course of the Delaware, keeping
its westerly bank to Morrisville, where it
bears off from the river, to avoid a bend,
and proceeds, in a pretty direct course, a
little to the west of south, to Bristol, on the
westerly bank ofthe Delaware, 194 miles
N. E.  from Philadelphia.—The Schuyl-
kill canal is constructed on the  banks of
Schuylkill river, from Philadelphia, about
110 mUes, to mount Carbon, the region
of the  Anthracite, in Schuylkill county.
the general direction being nearly north-
west—The Union canal.  A Utde to the
westward of the town  of Reading, in
Berks  county, Pennsylvania,  about  60
miles from  Philadelphia, the Union canal
branches off from the Schuylkill canal in
a general south-westerly direction, first
passing up a branch ofthe Schuylkill, and
then down  the  vaUey of the Swatara,
somewhat circuitously, about 80 miles, to
Middletown, a Uttle above the junction of
the Swatara with the  Susquehanna.—
Pennsylvania canal commences at  Mid-
dletown, at the termination of the Union
canal, whence it is proposed to proceed
up along the Susquehanna, in a westerly
direction, to the AUeghanies,  which are
to be passed by a raU-road, now in prog-
ress, about 50 miles  in  length,  into the
vaUey of the Ohio, where the canal again
commences, and is continued to  Pitts-
burg, a distance, in  the whole, of 320
mUes of canal and raU-road; the part of
the canal beyond the AUeghanies being
already completed, and  the port on the
eastern side being in progress.—The Little
Schuylkill canal is 27 miles in length, from
the mouth of the Little  SchuylkiU river
to the coal-mines.—Conesjtoga canal passes
from Lancaster, in Pennsylvania, about
62 mUes direcdy west from Philadelphia,
down  the Conestoga creek, 18 miles, in
nearly  a south-west direction, to Susque-
hanna  river.—The Chesapeake and Dela-
ware canal, 18 mUes  in  length, from  the
Delaware river to Elk river, which dis-
charges into Chesapeake bay, is of suffi-
cient dimensions for the  passage of coast-
ing vessels, in the route between  PhUa-
delphia and  Baltimore.—Dismal Swamp
canal is a channel of sloop navigation, be-
ing 6  feet deep and 70 wide, along the
low land between Chesapeake bay and
Albemarle  sound, and thence to Pamlico
sound.  Several branches have been con-
structed, and the whole is in operation,
being a very important work, as wiU be
apparent by an inspection ofthe map, and
somewhat similar to that ofthe Chesapeake
and  Delaware   canal.—The  Chesapeake
and Ohio canal is a gigantic enterprise, in
progress, for opening a navigation of 360
mUes,  from Wahsington, along the Poto-
mac and its branches, across the Allegha-
ny mountains, and thence down the val-
ley ofthe Youghiogeny and Monongahela
rivers, to Pittsburg, on  the Ohio.   The
execution of this work  was commenced
in 1828, at the eastern  extremity.—The
Louisville canal,  though  only 3 or 4 miles
in length, is a work of great importance, 
466                AMERICAN  CANALS—CANARIES.
as weU as great expense.  It is now in
progress, and is intended to  form a pas-
sage along the side of the rapids of the
Ohio, near to LouisviUe, in  Kentucky.
The canal is constructing of sufficiently
large dimensions to admit of the passage
of steamboats; and the difficulty and ex-
pense, as in the case ofthe canal at Trol-
hatta  faUs, in Sweden,  is occasioned by
the necessity of excavating  rock.—The
James and Kanhawa canal is a name given
to works intended to form a Une of trans-
portation, partly by water and partly by
land, from the Atlantic coast to the Ohio;
being a navigation along James river to
the Blue Ridge, partly by  an artificial
channel, but mostly by the river, and,
across the Ridge, by a  well-constructed
road, graduated to an incUnation not ex-
ceeding 3 degrees, which has been com-
pleted, and descending,  by river or canal
navigation, along the Kanhawa river, to
the Ohio.   A canal was  commenced,
along the bank of James river,  to pass
the feUs at Richmond, before the revolu-
tion.  The work was resumed, and com-
pleted,  after  the establishment  of the
present government, by a private com-
pany ; but the state has since assumed
these works, and greatly enlarged them,
upon an improved construction, in the
execution of the plan of the extended
Une of transportation above described.  In
Mr. Boye's map of Virginia,  the canal is
laid down along the north-western bonk
of the James river, from Richmond to
Venture falls ; a distance  of about 20
miles, and,  by the course of the canal,
probably as  much as 24 or 25.—The Ap-
pomattox canal  is about 5 miles of canal,
in detached  portions, being a port  of a
system of improvement of the Appomat-
tox navigation in Virginia.—The Roanoke
canal is a similar work on Roanoke river.
—The Santee canal is  a proposed  and
partly executed line of navigation from
Charleston to Columbia, and thence to
Cambridge,   in  South  Carolina.   The
whole distance is 160 miles.   A canal has
been cut, and for many years in operation,
22 miles in  length, across from Cooper's
river, which discharges into the ocean
at Charleston, to Santee river.  Thence
the route of this navigation is proposed
to pass along Santee, Broad  and Saluda
rivers;  the project being an improvement
of the river navigation, by removing ob-
structions, deepening the water  in shal-
low places, and locking round falls.   The
work has not, hitherto, been prosecuted
with great success.—The canal Carondo-
letisa short, artificial channel, connecting
the Mississippi with lake Pontchartrain,
near New Orleans.  It has no locks.—
Such is a general geographical outline of
the most important artificial channels of
inland  navigation, completed  or com-
menced in the U. States, down to 1829.
The table of dimensions, and the most
striking features of construction, of these
works, is deferred to the article on inland
navigation, where a more satisfactory de-
scription, in these respects, may be given,
when the results or prospects of some of
the great  enterprises in progress, at the
time of writing this article, shall be more
fuUy ascertained.
   Canaletto ;  1. a Venetian  painter,
born in 1687, whose true name was Anto-
nio Canale.  He is celebrated for his land-
scapes, which  are true to nature, and  his
architectural paintings.  He died at Lon-
don, in 1768.  There is a bird's-eye view
of Venice painted by him.  He is also
said to have first used the camera obscura
for  perspective.—2.  Bernardo Bellotti,
who was Ukewise a good artist, and paint-
ed at Dresden many ItaUan landscapes,
also goes by  this name.   He lived in
Dresden, where he was a member of the
academy of painters, and died in 1770.
   Canaries ; a cluster of islands in the
Atlantic, considered as belonging to Afri-
ca, the most  easterly  being  about 150
miles from cape Non.  They  ore  13 in
number, 7 of which are considerable, viz.,
Palma, Feno, Gomera, Teneriffe, Grand
Canary,  Fuerteventura  and Lancerota.
the other 6 are very smaU; Graciosa, Ro-
ca or Rocca, AUegranza, Sta. Clara, In-
ferno and  Lobos.  Lon.  13° 2C—18° W
W.; lat. 27° 30'—29° 3(V  N.  The extent
and population of the seven largest, ac-
cording to Ledru, are given in the follow-
ing table:—
                                 Pap.
               Sq. leagues. Pop.    to sq. I.
   Teneriffe,......73 ... 70,000 ... 958
   Fuerteventura,.. 63____9,000 ...  142
   Grand Canary,.. 60 ... 50,000 ... 833
   Palma,........27 ... 22,600 ... 837
   Lancerota,.....26 ... 10,000 ... 384
   Gomera,.......14____7,400 ... 528
   Ferro,.........7____5,000 ... 714
                  270   174,000  "644
 Hassel states the population of the whole
 at 181,000, and the square miles at 3213.
 The soil of these islands is very fertile,
 and produces all kinds of grain, fruits and
 pulse  in  great  abundance; so  that the
 name of Fortunate Islands, which the an-
 cients gave them, was well deserved; but
 the method of cultivation practised by the
 natives tends very little to its improvement 
CANARIES—CANCER.
467
All the islands furnish good wine; but the
preference is given to the wines of Palma
and Teneriffe.  The  situation of the C,
the salubrity of their  cUmate, the fertility
of then soil, and the quality of their pro-
ductions, all conspire to render them the
most valuable of the  Spanish colonies.
The exports amount to 242,000 dollars
annually, and consist of wine, raw silk,
soda and fruits.  One of the most recent
works on these islands, and probably the
most valuable one, is  Leopold von Buch's
Physikalische Beschreibung der  Canaris-
chen Inseln (Physical Description of the
Canary Islands, by Leop. von Buch; Ber-
Un, 1825,4to.  They are of volcanic origin,
and were, as has been stated, known to
the ancients.  Juba II, king of Maurita-
nia, described them first with some degree
of accuracy.  He graced a triumphal en-
try of Caesar into Rome, was instructed in
ali branches of liberal knowledge, and
became  a  highly accomplished prince.
Pliny followed his description of the isl-
ands.  Juba called the C. Proper Fortu-
nate, but  Madeira and  Porto Santo, Pur-
purea.  Of the island of Feno, which he
calls Ombrios, and of the others, he gives
on interesting account.   The  loss of this
work is the more to  be regretted,  as we
might reasonably hope to find in it some
information  respecting that mysterious
tribe who originally inhabited these isl-
ands.   This people  understood how to
embalm their dead,  who were sewed in
goat-skins, put into  coffins of one piece
of wood, and placed in grottoes.   These
mummies smell agreeably, but fall to dust
if they are taken out  of" their goat-skin
coverings.  The Spaniards relate strange
things of the civilization of these  tribes,
called Guanches, of their respect for wo-
men, of  their chastity, and aristocratic
constitution.  Their  language resembled
that spoken on the neighboring continent;
but we know too Uttle  of it to be able to
give any opinion respecting it.  Between
1316 and 1334, the Spaniards, pressed by
the  Moors,  discovered  and conquered
these islands; and they are laid down with
accuracy in the old map which  Andreas
Bianco pubUshed in Venice, 1436. The
Spaniards seem, however,  not  to have
esteemed  these  islands much; for  the
infante of Portugal, Henry the Navigator
(q. v.), ordered  them to be taken posses-
sion  of, and  prosecuted his discoveries
from them to the coast of Guinea.  In
 1478, the Spaniards  undertook  again the
 conquest of the C.  At the end  of the
 15th century, they had subdued the  origin-
al inhabitants entirely;  and they extirpated
them  at a  later  period.  At present, the
islands are  inhabited almost entirely by
Spaniards:  only a few Portuguese reside
there.  Teneriffe (q. v.) is an island of
basaltic formation, thrown up by internal
convulsions.  The fortified capital is the
seat of the governor, has 8400 inhabitants,
and an excellent harbor  on the eastern
side ofthe island.  Another city, Laguna
(8800 inhabitants), is the seat ofthe bish-
op (who has an income of about  £6000
sterling), and ofthe tribunals.  The island
Lancerota,  or Lancelotta,  contains three
volcanoes, and, in 1823, experienced vio-
lent eruptions.  Five islands of this clus-
ter are uninhabited.  The people of the
C. are rigid CathoUcs.
  Canary-Biro, or Canary Finch.  (See
Finch.)
  Canary, Grand, or Canaria ; an island
in the Atlantic  ocean, about 180 miles
from the coast of Africa.   It is the most
fertile and  important of the Canary isl-
ands, to  which it gives name.  Canary,
or Cividad  de Palmas, is the capital ofthe
island.  (See Canaries.)
   Cancer, in astronomy;  the fourth sign
ill  the zodiac (q. v.), marked  thus £5,
which the  sun enters on  the 21st day of
June, thence  called  the summer solstice.
It consists, according to  Kepler, of 17,
according  to  Bayer, of 35  stars,  2 of
which are of the third magnitude.  Flam-
stead made a catalogue  of 83 stars, the
comparative  brightness  of  several of
which wUl be found estimated by doctor
 Herschel (Phil. Tran. lxxxvu., 311).  The
tropic of cancer  is a small circle of the
sphere, parallel to the equator, from which
it is 234° distant, and marks  the  sun's
greatest  northern  declination.  It is  so
called because it passes  through  the be-
 ginning ofthe sign Cancer.
   Cancer.  In medicine, this name is
 given to a roundish, unequal, hard and
 livid tumor, generally seated in the glan-
 dular texture.  Though this is the texture
 in which it is beUeved always  to origin-
 ate,  it may extend to others.  This is
 doubted by some; and the disease which
 is often met with in the immediate neigh-
 borhood of advanced cancer, and in dif-
 ferent textures, is,  by them, ascribed to
 mechanical pressure of the cancerous tu-
 mors, aided by the acrid discharges which
 accompany its  ulceration.   The name
 was derived from a supposed resemblance
 ofthe tumor to a crab,  and furnishes a
 good example of the nomenclature from
 resemblance,  which was very much in
 use in the early periods  of the sciences.
 Two forms of cancer are recognised by 
468
CANCER—CANDELABRA.
 physicians.   They may rather be  called
 two states or stages of the same disease.
 One of these, and the first, is carcinoma,
 scirrhus,  or concealed cancer, of some
 writers.   The second is  the open, or ul-
 cerated cancer—ulcerated carcinoma, as
 it is designated by writers.  Under proper
 internal treatment, the second stage may
 be kept off for some time ; and, in favor-
 able cases, the extirpation of the tumor
 by the knife may effect a cure.   The
 disease is kept in check, in the first case,
 but is not removed, and is very prone to
 pass into the ulcerative stage.  The fact
 that this can be defened, by proper treat-
 ment, is  an important one.  The suffer-
 ings of the patient are thus made less,
 especially during the first stage; and, even
 in the last,  their severity is much miti-
 gated.  One very early symptom of car-
 cinoma is pain.  This pain differs from
 that which ordinarily accompanies local
 diseases  of a different kind.  It is  de-
 scribed as lancinating, occuning  some-
 what in  paroxysms, and  resembling  the
 suffering which the sudden passage of a
 sharp and pointed instrument would pro-
 duce in the port.  Besides this, there is
 always more  or less  dull pain present.
 The progress  of the disease, and the  oc-
 currence ofthe second stage, are marked
 by increased  pain of both kinds;  by in-
 crease in the size of die tumor,  augment-
 ed heat, greater inequaUty in the surface,
 a darker color, and increased tenderness
 on pressure.    When ulceration is just
 established, and even a little before,  the
 patient complains of general initation of
 the skin ;  the stomach  is  disturbed ; and
 symptoms  of constitutional  irritation,
 more strongly marked, make  their ap-
 pearance.  Ulceration  begins on the sur-
face ofthe tumor, and parts are destroyed,
 in succession,  from without,  until the
 whole texture presents a mass of disease.
 Instead of this destructive ulceration,  we
 have, in many cases, fungous masses pro-
jecting from the  diseased surface; and
these, at  times, attain considerable size.
 But it is not a character of carcinoma to
 grow, and become as large as other dis-
 eases of some of the organs in which it
 appears.   This is especially true  of it
 when seated in the womb.  An offensive,
 sanious discharge proceeds from the ulcer.
 Bleeding often takes place from it,  es-
 pecially when fungous, either from me-
 chanical irritation, though sUght, or from
 accidental excitement of the arterial sys-
 tem only.—Carcinoma is a maUgnant dis-
 ease.   Its tendency is to death.  The
 constitution has not power  to  overcome
 it; and  hence,  when  left to  itself, it is
 certainly mortal.   Internal remedies do
 little more than  palliate symptoms, or
 prevent the rapid  progress to  ulceration,
 which belongs to the disease.  The only
 remedy  is the  knife ;  and, in  cases in
 which the constitution and neighboring
 parts are not contaminated, extirpation by
 the  knife has removed  the disease en-
 tirely.  There are parts of the body wh ich
 ore liable to carcinoma, in which extirpa-
 tion  cannot  be practised, and  some in
 which, though an operation has been per-
 formed, death has, nevertheless, followed.
 In cases of this sort, especially those of
 the first  class, palliatives  only can be re-
 sorted to;  such  remedies, namely,  as
 mitigate  suffering, and retard the progress
 ofthe disease.
   Cancer-Root, or Beech-Drop  (pro-
 banche virginiana, h.); a parasitic plant,
 indigenous in America, growing almost
 exclusively on the  exposed root of the
 beech tree. The whole plant is powerful-
 ly astringent, and the root of a brownish
 color, spongy, and  of  a  very  nauseous,
 bitter taste.   It  has been applied more
 externally than internaUy to the cure of
 cancer.  The one-flowered cancer-root (oro-
 banche uniflora) is used in the same man-
 ner.   All parts of the plants are  used  in
 medicine.
  Candelabra.  Torches and lamps were
 the means used by the ancients for obtain-
 ing artificial light. The latter were either
 suspended  from  the   ceilings of their
 rooms, with chains, or placed upon small,
 movable  tables  (lampadaria, candelabra,
 and  candelabri).  The  candelabra were
 originally made of cane, with  one plate
 fixed  above and another underneath,  or
 with feet, for  supporters.   The  Greeks
 called these Xu^vuuX<».   The  Grecian art-
 ists produced, in  ornamenting these lamp-
stands, the richest  forms, which  always
 however,  had reference  to the  original
 cane, and were encircled with an infinite
 variety of beautiful ornaments.   Some-
times they were shafts in the  shapes of
columns, which  could be  shortened  or
drawn out; sometimes the luxuriant acan-
thus, with its leaves turned over; some-
times they represented trunks of trees
 entwined with ivy and  flowers, and ter-
 minated  by  vases or bell-flowers at the
 top, for the reception of the lamps.  Ex-
 amples of these forms may be found  in
 the British museum and the Louvre, but
 Iiarticulorly at the Vatican, where a gal-
 ery  is  filled  with marble  candelabra.
 Candelabra of yet more deUcate forms, of
 bronze, inlaid with silver and other met- 
CANDELABRA—CANDIA.
469
  als,  have been  found in Herculaneum.
  In ancient times, Tarentum and ^Egina
  were famous for their elegant candelabra.
  The graceful and expressive form of this
  utensil  was  made  use of  for  colossal
  works of art, particularly on account of
  its resemblance  to the holy torches em-
  ployed  in the worship of ^Esculapius.
  The largest and grandest of those monu-
  ments was the Pharos, at the  harbor of
  Alexandria.  In  modern times, this an-
  cient form has been used for an ingenious
  Christian monument.  At the place where
  (721) the first church in  Thuringia was
  founded by Boniface, the  apostle of the
  Germans, only a few relics remaining of
  the building, which had served for more
  than 10 centuries as a Christian temple, a
  candelabrum,  30 feet high, formed of
  sand-stone, was erected (Sept 1,1811), as
  a  symbol of the light which spread from
  this  spot.
    Candi, or Candy  (anciently Maagram-
  mum); a city  of Ceylon, and  capital of a
  country to which it gives name; 80 miles
  from Columbo; lon. 80° 44' E.; lat. 7° 36'
  N.  The town is a poor, miserable place,
 surrounded by a mud wall.  The king-
 dom is fertile, intersected with rivers, and
 well  furnished with woods.  It was an-
 nexed to the  British dominions in 1816.
 (See  bishop Heber's Narrative of a Jour-
 ney through the Upper Provinces of India,
 &c, with Notes upon Ceylon, vol. ii, p. 188
 etseq.)
   Candia (in the Turkish language, Kirid,
 called,  in  the  most  ancient times, Idaa,
 from mount Ida, afterwards Crete), one of
 the most important islands of the Turkish
 empire, situated in the Mediterranean (lon.
 23° 40'—26° 40' E., and  lat 34° 50'—35°
 5S7 N., 81 miles from the southern extrem-
 ity ofthe Morea, 92 from Rhodes, and 230
 from the African coast), is 160 miles long,
 14—50 broad,  and contains 4026 square
 miles.  A high chain of mountains, cov-
 ered with forests, runs through the whole
 length of the island, in two  ranges, the
 western  part  of which is  called by the
 Venetians Monte di Sphachia (formerly
 Leuce);  the eastern part, Lasthi or Sethia
 (formerly Dicte).  On the north side, it
 decUnes  moderately to a fertile coast, pro-
 vided with good  harbors;  on the south
 side, steeply to a rocky shore, with few
 roadsteads; and reaches its greatest height
 in  the lofty  Psiloriti  (the  ancient Ida),
 7670 feet high, and always  covered with
 snow.   Mountain  torrents, which  ore
swoUen in the  winter and spring, but al-
most dry in summer, conduct the waters
to the sea. Numerous springs give fertility
  vol. n.          49
 to most ofthe valleys, in which, and on
 the declivities of the mountains, is seen a
 luxuriant vegetation.  The air is mild ; the
 summer is cooled  by the north winds;
 the winter is distinguished only by show-
 ers of rain.  The island would, therefore,
 be a most delightful residence, and supply
 its inhabitants, as formerly, with grain,
 wine and oil, wool, flax, silk and cotton,
 fish, honey, game, cattle, the noblest fruits
 of the south, and even  with metals, in
 abundance, did not the  oppressions and
 cruelties of the Turks prevent all cultiva-
 tion, and render it impossible for the dis-
 couraged inhabitants (who, instead of be-
 ing 1,200,000, as in the time ofthe Greeks,
 or 900,000, as in the tune of the Venetians,
 amount only to 300,000, half Greeks, half
 Turks) to attain more than the most in-
 dispensable necessaries of life.  Manufac-
 tures,  trade, navigation, the arts  and sci-
 ences, are not to  be thought of.   All the
 harbors, with the exception of  that of
 Canea, are filled with sand, and the cities
 are mere  aggregations of rubbish.  The
 capital, Candia, the seat of the pacha, has
 15,000 inhabitants; Retimo, 6000; Canea
 (the ancient Cydonia), the most important
 place of trade on  the island, 12,000.  Ac-
 cording to Homer, king Idomeneus sailed
 from this island to Ilium,  with 80 vessels.
 The Greek mythology made  Crete the
 scene of many of the adventures of the
 gods and heroes.   Here  Saturn  reigned,
 and afterwards Minos, 1300 years before
 Christ.  After the banishment ofthe kings,
 Crete became a republic,  and dien a seat
 ofthe Cilician pirates, till it was conquer-
 ed by  the  Romans.  In  the year 823, it
 passed  from  the hands  of the  Roman
 emperors in the  East  into those of the
 Saracens, who built the  capital,  Candia,
 on the ruins of Heraclea,  but were expel-
 led again, in 962, by the Greeks.   Against
 the will of the inhabitants, the Byzantine
 sovereign sold the island to the Venetians
 in  1204, who, aware of its importance,
 fortified most  of the cities, won the good
 wiU of tlieir new subjects by a mild gov-
 ernment, and repelled all the assaults of
 the Genoese and Turks, tiU the middle of
 the 17th century. About this time, the
 attacks  of the Turks  became more vio-
 lent, on account of a prize taken  by the
 Maltese, on board of which was  the aga
 of the  eunuchs, and, according to a re-
 port then very generally spread through-
out Europe, the favorite wife and son of
the sultan Ibrahim, but probably only a
slave ofthe aga, who had been employed
in the seraglio as a nurse, with her son, to
whom, however, the sultan was much at- 
470
CANDIA.
tached.  This  vessel was  carried, for a
short  time, into Calismene, a harbor of
Candia,  without,  however, the consent
of the Venetians, who had no garrison
there.  The sultan was highly incensed,
ascribed all the fault to the Venetians, and
landed a large force in Candia, in June
1645, which soon took Canea and Retimo,
and besieged the capital with vigor.  The
attack was bravely repeUed, but repeated
in 1649; and was this time also unsuccess-
ful.  In 1656, the Turks made a third ef-
fort, but afterwards changed the siege into
a blockade, which they continued for 10
years without success, since the Venetians,
being masters of the sea, suppUed the for-
tress,  without  difficulty, with  provisions,
men and ammunition.   In 1667, after the
peace of Vasvar,  the grand vizier, Kio-
purU, in order to restore his  reputation,
which had been tarnished by the loss of
the battle of St. Gothard, and to regain the
favor  of Mohammed IV by au important
conquest, took vigorous measures for the
entire reduction of Candia, investing the
capital, May 14th, with 80,000 men. A wall
with 7 bastions sunounded the fortress;
the same number of ravelins were situated
in front of the wall, and several detached
works still farther in advance: a numerous
fleet held the Turks in check by sea, and
the garrison, commanded by the chevaUer
de  Ville and Morosini, was ready  to be
buried  under  the ruins  of the fortress.
The  attack of the  Turks  was  directed
against the bastion called  Panigra.   The
Christians  contested every step  of their
advance;  but the Turks were soon at the
foot of  a breach,  which was, however, so
weU  defended by mines, salUes, and in-
trenchments, that the most furious assaults,
directed by KiopurU in person, who fear-
ed the displeasure of his master, were
 without success.  The winter found the
 Turks still before the breach, and com-
 pelled them to withdraw to their intrench-
 ments.  The natives  of the East,  unac-
 customed to a whiter campaign, were car-
 ried off by sickness;  and new masses of
 troops, with all the materials  for a siege,
 suppUed the loss.  Changes occurred also
 in the  fortress.   In the  spring of  1668,
 the brave chevaUer de Ville was recalled,
 on account of the jealousy of his superi-
 ors,  and a quarrel with Morosini.  His
 place, however, was weU supplied by the
 chevaUer  St  Andre Montbran.  Volun-
 teers, likewise, poured in from aU the coun-
 tries of Europe,  to display their courage
  on so  bloody a field, and to learn the art
  of war.   Numerous engineers made the
  place  their  school,  and WerthmuUer,
Rimpler and Vauban were together here.
The pope  sent troops and money;  the
Maltese, knights and soldiers.  The duke
de la Feuillade led hither 600 Frenchmen,
some of them of the noblest  famiUes,
who, with French thoughtlessness, rushed
into needless danger, and were, for  the
most part, destroyed.   The count of Wal-
deck subsequently  came with 3 regi-
ments of Liineberg  troops, so  that  the
garrison  was always kept from 8000 to
10,000 strong.  Treachery had given  the
Turks information that the bastions of St.
Andre and  Sabionetta were the weakest
points of the fortress:  they therefore al-
tered their plan, and attacked  the last-
mentioned  works.  Departing from  the
line of operations which they had hitherto
followed, they approached the fortress by
employing  a great number of men in dig-
ging a deep ditch, throwing up  the earth
towards  the  place,  and continuing  to
move it forward  with shovels, till they
reached and filled the trench.   Daring sal-
lies and weU-appUed mines, however, kept
the Turks in check for a long time, and often
destroyed their works; but, having finally-
succeeded  in establishing themselves on
the bastion of St. Andre, they found  be-
yond it strong intrenchments, which with-
stood the most violent assaults; and  the
approach of winter  found the  besiegers
no farther  advanced.  In the spring  of
1669,  the  Turks pursued  their labors
slowly, but surely and  successfully.  In a
short time, nothing but a heap of earth
and stones remained to the Venetians of
the bastion of St. Andre, and  their last
defence was a waU, thrown up during the
winter,  as  a  general  intrenchment   In
this extremity, the dukes of Beaufort and
Navailles appeared  with a French fleet
and 7000 troops.   A desperate  sally  was
undertaken with  this new reinforcement.
A mine, which was to serve as a signal,
and throw the Turks into confusion, did
 not explode:  on the contrary, a Turkish
 powder-magazine blew up  when  the
 French  had already  got possession of the
 trenches, and repelled an attempt of the
 Turks to  recover them.  This explosion
 filled the French with such a fear of con-
 cealed mines, that they fled in disorder to
 the fortress, and left 200  men dead on
 the field, among whom were many brave
 officers, and the duke of Beaufort.  At the
 same time, the Christian fleet, consisting
 of 80 ships and 50 galleys, which were to
 attack the Turkish camp in the flank, was
 thrown into disorder by the batteries  on
 the coast, and the blowing up of a ship of
 70 guns,  and the sally  was entirely un- 
CANDIA—CANDIDATE.                      471
successful.   This misfortune  increased  Canea and Retimo, governed the island.
the discord which already existed to such  On account of the feuds of these pachas,
a degree, that the duke of Navailles, con-  the inhabitants of the western mountains
vinced that the preservation of the for-  succeeded in forming a government of
tress was impossible, re-embarked his  their own, under Turkish protection, in
corps, and returned to France.  Individ-  the agalic  of Sphachia.  As the compacts
uals  belonging to the other troops joined  made with them were not always observ-
the French ; the Maltese, and almost all  ed, they were wont, in such cases, to take
the volunteers, also, departed shortly after;  up arms, were often  defeated, but never
a new assault of the Turks was more sue-  entirely subdued.  The  pachas  having
cessful than the previous ones, and brought  demanded hostages of them in 1821, they
them to the palisades ofthe last intrench-  joined the Greek insurgents.  Even under
inent; the ganison, amounting to scarcely  the Venetian government, the  Candiotes
3000 men, was desponding and disobedi-  had the reputation of suffering no infringe-
ent; quarrels distracted  the commanders,  ment of their privileges,  and would not
and  every thing announced that the place  permit the Venetians to establish, as  in the
must fall at the next  assault  It  was re-  other districts of Greece,  a nobiUty, degli
solved, therefore, in  a council of war, to  possidenti, by whose means they might
sunender.   The  terms of  capitulation  hold the other inhabitants under the yoke
gave the garrison and inhabitants liberty  of the podestas.  Had the  mountaineers
to depart within 12 days, and to take with  been armed, when the Turks made their
them all their property,  even the artillery  first descent on the island, it would prob-
which had been introduced into the city  ably have been impossible for the invaders
during the  siege, and left the Venetians  to have maintained themselves in Candia.
in possession of Suda, Garabusa and Spi-  The Sphachiotes have played the same part
nalonga.  Sept. 27,  1669,  the city was  in Candia as the Mainotes in the Morea,
sunendered, after a war of  25  years, a excepting that they have  not escaped the
blockade of 13 years, and a siege, in which  tribute of the poll-tax.  The energy of the
the  trenches had been open 2 years 3 inhabitants seems to be now relaxed. (See
months  and 27 days.   Its defence  must  Greek Insurrection.) The historical impor-
serve as a model to the latest ages, as one  tance of  ancient Crete, in a mythological
of the  bravest recorded in history, and  point of view, and as a seat of ancient civ-
proves what Christian courage could ef-  ilization,  is shown by Hock's Kreta (G8tt,
feet against Turkish fury and superiority  1823).  In  1817, F. W. Sieber, a German
of numbers, even at a time when the Eu-  physician, penetrated far into Crete, and
 ropean art of war was imperfect, and the  made many observations on it, which had
 Turkish  empire was at the  zenith of its  principally  in view  the improvement of
 prosperity.   At the time of the  capitula-  natural history and medical science. See
 tion, the garrison consisted of only 2500  his  Reise nach der Insel Kreta—Voyage to
 soldiers.  30,985 Christians  and 118,754  the Island of Crete  (Leips. 1823),  2 vols.
 Turks were killed or wounded during the  with plates and a map.
 siege;  56  assaults  were  made by  the    Candidate (from the Latin candidatus,
 Turks ; 96 sallies by the Christians ; 472  white-robed, because, among the  Romans,
 mines  were sprung by the former, 1173  a man who solicited an office appeared in
 by the latter; 509,692 cannon shot were  a shining white garment—toga  Candida).
 fired by the fortress, and 180,000 cwt. of  The candidati  of the Romans  wore no
 lead used for musket balls by the Chris-  tunic; either as a sign of humility, or in
 tians.  The Turks found the city in a ra-  order to show the  wounds received on
 inous state; every thing of any value was  their breasts.  The time of their canvass-
 taken away; only 33 men,  for  the most  ing was two  years, during which they
 part far advanced in years, remained be-  wore the toga Candida.  In the first year,
 hind, and 350  miserable cannon stood on  they delivered speeches  to the people, or
 the walls.   The Turks immediately re-  had them  deUvered by  others,  with the
 paired all the works.   Having obtained  consent  of the magistrates.  This was
 possession  of the capital, they now en-  called prqfiteri  nomen suum, and the year,
 deavored to expel the Venetians from the  annus professianis.  After this year, they
 strong holds which remained to them on the  requested  the  magistrate to enter their
 island; and, before  the expiration  of the  names on  the  list of candidates  for the
  17th century,Garabusa fell into their power office sought  for.  An aspirant was seh
  by  treachery, and Suda and Spinalonga by dom  refused  permission  to  deUver his
 surrender.   They managed Candia in the  speeches; but  he was not yet necessarily
  usual manner.  Three  pachas, at Candia,   treated as a candidate by the magistrates, 
472                CANDIDATE—CANGA-ARGUELLES.
 or proposed by them to the people on the
 day of election.  Before that  was done,
 his life was subjected to a scrutiny in the
 senate, after the pretor or consul had re-
 ceived his name.  If the senate accepted
 him, he was permitted to offer himself,
 on the day of election,  as a  candidate.
 The  formula, by which  permission was
 granted, was, rationem habebo, renuntiabo ;
 if he was not accepted, he received the
 answer rationem non habebo ; non renun-
 tiabo.   The  tribunes  often  opposed a
 candidate who  had  been accepted by
 the senate.  The morals of the aspirants,
 in the purer ages of the republic, were
 always severely examined.  In the  later
 period of the republic, nobody could ob-
 tain an office if he was not present, and
 if he had not  offered himself on three
 market-days.  (SaU.  Cat. 18.,  Cic Fam.
 xvi. 12.)  On these days, the candidates
 tried  to insinuate themselves  into the
 favor of the  people.   They went from
 house to house (ambiendo), shook hands
 with every body whom they met (pren-
 sando), addressed each one by his name,
 for which purpose they generally had a
 nomenclator with them, who whispered
 the names of those whom they met  into
 their ear.  Cicero, therefore, calls the can-
 didates natio qffidosisdma.  They placed
 themselves, on  market-days, in elevated
 places, in order to be seen.  On the day
 of election, they did the same.  Favor-
 ites of the people accompanied them (de-
 ductores); some of their suite  (divisores)
 distributed money  among the  people,
 which, though prohibited, was done pub-
 Ucly.   Interpretes were employed to  bar-
 gain  with the  people, and the money
 was  deposited in the hands of sequestres.
 Sometimes a number of candidates united
 into parties (coitiones), in order to defeat
 the endeavors of the  others.  At last, the
 grounds on which each candidate rested
 his claims to the office were read, and the
 tribes delivered their votes.   The success-
 ful candidate then sacrificed to the gods
in the capitol.   To  oppose a  candidate
was called d refragari; to support him,
suffragari, or suffragatores esse.—We have
dwelt so long on this subject, on account
of the similarity between the ancient and
the modern modes of seeking office.—The
word candidate is also used, by Protestants,
to designate a theologian, who, having fin-
ished his studies at a university, is waiting
 for an appointment in the church.
  Candide ; the name of a famous tale
 of Voltaire's, forming an epoch in French
 literature, in which he ridicules the sys-
 tem of optimism with his usual  spirit, and
 attacks revelation with plausible but su-
 perficial arguments.  Voltaire  is unsur-
 passed in  the  art  of treating  the  most
 serious subjects with light  raillery, while
 he seduces the reader by the charms of
 his style.   Some descriptions in this tale,
 for instance, that ofthe carnival at Venice,
 are excellent.
   Candlemas ;  a CathoUc feast,   insti-
 tuted by pope Gelasius I, in 492, in  com-
 memoration of the presentation of Christ
 in the temple, and of the purification of
 Mary; perhaps intended to take the place
 of the rude heathen feast called the Lu-
percalia, which was  abolished by  him.
 It is  celebrated on February 2, and has
 its name  from the consecrated torches
 which are  canied about in procession, in
 allusion to  the words of Simeon, " a Ught
 to enlighten the Gentiles."
   Cane.  (See Bamboo and Ratan.)
   Canea ;  the principal port of Candia;
lat. 35° 28' 45" N.;  lon. 24° 12' 45" E.;
supposed to be on the site of the ancient
Cydonia.   Population, 7150.  The city
has been fortified from the time of the
Venetian government
  Canga-Arguelles, don Jose, Spanish
minister of finance  from 1820 to March,
1821, distinguished himself in the cortes
of 1812, no less by his talents than by his
zeal for the establishment of a  constitu-
tion.   When he  was minister,  he  laid
before the  cortes a statement of all the
possessions  of  the  crown  and of the
church in Spain, from which it appeared
that the latter surpassed the former by a
third  part.   When  king Ferdinand, in
1814, resumed the  government, C.  was
confined in Penniscola, but, in 1816, was
restored to  liberty, and employed in Va-
lencia.  In his Memoria  Sobre el Credito
Publico, he represented the condition of
the treasury, at the time when  the  king
swore to observe the constitution, and set
forth  the measures of the  ministry for
improving the  condition of the  finances.
According to this report, the annual  defi-
cit  of 340,050,231 reals was more  than
the whole revenue.  Among other means
of remedying  the evil, the  minister pro-
posed to raise 140,000,000 reals by direct
taxes; to sell a 7th part of the property
of the church and monasteries ; also the
small possessions of the crown in North
Africa, and to make proposals for a loan
of 200,000,000 reals.   He  presented  a
plan, likewise, for diminishing the great
number of officers, and  reducing the
amount of exclusive privileges.  His pro-
jects  were  executed  only  in part.   In
1821, he resigned his office, together with 
CANGA-ARGUELLES—CANNING.
473
the other ministers, and was chosen,  in
1822, a member of the  cortes.  In this
body, he joined die party of the moderate
liberals.   After the fall of the constitution
in Cadiz, he fled to England.
  Cange, Du.   (See Du Fresne.)
  Canisids, Petrus, born in  1524,  at
Nimeguen,  was  die first man in Germany
who entered the order of die  Jesuits,  of
which he became a very active member.
In  1549, he was made  professor of the-
ology, rector  and vice-chancellor of the
university at  lngolstadt  He  afterwards
reformed the university of Vienna, ac-
cording to  the  views of the  order.  His
catechism is  yet in use.  lie persuaded
Ferdinand  I  to adopt  violent measures
against  the Protestants, and founded the
colleges  at Prague, Augsburg, Dillingen,
and 1* riburg,  in Switzerland, in the latter
of which he died, in 1597.
   Cann.e ; a city in the  Neapolitan prov-
ince Puglia, at the mouth of the Aufidus,
on the Adriatic, famous for the great bat-
tle in which  the Romans were here de-
feated by Hannibal (216 B. C). The con-
suls iEmiUus  Paulus and Terentius Varro
contented themselves with acting on the
defensive against the Carthaginian gen-
eral, who endeavored to decide the fate
of Rome by  one blow;  but  the senate,
considering that  the Roman army con-
sisted of 87,000 men, while that of  the
enemy amounted only  to 50,000, among
whom were 10,000 horse, and would have
no point of support when beaten, com-
manded the consuls to give battle.   Han-
 nibal, seeing that their plan was changed,
 allowed Varro to gain a sUght advantage
 in a skinnish of cavalry. The Romans
 left their strong position at Canusium, on
 the banks  of the Aufidus, and the whole
 army crossed the river.   The consul Vano
 drew up his troops on the plain, with  his
 right wing protected by  the river.  At
 the same time, Hannibal forded the Aufi-
 dus, and led  his small army to the attack,
 The Romans had tlieir own cavalry on
 the right wing, that of their allies on  the
 left, and the  infantry, as usual,  in  the
 centre.  Hannibal opposed the Numidian
 cavalry to  that of the Roman allies, and
 that of the Spaniards  and Gauls to  the
 Roman.   His  infantry from Africa  he
 divided into two bodies, each of them
 near the cavalry.  At some distance from
 both wings, the Spaniards and Gauls, on
 foot, arranged  in an obtuse  angle, occu-
 pied the  centre.   Behind them  was a
 strong  reserve.  Hannibal himself com
 manded the  centre. He had calculated
 that  the wind called  Volturnus, which
                  40*
blew regularly at certain hours in that
country, would,  at the  time  of attack,
throw dust and sand  in  the eyes of the
Romans, and hide his own evolutions.
The consul iEmilius Paulus was wounded
by  a  Balearian  slinger, soon after  the
Ught troops had begun the engagement.
The first shock  of the  Roman cavalry
upon  the Spaniards and Gauls was vio-
lent.  After the fight had lasted for a long
time,  they alighted, and fought on foot.
The Gauls and Spaniards then  broke
through the dismounted Romans, and cut
them down.   The  Roman infantry, to
assist then horse, moved in a curved  line
towards the wing, under very disadvan-
tageous circumstances, and attacked the
Spanish and Gallic infantry, which retired
in good order into the intervals, as Han-
nibal had commanded.  By this means,
Hannibal was enabled to attack the  Ro-
mans in flank, as they advanced  incau-
tiously, with the African infantry, which
he had kept back for this purpose.  Thus
sunounded, and contracted into a smaU
compass, the Romans fell in great num-
bers,  among  them the  consul iEmihus
Paulus, and both the proconsuls Servilius
and Atilius.   The Numidian horse de-
stroyed those who fled from the field of
battle.  The victor made 13,000 prison-
ers.  The Romans lost, according to their
own  lowest statements, 45,000 men; ac-
cording to the highest, 70,000.  Hannibal
collected the  gold rings of the knights
who  had fallen, and  sent some bushels
thereof to Carthage.   But the  victory had
also weakened his own army.  He was
in want of money to recruit  his  troops.
This want, rather than the short period
of luxurious Uving in winter-quarters  at
 Capua, obliged him? at length, to give up
the hope of conquering Italy, after a war
 of 17 campaigns.  (See Hannibal.)
   Cannes, or Canes ; a smaU seaport of
 France, on the shore of the Meditena-
 neau, in the department of the Var; pop-
 ulation, about 2800.   C. is famous as the
  Slace where the memorable march of
  fapoleon through France began, when
 he returned from Elba.  He landed here
 March 1,1815.
    Cannieals.   (See Anthropophagi and
 Caribs.)
    Canning, George, was born in London,
 April 11, 1770.   His father, a man of
 considerable abiUties and literary cultiva-
 tion, had offended his family by marrying
 a  lady of beauty and accomplishments,
 but without fortune, and died in 1771,
 leaving his widow destitute.   She had
 recourse to the stage for support, but was 
474
CANNING.
 not very successful, and  was afterwards
 twice manied.  Her second husband was
 an actor;  her third, Mr.  Hunn, a linen-
 draper of Exeter.  She lived to see the
 success of her son, from whom she ever
 received the tenderest marks of filial love.
 C, who had inherited a  small estate in
. Ireland, was educated at  Eton, where he
 was distinguished for industry, vigor of
 mind, and elegance of taste, and, at the
 age of 15, formed the plan of a  periodical
 paper, called the Microcosm, of which he
 was the principal editor.   In 1787, he was
 entered at Oxford.  His  vacations were
 passed with  Sheridan, by whom he  was
 introduced to Burke, Fox, and other dis-
 tinguished whigs.  But, although Sheri-
 dan had already announced him, in par-
 liament, as the future ornament  of liis
 party, C. entered into terms with Pitt, by
 whom he was brought into parliament in
 1793.   During the  first   session,  he re-
 mained silent.  His maiden effort was
 made  in 1794, on the Sardinian treaty,
 and rather disappointed expectation.   In
 1794,  he took the degree of M. A., and,
 from that time, resided constantly in Lon-
 don.   In  1796, he was under-secretary
 of slate. In 1797, he projected, with some
 of his  friends, the Ami-Jacobin, or Week-
 ly Examiner, of which  Gifford was  ap-
 pointed  editor.   C.  contributed  many
 poetical and other articles  to this period-
 ical.   In 1798, he supported Wilberforce's
 motion for the abolition ofthe slave-trade,
 and continued always an advocate for the
 amelioration  of  the condition of  the
 blacks.  In July, 1800, C. increased his
 fortune and influence by a marriage with
 Joanna, daughter of general Scott, a lady
 with a fortune of £100,000.  The admin-
 istration being dissolved in  1801,  C. be-
 came  a member of the opposition, until
 the restoration of Pitt in 1804.  In 1807,
 he was appointed secretary of state for
 foreign affairs in the Portland administra-
 tion.   A poUtical misunderstanding with
 lord Castiereagh  led to a duel between
 that minister and C, in which  the latter
 was sUghtly wounded.  This dispute  oc-
 casioned the  dissolution of the  ministry.
 In 1810, he opposed the reference of the
 CathoUc claims to the committee  of the
 whole house, on the  ground that no  se-
 curity or  engagement had been offered
 by the Catholics.   Some of  his most
 brilUant speeches were  on  this subject.
 He invariably supported the admission of
 the CathoUcs to power, not as an abstract
 question of right, but as a matter of expe-
 diency—of hourly increasing expediency.
 The adoption of the measure being then
 a matter of policy, the state of opinion,
 the condition of affairs, and the securities
 with which it should be accompanied,
 were, with him,elements ofthe question.
 He proposed  securities,  in 1813, which,
 with the bill,  were  rejected.  He sup-
 ported, in 1812 and 1813, the same motion
 which he had opposed  in 1810; and, in
 1821, two bills in favor  of the Catholics
 having been introduced into the house of
 commons, he observed, " that the moment
 was pecuharly favorable  for  discussion;
 that they were in possession of a peace
 achieved by Catholic arms, and cemented
 by Catholic blood."  To  C. was  princi-
 pally owing the  first blow which shook
 the throne of Napoleon ;  the British poli-
 cy in Spain was directed and animated
 by him.   " If there was  any  part of his
 political  life,"  he declared, on one occa-
 sion, " in which he gloried, it was that, in
 the face of every difficulty, discourage-
 ment, and prophecy  of  failure,  his had
 been  the hand  which  had  committed
 England  to  an  aUiance with  Spain."
 "Never," said he, on another occasion,
 " ought we to relinquish our hold of the
 Peninsula.  The ruler of  France has one
 grand object, to which he stands pledged
 —the establishment of his dominion  in
 the Peninsula.  If he  fail in this,  his de-
 feat must be most signal." In 1812, he
 was elected member of parliament for
 Liverpool; from which he was also re-
 turned in 1814,  1818, 1820.  In 1814,
 he  was  appointed minister to Portugal,
 and remained  absent about two years.
 In 1819, he declared his decided hostility
 to  parliamentary reform,  in  whatever
 shape; and his speech on lord John Rus-
 sell's motion for reform, in 1822, is among
 the most  finished specimens  of his elo-
 quence.    On the occasion of the  pro-
 ceedings relative to  the  queen,  he de-
 clared, that  " toward  the object of that
 investigation, he felt an unaltered regard
and affection;" and soon after resigned
 the presidency  of the board  of control,
and went abroad.  Having been nomi-
nated governor-general of India, he was
 on  the  point of embarking,  when the
death of  the marquis of Londonderry
called him to the cabinet  as secretary for
 foreign affairs (Sept. 16, 1822).  One of
 his earUest acts, in this situation,  was to
 check the French influence  in  Spain ;
 and, in a debate on this subject (April 28,
 1823), he observed, " It is true that there
 is a contest going on in the world between
 the spirit of unlimited monarchy and the
 spirit of unlimited democracy.  Between
 these two spirits there is a strife openly in 
CANNING—CANNON.
475
 action, or covertly at work, throughout
 the greater portion of Europe."  It was
 in this session that Brougham accused
 him  of "the most monstrous truckling
 which  the whole history of political ter-
 giversation  could furnish."  C. rose im-
 mediately, and exclaimed, " That is false."
 The affair was settled, after some expla-
 nations on  the part  of Mr. Brougham.
 He continued to support the propositions
 in favor of the Catholics, and, in  1825,
 communicated to foreign ministers the
 determination of his  majesty  to appoint
 charges d'affaires  to  Colombia, Mexico
 and Buenos Ayres.  In  consequence of
 the attempts made by Spain to assist the
 malcontents of Portugal, it was imme-
 diately determined,  by the ministry, to
 support the regency of that country.  On
 this occasion,  C.  concluded his speech
 with these remarks: " Some years ago, I
 said that I feared that the next war, which
 should be kindled in Europe, would be a
 war of opinions.  It is the contemplation
 of this new power, in  any future  war,
 which  excites  my most anxious appre-
 hensions."  And, in answer to the argu-
 ment that the ministers had encouraged
 the attack upon Portugal, by having per-
 mitted the occupation of Spain by France,
 he uttered the memorable words: " Was
 it necessary that  we should  blockade
 Cadiz ? No.  I looked  another way; I
 resolved that if  France  had  Spain, it
 should not be Spain with the  Indies.  I
 called the  new world into existence, to
 redress the balance of  the old."  April
 12, 1827, his appointment to  be prime
 minister was announced.   His adminis-
 tration was  terminated by his death, the
 8;h of August following; but not until it
 had been crowned by the  treaty of Lon-
 don (July  6), for  the settlement of the
 affairs  of Greece.—As  a statesman, he
 was liberal,  profound, consistent and in-
 dependent  I lis foreign  policy was mark-
 ed by the three great measures  of the
 recognition ofthe South American states,
 the maintenance of the independence of
 Portugal,  and  the  treaty in behalf of
 Greece.   His  uniform  support of the
 Catholic claims, and his  constant and ar-
 dent exertions in favor ofthe slave popu-
 lation of the colonies, are not less honor-
 able to  his humanity than to his policy.
 His eloquence was persuasive and impas-
 sioned ; his  reasoning clear and logical;
 his manner graceful; his expression win-
 ning,  and his whole appearance prepos-
sessing. His wit was brilliant, and his sat-
ire was extremely caustic.  He died poor.
His body is deposited  in  Westminster
 abbey.  (See Speeches of the Right Hon.
 G. Canning, with a Memoir, by R Therry,
 London, 1828.)—The cousin of G. Can-
 ning,  the  honorable Stratford Canning,
 is well known by the  conspicuous part
 which he has played during the late diffi-
 culties between the  Porte and the other
 European powers.
   Cannon ; a heavy metallic gun, which is
 moved by the strength of men and horses.
 It is mounted on a carriage, and iron (for-
 merly stone or leaden) balls are projected
 to a distance from it  by the force of gun-
 powder.  The  interior  of the cannon is
 called the bore.  The solid piece of metal
 behind is  named the breech, and  termi-
 nates  in  the button.   The dolphins  (so
 called  because they used to be made in
 the  form of this  animal) are the handles
 by which  the  piece  is mounted or dis-
 mounted.  The aperture through  which
 the fire is introduced into the bore, to ig-
 nite the charge, is called the vent or touch-
 hole, in which a small tube, used to contain
 the priming, is  placed previous to firing.
 The supports, which  are denominated car-
 riages,  are mounted  on trucks, as  in the
 case of ship-guns or garrison-guns, or on
 two wheels, as in the case of field-pieces.
 When  a field-piece  is to be moved, a
 two-wheeled frame is fixed to the  car-
 riage, which is called a limber, and this
 process is called to limber up.  The charge,
 or cartridge, is a bag filled with powder,
 carried near the cannon.  The cannon
 is fired by means of the match, which is
 a lighted bunch of tow, wound  round a
 small stick;  or by a tube, filled with the
 priming-powder,  from which a piece i^
 broken off every time,  and forced into a
 stick, to light the charge. On board most
 of tbe English ships there are cannon
 fired by means of locks.  To perform the
 labor required  in managing  cannon is
 called  to serve  the guns.  Cannon were
 formerly dignified with great names.  12,
 cast  by Louis XII, were called after the
 12 peers of France.   Charles V  had 12,
 which he called the Twelve apostles.  One
 at Bois le Due is called the Devil; a 60
 pounder, at Dover castle, is named Queen
 Elizabeth's pocket-pistol; an 80 pounder,
 at Berlin, is called the Thunderer; another
 at Malaga, the Terrible;  two 60 pounders
 at Bremen, the Messengers of bad news. In
 the beginning ofthe 15th century, names
 of this sort were abolished, and the follow-
 ing came into general  use:—cannon royal,
 or carthoun, carrying  48 pounds;  bastard
cannon, or  I carthoun, 36;  4 carthoun,
24; whole culverins,  18; demi-culverins,
9; falcon, 6; saker, lowest sort, 5; ordi- 
476
CANNON—CANOE.
nary, 6; largest sort, 8; basilisk, 48; ser-
pentine, 4; aspick, 2; dragon, 6; siren, 60;
falconet, 3, 2 and 1; moyens, which  car-
ried a baU of 10 or 12 ounces: rabinets
canied one of 16 ounces.  Cannons are,
at present, named, from die weight of the
balls which they carry, 6 pounders, 12
pounders, &c  The length ofthe cannon
is in proportion to the caliber.  Cannon
took then name from the French word
canne (a reed).  Before their invention,
machines were used  for projecting mis-
siles by mechanical force.  These were
imitated from the Arabs, and* called inge-
nia; whence engineer.  The first cannon
were made of wood, wrapt  in numerous
folds of linen, and well secured by iron
hoops.  They were  of a conical form,
widest at the  muzzle.  Afterwards, they
received a cylindrical shape.   At length
they were made of iron bars, firmly bound
tgedier, Uke  casks,  by iron hoops.  In
the second half of the 14th centuiy, they
were formed of an alloy of copper and
tin, and, in process of time, other metals
were added.   Some attribute  the inven-
tion of cannon to the Chinese, and say
that there are now cannon in China, which
were made in the 80th year of the Chris-
tian era. From the Chinese the Saracens
probably learned to  manufacture them,
and Callinicus, a deserter from Heliopolis,
in  Phoenicia, made them known, in 670
(676), to the Greek emperor Constantinus
Pogonatus.  Bombards were brought into
use in France in 1338, and, according to
another and more doubtful authority, Sol-
omon, king of Hungary, used them,  in
1073, at the siege of Belgrade.  From all
these accounts, it appears that the  true
epoch of the invention of cannon cannot
be  exactly  determined: it  is  certain,
however, that they were actually in use
about the middle ofthe 14th century.  In
1370, the  people  of Augsburg used cast
cannon.   In the beginning of the 15th
century, nearly all the countries of Eu-
rope, except Russia, where  cannon were
first cast in 1475, were provided with
them.   The lead cannon,  which  were
invented and  employed by the Swedes,
between 1620 and 1632, in the 30 years'
 war, were lined  with  tubes of wood or
copper, and secured on the outside with
iron rings. The art of firing red-hot balls
from cannon was invented by major-gen-
eral Weiler, ofthe electorate of Branden-
burg.  In the commencement of the 16th
 century, Maurice of Switzerland discov-
 ered a method of casting cannon whole,
 and boring them, so  as to draw out the
 interior in a single piece.  Arms for ex-
peditious firing, loaded from behind, and
having the charge closed in with a wedge,
were introduced by Daniel Spekle (who
died 1589) and Uffanus.  Charles Millon
invented a kind of air cannon, 2 feet long,
3 inches diameter in the thickest part, 12
lines caliber, charged with inflammable
air, and fired with a Leyden jar, or a piece
of cat-skin,  by which  12 discharges can
be made in a minute.  It stands  on a
frame of glass, and may be directed to
any point.   In 1740, cannons were made
of ice at St.  Petersburg, and balls of ma-
ny pounds weight were projected without
injuring the pieces.   (See  Steam-Gun,
Gun-Boat.)  Cannon-clock is a contrivance
invented by  one  Rousseau, and placed in
the garden of the palais royal,  and in the
Luxembourg at  Paris.  A burning-glass
is fixed over the vent of a cannon, so
that the sun's rays, at the  moment of its
passing the meridian, ore concentrated, by
the glass, on the  priming, and the piece is
fired.   The burning-glass is regulated, for
this purpose, every month.  (For the use
of cannon in naval warfare, see Ship.)
   Cano, Alonzo or Alexis;  a painter,
sculptor and architect.  The variety and
extent of his talents made him the Michael
Angelo of Spain, whom he also resembled
in his private character. He was born in
1608, at Grenada, studied in Seville, with
Pacheco, and first made himself known
by the statues which he executed  for the
great church of Lebrija. In his 24th year,
he had acquired the fame of a great artist,
and was (1638) appointed  painter to  the
king.   In this capacity, he executed sev-
eral celebrated pictures, and was at the
summit of his prosperity, when  a dreadful
event destroyed  his happiness.   His wife
was one day found murdered, and  his
house plundered.  Instead of a suspected
Italian servant, who had fled, C. himself!
convicted of a connexion with  another
woman, was condemned by the judges as
guilty ofthe murder.  He was  put to the
torture; but his right arm was spared, from
respect for his talents.  He bore the tor-
ture with silent fortitude.  The king par-
doned him.  He  became a priest, and was
made a racionero (resident) of Grenada,
where he passed the remainder of his Ufe
in a pious  and  exemplary manner, and
died in 1676.
   Canorus.  (See Canopus.)
   Canoe, also Canoa; the term generally
used to designate the small vessels which
uncivilized people, Uving near  the water,
use.  In the East Indies, there is a kind
of boat which goes  by this name, some-
times from  40 to 50 feet long,  and 5 or 6 
CANOE—CANON.                           477
 broad.   The  North American  Indians
 generally impel their canoes with paddles,
 which  have a very large blade, and are
 managed perpendicularly.  The canoes
 of Canada are ofthe most fragile texture,
 and of so Uttle weight, that,  in  passing
 from one river to another, the boat-men
 cany them  on their heads across their
 portages. They are mostly covered with
 bark, the pieces  of which are sewed to-
 gether with a kind of grass.  This bark
 is generally  not more than a quarter of an
 inch in thickness; yet, in these frail ves-
 sels, the Indians and Canadians do not
 hesitate to descend very dangerous rap-
 ids.   The  Esquimaux are exceedingly
 dexterous in the  management of their
 canoes.  These consist of a light, wooden
 frame,  covered with seal-skins,  sewed
 together with sinews.  The  skins are not
 only extended round the bottom and sides,
 but likewise over the top, forming a com-
 plete deck, and having only one opening
 to admit the Indian to his seat.  To this
 hole a flat hoop, rising about four inches,
 is fitted, to  which  is fastened the sur-
 rounding skin. The paddle is about 10
 feet long, Ught, and flat at each end.  In
 the Esquimaux  language, the canoe is
 called a kaiak, or man's boat, to distinguish
 it  from  umiak, the  woman's boat, which
 latter is  a large  boat  for transporting the
 women, with their  families  and posses-
 sions.   The  Greenlanders  and  Esqui-
 maux use the same kind of canoes, and it
 is astonishing, when we consider their in-
 significant construction, at what a distance
 from the regions they commonly inhabit,
 these  people, especiaUy the former,  are
 found in them.  In the islands  of  the
 South sea, the natives have a double ca-
 noe, united by a strong platform, serving,
 in this way,  as one vessel.  Such a canoe
 is capable of carrying a number of per-
 sons, and a considerable  lading. Captain
 Cook gives us a long account  of the dif-
 ferent kinds  of canoes used in Otaheite.
  Canon ; a person who possesses a preb-
end, or  revenue allotted for the perform-
ance of divine service in a  cathedral or
collegiate church.
  Canon, in the arts.   When art has
succeeded in producing beautiful forms,
the question arises, with what propor-
tions beauty  of form is united.  Artists
of genius  first started this question, and
imitators, inferior to them in talents, scru-
pulously foUowed their results, and natu-
rally exalted some  existing  work into a
model  for every  performance.  Among
the Greeks, the celebrated statuary Poly-
cletus (q. v.) first instituted such inquiries;
 and, as he generaUy represented youthful,
 pleasing figures, it is probable that he fix-
 ed the standard of beauty hi the youthful
 form.   The  canon  (the  model  statue)
 of Polycletus was  accordingly a  statue,
 which was made principally for the  pur-
 pose of showing the beautiful proportions
 of the human form in a youth just ripen-
 ing into  manhood.  No  copy of  it  is
 known  to exist; the artist  probably  gave
 his  model of proportion a quiet,  simple
 attitude, without  any strong, distinguish-
 ing marks.   His  successors imitated  it
 without deviation.   Polycletus was not
 the only Greek artist who  pursued such
 investigations respecting the proportions
 of form.   Euphranor, for instance  (in the
 10th Olympiad), is celebrated in the same
 way.  Among the  moderns, Diirer and
 Leonardo  da  Vinci have devoted them-
 selves to similar inquiries.  See A. Hirt's
 Abhandlung iiber den Canon in der  bilden-
 den Kunst  in the Abhandl. der Histor-phi-
 lolog. Classe der konigl. Akad.  der Wiss.
 in Berlin (1814 and 1815), a table annexed
 to which  gives the average proportions
 (ascertained by careful measurements) of
 the best ancient statues.
   Canon, in music, signified, with the an-
 cient Greeks,  what  now is called  mono-
 chord.   At present, it signifies a composi-
 tion in which  the several voices begin at
 fixed intervals, one after the other,  and in
 which  each successive voice  sings the
 verse or the strain of the preceding  one.
 In Italian,  therefore, it is called fuga di
 conseguenza;  in  Latin, canon perpetuus,
 or continuous fugue;  in  German,  Kreis-
fuge (circulating  fugue).    Sometimes
 each voice begins  with the same,  some-
 times with different notes.   Canons may
 be finite or infinite.  The former end, Uke
 any  other  compositions, with a. cadence,
 while the  infinite canon is so contrived,
 that the theme is  begun again before the
 parts which follow are concluded.  By
 this  means, the performance might be
 continued  to  an  indefinite length.   A
 canon may consist of two,  three, four or
 more voices. Generally only one voice of
 a canon is written, and a sign shows the
 place where the other voices are to  begin.
 Formerly, at the beginning of canons, it
 was the custom to place the directions by
 which they were to be deciphered and sung.
 These directions were called the ride or
 canon, and thence arises the tide which
 such compositions have since  retained.
 Canons  differ  from ordinary fugues;  for,
 in the latter, it is sufficient that the subject
 be occasionally repeated and imitated ac-
 cording  to the  laws of counterpoint; but, 
478         CANON—CANON OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES.
in the former, it is essential that the sub-
ject be strictly  repeated by all the suc-
ceeding parts; which repetition may be
made in the unison or octave, the fourth,
or the fifth, or any other  interval of the
scale.  There are several other canons, as
canon polymorphus, canon pertonos,  canon
per diminutionem, and canon per augmen-
tationem, which to explain, would exceed
our limits.  Sometimes, also,  a musical
passage of a composition, in which  one
voice repeats, for a short time, another, is
called, improperly, a canon.
  Canon (Greek); properly a measure,  a
rule, a standard; thence canon is used to
denote the rule or  standard of primitive
Christianity. The same term is employed to
designate the coUection of books contain-
ing diis rale; that is, the canonical books
of the Holy Scriptures, whose  divine ori-
gin the church acknowledges.  The can-
on ofthe books of the Old Testament, as
drawn Up by the Jews in the 4th century
before Christ (see Hebrew Language and
Literature), receives in this form equal
respect among  aU  Christians,  because
Christ and the apostles have expressly
appealed to them, and pronounced them
writings inspired by God.  The apocry-
phal books of the Old Testament, whose
canonical character the Jews did not ac-
knowledge, the Eastern church has never
received; but the Western church declar-
ed them canonical, in the African council,
about the end  of  the 4th centuiy.  Nev-
ertheless, the  opinions of the  clergy re-
specting the canonical  authority of the
apocrypha] books of the  Old  Testament
remained for  a long time divided.  Je-
rome, one of  the fathers  of the church,
denied it, and many theologians coincided
with him.  (See  the following article.)
The Protestant churches reject the Apoc-
rypha as  books not belonging  to the rule
of faith.  Respecting the  value and the
number of the books belonging to the
canon of the  New Testament, the opin-
ions of Christians were much divided till
the 6th centuiy.  As early as the 2d cen-
tury, the separation was  made  into the
 EvangeUcon (the four evangelists)  and
 the Apostolicon (the Acts  and Epistles of
 the Apostles).   The five historical books,
 the  Epistles of Paul, the First  Epistle
 of Peter, and the First Epistle of John,
 were universally acknowledged to be gen-
 uine in the 3d century; hence  they are
 called, by Eusebius, in  his Ecclesiastical
 History, written about A. D. 325,  Homo-
 logomena  (universally  received).  The
 other five CathoUc Epistles (Second of Pe-
 ter, Second and Third of John, Jude and
James) he calls AntUegomena (doubtful,
not universally received).   At that time,
the Epistle to the Hebrews  was consid-
ered genuine  by most persons, and the
Apocalypse by many.   These books were
received,  in the second half of the 4th
centuiy, in the Egyptian church (where
Athanasius first used die term canonical),
and in the Western church.  In the East-
ern church, properly  so  called (the dio-
ceses of the patriarchs of Constantinople,
Antioch and Jerusalem), only the Catho-
lic Epistles were of canonical authority
at that time ;  the Apocalypse not till the
6th  centuiy.  The canon of die New
Testament has since remained unaltered,
and  the  Protestant churches  hold  it in
common  with the  Greek  and Catholic
churches.  The results of critical exami-
nations of the genuineness and canonical
character of the single books ofthe Bible,
even when they were  unfavorable to the
books, have produced  no alteration in the
established canon.  The reasons  of the
ancient fathers of the church for or against
the  canonical character  of the Biblical
books were merely historical and tradi-
tional, and built on philological criticism ;
they are still the most  tenable and  ration-
al : the  philosophical  grounds are more
subject to be affected by extraneous in-
fluences.  Modern criticism has attacked,
with  success, the genuineness of single"
passages; but it has failed in its attempt to
destroy the canonical  authority of whole
books.  With respect to the Apocalypse, or
Revelation of John, however, a large num-
ber of the Protestant commentators incline
to the side of the assailants.—Canon is
also  the  name of the  prayers which the
CathoUc priests  repeat before, at and af-
ter the consecration ofthe host.—In arith-
metic, algebra, &c, canon denotes a for-
mula obtained by the  solution of a prob-
lem, and containing the rale by which all
examples, comprehended under the gene-
ral problem, may be solved.
   Canon  of  the  Holy  Scriptures
[written by a Catholic]. The distinguish-
ing characteristic ofthe Catholic religion,
as is fully explained in the article Catholi-
cism, is,  the  authority which it attributes
to tradition, by which revelation continues
in life  and power.    The  Holy  Scrip-
tures are  esteemed sacred by the  Catho-
lics, because the church  has transmitted
them from age to age  as sacred, and  illus-
trative of revelation, as far as any writings
can  be.   The church has only declared
what writings have been handed down as
of divine origin.  The catalogue of these
Holy Scriptures is the canon; the  writ- 
         CANON OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES—CANON LAW.      479

ings  themselves  are  called  Canonical  law is imperative, and includes the idea
Books.  In  this  sense,  the  Protestant  of  physical  enforcement,  the  ancient
church has no canon; it rejects the  au-  church preferred to apply to its precepts
thorny of all the traditions ofthe church,  the milder term of rule or canon (from the
Hence, in order to be consistent, it must  Greek kovuv, rule), which agrees with the
leave every Protestant, on free investiga-  language ofthe council of Trent, and the
tion, to decide what books he will regard as  most  able canonists, as  Van Espen, &c
canonical.  But the Bible, the pillar of the  Canons,  therefore, are  the  laws which
Protestant faith, is made up of separate  the church has  promulgated;  and by
canonical books;  and, by pursuing such a  canon law, in  English, is understood the
course, the basis  of the  Protestant faith  whole body of ecclesiastical  laws,  ordi-
might  be  undermined.    It has been  nances and regulations.  The church has
agreed, therefore, however inconsistently,  been, from the time of its establishment,
to adopt the New Testament canon of the  a free society, possessing and  exercising
Catholic church.  But, in fixing the canon  the right of forming laws for itself, either
ofthe Old Testament, the decisions of the  by positive enactment, or by the gradual
Catholic church have been rejected ; and,  growth of custom.  The  regulations  of
contrary to the African councils and the  the apostles, the decrees of the general
usage of the Roman church, established  and  particular councils, and of the  bish-
by the council of Trent,  part  of  Es-  ops, constitute these laws.  Even when,
ther, also Barach, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom,  after  the downfall of paganism, the Chris-
Ecclesiasticus or Jesus the Son of Sirach,  tian church became connected with the
the two books of Maccabees, the Song state, it  retained this legislative power.
of the Three Youths in the Fiery Fur-  If the Theodosian code  acquired autbor-
nace, described in Daniel,  together with  ity, it was only in consequence of recep-
the two last chapters of this prophet, are  tion.   The more the organization  of the
thrown out as uncanonical and apocry-  church became settled, the more frequent
phal.  It  is  worthy of  mention, that a became  the regulations and orders of the
controversy on this subject broke off the supreme bishop (the decretals).  There is
negotiations for a union ofthe CathoUc and  no question about the  authority  which
Protestant churches, which commenced  was  allowed  to  these decretals, and it is
in the beginning of the  18th centuiy, be-  useless  to inquire here whether this au-
tween Leibnitz, Molauus and Bossuet     thority originated from positive enactment
   Canon and Caput in Councils. A  or from customary observance.  The  ec-
council is not only the church universal  clesiastical as well as the poUtical  law is
assembled, which declares the faith of the  to be traced, in part,  to each  of these
 members, and fixes the doctrines to be de-  sources.  In  the  course of time,  collec-
 fended, but it also possesses the supreme  tions were made of these canons, ananged
 power in the administration of all  ecclesi-  in chronological order(Collectio Canonum).
 astical affairs, which have not immediate  These collections came into  use  in  the
 reference  to  doctrines  (as liturgies  and  fifth  and sixth centuries. The chief basis
 rules  of  discipline).  In the language of  of them was a translation of the decrees
 the church, a distinction is made between  ofthe four first general  councils, to which
 these two kinds  of ordinances.   Such as  other decrees of particular  synods and
 respect doctrine  are called canons ;  and  decretals of the popes  were  added.   In
 every other precept or  regulation, caput  the time of Charlemagne, the collection
 or decretum.  The latter are subject to be  of Dionysius the Little acquired  almost
 changed as the spirit of the age requires,  the  authority of laws.  Equal authority,
 and  hence lay no claim  to infallibility:  also, was allowed to the collection of can-
 the former are the unalterable truths and  ons ascribed to  Isidore, bishop of SeviUe,
 doctrines of the infalUble church of the  which appeared in the ninth century.
 Lord.  The council of Trent makes a  This famous collection is falsely attributed
 distinction between the two, and  the cap-  to Isidore, and abounds in spurious inter-
 ita on church discipline are superscribed  polations.  It was entitled the  Isidorian
 De Reformatione. It would be  a great   Code, and  is said to have been brought
 mistake to view these  capita as doctrinal  from Spain.  The object of the interpola-
 traths, and then  to reproach the church  tions of the Pseudo-Isidore was probably
 with  establishing enoneous dogmas as  to give  a historical basis to a  system
 truths essential to salvation.              grown up out of observance, which trans-
   Canon Law  [written by a CathoUc].   fened many of the fonner rights of the
 The famous Gravina begins his Institutes  metropolitans to the pope. After the 10th
 of the canon law thus:—Since the word   century, the custom which  had before 
480
CANON LAW.
 prevailed,  of collecting chronologically
 the ordinances of the church, and study-
 ing them from the sources, was given up,
 and systematical compendiums of ecclesi-
 astical law began to be drawn from these
 canons.  In these compendiums, it is true,
 literal extracts ofthe canons were retained,
 but often mutilated, and separated  from
 their  proper connexion.  The most im-
 portant of these compendiums is that of
 the Benedictine Gratian (of Chiusi), which
 he finished in 1151, in the convent of St
 Felix, at Bologna.   Gratian treated the
 subjects  of the canon law according to a
 system which he had formed himself, and
 under each division laid down principles,
 which he established by quotations  from
 the original decrees.   By means of these
 authorities, with additions of his own, he
 extended his  principles further,  and en-
 deavored to reconcile apparent contradic-
 tions in the law, or, where they could not
 be reconciled, to determine which  part
 was binding.  Hence the title of his work
 —Concordantia Discordantium  Canonum.
 He divides the whole subject into  three
 parts:  in the  first, he begins with a  gen-
 eral essay on law, particularly ecclesiasti-
 cal law,  and treats of the officers of the
 church, dieir character, rights, duties, con-
 secration, and share in the government of
 the church: the second part contains the
 system ofthe powers of the church, par-
 ticularly  of its jurisdiction and  judicial
 processes:  the thud  part embraces the
 rules respecting religious rites, the liturgy,
 the sacraments, &c  This new collection
 met with great success.  Within 10 years
 after its  appearance, the universities of
 Bologna and Paris had their professors of
 canon  law, who  taught from Gratian's
 work; and, within a short time, it super-
 seded all former chronological collections.
 As the civil law acquired authority in so
 many  countries from the circumstance
 that it  was taught in the universities, so
 the Decretum Gratiani, in the same way,
 became a code, and with more reason,
 since it expounded a law really existing;
 and what Gratian had  added  was, to a
 certain degree, considered as commentary.
 Any direct cooperation  of the popes in
 elevating the Decretum  Gratiani to  the
 authority of a code has never been proved.
 This Decretum, however, is only the  first
 part ofthe present Corpus Juris Canoniri.
 After  the appearance of the Decretum,
 new decrees of councils and new decre-
tals were promulgated, which several au-
thors coUected into appendices.  AU these
 new coUections pope Gregory IX ordered
 to be put in order, which was done by the
 Dominican Raymond, of Pennaforte. The
 work was divided into five books.  This
 authentic collection was finished in 1234,
 and sent to the  universities of Bologna
 and Paris.  It bears the name of Decre-
 tales Gregorii Noni, and has the authority
 of law.  The later decretals and decrees
 of councils were collected by Boniface
 VIII,  and published as the sixth book
 (Liber Sextus) of the Gregorian Decretals,
 in 1298.  They have also the authority of
 laws.   Pope  Clement  V  published, in
 1313, a collection of his decrees, mostly
 issued at the council held at Vienne, in
 France: they are also a part of the Corpus
 Juris Canonici.  About  the year 1340, the
 decretals of John XXII were published;
 they are called Extravagantes Johannis
 XXII; and, at a  later period, the subse-
 quent decretals, to the time of Sixtus IV,
 who died in 1484,  called Extravagantes
 Communes,  appeared.   These Extrava-
 gantes have not altogether the authority
 of law.   Under pope Pius IV, a commis-
 sion of 35 persons (the correctores Roma-
 ni) was  appointed to revise the Decretum
 Gratiani. The labor was continued un-
 der Pius V, and completed under Gregory
 XIII, and sanctioned  by a bull of July 1,
 1580.  The  later  bulls have the force of
 law, if they concern a subject on which
 the  pope has an  unquestionable right to
 legislate, or as far as the secular govern-
 ments accept them.  The canon law, ex-
 cepting some of its regulations, is in force
 in Germany, even in civil cases.  Luther,
 it  is well known, burned a  copy ofthe
 canon law at Wittemberg, but the Protest-
 ant courts have continued to apply it, ex-
 cept where  it disagrees with  Protestant
 principles.  The canons, even  those of
 the general  councils,  which  respect the
 discipline ofthe church, have no authori-
 ty in the Gallican church,  unless  it  is
 proved that  they  have been admitted as
 laws of  the kingdom.  The  celebrated
 declaration of the clergy of  France, of
 1682, is a series of very important canons.
 They are to be considered as rides ofthe
 Gallican church and laws of the kingdom.
Many Catholics are  willing to admit that
there exist arbitrary canons  in the eccle-
siastical codes, as much as unconstitution-
al  laws in civil governments.  In Eng-
land, when the Catholic faith prevailed in
that  countiy, there  existed, besides the
 general canon law, the legatine and pro-
 vincial constitutions;  the  former  being
 laws enacted in national  synods, held uu-
 der the cardinals Otho and Othobon, le-
 gates from pope Gregory IX and Clement
 IV, about the years 1220 and 1268; the 
CANON LAW—CANOSA.
481
latter being decrees of various provincial
synods, under several archbishops of Can-
terbury.  The authority of the canon law
in England, since the reformation, depends
upon the statute 25th  Henry VIII, ac-
cording to  which the ecclesiastical laws
were to be revised by  the  king and a
commission of nobles and clergymen, and
such as were not repugnant to  the laws
of the  realm and the  king's prerogative
were to remain in  force till so revised.
This revision was never made.  There
are four species of courts in England, in
which the canon law, as well as the civil,
is, under different restrictions, permitted
to be used: 1. the courts ofthe  archbish-
ops and bishops, and dieir derivative offi-
cers, usually called, in the English law,
courts  Christian (curia Christianitatis), or
ecclesiastical courts;  2. the military courts;
3. the  courts of admiralty;  4. the courts
ofthe two universities. The reception  of
these laws in general, and the different
degrees of their reception in these courts,
are  grounded entirely upon custom, cor-
roborated, in the case  of the universities,
by acts of parliament.   The  courts  of
common law have a superintendence over
these courts. An appeal lies from all  of
them to the king.
   Canonical Books.  (See Canon, and
Apocryphal.)
   Canonical Hours are certain stated
times of the day, devoted, more especially
by the Roman  church, to the  offices  of
prayer and devotion, as matins, lauds, sixth,
ninth, vespers.  In England, the  canonical
hours are from  8 to 12 in the  forenoon,
before or after which marriage cannot  be
legally performed in any parish church.
   Canonization ; a ceremony in the Ro-
man church, by which deceased persons
are  declared saints.  Alexander  III,  in
 1170, pronounced it an exclusive privilege
ofthe  papal chair.  This ceremony is one
ofthe most solemn in the Roman church.
The pope institutes a formal investigation
of the qualifications of the deceased per-
son  recommended for canonization,  in
which his manner of Ufe and the genuine-
ness of the miracles  ascribed to him are
strictly examined ; and an advocate of the
devil, as he is called, is appointed, to assail
the  memory of the  candidate,  but,  of
course, always loses  his cause.   If the
examination is satisfactory, the  pope pro-
nounces the beatification (q. v.) of the
candidate; but, in  order to collect new
proofs of his merits (e. g., of miracles per-
formed by his relics), the actual canoniza-
tion generally  takes  place  many years
afterwards; and then a day, usually the
   vol. n.          41
anniversary of the death of the new saint,
is dedicated to his honor, his name is in-
serted in the Canon or the Litany of the
Saints in the Mass (thence canonization),
churches and  altars are consecrated to
him, and his remains  are preserved as
holy rehcs. The  last instance of canon-
ization occuned in 1803.  (See Saints.)
  Canopus, or Canobus, in Egyptian an-
tiquities, is the name given to large-bellied
vessels,  used formerly for preserving the
water of the Nile fresh and fit for drink-
ing.  They were frequently made of basalt
(as the fine canopus of green basalt in the
villa x\lbani), and  decorated with  figures
in relievo or paintings;  or of costly white
alabaster, like  that  in the Mus.  Pio. Cle-
mentinum, with spiral flutings; or they
were formed from  black, burned clay
Under the shape of such a vessel, sur-
mounted  by  a human  head, connected
also sometimes with serpents, and similar
attributes, the Egyptians worshipped one
of their  beneficent deities. The city Ca-
nobus or Canopus, between Alexandria
and  the western mouth of the Nile,issaiU
to have  derived its  name from this deity.
The worship of Serapis  was introduced,
in the room of that of this rude idol, under
the first Ptolemy.  (See Part 1st of Creu-
zer's Symbolik, where representations of
this idol are given.  For information re-
specting the  worship  of the same, see
Creuzer's Dionysos.)  According to Eu-
sebius, the spherical shape of the vessel
was to express the universal nature, or the
world.  The human head upon it signified
the all-enlivening spirit (vovc), which was
denoted also, in former times, by the fig-
ures of a ball and a serpent  According
to Zoega (Numi JEgyptii Imperatorii, page
34), Canopus was  the same as Knuph,
which seems to come from the same root,
and denotes  the kind,  protecting  god.
There are traces, in Italy, of the worship
of this  deity, in  that country, in the time
of Adrian.
   Canosa; a city in Lower Italy (Terra
di Bari), famous  for the tombs in its vi-
cinity, near the field where Hannibal de-
feated  the Romans.   They  are cut in
rocks, on a hill.  Vases of coarse, whitish
clay have been found in them.  In 1813,
a beautiful burial-chamber was opened.
It had a small ante-chamber, supported by
pillars,  and contained the corpse of a war-
rior in armor, with a helmet on  his head,
but one leg bare.   The body crumbled to
dust as soon as  it was  exposed to the
exterior air.  The wall of the  apartment
contained a fine basso-relievo.   A copper
lamp and a  number of beautiful  vases 
482
CANOSA—CANOVA.
 were also found here.  (See Millin's De-
 scription des Tombeaux de Canosa ainsi
 que  des Bas-reliefs, des Armures, et  des
 rases prints qui y ont ete decouverts en
 1813 (Paris, 1813, folio), with correct rep-
 resentations).  The paintings  upon  the
 vases are the most  important part of this
 discovery.   They refer to the Greek-Ital-
 ian mysteries of the eldest inhabitants.
  Canosa  (near Reggio, in the duchy of
 Modena); a mountain castle, now in ruins.
 Adelheid, widow of king Lotharius, was
 besieged here,  in  951, by Berenger II.,
 when she offered her hand and the crown
 of Italy to  Otho the  Great, emperor of
 Germany.   In the 11th centuiy, Canosa
 belonged to Matilda, duchess of Tuscany,
 with whom Gregory VII resided, in 1077,
 when he imposed a severe penance upon
 the excommunicated emperor Henry IV.
  Canova,  Antonio;  the  third sculptor
 of modern  times,  who has formed an
 epoch in Italian statuary.  Michael Ange-
 lo Buonarotti was  the first, Bernini  the
 second.  C. may  be  considered as  the
 restorer of the  graceful and lovely style,
 and  the founder of a new school, as fer as
 it respects  softness and delicacy of exe-
 cution,  and  excellent  handling of the
 marble.  He was bora, Nov. 1, 1757, at
 Possagno,  in  the Venetian  territory.
 While a boy of 12 years old, he displayed
 his  talents  by modelling the figure of a
 lion  in butter, which was  placed on the
 table of Falieri, the seigneur ofthe place.
 The Falieri, father and son, sent him,
 therefore, as an  apprentice, to a statuary
 in Bassano, where he acquired  skill  in
 the mechanical part of the art.   His first
 work, executed  in  his 17th year, was an
 Eurydice, in soft marble, of half the nat-
 ural  size.  He was  now sent to the acad-
 emy of Venice, where his  proper study
 of the art commenced.  He gained several
prizes, and  excited  expectations which he
more than equalled in the sequel.  The
first work, which he was commissioned to
execute, was the statue of the marchese
Poleni, of the natural size,  for the city of
Padua.  In his 25th year, he finished the
group of Daedalus and Icarus, ofthe nat-
ural  size, in Carrara  marble.  It is re-
 markable as a juvenile work, but is only
a faithful imitation of common  nature.
The  senate  of Venice  sent  him, in 1779,
to Rome, with  a salary of 300  ducats.
Here the first fruit of his study was an
ApoUo crowning himself with laurel, three
palms high, in marble.  It is weak, and
without character.  Yet the artist, in this
production,  has  advanced  beyond  the
mere imitation of nature;  and this statue
 is to be considered as his transition to the
 ideal.  A group as large as Ufe—Theseus
 sitting upon the slain Minotaur—was the
 first large work by which C. made him-
 self known in Rome (17831.  It is one of
 his best works.  Theseus has the charac-
 ter of a  hero; and the forms show the
 study and style of the antiques.  It was
 received  with universal  applause, and
 count Fries, in Vienna, purchased it.  In
 1783, C. undertook  the execution of the
 tomb of pope Clement XIV, in the church
 Degli Apostoli.   He retained the usual
 style of composition, and only improved
 on the  depraved taste of the school  of
 Bernini.  He next made the group  of
 Cupid and  Psyche,  where  he  first dis-
 played his own peculiar style, of which
 loveliness is a striking characteristic.  The
 figures are exceedingly delicate and grace-
 ful ; yet  there is  no point  of view  from
 which the countenances of both can  be
 seen at the same time ; besides, the wings
 of  Cupid project disagreeably from the
 group, which presents too  many  inter-
 stices.  About the same time, he executed
 the Ukeness of the young prince Czarto-
 riski, in the character of Cupid.  He was
 employed on a second public monument,
 the tomb of pope Clement XIII, in St
 Peter's.   It was finished  in  1792, and is
 distinguished  by  its colossal  size  and
 simple style.   (See the engraving of Ra-
 phael Morghen.)  The figure of Religion
 is objected to  as stiff; the long rays, the
 huge cross, and the petty folds of the
 lower dress, give her a tasteless air.   The
 Genius has  more beauty of appearance
 than depth of expression.   Meanwhile,
 the fame of  the artist  continually in-
 creased.   He  established, in the  palace
 of the Venetian ambassador, a school for
 the benefit of young Venetians.  His next
 works were a winged Cupid, standing;
another group of Cupid  and Psyche; a
group of Venus and Adonis (in which the
figure of the latter is particularly beauti-
ful), for the marchese Verio, in Naples;
the tomb  of the Venetian admiral Emo.
for the republic of Venice. This is a com-
bination of basso-relievos,  with figures in
 full relief.  C. also  made a very  lovely
 Psyche, standing, half-dressed, with a but-
terfly in her left hand, which she holds
by the wings with her right, and contem-
plates with a calm,  smiling mien.  He
 also modelled, at  this time, many basso-
 relievos, mostly scenes from the  life of
 Socrates,  taken from  ancient fable and
 histoiy, which cannot all be called  suc-
 cessful.   Only one of these models, which
 represents the city of Padua as a  sitting 
CANOVA.
483
  female figure, he executed in marble.  A
  repentant Magdalen, of the  natural size,
  belongs to the works in marble, in which
  he has canied the expression ofthe melt-
  ing and the  soft to the highest degree.
  The relaxing effect of repentance is ex-
  pressed with great truth.  His Hebe is a
  delightful figure.   In an easy  and ani-
  mated attitude, the smiling goddess of
  youth hovers upon a cloud, pouring nec-
  tar, with  her right  hand,  into a  bowl,
  which she holds in her left.  Both vessels,
  as well  as the coronet of Hebe, and the
  edges of her garment, are gilt.   C. is fond
  of a variety of material, and often endeav-
  ors to give  to his statues  the  effect of
  pictures.  He repeated this and the pre-
  ceding  statue.   He next displayed his
  talent  for the  tragical, in the  raging
  Hercules  hurling  Lichas into  the sea,
  The group is colossal, and Hercules some-
  what larger than the Farnesian; but it
  makes a disagreeable impression, which
  proves  that the  genius of  C.  was not
  adapted to such subjects.  His represent-
  ation  of the two pugilists, Kreugas and
 Demoxenos, is much more successful. A
 standing group of Cupid  and Psyche,
 which has been  often repeated, was the
 triumph of his art.   Psyche here appears
 again holding the butterfly. A Palamedes,
 subsequently executed by C. in marble,
 was overthrown, in the winter of 1805,
 by an inundation,  and broken in pieces.
 In 1796  and 1797, C. finished the model
 of the celebrated tomb of the late arch-
 duchess Christina of Austria, wife of duke
 Albert of Saxe-Teschen, which, in 1805,
 was placed in the church of the Augus-
 tines,  at Vienna.   The  design  of it is
 original; for the first time, the great artist
 ventured to leave the common track.  In
 1797,  he made the  colossal  model of a
 statue of the king of Naples, one of his
 finest  works.   In the beginning of the
 revolution, the studio of C. was  in great
 danger from the Jacobins; but the lovely
 Psyches, Hebes and Cupids  softened the
 rage ofthe mob, and saved the work-shop
 of the artist, in the  back part of which
 the royal colossus was concealed.   This
 statue, 15  palms  high, was executed in
 marble, in  1803.  During the revolution
 of 1798  and  1799,  C. accompanied the
 senator prince Rezzonico on a  journey
 through Germany.  After his return, he
 remained for some time in the Venetian
 territory, and painted, for the church of
 his native village,  Possagno, an  altar-
piece, in  which are represented the dead
Christ, the Maries, Nicodemus  and  Jo-
seph, and, on high, God the Father.   He
 afterwards executed, in Rome, his Perseus
 with the head of Medusa, which, when
 the Apollo of Belvedere was carried to
 France, occupied its place and pedestal.
 This statue increased the fame of C. more
 than any of the preceding works.  But
 Perseus has no  decided  character.  It  is
 only an imitation of  the Apollo.  The
 separate parts are of exquisite beauty in
 form, as well as  in masterly, delicate fin-
 ishing.  The magical charm ofthe finish
 dazzles the eye, and makes us often  for-
 get the  more severe forms of art.   Far
 less  successful  is the Mars pacifer, of
 equal size.  In  1802, C. was made, by
 Pius VII,  superintendent of the Roman
 works of art, and knight of the Golden
 Spur.  In the same year, he was invited
 by Bonaparte to Paris, to make the model
 of his colossal statue.  In the beginning
 of 1803, the model of the emperor's bust,
 and afterwards that of his colossal statue,
 was to be seen in the workshop of thfe
 artist.   It is  impossible to conceive  a
 more characteristic likeness, exhibiting, at
 the same time, the ideal character of the
 ancient  heroic style.  We  have not  a
 more successful work of the kind than
 this bust: the figure of the statue is not
 so  good.  George IV has since presented
 the latter to the duke of Wellington. The
 statue of madame Laetitia Bonaparte was
 purchased, in 1819, in  Paris, by the duke
 of Devonshire, for 36,000 francs.  Among
 the later works of the  artist are a Wash-
 ington, of colossal size, in a sitting atti-
 tude, now in the  State-house at Raleigh.
 the seat of government of North Carolina;
 the tombs of the cardinal of York and of
 Pius VII;  the busts of Pius VII and of
 Francis II; an imitation ofthe Medicean
 Venus; a Venus rising from the bath ; a
 portrait statue, lying, half-dressed, upon a
 couch;  the tomb of the late engraver
 Volpato; the colossal group of Theseus
 killing the  Minotaur, far surpassing  his
 earlier works in  the heroic style; the
 tomb of Alfieri, for the countess of Stol-
 berg, in  Florence, and erected  in that
 place (the weeping Italia, a colossal statue
 in marble,  is particularly admired); the
 Graces rising from the bath; the monu-
 ment of the marchioness  of S. Croce; a
 colossal basso-relievo, in  marble;  a Ve-
 nus ; a dancing girl, with  almost transpa-
 rent garments; the portrait statue of the
 wife of Lucien Bonaparte, with the lyre
in her arms, a large  marble  statue, with
beautiful drapeiy; a colossal Hector; a
 Paris; a Muse, larger  than  the  natural
size; a model of a colossal Ajax; and the
model of a sitting statue, in rich robes, of 
484
CANOVA—CANTACUZENO.
the archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria.
After the second fall  of Napoleon, in
1815, C. was commissioned, by the pope,
to demand the restoration of the works
of art  carried from  Rome; went  from
Paris to London, and returned to Rome
in 1816,  where Pius  VII inscribed his
name in the golden book of the capitol,
declared him " to have deserved well of
the city of Rome," and made him marquis
of Ischia, with a pension of 3000 scudi.
C. died at Venice, Oct 13, 1822.—In his
manner of treating the marble, a particu-
lar endeavor to produce the appearance
of the  greatest  softness is  visible.   Not
satisfied with giving to the surface of the
marble the most delicate finish, by means
ofthe rasp and the pumice-stone, he has
invented a corrosive color, of a yellowish
hue, and prepared with soot, which he
applies, after the last  poUsh, in order to
break the dazzling white of the marble,
and to give it the soft, mellow appearance
of ivory or wax.   This excessive refine-
ment in  finishing is  more  attractive to
amateurs than to true connoisseurs.  C.
used to make his models first of a small
size, in wax,  then in  clay, of the same
size  as the work was  to be.  From this
last a cast  was taken in gypsum.  The
first shaping of the marble  from the cast
he left to skilful workmen.—As a  man,
C. was respectable and amiable.  He was
active, open, mild, obliging  and kind to-
wards every body.  He had neither the
pride nor the envy of an artist  His opin-
ion of himself was very modest, notwith-
standing his fame was spread through all
Europe.  He was not only disinterested,
but animated by the noblest benevolence.
He assisted promising young artists, and
established prizes for the  encouragement
ofthe arts.  In short, his moral character
was so excellent, that, even among his
many rivals, there is but one voice re-
specting  his worth as a man.  His last
work was  a  large group, the principal
figure of which represents Religion victo-
rious.  It was intended to  be placed in
Rome, as a monument commemorative
of late events, the expense to be defrayed
by a subscription  in  England.  C. Was
also an agreeable painter, but, strangely
enough, more of a colorist than a correct
designer.   (See the Life of Canova, by
Missinini; 4 vols., Prato, 1824:  also, the
Biografia, by the count Cicognara; Venice,
1823).  Engraved representations of all
his works have appeared in Italy and at
Paris.
   Canstein  (Charles  Hildebrand,  von),
 founder  of a famous establishment for
printing Bibles,  which  goes  under  his
name, was born, in  1667, at Lindenberg,
in Germany, studied at Frankfort on the
Oder, travelled much in Europe, went, in
1688, to Berlin, where he was appointed
page of the elector of Brandenberg, and
served as a volunteer in the Netherlands.
A dangerous  sickness  obliged  him to
leave the military service.  He went to
Halle, where he became familiarly  ac-
quainted with Spener.  His wish to spread
the Bible among the poor led  him to
form the idea of printing it with stereo-
type plates.  Thus originated the famous
institution, called, in German, Die Can-
steinsche Bibelanstalt, of which we shall
speak more  in the article Franke.  Can-
stein  published  some works, wrote  the
life of Spener, and died, in 1719, in Halle,
leaving  to the great orphan asylum  his
library, and a part of his fortune.
  Cant Timbers, in ship-building; those
timbers  which  are  situated at the two
ends of a ship.   They derive their  name
from  being  canted,  or raised  obliquely
from the keel, in contradistinction from
those the planes of which are perpendic-
ular to it.
  Cantabile ; a term applied to move-
ments intended  to  be performed  in a
graceful, elegant and melodious style.
  Cantabri ; the rudest and most valiant
of all the Iberian tribes, who dwelt in the
ancient  Hispania Tarraconensis, and in-
habited  the  greater  part of what is now
La  Montana, and the north-west  part of
the present province Burgos.  In ancient
historjr,  Cantabri is generally used to de-
note all the  inhabitants  of the northern
mountains of Spain.   Cantabria  is  the
name which was given to the country
they inhabited.—Oceanus  Cantabricus is
the ancient name ofthe bay of Biscay.
  Cantacuzeno, George and Alexander.
These Greek princes are descendants of
the ancient Byzantine family of the same
name, of which the emperor John Canta-
cuzenus was a  member.   (See the next
article.)   Under the  dominion  of  the
Turks, the Cantacuzenes belonged to the
first famiUes of the  Fanar, in Constanti-
nople, called the Fanariotes. Many years
ago, they settled in Russia,  where  the
brothers George and  Alexander were
employed in  the Russian service.  As
members of the Hetseria (q. v.), they fol-
lowed prince Alex. Ypsilanti,  in 1821, to
Moldavia.   George  accompanied  Alex.
Ypsilanti to Jassy, Feb. 22, and Alexander
repaired to Kischenaw, Feb.  28,  O. S.
(March 12,  N. S.),  where  the Heuerists,
who wished to fight in the  cause of Gre- 
CANTACUZENO—CANTATA.
485
cian freedom, were assembled.   He re-
ceived, at this place, from Alex. Ypsilanti,
orders to repair to the Morea.  April 16,
O. S., he proceeded to Trieste, by way of
Vienna and Laybach.   At Laybach, he
had two interviews with count Nesselrode,
the Russian minister, who said, among
other things, " It is the will  of his majesty,
that you do not go to Greece ; but you may
continue your travels."   This made Alex.
Cantacuzeno irresolute what to do ; but,
being informed, during  his residence of
four weeks in Venice, of the murder of
the patriarch, and the breaking out ofthe
Greek insurrection in the Morea, the idea
that  his absence  might conoborate the
suspicion  that  the  revolution met  with
the  disapprobation of  Russia,  induced
him to sacrifice every thing to the  cause
of his countiy.   He obtained from the
Russian consul a  passport to return to
Odessa by water, and  went to Greece
without interruption.  For this  step, he
was  subsequently forbidden to return to
Russia. 60 young Greeks, from the vari-
ous universities, the French captain Ba-
lestras, and  Demetrius Ypsilanti,  who
had been intrusted, by his brother Alex-
ander, with the management ofthe insur-
rection in the Morea, embarked with him.
June 19, they reached Hydra, where they
were received with the greatest rejoicings.
Alex. Cantacuzeno immediately under-
took the charge  of the department of war,
organized a general administration of the
islands, and formed a band of volunteers,
whom Balestras commanded.  But they
were soon in want  of arms and  powder.
June  20,  Cantacuzeno  and  Demetrius
Ypsilanti proceeded to the  Peloponnesus,
to Gerusia, in  Vervena, a village  near
Tripolizza. Cantacuzeno immediately in-
vested the  fortress of Malvasia (Epidau-
rus), and reduced it by famine,  July 21,
1821.  He  next deliberated with the Hy-
driots and Spezziots respecting the  form-
ation  of a  national senate, and was, in
other respects, active in establishing order.
He then proceeded  to Tripolizza, and, at
the head of the Albanian soldiers, took
part in the siege ofthe place; refused, in
the meanwhile, an  offer of the Cretans,
who wished to  confer on  him the com-
mand of their island; travelled through the
provinces of Hellas, in order to establish
elective assemblies, and undertook the
charge of fortifying Missolonghi, though
he had to  contend  with great obstacles,
confusion  and discord  prevailing every-
where.  The management of Greek af-
fairs having passed  into other hands, he
received, from the Greek senate, the com-
                41*
mission to convey to Petersburg the  so-
licitations of the Greeks for succor from
the Russian government; but, being un-
able to obtain a passport for this purpose,
he  remained in Dresden.  His  brother
George, under the command of Ypsilanti,
was engaged in the unsuccessful struggle
in Moldavia and Walachia, and pubUshed
a memorial on the subject at Kischenaw,
Oct. 28,  containing, likewise,  a vindica-
tion of his conduct.  Both of the brothers
have been erroneously estimated by many.
Even Pouqueville, in  his Hist, de la Re-
generation de la Grbce (Paris, 1824,4 vols.),
has represented the two Cantacuzenos as
one person, and given an inconect view
of their character.  (See Ypsilanti.)
  Cantacuzenus, John, a Byzantine em-
peror and  historian,  was born in  1295.
While minister  of Andronicus III, he  ne-
gotiated a favorable peace with die Gen-
oese in 1336, and repelled the  encroach-
ments of the  Turks  in 1337.  On  the
death of Andronicus in  1341, C. became
regent during the minority of the young
emperor, John Palaeologus.  He defeated
the Bulgarians  and Turks, assumed  the
diadem, and entered Constantinople, vic-
torious over his rivals,  in 1346.  He used
his  power with  moderation, and endeav-
ored to heal the wounds which five years
of civil war had inflicted on  the state;
but religious disputes,  civil dissensions
and foreign enemies soon disturbed  his
government;  and  the jealousy of Palae-
ologus, the rebellion of his own son, war,
plague, the frightful disorders which pre-
vailed in the empire, and his own loss of
popular favor, induced  him to renounce
the crown.  He retired to a monastery
(1355), where he employed himself in  lit-
erary  labors.  He is considered one of the
greatest among the successors of Constan-
tine.  His Four Books of Byzantine His-
tory were printed in 1645 (Paris,  3 vols.,
folio), and belong to the collection of  the
Byzantine historians.  His other works,
principally theological, are partly printed,
and partly in manuscript.
  Cantal ; a chain of mountains in Up-
per Auvergne, France, the highest peak of
which, called le plomb de Cantal, is said to
be nearly 6000 feet above the level of  the
sea.  They give name  to a department.
(See Department.)
  Cantata ; an elegant and  passionate
species of vocal composition, consisting
of an intermixture of air and  recitative.
It was invented  by Barbara Strozzi, a Ve-
netian lady, who  flourished  about the
middle of the 17th century, and was at
one time extended to  such length as to 
486
CANTATA—CANTHARIDES.
form a little opera, but has  since been
cultivated in Italy, Germany and England
only as chamber music.
  Canteen  (from the  French  cantine,
Spanish cantina) signifies both  a bottle-
case and a tavern  for soldiers.—In milita-
ry language, it denotes a little coffer divid-
ed  into minute partitions for  holding an
officer's  eating  utensils;   likewise,   a
semi-cylindric   tin case,  carried over  a
soldier's  knapsack, to hold  his cooked
victuals in ; also a vessel to hold the ra-
tion of spirits  or  wine served out to the
English  troops when employed abroad.
—Canteen, moreover, signifies  a public
house, licensed in EngUsh barracks or forts,
to sell liquors and tobacco to the soldiers.
  Cantemir,  Demetrius, was  born  in
Moldavia, in 1673.  At the age of 15, he
was sent as a  hostage to Constantinople,
where he remained  4 years.  He served
his first campaign in 1692,  under his  fa-
ther, upon whose  death, in the succeeding
year, he was chosen prince of Moldavia,
at the age of 20.  This choice  was not
confirmed by  the Porte, and he was or-
dered to reside at Constantinople, where
his abilities  soon  gained him the favor of
the government;  and he was  twice nomi-
nated hospodar of Moldavia.  He success-
fully used his influence to transfer  that
dignity to his brother.  He was appoint-
ed  the third time, in 1710, with the prom-
ise of the annexation of Walachia,  and
exemption from  tribute.   Notwithstand-
ing this promise,  as  soon as  he was in-
vested with his office, he was called upon
for the amount usually paid on such occa-
sions.  He entered, therefore, into a trea-
ty  with the czar Peter, by the terms of
 which the principality was to be heredi-
tary in the family of C, under the protec-
tion of the czar,  whom Cantemir was to
assist in his war with Turkey.  The czar,
 however, being abandoned by  the Poles
 and  betrayed by the  Moldavians,  was
 obliged to retire, and C.  took refuge  in
 his dominions, with the rank of prince of
 the Russian empire. He died at Astra-
 can, in 1723.   C. spoke 8 languages, and
 understood the  ancient  Greek, French
 and  Sclavonian.   He was a member of
 the academy  of Berlin.  His  principal
 work is called Histoiy ofthe Growth and
 Decay ofthe Ottoman Empire (in Latin).
 It  has been translated into English (Lon-
 don, 1734, 2 vols., folio), French and Ger-
 man.  He is the author, likewise, of the
 Present State of Moldavia (m Latin), and
 the System of the Mohammedan Religion,
 which  have  both been  pubUshed.   His
 other works are  in MS.
  Canterbury (ancient Darvenum, Du-
rovernum, Dorobernia, and Cantwara-byrg),
city, Eng., capital of Kent; 56 E. Lon-
don ; lon. 0° 55' E.;  lat 51° 17' N. ; pop.
10,498 ; houses, 2,093.  It is the see of an
archbishop, primate of all  England, situ-
ated in  a valley,  between  gently-rising
hills, on the river Stour; founded before
the Christian era.  It is a county of itself,
and the magistrates have authority to de-
termine all law-suits between the citizens,
and  to try for capital crimes committed
within the city.  Tliere  are two markets
weekly,  on  Wednesday  and  Saturday.
It contains a cathedral,  and  12  parish
churches within  the walls, and 3 in the
suburbs.  The cathedral is spacious and
magnificent, built in the form of a double
cross,  514 feet  long; the height  of the
great tower is 235 feet.  The Jews have a
synagogue here; Methodists,Baptists,Pres-
byterians and Quakers have each a place
of public worship.   It sends 2 members
to  parliament  The principal manufac-
tures are cotton  and silk.  It is famous
for its brawn.   The countiy round it
produces a great quantity of hops.  In
former times, this place was distinguished
for the festivals celebrated here in memo-
ry of St. Thomas a Becket, who was
murdered here.   (See Becket.)
   Cantharides, or Spanish fly (in medi-
cine) ; the name of a kind of fly, the can-
thans vesicatoria, Geoffray ; meloe' verica-
toria,  Lin.;  lytta vesicatoria, Fab. ;  be-
longing to the family of die trachelides.
They  are very common  in  Spain, Italy
and France, where they are found  in
large families on the ash,  Ulac, viburnum,
&c.   Their  body is from 6 to 10 lines
long;   the feelers  are  black, setaceous,
composed of 12  articulations ; the elytra
long, flexible, of a  shining, golden green,
and the tarses of a deep brown.   Theii
odor is strong, penetrating, peculiar and
 unpleasant;  their taste extremely  acrid;
 their powder is of a brownish gray, inter-
 mixed with shining particles of a metallic
 green  color.  According  to Robiquet,
 they contain, with  several other ingredi-
 ents, a peculiar substance, called canthari-
 din. (q. v.)   These insects are, of all the
 vesicating substances,  those  which are
 most  commonly  used.   Their action  is
 principally confined to  the  skin ; how-
 ever,  their active principles may be ab-
 sorbed, and cause serious  accidents.  The
 application  of a blister is often followed
 by  strangury, haematuria, priapism,  &c.
 Taken internally, they act as the most en-
 ergetic acrid poison; they produce inita-
 tion on the intestines, and especiaUy affect 
CANTHARIDES—CANTON.
487
the genito-urinary organs,  which they
stimulate violently.  In certain disorders,
they are administered in  small doses, as
powerful stimulants.  The medicine is of
a very dangerous character, and its  use
requires the greatest caution on the  part
of the physician.  Several species of blis-
tering fly are found in the U. States, some
of which are more  powerful than  the
Spanish fly.
  Cantharidin, the  vesicating principle
of the cantharides, or Spanish fly, is white,
in small, crystalline  scales,  insoluble in
water and cold alcohol, soluble in ether,
boiling  oils  and alcohol,  from which  it
precipitates  by cooling.   The vesicating
properties could be  extracted from can-
tharides by oil of turpentine, and probably
a satisfactory ointment be  prepared by
merely  evaporating the oil of turpentine
at a  moderate temperature.  (See  Can-
tharides.)
   Canticles.  (See Solomon, Song of.)
   Cantium ;  an  ancient  territory  in
South Britain, whence the English word
Kent  is derived, supposed to have  been
the first district which  received a colony
from the continent  The situation of Can-
tium occasioned its being much frequent-
ed by the Romans,  who generally took
their way through it in their marches to
and from the continent.   Few places in
Britain  are more frequently mentioned by
the Roman writers than Portus Rutupen-
sis.  Portus Dubris  (now Dover), Duro-
brivaj and Durovernum   (now Rochester
and Canterbury) were also Roman towns
and stations.  Cantium, in the most  per-
fect state of the Roman  government,
made a part of the province called Flavia
 Ccesarienris.   (See Kent.)
   Canto fermo ; the name  given to the
ancient  chants  of the Roman Catholic
church, which were  adopted as standing
melodies.   These chants, until counter-
point was discovered, were  unaccompa-
nied, or only harmonized with octaves.
   Canto eigurato.   This term was ap-
plied, by the old Christian ecclesiastics,
to the canto fcrmo in its  more cultivated
state, when  harmony began to assume
modulation.
   Canton, principal  city of the Chinese
province  of the  same name,  otherwise
called Quang-tong, or Koanton, is situated
in 23° 307 N. lat., and 113° 2' 45" E. Ion.,
on the banks of the river Taho, which is
here very wide.  This city, distinguished
for size, wealth, and a numerous popula-
tion, is the only seaport in China open to
the ships of Europe  and  America.   The
estimate of missionaries, that it contains
1,000,000 of inhabitants,  is exaggerated.
The number is probably nearer 750,000.
The circuit of the walls, which are of a
moderate height, is  over  9  miles.  Only
about a third part, however, of the  space
enclosed  is covered with buildings; the
rest  is occupied  with pleasure-gardens
and fish-ponds.  The neighboring  coun-
try  is very charming, hilly towards the
east, and  presenting, in  that  quarter, a
beautiful prospect   The houses are most-
ly of one story ;  but those of the manda-
rins and principal merchants are high and
well built.   In every quarter of the town
and the suburbs are seen temples and pa-
godas, containing the images of Chinese
gods.  The populous streets are long and
narrow, paved with flat stones, and adorn-
ed at intervals with triumphal arches. Shops
line the sides, and an unbroken range of
piazza protects  the  occupants of the
houses, as well as  foot-passengers, from
the rays of the sun.  At night, the gates
are closed, and bars are thrown across the
entrances of  the  streets.  The traders
express themselves with sufficient fluen-
cy in the languages of their European and
American customers, with  whom they
deal  almost  exclusively,  selling  them
porcelain, lackered wares,  &c   The
Americans trade here to a greater  extent
than any other nation: next to them come
the English.  The greatest part of the
silver, which is  canied from  America to
Europe,   eventually  circulates  through
China, by means of the  ports  of Canton
and Batavia, to  which large  suppUes of
the productions of the empire are  trans-
mitted.  The principal articles of  export
are tea, India ink, varnish, porcelain, rhu-
barb, silk  and  nankeen.  A company,
consisting of 12 or 13 merchants, called
the Cohong, is established here, by order
of the government, for  the  purpose of
purchasing the cargoes of  foreign  ships,
and supplying them with return cargoes
of tea, raw silk, &c  This society inter-
feres, undoubtedly, with  private trade, but
adds greatly to the security ofthe foreign
dealer, as each member is answerable for
all the rest.   Carriages are not used here,
but all burdens are transported on bam-
boo poles laid  across the shoulders of
men.  All the inhabitants  of distinction
make use of litters.  Chinese women are
never seen  in  the streets,  and  Tartar
women but seldom. The European fac-
tories, to wit, the  Dutch, French, Swe-
dish, Danish and English, are situated on a
very commodious  quay, on  the bank of
the river.  Nearly a league from Canton
is the Boat-town, which consists of about 
488
CANTON—CANUTE.
 40,000 barks, of various kinds,  arranged
 close to each other in regular rows, with
 passages between them, to  allow  other
 vessels  to  pass.   In  this manner diey
 form a kind of floating  city, the inhabit-
 ants of which have no  other dwellings,
 and are  prohibited by law from settling
 on shore.  As this is the only emporium
 in the empire for foreign commerce, which
 is canied on not only by Europeans and
 Americans, but also to a great extent by
 the  Chinese themselves, with almost all
 the  ports of India and the eastern Archi-
 pelago, the number of vessels frequently
 seen in the river, at once, is said to exceed
 5000.  An American paper, issued twice
 a month, called the Canton Register, has
 lately been established at Canton.  The
 following table gives the amount of im-
  Borts from Canton into  the  ports of the
  .  States, also the exports  of  domestic
 a::d foreign goods from the  U.  States to
 Canton, from 1821 to 1827.
 3 "car.   Imports.  Dom.  Exp. For. Exp,
 1821 $3,111,951   $388,535  $3,902,025
 1822  5,242,536    429,230   5,506,138
 lb .'3  6,511,425    288,375    4,347,686
 18\.'4  5,618,502    &30,466    4,970,705
 1825  7,573,115    160,059    5,410,456
 1826  7,422,186    242,451    2,324,193
 1827  3,617,183    290,862    3,573,543
 The climate of Canton is  healthy, warm
 in  summer, but  pretty cold in winter.
 Provisions, including various luxuries, are
 abundant
  Canute I, king of  England and Den-
 mark, ascended the throne of both king-
 doms A. D. 1015.  He  was called the
 Great, on account of his power, as Alfred
 had  been for his virtue.  The barbarities
 committed by the Danes in England ex-
 cited Ethelred II, the 12th king  of Sax-
 on descent, to a bloody  vengeance.   In
 1002, he caused all the Danes,  women
and children, to be massacred on the same
day.  The sister of Sweyn, then king of
Denmark, he caused to  be beheaded in
his presence.  Sweyn landed in England,
and laid  waste the country with fire and
sword.  Ethelred  had escaped  to Nor-
mandy.   Sweyn died 1014, before he had
time to confirm the Danish power in the
island. This was accomplished, however,
by his son and successor, Canute.  He
began his reign by devastating all the
eastern coast  of his new kingdom, and
causing the English, who were  given to
his father as hostages, after  he  had cut
off their noses and hands, to be drowned
at Sandwich.   He  then received rein-
forcements from Denmark, and extended
 his ravages in the south of England. The
 valiant Edmund marched against him
 with an army, and, although he was seve-
 ral times,overcome, through the treachery
 of Edric, his brother-in-law, he still main-
 tained himself against Canute, so that the
 English and Danish nobles, weary of the
 long-continued contest, sought to bring
 about a division of England between the
 two princes.   A solemn treaty secured to
 Canute the north of England, and to Ed-
 mund the south.  But only a month after
 this contract,  Edmund was assassinated
 by two chamberlains, hired by Edric ; and
 Canute became master of all England.
 At a general assembly of the states, he in-
 duced false witnesses to affirm that Ed-
 mund had  appointed him heir to  his
 crown, to the prejudice of his two minor
 children.  After the assembly had con-
 firmed  this  settlement, Canute sent the
 two young princes to the king of Sweden,
 with the request that he would put them
 to death.  The latter, however, sent them
 to Hungary, where  they  met with the
 kindest reception.  Canute, who had be-
 gun his  reign with barbarity  and crime,
 afterwards became humane, and finally
 pious,  and even superstitious.   He com-
 menced a more equitable administration,
 by punishing  the English  natives, who
 had betrayed their king, and  by causing
 Edric to be hanged, and thrown  into the
 Thames.  He restored the Saxon customs
 at a general assembly, and ensured to the
 Danes and Englishmen equal rights and
 equal protection of person  and property,
 so that the horror which had been excited
 by his tyranny was changed into respect
 and gratitude.   His power was confirmed
 by  his maniage with Emma, Ethelred's
 widow.  He now made two expeditions
to the continent, one to conquer Sweden,
and  the other to  reduce  Norway.  But
the most powerful prince of his age was
at length  brought to feel the vanity of
earthly greatness.  He erected churches
 and  monasteries, and even performed a
 pilgrimage to Rome, where he obtained
important privileges  for the  schools of
 England.  It was this spirit of piety that
animated him, when, to confound  his flat-
terers, he seated himself upon the strand,
and commanded the waves to  retire. As
 they advanced, and bathed  his feet, Ca-
 nute arose, and said,  that He only was
 almighty, whom the ocean obeyed when
 he proclaimed, " Thus far shaft thou go,
 and  no farther." His last expedition was
 against Malcolm, king of Scotland. He
 died four years after,  A.  D. 1036, at
 Shaftsbury.   By his will, he left Norway 
CANUTE—CAOUTCHOUC.                     489
to his eldest son, Sweyn; to the second,
Harold, England; to the third, Hardica-
nute, Denmark.
  Canzona ; a kind of lyric  poem,  of
Provencal origin.   It is found in the Ital-
ian poetry of the  13th century. At first,
it  was quite irregular, but was confined
by Petrarch  to more fixed  and regular
forms.   Hence it  is called  canzone  Pe-
trarchesca: it is also called canzone Tos-
cana,  because it originated  in Tuscany.
It is divided into several stanzas, in which
the nature and disposition of  the verses,
which are of 11 and 7 syllables, and the
place  of the rhymes, are uniform. The
canzona  usually concludes with a stanza
which is  shorter  than the others, and is
called ripresa, congedo, comiato  (signifying
dismission or taking leave).   With  Pe-
trarch, this is rarely wanting; in the elder
poets,  it is  often  omitted.  It generally
contains the poet's apostrophe to his song,
bidding it farewell, &c.  There are  dif-
ferent  kinds of canzonas,  and different
names are given to the different parts.
The canzona Anacreontica  is divided into
small  stanzas, consisting of  short verses,
with a regular disposition of the rhymes
through all the stanzas.  In the selection
of his verse, however, and of the disposi-
tion of the rhymes which he will observe
in the poem, the poet may  follow  his
pleasure.  Not only light, pleasing songs
of love, gayety and mirth, but  poems on
solemn and lofty subjects, and  of an  ele-
vated  dithyrambic strain,  are included
under  this name.  The latter subjects,
however, are better adapted to the canzona
Pindarica, which  was first introduced in-
to Italian poetry, in the 16th century, by
Luigi Alamanni, and owes its  perfection
chiefly to Chiabrera.  It is distinguished
from  that of Petrarch  by a  bolder flight,
loftier ideas, greater freedom in the choice
and disposition of the verses, and by the
form of the stanzas, which  is borrowed
from  the Greek  chorus.  The Pindaric
canzonas  are divided into strophe, anti-
strophe  and  epode, and are also called
canzoni alia Greca.  Those  divisions  are
sometimes called ballata, contraballata and
stanza; or volta, rivolta and stanza; almost
all of which signify the same as the Greek
divisions: the Greek names  are the most
common.  There is also the canzona a ballo,
an old Italian poem, originally intended
to be sung at a dance (ballo).   It is called,
also, ballata.  It is not employed by the
Italian poets later than  the 16th century.
   Canzonet, Canzonetta (poetry  and
music); in Italian poetry, a canzona (q. v.),
consisting of short verses,  much in use
with the poets of the 15th century.   Ri-
nuccini, and, after him, Chiabrera, have
used  it in modem times, and given  it
more grace.  Canzonets are generally ex-
pressive of tender feelings.—In  music,
canzonet signifies a  short song, in one
two or three parts; but, in England, it is
more generally applied to the two latter.
  Caoutchouc  This substance, improp-
erly  termed elastic gum, and  more com-
monly,  from  its application  to remove
pencil-marks from paper, India rubber, is
obtained from the milky juice of several
plants, which are natives ofthe torrid zone.
The chief of these are the havea Guianensis,
the jatropha elastica, and urceola elastica.
Caoutchouc is brought principally from
South America.  This juice, obtained from
incisions, is applied, in successive layers,
over a mould of clay, and dried by expo-
sure to the sun, and to the smoke from
burning fuel.  When perfectly dry, the
mould is broken, leaving the caoutchouc in
the form of a hollow ball.  In its soUd state,
caoutchouc is of a close texture, distinctly
fibrous, of a light-brown color, or some-
times nearly white.  Its elasticity is such
that it can be stretched to a great extent;
and, on removing the stretching force, it
recovers its original dimensions.  Its soft-
ness and pliancy are increased by heat.
Boiling water renders it so soft, that two
slips, newly cut  and pressed  closely to-
gether, may be firmly united.  By a great-
er heat, it is fused, and may, in that state,
be applied, as proposed by Mr. Aitkin, to
the surface of steel instruments, which it
will  cover  with a transparent film, that
effectually  preserves them  from rust.   It
is insoluble in alcohol and in water. Sul-
phuric ether, when purified by washing in
water, dissolves  it; and, by evajioration,
the caoutchouc  may be  recovered un-
changed.  Oil of turpentine softens it, and
forms with it a sort of paste, that may be
spread as  a varnish, but is very long in
drying.  The  fluid now commonly used
to dissolve it is the purified naphtha from
coal  tar, which is, at the same time, a
cheap and effectual solvent,  and which
does not change its properties.  This so-
lution is employed to give a thin covering
of caoutchouc to cloth, which is thus ren-
dered  impervious to  moisture.   Caout-
chouc is also  readily soluble in cajeput
oil.—Caoutchouc, from its softness, elas-
ticity, and  impermeability to water, is ap-
plied to the formation of catheters, bou-
gies, and tubes for conveying gases. These
are formed by twisting a slip of it round a
rod,  and causing the  edges to adhere by
pressure, when softened by maceration in 
490
CAOUTCHOUC—CAPE  BRETON.
 warm water.   It is also used for over-
 shoes; and its solution in oils forms a flex-
 ible varnish.—It was not until about the
 year 1736 that this very extraordinary nat-
 ural production was made known in Eu-
 rope.  It is obtained by making incisions
 through the bark of the tree, chiefly in
 wet weather.   From the wounds thus
 formed the juice flows abundantly.  It is
 of a milky-white color, and is conducted
 by a tube or leaf, supported by clay, into
 a vessel placed to receive it   Some wri-
 ters assert that, on mere exposure to  the
 air, it gradually hardens, and others, that
 it  goes through a certain process for this
 purpose, which the  Indians of South
 America keep a profound secret.  It is
 usually brought to Europe in the form of
 pear-shaped bottles, which are formed by
 spreading the juice over a mould of clay,
 exposing it to a dense smoke,  or to a fire,
 till it becomes so dry as not to stick to  the
 fingers, when, by certain instruments of
 iron or wood, it is ornamented on the out-
 side with various figures.  This done,  the
 clay in the  inside is moistened with wa-
 ter, and picked out.   India rubber is re-
 markable for the flexibility and elasticity
 which it acquires  on attaining  a solid
 state, and  also  for the numerous useful
 purposes to which it is capable of being
 appUed.  By the Indians, it is sometimes
 formed into boots, which are impenetrable
 by water, and which, when smoked, have
 the appearance of leather.   Bottles  are
 made of it,  to the necks of which are fas-
 tened hollow reeds,  through  which the
 liquor contained in them can  be squirted
 at  pleasure.  One of these,  filled with
 water, is always presented to each of the
 guests at  their entertainments.  Flam-
 beaux  are likewise  formed  of this sub-
 stance, which give a very brilliant light;
 and  it is said that a torch of it, an inch
 and a half in diameter, and two feet long,
 will  bum 12  hours.  The inhabitants of
 Quito also prepare a species of cloth with
 the hardened juice of this tree.
  Cap ; the cover of the end or head  of
any thing.   The word is very often used
in  the mechanical arts.—In ship-building,
cap is  a square piece of timber placed
 over the head or upper end of a mast, in
 which  is a  round hole to receive the top
or  top-gallant-masts, which are thus kept
steady and firm.—Cap of a block; a semi-
circular projection from the  sides and
round the end of a block above the pins.—
 Cap-merchant; the purser of a ship.—To
 cap verses is an exercise of the memory
among school-boys;  the one repeating a
 verse, and  the second proceeding where
 he left off, and so on with the rest—Caps
 were not worn by the Romans for many
 ages.  When either the rain or sun was
 troublesome, the  lappet of the gown was
 thrown over the head; and hence all the
 ancient  statues appear bareheaded, ex-
 cepting, sometimes, a wreath or  the  like.
 The same  usage prevailed among the
 Greeks, to whom, at least during the hero-
 ic age, caps were unknown. The sort of
 caps or covers of the head in use among
 the Romans, on divers occasions,  were
 the pitra, pileus, cucullus, galerus and pal-
 liolum, which are often confounded  by
 ancient as well as modern writers.  The
 general  use of caps and hats  is refer-
 red to the year 1449.  The first seen in
 Europe were used at the entry of Charles
 VII into Rouen.  From that time, they
 began to take the place of chaperons, or
 hoods.  When the cap was of velvet, they
 called it mortier; when of wool, simply
 bonnet.  None but  kings,  princes  and
 knights were  allowed to use the mortier.
 The cap was the  head-dress ofthe clergy
 and graduates.  Pasquin says that it was
 anciently a part ofthe hood  worn by the
 people of the robe; the skirts whereof,
 being cut off, as an incumbrance, left the
 round cap an easy, commodious cover for
 the head; which cap, being afterwards as-
 sumed by the people, those of the gown
 changed it for a square one, first invented
 by a Frenchman,  called Patrouillet   He
 adds, that the giving of the cap to the
 students  in the university  was to denote
 that they had acquired full liberty, and
 were no longer subject to the rod of their
 superiors, in imitation ofthe ancient Ro-
 mans,  who gave a piltus, or cap, to their
 slaves, in the ceremony of making them
 free: whence the proverb vocare servos ad
pileum: hence, also, on medals, the cap is
 the symbol of Liberty, who is represented
 holding a cap in  the right hand, by the
 point.—Of the derivation  of this word,
 and  its use  in almost all  European lan-
 guages, Adelung gives an  interesting ac-
 count in his  German dictionary.
  Cape.   Of the immense number of
 capes,  which have received  names from
 navigators, the limits ofthe present work
 will permit us to enumerate only a few.
  Cape Ann; a cape on the coast  of Mas-
 sachusetts, in the township of Gloucester,
 forming the northern  limit  of Massachu-
 setts bay ; lat 42° 3S7 N.; lon. 70° 37' W.
  Cape Breton; an island of North Amer-
ica, belonging to Great Britain; situated in
 the  gulf of St Lawrence; separated from
 Nova Scotia by the strait of Fronsac, about
 3 mUes wide.  This island  is about 110 
CAPE BRETON—CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
491
miles in length, and  from 20 to 84 in
breadth, full of mountains and lakes, and
intersected by a great number of creeks
and bays.  The soil is fertile, and abounds
in timber.  In the  mountains are coal-
mines ;  in the valleys, excellent pasture;
and the coast abounds  in fish.  The chief
towns  are Louisburg, Sydney and Ari-
chat   Population,  3000.  Lat. 45° 34' to
47° 5' N.;  lon. 59° to 61° 20 W.
  Cape Cod;  a noted cape and peninsula
on the coast  of Massachusetts, on the
south side of Massachusetts bay; lat. ofthe
cape, 42°  &  N.; lon. 70° 14' W.  The
peninsula is 65 miles in length, and from
I to 20 in breadth, and is in the fonn of a
man's arm, bent inward both at the elbow
and  the wrist.  Though mostly sandy
and  banen, it is nevertheless populous;
and the inhabitants derive their subsistence
chiefly from the  sea.  The cape was dis-
covered in 1602, by  Bartholomew Gos-
nold, who gave it its  name from having
taken a great quantity of cod-fish near it.
  Cape Fear; a  dangerous cape on the
coast of North Carolina, being the south-
ern extremity of Smith's island,  at the
mouth of Cape  Fear river;  lat 33° 32'
N.; Ion. 78° 25'W.
  Cape Fear;  a  river of North Carolina,
the largest and most important that flows
wholly  within that state.  The  north-
west, or principal  branch, rises  in the
northern part of the state, flows southerly,
passing by Fayetteville, and above Wil-
mington.  35 miles from its entrance into
the ocean, it is joined by the  north-east-
ern branch.  The Cape Fear is navigable
for vessels of 300  tons to Wilmington,
and for steam-boats to Fayetteville.
  Cape Francois.  (See  Cape  Haytien.)
  Cape of Good Hope;  in the southern
part  of Africa; lon. 18° 24' E.; lat. 33° 55f
S.  Bartholomew  Diaz  discovered it in
1493.  The tempestuous sea which beat
against it prevented him from lauding; he
therefore  called  it Cabo dos Tormentos
(see  Camoens); but John II changed it to
Cabo da Bona Esperanza.  It was  first
doubled by Vasco de Gama.  The Portu-
guese never formed any permanent settle-
ment here. (See next article.)
  Cape of Good Hope; a British colony,
near the southern  extremity  of Africa.
The  Dutch, who had early fixed upon
this  point as  a  watering-place for then
ships, first colonized it in the middle of
the 17th century. Reducing the Hotten-
tots  (q. v.) to slavery, or driving them
beyond the mountains, they extended the
Cape settlement to nearly its present lim-
its.   It was captured  by the  EngUsh in
1795, restored at the peace of Amiens,
1802, and  again token  in 1806;  since
which time it has remained in their pos-
session.  The colony extends about 230
miles from north to south, and 550 from
east  to west;  from  30° to 34° 30 S. lat,
and  from 18° to 28° E. Ion.  The space
included within  these  limits is about
120,000 square miles, with a  population
of about one to a square mile.  On the
west and south, it is washed by the ocean,
and, on the north, it is bounded by a range
of lofty mountains.   The  principal bays
on the coast are Saldanha, Table, Platten-
burg, Algoa bays.  Cape Aguillas is the
most southern point of the old world.  In
the interior,  almost every  variety of soil
and surface is found.  Several ranges of
mountains, running nearly parallel to the
southern coast, divide the country into
successive  terraces, between  which  lie
belts of fertile land, or vast banen  plains.
One of these, called the  Great Karroo,  is
300 miles long and 100 broad,  presenting
a scene of complete desolation.   In feet,
according to Barrow, nearly seven tenths
of the colony are destitute of vegetation
during a great part of the year.  The
summits of the Nieuweldt Gebirgte, the
highest chain of southern Africa, are cov-
ered with perpetual  snow.  The Tabte
mountain is a stupendous mass of naked
rock, rising, almost perpendicularly, about
3585 feet in height.   The  colony is defi-
cient in  navigable rivers  for  vessels  of
any considerable burthen.  The principal
streams are the Doom and the Berg, flow-
ing into the Atlantic; the Breede, Groot,
and Great Fish, emptying themselves into
the Indian ocean. The last, in part of its
course,  separates the Cape colony from
Caffraria.   The  spring and autumn are
temperate, and the most agreeable part of
the year.  The heat is excessive in sum-
mer, and, on account of the elevation  of
the surface, many parts experience the
extreme of cold in winter. The  soil is,
of course, various, but its general charac-
ter is not that of fertility.  The cultivation
is very imperfect, the inhabitants depend-
ing principally on pasturage.  Wheat and
maize thrive well; the vine flourishes lux-
uriantly; oranges, lemons and figs are
good, but all kinds of nuts have failed.
The aloe and myrtle grow to a great size.
Timber is scarce: the chestnut, wild al-
mond and plum are indigenous.  The
domestic animals of civilized  man have
all been  introduced.  The sheep  are of
the  broad-tailed  kind.    Lions,   tigers,
wdves, hyaenas, buffaloes and jackals are
numerous in the vicinity  of the  settle- 
492
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE—CAPE TOWN.
ments.  In the more remote parts are the
elephant, the rhinoceros, the quagga, the
giraffe, &c  The spring-bock is seen in
herds of 10,000.   Monkeys, armadillos,
and other small animals, are numerous.
The ostrich is common.  Vultures, eagles,
kites, and the gigantic condor inhabit the
mountains.   There are also pelicans,  fla-
mingoes, panots,  and many  kinds  of
aquatic  birds.  Noxious reptiles are  not
numerous. Fish are plentiful on the coasts.
The capital is Cape Town. (q. v.)  Scarce-
ly any  manufactures  have  been intro-
duced into the colony, and its commerce
is very limited.  Some British merchants
have settled at Cape Town, and the trade
appears  to be increasing.  The  principal
export is Cape wine.   The imports are
in small quantities, and consist of cloths,
hardware, furniture, hats, &c The aver-
age amount is about a million of dollars.
The value of the colony to  Great Britain
must  not, however, be  estimated by  its
revenue. It is  important, principally, as
being the connecting  Unk between that
kingdom and her possessions in the East
The Dutch settlers, who  live in the inte-
rior, are called boors,  and are in a very
degraded condition.   Indolent  and stu-
pid, every thing about  them exhibits  the
utmost wretchedness in the midst of plen-
ty.  (See Barrow's Travels in  Southern
Africa;  Vaillant, Lichtenstein and Camp-
bell's  Travels, and the reverend  Mr. La-
trobe's Visit to South Africa, in 1815 and
1816.  Bcauvois, the French traveller, has
also lately  given interesting information
on the south of Africa.)
  Cape  Hatteras;  a noted and  danger-
ous cape on the coast of North Carolina;
being the projecting point of a long reef
of sand, extending from Ocracoke inlet to
New  inlet;  lat.  35°  14' N.;  lon.  75°
301  W.
  Cape  Haytien (fonnerly called  Cape
Francois, or Le Cap, and, during the reign
of Christophe, Cape Henry); a town  of
Hayti, and  the capital of the island and
republic; lon. 72° 1&  W.; lat. 19° 46' N.
It is  situated on  the  north coast;  was
founded in 1670;  burnt  in 1792, by the
blacks; was the last town retained by the
French  in the island, but was sunendered
by  them to the blacks in 1803; it then
became the capital of the black emperor,
Henry Christophe.  Before it suffered so
severely by intestine convulsions, it con-
tained  a number  of elegant  buildings,
about 900 houses of stone and brick, and
a population of from 8 to  12,000; some
say 20,000, 12,000 being  slaves.  It is
situated in a very fertile tract,  and has
one of the most secure  and convenient
harbors in the island.  It  is built  on a
cape, at the edge of a large plain, 60 miles
long and 12 broad, between the sea and
the mountains.  Its situation is not fortu-
nate, as it is screened from the land wind
by the mountains, and thus left  exposed
to the unmitigated fervor  of the sun's
rays.   The plain is  well  watered   and
highly cultivated.  It is  cut through by
straight roads, 40 feet broad, lined  with
hedges  of lime and lemon trees, leading
to plantations which produce as great a
quantity of sugar as any spot of die same
size in the world.
  Cape  Horn; a cape on the south coast
of Terra del Fuego.  It is the  southern
extremity of South America ; lat. 55° 58'
S.; lon. 67°  21'  W.   The  navigation
round cape Horn is very dangerous, on
account of frequent tempests; yet, of late,
it has been the common course of vessels,
being found  much preferable to the  te-
dious  passage through the straits of Ma-
gellan.  The shore is inhabited by Indians,
of whom little is known. The cape was
discovered by Jacob  le Maire, a Dutch-
man, in  1616.  It is cold, lofty, and  cov-
ered with wood.
  Cape  Lookout;  a  dangerous   cape on
the coast  of North Carolina ; lat. 34° 22'
N.; lon. 76° 37'W.
  Cape  Town;  capital  of  the   cape of
Good Hope ; lat. 33° & S. lon. 18° 23' E.:
population in 1818,  18,173;  of whom
7460 were whites, 1905 free blacks, 810
apprentices, 536 Hottentots, 7462 slaves.
It is agreeably situated, rather more  than
30 miles from the cape  of Good Hope,
properly so called, at the head  of Table
bay, in a  valley  between the Table  and
Lion  mountains.  It is defended by a
castle of considerable strength, and  con-
tains a court-house, a guard-house, a Cal-
vinistic  church, a Lutheran church, a
theatre, and 1145 houses, many of which
are fine.  The tone  of society is wholly
commercial, the minds of aU classes being
bent on trade.  There was not, in 1818,
a public school nor a bookseller's shop in
the town.  The streets are broad, but  ill-
paved.  The price of provisions is very
reasonable.   The  town is well  supplied
with springs of excellent water,  sufficient
also for the ships which stop at the  port.
The harbor is tolerably secure from  Sep-
tember  to May,  while the S. E. winds
prevail.  During the rest of the year, when
the wind blows  generally  from the N.
and N.  W., ships are obliged to  resort to
False bay, on the opposite side of the
peninsula.—A  missionary  is  supported 
CAPE TOWN—CAPELLO.
493
here  by the  London missionary  soci-
ety.
  Cape Verde (anciently, Arsenarium); on
the west coast of Africa;  lat 14° 44' N.;
lon. 17° 31' W.
  Cape Verde Islands; islands  of Af-
rica, in the Atlantic ; so called from cape
Verde, opposite to which  they ore situ-
ated ; 390 miles W. cape Verde, and be-
tween 15° and 18° N. lat  They belong
to Portugal.  As to their number, some
reckon 10,  others 14 or more, by giving
the name of islands  to those which are
only rocks.  They are, in general, moun-
tainous ;  the lower hiUs are covered with
a beautiful verdure, as well as the exten-
sive valleys between; but with little wa-
ter, except what is found  in ponds and
wells. They are  said to have been, and
probably were, known to the ancients,
under the name of Gorgades.  The air is
extremely hot and unwholesome.  It rare-
ly rains; and the ground is so hot that
one can hardly stand in places exposed to
the sun.   It is  dangerous to pass the
night in the open air,  for the great heat is
often succeeded by a sudden cold, which
proves mortal  to such as are exposed to
it  The soil is, for the most part, stony
and banen ; nevertheless, some parts pro-
duce rice, maize, bananas,  lemons, oran-
ges, citrons, pomegranates,  figs and mel-
ons.   Grapes  are gathered twice a year.
The manufacture of leather and salt forms
the principal riches.   Two ofthe islands,
St Yago  and St. Philip, depend immedi-
ately  on  the  king, and are the only ones
fortified.   The  number  of inhabitants
is calculated at 100,000.  Few whites are
now seen.  The governor and priests are
often Negroes.  The chief town is Porto
Praya.   In  the  small island of Mayo,
much salt is made.  Numerous vessels,
principally American, visit  this place for
the sake of obtaining it, and bring flour to
give in exchange.  In 1827, the imports
into the  U.  States   from  these  islands
amounted to $77,425; the exports to them
from  the U. States,  to $104,165.  The
island of Fuego, one of the group, con-
sists of one  single mountain, formerly a
volcano, according to lieutenant Mudge,
9790 feet above the level ofthe sea.
  Capellen, G. A. J., baron de;  gov-
ernor-general of all the Dutch settlements
in Asia; one of the few politicians of our
time, who, in good and bad fortune, have
preserved integrity of principle.   His fa-
ther is known by his defence of the for-
tress of Gorkum  against the  Prussians.
The son, after an excellent education, was
made, in  1808, by Louis king of Holland,
  vol. n.          42
prefect of East Friesland, where he was
much beloved.  Louis afterwards made
him minister of the interior and counsel-
lor of state, and it was very probably he
who advised the king to resign his throne.
Under Napoleon, he accepted no office.
King  William  made him minister of the
colonies.  When the congress  of Vienna
united Belgium  with  Holland,  he was
commissioned  to prepare the Belgians  for
the new  government.   Since  1815, Ca-
pellen, in his  high post in Batavia, has
increased the productiveness ofthe Dutch
possessions in Asia, particularly of Java,
by his excellent institutions. Batavia has
been made a free port, at which the ship.?
ofthe U.  States of America, in particular,
procure great  quantities of coffee, sugar*
rice, rum and spices,  for ready money.
The commerce of Banda and Amboyna,
as well as that of Borneo, has also been
increased.
   Capello,  Bianca;  a noble Venetian
lady, whose singular adventures and final
elevation  have rendered her exceedingly
remarkable.  She was bora about 1542,
being  the daughter of Bartolomeo Capel-
lo, a patrician  of Venice.  She early fell
in love with a young and handsome clerk
in the banking-house of Salviati, named
Buonaventuri.   The consequence of the
intrigue was the pregnancy of the lady,
and the flight of the lovers  to Florence,
where they married, and Bianca lay in of
a daughter.  Here they lived some time
in great apprehension and obscurity, until
some  accident or contrivance introduced
Bianca to the notice of Francis, son  of
Cosmo,  grand-duke of Tuscany.  Hei
uncommon beauty and engaging man
ners made an immediate impression on a
prince notorious for hie attachment to the
sex; and the consequence was,  that she
and her husband were quickly settled in
a splendid palace, and the latter made
chamberlain to the duke, and, to the great
disgust of the  Florentines, intrusted with
a large share of public business.   Bianca
was, in  the mean time, introduced  at
court, and became the object  of great
admiration ; and it is asserted, that, even
at that time, Francis promised to marry
her, should they  become released from
the marriage ties by which they were
each of them bound.  This took place in
a very few years on her part.  Buonaven-
turi, having engaged in an intrigue with a
woman of rank, was assassinated by her
family; and  Francis now avowedly pro-
claimed Bianca his mistress.  As Francis,
who had no issue, passionately  desired
even a natural child, Bianca, whose in- 
494
CAPELLO—CAPERNAUM.
temperate mode of living was not favora-
ble to bis wishes, canied on all the forms
of pregnancy, and presented to her de-
luded lover a new-born male child, of
poor parents, whom he joyfully received
as his own, and christened Antonio.   A
legitimate son, produced to him soon after
by his duchess, induced him to be less
open in his attentions to Bianca; but the
death of his wife, very soon after, opened
to the latter a road to her final elevation,
and she was quickly united to Francis by
a private  marriage.   Her  ambition, how-
ever, was not to be gratified without pub-
licity ;  and she induced the grand-duke
to send a solemn embassy to Venice,  to
inform the senate  of his marriage, and to
request them to  confer on Bianca the
title  of daughter  of the republic, which
honor was supposed to entitle those on
whom it  was bestowed to a royal alliance.
That  government assented, and Bianca,
being crowned daughter of the state, was
solemnly installed grand-duchess of Tus-
cany in 1579.  In 1582, the legitimate son
of Francis expired; and, soon after, he de-
clared Antonio his lawful son, although, it
is said,  Bianca had acknowledged her
imposition.   Ferdinand, the brother of
Francis,  and  his lawful  heir, was not
blind to these proceedings, and paid the
greatest  attention to the  subsequent re-
ported pregnancies of  the duchess, until,
r.he state  of her health setting all idea  of
further progeny aside,  she  essayed to ef-
fect a reconciliation between the brothers,
;ind Ferdinand paid a  visit  to Florence.
He had been there but a short time, when
Francis fell ill, at his  hunting village  of
Poggio, where his brother was a guest;
and, two days after, the  duchess  being
seized with  the  same symptoms,  they
both died, after about a week s illness, in
October, 1587, Bianca  being then in her
45th year.   The known character of the
Medici family caused this catastrophe to
be attributed to  poison; and  a story is
current,  that Bianca, intending to poison
Ferdinand with a prepared viand, he had
the address to moke the duke and duchess
eat of it themselves.  As  there was  no
  hrect motive for the attempt at the pe-
riod, apd it rests only on the character of
the parties, it is more  reasonable to sup-
 pose that  a malignant fever, at an un-
 healthy season, was the real cause of the
 sudden  termination of so extraordinary a
 career.  The hatred  of the Florentines
 has made Bianca a monster of vice and
 cruelty; a thousand absurd stories were
 propagated of her propensity to magic,
 and  other crimes ; and, perceiving  the
impossibility  of gaining their  affections,
she employed trains of spies and inform-
ers, which added  still more to their ani-
mosity.   The truth seems to be, that she
was a woman of consummate beauty and
address, with little or no principle; and
such  was the  character of the  ItaUan
courts, at the period in which she flourish-
ed, that she had only to act" in the spirit
of the times, to  become very nearly as
vicious as the Florentines described her.
   Caper. Capers are the unopened flow-
er-buds of a low shrub (capparis spinosa),
which grows from the crevices of rocks
aiid walls,  and among rubbish,  in  the
southern parts of France, in Italy and the
Levant.  The  stems of the  caper-bush
are trailing, and  two or  three feet long.
The  leaves  are  alternate, of  somewhat
oval shape, veined, and of a bright-green
color; and  the  flowers  are  large  and
beautiful, with four  petals, and white,
with  a tinge of  red.—In the  south of
France, the caper-bush is very common.
It grows wild upon  the walls of Rome,
Sienna and Florence, and, when  trained
against  a wall,  flourishes even  in  the
neighborhood of  Paris; notwithstanding
which, it is almost unknown in English
gardens,  where  it  cannot be  made to
flower without  the aid of artificial heat
It is cultivated, on a large scale, between
Marseilles and Toulon, and in many parts
of Italy.  In the early part of the sum-
mer, it begins to  flower, and the  flowers
continue successively to appear, until the
commencement of winter.  The buds are
picked every morning, before the petals
are expanded ;  and, as they are gathered,
they are  put into vinegar and salt.  When
a sufficient quantity is coUected, they are
distributed, according to their size,  into
different vessels,  again put into vinegar,
and then packed  up for sale and exporta-
tion.  This pickle is much used in sauce
for boiled mutton.  To persons unaccus-
tomed to it, the taste of capers is unpleas-
ant;  but, after a little while, the palate
becomes perfectly reconciled to it.   The
flower-buds  of the marsh-marigold (cal-
tha palustris) and  nasturtiums are fre-
 quently pickled, and eaten as a substitute
 for capers.   The bark of the root, cut
 into  slices,  and  dried in small rolls or
 quills, Uke cinnamon, is  sometimes used
 in medicine, in cases of obstruction ofthe
 liver.
   Caper, in shipping, is the  Dutch and
 German name for privateer.
    Capernaum ;  a town in ancient Pales-
 tine, on the west side of the sea of Tibe-
 rias ; lon. 35° 44' E.; lat. 32° 4S7 N.  Near 
CAPERNAUM—CAPI AGA.
495
it were  a mountain and  rivulet of the   Otho, duke  of Lower  Lorraine, died  in
same  name.  This place is famous, in   1006.  Both his  younger brothers died
Christian histoiy, because Jesus used to   childless in  Germany.   Thus  the race
reside here during the time of his minis-   of Capet was  left in  possession  of the
try; and in  its vicinity he deUvered the   throne of France.   According to some
sermon on the mount  Nothing of it now   historians, Hugh Capet was descended
remains.  As  Capernaum is not men-   from a German family.  He was married
tioned in the Old Testament, it may have   to a German princess, Adelaide, daughter
been built after the return from the Baby-   of king Henry I of Germany  (duke  of
lonish captivity.  It stood on the coast of   Saxony). Hugh was crowned at Rheims,
Galilee, on  the borders of Zabulon  arid   and swore  to preserve to the nation, and
Nephdialim.                           particularly to the powerful  feudal nobil-
  Capet ; the name of the French  race  ity and clergy, all their existing privileges.
of  kings, which has given  118 sove-  By his  wise measures, he gave  perma-
reigns to Europe, viz. 36 kings of France,  nence to his dynasty, which, next to the
22  kings  of Portugal, 11 of Naples and  family of Guelph, is the eldest sovereign
Sicily, 5 of Spain, 3 of Hungary, 3 em-  house at present existing.  (See Bourbon.)
perors of Constantinople, 3 kings of Na-  Hugh, and  the succeeding monarchs,  till
vane, 17 dukes of Burgundy, 12 dukes of  Louis VII, took the precaution to have
 Brittany, 2 dukes of Lorraine, and 4 dukes  their successors invested  with the royal
 of Parma.  The history of this royal race  title during their own life-time.  Thus
 is,  at the same time, the histoiy of the  Hugh had  his son Robert crowned and
 rise  and  progress of the French mon-  anointed, as his colleague, as early as Jan.
 archy.  (See  France.)  The fete of one  1, 988.  He abolished, by law, the parti-
 of the  most interesting countries and na-  tion of the hereditary estates among the
 tions in Europe  is connected  with  the  sons of the kings, and forbade the aliena-
 name of Capet  After having  been de-  tion of the  family domains.  The daugh-
 prived of four thrones, and again restored  ters of the kings were endowed,  from
 to  them,  this  family stands forth as the  that time, with money, and the appanage
 first and most ancient support of the Eu-  which was given to the  princes of the
 ropean principle of political legitimacy,  blood returned to the crown  in default
 that  divine right, which, in this house,  of male heirs.  Both these principles were
 commenced with treason.   Its origin is  more fully confirmed by later laws. Thus
 remarkable.  Pepin the Short, the father  Hugh  Capet,  by uniting his  hereditary
 of Charlemagne, and mayor ofthe palace  duchy,  consisting of Paris, Isle  de France
 under the Merovingian dynasty, had dis-  and Burgundy,  unoUenably  with  the
 placed  that royal house, and usurped the  crown,  may be regarded as the  founder
 throne  ofthe ancient kings of the Franks,  of the French monarchy.   What he had
 After a space of 235 years, his own de-  begun was completed by his successors,
 scendants,  the  Carlovingian  monarchs,  particularly in the times of the crusades,
 experienced a similar fate.  Under the  and by the establishment of standing ar-
 last Carlovingians, destitute alike of ener-  mies.   All the political statements illus-
 gy and wisdom, Hugh  the Great, duke of  trative of this subject are collected by the
 France (by which was then understood  marquis de Pastoret,  peer  of France, in
 the Isle of France), Orleans and Burgun-  his continuation of the Ordonnances des
 dy, exercised a power  as  unlimited as  Rois de France de la troiricme  Race, vols.
 that ofthe  mayor ofthe  palace under the  xv. xvi. xvii. (Paris, 1811,1814,1820, fol.),
 Merovingians.  On the death of Louis V,   with which may be compared the essay
 without children, in 987, his uncle Charles,   of the advocate Beugnot, which obtained
 duke of Lower Lonaine, laid claim to the  the prize of the academy of inscriptions,
 throne, which the Franks had sworn to   Essai  sur  les Institutions  de St. Louis
 preserve to the family of Charlemagne.  (Paris,  1821).
 The French  nobility,  supported by pope     Capi Aga ; in the  Turkish court, the
 John XV, proclaimed Hugh, son of Hugh  superintendent of the eunuchs.  He  also
 the Great, duke of France  and count of  announces all who desire to speak to the
 Paris,  king, with the  surname of  Capet  grand vizier, and introduces foreign  am-
 (capetus, capito, broad-head ;  or,  more  bassadors to an audience.—Capigi (capid-
 probably, from a sort of  hat, capatus).   schi) is a name appUed to  the guards or
 The valiant Charles of Lorraine was sur-   door-keepers of the seraglio,  in number
 prised in  Laon,  by the treachery  of a   about 400.  Their superintendent is called
 bishop, and  made  prisoner.   He  died,   Capigi Baschi.  They Ukewise convey
 soon afterwards,  in prison, and his son   the sultan's orders.   Among their duties 
496
CAPI AGA—CAPIAS.
is that of carrying the cord to those who
are to be strangled.
  Capias.  A writ or process of capias is
one whereby the sheriff is ordered to ar-
rest the  body of the  defendant, either
before judgment, to  compel him to an-
swer to a suit; and this is caUed a capias
ad respondendum ; or, after the judgment,
to compel  him to satisfy the judgment;
and this is called  a capias ad satisfacien-
dum, commonly abbreviated ca. sa.  In
case of injuries  without  force,  the  civil
law, and, originally, the common law, did
not authorize the anest of the defendant
before judgment, that is, the anest to an-
swer ;  and upon  feudal principles,  says
sir William Blackstone, 3 Corn. 281,  "the
person of a feudatory was not  liable to
be attached for injuries merely civil, lest,
thereby, the lord  should be  deprived of
his  services."  The  first writ of capias
ad  respondendum  was giveri by act of
parliament in  1267, 52 Henry III, c. 23,
§ 1, which  provided, that,  "if bailiffs,
which ought to make account to their
lords, do withdraw themselves, and have
no  lands  nor tenements whereby  they
may be distrained, they shaU be  attached
by their bodies, so that the  sheriff shall
cause them to come to  make  their ac-
count." This act applied to a particular
description of receivers, and   supposes
them  not  only to be debtors, but also to
have in their own hands the evidence of
the amount of the debt, the production
of which was one object of the process.
The statute of 13 Edward I, c 11, passed
in 1285, 18 years after the former, extends
this process to " all manner  of  receivers
bound to yield account," and provides " if
they be found  in anearages upon  this
account, their bodies shall be  arrested,
and, by the testimony ofthe auditors, shall
be sent into the next  gaol, and be impris-
oned  in  irons under safe custody,  and
remain in prison  at their  own cost, until
they have satisfied their master [the cred-
itor] fully  of their  arrearages."   This
statute seems to suppose the proof and
establishment of the  debt before the ar-
rest, and, so far, seems to have  the char-
acter of a ca. sa.; but it is considered a
capias  ad  respondendum by  sir  WilUam
Biackstone; so in Jacobs's Law Dictiona-
ry,  and, indeed,  generally.   And it ap-
pears  that the practice  of anesting on
mesne process, that is, before judgment,
to answer, in civil suits, grew out of these
statutes;  for the  subsequent statutes of
25  Edward  III,  c. 17 (A. D. 1350),  pro-
viding that " such process shaU  be made
in writ of debt, detinue of chattels, and
taking of beasts,  by writ of capias, as is
used in writ of account;" and of 21 Hen-
ry VII, c 9 (A. D. 1503), providing that
" like process shall be hereafter, in actions
upon the case, as  in action of trespass or
debt;" evidently have reference to an ar-
rest to  answer.  A writ upon which a suit
is commenced is either a capias, distress
or summons;  either  the person  of the
defendant is seized, and (unless  he is
bailed) imprisoned until the trial, or his
goods  or lands are seized as a guarantee
of his  appearance to answer; and more
often, in modern times, to obtain a lien to
secure satisfaction ofthe judgment; or he
is only summoned, that is, merely has
notice, that a suit has been commenced be-
fore such a court,  by such a plaintiff; and
is to be heard at such  a time.  This last
is uniformly the process adopted in claims
of land.  But by the statute of 5 Geo. II,
c 27,  since made perpetual by another
statute, it  is provided,  that, "in all cases
where  the cause of  action  shaU not
amount to ten pounds,  the plaintiff shall
not arrest the body of the  defendant;"
and " in all cases where the cause  of ac-
tion shall amount  to ten pounds, an affi-
davit shall  be made and  filed of such
cause of action, and the sum specified  in
such affidavit  shall be endorsed on the
writ, for which sum the sheriff shall take
bail,  and no  more."  "It is  curious  to
remark," says Mr.  Tidd,  "the changes
which the law of anest has undergone at
different periods. Anciently, an arrest was
not allowed, except in action of trespass
vi et armis; afterwards, an anest was in-
troduced with  a capias in other actions;
now, by the operation of the before-men-
tioned statutes, an arrest cannot be  made
in the  only action wherein it was for-
merly allowed."  But, as has been justly
remarked in a Pennsylvania case (6 Binn,
302), the reason for not requiring bad  in
trespass is, the difficulty of fixing the
amounts for which it ought to be required.
In the U. States,  except Louisiana, the
form of process is usually adopted from
the EngUsh law, but with so great modi-
fications on this particular subject, that it
is not easy to lay down any general rale;
and to  state the particular cases in which
on arrest of the person on mesne process
is aUowed in each ofthe states, would for
exceed the limits  prescribed by the plan
of this  work.   The general principle was
laid down, in the trial of judge Chase on
articles of impeachment, in 1804, that, in
criminal  proceedings,  wherever  the  of-
fence charged subjects the party to the
punishment of imprisonment, the process 
CAPIAS—CAPITAL.
497
may be commenced by an arrest of the
person, that the party charged may be
held in custody, to receive punishment in
case of his being found guilty.   In civil
Buits, the capias ad respondendum was
anciently adopted very extensively, if not
universally,  under the  colonial  govern-
ments, in actions of account, assumpsit,
covenant, debt and case.   The capias was
adopted early and impUcitly, in many of
the states, as a part  of the common law;
and a large part of the legislation on the
subject, subsequent to the adoption ofthe
constitutions of the states, is a modifica-
tion of a practice already existing.  And
the very laws authorizing the anest are
not to be  found, except by implication
from those modifying and regulating the
practice.  In many ofthe states, however,
arrest on mesne process for debt is abol-
ished, except in cases where it is appre-
hended the debtor intends to escape.  In
other states, the debtor  is anested on the
capias ad respondendum, but set at large
immediately on sunendering his property,
on oath, for the  benefit of his  creditors.
It  seems, indeed, to be putting a  slight
value upon personal liberty to permit ar-
rest, in any case, without the intervention
of a magistrate ; and, in case of debt  or
contract, there does not appear to be any
good reason for  arresting the person on
mesne process, unless it be made to ap-
pear satisfactorily  to a magistrate, that
 there is reason to apprehend the defend-
 ant will depart beyond the jurisdiction  of
 the court.   The capias  ad satisfaciendum,
 or anest on execution, issues, in England,
 in those cases where the capias ad respon-
 dendum lies, and so was the original com-
 mon or statute law, generally, in  the  U.
 States;  but the  bankrupt and  insolvent
 laws of England, and the insolvent laws
 of several of  the  U. States, enable the
 defendant, by  sunendering his property
 for the  benefit of his creditors,  to  defeat
 the capias ad satisfaciendum.
    Capigi.  (See Copt Aga.)
    Capillary  Tubes,  in physics; little
 pipes, the canals of which are extremely
 nanow, their diameter being only a half,
 third or fourth, &c of a Une.  If one end
 of a tube of this sort, open at both ends,
 be immersed in a fluid which adheres to
 glass, as water, the liquor within the tube
 will rise to a sensible height above the
 surface of that without, and the height to
 which it will rise is inversely as the  di-
 ameter  of the tube, at least unless the
 tubes are  excessively  fine.  This phe-
 nomenon is explained by  the  attraction
 which exists between  the glass and the
                   42*
fluid.   Such liquids as  do not adhere to
glass (e. g., quicksilver) do not rise in the
tube: on the contrary,  they  stand lower
within than without it.  The phenome-
non ofthe rise of liquids in such tubes is
exhibited in numberless instances in na-
ture, as in the rising of the sap in plants.
(See the article Adherion ; also, Laplace's
Theorie de VAction Capillaire, Paris, 1806,
4to., and  the Supplement to the same.
Paris,  1807,  4to., also annexed to the
thud volume of his Mecanique Celeste.)
   Capillary Vessels  ; the minute ves-
sels in which the arteries terminate, and
from which, in  a way not well under-
stood, the veins commence.  The distinc-
tion between the arteries  and veins is,
therefore, lost in these vessels.  The sup-
port ofthe solid, and the formation ofthe
fluid,  parts  of  the  system  take  place
especially in  these vessels.
   Capital, in political economy, is  the
stock of valuable exchangeable commodi-
ties possessed by individuals or a  com-
munity.   This is the   usual and   more
limited meaning ofthe term ; for, in  com-
paring the capital of one individual with
that of another, we have  in mind  the
 amount of money for which the stock of
 each  can be exchanged.   The market
 value is in view.  In estimating  the capi-
 tal of any individual, we necessarily take
 into consideration the  debts due to and
 from him; and many men of large capital
 are only possessed of claims upon others;
 their whole stock is in the hands of others
 at interest; and  they have only  promises
 for a certain amount of money, and  actu-
 ally  possess neither lands  nor  goods to
 any  considerable  value;   while  others
 possess large quantities of both, and yet
 have  little or no capital, since they owe,
 in money, the value ofthe greater part or
 the whole of then possessions.   Now it
 is plain that no  individual can undertake
 production,  to any large extent, without
 an extensive stock.  He must have land
 to cultivate,  or materials to  work up, and
 implements  to work with.  Even a sav-
 age must have a capital, such as his  hut,
 clothes,  cooking utensils,  food enough
 to support him until he can obtain a new-
 supply, and  implements, such as a hatch-
 et, gun, canoe,  fishing gear, with which
 to procure this  supply.  The first effort
 of industry is to supply the implements,
 apparatus and machineiy for his own em-
 ployment ;  and as society and the arts
 advance, and the operations of industry
 are extended, the implements, apparatus,
 machinery and materials, requisite in con-
 ducting die  processes  of production, must 
498
CAPITAL.
 be proportionally accumulated ; and these
 will constitute a part of the capital of a
 community,  and also of an individual,
 which is essential to success in productive
 processes.  And these can be command-
 ed by any one in proportion to the extent
 of his  individual capital; or, if he have
 credit, then his  resources for production
 will depend upon die capital of others—
 in other words, that of the community to
 which he  belongs.—In considering  the
 aggregate capital of a community,  we
 may put out ofthe question all the debts
 due  from any of the members to others ;
 for,  whether these  be great or small,—
 and  they will vary according as the prac-
 tice of giving credit is more or less in use,
 —still the capital of the community will
 consist in its lands, buildings, ships, ma-
 chinery, materials on  hand, implements;
 in short, in all those things which bear a
 value in the market.   Provided the com-
 munity owes no  debts abroad, these will
 constitute its aggregate capital; and, if its
 members are indebted abroad, we find its
 actual net capital, as in the cose of an in-
 dividual, by deducting the amount of its
 debts from the value of its possessions,
 without regarding the  debts due  from
 some of its members to others.—In com-
 paring the capital or wealth of two com-
 munities, we may be led into an enor by
 comparing the value  of their possessions
 in gold and silver, since the value of these
 metals is well known  to differ in differ-
 ent countries,  by whatever standard the
 comparison be made.  If, for instance,
 we compare the  value of the metals in
 reference to the wages of a common day
 laborer, we find  he has 2 or 3 pence a
 day in Egypt, and from 50 to 72 pence in
 the U. States. We shall find the same
 diversity  in other things.  If we take a
 horse, ofthe same beauty and serviceable
 qualities, for an  example, we shall find
 his price, in money, to be twice as great
in one place as in  another. In order,
 therefore,  to  make  such a  comparison
 through the medium of the metals, or by
adopting them as a common measure, we
should,  in  the  first   place,  conect the
 measure itself, and ascertain whether an
 ounce of gold, in one of the places be-
 tween  which the  comparison is to  be
made, is worth a half of an ounce or an
ounce and  a  half in the other; and the
way of conecting the standard would be,
to take equal  quantities of a great num-
ber of articles of the same quality, in the
two  places, or equivalent quantities of
equivalent  articles,  as  nearly as  their
 equivalence can be ascertained, and com-
 pare their money prices in the two places.
 But this correction of die common meas-
 ure is not very easily made.   The means
 of comparing the value of money at suc-
 cessive periods, in the same community,
 are very defective ; and the only attempt
 at any scale of value, of this description,
 known to the writer of this article, is tiiat
 of Mr. Evelyn, published in the Transac-
 tions of the  royal society of London for
 1798, and  corrected, since,  by Mr. Col-
 quhoun.  But suppose the  comparative
 value of money,  in two states or king-
 doms, to be ascertained, and  then a valu-
 ation of all the property in each, of every
 description, to be made, the  capital of
 each and the comparative capital  of the
 two are thus  ascertained.  But this com-
 parison would not show the comparative
 resources ofthe two, either for war or for
 production.   This will appear  from the
 obvious fact, that a river like the Hudson
 is a greater facility to transportation than
 the Languedoc canal;  yet, in  making a
 return of the property,  or the estimation
 of the capital of France, the Languedoc
 canal would be a great  item, whereas the
 Hudson river, though of equal or greater
 utility,  would not appear as constituting
 a part of the capital of  New York.  The
 inhabitants are the great agents of pro-
 duction in  every  country; and, though
 their productive efficiency will  be influ-
 enced, very essentially,  by the amount of
 capital, fertility of the  soil, quality of its
 products, facilities of transportation, and ar-
 rangements of industry, still the character,
habits and skill of the  agents themselves
are the  most  important circumstances in
 estimating the productive resources of a
community. Industry and skill will rapidly
create capital.  Mr. Phillips, in his  Man-
ual of  Political Economy, estimates that
 the whole value of the  capital of a coun-
try is consumed  and  reproduced every
three or four years.   But the training
of a population, and forming its character
and habits, is a work of many years. The
most important ingredient in  the national
resources is, therefore,  not only no part
 of its capital, but  is a thing of very slow
 growth, and  results from the  combined
and long-continued influence  of a thou-
sand causes, moral, physical and poUtical,
too compUcated to be  disentangled, and
so blended that the action of each cannot
be distinctly  traced.  Economists  have
 confined their views of production too
 much to considerations of capital, and
neglected, or, at least, not given sufficient
weight to, the other economical capacities
 and resources.—Capital is distinguished 
CAPITAL.
499
into floating, or movable, and fixed;  the
former consisting of things that may be
moved, and are susceptible of manual de-
Uvery; the latter, of those confined to one
place, as a house or piece of land.  We
use the terms in a different sense when
applied to any particular estabUshment,
by the  floating capital of which is meant
that which remains afterpayment is made
for all their apparatus and the implements
of their business, and which is usually in-
vested  in the materials to be manufactur-
ed or transported, or to pass through  the
process, whatever it is, which constitutes
the business  conducted.  Thus one car-
rying on .a flouriug-miU wants a floating
or disposable capital, over and above  the
cost of his works, to be invested in wheat
to be floured, and flour not yet disposed
of.  This  instance  illustrates what is
meant by the floating or disposable capi-
tal of a whole community  being that
movable, exchangeable stock of things on
hand, over and above the fixtures and ap-
paratus of production,  including lands,
buildings, ships, working animals, all  the
implements  of the arts, with necessary
food, clothing, and a stock of seed suffi-
cient for the time requisite for reproduc-
tion.  What  remains over these is  the
disposable  capital, and, in a flourishing
community, the disposable floating capital
is constantly invested in new fixed capi-
tal, implements and apparatus of produc-
tion.   A declining community, on  the
contrary, consumes a part  of its imple-
ments and apparatus of industry, or, what
is, in effect,  the same thing, it does  not
repair and replace the damage of use and
decay.  The idea is held  out in many
economical  treatises, that a community
cannot  have a surplus capital; that is, it
cannot,  have more capital than  it  can
make use of in its consumption and re-
production.   As no grounds whatever are
given  for this doctrine, it seems to be
hardly entitled to a consideration ; for the
position is certainly, at the first view, very
improbable,  since we know very well that
men may accumulate; and why they may
not, in  any  possible case, accumulate a
surplus, does not appear by any plausible
reason  ; and whether such surplus accu-
mulation may be useful or not, will de-
pend entirely upon the kind  of articles
of which such accumulation consists.  If
it consist in  articles the  value of which
depends on  the prices  in  foreign mar-
kets, the excess may be of no value at
all; for it may so  depress the foreign
prices  as to countervail all the indirect
advantage arising from  the  cheaper sup-
ply, for a time, of the domestic demand.
—Fictitious   capital   generally   means
nothing more nor less than  excessive
credits,  which  throw the  management
and disposition of a great deal  of proper-
ty into the hands of persons who are not
able to answer for the risks of loss from
its bad management, or other causes.   A
whole community, in the aggregate, can
have fictitious capital only in cose of its
members having an excessive credit in a
foreign country.  But the members may,
among themselves, have a fictitious capi-
tal, by too great facifity of credits in their
dealings with each other, and the  fiction,
in this case,  is in their false promises of
payment.
  Capital, in geography; a city in which
reside the highest authorities of a district,
province,  country,  &c.  Capitals, in the
modern meaning of the word, can hardly
be said to have existed in ancient times;
at least, they were then only the seat of
the sovereign, but not the centre of all the
national activity, Rome only, perhaps, ex-
cepted ; but this city  was, for a very long
time, the state itself, and, at a later period,
the  tyrant of the whole empire, rather
than the head of a well-organized body.
In Asia, there existed, indeed, in ancient
times, capitals of very large empires; but
they are not to be compared to the capi-
tals of large  modern empires, since the
channels  of  communication  and inter-
course had not then reached that degree
of perfection  which enables them, in our
days, to bring  into close connexion all
parts  of a country.   Each province was,
therefore, left much  more to  itself.   It
would be difficult to determine whether
the  good  or  evil consequences of large
capitals, in modern times, are greater, and
such an examination would far  exceed
our limits; otherwise, it would be very
easy to point  out, in every department of
civilization, in science, social intercourse,
poUtics, arts, &c, both salutary and  per-
nicious effects, resulting from  the influ-
ence of capitals.  It seems to us a matter
of little doubt, that it must be regarded
as disadvantageous to any  country,  if
the  capital ceases to be the concentration
of the skUl, genius and strength of a na-
tion, for the benefit of the whole, and by
a disproportionate superiority destroys the
importance of the rest of the countiy, as
we find to be the case with Paris,  which,
as has  been often  observed, contains
France.  In Germany, the state of things
is quite the  reverse.  There  is no city
which may boast of being the point of na-
tional concentration.   The consequences 
500                        CAPITAL—CAPITOL.
have been very advantageous to science,
and somewhat disadvantageous to litera-
ture.  In politics, this want of a central
point has had melancholy consequences
for Germany.  London  never exercised
that degree  of influence over England
which Paris has over France ; one reason
of which may be, that the two most ex-
tensive institutions  for the diffusion of
knowledge are not seated in the metrop-
oUs. The system of concentration has,
there is Uttle  doubt, been carried  to an
extreme in Europe; the  best of  every
thing having been collected in the  capi-
tals, and the  provinces having been al-
most stripped of pictures, libraries, &c
In many countries, this fault is acknowl-
edged, and a return to a more equitable
system is perceptible.  The great increase
of wealth and consequence, which the cap-
itals of large empires in Europe have ac-
quired, in modern times, by the introduc-
tion ofthe bureau system (q. v.), which has
brought together, in one place, the differ-
ent departments of administration, has had
much influence  on miUtary  operations,
having made  the  capture pf the capital
now far more important than formerly.
—In the U. States, the word capital is not
used officially, but, instead  of it, the
phrase seat  of government, which is,  in
most cases, not the largest place of the
state.   It  is  not  here the place  to dis-
cuss, whether it  would  be more benefi-
cial to the  whole  country if the seat  of
t'.ie general government  were in one  of
the largest cities of the U. States.  As it
is now,  to use the  words of a traveller,
"Washington must  by no  means  be
considered  as the capital of the nation,
but only as the  capital  of governmental
business.  It is a camp of business."
   Capital,  in architecture.   (See Archi-
tecture.)
   Capital Offence.  (See Crime.)
   Capital Punishment.  (See  Death,
punishment of.)
   Capitanata;  a province  of  Naples,
bounded N. and  E. by the Adriatic, S.  by
the countiy of Bari and Basilicata, and
W. by the Molise.  This was the ancient
Apulia Daunica.  The whole country is
a vast plain, and the soil generally sandy,
with few trees, and scarcely any springs
or rivers of fresh water;  yet the land pro-
duces a great  deal of corn, and  feeds a
great number of cattle.  Salt is made along
the  coast  The Gargano is the only
mountain: on the  sides are  plantations
of oranges.   The coasts are defended  by
22 towers.   The principal towns are Lu-
cera,  Foggia, St Severo and Volturara.
Population, 254,809.  Square miles, 3289.
Monfredonia  is the  principal seaport.
Capitanata forms what is generally called
the spur of Italy.
  Capitani, or Capatans ; the heredi-
tary chieftains who have taken possession
of the  district of Maina, the  mountain-
ous  countiy  of the ancient  Messenia.
They exercised, under the Turkish gov-
ernment, an arbitrary jurisdiction, without
any kind of responsibility.  With the bey,
whom  they chose  from  among  them-
selves,  they formed a kind  of great coun-
cil.  The bey took care that the haratsch,
or poll-tax, was paid to the Turks, and
was  the  agent in all dealings with the
pacha.    Generally,  the  capitani  were
robber  chieftains,  who  Uvea  retired  in
rocky  fastnesses,  and defied the Turks
and  tlieir neighbors.  They united only
if resistance  against the Turks became
necessary.  At  other times, they lived at
war  amongst themselves.   From this
wUd oUgarchymost ofthe  generals  ofthe
modern Greeks have sprung up ; their Co-
locotroni, Odysseus, Niketas (called Tur-
kophagus) and others.  The palikaris,  or
the Greek waniors, also  called klephtes
(i. e., robbers), followed the orders of the
capitani as long as they had  confidence
in them, and met with good success.  The
French colonel  Voutier  has given us in-
teresting information concerning them.
   Capite censi  were  the Roman citi-
zens, of the lowest class, who possessed
no property.  They had  this name  be-
cause they were counted by their heads,
not by their property, in the divisions  of
the centuries.
   Capitol, now Campidoglio; the cita-
del  of ancient Rome,  standing on  the
Capitoline hill, the smallest of the seven
hills of Rome, anciently called the Satur-
nine and the Tarpeian rock.  It was be-
gun A. C. 614, by TarquiniusPriscus,but
not completed till after the expulsion of
the kings.  At the time  of the civil com-
motions under Sylla, it  was burnt down,
and rebuilt by  the senate.  It again suf-
fered the same fate twice, and was restor-
ed by Vespasian  and  Domitian.   The
latter  caused it to be  built with great
splendor, and instituted  there the Capito-
line games.   Dionysius  says  the temple,
with the exterior pillars, was 200 feet long
and 185 broad.   The whole building con-
sisted  of three temples, which were dedi-
cated to Jupiter, Juno and Mivervo, and
separated from one another by walls.   In
the wide portico, triumphal banquets were
given  to the people. The statue of Jupi-
ter, in the capitol,  represented him sitting 
CAPITOL—CAPITULATION.
501
on a  throne of ivory and gold, and con-
sisted, in the earliest times, of clay, paint-
ed red.  Under Trajan, it was formed of
gold.  The roof of the temple was made
of bronze: it was -gilded by Q. Catulus.
The  doors  were  of the  same  metal.
Splendor and expense were lavished upon
the whole edifice.   The  gilding alone
cost  12,000 talents (about  9,000,000 dol-
lars), for which reason the Romans called
it the golden capitol.  On the pediment
stood a chariot, drawn by four horses,
at first of clay, and afterwards of gilded
brass.  The temple  itself contained  an
immense quantity  of the  most magnifi-
cent presents.   The most important state
papers,  and  particularly  the   Sibylline
books, were preserved in it.  The present
capitol (CampidogUo), standing near, and
partly on, the  site  of the old one, is a
modern edifice, after the  design of Mi-
chael Angelo.   The principal entrance to
it  commands  a most splendid prospect,
but the buildings, as connoisseurs tell  us,
are  among Michael  Angelo's  inferior
works.  The modern capitol consists of
three buildings (in the principal one  re-
sides the senator of Rome), which do not,
however,  cover the  whole CapitoUne
mount.  On the ruins of the former tem-
ple of Jupiter Capitolinus, of which some
pillars are still to be found, a Franciscan
church  is now  erected.   The  present
capitol is one ofthe most interesting spots
in Rome.  From the summit ofthe mid-
dle building, the spectator has a splendid
view of one of the most remarkable  re-
gions in the world—the Campagna up to
the  mountains.  The museums  contain
some of the finest collections of statues
and paintings.   The stairs leading up to
the equestrian statue of Marcus  Aurelius
are beautiful.   Every  thing contributes
to render the capitol venerable and interest-
ing.—The name of capitol is also given to
the edifice in Washington, where congress
assembles.  Some of the states of North
America also caU their state-houses capitols.
  Capitulary.  The word  capitulary is
generic, and denotes every kind  of Utera-
ry composition  divided into  chapters.
Laws of this  description  were promul-
gated by Childebert, Clothaire, Carloman
and Pepin, kings of France ; but no sove-
reign seems to nave put forth so many of
them  as the emperor Charlemagne, who
appears to have wished to effect, in a cer-
tain degree, a uniformity of law throughout
his extensive dominions.  With this view,
it  is  supposed, he added to the existing
codes of feudal laws many other laws, di-
vided into capitularies, or small chapters or
heads, sometimes to explain, sometimes
to amend, and sometimes to reconcile or
remove  the difference  between  them.
They were generally promulgated  in
public assemblies, composed of the sove-
reign and the chief men ofthe nation, both
ecclesiastical and secular.  They regu-
lated equally the spiritual and temporal
administration  of the kingdom ; ana the
execution of them was  intrusted  to the
bishops, the courts  and the missi regii,
officers so called because they were sent,
by the French kings of the first and sec-
ond  race, to dispense  law and  justice in
the  provinces.   Many copies of these
capitularies  were made, one  of  which
was  generaUy preserved  in the royal ar-
chives.  The authority ofthe capitularies
was very extensive.  It prevailed in eveiy
kingdom  under  the  dominion  of the
Franks, and was submitted to in many
parts of Italy and Germany.  The earliest
collection of the capitularies is that  of
Angesise, abbot of FonteneUes.   It was
adopted by  Louis the Debonnoire  and
Charles the  Bald, and was publicly ap-
proved of in  many councUs of France
and  Germany.  But,  as  Angesise  had
omitted many  capitularies in his collec-
tion, Benedict, the Levite or deacon of
the church of Mentz,  added three books
to them.  Each of the  collections was
considered to be authentic, and of course
was  appealed to as  law.  Subsequent
additions have been made to them.  The
best  edition of them is that of Baluze, in
1697.  The capitularies remained in force
in Italy longer than in Germany, and in
France longer  than in  Italy.  The incur-
sions of the  Normans, the intestine con-
fusion and weakness of the govemment
under the  successors  of  Charlemagne,
and,  above  all,  the pubUcation  of the
epitome of canon law, termed the De-
cretum of Gratian, in the year 1150, which
totally superseded them in aU religious
concerns, put an end to their authority in
France. (Butler's Horm Juridica Subseri-
vce, p. 128—131.)
  Capitulation  formerly signified  a
writing drawn up in  heads;  now com-
monly used, in military language, to  sig-
nify  the act of surrendering to an enemy
upon stipulated  terms, in opposition to
surrender  at  discretion.    In   the 15th
century, capitulations,  as they were caU-
ed, were presented  by the ecclesiastical
establishments in Germany to their new-
ly chosen abbots and  bishops, who were
obUged to swear to observe them as laws
and conditions for theh future rule. The
ecclesiastical electors  obtained, after the 
502
CAPITULATION—OAPO  D'ISTRIA.
fall of the Hohenstaufen family, certain
advantageous promises  from  the  new
emperors, which were caUed capitulations.
When Charles V was proposed as empe-
ror, and it was apprehended, on account
of his foreign education, that he would
disregard the German constitution, he was
obUged  to make oath, that he would not
reside without the German empire, nor
appoint  foreigners to office in the empire,
&c.   This was  called  his election capitu-
lation.  Such  a  Wahlcopitulation  was
afterwards presented to every new empe-
ror, as a fundamental law of the empire,
and shook the constitution ofthe German
govemment to its very foundations, since
the electors, at  the choice of every  new
emperor, made some new infringement on
the imperial privileges.  The Wahlcapit-
ulationen were acknowledged  bargains,
certainly unique in history.
  Capnist, orKiPNisT, Wassil Wassilje-
witsch,  Russian counsellor of state, mem-
ber ofthe academy of St. Petersburg and
other learned societies, one of the first
lyric  poets of Russia, born in 1756, was
the rival of his friend and relation, the
celebrated poet Derschavin. (q. v.)  He
translated Horace with applause.   The
collection of his works appeared at Pe-
tersburg, in 1806 (Lyric Poems, by  Was-
sil Capnist).  He wrote a comedy, called
Jabeda,  in 1799, and a tragedy, called An-
tigone,  in 1815.   His critique on Ho-
mer's Odyssey, published in Russian and
French, is  more  acute  than profound.
His  odes have  not  the easy and  bold
character by which those of Derschavin
are distinguished, but they have a charm
of another kind.  Purity of style, richness
of thought, and a sound philosophy, con-
nected with deep and genuine feeling, are
Capnist's  characteristic  traits.   Some
years ago,  he retired  to Obuchowka, his
country-seat, in Little Russia, where he
lived devoted to the muses till his death,
which took place Oct 28, 1823, in his
67th year.
  Capo d'Istria, John, count of, for-
merly Russian  secretary  of  state,  now
president of Greece,  was bom at Corfu,
1780, where his father was a physician,
and studied medicine at Venice.  When
the Russian troops occupied the Ionian
islands, in 1799, Anthony Maria de Capo
d'Istria, his father, was at the head of
the  government.  But, after  the islands
were again made dependent  on France,
in 1807, in consequence of the peace of
TUsit, he entered into the Russian service.
He afterwards returned to Corfu, became
a senator there, and died, April 17,1821,
aged 80 years.  The son still  continued
in Russia, where he was first employed in
the office of count Rumanzoff, and after-
wards  went  as Russian ambassador  to
Vienna.   In 1812,  he  conducted the
diplomatic business of the  army  of the
Danube, of which admiral Tschitschagoff
was  commander-in-chief.   When  this
army was united with the great Russian
army,  after the retreat of the French,
Capo d'Istria  managed  the  diplomatic
correspondence at head-quarters, under
the emperor's direction, and soon  gained
the confidence of his monarch to  such a
degree, that he was  afterwards engaged
in the most important public  business,
and  appointed  secretary of state for the
department of  foreign affairs.  He was
made grand-cross of the Wladimir order,
knight of St. Ann, grand-cross ofthe royal
Austrian Leopold order, and ofthe Prussian
order of the red eagle.  In 1813, he was
Russian ambassador to Switzerland, ne-
gotiated with the Austrian ambassadors
the new  relations of this republic, and,
in Sept., 1814,  was present at  the con-
gress of Vienna as Russian plenipotentia-
ry, from which  the downfall of Napoleon,
in 1815, recalled him to the head-quarters
of the allies at Paris.    As imperial Rus-
sian  plenipotentiary,  he  subscribed the
treaty  of  Paris, Nov. 20, 1815, and re-
turned with  his monarch to Petersburg,
where he  took  a very active part in the
business ofthe  council of state.  His en-
deavors for the  restoration ofthe republic
of the Ionian islands, for the support  of
the established  religion in Russia  against
the intrigues of the Jesuits, and  for the
deUverance ofthe Greeks from the Turk-
ish yoke, are well known.  But, as Russia
disapproved ofthe attempts ofthe Greeks,
and  Stroganoff (q. v.) returned from his
mission to Constantinople, in 1822 count
Capo d'Istria left the  public service, and
retired, as a private man, to Germany and
Switzerland, living chiefly at Geneva, till
the year 1827, when he was elected pres-
ident of the  Greek repubUc.   He stands
now at the head of this government; but
his means have been as yet so feeble, and
the whole state of Greece such, that we
are not able to judge of his  talents for
administration.  So  much,  however,  is
certain,  that he  immediately brought
Greece into closer connexion with the
other  governments of Europe, and has
thus exerted a  salutary influence.
   Capo d'Istria (the ancient AZgida);
a seaport of  Austria,  on the gulf  of
Trieste, 8 miles south of Trieste; lon. 13°
A3 E.; lat. 45° 31' N.; population 5,119; 
CAPO D'ISTRIA-CAPSTAN.
503
 is a bishop's see, and the capital of a dis-
 trict, containing 65,150 inhabitants. The
 town is two miles in circumference, has,
 besides the cathedral, 30 other churches,
 six convents, hospitals, &c
   Capoc ; a sort of cotton, so short and
 fine, that it cannot be spun.  It is used, in
 the East  Indies, to line palanquins, to
 make beds, mattresses, &c
   Caponier, or  Caponniere,  in fort-
 resses ; a  place which is covered against
 the fire of the enemy, on the sides, some-
 times  also  above,  and  serves for the
 connexion of two works, or for maintain-
 ing an important point.  In particular—
 1. a passage secured by two parapets, in
 the form of glacis,  which leads through
 the dry ditch, from one work to another;
 for instance, from the chief wall  to the
 ravelin.  If danger is to be apprehended
 only from one  side,  and  consequently
 only one  parapet is made, it  is called a
 demi-caponniere:  if it is  covered  above
 with hurdles or with wood, it  is called a
 coffer:  but this word is often used indif-
 ferently for caponniere.—2. Small  block-
 houses  in the covered way, for its defence.
 Coehorn laid out similar, but less  useful
 works below the  glacis, and Scharahorst
 proposes them, under the name of Jteld-
 caponnieres, for the saliant angles of field-
 fortifications.
   Cappadocia, in antiquity; one  of the
 most important provinces of Asia, once a
 famous kingdom; bounded W. by  Lyca-
 onia, S. by Cilicia and Syria, E. by Arme-
 nia, and N. by the Pontus Euxinus.   In
 the  period of  the Persian  government,
 Cappadocia comprehended all the  coun-
 try between the  Halys and Euphrates.
 By the  fonner river, it was separated from
 Phrygia and Paphlagonia; by the  latter,
 from Armenia: therefore the region after-
 wards called Pontus was  comprehended
 in this territory.  The Persians divided it,
 according  to Strabo, into two satrapies,
 which bore the name of Cappadocia Mag-
 na (afterwards Cappadocia Proper) and
 Cappadocia Minor  (afterwards  Pontus).
 This  division, however, was not always
 strictly  observed.   The  Persian satraps
 governed, at a  later time, under the title
 of kings, and sometimes made themselves
 independent.  At the time of the famous
 retreat  of  the  10,000  Greeks,  both the
 Cappadocias seem to have been under the
 rule of Mithridates, who had participated
 in the conspiracy of Cyrus the Younger,
 but retained his  government, and became,
after the defeat of Cyrus, again depend-
ent upon the kings of Persia.  Cappado-
cia Magna  was  a poorly-cultivated coun-
 try, Uttle favored by nature, the plains of
 which were only  fit for breeding sheep.
 The climate was rough, and, wood being
 scarce, the habitations ofthe people were
 low and  mean.  Even the capital, Ma-
 zaca, was more Uke a camp than a city.
 The Cappadocians, also called Leukosyri
 (the White  Syrians), because they  had a
 language resembling the  Syrian,  were
 considered stupid and Ul-tempered.
   Caprea, or Capre*.   (See  Capri.)
   Capri ; an island in the beautiful gulf
 of Naples, which contributes not a little
 to the charms of this favorite scene  of
 nature.  Capri, five  miles long and two
 broad, Ues at the entrance ofthe gulf, and
 consists  of  two mountains of Umestone,
 remarkable  for their picturesque shape,
 and a well-cultivated valley.   The inhab-
 itants, amounting  to 3000, are occupied
 in the production of oil and wine, in fish-
 ing and in catching quails, which come in
 immense  numbers from  Africa to the
 shores of Italy. Every spot on the island,
 which can be made  productive, is culti-
 vated.  In  fact,  agriculture all around
 Naples is in the highest state of perfection.
 The town of Capri (lon. 14° 8' E.; lat 40°
 11' N.) is the seat of a  bishop, to whom
 all the quails belong.  A high rock sepa-
 rates Capri from Anacapri, 1600 feet high,
 with 3500 inhabitants, to which a stair-
 way in the rock, of 522 steps, leads  from
 the  lower part of the island.  With the
 Romans, Capri was called Caprea:.   Au-
 gustus obtained it by exchange from the
 Neapolitans, and made it a place of agree-
 able retreat, but  never  made  use  of  it.
 Tiberius  spent here  the  last seven years
 of his life in degrading voluptuousness
 and infamous cruelty.  The  ruins of his
 palace are still extant, and other ruins are
 scattered over the island.
   Capriccio.  Caprice is the name appli-
 ed to a sort of musical composition,  in
 which the composer follows the bent of
 his humor.   The capriccio may be used
 with propriety in pieces  for exercise,  in
 which the strangest and most difficult fig-
 ures may be introduced, if they are not at
 variance with the nature ofthe instrument
 or ofthe voice.
   Caprification.  (See Figs.)
   Capsicin.  Cayenne pepper contains a
 pecuUar substance, discovered by Forch-
 hammer, and caUed capdcin by doctor C.
 Conwell,  which, according to the latter,
 when perfectly pure, is tasteless, inodor-
 ous, and  crystaUizes  in  aciculor  frag-
 ments.  It is neither acid nor alkaline.
  Capstan, in shipping (in French, cohes-
ion ; Dutch, kapstani);  a strong, massy 
504                       CAPSTAN—CAPTAIN.
column of timber, in the form of a trun-
cated cone, and having its upper extrem-
ity divided into several squares, with holes
in them, to receive bars or levers.  It is
let down  perpendicularly through  the
deck of a ship, and is fixed in such a man-
ner, that the men, by turning it horizon-
tally with their bars, are able to weigh the
anchors, and to perform other work re-
quiring great exertion.
   Captain. This is one of those many
words derived from the Latin ofthe mid-
dle ages, and now to be found in all the
different  idioms  of Europe.   Captain
comes from the  Latin  capitaneus, from
caput, head, and signified, first, a governor
of a province, who, in the first half of the
middle ages, was  generally a  miUtary
man.   Thus the word captain soon came
to be  used  chiefly  to denote a  high, or
rather the highest, miUtary officer.  Opitz,
an early German poet,  calls God, Lord,
Master, Captain; and, in English, Christ
is called the Captain of our salvation.  Like
many other words, however, this has, in
the course of time,  lost much of its dig-
nity, and, in military technology, now sig-
nifies the commander of a small body—a
company—and, in maritime language, the
master of a vessel.  In the  United States
of America, the master of the smallest
craft,  and even the chief man on a raft, is
styled captain.  In  the latter  part of the
middle ages, when armies  were  not  yet
so regularly divided and subdivided as at
the present time, captains were the com-
manders of those small  bodies of which
the armies consisted.  These were gener-
ally collected by their commander, who
entered, with his company, into the ser-
vice where most pay or most booty could
be obtained.  The practice of carrying on
wars, by troops collected in this manner,
prevailed to the greatest extent in Italy,
where the continual quarrels  of the nu-
merous small states afforded ample  em-
ployment to the unsettled and the disso-
lute.  These companies play an important
part in the history ofthe middle ages, par-
ticularly  that of the two centuries pre-
ceding the reformation,  and had a very
important influence on the  manners  and
morals ofthe south of Europe.  They are
further interesting to the student of histo-
ry, because they are so unlike any thing
at present existing.  We refer the reader,
for some further remarks on this subject,
to an  able article on Macchiavelli, in the
Edinburgh Review, March, 1827.—Cap-
tain, in modem armies, is the commander
of a company of foot, or a troop of horse.
In the EngUsh army, he appoints the Ser-
jeants, corporals and lance-corporals of
his company—a right which belongs, in
other armies,  to the  commander of the
regiment.  In the horse and foot-guards,
the captains have the rank  of lieutenant-
colonels  in the army.   In the French
army,  besides  the  commanders of the
companies of the Une, commanders  of
certain detached bodies  of guards, &c,
are called captain, and have, sometimes, a
very high rank in  the army.—Captain-
lieutenant is, in the  English army, a lieu-
tenant, who, with the rank  of captain,
commands a troop or company in the
name of some other person.  Thus, the
colonel being usually captain of the first
company of his regiment, that  company
is commanded by his deputy as captain-
lieutenant—Captain of a merchant ship;
he who has the direction  of the ship, her
crew, lading, &c  In small vessels, he is
more ordinarily called master.  In the
Mediterranean, he is calledpatroon.—Post-
captain ;  an English officer commanding
any man-of-war, from a  ship of the line
down to  a ship-rigged sloop.  Formerly,
a twenty-gun ship was the  smallest that
gave post-rank; but,  by a late regula-
tion, the largest class of ship-sloops has
been added to the list  of post-ships; and
post-captains, under three years' standing,
are now appointed  to them, unless they
happen to be  selected as flag-captains to
admirals' ships.  After being three  years
posted,  they are appointed to  frigates,
which  they may continue  to command
till they are of 10 years' standing,  when
they are  generally removed to 50  or 64
gun-ships, preparatory to  their taking the
command of ships of the line.—Captain-
general signifies, in England, the first mil-
itary rank, power and authority in the
realm; therefore the king is, by the con-
stitution, captain-general,or generalissimo,
of all the forces in the United Kingdoms.
In 1799, the king delegated this  rank,
with the  powers annexed  to it, to the
duke of York.  In France, it is an ancient
title, which conferred an almost unlimited
power on the person who possessed it, in
the district where he commanded.  But it
never conesponded to that of generalisri-
mo, except in the case ofthe duke of Sa-
voy, in 1635, in the time of Louis XIII.
The count de Tesse was French captain-
general in Italy in 1702.  The title  is not
in use at  present, nor would it agree with
the existing organization of the adminis-
tration.   In Spain, the rank of a captain-
general corresponds with  that of a mar-
shal of France, who has the command of
an army.  This title was also given to the 
CAPTAIN—CARACALLA.
505
 head of a province, in the Spanish colo-
 nies in South America, which was divided
 into yiceroyalties and captain-generalships
 (capilanias-generales); thus Chili was a
 captain-generalship.  The captain-gener-
 als were not placed under the viceroys,
 but accountable only to the king, through
 the council of the Indies.  The captain-
 general of Venezuela, for instance, had no
 connexion with the viceroy of New Gre-
 nada. They decided, in the last instance, on
 all legislative, judicial and military affairs,
 and presided in the real audiencia.   The
 time during which these governors remain-
 ed in power was  limited to a few years,
 probably in order to prevent them from be-
 coming too powerful.   The consequence
 was, that the colonies  were oppressed the
 more to enrich the governors, for rich
 every one was when he left his office.
   Capture.  (See Prize.)
   Capua;  a fortified  place in the Terra
 di Lavoro, in the kingdom of Naples, on
 the Voltunio; the see of an  archbishop;
 contains a military school, and 7300 in-
 habitants ; one league distant from the an-
 cient Capua,  out of the ruins of which it
 was  partly built, in the 9th century; lon.
 14^ E.; lat 41° 5' N.;  15 miles north of
 Naples.  There  are 12  convents in this
 city.  Jan 11, 1797, it was taken by the
 French, and, in 1820, it did not resist the
 Austrians.  The ancient Capua, one of
 the  finest and  most agreeable  cities of
 Italy, was so  important, that it was com-
 pared to Rome and Carthage.   Hannibal
 went into quarters here, after the battle of
 Cannae, and  promised to make the city
 the capital of Italy. Capua therefore form-
 ed an alliance with him, but was recon-
 quered  after five years.  The Vandals laid
 it waste. Narses restored it, but the Lom-
 bards devastated it again.  There are still
 many ruins here.   Around Capua lie the
 fertile Campanian fields, which produced
 three crops a year.  Living was cheap here,
 and the climate  healthy, so that it was a
 favorite place of resort of the Romans.
   Capuchins.  (See Franciscans.)
   Caput-mortuum (dead head); a tech-
 nical expression, in chemistry, for the de-
 posit  in  the  retort, arising from dry dis-
 tillation  ; because, if the  operation is con-
 tinued,  volatile substances cease to be
 given off.
   Caqueta ; a large river in South Amer-
ica, which rises about 60 miles south of
 Popayan. Being enlarged by the addition
of several streams,  it takes a course due
east about 300 miles, when it divides into
three branches, one of which fells into the
lea;  another takes  the name of Yupura,
  vol. ii.          43
 and the third fonns the principal stream
 ofthe Negro.
   Carabine ;  fonnerly, a kind of guns,
 which are now out of use.  At present,
 short guns, used by the cavalry, have this
 name. Tacticians entertain very different
 opinions respecting this kind  of  arms.
 Some think that they are of no use what-
 ever,  as the aim from on horseback  is ex-
 tremely uncertain.  In some  armies, eve-
 ry third man of certain regiments of cav-
 alry is anned with a carabine.  The word
 carabine  is  found in all  European  lan-
 guages, with different endings only. Man)
 derive the word from Calabria, which, for
 a longtime, was famous for a certain light
 cavalry.   The transfonnation  of  the  /
 into r would not be extraordinary.  Du
 Fresne derives the word from  a kind of
 arms  called chavarina, of which mention
 is made in the 14th century.
   Carabobo ; a  province of  Colombia,
 forming, according to the law of June 23,
 1824, with  the  province Caracas, the
 department of Venezuela.  The residence
 of the governor of Carabobo is Valencia.
 This  name has been rendered famous by
 the battle of Carabobo, which  was  deci-
 sive of the independence of Colombia. It
 was fought June 24, 1821, soon after the
 armistice concluded between Bolivar and
 Morillo  had expired.    Bolivar, having
 formed a  junction with Paez in Varinas,
 advanced  to attack the Spanish general
 La Tone, who had taken a  strong  posi-
 tion upon the  heights commanding the
 only  pass by which his army could be
 approached.  The battle was commenced
 by Paez, who  led on his division in per-
 son, and, by the valor and impetuosity of
 himself and Iris followers, drove the Span-
iards  from their intrenchments, and thus
 gained a complete victory, before the sec-
 ond division, under general Cedefio, came
 up.  Of all the troops, the English, in the
 service  of  the  republic,  distinguished
 themselves most: they chiefly decided the
 day, and suffered most severely.   The
 battalion  in  which most of the English
 and Irish  served  received the name of
 battalion of Carabobo. Caracas, La Guay ra,
 Carthagena and Cumana, and all that por-
 tion of  Venezuela which is dependent
 upon  them, were  permanently secured
 to the patriots by this victory.   (See
 Columbia u., 495, 724.)
   Caracalla, Antoninus Bassianus, eld-
 est son of the emperor  Severus, was born
 at Lyons, A. D. 188, and appointed by his
 father his colleague in the government, at
 the age of 13 years.  Nevertheless, he at-
 tempted his Ufe.   Severus died A. D. 211 
506
CARACALLA—CARACAS.
 He was succeeded by Caracalla and Geta.
 The two brothers,  from  their earUest
 years, hated  one  another  inveterately.
 After a  campaign against the Caledoni-
 ans, they concluded  a disgraceful peace.
 They then wished  to divide the empire
 between them;  but their design was op-
 posed by theh mother, Julia, and by the
 principal men of the state. Caracalla now
 resolved to get rid of his brother, by caus-
 ing him to be assassinated. After many un-
 successful attempts, he pretended to desire
 a reconciliation, and requested his mother
 to  procure  him  an interview with  his
 brother in private in her chamber.  Geta
 appeared, and was stabbed in his mother's
 arms, A. D. 212, by several centurions,
 who  had received orders to this effect.
 The  praetorian  guards  were prevailed
 upon, by rich donations, to proclaim Car-
 acalla sole emperor, and to declare Geta
 an  enemy to the state. The tyrant caused
 Geta's children and friends to be put to
 death. (See Papinian.)   Dion estimates
 the number of victims at 20,000.  He af-
 terwards executed many of the murderers
 of  his brother,  and caused  him  to be
 placed among the gods.  His pattern was
 Sylla, whose tomb he restored and adorn-
 ed.  Like this dictator, he enriched  his
 soldiers with the most extravagant  lar-
 gesses, which extortion  enabled him to
 furnish.   Cruel as Caligula and Nero, but
 weaker than either, he regarded the sen-
 ate and the people with equal contempt
 and hatred.  From motives of avarice, he
 gave all  the free men of  the  empire the
 right of citizenship, and was the first who
 received  Egyptians into the senate.   Al-
 exander,  whose habits he imitated, and
 AchiUes,  were the objects of his deepest
 veneration.  He  went to Ilium to visit
 the grave of Homer's hero, and poisoned
 his  favorite freedman, named Festus, to
 imitate Achilles, in his grief for Patroclus.
 His conduct in his  campaigns in Gaul,
 where he committed all sorts of cruelties,
 was stiU  more degrading.  He marched
over the  Rhine to the countries  of the
Catti and Alemanni.  The Catti defeated
him, and permitted him to repass the river
only on condition of paying them a large
sum of money.  He marched through the
land ofthe Alemanni as an ally, and built
several fortifications.   He then called to-
gether the young men of the  tribe, as if
he intended to  take them into his service,
and caused his own troops to surround
them, and cut them  in pieces. For this
barbarous exploit, he assumed the name
Alemannicus.   In  Dacia he gained some
advantages over the Goths.  He signed a
 treaty of peace at Antioch with Artabanus,
 the Parthian king, who submitted to aU
 his demands. He invited to Antioch Ab-
 gares, the king of Edessa, an ally of the
 Romans, loaded him with chains, and took
 possession of his states. He exercised the
 same  treachery  towards Vologeses, king
 of Armenia; but the Armenians  flew to
 arms,  and repulsed the Romans.  After
 this,  Caracalla  went  to  Alexandria, to
 punish the people ofthe city for ridiculing
 him.   While preparations were making
 for a great massacre, he offered hecatombs
 to Serapis, and visited  the tomb of Alex-
 ander, on which  he left his imperial orna-
 ments, by way of offering.  He afterwards
 devoted  the  inhabitants, for several days
 and nights, to plunder  and butchery, and
 seated himself, in order to  have a view of
 the bloody spectacle, on the top  of the
 temple of Serapis, where he consecrated
 the dagger which he  had drawn, some
 years  before, against his  brother.  His
 desire  to triumph over  the Parthians in-
 duced  him to violate the peace, under the
 pretence  that Artabanus had refused  him
 his daughter  in marriage.  He found the
 country undefended, ravaged it, marched
 through Media, and approached the capi-
 tal.  The Parthians, who had retired be-
 yond the Tigris  to  the mountains, were
 preparing to attack the  Romans, the fol-
 lowing year, with all their  forces.  Cara-
 calla returned without delay to Mesopo-
 tamia, without having even seen  the Par-
 thians.   When the senate  received from
 him information of the submission  of the
 East, they decreed  him a triumph,  and
 the surname Parthicus.  Being informed
 ofthe warlike preparations of the Parthi-
ans, he prepared to renew the contest; but
Macrinus, the pretorian  prefect, whom he
 had offended, assassinated him at Edessa,
A. D. 217, on his way  to the  temple of
 Lunus.   Caracalla erected at Rome some
splendid  monuments, magnificent  baths,
which  bear his  name,  and a triumphal
arch, in commemoration of the  achieve-
 ments of Severus.
  Caracas ; a province, which, with the
province  of Carabobo, constitutes, accord-
ing to the law of June 23,1824, the de-
partment of Venezuela,  one of the 12 de-
partments of Colombia.   (See Venezuela.)
The city  of Caracas, or  Leon de Caracas,
is the capital  ofthe department of  Vene-
 zuela,  formerly  a  captain-generalship;
 lon. 67° 51 W.; lat  10° 31' N.  In 1812,
the population was estimated at 50,000.
 March  26 of that year, the city was partly
 destroyed by on earthquake, and nearly
 12,000  persons were buried in the  ruins. 
CARACAS—CARAMANIA.
507
By the political events which  followed
this catastrophe, the population of this
ill-fated city was reduced, in four or five
years,  to less than  25,000.  The city is
situated five leagues from the sea, from
which it is separated by a chain of moun-
tains, at an elevation of 3000 feet above
the ocean.   A  good road traverses the
mountains to the port La Guayra.  Cara-
cas careies on a considerable  trade.  The
greatest part of the productions of the
whole province, consisting principally of
cocoa, coffee, indigo, cotton, sarsaparilla,
and the Varinas tobacco, is brought here
for sale, or to be exchanged for European
manufactures and productions.  The tem-
perature is  generally between 77° and 90°
Fahr. in the day, and between 68° and 72°
at night; but this general mildness is con-
nected  with great  fluctuations in the
weather.  Humboldt, among the vapors
of November and December, could some-
times hardly fancy himself in one of the
temperate valleys of the torrid zone, the
weather rather resembling that of the
north of Germany.  Caracas is  the seat
ofthe intendant of Venezuela, and  has a
college, a court of justice, nine churches,
and five  convents.   The  streets are
straight and well built, intersecting each
other at right-angles,  at a  distance of
about 300 feet.  The inhabitants consist
of whites, descendants of Spaniards, free
colored people, a few slaves, and Indians.
The first are either merchants,  planters,
professional or military men, very proud,
and disdaining  all kinds  of labor.  The
women are considered very handsome,
having large black eyes, full of expression,
jet-black hair, and fine complexions; but
they are careless of their figures.  They sel-
dom leave their houses except to go to mass,
when they wear the long veils called mantil-
las, covering nearly the whole body. They
possess considerable natural talent and vi-
vacity, but little or no accomplishments.—
Caracas, as is well known, has been con-
spicuous throughoutthe revolution of Ven-
ezuela and  New Grenada against Spain.
  Caracci. (See Carracd.)
  Caraccioli,  Louis  Antoine de; bom
in 1721, at Paris, of an ancient and distin-
guished Neapolitan family.  His talents
for conversation procured him  a distin-
guished reception, in Rome, from Bene-
dict XIV and Clement XIII.  He after-
wards went to  Germany and^ Poland.
After having educated the  children of
prince Rzewuski, in the latter  countiy,
he relumed to Paris, and  wrote  his Let-
tres du Parte Clement XIV (Ganganelli),
which display a kind spirit, a benevolent
philosophy,  and fine  taste.  They also
contain intelligent observations on many
situations of life.  For a long time, they
were thought to be  the genume produc-
tions ofthe pope, and excited the greatest
interest  in France,  and throughout Eu-
rope.  He died in 1803.
  Caraccioli, marquis de, the friend of
Marmontel and D'Alembert, born in 1711,
was, about the  middle of the 18th cen-
tury, Neapolitan ambassador in London
and Paris.  He was esteemed one  of the
first ornaments of the accompfished soci-
ety ofthe capital of France.  He died in
1789, in the office of viceroy of Sicily.
  Caraccioli, Francisco, brother  of the
duke of Roccaromana, was distinguished
as NeapoUtan admiral, in 1793, at Toulon;
but, being treated by his court with con-
tempt, he entered the service of the Par-
thenopean repubUc,  and  repelled, with a
few vessels, an attempt of the Sicilian-
English fleet to effect  a landing.   When
Ruffo took  Naples, in 1799, Caraccioli
was arrested, contrary to the terms ofthe
capitulation, was condemned to death by
the junta (see .S^eziaZe), was hung  at the
mast of his frigate, and thrown into the sea.
His death is a blot on the fame of Nelson.
  Caractacus ; a  king of the ancient
British people  caUed  SUures, inhabiting
South Wales.   He defended his country
seven years against the Romans, but was,
at last, defeated, and led in triumph to the
emperor Claudius, then  at York,  where
his noble behavior  and  pathetic speech
obtained him Uberty, A. D. 52.  Buchan-
an, Monipenny, and  the  other ancient
Scottish  historians,  make  this   heroic
prince one ofthe Scotch monarchs.
  Carafa, or Caraffa, Michael; one of
the most popular Italian  composers now
living.  He  was born at  Naples, 1787,
studied under Fenaroli, at the conserva-
toire of Naples, and enjoyed the advan-
tages of an acquaintance with Cherabini
during his residence at  Paris.  He has
composed some agreeable and character-
istic melodies, and is an imitator of Ros-
sini.  Among his operas, the opera seria
" Gabriele  de  Vergy" has gained  the
most applause.  Carafa is also an  excel-
lent composer of music for songs.
  Caraites,  or Cardans,  among the
Jews; those who reject the tradition ofthe
Talmud, and hold merely to the letter of
Scripture, in opposition to the Rabbinists.
(See Rabbi.)
  Caramania ;  an interior  province of
Asiatic Turkey, east of NatoUa, compris-
ing about 35,000 square miles.  It  is in-
tersected by the KisU Jermak, which, of- 
508
CAR AMANIA—CARAVANSARIES.
ter  a course  of about 350 miles, flows
north into the Black  sea.  Caramania
comprehends the ancient Pamphylia, and
a great part of Cilicia, Pisidiaand Cappa-
docia Minor.   Bajazet  united it to the
Ottoman empire in  1488.  The inhabit-
ants carry on some trade with  camels'
hair, goats' wool and opium.  The popu-
lation probably does not exceed from 150
to 200,000.  Cogni, or Konich (lat 38° 1V
N.,  lon. 32° 2S7 E., 308 miles east of Smyr-
na, and 150 north ofthe shore ofthe Med-
iterranean} is  the capital.  There is also a
town of this province called Caramania.
  Carascosa, Michele, baron. This gen-
eral, distinguished in the latest history of
Naples, rose to eminence  during  the pe-
riod of the Parthenopean repubUc, and,
after 1806, under Joseph Bonaparte, in
Spain.  After his return, Joachim (Murat)
raised him successively through  various
degrees  of miUtary command.  In 1814,
he  commanded a body of troops which
assisted the Austrians against the French,
and, in  1815, a division of Neapolitan
troops against the Austrians, and signed,
with the other Neapolitan generals, the
capitulation of Casalanza.  In 1820, when
minister of war, he endeavored, unsuc-
cessfully,  to  suppress  the insunection
which broke  out in the army.  In later
times, he took part in the revolution, after
the  king had shown himself apparently
favorable to constitutional principles.  At
the  time ofthe invasion of the Austrians,
he received an important command, and
was appointed to guard the road  from
Tenacina to Naples.  (See Abruzzo, Ne-
apolitan Revolution, and Pepe.)  At Sul-
mona, his army was  sunounded,  and
dispersed.  He  fled to  Barcelona,  and
lives, at present, in England, where he
has written his Memoirs hist.,polit. et milit.,
sur  la Rivolut. du Roy. de Naples en 1820
(London, 1823), which are valuable in  a
historical and miUtary respect.
  Caravaggio, Michael Angelo Amerighi,
or Morigi, called Michael Angelo da Cara-
vaggio, a celebrated  painter, born at  Ca-
ravaggio, in the  Milanese, in 1569, was,
at first,  a journeyman  mason, but soon
applied  himself to the study of painting,
studied  in Milan and Venice, and after-
wards went to  Rome,  where he distin-
guished himself.  He may be considered
as the inventor of a manner which has
had a crowd of  imitators.   Hi6 char-
acteristic traits are vigor and truth of
chiaro-oscuro  combined  with  excellent
coloring.  He was fond  of introducing
broad and deep masses of shade, where-
by a great effect is given to the Ught To
aid him in producing this effect, the room
in which he worked was Uluminated by
a sky Ught,  and the walls were  painted
black.  He  excelled in  the  painting of
naked  figures.  His faults  are  obvious.
Nanow and servile imitation of nature
was  his  highest  aim.   Annibal  Caracci
and Domenichino were, perhaps, less dis-
tinguished than Caravaggio during their
lives, but, after their death, were ranked
higher, because, without neglecting color-
ing and the study of nature, they aimed at
correctness of design and dignity of con-
ception.  His violent character involved
him  in many difficulties.  He  died as
early as 1609.  The painters who have
imitated him most are Manfredi, Valentin,
and Ribeira, called Espagnolet.
  Caravaggio.  (See  Caldara.)
  Caravan, or Kara van ;  a   Persian
word,  used to  denote large companies
which travel together in  the Levant  and
in Africa, for the sake of security from
robbers, having in view, principally, trade
or pilgrimages.  Such a company often
has more than 1000 camels to carry their
baggage and their goods.  These walk
in single file, so that the line is  often a
mile long.  On account  of the excessive
heat, they  travel,  mostly, early  in  the
morning.   As every  Mohammedan is
obliged to visit the tomb of Mohammed
once, at least, during his Ufe, cnrnvans of
pilgrims go to Mecca, every jear, from
various  places of meeting.  The leader
of such a caravan  to Mecca, who carries
with him some cannon for protection, is
called Emir Adge.   Trading  caravans
choose one  of their own number for a
leader,  whom they call  Caravan-Baschi.
Much information on the subject of cara-
vans is to be found in the travels  of Nie-
buhr, who made many journeys with them,
and describes them, as it is well  known,
minutely and faithfully.  (For an account
of some  of the  most important  routes
pursued by the caravans in Africa, see
the article Africa, p. 90, vol. i.)
  Caravan Tea.  (See  Tea.)
  Caravansaries, in the East; a sort of
inn, situated in countries where there are
no cities or villages for a considerable
extent, to furnish travellers with a shelter.
Some of them are built with much splen-
dor, though they are generally unfurnish-
ed, and the traveUer is obliged to bring
with him his bed and  carpet   In many,
the hospitaUty is gratuitous.  It is com-
mon for a pious Mohammedan  to estab-
Ush,  during his Ufe, or  by will, one or
several of such caravansaries.  This kind
of benevolence is considered pecuUarly 
CARAVANSARIES—CARBON.
509
agreeable to the Deity, and promotive of
the eternal happiness of  the  founder.
Sometimes persons are  kept in these
establishments to show  the  way to the
caravans for some distance.  (See Khan.)
  Caraway Seeds (fructus carvi) are a
stimulant and excitant, the fruit of a bi-
ennial plant (carum carvi, Linnaeus), a na-
tive of Europe,  growing particularly in
the south of France.
  Carbon.  Charcoal, as we are familiar
with it in common Ufe, contains hydrogen
and saUne and metalUc substances.  Ac-
cordingly, it became necessary to intro-
duce a pecuUar term for its pure base,
and the one  adopted by chemists was
carbon.   This element,  besides forming
the inflammable matter  of charcoal, ex-
ists largely in animal substances, and is
extensively distributed in  the mineral
kingdom.—The only body in which car-
bon has been found to exist in a state of
absolute  purity, is the diamond.   This
precious stone has always been esteemed
as the most valuable of the gems—a su-
periority  which it owes  to  its  hardness,
lustre and high  refractive  power.  Dia-
monds are brought from India and from
Brazil.  Those of India, which have been
the longest known, are principally found
in the kingdoms of Golconda and of Visia-
pour.  Those of Brazil, discovered at the
commencement of the 17th century, be-
long to the district of Seno-do-Frio.  The
situations in which they occur ore such
as to favor the idea of their recent form-
ation ; since  they  exist disseminated
through a loose, ferruginous sandstone, or
quite  detached  in a sandy  soil;  and, in
both cases, are situated at no great depth
below the surface.  In Brazil, the con-
glomerate in which they exist is called
cascalho; from which  they are  extracted
by washing, in the same  manner as gold.
The diamond uniformly occurs crystal-
lized, and presents a great variety  of
forms; all of which  yield readUy to me-
chanical division parallel to aU the planes
Of the regular octohedron, which, there-
fore, is the form of the primary crystal,
and under which figure it is sometimes
found in nature.  The faces of its crys-
tals are very frequently curved, so as to
communicate to them a rounded appear-
ance.  They are commonly limpid;  and
ore either colorless,  or  of a yellowish,
bluish,  yellowish-brown,  black-brown,
Prussian blue or rose-red color.  Specific
gravity, 3.5.   Its hardness is extreme; so
that it can be worn down only by rabbing
one diamond against  another, and is pol-
ished only by the finer diamond powder.
                  43*
—The  weight,  and, consequently, the
value of diamonds, are estimated in carats,
one of which is equal to four grains; and
the price of one diamond, compared with
that of  another of equal color, transpa-
rency and purity, is as the squares of the
respective weights.   The average  price
of rough diamonds, that are worth work-
ing, is about £2 for the first carat.   The
value of a cut diamond is equal to that of
a rough diamond of double weight, ex-
clusive of the price of workmanship; and
the whole cost of a wrought diamond of
     1 carat may be about  $36, or £ 8
     2 carats   is    22 X £8 =    32
     3 do.    is    32X   8=    72
     4 do.    is    42x   8=   128
  100 do.    is  KXPX   8 = 80,000

This rule, however, is not extended to
diamonds of more than 20 carats.   The
larger ones are disposed of at prices infe-
rior to  theh value by that  computation.
The snow-white diamond is most prized
by the jeweller. When transparent, and
free from cracks, it is said  to  be of the
first water.—The following are some of
the most extraordinary diamonds  known:
—one in  the possession  of the rajah of
Mattan, in the island of Borneo, where it
was found about a century ago:  it  is
shaped  Uke an egg, and is of the  finest
water:  its weight is 367 carats,  or 2 oz.
169 grs. Troy.  Another is the celebrated
Pitt diamond,  now among the  crown
jewels of France, weighing 136 carats;
another in the sceptre of  the emperor of
Russia,  ofthe size of a pigeon's egg ; and
another in the possession  of the Great
Mogul,  which is said to  weigh 280, and
which,  in a rough  state,  weighed 793
carats.—From the feet that transparent
inflammable bodies refract Ught in a ratio
greater  than their  densities,  sir  Isaac
Newton conjectured that  the diamond
might consist of an unctuous matter co-
agulated.   The Florentine  academicians
had rendered its combustibiUty probable,
by exposing it to the solar rays of a pow-
erful burning-glass, and observing that it
gradually disappeared, or was consumed.
Subsequent experiments settled the ques-
tion, by proving, that the diamond lost
none of its weight when calcined out of
contact  with the air; but, on the contrary,
that it  was dissipated when heated in
contact  with this fluid.  It stiU remained,
however, to be discovered, what was the
true nature of the  diamond.  This was
accomplished by Lavoisier,  who enclosed
diamonds in  jars filled with atmospheric
air or  oxygen gas,  and,  after having 
510
CARBON.
caused them to disappear by the heat of
a burning-glass, examined the ah in the
vessels.  He found it to exhibit precisely
the same properties as the ah which re-
sults from the  combustion  of charcoal.
This experiment was also performed by
Morveau, who  demonstrated  the nature
of the  diamond by still another  arrange-
ment   A diamond was enclosed  in  a
cavity made in a piece of pure, soft iron;
a stopper of the same metal was driven
into it,  and the mass was put into a  small
crucible, which was  covered,  and this
into a  second; the space between  them
being  filled  with pure  silicious  sand.
The whole was exposed, for some  time,
to an intense heat  When examined, the
diamond had disappeared, and  the iron,
with which  it had been in contact, was
converted into steel. Now steel is a com-
pound  of iron  and carbon; and, as the
diamond was not visible, and as there was
no source from which the carbon  could
have been  obtained, the conclusion was
unavoidable, that the diamond was pure
carbon.  Yet so different is this mineral
from eharcoal, that it was, for a  time,
imagined that  it contained some  other
element than carbon ; but the numerous
and delicate experiments of sir H. Davy,
and several other chemists, failed of de-
tecting any thing else in its composition;
and, although there exists so  great a dif-
ference between the diamond and  char-
coal, in their external properties, we are
forced  to believe that they are identically
of the same nature.  The diamond is,
therefore, pure carbon,  and differs from
charcoal (leaving out of question its tri-
fling impurities) only in the anangement
of its molecules.—The substance in which
carbon exists next in purity is  charcoal.
For common purposes, this is prepared by
piling  bfllets of wood in a pyramidical
form, with vacuities between them for
the admission  of air, covering them with
earth,  and  inflaming  them.   In conse-
quence of the heat, part of the combusti-
ble substance  is consumed, part is vola-
tilized, together with a portion of water,
and there remains behind  the ligneous
fibre only of the wood,  in the form of a
black,  brittle and porous body.  When
required pure, and in small quantities, for
the purposes of the chemist, it may be
obtained by immersing the wood in sand
contained in a crucible  exposed to heat
According to the experiments of Messrs.
Allen and Pepys, the weight  of charcoal
obtained from 100 parts of different woods
"/as as follows:—fir, 18.17; lignum vitae,
17.25; box, 20.25; beech, 15; oak, 17.40;
mahogany, 15.75.—Lampblack  is  char-
coal in a state of minute division, and is
prepared for the demands of trade from
the dregs which  remain after the eliqua-
tion of pitch, or else from small pieces of
fir-wood, which  are  burned in furnaces
of a pecuUar construction, the smoke of
which is made to pass through a long
horizontal flue, terminating in  a  close,
boarded  chamber.   The  roof  of this
chamber is made of coarse cloth, through
which the cunent of air escapes,  while
the soot, or lampblack, remains behind.—
Coke is a pecuUar kind of charcoal, which
remains in the retort, after the heating of
coal to procure the coal gas.—Ivory-black,'
or animal charcoal, is obtained from  bones
made red-hot in a covered crucible, and
consists of charcoal mixed with the earthy
matters of the  bone.—Wood charcoal,
well prepared, is of a deep-black color,
brittle and porous, tasteless and inodorous.
It is infusible  in any heat a furnace con
raise ; but, by the intense heat of a pow-
erful galvanic  apparatus, it is hardened,
and at length  is volatifized, presenting a
surface with a  distinct appearance of hav-
ing undergone fusion.   The density of
charcoal, according to Mr. Leslie, is little
short of that  of the diamond itself, al-
though  its specific gravity  has usually
been considered as low as 2.00.  Charcoal
is insoluble in water, and is not affected
by it at low temperatures; hence wooden
stakes, which are to be immersed in water,
are often chaned to preserve them.—
Owing  to its  peculiarly porous  texture,
charcoal possesses the property of absorb-
ing a large quantity of air, or other gases,
at common temperatures, and of yielding
the greater part of them  when heated.
It appears, from  the  researches of Saus-
sure, that different gases are absorbed by
it in different proportions.  He found that
charcoal prepared from box-wood absorbs,
during the space of 24 or 36 hours, of
   Ammoniacal gas,  90 times its volume;
   Muriatic acid, ... 85      do.
   Carbonic acid,... 35      do.
   Oxygen,......  9.25   do.
   Hydrogen,.....   1.75   do.

Charcoal likewise absorbs the odoriferous
and coloring  principles of most animal
and vegetable  substances.   Thus, all sa-
line substances,  which,  from the  ad-
herence of vegetable or animal extractive
matter, ore of a brown color,—as  crude
tartar, crude nitre, impure carbonate of
ammonia,  and other  salts,—may, after
being  digested through the medium of
water with  charcoal, be obtained white 
CARBON.
511
by a second crystallization.  Resins, gum-
resins, assafeetida, opium, balsams, essen-
tial oils, and many other substances, even
those that have the strongest smell,  are
rendered nearly inodorous when they are
rubbed with charcoal and water, or when
solutions of them in alcohol are macer-
ated with the charcoal, or filtrated  re-
[icatedly  through it  A number  of  the
vegetable tinctures and infusions also lose
their color, smell, and much of their taste,
by the same process.  Common vinegar,
on being  boiled with charcoal powder,
becomes colorless.  Malt spirit, by distil-
lation with  charcoal, is freed  from  its
disagreeable flavor.   In  the same manner
wines, also, become colorless, and distilled
waters lose their odors. Water,  which,
from having been longkept in wooden ves-
sels, as during long voyages, has acquired
an offensive smell, is deprived of it by fil-
tration through charcoal powder, or even
by  agitation with it for a  few minutes,
especially when a few drops of sulphuric
acid have also been  added.  Hence, also,
it has  been found that, by charring  the
inside of casks for keeping water, it may
be preserved a long time without spoiling.
Charcoal can even remove or prevent the
putrescence of animal matter.   If a piece
of flesh has become  tainted, the taste and
smell  may, in a great  measure,  be  re-
moved, by rubbingit with charcoal powder;
and it  may be preserved fresh for some
time by burying it in the same substance.
To produce these effects, however, it is
necessary that the charcoal should have
been well calcined and newly prepared.—
The uses of charcoal are extensive.  It is
used as fuel in various arts, where a strong
heat is required without smoke,  as in
dyeing, and in various metallurgic opera-
tions.  By cementation with chare al, iron
is converted into steel.   It is used in  the
manufacture of gunpowder, in its finer
state of aggregation, under the form of
ivory-black, lamp-black, &c  It  is  the
basis of black paint; and, mixed with fat
oils and resinous matter, to give  a  due
consistence, it forms the composition of
printing ink.  It is  used to destroy color
and odor, particularly in sirups;  to  pu-
rify honey; to resist putrefaction;  to con-
fine  heat, and  for  a number of other
important purposes.—When  charcoal is
heated to a certain degree in the open air,
or in oxygen gas, it  takes fire, and bums
with the  production of an elastic vapor,
which has been  called carbonic acid gas.
It  is usually obtained, however, by Other
processes.  It exists, combined with lime,
in  the different varieties of limestone,
marble and chalk;  and, if any of these
substances  be exposed to a strong heat,
the affinity  of the  acid  to  the  lime is
so far weakened, that it assumes the elas-
tic  fonn,  and may be  collected.   An
easier mode is also practised for effecting
its disunion, through the  affusion  of one
of the more powerful  acids.—From  th(
experiment of the direct formation of this
acid, by the combustion of charcoal in
oxygen gas, its composition has been de-
tennined to be 27.4  carbon and 72.6 oxy-
gen.  Tennant illustrated its nature ana-
lytically, by  passing the vapor  of phos
phorus over chalk,  or  the carbonate of
lime, heated  to redness in a glass tube.
The phosphorus took  oxygen from  the
carbonic acid, charcoal, in the form of a
light,  black powder, was deposited, and
the phosphoric acid, which was  formed,
united with the lime.—Carbonic acid  is a
colorless, inodorous, elastic  fluid, which
possesses all the physical properties of
the gases in  an  eminent degree, and re-
quires a pressure of 36  atmospheres to
condense it into a  liquid.   Its  specific
gravity, compared with common air, is
1.5277.   It  extinguishes  burning  sub-
stances of aU kinds, and is incapable of
supporting  the respiration  of animals, its
  resence, even in a  moderate proportion,
  eing soon  fatal.  An animal cannot  live
in air which contains sufficient carbonic
acid for extinguishing a lighted candle;
and hence  the  practical rale of letting
down a burning taper into old wells or
pits, before any one  ventures to descend.
When an attempt is made to inspire pure
carbonic acid, a violent  spasm  of  the
glottis takes place,  which  prevents  the
gas from entering the lungs.  If it be so
much diluted with air,  as to admit of its
passing the glottis,  it then  acts as a nar-
cotic poison on the  system.  It is this gas
which so often proves destructive to per-
sons sleeping in a confined room with  a
pan of burning charcoal.   Lime-water
becomes turbid when brought into  con-
tact with carbonic  acid,  from the union
of the lime with the gas, and the insolu-
ble nature ofthe compound thus formed.
Hence, lime-water  is not only a valuable
test of the  presence of carbonic acid, but
is frequently  used  to  withdraw it  alto-
gether from any gaseous mixture  that
contains it.   Carbonic acid is absorbed by
water.  Recently-boiled  water dissolves
its own volume of  carbonic acid, at the
common temperature and pressure; but
it will take up much more if the pressure
be increased. Water and other  Uquids,
which have been charged with carbonic 
515                              CARBON.
acid under great pressure, lose the greater
part of the gas when the  pressure is re-
moved.  The effervescence which takes
place on  opening a bottle of ginger beer,
cider, or brisk  champaign, is owing  to
the escape of carbonic acid gas.  Water
which  is fully saturated with  carbonic
acid gas  sparkles when it is poured from
one vessel to another.  The solution has
an agreeably acidulous taste, and gives to
Utmus  paper a red stain, which is lost on
exposure to the air.   On the addition of
lime-water to it, a cloudiness is produced,
which at first disappears, because the car-
bonate of lime  is soluble in an excess of
carbonic  acid; but a permanent precipi-
tate ensues, when the free acid is neutral-
ized by  an additional quantity of lime-
water.  The  water  which contains car-
bonic acid in solution is wholly deprived
of the gas by boiling.  The agreeable
pungency of beer, porter and ale is, in a
great measure, owing to the presence of
carbonic  acid;  by the loss of which, on
exposure to the air, they become stale.
All kinds of spring and well-water con-
tain  carbonic  acid,  which they absorb
from the atmosphere, and to which they
are partly indebted  for their agreeable
flavor.  Boiled  water has an insipid taste,
from the  absence of carbonic acid.   Car-
bonic acid is always present in the atmos-
phere,  even at the summit of the highest
mountains.  Its origin is  obvious.  Be-
sides  being  fomied  abundantly by  the
combustion of all substances which con-
tain carbon, the respiration of animals is
a fruitful source of it, as may be proved
by breathing a few minutes into lime-
water.   It is also generated in all  the
spontaneous changes, to which dead ani-
mal and vegetable  matters  are subject.
The carbonic acid proceeding from such
sources  is commonly diffused  equably
through  the air; but, when any of these
processes occur in  low,  confined situa-
tions, as in the galleries of mines or in
wells, the gas is then apt to accumulate
there,  and form  an  atmosphere  called
choke damp, which  proves fetal to any
animals that are placed in it.   These ac-
cumulations take  place only where there
is some local origin for the carbonic acid;
for example, when it is generated by fer-
mentative processes going on at the sur-
face of  the  ground, or  when it  issues
directly  from the earth, as happens at the
grotto del Cane, in Italy, and at Pyrmont,
in Westphalia.—Though carbonic acid is
the product of many natural operations,
no increase of  its quantity in the atmos-
phere  is  discoverable.  Such an increase
appears to be prevented by the process of
vegetation.  Growing plants purify  the
air  by withdrawing carbonic acid, and
yielding an equal volume of pure oxygen
in return ; but whether a  full compensa-
tion for the deterioration of the  oh by
respiration  is produced in this way, has
not, as yet, been satisfactorily determined.
—Carbonic  acid abounds  in mineral
springs,  such as  those of  Tunbridge,
Carlsbad and Saratoga.  In combination
with Ume, it forms extensive masses of
rock, which occur in all countries, and in
every formation.  It unites with alkaline
substances, and the salts so produced are
called carbonates. Its acid properties are
feeble, so that it is unable to neutralize
completely the alkaUne properties of pot-
ash, soda and lilhia.  For the same rea-
son, all the carbonates, without exception,
are decomposed  by the muriatic and all
the stronger acids; the carbonic  acid is
displaced, and escapes in the form of gas.
—Another gaseous compound of carbon
with oxygen, caUed carbonic oxyde, exists,
or may be obtained by heating powdered
chalk, or any carbonate which can bear a
red heat without decomposition, with iron
filings  in a gun-barrel.  It is evolved to-
gether with carbonic acid gas, from which
it may be freed by agitating the mixed
gases with lime-water, when the carbonic
acid is absorbed, and the gas  in question
is left in a state of purity.   It is colorless
and insipid.  Lime-water does not absorb
it, nor is  its transparency affected by it.
When a lighted taper is introduced into a
jar  of  carbonic oxyde, it  takes fire, and
burns  calmly at its surface with  a lam-
bent, blue flame.  It is incapable of sup-
porting respiration.    A mixture  of  100
measures  of carbonic oxyde, and rather
more than 50 of oxygen, on being ex-
ploded in Volta's eudiometer  by electrici-
ty,  disappear, and 100 measures of car-
bonic acid gas occupy their place;  from
which the exact composition of carbonic
oxyde  is easily  deduced.   For carbonic
acid contains its own bulk  of oxygen;
and, since 100 measures of carbonic ox-
yde, with 50 of oxygen, form 100 measures
of  carbonic acid, it follows  that  100 of
carbonic oxyde are composed of 50 of
oxygen, united  with  precisely the same
quantity of carbon as is contained in 100
measures of carbonic acid.  Consequently,
the composition of carbonic acid being,

        By volume,
   Vapor of carbon, 100
   Oxygen gas,. . . 100
                   100 carbonic acid gas, 
CARBON—CARBONARI.
513
       By wight,
  Carbon,......6
  Oxygen,......16

                   22 carbonic acid,
that of carbonic oxyde must be,
       By volume,
  Vapor of carbon, 100
  Oxygen gas,  ... 50

                  100 carbonic oxyde gas,
       By weight,
  Carbon,  ......6
  Oxygen,......8

                   14 carbonic oxyde.

Its   specific  gravity   is  0.9721.—The
process for  generating  carbonic  oxyde
will  now be intelligible.   The  princi-
ple of the  method is to bring carbonic
acid, at a red heat, in contact with some
substance which has a strong affinity for
oxygen.  This  condition is fulfilled by
igniting chalk,  or any of the carbonates,
with half its weight of iron filings, or of
charcoal.  The  carbonate is reduced to
its caustic state, and the carbonic acid is
converted into carbonic oxyde by yielding
oxygen  to  the iron  or  the charcoal.
When the first is used, an oxyde of iron
is the  product; when charcoal is  em-
ployed,  the charcoal itself is converted
into carbonic oxyde.
  Carbonari (colliers);  tho name of a
large  political  secret  society in Italy.
According to the Memoirs of the  Secret
Societies of the South of Italy, particu-
larly the Carbonari, translated from the
Original Manuscript (London, 1821), it
emerged from  its  former obscurity in
1818.  It has published instructions, cate-
chisms of the different degrees, statutes,
rituals,  and so  on, which give, however,
only a partial view of the subject, without
entering into the secret  motives  of the
leaders, and the real spirit of the whole
Bociety.  They  have a tradition, that they
were founded by Francis I of France, on
which account they drink to his memory
at their festivals.   It is evidently going
too far to  associate them with the  dis-
turbances among the  German peasantry
in the beginning of the 16th century, or
to look for their origin in the oppressive
forest laws of the Norman kings of Eng-
land.  If, however, as their antiquity is not
to be disputed, they could be proved to
be a branch of the Waldenses, theh re-
Ugious character, which aims at evangeli-
cal purity and  a rejection of traditions,
would be best accounted for.  According
to Botta's Histoire d'Ralie, the republicans
fled, under the reign of Joachim (Murat),
to the recesses of the Abrazzi, inspired
with an equal hatred of the French and
of Ferdinand.   They  formed  a  secret
confederacy, and called themselves colliers.
Theh chief, Capobianco, possessed great
talents as an  orator.    The war cry—
"Revenge  for the land crashed by the
wolf!"—revealed the objects of the soci-
ety.  Ferdinand and Caroline endeavored
to obtain  theh assistance against the
French.  Prince MoUtemi himself, a re-
pubUcan at heart, was sent to them for this
purpose.  Count Orloff, in his work on
Naples, ascribes the foundation or revival
of the Carbonari to  queen Caroline of
Naples: others assert that MagheUa, the
former minister of police, gave this soci-
ety its present importance.  MagheUa, a
native  Genoese, was made minister of
poUce in the time of the Ligurian repub-
lic, and, after it was united with France,
director ofthe tobacco monopoly.  When
Murat ascended the throne of* Naples, he
employed  him in the department of po-
Uce, and, after the lapse of some time, ap-
pointed him minister.    All his  efforts
were directed to the union and indepen-
dence of Italy; and, for this purpose, he
made use ofthe society ofthe Carbonaria,
which  he  reformed  and extended.  In
1812, he  urged his  sovereign  to make
himself independent of Napoleon,  and to
raise the  standard of liberty  and inde-
pendence in Italy.  Murat was supported
by the Carbonari (who  desired a consti-
tution) only during the short intervals in
which it was  hoped that he  would act
according to these suggestions.   In the
sequel,  he informed  his brother-in-law.
Napoleon, ofthe designs of MagheUa, and
delivered  him,  as a native Genoese, to
France, where  he lived, for  some time,
under the  superintendence of the  police.
In 1815, he returned to Italy, and exerted
his influence chiefly in the States of the
Church, then occupied by Murat.   After
the expulsion of Murat  by the  Austrian
armies, he was first carried to a Hunga-
rian fortress, afterwards deUvered to the
king of Sardinia, imprisoned for a year
in FenestreUes, and  then set at liberty.
The ritual of the Carbonari is taken from
the coUiery. Clearing the wood of wolves
(opposition to tyranny) is the basis of their
symbols.  By this, they are said to have
meant, at first, only deUverance from for-
eign dominion; but, in later times, demo-
cratical and  antimonarchical principles
have  sprang  up, which were  probably
discussed  chiefly among the higher de-
grees ofthe order.  They call one another
good cousins.   Those ofthe second degree 
514
CARBONARI—CARD.
are called Pythagoreans, and the oath  of
admission is, " Hatred to aU tyrants!"  Of
the third degree, whose  existence cannot
be doubted, little is  known.  There are
even traces of a fourth  degree.  A gen-
eral union of the order under a common
head  seems not to  have been effected.
The separate societies in the smaU towns
entered into a connexion with each other;
but this union extended no farther than the
province.   The place of assembly is call-
ed the  hut (baracca): the exterior parts are
called the wood; the interior of the  hut is
called the colliery (vendita). The confedera-
tion of all the huts of the  province is caUed
the republic, generally bearing the ancient
name of the province;  for instance, the
republic of  West Lucania, in Prindpato
Citra, which consisted of 182 huts, and
had its seat  at Salerno; the East Luca-
nian republic, in the province of BasiUca-
ta, chief seat at Potenza; the republics  of
Hirpinia,  Daunia, &c  The chief huts
(alta vendita) at  Naples  and at Salerno
endeavored  to effect a general union  of
the order, at least for the kingdom; but
the attempt appears to have been unsuc-
cessful.  To what degree, however, the
feelings of the nation were prepared for
the object, appears from  the fact, that the
order, soon after its foundation, contained
from 24,000 to 30,000 members, snd in-
creased so rapidly, that it spread through
aU Italy.  In 1820, in the month of March
alone,  about 650,000 new  members are
said to have been admitted.  Whole cities
joined  it; the little  town  Lanciano,  in
Abruzzo Citra, in March, 1814, contained
1200 armed members ofthe order.   The
terms of admission could not, of course,
have been difficult; even notorious rob-
bers became Carbonari  ; and the asser-
tion, that their admission effected an im-
mediate reformation of their life, will not
meet with much credit.   The clergy, and
the military, in particular, seem to  have
thronged  for admission.  The religious
character  of the order appears from  its
statutes: " Every carbonaro has the natu-
ral  and inalienable right to worship the
Almighty according to his own opinions
and the dictates of his conscience:" and
this spirit shows most clearly the impor-
tance of the order; for it is far more dif-
ficult to be  suppressed than the political
spirit, and indicates a more universal and
profound excitement    The  Carbonari
seem to have borrowed many forms from
the  freemasons, but did not,  probably,
originate from them.  Even in Italy, free-
masonry is considered distinct.  Besides
the Carbonari, several other secret  socie-
ties  have been formed—the  European
Patriots ; the Resolute (Decisi), at whose
head was a famous robber, Giro Annichi-
orico (formerly a clergyman), who,  in
1817, was taken prisoner and  executed
by general Church.   With him his troop,
consisting of a few members, was extin-
guished.  (On the tendency and die con-
stitution  of the  Carbonari,  during the
reign of Napoleon,  see  Hermes,  xix.)
After the suppression of the Neapolitan
and  Piedmontese revolution, in 1821, the
Carbonari, throughout Italy, were declared
guilty of high  treason, and  punished  as
such by the Taws.  Some interesting facts
concerning them are  contained in De
Wit's Fragments from  my  Life  and
Time (Brunswick, 1827);  but the book
is such  a mixture of presumption and
exaggeration, that it is of Utde value  to
any  reader  who is  not  sufficiently ac-
quainted with the poUtical affairs oi that
time to distinguish the false from the true.
The Carbonari  have  added one more  to
the attempts of Italy to realize a wish  as
old  as its misfortunes; that  is, to attain
deliverance from a foreign yoke, and  to
become  united  under one government
There has not  existed one ItaUan of tal-
ent, from Dante, who called his country
di dolor' ostello (mansion of  pain), down
to the latest times, poet or politician, who
has not lamented the divided state of his
country, and subscribed the sentiment of
Petrarca, Italia mia, benche  sia indarno,
&c.
  Carbonic Acid.  (See Carbon.)
  Carbonic Oxyde.  (See Carbon.)
  Carbuncle.   (See Garnet.)
  Carbuncle,  in surgery ;  a roundish,
hard, livid  and painful tumor,  quickly
tending to mortification, and (when it is
malignant) connected with extreme de-
bility of the constitution.   When this
complaint is symptomatic of the plague, a
pestilential bubo usuaUy attends it.   (See
Plague.)  The carbuncle is seated deeply,
in  parts  provided  with cellular mem-
brane, and therefore does not soon dis-
cover its whole dimensions, nor the ill
digested matter it contains.
  Carcass (in French, carcasse), in  mili-
tary language; an iron case filled  with
combustible materials, which is discharged
from a mortar, like a bomb.  There were
formerly two kinds,  oblong  and round
ones, but they are now out of use.—In
architecture, carcass  signifies the timber-
work of a house, before it is  either lathed
or plastered.
  Carcinoma.   (See Cancer.)
  Card.  Playing-cards are, probably, 
CARD—CARDAN.
515
an  invention  of the East, as appears
from the name  which  cards  originally
bore in Italy (naibi),  and still bear in
Spain and Portugal (naipes), which word,
in the Oriental languages, signifies divina-
tion  or prognostication.  If it  could be
Eroved that the Gipsies first made cards
 nown in Asia and Africa, this supposi-
tion would be placed  beyond doubt  It
is asserted, that the Arabs or Saracens
learned the use of cards from the Gipsies,
and spread the use of them in Europe.
The course that card-playing took, in its
diffusion through Europe, shows that it
must have come from the East, for it was
found in the eastern and southern coun-
tries before it was in  the western.  The
historical traces  of the  use of cards are
found  earUest in Italy,  then in Germa-
ny, France and  Spain.  The first cards
were painted, and the  Italian  cards of
1299 ore acknowledged to have been so.
The art of printing cards was discovered
by the Germans, between 1350 and 1360.
The Germans have, moreover, made ma-
ny changes in cards, both in the figures
and the names. The lanzknechtsspiel, which
is regarded as the first German game with
cards, is a Gernian invention. Of this game
we  find an imitation in  France, in 1392,
under the name of lansquenet, which con-
tinued to be played there till the time of
Moliere and  Regnard, and, perhaps, still
longer.  The first certain trace of card-
playing in France occurs in the year 1361,
and Charles  VI  is  said to have amused
himself with it during his sickness, at the
end of the 14th century.  The modern
French figures are said to have  been in-
vented in France between 1430 and 1461.
It has been said that cards were known in
Spain as early as 1332, but this opinion is
supported by no evidence.  The earUest
indication of card-playing in Spain is its
prohibition by the king of Castile, John
I, in 1387, when it must, consequently,
have been very prevalent.   One of the
best works on the different games at cards
is the weU-known treatise of Hoyle. (For
the  different games,  see the respective
articles.)
  Cardamom, small (cardamomum minus;
amomum cardamomum, Linnaeus); a per-
ennial plant growing in the East Indies.
The fruit is  used  as a stimulant  and
excitant. Triangular capsules, from four
to five lines  in  length,  of  a yellowish-
white, contain the seeds, which are of a
brown color, a pleasant, aromatic smell, a
worm, pepper-like taste, weaker, howev-
er, than that of the various peppers.  In
France, it is much less used than in Eng-
land and the U. States.—The great and
middle cardamoms ore furnished by other
species of amomum,  as  yet unobserved
and  undescribed.  They may be only
varieties of the preceding.  Theh proper-
ties are not so energetic.
  Cardan, or Cardano, Geronimo (Hie-
ronymus Cardanus).  This famous philos-
opher, physician and  mathematician was
born in 1501, at Pavia, and was educated,
from his fourth year, very carefully, in
the house of his father,  a  physician and
lawyer in Milan, distinguished for his
learning and integrity.  In his 20th year,
he went to Pavia to complete his studies;
and, after two  years, he  began  to ex-
plain  Euclid.   He  was,  subsequently,
professor of  mathematics  and medicine
in Milan.  He  then  returned to  Pavia,
again visited  Milan, taught, for some time,
at Bologna, and, meeting with some diffi-
culties  there, went  to Rome. Here he
was received  into the  medical college, and
was allowed a pension by the pope.  He
declined  the  invitations of the king of
Denmark, on account of the cUmate and
of the religion of that country. The lat-
ter reason for his refusal appears strange
from a man  who was accused of ineli-
gion; but his biographers  differ with re-
gard to his  religious opinions.  Contra-
dictory passages are cited from his works,
which cannot surprise us in one who was
lost in  cabalistic dreams and paradoxes,
and pretended to have a familiar demon
(dmmonfamUiaris), from whom he receiv-
ed warnings, &c  All  this excited the
theologians against him, who attacked his
orthodoxy, and even accused him of athe-
ism, but certainly without foundation.
The truth is, that Cardan  was supersti-
tious, but his  chimeras were in opposition
to the  reigning  superstitions of the age.
He  believed  so implicitly  in astrology,
that he drew  his own horoscope several
times, and ascribed the  falsehood  of his
predictions, not to the uncertainty of the
art, but to his own ignorance. His two
works, De SubtUitate  and  De  Rerum
Varietate,  contain the whole  of his nat-
ural philosophy and metaphysics, and
are curious as an instance of a strange
mixture of wisdom  and folly.  Cardan
wrote,  also, on medicine.   His writings
on this subject, amid much trash, contain
some sound ideas.  His  fame as a physi-
cian was  so  great, that the primate of
Scotland, who had been sick for 10 years,
and had consulted the physicians of the
king of France and  of the emperor of
Germany without success, invited him to
Scotland, and was restored to health by his 
516
CARDAN—CARDINAL  POINTS.
prescriptions.  His highest claims to the
gratitude of the learned rest on Iris math-
ematical discoveries.   Algebra,  which,
from the time of its origin, had been cul-
tivated  almost  exclusively  in  Italy, ex-
cited, at that time,  much rivalry among
the mathematicians, who carefully kept
their discoveries secret, in  order to tri-
umph over each other in their public dis-
putes.   Cardan, ft is said, was told that
Tartalea had discovered the  solution of
equations ofthe third degree, and obtain-
ed the secret from him  by stratagem and
under promise  of silence, but pubUshed
the method, in 1545, in  his Ars magna.
A violent dispute arose, which cannot
now be decided with  certainty.  The
honor of giving his name to the invention
has remained to him  who  first  made it
known,  and it  is still called the formula
of Cardan.   It is  universally believed
that Cardan discovered  some  new cases,
which were not comprehended in the rule
of Tartalea; that he discovered the multi-
plicity of the roots of the  higher equa-
tions, and, finaUy, the existence of nega-
tive roots, the use of which he did not,
however, understand.   His tranquillity
was disturbed, not only by the attacks of
his enemies, but also by his  own extrava-
gancies,  which are  related  in his  work
De Vita propria,  no doubt with much
exaggeration.  They are exposed with so
much frankness,  that  those  who  have
judged  him with indulgence have been
obliged  to suppose him subject to fits of
insanity.  He died, probably, in 1576, ac-
cording  to some  accounts,  by voluntary
starvation, that he might not survive the
year in which he  had predicted  that his
death would occur.  All his  works, to
the number of more than 50, are contain-
ed in the edition of Lyons, 1663,  in 10
vols., fol.
  Cardinal ; a clergyman of the Catho-
lic church, who has a right to a  vote in
the choice of the pope.  The cardinals
are next in dignity to the pope, enjoy the
rank of princes,  and,  since 1631, have
borne the title  of eminence.  The origin
of the dignity of cardinals  is  uncertain.
The name is derived from cardinalis (dis-
tinguished.)  The same name was given,
under the  emperor Theodosius, to the
highest civil officers in the state.  Till the
11th century,  the title  of  cardinal was
common to all clergymen  who  actually
officiated in any church.  From this time
the popes, having grown powerful, form-
ed a college, a secret council of ecclesias-
tics  of  high rank,  to whom, alone, the
title  of cardinal was soon reserved, by
way of eminence; and, under Alexander
III, in 1160, they obtained the exclusive
right of choosing  the  pope, with much
opposition, however, on the part of the
other Roman clergy, and much scandal.
Innocent IV (1243—1254)  gave them a
rank above the bishops, together with the
red hat, and Boniface VIII assigned to
them the  princely mantle.  Urban VIII
gave them the title eminence, instead of il-
lustrisrimi, which  they had enjoyed till
then.  With the pope, they form the sa-
cred college,  and are divided into three
ranks—14 cardinal-deacons, 50 cardinal-
priests, and 6 cardinal-bishops, who take
theh names from the ancient bishoprics
Ostia (to which is  added that of St. Ru-
tin),  Porto,  Sabina,  Palestrina,  Frascati,
and  Alba.  In  1526, their  number was
fixed at 70 by Sixtus V; but it  is by no
means necessary that this number should
be always full, and, in  modern  times, it
has generally not been so.   The number
of bishops only is always complete.  The
choice of the cardinals depends solely on
the pope.   He causes the names of those
appointed  to  be read in the  consistory,
with the formula " Fratres habebitis" (Ye
shall receive as brethren, &c).  The red
cardinal's  hat is sent to those elected, to
inform them of their  election.   Their
dress consists of a surplice, with a short
purple mantle, and a  small cap,  over
which they wear a hat, with silk strings
and tassels at  the end.  The color is either
red or violet  The prerogatives of cardi-
nals, in different countries, are different.
(For those which  they enjoy in France,
see the article  Cardinal in the  Diction-
naire de Theologie,  Toulouse, 1817.)  The
king of France  gives a cardinal the title
ofcoMsm.   A cardinal, sent to a prince in
a diplomatic character from the pope, is
called legatus a latere  or de latere. A
province, the governor of which is a car-
dinal, takes the  title of a legation.   The
income of the cardinals is, at present, not
large, and, compared to that of some of
the rich clergy in England, is small.   The
importance and authority ofthe cardinals
has, of course, sunk  very much  in  mod-
em times, Uke those of the other dignita-
ries  of the Catholic church, the  pope
himself included.  Formerly, they pre-
ceded the princes ofthe blood, sat at the
right of kings, on or near the throne, and
were considered equal to kings in rank.
(For  the manner  in which they choose
the pope, see Conclave.)
   Cardinal  Points ; the four  intersec-
tions of the horizon with  the  meridian
and  the prime vertical  circle.  They co- 
CARDINAL POINTS—CARIATL
517
incide with the four  cardinal regions of
the heavens, and  are, of course, 90° dis-
tant from each other.  The intermediate
points are called collateral points.
  Cardinal Virtues, or prinripal vir-
tues, in morals; a name  applied to those
virtues to which all the  rest are subordi-
nate, or which  comprehend all the others.
The distribution ofthe virtues, which lies
at the foundation  of  this notion, had its
origin in the old Grecian philosophy; and
the same number is  found here as in the
elements of nature.  These principal vir-
tues, as enumerated by  Plato,  are, pru-
dence, temperance, fortitude and justice.
The three first seem to relate to the duties
of  man  towards himself, and  to  cone-
spond with the triple division of the soul
into the intellectual, the irrational (the
seat of the sensual desires), and the seat
of the affections, which connects the two
first  Justice  either  relates to our duties
to others (God and men), or is the union
of the three first virtues. This division
appears to be peculiar to  the old Pythag-
oreans.   Aristotle divided them still fur-
ther.  The Stoics, too,  made the same
division in their  system of morals, and
Cicero introduced it into his Offices. Plo-
tinus and many New-Platonists divide the
virtues into four classes—civil or political,
philosophical or purifying, religious, and,
lastly, divine  or pattern virtues; a divis-
ion coinciding with the rest of his  philo-
sophical views.  The influence ofthe an-
cient philosophers has made the preced-
ing cardinal virtues  also a part  of  the
Christian code.  Some add to them  the
three Christian virtues,  so called—faith,
charity  and hope—and  call  the  former
philosophical.  The imagination of artists
has represented the cardinal virtues under
sensible images.  In modern times, this
division is regarded as useless in treating
of ethics; and, in order to judge of it cor-
rectly, we must form a just notion ofthe
idea which the ancients attached to the
words ipern and virtus (virtue).
  Carding ; a preparation of wool, cot-
ton, hair or flax, by passing it between
the iron points, or teeth, of two instru-
ments, called cards, to comb, disentangle
and anonge the hairs or fibres thereof for
spinning, &c.  Before the wool is carded,
it is smeared with oil, whereof one fourth
of the weight of the  wool is required for
wool destined for the woof of stuffs, and
one eighth for that ofthe warp.
  Careening  (in French, faire dbattre,
carener); heaving the vessel down on one
side, by applying a strong purchase to the
masts, so that the vessel may be cleansed
  vol. ii.          44
from any filth which adheres to it by
breaming.—A half careen takes place when
it is not possible to come at the bottom of
the ship ; so that only half of it can be ca-
reened.
  Carew, Thomas, an English poet,  sup-
posed to have been bom in 1589, was ed-
ucated at Corpus  Christi college, Oxford.
Cultivating polite  literature in the midst
of a life  of affluence and gayety, he was
the subject of much eulogy  to Ben Jon-
son, Davenant, and other  writers  of the
period.  He seems to have died in 1639,
having,  in the mean time, exhibited the
not unusual transformation of the courtly
and  libertine fine  gentleman  into  the re-
pentant devotee.   Carew is coupled with
Waller, as one of  the improvers of Eng-
lish versification.   It does not appear that
any edition of his poems was published
during his Ufe-time;  but  Oldys,  in his
notes on Langbaine, asserts that his  son-
nets were in more request  than those of
any poet of his time.  The  first collec-
tion  of his poems was printed in 1640,
12mo.; the last, in 1772.    His elegant
masque of Calum  Britannicum was print-
ed, both  in the early editions and sepa-
rately, in  1651, and  the whole are  now
included in Chalmers's British Poets.  Ca-
rew was much studied by Pope; and doc-
tor Percy also assisted to restore him to
a portion of the favor with  which  he has
lately been regarded.  Specimens both of
the sublime and  the pathetic may be
found in his works; the former in his ad-
mirable masque, and the latter in his epi-
taph on lady Mary Villiers.
  Cargillites ; a name of the sect more
generally known under the denomination
of Cameronians.   (q.  v.)
  Cariaco ; a seaport town in Colombia,
in the province of Cumana;  lon. 63° 39'
W.; lat. 10° 30' N.; population, 6500. It
is situated to the east of" the gulf of Cari-
aco, near the mouth of a river ofthe same
name, on a large plain, covered with plant-
ations.  The cUmate is very  hot,  the air
damp and unhealthy.  Its trade is in cot-
ton and sugar.  The gulf of Cariaco is 68
miles long, and 35 broad, from 80 to 100
fathoms deep, surrounded by  lofty moun-
tains, and the waters quiet.
  Cariati, prince, a NeapoUtan diploma-
tist, ofthe ancient family Fuscaldo, served
under Joseph  Bonaparte  and Joachim
Murat, in the marine  and in the army, in
the latter as field-marshal.  In March,
1815, together with the duke of Campo-
Chiaro, he negotiated, at the  congress of
Vienna, the acknowledgment of Joachim
Murat as  king of Naples.  Ferdinand 
518                      CARIATI—CARICATURE.
aUowed the prince to retain the rank of a
field-marshal, and, in 1820,  the govern-
ment intrusted him,  under the direction
of general Nugent, minister of war, with
the command of the troops  sent against
the rebels in the province of Avellino;
but he was  unsuccessful.  He was now
commissioned to declare  at  Paris,  and
afterwards at Laybach, the king's accept-
ance of the Spanish constitution; but he
was  refused an  audience.  He then left
his native country for England, where he
has since lived.
  Cariatides.   (See  Caryatides,  also
Architecture, volume  1,  page 340, near
the bottom.)
  Caribbean Sea ; that part ofthe Atlan-
tic ocean, which is bounded N. by the isl-
ands of Jamaica, St. Domingo, Porto Ri-
co, and the Virgin islands, E. by the Ca-
ribbean islands, S. by Colombia, and W.
by Guatimala.
   Caribbee Islands ;  the  West India
islands, so called, which lie in a line from
Anguilla N. to Tobago S., and form the
eastern boundary of the sea called  Carib-
bean sea.  The name has been  loosely
appUed to the whole of the  West India
islands, but is more particularly understood
of that archipelago  which hes  between
the  58th  and  63d° W.  Ion.,  and the
11th and 19th° N. lat The principal are
St Christopher's, Guadaloupe, Antigua,
Montserrat, Mariegalante, called  Leeward
islands (q. v.); Dominica, Martinico, St. Lu-
cia, St Vincent's, called Windward islands
(.q. v.); Grenada, Tobago, Barbadoes, &c
  Caribbee or St. Lucia Bark.   Under
the  general denomination of dnchona,
several barks have been comprehended
which are not the products of the  real
cinchona (q. v.], and which, in fact, nei-
ther contain cinchonia nor  quinia,  and
cannot, consequently, be substituted  as a
febrifuge for the true  species of cinchona.
One of the principal substitutes of this
kind is the  Caribbee or St.  Lucia bark,
which is procured from the exostema Ca-
ribaa (Persoon),  a tree growing in the
West Indies.  This  bark  is  in  convex
fragments, covered with a yellow epider-
mis,  commonly thin,  but sometimes hard
and spongy, with deep fissures, of a  yel-
low, red or  brown tint internally, of a
fibrous texture, offering here and there
small,  shining and crystalline points,  of a
very bitter taste, and  very faint smell.
  Caribbees ; the original inhabitants of
the Caribbee islands (q. v.), who, in con-
sequence of domestic broils, emigrated
from North America,  in the neighborhood
of Florida, to these islands, and to Guia-
na, in South America,  where they  live
independent, and  have  been  joined by
many  runaway  Negroes.   They often
engage in wars against the European  col-
onists.  They were almost entirely  ex-
pelled from the islands  in  the 18th cen-
tury.   On St. Vincent, there are only 100,
and on Dominica, only 30 families of red
Caribbees.   They  are of an olive-brown
color,  but  they paint  themselves with
arnotto,  as  a  defence  against  insects.
On the island of  St Vincent, there  are
black Caribbees, sprung from the inter-
course of black slaves and Caribbean wo-
men.  Their number amounts to 2000 fam-
ilies.  They are of a dark-brown  color,
and, notwithstanding all  the efforts of the
English, they maintain the  independence
of their quarter of the island. The  red
Caribbees are distinguished for their activ-
ity and courage.   They inhabit villages,
governed by an elective  chief, whom  the
Europeans  call captain.   They assemble
for battle at the sound of a  conch.  Next
to the Patagonians, they arc perhaps  the
most  robust nation with which  we  are
acquainted.   They devour the flesh of
their enemies with  great voracity.   Their
language, one of the most sonorous, and
one of the  softest  in the world, contains
nearly 30 dialects.
  Caribs.   (See the preceding article.)
  Caricature (from the Italian caricare,
to load, to overcharge ; charger, with  the
French).  A caricature  is  therefore an
exaggerated representation of the qualities
and peculiarities of an object; but in such
a way that the likeness is  preserved, or
even made more striking.  The effect of
such a representation need not be always
ridiculous;  it may  also be terrible. Ben
David says,  "A child of the usual size,
with the head  and arms of a giant,  is a
horrid caricature, whilst a large man, with
a diminutive nose, with a little mouth, and
a small voice, is a ridiculous one."  Con-
sidered  in reference to  the fine arts, ex-
ternal deformities,  which do not spring
from the fault of the persons afflicted, and
therefore excite compassion rather than
disgust, can never be the proper subjects
of caricature; for,  besides that the moral
sense is offended, the arts are not permit-
ted to ideaUze deformities, unless for  the
purpose  of imbodying and representing
character. Such corporeal disfigurements,
however, as arise from moral defects, and
all disagreeable pecuUarities  of  manner
and appearance  which  spring from  the
same cause, are fair subjects of caricature.
These caricatures are to  be  considered as
poetical representations of moral  and in- 
CARICATURE-CARILLONS.                    519
teUectual deformities, ofthe vices and fol-
lies of individuals, or of whole  classes,
sects, &c; as dramatic pictures, which ac-
quire interest from the moral views with
which they are composed by the painter,
and understood by the spectator.  With
this object, Leonardo da Vinci has drawn
his caricatures.  He represents the quar-
relsome, the  peevish,  the  braggart, the
slothful, the bloated glutton, the dissipated
rake, the awkward  clown, the laughing
fool, &c, all with fidelity, but with exag-
geration.   Caricatures may be tragic or
comic To the former belong illustrations
of moral depravity; to the latter, those of
intellectual deficiencies, arising from self-
neglect  They were in  use even among
the ancients, who had among their masks
a number of caricatures.   Hogarth (q. v.)
is an unrivalled master of caricature.  Le-
onardo da Vinci, Annibale Caracci, Ghez-
zi, Callot and Ramberg (q. v.) were also
distinguished in this branch of art.  The
political caricatures ofthe English are of
a striking and pecuUar kind, often exhib-
iting a greater sensibility for political lib-
erty than for dignity and  beauty, but
abounding in wit and bold humor.   Gil-
ray and Bunbuiy may be considered as
the chief masters in this kind of caricature.
The French  caricatures are rather exag-
gerated representations of Ufe than satiri-
cal ideals.   The Italians have too strong a
Bense for the beautiful to relish caricatures,
and the Germans are too grave to excel in
these  sportive productions.   Grose, in
London (1788), published  rules  for the
drawing of caricatures, with an essay on
comic painting;  and Malcolm, a Histori-
cal Sketch of the Art of Caricaturing, with
Graphic Illustrations (London, 1813, 4to).
   Carignano, Charles Amadeus  Albert,
prince of Savoy, was born Dec. 28,  1798,
and, in 1817, manied  Maria Theresa,
daughter of the grand-duke Ferdinand of
Tuscany, heir apparent to the crown of
Sardinia, as the king, Charles Felix Jo-
seph, had no male heir.  Until the insur-
rection of a part ofthe Sardinian army, in
the night  of March 11 and 12,1821, the
prince had taken no part in state affairs;
and, when he at length came forward, he
showed himself extremely irresolute, and
destitute alike of sound views and manly
character.  The  leaders of the insunec-
tion well knew how to make the prince,
who had no knowledge of the poUtical
condition of the state, approve the steps
ofthe insurgents, which he did by a pub-
Uc proclamation of March 12.  March 21,
the prince  travelled to Novara, without
giving instructions to the provisorial junta;
and  from Novara he proceeded, March
31,  to  the Austrian  head-quarters, and,
subsequently, to France, as  he was not
allowed to return to Turin.  In 1823, un-
der the duke of Angouleme, he made a
campaign in Spain, distinguished himself
somewhat before Cadiz, and, since 1824,
has lived again in Turin.  The founder
ofthe Une of Savoy-Carignan was Thom-
as  Francis,  youngest  son  of Charles
Emanuel I, duke of Savoy, who married
Maria de Bourbon, countess of Soissons,
in 1624.   This line  possesses consider-
able private estates,  both in France and
Piedmont.   The former remained entire
during the  period of the French revo-
lution, as the  duke  Charles Ferdinand
received  the rights of a French citizen.
There have sprung,  likewise,  from  this
house, the chevalier  de Savoy, a son of
count de Villafranca; Maria Louis (who
died in 1785), brother of the  grandfather
ofthe heir apparent, and Louisa Anna de
Mahon, wife ofthe count.  But this mar-
riage was never acknowledged  by  the
chief of the ruling house, as entitUng the
heirs of it to be regarded in the line of suc-
cession to the throne.  The possibility of
the succession ofthe house of Carignano,
even before the declaration ofthe congress
of Vienna, could not be contested;  but,
as the line  of Savoy-Carignano, for 200
years, had been confounded with the prin-
cipal  line, disputes might arise, whether
the new acquisitions ofthe latter, consist-
ing, among other places, of the duchy of
Montferrat,  the western  part  of Milan,
the island Sardinia,  and Genoa, would
not admit of a female  succession to the
last possessor of the  crown in the chief
line.  The succession was more involved,
from the circumstance that many parts of
Savoy and Piedmont had been undoubted
German fiefs; and it might be thought that
the possessor of the crown of the chief
line of this family could settle how they
should be disposed of, after the dissolution
ofthe German empire.  The experience
drawn from  history, how contests for suc-
cession to the thrones of Europe, after
the direct lines had become extinct, have
often involved  this continent in bloody
wars, induced the congress of Vienna to
put  an end to aU uncertainty, by a dis-
tinct acknowledgment ofthe right of suc-
cession in the house of Carignano, in  case
of a failure of male heirs in the principal
line.  The marriage ofthe prince of Ca-
rignano has already been blessed by the
birth of two princes.  (See Sardinian Mon-
archy.)
  Carillons.  (See  Chimes.) 
520
CARINTHIA—CARLIN.
  Carinthia ; a duchy of the Austrian
monarchy.  (See Austria.)
  Carissimi, Giacomo;  a famous ItaUan
musical composer  of the  17th  century.
He was bora at Padua, and was living as
late as 1672.   He wrote many oratorios,
cantatas and motets, and his contempora-
ries praised him for his characteristic ex-
pression of feeling, and his easy,  flowing
style.   He  deserves the most honor for
the improvement ofthe recitative, having
given  it a  more expressive and natural
language.   He wrote, also, it is said, the
first church cantatas.
  Carita (Italian, from the Latin caritas);
a name, in the fine arts, applied to the rep-
resentation of Christian love. It is exhib-
ited under the figure of a tender mother,
in the midst of her children, manifesting
her kindness and affection for them.  In
this way, for instance, Andrea del Sarto
has represented it in a  picture which
was formerly in the Napoleon museum.
A careful and tender mother, holding two
children, of  whom one lies  upon  her
breast, and the  other is refreshing itself
with sweet fruits, while a tiiird, on whom
her eyes are fixed, slumbers softly near
her, are the prominent parts of the picture.
This representation of loveUness and ten-
derness united  was  unknown to ancient
art.
   Carleton, sir  Guy,  lord Dorchester,
was born at Strabane, in Ireland, in 1724,
and, entering the army, became lieutenant-
colonel in the guards in 1748.  In 1758,
he accompanied  general   Amherst  to
America, where he distinguished himself
at the siege of Quebec.  He was promot-
ed to the rank of colonel in the  army in
1762,  and, at the siege of the Havannah,
signalized  himself by  his  bravery.  In
1772,  he was appointed governor  of Que-
bec, and created major-general.   By his
great  exertions, he saved  the  whole of
Canada, the capital  of which was besieged
by the American  generals Montgomery
and Arnold.  The  inhabitants joined the
British troops, and, after an obstinate re-
sistance, the  Americans were repulsed,
and Montgomery was kUled at the head of
his army.  In consequence of this exploit,
he was knighted, and, the next year, be-
came  a Ueu tenant-general.   In 1781, he
was appointed to succeed sir Henry Clin-
ton, as commander-in-chief in America,
where he remained until  the conclusion
ofthe war.  In 1786, he was again creat-
ed governor of Quebec,  Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick; and, as a reward for his
long services, was raised to the peerage,
by the title of lord Dorchester, of Dorches-
ter in the county of Oxford.  He died in
1808, aged 85.
  Carli (Giovanni Rinaldo), count, caUed
sometimes Carli-Rubbi, from the title of
his wife, was born in 1720,  at Capo d'Is-
tria, of an ancient noble family, and early
manifested an inclination for the study of
the middle ages, with which he connected
the study of belles-lettres and of poetry.
In his  21st year, the  senate of Venice
made him  professor of astronomy and
naval science.  On account of a ridicu-
lous  controversy  between  him  and  the
abbe Tartarotti, on witches and witchcraft,
he was accused of heresy.  Maffei put an
end to the controversy by his La Magia
Annihilata.  The  care which his  large
estates required compelled Carli to resign
his   professorship and retire  to Istria,
where he spent his time in the study of
antiquities, on which he has written some
valuable treatises.  He  was  afterwards
appointed,  by the emperor, president of
the highest commercial  court at Milan,
and, subsequently, president of  the col-
lege   of finance in the same city.   He
published his works, 1784—1794, com-
plete in 15 volumes, under  the title Op-
ere del  Sig. Commendatore  D. Gian. Ki-
naldo, Conte Carli, Presidente, &c; but,
in this  edition, his American letters are
not contained, which form a work of five
volumes.  He died in 1795.
  Carlin;  the  most  celebrated harle-
quin of the French stage.  Some writers
consider the word harlequin  as derived
from his name. He was born at Turin in
1713.  His  true name was Carlo Anto-
nio Bertinazzi, and Carlin is the  abbrevi -
ation of Carlino, the Italian diminutive of
Carlo.  In  1741,  he went to  Paris, took
part  in the Italian comedy there, and per-
formed, for 42 years, in the character of
harlequin, with constant applause.   Gol-
doni  praises him not only as one of the
best  comic actors, but also for his excel-
lent  manners and  elegant appearance in
society.  He enjoyed the greatest favor
with the parterre, and addressed the audi-
ence with a familiarity not allowed to any
other actor.  He was still more successful
in improvisation than in the performance
of written parts,  and  has performed  a
whole piece of five acts (Les vingts-six
Infortunes  d'Arlequin)  in  this   manner.
The union of mirth and benevolence, the
grace of his figure and manners, and the
respectability of his private  character,
made him so beloved, that it was said of
him,—
  Dans ses gestes, ses tons, c'est la nature mime,
  Sous la masque on t'admire, a ddcowxrt on I'aime. 
CARLIN—CARLOS.                         521
Many bon-mots and witty sayings by him
were long current in Paris.   The  mel-
ancholy temper of his  latter years form-
ed a remarkable contrast with his mirth
on the stage.  He was the author  of a
piece in five acts—Les nouvelles Metamor-
phoses d'Arlequin (1763).
  Carlisle (anciently, Luguvallium, and
Lugubalum);  a city of  England,  and
capital of Cumberland ;  300 miles N. of
London; lon.  2° 5(y  W.; lat. 54° 54'  N.
Population, 12,531.   It is a bishop's see.
It is surrounded with a wall, and defend-
ed  by a castle and  citadel.   The  wall
and citadel are in a ruinous state, but the
castle is kept in repair.  It contains two
churches, with several other places of re-
ligious worship.  It  sends two members
to parliament.   It is  situated at the  con-
flux of the rivers Eden, Peterell and  Can-
da,  which soon after fell  into the sea, in
Solway Frith.  The principal manufac-
tures  in  Carlisle are cotton-yarn, cotton
and  linen  checks,  gray  cottons, osna-
burgs,   coarse  linen,  drills, pocketing,
worsted shag, silk and cotton fancy pieces,
stamped  cottons, hats,  chamois and tan-
ned leather, linseys, nails, coarse knives,
stockings, dressed flax, soap, candles, nan-
keens and ropes.
  Carlisle ; a post-town and capital of
Cumberland county, Pennsylvania;  16
miles W. of Harrisburg, 114 W. Philadel-
phia;  lon.  77° W W.; lat. 40° 12f  N.
Population in 1820,2908.  It is pleasantly
situated,  regularly  laid out, built chiefly
of stone  and brick, and has considerable
trade.  It contains a court-house, a jail, a
market-house, and seven houses of pubUc
worship.—Dickinson college was founded
in this town, in 1783, and continued  a
respectable and flourishing  institution till
about 1816, when its operations were sus-
pended.  It has been  reorganized, and
its  operations were  resumed  in Janua-
ry,  1822.   The principal officers are  a
president and three professors.  There is
a grammar-school connected with  the
college.—In the United States  and  in
Canada, there are several other places
called Carlisle.
  Carlos, don; infante of Spain ; son of
Philip II and Maria of  Portugal; born at
Valladolid, 1545.  His  mother died  four
days after  his  birth.  He himself was
sickly ; and  one of his legs was shorter
than the other.  The extreme indulgence
with which he was  educated by Joan,
sister  of the king,  confirmed his violent,
obstinate and vindictive disposition.  In
1560, PhiUp caused him to be acknowl-
edged heir of the  throne by the estates
                  44*
assembled  at Toledo,  and, in  1562, he
sent him to the university of Alcala de
Henarez, in hopes that the study of the
sciences would soften his turbulent char-
acter.  An unlucky fall threw him into  a
burning fever,  and  the  physicians lost
all hopes of his recovery.  The king im-
mediately hastened  to  his son, and, as  it
was recollected that the prince had a very
great  veneration for St. Didacius,  who
was not yet canonized, Philip command-
ed the corpse ofthe saint to be brought in
a procession.  It was laid upon the bed
ofthe sick prince, and his hot face cover-
ed with the cold shroud.  He fell asleep:
when he awoke, the fever had left him:
he  demanded food, and recovered.   AU
believed a miracle had been wrought, and
Philip requested the  canonization  of Di-
dacius.   Contemporary historians  differ
in the description of the prince.  Accord-
ing to some, he had a thirst for glory, an
elevated  courage, pride,  and a love of
power.  According to others, he was fond
of whatever was strange and uncommon;
an accident or opposition irritated him to
frenzy ; address and submission softened
him.  He is also represented as a favorer
of the insurgents in the Netherlands, and,
in particular, as an enemy of the inquisi-
tion ;  yet he possessed neither knowledge
nor principles, nor even sufficient under-
standing  to  be  capable of liberal  views.
With  him, all was passionate excitement,
which resistance  converted  into  fury.
Llorente  has corrected the accounts of
the character and fate of this prince, from
authentic  sources, in  his work  on the
Spanish Inquisition, (q. v.)  According to
him, don Carlos was anogant, brutal, ig-
norant and Ul-educated.  Thus much is
certain, that, at the congress  of chateau
Cambresis  (1559),  the marriage of don
Carlos with Elizabeth, daughter of Hen-
ry II of France, was proposed; but Philip,
being left a widower  by  the  death of
Mary  of England, took the place  of his
son.  Don  Carlos is said to have loved
Elizabeth, and to have never forgiven his
father  for having deprived him of her.
Llorente proves, however, that don Carlos
never had fallen in love with the queen,
and  that  she  was  never  too  intimate
with him.   In 1563, PhiUp, who had no
other  heir than don Carlos, considering
him  unfit for the throne,  sent for  his
nephews,  the  archdukes Rodolph  and
Ernestus, to secure  to  them the succes-
sion to his dominions.  Don Carlos, who
lived in continual misunderstanding with
his  father, resolved, in 1565, to leave
Spain, and was on the  point of embark- 
522
CARLOS.
ing, when Ruy Gomez de Silva, a confi-
dant both of Philip and Carlos, dissuaded
him  from his resolution.  In 1567, when
the rebeUion in  the Low Countries dis-
quieted PhiUp, don Carlos wrote to sev-
eral grandees ofthe kingdom, that he had
the intention of going to Germany.  He
disclosed his plan to his uncle, don Juan
of Austria, who  mildly dissuaded him
from it, and represented to  him, that most
of the grandees to whom he had written
would not omit to inform the king.  This
was, in fact, done ; and, indeed, don Juan
himself told Philip what don Carlos had
confided  to him.  It is befieved that he
was touched by the sufferings of the peo-
ple of the Netherlands; that he had been
invited by them to place himself at their
head, and that this plan,  from  its bold
and extravagant character, had gained his
approbation.  Philip  himself seemed to
believe that his son intended to go to the
Netherlands.  The baron Montigny lost
his head on this  account   The infante
had often shown a vehement desire to par-
ticipate in the government.  But PhUip,
jealous of his own authority, treated his
son cooUy  and with reserve, whilst  he
gave his confidence to the duke  of Alva,
to Ruy Gomez de  SUva,,don  Juan  of
Austria, and Spinola.  Don Carlos con-
ceived an invincible aversion  to them.
He could not bear that Alva should have
received  the  government  of Flanders,
which he had requested for himself.  The
architect of the Escurial, Louis  de Foix,
gives the fofiowing facts relating to don
Carlos, which have been preserved to us
by De Thou.  The prince had always
under  his pillow two naked swords, two
loaded pistols, and, at the side of his bed,
several guns, and a chest full of other fire-
arms.  He was often  heard to complain,
that  his father had deprived him of his
bride.  On Christmas evening,  he  con-
fessed to a priest that he had resolved to
murder a man.   The priest, therefore,
refused him absolution.   The prior ofthe
monastery of Atocha artfully drew from
him  expressions, from which it could be
infened that he  meditated  an  attempt
upon his  own father.   The  confession
was then communicated to  the king, who
exclaimed,  "I am the man whom my
son intends to murder; but I shall take
measures to prevent it"  Thus  PhiUp, a
jealous husband, a gloomy and  suspi-
cious king, and an unfortunate father, im-
pelled by hatred or fear,  by poUcy or
superstition, resolved on the destruction
of his only son, in whom he saw only a
criminal, unworthy of the crown.  On
the night of Jan.  18, 1568, while don
Carlos was buried in a deep sleep, count
Lerma entered his chamber, and removed
his arms.  Then appeared the king, pre-
ceded by Ruy Gomez of Silva, the duke
of Feria, the grand  prior of the order of
St. John, brother ofthe duke of Alva, and
several  officers of the guard, and  state
counsellors.  Don Carlos still slept They
awaked him: he beheld the king, his fa-
ther, and exclaimed, " I am a dead man."
Then, addressing PhUip, he said, " Does
your majesty wish to  kill me ?  I am not
mad, but  reduced to  despair by my suf-
ferings."  He conjured, with tears, those
who were present to put him to death.
" I am not come," answered the king, " to
put you to death, but to punish you as a
father, and to bring you  back to  your
duty."   He then commanded him to rise,
deprived him of his  domestics, ordered a
box of papers under his bed to be seized,
and committed him to the care of the
duke of Feria and six noblemen, enjoin-
ing them not to permit him to write, nor
to speak with any  one.   These guards
clothed don Carlos in  a mourning dress,
took from his chamber the tapestry, the
furniture, and even his bed, leaving  him
nothing but a mattress.  Don Carlos, full
of rage and despair,  caused a large fire tu
be kindled, under pretext of the extreme
cold of the winter, and threw himself
suddenly into the flames, for the purpose
of suffocating himself.   It was with diffi-
culty that he was rescued.   He attempt-
ed, by turns, to finish his life by thirst, by
hunger, by eating to excess; he also at-
tempted to choke himself, by swallowing
a diamond.  After Philip had endeavored
to justify his measures to  the pope, and
the principal sovereigns of Europe,  and
had also  given notice to the superior
clergy, to the courts  of justice, and to the
cities of his  empire, of what had passed,
he referred the case  of the prince, not to
the inquisition, but to the council of state,
under the  direction of cardinal Espinosa,
who was state counseUor, grand inquisi-
tor, and president of the junta of Castile.
This court is said, after a minute exami-
nation, and hearing many witnesses, to
have condemned him to death.  But it is
a mistake to suppose that the sentence
was executed by means of a poisoned
soup, or that his arteries were opened in
a bath, or  that he was  strangled.  Fene-
ras and other Spanish historians report,
that he died of a maUgnant fever, after
having taken the  sacrament with much
devotion,  and  having asked his father's
pardon.  According to Llorente, the king 
CARLOS—CARLSBAD.                        523
Bigned, March 2, the judicial order for the
formal arrest of the prince, for whom the
pope, and all the  princes to whom Philip
had  written, in particular the  emperor
Maximilian II, had interposed in  vain.
The execution of the order of imprison-
ment was committed,  by Philip, to Ruy
Gomez de  Silva,  prince of Evoli.  The
prince displayed all the violence of his
passionate disposition.  He obstinately re-
fused to confess, lived inegularly, and his
fury inflamed his blood to such a degree,
that even ice-water, wlrich he used doily,
could not  refresh him.   He ordered a
great quantity of ice to be laid round his
bed, went  naked and barefoot upon the
stone floor, and, for 11 days in June, took
no food but ice.   The king  then visited
him, and addressed to him some words
of consolation; after  which, the prince
eat to great excess.  This brought  on a
malignant fever.   Meanwhile, don Diego
Bribiesca de Mugnatones, member of the
council  of Castile, conducted the  trial.
The prince had not the sUghtest official
notice of it  In July, Mugnatones drew
up a report to the king, from  the testimo-
ny of the witnesses, and from the papers
of" the prince, which had been seized,
stating that don Carlos was guilty of trea-
son, in having  plotted  against the life of
his  father,  and in having attempted to
make himself master of the  government
of Elanders by a civil war; but that  it
must depend  on the  king whether  he
would have the infante judged according
to the common  laws  of the kingdom.
PhiUp declared that,  as king, his con-
science did not permit him to make any
exception from the laws in  favor of a
prince who had  shown himself so un-
worthy of the  throne.   He believed that
the recovery of  the prince's  health was
not to be expected; and that, therefore,
he  ought to be  permitted to take  food
without any restraint, which would cause
his  death;  that  he ought, however, to
be convinced, that his  death  was inevita-
ble, in order to induce him to  confess, and
secure his eternal welfare.  The judicial
records make no mention of this resolu-
tion of the king;  no judgment was writ-
ten or signed; and the secretary Pedro del
Hoyo observes, in a note, " that the judi-
cial process had proceeded thus fer, when
the prince was canied off by sickness, and
that, therefore, no judgment was render-
ed."  With this  the written  accounts of
other persons, who were employed in the
palace of the king, agree. In consequence
of the declaration ofthe king, the cardinal
Espinosa and the prince of Evoli thought
it  advisable to leave  the death of the
prince to the progress ofthe disease.  To
the physician of the king, OUvarez, who
had the care of the prince, this purpose
of the prince of EvoU was  communi-
cated.  On the 20th of July, he adminis-
tered  a medicine to  the  patient,  after
which the  disease appeared to become
fatal,  and advised the infante to prepare
himself for his  approaching  death  by
taking the  sacrament.  This don Carlos
did, July 21,  and asked pardon of the
king,  his father, through his  confessor.
PhiUp granted it, and also his blessing.
Upon this, don Carlos received  the sacra-
ment, and made his will.   The struggle
lasted during the 22d and  23d of July.
The prince listened,  during  that time.
with calmness, to the prayers of the cler-
gyman.  On the night of the 23d, the
king visited him, gave  him his blessing,
without being recognised by the prince,
and withdrew weeping. Soon afterwards,
at 4 o'clock in the morning ofthe 24th of
July, 1568,  don Carlos expired.  He was
buried, as became his rank, yet without
any funeral sermon, in the convent ofthe
Dominican  nuns, El  Real,  at Madrid.—
The virtuous queen  Elizabeth  died, Oct
23 ofthe same year, in child-bed, and not
by poison,  as the enemies  of Philip as-
serted.  Philip II, in  1592, ordered the
judicial acts to be locked in  a box, and to
be deposited in the royal archives at Si-
mancas.  The  melancholy fate  of don
Carlos has served as a subject for several
tragedies—those  of SchiUer, Alfieri, Ot-
way and Campistron.
  Carlovitza, or Carlowitz, or Kar-
lowitz ; a town of Austrian  Sclavonia,
on  the Danube ; 7 miles S.  E.  Peterwar-
dein ;  population, 5800.  It is the see of
a Greek  archbishop.   Here is a Greek
gymnasium, which had, in 1817,164 stu-
dents.  This town is remarkable for a
peace concluded  here, in 1699, between
the emperor of Germany, Poland, Russia,
Venice and the  Turks, by the  mediation
of England and Holland.   By the terms
of this peace, the emperor Leopold I re-
ceived Siebenburgen and Sclavonia;  Po-
land received back Kaminiec, Podolia and
the Ukraine ;  Venice retained the con-
quered Morea ;  Russia,  Azoph.   (See
Austria and Ottoman Empire.)
  Carlsbad, in  the  kingdom  of Bohe-
mia, one of the most  famous  watering-
places in the world, is situated  in a deep,
narrow valley of the  river Tepel.   It is
said that Charles IV discovered  the warm
springs here, in 1358, during a chase.
Peter  Baier, his  physician, directed him 
524
CARLSBAD—CARLSTADT.
to use them, to obtain reUef for a disorder
of his foot  The appUcation proved most
effectual; and,  in  consequence  of  this,
the emperor is related to have built a cas-
tle  here;  and houses gradually accumu-
lated round it.  Carlsbad signifies, in Ger-
man, Charles' bath.  The town has 450
houses,  with 2510  inhabitants.  Ample
provision has been made for the amuse-
ment  of the visitors of this place.  Fine
buildings have been erected, and beautiful
promenades laid out. A great number of
strangers  are attracted  here every year.
(See Mineral Waters.)   Carlsbad is also
known on account of the
   Congress  of  Carlsbad. This congress
was only  for Germany, and is to be con-
sidered as one of the many consequences
of the increase  of a liberal spirit in the
German nation, and the unwillingness of
the monarchs to keep  their promises re-
specting hberal institutions.   The final
act of this congress was closed May 15,
lo20,  and made a  law of the German
confederation on July 2.  The object of
the congress, according to  its own  re-
solves, was, to decide upon  measures for
the safety and internal order of Germany.
Laws were passed for  the establishment
of a stricter police in  the  universities,
which, since that time, have been brought
into closer contact with the governments,
and officers have been appointed to watch
over the conduct of the students.  Peri-
odical works, and such as contain  less
than 20 sheets, were put, for five years,
under a severe censorship;  and  the diet
was to  have the right to suppress any
books which disturbed the peace or at-
tacked the dignity of any member of the
confederation, or tended so to do.   For
the detection and prosecution of secret po-
litical societies throughout Germany, and
the checking of " demagogic tendencies," a
central police-commission was organized.
The congress, moreover, complained of
dangerous theories eveiy day becoming
more and  more widely spread, &c
  Carlscrona, or Carlscroon ; a sea-
port of Sweden, capital of the province
of Blekingen, or Carlscrona; lon. 15° 33'
E.; lat.  56° 17' N.: population in 1810,
10,639;  in 1815,  11,860.  The greatest
part stands  upon a small, rocky island,
which rises gently in a bay of the Baltic.
The suburbs extend over another small
rock, and along the mole close to the ba-
sin, where the fleet is moored.   It  is
adorned  with  one  or two handsome
churches, and a few tolerable houses of
brick; but the  buildings in  general are
of wood.  The suburbs are  fortified, to-
wards  the  land, by  a stone  wall.  The
entrance into the harbor, which, by na-
ture, is extremely difficult, from a number
of shoals and rocky islands, is still further
secured from the  attack of an enemy's
fleet by  two strong forts, built on two
islands, under the  batteries of which all
vessels must pass.  The harbor is large
and  commodious,  with depth  of water
sufficient for ships  of the first rate.  The
exports ore timber, tar, potash, tallow and
marble.  Carlscrona is the principal de-
pot ofthe Swedish navy.
  Carlsruhe  (German,  which means
the rest of  Charles),  the  capital  of the
grand-duchy of Baden, was  laid out in
1715, and is one of the most regularly-
built towns in Europe.  The castle ofthe
grand-duke  stands in the centre  of the
city, from which nine streets run at regu-
lar distances from  each other, to the cir-
cumference  of a circle enclosing the area
of the  city, and  thus  forming  a  star.
Other  streets intersect these in parallel
circles.  The roads leading to the city
conespond  to this regular  disposition,
which, as is  often the case in strictly reg-
ular cities, often leaves upon the traveller
the impression of monotony, rather  than
that  of agreeable order.   The city  con-
tains 17,232 inhabitants and 1170 houses.
It is ornamented with several  beautiful
public buildings.  The court library  con-
tains 70,000  volumes; the  botanical  gar-
den,  6000 species  of plants.  There are
also  here several valuable museums and
cabinets, several  institutions for the  pro-
motion of literature and the fine arts, one
for the deaf and  dumb, and some manu-
factories.  Lon. 20° 4a7 E.; lat. 49° N.
  Carlstadt (so called from his native
town, Carlstadt, in  Franconia; his proper
name was Andrew  Bodenstdn) is cele-
brated, in the histoiy of the reformation,
for his fanaticism as well  as  his misfor-
tunes.  He was professor  of  theology at
Wittenberg.   His  learning enabled  him
to render great support to Luther in his
first steps for the introduction of a refor-
mation.  In 1520, he was included in the
bull  which condemned Luther; and his
spirited appeal from  the pope to  a  gen-
eral councU, of which he gave the  first
example, as well as his opinion, openly
expressed, in favor of the marriage ofthe
priesthood, which  soon gained ground,
was  among the  many proofs which he
gave of his zeal  for the reformation.
Whilst Luther  was at Wartburg, Carl-
stodt's zeal urged him to acts of violence.
He even instigated the  people  and  stu-
dents to the destruction of the altars and 
CARLSTADT—CARMEL.
525
the images of the saints, greatly  to the
displeasure of Luther, who lost the friend-
ship of Carlstadt by his opposition to his
outrages.  In 1524, he declared himself
publicly the opponent of Luther, who had
preached at Jena against the disturbances
which he had excited, so that the elector
Frederic banished him from the country,
in September, 1524. Carlstadt, upon this,
commenced the controversy  respecting
the sacrament, denying, in opposition to
Luther, the bodily presence of Christ in
the sacrament.   This controversy  was
carried on with the bitterest animosity;
and, Zwinglius having declared himself
in favor of Carlstadt's doctrine, a dispute
commenced between the Swiss and Wit-
tenberg theologians, which ended  in the
separation of the  Calvinists and Luther-
ans. Carlstadt, in the mean time, being
suspected, not without reason,  of having
taken part in the revolt ofthe peasants in
Franconia, was obliged to wander through
Germany, and, being  ultimately reduced
to extreme distress, sought  relief of Lu-
ther, who procured  him  an asylum at
Kemberg, on condition that  he  should
refrain  from the  expression of his opin-
ions.  Here  he lived nearly three years.
His restless mind, however, soon led him
to break his promise,  by the publication
of some writings, in  1528; and he even
went so  far as to plot against Luther's
person.   To escape  from  the  conse-
quences of his conduct,  he repaired to
Switzerland, at the end of the same year,
where he was appointed vicar of Altstadt,
hi the valley of the Rhine;  in 1530, dea-
con at Zurich, and, in 1531, vicar  and
professor of theology at Basle, where he
died in 1541 or 1543.
   Carmagnole ;  a name appUed, in the
early times of the French republic, to a
dance,  and  a song  connected with it.
The appellation originated, probably, from
the city of Carmagnola, in Piedmont The
dance was first used  at the time  of the
indignation ofthe people on account ofthe
veto aUowed to the king on the resolves
of the  national assembly.  The carmag-
nole was commonly sung and  danced at
popular festivals, executions, and erup-
tions of popular discontent.  Afterwards
the name was also appUed to the national
guards, who wore a  dress of a peculiar
cut,  and to the enthusiastic  supporters
of the  revolution.  Several members of
the national convention,—Barrere, for in-
stance,—by way of jest, gave this name to
their communications  to the assembly.—
Petits carmagnoles is a name given, by the
people in Paris, to boys who sweep chim-
neys and black boots, chiefly Savoyards;
probably taken from the name of the city
before mentioned.
  Carmel ; a mountain in Palestine, con-
stituting part of Lebanon, on the southern
frontier of  GaUlee,  in the pachalic of
Acca.  It consists of several rich, woody
heights, separated by fertile and habitable
valleys, within a circuit of about 28 miles,
and terminates, at the mouth of the Kis-
chen, in a lovely plain, which forms  the
southern coast ofthe gulf of Ptolemois or
Acca, on the Meditenanean.   Upon dif-
ferent parts of this  mountain there  are
ruins of churches and  monasteries from
the time of the Christian kingdom of Je-
rusalem, and the cave which, according
to tradition, was inhabited by die prophet
EUas.  From the 4th  century, Christian
hermits have  chosen mount Carmel for
their  abode.  It was not,  however, till
about the middle of the 12th century, that
pilgrims, under the direction of Berthold
of Calabria, established an association for
the purpose of  leading a  secluded  life
upon this  mountain, which received its
rules from Albert, the patriarch of Jeru-
salem, in  1209, and the papal confirma-
tion from Honorius HI, in  1224.  Their
rules coincide nearly with  those  of the
ancient Basilians.  This is the origin of
the order of Our  Lady of mount CarmeE
The Carmelites  enumerate among their
members all the prophets and holy men
mentioned in the Scriptures, from Elias to
Jesus; also Pythagoras, the Gallic Dru-
ids, the holy women of the New Testa-
ment,  and the hermits of Christian  an-
tiquity.  Christ  they  consider as their
particular protector, and his  aposdes a*
missionaries from mount Carmel.   The
Jesuit Papebroch has shown how utterly
unfounded their pretensions are, and no
well-informed man beUeves their account
of their origin.  Yet they were allowed,
as late as in the 18th century, by Benedict
III,  to erect the statue of the prophet
Elias, as the founder of their order, in St.
Peter's church in Rome.  Being  driven
by the Saracens to Europe, they adopted,
in 1247, a milder  rule,  and  the forms of
monastic life.  They also became divided
into four independent bodies:—1. the ob-
servantes, who wore shoes; 2. the con-
gregation of Mantua;  3. the bare-footed
friars, and bare-footed or Theresian nuns,
in Spain;  4. the  bare-footed friars in
Italy.  The two latter classes observe the
elder and stricter  rule.  The knightly or-
der of Our Lady of mount Carmel, estab-
Ushed by Henry IV in France, is con-
nected with the  CarmeUtes only by  the 
526
CARMEL—CARNEADES.
name.   As theh mode of life  precludes
all useful exertion, governments, in mod-
ern times, have taken measures to prevent
the extension of their order, and the ad-
mission of novices  has been forbidden,
except in  Spain,  Portugal and America.
In Paris,  a nunnery  of this order was
established in 1817, under the royal pro-
tection.
  Carmer (John Henry Casimir) count
of; high chancellor  and minister of jus-
tice in  Prussia.  He rendered the  great-
est service to Prussian jurisprudence by
the assistance which  he afforded in the
preparation of the Prussian code, and stiU
more by the improvements which  he in-
troduced into the  civil process of that
country.  (See Prussian Code.)  He was
born in 1721, entered the Prussian service
early, and  was soon noticed  by Frederic
the Great  After 50 years' service, he re-
tired from official  life, and died, in 1801,
near Glogau, in Silesia.
  Carmine, the most splendid of all the
red colors, is made from the cochineal in-
sect, or coccus cacti.  It is deposited from
a decoction  of powdered cochineal in
water,  to which alum,  carbonate of soda,
or oxyde of tin, is added.   As the beauty
of this  valuable  color is affected, not only
by the  mode of applying it,  but also by
the quantity of the  ingredients  mixed
with it, we find various recipes for the
preparation  of it.  The  manufactories
which  prepare the best carmine carefully
conceal the method.   The best natural
cochineal is found in Mexico.
  Carmontelle,  a  French poet, known
by his Proverbes  dramatiques (10 vols.),
bom in 1717, at Paris, died  there  1806.
These  Uttle pieces are without much con-
nexion in themselves, being, in feet, only
a series of dramatic scenes, but are well
adapted for private theatres.  The  fertili-
ty of Carmontelle was  as extraordinary as
his ease in writing.  He is said to have
left, besides  his printed works and his
pieces  for the theatre,  more than a hun-
dred volumes of manuscripts.
  Carnatic ; a country in Hindostan, ly-
ing along the coast of Coromandel, from
cape Comorin, in  lat. 8°, to 16° N.; 500
miles  in length, and from 40  to 100 in
breadth.  The Carnatic or Caraada, an-
ciendy called Narasinha, in early periods,
was subject to the king of Bisnagar. Since
the year 1787, the whole country has been
under  the authority or absolute control
ofthe EngUsh East India company. The
soil is generaUy sandy, and the climate is
one ofthe  hottest in India.   The country
ofOngole,  Mudura  and TineveUy is in-
cluded  in  the Carnatic.   The  principal
towns are Arcot, Madras, Ongole, Pondi-
cherry, Cuddolore, Tanjore, Tritchinopo-
ly, Madura and  TineveUy.  The princi-
pal rivers are the Pennar, the PoUor and
the Cauvery.
  Carnation (from the Latin caro, car-
nis, flesh) signifies, in  the fine arts,  the
coloring of the flesh of the human body.
The use of  carnation  requires very at-
tentive study, and great  skill in the art-
ist.  It varies with the sex ofthe individ-
ual,  with the classes  and countries  to
which the  subjects belong, with die pas-
sions, the state of the  health, &c   The
cheeks are, in a healthy subject, of a Uve-
ly red; the breast, neck,  and  upper part
of the arms of a soft white; the  belly yel-
lowish.   At the extremities, the color be-
comes colder, and, at the joints, assumes
a violet tint, on account of the  transpar-
ent appearance of the  blood.  All these
shades require to be softly blended.  Two
faults in carnation are chiefly to be avoid-
ed—hardness, the fault  of the masters of
the 15th centuiy, and too great weakness.
Guido Reni not unfrequently painted his
flesh so that it appeared almost bloodless.
The French  school has gone furthest in
this respect  The flesh of the  followers
of this school often looks like porcelain
or wax.   Titian  is still unrivalled in car-
nation.
  Carneades, an eminent Greek philoso-
pher, founder of the third  or new acade-
my, was a native of Cyrene, in Africa, and
is supposed to have been born in the third
year of the  141st Olympiad.  He studied
first under Diogenes the Stoic, but subse-
quently attended  the lectures of Egesinus,
who explained the doctrines of Arcesi-
laus; and, succeeding his master in  the
chair of the academy, he restored its rep-
utation by  softening the  prevailing pyr-
rhonism, and admitting practical proba-
bilities.   The doctrine of Carneades spe-
cifically was, that, "as  the  senses,  the
understanding and the imagination fre-
quently  deceive  us, they cannot be  the
infallible judges  of truth, but that from
the impression  made  by  the senses  we
infer appearances  of truth, which, with
respect to the conduct of life, are a suffi-
cient guide."  He was a strenuous op-
poser of  Chrysippus, and  attacked, with
great vigor, the system of theology ofthe
Stoics.  He was an advocate  of free-will
against the fate of the same sect, and
urged just the same difficulties in recon-
ciling divine prescience with the freedom
of human actions,  as have divided some
contending sects of Christianity.  One of 
CARNEADES—CARNIVAL.                     527
the most distinguished  events of his life
was his  being joined in an embassy to
Rome  with Diogenes the Stoic and Cri-
tolaus the Peripatetic, in order to gain the
mitigation of a fine levied by the Roman
senate  on the Athenians.  This extraor-
dinary embassy was  successful, and Car-
neades so captivated the people  by his
eloquence, that Cato the censor,  fearful
of its effect  on  the  Roman youth, per-
suaded the  senate to send the philoso-
phers back to their schools without delay.
C. died in the ninetieth year of his age,
continually complaining of the  shortness
of life, and lamenting that the same na-
ture which composed the human  frame
could dissolve it.
  Carnelian.  (See Quartz.)
  Carniola ; a duchy in  the Austrian
dominions.   (See Austria,  vol. i.,  page
493.)
  Carnival.   The  same  views  which
led men  to propitiate the higher invisible
powers by gifts, sacrifices  and purifica-
tions,  also introduced  fasts, abstinence
from pleasure, and penances.  By fast is
meant an abstinence   from the  usual
means of nourishment, in order to morti-
fy the appetites, and thereby to propitiate
the  Deity.  In every nation of  impor-
tance,  customs of this  kind are  found.
Their historical origin is in the religious
customs  of the  East, where the  priests
were originaUy the physicians of the peo-
ple,  and  prescribed these fasts  as a pan
of the regimen  necessary in this  warm
region, as  well as from reUgious views.
Fasts are observed to this day in the East.
The religions ofthe Persians and the Hin-
doos, those of Mohammed and Moses, and
of  the worshippers  of the Lama, insist
much on fasts.   Few traces of them are
found in the religion of the ancient people
of  the North.   The  earliest  Christians
fasted on the vigils, (q. v.)  The fasts on
the jejunia quatuor  tempestatum,  which
continued for three days every quarter of
the year, were penances, as was that of
the period of 40 days (before Easter, or
rather before Good  Friday, Quadrigeri-
maz), which was called, by way of excel-
lence, the fast, and which commemorated
the 40 days' fast of Jesus in the wilder-
ness.  With regard to the origin of fasts,
opinions  differ.  The  most common is,
that Telesphorus, bishop of Rome, in the
middle of the 2d century, first  instituted
the 40 days' fast as a rale of the church.
By pope  Gregory the Great, about 600,
Ash-Wednesday was made the beginning
ofthe fast, and the day before was called
fast-eve, because in the night of this day, at
12 o'clock, the fast began.  This fast was
preceded by a feast of three days, very ob-
noxious to the strict zealots. " Christians,"
it is said," on these days, deliver themselves
up to voluntary madness, put on masks,
exchange sexes, clothe themselves like
spectres,  give themselves up  to  Bacchus
and Venus, and consider all  pleasure al-
lowable." This is the origin of the pres-
ent carnival, or Faschings, as it is called in
the south of Germany, and which contin-
ues, in that country, from Twelfth-day to
Ash-Wednesday.  The name carnival is
derived from the Latin words came and
vale (according to Ducange, from the Latin
denomination of the feast in the middle
ages, came levamen), because at that time
people took leave of flesh.  Previously to
the commencement of their long  absti-
nence, men devoted themselves to enjoy-
ment, particularly during the three last
days of  the carnival.   The  carnival is
nothing but the Saturnalia of the Chris-
tian Romans, who could not forget theh
pagan festivals.  At least it greatly resem-
bles the Saturnalia, which were celebrat-
ed, annually, in December, with all kinds
of mirth, pleasure and freedom,  in honor
of Saturn, and the golden age when he
governed the world, and to  preserve the
remembrance of the Uberty and equality
of man in the youth of the world.  In
Rome, the carnival brought to view, in a
lively manner,  the  old  Saturnalia in a
new form.  During  the last  days of the
carnival,  and particularly during the day
which preceded the  long fast, mumme-
ries, plays, tricks, and freedom of  every
kind,  abounded.  From Italy, the  mod-
ern Saturnalia passed to the other Chris-
tian countries of Europe.  In the amuse-
ments  of this period the dramatic poetry
of Germany had its origin, after the cities
had attained a flourishing condition.  Its
first traces appeared in the 13th century.
The mummeries of the carnival produced
the idea of adopting some character, and
carrying it through.   To please the mul-
titude, and make the  laugh more certain,
the manners of common life were carica-
tured.  These exhibitions afterwards be-
came   more cultivated  and  developed.
" On fast-eve," says Flogel, in his History
of Comic Literature, vol. 4, p. 292, " per-
sons in disguise sometimes went from
one house to another, to make sport with
their friends and acquaintances.   A mer-
ry society of this kind formed a plan to
represent some scene in their disguises,
and hold  a regular conversation at one of
these mummeries.  The unknown  play-
ers received praises,  entertainments or 
528
CARNIVAL—CARNOT.
presents.  Encouraged by  this success,
the company grew stronger, their fables
and speeches became longer by degrees,
until they attained to regular representa-
tions of human life." It was in Nurem-
berg, renowned for  its wares and its wit,
that  the first fast-eve's play was pro-
duced, coarse and frolicsome, to suit the
taste  of the  citizens.   These  pieces
have a near  relationship  to  the masques
of the English and the farces  of the
French,  as  have  the spiritual  fast-eve's
plays, religious burlesques, to the Myste-
ries and Morahties. According to the
ancient custom, these plays were opened
and closed  by a  crier or herald.  The
carnival is celebrated, in modem times,
with the greatest show and spirit at Ven-
ice and Rome. In the  former place, it
begins after  Christmas.  The diversions
of it are shows, masquerades, the amuse-
ments of the place of St. Mark, and some-
times, in case of the visits of great princes,
a regatta, or  boat-race.  After this, there
was a second carnival  in  Venice, the
Venetian mass, caUed also the festival of
the Ascension, and  the Bucentaur festival,
because it commonly began on  Ascen-
sion-day, and because the celebration of
the marriage of the doge with the Adri-
atic sea was connected with it.  It con-
tinued 14 days.   No   character-masks
were worn tliere, however, except Vene-
tian dominos.  The carnival  at  Rome
(see  Gothe's excellent  description, Das
Rvmische Carneval, and that of lady Mor-
gan) continues but eight days, and is oc-
cupied mostly in masquerades and races.
Since the return  of peace, the carnival
has been celebrated  again in Cologne, on
the Rhine,  under the  direction of the
committee of fools, to the great satisfac-
tion of all who were present.  In Spain,
the carnival  is caUed carnestolendas.
  Ctrnot,  Lazare Nicholas Marguerite ;
born at Nolay, in  Burgundy, 1753; the
son of an advocate.  From his youth, he
exhibited an uncommon talent for the
mathematical and military sciences, en-
tered the corps of engineers, and rose in
office  by the  favor ofthe prince of Conde.
He pubUshed, afterwards, Mathematical
Essays, which caused him to be elected
a  member of several learned  societies.
His eulogy on Vauban received the prize
of the academy at Dijon.  At the begin-
ning ofthe revolution, he was captain in
the corps of engineers.   In  1791, he was
appointed deputy to the constituent as-
sembly, but at first took part only in mil-
itary affairs.   At his proposal, the officers
of the nobility  were removed  from the
army, and  others substituted from the
citizens.  As a member of the conven-
tion, he voted for the death of Louis.  In
the following March, he was sent to the
army ofthe north, where he deprived the
cowardly general Gratien of his command
on the field, put himself at the head  of
the army, and  repulsed  the enemy.   On
his return to the convention, he was made
a member of the committee of public
safety, (q. v.)  The influence of  Carnot
in the military operations now began to
be more deeply felt  In possession of all
the plans deposited  in  the archives of
Louis XIV, he organized and directed
the French armies; and his direction un-
doubtedly contributed very much to  their
success.   After the fall of Robespierre,
he was often accused, but always acquit-
ted, because his duty had been to  take
care of the  defence of  the country, and
he could not be made answerable for the
cruel decrees  of Robespierre, in  which
Caniot's name, as he was a  member of
the committee, of course, was to be found.
At the establishment  of  the directory, in
1795, Carnot was chosen a member,  and,
for some time, maintained an important
influence.  Barras at length succeeded
him in the department  of war, and  was,
ever after, his enemy.  His plan  for the
overthrow of  Barras was  unsuccessful,
and, with  some others, he was sentenced
to transportation on  the 18th Fructidor
(Sept. 4), 1797.  He fled  to Germany, and
published  a defence,  which was eagerly
read in Paris, and, by the exposure ofthe
conduct of his former colleagues, hasten-
ed their overthrow on the 30th Prairial
(June 18), 1799. After the 18th Brumaire,
Carnot was recaUed and appointed in-
specteur aux revues, and, two months later,
in April, 1800, minister of war.  He soon
after retired into the bosom of his family,
but was called  to the tribunate, March 9,
1802.  The  same inflexible integrity and
republican principle, which had hitherto
distinguished him, did  not now desert
him.  He often opposed  the views of the
government, voted alone against the  con-
sulship for Ufe, and resisted strenuously
the proposal for the irnperial dignity. He
remained, however, a member of the tri-
bunate till it was aboUshed,  passed the
next seven years of his Ufe in retirement,
and  pubUshed several valuable military
works.  In 1814, Napoleon gave him the
chief command at Antwerp.  He  con-
nected a vigorous defence with a careful
regard for the interest of the city, which,
by the command of Louis XVIII, he af-
terwards surrendered to  the English  gen- 
CARNOT—CAROLINA.
529
 eral Graham.  He stiU retained his titles
 and his honors, but, as a firm republican,
 he could never expect the favor of the
 court ;  particularly as, in his memorial to
 the king, he openly and severely censured
 the measures of government,  in  conse-
 quence  of which he was passed over in
 the new organization of the  academy of
 sciences.  When Napoleon  was  once
 more at the helm of state, in 1815, he
 made Camot count and peer  of the  em-
 pire, and pressed upon him the ministry
 of the  interior.  Carnot discharged the
 difficult duties of this office with his usual
 integrity.  After the emperor's  second
 fall, he was made a  member of the pro-
 visory government of France, and  was
 afterwards the only  one of the members
 of it comprehended in the ordinance of
 July 24.  He retired to Cerney, where he
 employed his pen on political subjects;
 then to Warsaw, in 1815, with his family;
 and, finally, to Magdeburg, where he died
 Aug. 3, 1823.  (See  the Corresp. de Nap.
 Buonap. av. le Cte.  Camot pend.  les  100
 Jours (Paris, 1819),  and Carnot's  Leben
 (Carnot's Life), by Korte.)  The  broth-
 ers  Baudouin, in Paris,  who  have in
 theh possession all Carnot's manuscripts,
 pubUshed, in 1824,  Mem, kistor. et mili-
 taires sur Carnot, rediges d'apres sesMan-
 uscrits,  sa Corresp.  inediie, et ses Ecrits,
 etc., par Tissot.  Among Carnot's writ-
 ings, the most valuable are his Essai sur
 les Machines ;  Reflexions sur  la  Meta-
 physique du Calcul infinitesimal; Sur la
 Geometrie du Position; De la  Defense des
 Places fortes; Expose de  la Conduite  po-
 litique de Carnot, depuis  le 1  Juill., 1814.
 In Magdeburg, Carnot pubUshed Memoire
 sur la Fortification primitive,  and a vol-
 ume of poems.  He  was  rigid in his love
 of virtue, a scholar, a general,  and an in-
 flexible republican.   He was  universally
 esteemed, both in France and in foreign
 lands, and was honored by  aU parties.
 Camot's life is one of those which  ought
 to be familiar to every young  republican,
 Uke that of Barneveldt (q. v.)
   Caro, Annibale, one of the most cele-
 brated Italian authors of the 16th century,
 born 1507, at Citta-Nuova, in  the March
 of Ancona, after the death of his patron,
 Gaddi, 1543, was appointed secretary to
 Pietro Ludovico Farnese, duke of Parma
 and Piacenza, who  intrusted him with
 several missions to Charles V.  After the
 assassination  of the  duke,  his own  Ufe
 was in  considerable danger.  He took
refuge  in Parma, and was treated in a
friendly manner by the new duke, Octa-
vio Farnese, whose two brothers, the car-
   vol. ii.          45
 dinals Ranuccio and Alexander,, took him
 successively into their service.  With the
 latter he remained from 1548 to his death
 in 1566, and  received from  him several
 ecclesiastical preferments.  Caro devoted
 himself chiefly to the study of numis-
 matics and the Tuscan language, and lus
 pure and elegant style, in verse and prose,
 soon became  generally admired.  His
 translation of the iEneid, in  blank verse,
 is excellent  After his death, appeared a
 translation by him  of  Longus, and  of
 Aristotle's  Rhetoric; also Rime and Let-
 ter e, the former of which ore admired for
 the elegance of the verse, and the latter
 as models of beautiful ItaUan prose. .^He
 belongs to the  most elegant writers  of
 Italian Uterature.
   Carolina.   This name  is generally
 given to a famous law  of the German
 empire, of the year 1532, under Charles
 V, which he called  himself an ordinance
 of criminal procedure (Peinliche Gerichts-
 ordnung).  From him, it was, at a later
 period, called ConstUutio crimiiudis Caro-
 lina, or, shortly, Carolina. The arbkrary
 administration of justice, the disorder and
 cruelty which  had become customary  in
 the courts  of Germany, where many a
 process was begun  and ended with the
 torture, and persons were sentenced even
 to death without regular process, gave
 occasion to diis law.  From the begin-
 ning of the peace ofthe land, the necessity
 of such a  law was felt  throughout the
 country; but it was difficult, in this, as in
 all other cases, to make the different mem-
 bers ofthe  empire agree on one  general
 measure.  The baron John von Schwarz-
 enberg, a man of talent  and a patron of
 science  (of the family  of the  present
 princes  of Schwarzenberg),  was chiefly
 instrumental in  introducing . this ordi-
 nance.  He was born in 1463, became
 minister of state of the prince-bishop of
 Bamberg, and succeeded in procuring an
 ordinance of criminal procedure for Bam-
 berg to  be drawn  up and pubUshed in
 1507.  The same was also adopted, in
 1510, by the margrave  of Brandenburg
 and  Franconia; and, at last, a  law of
 criminal procedure  for  the  empire at
 large was passed by the  diet at Regens-
 burg, in 1532, which, for that time, was a
 very great step, and had a salutary influ-
 ence. Several  German princes,  as  the
 elector of Saxony, the elector of Bran-
 denburg, and of the palatinate, protested
 against it, in order to protect the laws of
 their  states and  their  own  privUj§gps
against the legislative power of the <ejp-
peror ;  but at  last  the  Caroling yjae 
530                 CAROLINA—NORTH CAROLINA.
estabUshed hi  almost  every  part of the
empire.  (See  Malblank's  Geschichte der
pdnlichen Gerichtsordnung Kaiser Karls
V, 1783.)
  Carolina Maria ; wife of Ferdinand
I, king of the Two SiciUes,  daughter of
the emperor Francis I  and of Maria The-
resa, born 13th August, 1752; an ambitious
and inteUigent woman, but, unfortunately,
without firmness of character.  Accord-
ing to the terms of her marriage contract,
the young queen, after the birth of a male
heir, was to have a seat in the council of
state ; but her impatience to participate in
the government would not allow her to
wait for this event, previous to which she
procured the removal of the old minister,
Tanucci, who possessed  the confidence
ofthe king and of the nation, and raised
a Frenchman named Acton (q. v.) to the
post of prime minister, who ruined the
finances ofthe state by his profusion, and
excited the hatred of all ranks by the in-
troduction of a poUtical inquisition.  The
queen, too, drew upon herself the disUke
of the oppressed nation by cooperating in
the measures of the minister; and banish-
ments and executions were found insuffi-
cient to repress the general excitement.
The declaration of war by Naples against
France (1798)  was intended  to give an-
other turn to the popular feeling;  but the
sudden invasion of the French drove the
reigning family to Sicily.  The revolution
of cardinal Ruffo in Calabria, and the re-
publican party in the capital, restored the
former rulers in 1799.  The  famous lady
Hamilton (q. v.) now exerted the greatest
influence on the unhappy queen, on her
husband, on the English ambassador and
admiral Nelson, and sacrificed more vic-
tims than Acton and Vanini had formerly
done.   (See  Speziale.) After the battle
of Marengo, 12\000 Russians could not
prevent the conquest of Naples by the
French, and the formation of a kingdom
out of the Neapolitan dominions for Jo-
seph  (Bonaparte), who  was afterwards
succeeded in the same by Joachim (Murat).
The queen was not satisfied  with the ef-
forts which the English made for the res-
toration of the old dynasty, and thereup-
on quarrelled with lord Bentinck, the
 British general in Sicily, who wished to
 exclude her from all influence in the gov-
 ernment. She died in 1814, without hav-
 ing seen the restoration of her family to
 the throne of Naples.
   Carolina,  North;  one of the United
 States; bounded N. by  Virginia, E. by
 the Adantic, S. by South Carolina, and
 W. by Tennessee; lon. 75° 45'  to  84°
W.; lat. 33° 5V to 36° 2ff N.; 430 nules
long and 180 broad.  Square miles, 50,000.
Population in 1790, 393,751: in 1800,
478,103: in 1810,555,500; 179,090 blacks.
Population  in  1820, 638,829;  whites,
419,200; white males, 209,644; white fe-
males, 209,556; slaves, 205,017; free col-
ored, 14,912 : persons  engaged in agri-
culture, 174,196; in manufactures, 11,844;
in commerce, 2,551.   MiUtia in 1817,
50,387.—This  state is  divided  into  63
counties.  There  are no  large towns in
this state.   Raleigh is the seat of govern-
ment.   The other  most  considerable
towns  are Newbern,  Fayetteville, Wil-
mington, Edenton, Washington, Hillsbor-
ough, Halifax, Tarborough, Salisbury and
Salem.—The legislative power is vested
in a senate and  house of commons, both
chosen annually.  One senator  and  two
members of the house of commons are
sent  from  each county, and  one  of the
latter from each ofthe towns of Newbern,
Wilmington, Edenton, Fayetteville, Hali-
fax, Salisbury and  Hillsborough.  The
governor is chosen by joint ballot of both
houses, and is eligible three years in six.
—The  principal denominations of Chris-
tians in North  Carolina are Methodists,
Baptists, Presbyterians, Quakers,  Mora-
vians and EpiscopaUans.—There is a re-
spectable institution, entitled the univer-
sity of North Carolina, at  Chapel Hill.
Academies  are  established   at  various
places, and an  increasing attention  has,
of late, been paid  to  education.—The
principal rivers  are the Roanoke, Chow-
an, Neuse, PamUco or Tor,  cape Fear,
Yadkin and Catawba.   Of  these, the
cape Fear affords the best  navigation,
and  is ascended  by vessels  of 300 tons
to Wilmington,  and by  steam-boats to
Fayetteville.  The two most considerable
sounds on the coast are those  of Pamlico
and Albemarle.—Dismal swamp Ues part-
ly in North Carolina and partly in Virginia.
Little Dismal or Alligator swamp is be-
tween  Pamlico and Albemarle sounds.—
There  are three noted capes on the coast,
viz., cape Hatteras, cape Lookout and cape
Fear, which are all dangerous to seamen.
—North CaroUna, in its whole width, for
about 60 miles from the sea,  is generaUy
a dead level, varied only by occasional
openings  in the  immense  forest with
which it is covered.  After traversing this
tedious plain, we are at  length relieved
by the appearance of hills and mountains,
from the summits of which we behold a
beautiful  country, which stretches west
far beyond the range of vision,  and is
adorned with forests  of  lofty trees.—In 
NORTH CAROLINA.                         531
the level  parts, the soil, generally, is but
indifferent.   On the banks of some of the
rivers, however, and particularly the Ro-
anoke,  it is remarkably  fertile; and in
other parts  of this champaign country,
!;lades of rich swamp, and ridges of oak-
 and, of a black and fruitful soil, form an
exception to its general sterility.  The
sea coasts,  the sounds, inlets, and lower
parts of the rivers, have, invariably, a soft,
muddy bottom.  That part of the state
which Ues west of the mountains is, for
the most part, remarkably  fertile, and
abounds with oak-trees of various kinds,
walnut, elm, linn and cheny-trecs;  the
last of which not unfrequently attains the
size of 3 feet in diameter. The sod and
productions, in  the  hUly  country,  are
nearly the same as in the Northern States.
Wheat, rye, barley, oats and flax are the
crops most generally cultivated, and seem
to  suit  well  the nature  of the soU.
Throughout the whole state, Indian corn
and  pulse  of all  kinds  are  abundant.
Cotton is raised in considerable quanti-
ties. North Carolina abounds in iron ore;
and it is the only one  of the  U. States in
which  gold has been found in any con-
siderable  quantities.  The  gold  mines,
which  have lately excited a good deal of
interest, though they have not yet proved
very productive, are  found on the Yad-
kin  and  its branches, and extend over  a
district  comprising  about  1000  square
miles.  In  almost any part of this territo-
ry, gold may be found in greater or  less
abundance, mixed with the soil.  It exists
in minute grains or particles, and is also
sometimes found in lumps of one or two
pounds weight  Ofthe plains  in the low
country, the large natural growth is, almost
universally, pitch pine, a tall and beautiful
tree, which grows here to a size far supe-
rior to the pitch  pine  of the Northern
 States.   This valuable tree affords  pitch,
tar, turpentine, and various kinds of lum-
ber, which, together, constitute about one
half of the exports of North Carolina.  It
is of two  kinds, the  common and the
long-leaved. The latter differs from oth-
er pines, not in shape, but  in the  length
of its leaves, which are nearly half a yard
long, and  hang in large clusters.  The
trees in the. low countries, both of North
 and South Carolina, are loaded  with
 quantities of a long, spongy moss, which,
 hanging in clusters from the limbs, gives
 the  forests a singular appearance.  The
 misletoe frequently  engrafts itself upon
 the  trees in the  back country.   In this
 part,  plums, grapes, blackberries  and
 strawberries grow spontaneously;  also
several valuable medicinal plants, as gin-
seng,  Virginia snakeroot, Seneca snake-
root, and some others.  The rich bottoms
are overgrown with canes, the  leaves of
which continue green through the winter,
and afford good pasture for cattle.—North
Carolina is far removed from that perfec-
tion of culture, which is necessary to give
it the full advantage of the natural nch-
ness of its soil and the value of its pro-
ductions.  One great cause of its  back-
wardness, in agricultural improvement, is
the want of inland navigation, and of good
harbors.  It has several large  rivers, but
their mouths are blocked up with bars of
hard  sand.  The best of the  indifferent
harbors in this state are those of Wilming-
ton,  Newbern and Edenton.   The most
ofthe produce ofthe upper country, con-
sisting of tobacco, wheat, maize, &c, has
hitherto been carried to Charleston, S. C,
and  to  Lynchburg, and Petersburg,  Va.
Since 1815, the state has been zealously
engaged in an extensive system of inter-
nal improvements.  These improvements
relate to the navigation of the  sound, in-
lets, and the rivers Roanoke, Tar, Neuse,
cape  Fear, Yadkin,  Catawba,  &c ;  the
construction of canals and roads, and the
draining of marshes  and swamps.—Like
aU the  Southern States, North Carolina
has  a considerable diversity of climate,
occasioned by the physical pecuUarities
of its different parts.   In the level part of
the country, intermittent fevers are  fre-
quent during the summer and autumn.
During these  sickly  seasons, the counte-
nances  ofthe inhabitants have  a pale-yel-
lowish hue, occasioned by the  prevalence
of bilious affections.   Many fall  vic-
tims, during the winter, to pleurisies  and
peripneumonies.   In the  western  and
hilly parts, the air is as pure and salubri-
ous as  in any part of America, and the
inhabitants Uve to a great age.   The heat
of the summer's day is succeeded  in the
evening by  a  grateful  and  refreshing
coolness. Autumn is temperate and se-
rene, and, in some years, the winters are
so mild, that autumn  may be said to con-
tinue  till  spring.  The wheat  harvest
 commences in  the  beginning of June,
 and that of Indian corn early in Septem-
 ber.—In 1827, merchandise  to the value
 of $276,791 was imported into  North Car-
 olina, and $449,237 worth exported. (For
 similar accounts of  preceding years, see
 Watterson and Zandt's Tabular Statistical
 Views,  Washington, Jan. 1829).
   Historical Sketch of North Carolina.  In
 1586, the first attempt was made by the
 EngUsh to colonize North America, under 
532
NORTH CAROLINA—SOUTH CAROLINA.
a patent to sir Francis Drake.   A small
colony was left on the Roanoke in 1587,
but was never again to be found ; all at-
tempts to ascertain their fate were fruit-
less.   Some  emigrants  from  Virginia
penetrated  into the countiy about 1650,
and  made  the first actual settlement of
whites.   On  the early  Spanish maps,
what is now  called Carolina had been
marked as part of Florida.  The French
had  given  it  the name of Carolina in
honor of king Charles IX, when they
made the disastrous attempt to colonize
the North American coast, noticed under
the head of Florida.  The name Carolina
prevailed.   In 1661,  a second  English
colony from Massachusetts arrived, and
established themselves at cape Fear riv-
er.   In 1667, after many vexatious strug-
gles, the infant colony obtained a repre-
sentative government.   Two years later,
the fanciful constitution, so famous under
the name of Locke's scheme of government,
was  introduced.  This wild project was
soon abandoned ;  and, like other English
colonies, Carolina advanced but slowly,
and  experienced  the  honors of  Indian
warfare as late as 1712.  Previous to
1717, Carolina had been a proprietary
government, but,  in that year,  became a
royal one  by  purchase, and continued
such  until  the revolution  in 1775.  In
1720, the two Carolinas were  separated
into  North and South  CaroUna.  The
inaccessible coast  of North CaroUna gave
it very  great  advantages in the revolu-
tionary war.   Those destructive inroads,
from which other states along the Atlan-
tic suffered so  much, were here imprac-
ticable.  Though, however, less exposed,
the people of this state evinced their full
share of sympathy with the residue ofthe
American  people.  A  convention  was
assembled at Halifax, where, on Dec. 18,
1776, the existing  constitution was adopt-
ed.   Since that auspicious event, it may
be doubted whether any other community
ever  passed 52 years  with less disturb-
ance. (Darby's View ofthe U. States.  See
Carey and Lea's American Atlas.)
  Carolina, South ; one ofthe U. States ;
bounded N. by North Carolina, E. by the.
Atlantic,  S. W. and W. by Georgia; lon.
78° 24' to 83° 30* W.; lat. 32° to 35° 8' N.;
200  miles  long,  125  broad; containing
30,000 square miles.  Population in 1790,
240,000: in 1800,  345,591:  in 1810, 415,
115;  200,919  blacks:  in 1820,  502,741;
whites, 237,440;  white males,  120,934;
white females, 116,506; slaves,  258,475;
free colored, 6,826. MiUtia in 1821,23,729.
—S. CaroUna  is divided into 30 districts.
 Columbia is the seat of government, but
 Charleston is the largest town.—The leg-
 islature consists of a senate and house of
 representatives.  The senate consists of
 43 members, chosen every  4 years by
 districts.  The representatives are chosen
 every 2 years.  The governor and lieu-
 tenant-governor are chosen biennially, by
 a joint ballot of both houses.—The  prin-
 cipal denominations of Christians in South
 Carolina are Presbyterians,  Episcopali-
 ans, Baptists and Methodists.—Education
 is liberally patronised by the state gov-
 ernment.  The  two Uteraiy institutions
 are the college of South Carolina at Co-
 lumbia, and Charleston college, in the
 city of Charleston.—The distinguishing
 virtues of the Carolinians are hospitality
 to strangers, and charity to the indigent
 and distressed.  The planters in the low
 countiy, who, in general,  have large in-
 comes, live  in a luxurious and splendid
 style, devoting much of their time to the
 pursuit of pleasure, and possessing much
 of that pride and dignity of spirit, which
 characterize an independent country gen-
 tleman.  The virtues of the  farmers of
 the  upper country  are less brilliant, but
 more  substantial.   They have  fewer
 vices, are of more frugal  and industrious
 habits, and exhibit greater fortitude in the
 reverses  of  fortune.   In the low or allu-
 vial country, labor in the field is per-
 formed almost wholly by slaves, who, in
 this part of the state, exceed the free in-
 habitants in the ratio of more than three
 to one.  This division,  comprising less
 than one third of the territory of South
 Carolina, contains more than  half ofthe
 slaves, and  only about one fifth  of the
 whites.—The principal  rivers  are the
 Waccamaw, Pedee, Black river, Santee,
 Cooper, Ashley, Stono, Edisto, Asheppo,
 Cambahee,  Coosaw, Broad  and Savan-
 nah.—South CaroUna is divided by na-
 ture into  two  parts, which, from  their
 physical situation, have been called  Up-
per and Lower Carolina.   The  latter is
 supposed to have  once been under the
 ocean.  Towards the coast, the country is
 a level plain, extending  more than  100
 miles westward from the sea. Here the eye
 finds no relief from the dull uniformity of
 boundless forests, swamps, and level fields.
 This fatiguing plain is succeeded by a curi-
 ous range of httle sand hills, resembling the
 waves of an agitated sea.  This singular
 country occupies an extent of about 60
 miles.  It is extremely barren, enUvened
 here and there by spots of verdure, or by
 some straggling pines; and its few inhab-
 itants  earn  a scanty subsistence by the 
SOUTH CAROLINA.
533
cultivation of corn  and sweet potatoes.
After passing these  sand hills, we come
next to a remarkable tract of ground, call-
ed the Ridge, which, on its approach from
the sea, is lofty and bold, but on the north-
west is level from its summit  This is a
fine belt of land, extending  from the Sa-
vannah  to Broad river,  fertile, well cul-
tivated,  and watered   by  considerable
streams.   The country beyond this ridge
resembles, hi its  scenery, the most inter-
esting of the Northern States.  The trav-
eller is gratified by  the  pleasant alterna-
tion of hiU and dale.  The  lively verdure
of the hills is contrasted with the deeper
tints of the extensive forests, which deco-
rate their sides;  and, hi the valleys, broad
rivers roll their  streams through the va-
ried beauties of luxuriant and cultivated
fields.  From  these  delightful  regions,
the ground  still  continues to rise, till we
reach the  western limit  of  the state.
Here 7 or  8 mountains ran in regular
direction, the most distinguished of which
is Table mountain.  Other mountains are
Oolenoy, Oconee, Paris's, Glassey, Hog-
back and  King's.   These are all in the
districts of Pendleton, Greenville, Spar-
tanburg and York.—The soil of  South
Carolina is divided into  six  classes:—
1. tide swamp ;  2. inland swamp;  3. high
river swamp,  or  low grounds,   distin-
guished  by  the name of  second  low
grounds;  A. salt  marsh; 5. oak and hick-
ory high land ; 6. pine barren.  The first
two  classes are  peculiarly adapted to the
culture  of rice and hemp; the third is
most favorable  to the growth of  hemp,
corn and indigo.   The salt marsh  has
been much neglected.   The oak and
hickory land is remarkably fertile, and
well adapted to the  culture of corn, as
weU  as indigo and cotton.  The pine bar-
ren,  though the least  productive, is so
much more salubrious than the other
soils in the low country, that a proportion
of pine barren is an appendage indispen-
sable to every  swamp plantation.—The
staple commodities of this state are cotton
and  rice, of which great  quantities are
annually exported.   These articles have
so engrossed the attention ofthe planters,
that  the culture of wheat, barley, oats,
and other crops equaUy useful,  but less
  firofitable, has  been almost whoUy neg-
  ected.  So little wheat is raised through-
 out  the state, that considerable quantities
 are  annuaUy imported.  Cotton  was not
 raised in  any considerable quantities  tiU
 as late as 1795.  Before that period, indi-
 go was, next to rice, the most important
 article of produce;  but it is now neglect-
                   45*
ed.  Tobacco  thrives well.  The fruits
which flourish best are pears, pomegran-
ates and water-melons: the latter, in par-
ticular, grow to an enormous  size,  and
are superior, perhaps, to any in  the world.
Other fruits are figs, apricots, nectarines,
apples, peaches, olives, almonds  and  or-
anges.—The  period of vegetation com-
prehends, in favorable years, from 7 to 8
months, commencing in January  or Feb-
ruary, and terminating in October or No-
vember.  The  frosts, generally,  in   the
months of November, December, January
and February, are too severe for the deli-
cate productions of more southern  lati-
tudes.  The low country  is seldom cov-
ered with snow, but the mountains near
the western boundary often are. Frost
sometimes binds up the earth, but seldom
penetrates deeper than 2  inches,  or  lasts
longer than 3 or 4 days.  At  some sea-
sons, and particularly in  February,  the
weather  is very variable.  The tempera-
ture has  been known to vary 46  degrees
in one day.  In Charleston,  for  7 years,
the thermometer was  not  known to  rise
above  93° or  to fell below 17° above 0.
The number  of extremely  hot  days in
Charleston is  seldom more than  30 in a
year; and tliere are about as many sultry
nights, in which the  heat and closeness
of the air are such as to prevent  the  en-
joyment of sound sleep.—The  low coun-
try is infested with all the  diseases which
spring from a  warm, moist and unelastic
atmosphere.   Of these the most frequent
are fevers, from which the inhabitants  suf-
fer more than from any, or perhaps from
all other diseases together.  The districts
of the upper comitry enjoy as  salubrious
a climate as any part of the  U. States.
—In 1827, merchandise to the value of
$1,434,106 was imported into South Car-
olina,  and  $8,322,561 worth exported.
(For similar accounts of preceding years,
see  Watterson and Zandt's  Tabular Sta-
tistical Views, Washington, Jan. 1829.)
   Historical  Sketch  of South  Carolina.
The first settlement of South CaroUna by
the whites appears to have been  made at
Port Royal, about 1670 ;  but, until  1680,
no permanent estabUshment was formed,
when the few settlers then in the country
fixed on Oyster point between Ashley
and Cooper rivers, and laid the founda-
tion of the  city of Charleston.  A grant
had, however, been made, in 1662, previ-
ous to the founding of Charleston, by
Charles  II, to lord Clarendon and seven
others, of all that zone of North America
from N. lat. 31° to 36° ; and,  two  years
afterwards, the boundaries were extended 
534
SOUTH  CAROLINA—CAROLINE.
to N. lat. 36° 30\  The proprietary gov-
ernment of CaroUna was, if possible, more
complex  than any other similar govern-
ment in  the  EngUsh colonies.   This
confusion was augmented  by  Locke's
scheme, and by religious contention, and
was  terminated, in 1719, by a separation
of the two Carolinas, and the establish-
ment of a royal government.  One ofthe
events of most importance in the history
of South Carolina was the cultivation of'
rice,  introduced  by  governor Smith,  in
1695: that of cotton followed; and the col-
ony flourished until its progress was check-
ed by war with the Indians, and, subse-
quently, by the revolution.  South CaroU-
na suffered severely in the latter contest,
and was the theatre of some of the most
remarkable events which  it  produced.
The  names of Marion, Sumter and Lee
confened honor on the state.   The exist-
ing government or constitution of South
Carolina  was adopted June  3,  1790,
amended Dec. 17, 1808, and again Dec.
19, 1816.  (See Carey and Lea's Atlas.)
  Caroline Amelia Elizabeth ; wife
of George IV, king of Great Britain and
Hanover, second daughter of duke Charles
William  Ferdinand  of Brunswick (who
was  mortally wounded in the battle  at
Auerstadt), and ofthe princess Augusta of
England, sister of George  III.  -She was
bora May 17,1768.  The young princess
spent her youth in her father's court, un-
der much constraint, till 1795, when she
was married to the prince of Wales, now
king of Great Britain.  The next year, she
rejoiced the royal family and  the British
nation by the birth of a daughter, Charlotte
Augusta.  (Charlotte died Nov. 6, 1817,
wife of prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg.)
She had scarcely recovered from her con-
finement, when her husband abandoned
her, declaring that no one could force his
inclinations.   This was the beginning of
the disgraceful dispute between the two
parties, which lasted till the death of Car-
oline, and exposed her honor to repeated
accusations from her husband;  while
George III, and  all the British  nation,
favored the deserted  bride.  (See George
IV.)  The princess of Wales lived retired
from the court, at a country-seat at Black-
heath, where  she devoted herself to the
arts and sciences, to benevolence and the
gratification of her taste, tiU 1808.  Mean-
while, many reports  were circulated, ac-
cusing her of illicit connexions with cap-
tain  Manly, sir Sidney Smith and others,
and of being the mother of a boy; on ac-
count of which the king instituted an in-
quiry into her conduct, by a  ministerial
committee. They examined a great num-
ber of witnesses, and  acquitted the prin-
cess of the charge, declaring, at the same
time, that she was guilty of some impra-
dences, which had given rise to unfounded
suspicions.   The king confirmed this dec
laration  of  her innocence, and paid her a
visit of ceremony. She afterwards receiv-
ed equal marks of esteem from the princes,
her brothers-in-law.  The duke of Cum-
berland attended the princess to court and
to the opera.   The reports  above-men-
tioned were caused by the adherents of
the prince of Wales and the court of the
reigning  queen,  who was very unfavora-
bly disposed towards her daughter-in-law.
On this occasion, as on many others, the
nation manifested  the most  enthusiastic
attachment to the princess.  In 1813, the
pubUc contest was renewed between the
two parties; the princess of Wales com-
plaining, as a mother, of the difficulties
opposed to  her seeing her daughter. The
prince of Wales, then regent, disregarded
these  complaints.  Upon  this,  in July,
1814, the princess obtained permission to
go to Brunswick, and, afterwards, to make
the tour of Italy and Greece.  She now
began her  celebrated journey through
Germany, Italy, Greece, the Archipelago
and Syria, to Jerusalem, in which the Ital-
ian Bergami  was her confidant and at-
tendant.  Many infamous reports were
afterwards circulated, relating to the con-
nexion between the princess and Bergami.
On her  journey, she received grateful
acknowledgments for  her  liberaUty, her
kindness, and her generous efforts for the
relief  of  the distressed.  She afterwards
lived in  Italy a  great part of  the time,
at a country-3eat on lake Como.   When
the prince of Wales ascended the British
throne, Jan. 29, 1820, lord  Hutchinson
offered her an income of £50,000 sterling,
the name of queen of England, and every
title appertaining to that dignity, on the
condition that she would never  return to
England.  She refused the proposal, and
asserted her claims, more firmly than ever,
to the rights of a British queen, complain-
ed of  the ill treatment shown to her, and
exposed  the  conspiracies against her,
which had been contrived by a  secret
agent, the baron de Ompteda, of MUan.
Attempts at a  reconciUation  led  to no
favorable result   She at length adopted
the bold resolution to return to  England,
where she was neither expected nor wish-
ed for by the ministiy, and, amid the loud-
est expressions of the public  joy, arrived
from  Calais, June 5, and, die next day,
entered London in triumph.  The  minis- 
CAROLINE^CARP.
535
ter, lord Liverpool, now accused the queen
before the parliament, for the purpose of
exposing her to universal contempt as an
adulteress.   Whatever the investigations
of the  parliament may have brought to
light, the pubUc voice was louder than
ever in favor of the queen; and, after a
protracted investigation, the bill  of pains
and penalties was passed to a third read-
ing only  by a majority of 123 to 95; and
the ministers deemed it  prudent to delay
proceeding with  the bill for  six months,
which  was equivalent to withdrawing it.
Thus ended this revolting process, which
was, throughout, a flagrant outrage on
public  decency.  In this trial, Mr. Broug-
ham acted  as the queen's  attorney-gene-
ral,  Mr. Denman  as  her solicitor,  and
Drs. Lushington, Williams and Wilde as
her  counsel.   Though banished  from
the court of the king, her husband, the
queen  still lived at Brandenburg  house,
in a manner suitable  to ber rank, under
the protection of the nation.   In July,
1821, at the coronation of George IV, she
first requested to be crowned, then to be
present at the ceremony.  But, by an or-
der of the privy council, both requests
were  denied,  and,  notwithstanding the
assistance of the opposition, she suffered
the personal humiliation of being repeat-
edly refused admission into Westminster
abbey.  She then published in the public
papers her protest against the  order of
the privy council.   Soon  after her  hus-
band's departure to Ireland, July 30, in
consequence  of the violent agitation of
her mind, she was  suddenly taken  sick
in Drury lane theatre.   An inflammation
of the bowels (enteritis) succeeded, and
she  foretold  her own death  before the
physicians  apprehended such  an  event.
She  died Aug. 7,1821.  The corpse, ac-
cording to  her last will, was removed to
Brunswick, where  it rests among the re-
mains  of her ancestors.  Her tomb-stone
has a veiy short inscription, in which she
is called the  unhappy queen  of England.
The removal and the entombing  of her
mortal remains  gave  rise to many dis-
turbances, first in London, and afterwards
in Brunswick.   These were  founded
more in opposition to the arbitraiy meas-
ures of the ministry dian in respect for
the memory of the queen.  Two causes
operated much in favor of the queen—
the unpopularity of the ministry and the
general feeling that the king was perhaps
me last  man in the  whole  kingdom,
who had a right to complain of the in-
continencies of his wife,  which  many,
even of her friends, undoubtedly beUeved.
  Caroline Laws.  (See Carolina.)
  Caroline Matilda, born 1751, daugh-
ter of Frederic Lewis,  prince of Wales,
married, 1766, king Christian VII of Den-
mark, and became mother of the present
king of Denmark, Frederic VII, who was
born 1768.  Though young and beautiful,
and universally esteemed by the nation,
yet she was treated with hatred and neg-
lect by the grandmother of her husband,
queen Sophia  Magdalena, as well as  by
his step-mother, Juliana Maria, who,  for
some time, influenced even  her  husband
against her.  Struensee (q. v.), by profes-
sion a physician, the favorite of the  king,
became her friend, and both, in  union
with Brandt, endeavored to gain the king
from the influence of the party opposed
to the queen.  The reins of government
came into the hands of Struensee, but the
party of the king's step-mother and her
son, prince Frederic, procured (1772) the
imprisonment  of the queen, the counts
Struensee and Brandt, and all their friends.
Struensee and Brandt were tried, and ex-
ecuted for high treason.   Even the queen
was at first in danger of being condemned
to death.   April 6, she was  separated
from her husband, and confined in Aal-
borg, but liberated by the interference of
her brother, king George III.  She died
May 10,1775, at Celle, in Hanover, scarce-
ly 24 years old, of a lung fever, the conse-
quence of her  grief.  The interesting let-
ter, in which she took leave of her broth-
er, the king of England, is to be found in
the small work  Die lezten  Stunden  der
Kbnigin von Danemark.  She  was of a
mild temper, and beloved by all around
her.
  Carp (cyprinus, L.);  a genus of soft-
finned abdominal fish,  which Cuvier
makes the fourth family of the  order.
This is a very  natural genus, containing
very numerous species.  It is easily dis-
tinguishable by the small mouth, toothless
jaws, and gills of three flat rays.  The
tongue and palate  are  smooth, but  the
gullet is admirably constructed for masti-
cation, having  large teeth attached to  the
inferior pharyngeal bones, which press the
food between themselves and a gelatinous
knob, connected with a bony plate that
is united with the first vertebra, common-
ly called the carp's tongue.  They have
but one dorsal fin, and the body is covered
with scales, generally of large size.  They
frequent  fresh  and quiet waters, feeding
on  herbs, grains, and even mud,  being,
perhaps, the least carnivorous of the finny
race.  Some of the species have a beard
of small, fleshy threads at the angles of 
536
CARP—CARPETS.
the upper jaw.—The most noted of the
species are the common carp (C. carpio,
L.), which, in  many parts of" the world,
are bred in ponds, for the use of the table,
and the goldfish  (C. auratus),  beUeved to
be originally from China, very commonly
bred in ponds  and vases as an ornament,
on account of its beautiful colors.  In his
memoir on American Icthyology, doctor
Mitchill enumerates four species of carp,
under the names of C. teres, fresh-water
sucker; C. oblongus, chub of New York;
C. chrysoleucas,  New  York shiner; and
C. atronasus, brook minnow.—The com-
mon carp  of  Europe  is esteemed  very
highly for stocking ponds,  being of quick
growth, spawning  thrice a year.  As the
females do not commence breeding until
eight or nine years old, it is necessary to
keep up a supply of carp of that age by
avoiding to destroy  the females.   The
proportion of males to be preserved is four
for every twelve females.  Under com-
mon circumstances, the carp grows two
or three  inches  in length in a year; but,
where the ponds are exceedingly well
supplied with food, they have been known
to grow  from five to eighteen inches in
the same time.  They thrive best in ponds
having clayey or marly sides, and  well
provided with aquatic vegetables.  In or-
der  to furnish them with fresh vegetable
food, it is usual to rake the sides of the
pond,  left dry by evaporation, with an
iron rake, and then to sow grass-seed, so
that, when the pond  is again filled  up by
the rains, there may be a growth of tender
herbage  for the fish.   Grains of various
sorts, and garbage, are frequently thrown
into the pond, with a view to aid in fatten-
ing carp.   A pond of one acre in extent is
said to be sufficient to feed 300 carp of
two or three years, or 400 of one year old.
Carp,  in their native condition, frequent
the  deepest  places of ponds or rivers,
where there is the least current  It is a
fish which requires  much patience and
address in the angler.  They  seldom bite
in cool weather, but, during hot  seasons,
bite very freely. The bait commonly used
in angling for carp is worms, and some-
tunes grasshoppers. Various sweet pastes
are also used, formed of honey or sugar,
mingled with flour and small quantities
of veal, pounded together in a mortar, till
sufficiently tough to adhere to a  hook
without being easily washed off.  A little
 white wool, mixed with the other  ingre-
 dients, is of great assistance in giving the
 mass the requisite tenacity.   To increase
 the pleasure and profit of carp fishing, it
 is weU,  for a  few days previous, to have
some brewer's grains or other food thrown
into the water, by which the fish will be
induced to collect at any particular place
in greater numbers.
  Carpathian Mountains ;  one of the
most extensive ranges of mountains in
Europe, which covers an area of about
39,432 square miles;  running from the
Black sea, between Walachia and Molda-
via, through  Transylvania, Galicia and
Hungary, to  Silesia, there  uniting itself
with the Riesengebhge,  at the pass of
Jablunka (where  are  the sources of the
Oder and Vistula), and sending out spurs,
which reach as far as the Danube, and the
spurs of the Alps. The highest points
(covered with  perpetual  snow),  called
Tatra, rise in peaks, of which the most
elevated,  die Lomnitz peak  {Lomnitzer
Spitze), is over 8162 feet high.   The prin-
cipal  chain  contains much salt.  On the
branches, the vine is cultivated, and vari-
ous metals, precious and base, are found
in  them.  The  Carpathian  mountains
have  lately  been attentively investigated
by geologists, and interesting facts have
been ascertained respecting them.  They
afford refuge to a great number of Gip-
sies.
  Carpentaria ; a large bay on the N.
coast of New Holland ; lon. 130° 507 E.:
lat. 10° 20' S.  That part of  the country
which borders on the bay is also called
 Carpentaria.
  Carpets  are thick  textures, composed
wholly or partly of wool, and  wrought by
several dissimilar methods.  The simplest
mode  is that used in weaving Venetian
carpets,  the  texture of which is plain,
composed of a striped woollen warp on a
thick woof of linen thread.—Kiddermin-
ster carpeting is composed of two wool-
len webs, which  intersect each other in
such  a manner as to produce definite
figures.—Brussels carpeting  has  a basis
composed of a warp  and woof of strong
linen thread.   But to every two  threads
 of  linen in  the warp, there  is added a
 parcel of about ten threads of woollen of
 different colors.  The linen thread never
 appears on  the upper surface, but parts
 of the wooUen threads are, from time to
 time, drawn up in loops, so as to consti-
 tute ornamental figures, the proper color
 being each  time  selected from the parcel
 to which it belongs.   A sufficient number
 of these loops is raised to produce a uni-
 form  surface.   To render them equal,
 each row passes over a wire, which is
 subsequently withdrawn.   In some cases,
 the loops are cut through with the end of
 the wire, which is sharpened for the pur- 
CARPETS—CARRACCI.
537
  pose,  so as to cut off the thread as  it  Baptist, in the monastery of the Carthu-
  passes out  In forming the figure, the  sians, imitating, in single figures, the style
  weaver is  guided  by a pattern, which  is  of Raphael, Titian and  Tintoretto.  The
  drawn in squares upon a paper.—Turkey  finest works of Ludovico are at Bologna •
  carpets appear to  be  fabricated upon the  for instance,  those which adorn the hall
  same general  principles as the Brussels,  in the monastery of St.  Michael, in Bos-
  except that the texture is all woollen, and  co, and the Annunciation, in the cathedral
  the loops larger, and always cut—There  at Bologna.   He excelled in architectural
  are several carpet-manufactories in New  views and in drawing,  and, in general,
  England, which make handsome goods,  was very thorough in all the branches  of
  The English and Americans are the only  his art.  After having enjoyed his fame
  nations among whom carpets are articles  for a long time,  at least as long as his
  of general use.                          cousins were alive,  Ludovico died,  in
    Carpi, Ugo da, a painter and engraver,  1619, almost in poverty,  17 years  after
  flourished  in  the beginning of the  16th  the death  of Agostino, and 10 after that
  century.  He  is generally considered  as  of  Annibale.   The  chief  reproach  to
  the inventor of that species of engraving  which he is liable is,  that he did not
  denominated chiaro-oscuro, which was at-  unite the study  of the  antiques with
  terwards carried to such perfection by  that of nature.   His coloring has also
  Balthasar Peruzzi.                       been blamed.—Paolo Carracci, a brother
    Carpi, Girolamo da, a  painter ofthe  of Ludovico, is of no importance.—Agos-
  16th century, a native of Fenara, painted  tino Carracci, mentioned above, was born
  many pictures for the churches there and  in 1558, at Bologna.  He soon became
  at Bologna. He was a great admirer of  one of the most  accomplished disciples
  Correggio and Parmegiano, whose works  of Ludovico, and excelled particularly in
  he copied with great  success.  He died invention.   He  engraved  more  pieces
  in 1556.                                than he painted,  in order to please his
    Carracci ;  the name of a celebrated brother  Annibale,  who became envious
  family  of painters.—Ludovico  Carracci,  of his fame, after a picture  of Agostino
  son of a butcher, born 1555, at Bologna,  had obtained a prize in preference to one
 appeared, at first, to be more fit for grind-  of his own, and another excellent picture
 ing colors than for transferring them to  —the Communion of St. Jerom—had gain-
 canvas.  But his slowness did not, in fact,  ed his brother universal admiration.  Sub-
 arise from deficiency of talent, but from  sequently,  Agostino accompanied  Anni-
 zeal for excellence.  He detested all that  bale to Rome, and assisted him in painting
 was called ideal, and studied only nature,  the  Faraesian gallery.  As many persons
 which  he imitated with great care.  At  said that the engraver worked better than
 Florence, he studied under Andrea del  the painter, Annibale removed his brother,
 Sarto, and enjoyed the instruction of Pas-  under pretext that  his style,  though  ele-
 signano.  He went to Parma for the pur-  gant, was not grand enough.  Agostino
 pose of studying Correggio, who was then  went then to the  court  of the duke of
 imitated by almost all the Florentine  Parma, and painted there a picture rep-
 painters.  At Bologna, he endeavored to  resenting the  heavenly, the earthly and
 obtain popularity for his new principles  the  venal love.   There  was  only one
 among the young artists, and united him-  figure wanting, when, exhausted by labor
 self with his cousins, Agostino and Anni-  and  mortification, he died, in 1601.  He
 bale Carracci, whom he sent, in 1580, to  wrote a treatise on perspective and archi-
 Parma  and  Venice.  On their return to  tecture.  As an  engraver, he deserves
 iiologna, the three artists began to acquire  great praise, and often corrected the im-
 reputation, but  met  with the most violent  perfect outlines of his originals.  Among
 opposition.  Annibale, the most resolute  his engravings are  many  obscene  ones,
 of them, was of opinion, that they should  which have become rare.—Annibale Car-
 refute the slanders  in  circulation by the  racci, his brother, bora 1560,  at Bologna,
 excellence of tlieir  productions.  Ludo-  worked, at first, with his father, who was
 vico resolved to establish an academy for  a tailor.   By  the  advice  of his cousin
 painters at Bologna, which he called the  Ludovico, he  leamt drawing, and made
 accademia degli  incamminati (from incam-  the most astonishing  progress, copying
minare, to put in the way).  His first prin-  first the pieces of  Correggio, Titian and
ciple was, that the study of nature must  Paul Veronese, and painting,  like them,
be  united with  the imitation of the best  small pictures before he undertook large
masters.   He soon gave  an  example of  ones.  In the  academy founded by the
this principle in the Prophecy of John the  Carracci, he taught the rules of arrange- 
538
CARRACCI—CARRERAS.
ment and distribution of figures.   He is
one of the greatest imitators of Correggio.
His St. Roque distributing Alms, now in
Dresden, was the  first painting which
gave  him  reputation.  His  Genius  of
Glory is likewise  celebrated.   In  the
Farnesian  gallery, which  he   painted,
there breathes an antique elegance, and
all the grace of Raphael.   You find there
imitations of Tibaldi (who painted at Bo-
logna, about 1550, with Nicolo del Abate),
of Michael Angelo  (the style, indeed,
somewhat softened), and the excellences
of the Venetian and Lombard schools.
Out of Bologna, he is acknowledged as
the greatest of the Canacci.   In that city,
however,  Ludovico  is  more  admired.
Agostinq, perhaps, had more invention,
and Ludovico more talent for  teaching;
but Annibale had a loftier spirit, and his
style is more eloquent and  noble.  He
died of grief (1609), at the ingratitude of
cardinal Farnese, who  paid him  for 20
years' labor with 500 gold scudi.  He was
buried at the side of Raphael, in the Pan-
theon  of  Rome.—Francesco  Canacci,
another brother, is unimportant—Antonio
Carracci, a natural son of Agostino, born,
1583, at Venice, has more merit Among
the many  well-known disciples of the
Carracci,  Domenichino deserves  to  be
particularly named.
   Carreras ; three brothers, distinguish-
ed in the revolution of Clrile.  Jose Mi-
guel  Carrera, Juan  Jose Carrera,  and
Luis  Carrera, were  the  sons  of  a rich
landholder in Santiago, don Ignacio Car-
rera.   One of them  served in Europe
until 1811,  and attained the rank of Ueu-
tenant-colonel and commandant of a regi-
ment of hussars.   The three brothers
took an active part in the revolution from
its commencement, and, in November,
1811, obtained the effective control ofthe
revolutionary government; don Jose Mi-
guel, the eldest,  being a member  of the
junta, and  colonel  in the army, and the
two younger brothers being also colonels
in different corps, and the miUtary being
strongly in theh favor.  They  continued
in the possession  of power until 1813,
when they were taken prisoners by the
Spaniards,  and confined at Taloa.  During
theh confinement, O'Higgins placed him-
self at the head of affairs.  But they soon
regained theh Uberty, and, by means of
their popularity with the army, were ena-
bled to displace O'Higgins, and resume
 their former influence, although not with-
 out a conflict with theh antagonist They
 became reconciled to him, however, and
 acted in concert with him at the battle of
Rancagua, in October, 1814, in which the
patriots were  defeated, and  in conse-
quence of which the Carreras and their
associates fled across the  Andes.   Don
Jose Miguel left South America for the
U. States, seeking  supplies of men and
money.  Meanwhile, don Juan Jose and
don  Luis remained in Buenos Ayres,
where they were detained, on their pa-
role, by Pueyrredon,  and not  allowed to
join  the army sent for  the liberation  of
Chile, commanded  by their personal en-
emy, O'Higgins, and his  bosom friend,
general San Martin.  Don Jose Miguel
found them in  this  condition upon his
return in 1817, and was himself anested
at Buenos Ayres, but made his escape.
His brothers fled from Buenos Ayres, but
were apprehended, Aug. 17,  1817, near
Mendoza, and thrown into  prison.  Upon
learning this,  general   San  Martin de-
spatched his secretary, Monteagudo, to
bring them  to trial, and, if possible, in-
vent some plausible cause for their exe-
cution,  so as to prevent their return to
Chile.  Accordingly, a false accusation of
having murdered some obscure person in
1814 was brought against don  Juan Jose;
but, as this did  not inculpate don Luis, a
plot was contrived with the soldiers, and
the brothers were induced to attempt their
escape ; after which the proceedings were
resumed, and they were condemned, on
the 8th of March, 1818, to  be shot  on the
same day.  They heard their sentence at
three o'clock in the  afternoon, and were
slaughtered at six.  They walked arm in
arm to the place of execution, gave the
word to the  soldiers to fire, and embraced
each other in death.  So  causeless were
these legal murders, that  public opinion
charges  them  upon San Martin, who,
finding the  friends of the Carreras nu-
merous in  Chile, employed his creature
Monteagudo to procure their death.  With
brutal craelty, San Martin  sent their aged
father an account ofthe expenses of theh
execution, with an order for its immediate
payment.  He  paid the bloody charge,
and, two days  afterwards, expired of a
broken heart.  Don Jose Miguel resolved
to avenge theh death.  He raised a small
body of troops, natives and foreigners,
and marched across the pampas,  having
found  means  to  correspond with  his
friends in  Santiago.  His progress was
viewed with great uneasiness by  O'Hig-
 gins, then supreme director of Chile; for
 the people  cherished the fondest recol-
 lections of the Carreras, whose wisdom in
 government, and personal  condescension,
 affability and munificence, had won all 
CARRERAS—CARRIER PIGEON.                 539
hearts.  A conspiracy in favor of Carrera,
unfortunately, was detected by O'Higgins,
and  suppressed.  Don  Jose Miguel  ar-
rived near Mendoza in January, 1822,
and  was there unexpectedly met by a
superior force, and surrounded and taken
prisoner, after  a brave resistance.   Being
conducted to Mendoza,  he was hurried
through a brief form of trial,  and exe-
cuted on the very  spot where his brothers
suffered.  Thus, by a singularly adverse
fortune, perished  a family of brothers,
who left not their equals  in patriotism,
talents and purity of character in Chile.
Their friend and adviser, Rodriguez, also
perished, a victim of the same enemies.
—In testimony of their respect for  the
memory of the Caneras, the government
of Chile  have recently ordered  the  re-
moval of theh remains from Mendoza to
their native country.  (Stevenson's South
America, vol. iii; North American Review,
vol.  xxiv, p. 313;  Miller's Mem., i. p. 383.)
  Carrier, common. (See Common Car-
rier.)
  Carrier, John Baptist,  born  in  1756,
at Volai,  near Aurillac, in Upper  Au-
vergne, an obscure attorney at the begin-
ning of the revolution, was chosen, in 1792,
member of the national convention, aided
in the estabUshment of the revolutionary
tribunal, March 10, 1793,  and exhibited
the  wildest  rage for  persecution.   He
voted for the death of Louis XVI,  de-
manded the arrest ofthe duke of Orleans,
April 6, 1793, and contributed greatly to
the  revolution of May 31.  Oct 8, 1793,
he was sent to Nantes with a commission
lo suppress the civil war by the exercise
of greater severity than  had yet been
used.   The prisons were already   full,
while the defeat of the Vendeans  near
Savenay increased the number of prison-
ers.  Multitudes,  informally and precipi-
tately condemned, were executed daily;
but  Canier found this process too slow.
He  resolved,  therefore, to destroy  the
prisoners in a mass, and without a trial.
He  caused 94 priests to be conveyed to a
boat with a perforated bottom, under pre-
tence of transporting them, but, in reality,
with a view of having them drowned by
night.  Every day this artifice was repeat-
ed.   In the evening, the destined victims,
 of every  age  and  of  both sexes, were
 brought to  the boats.  Two  were  tied
 together,  and plunged into the water, at.
 the point of the bayonet and the edge of
 the sabre.  The  executioners sometimes
 amused themselves by tying together a
 young man and woman ; and they called
 these noyades (republican marriages).  Be-
sides this, more than 500 prisoners were
daily shot in the quarries at Gigan.   For
more than a month, these deeds  of mad-
ness were  perpetrated.   It has been esti-
mated that 15,000 individuals perished in
this way.  The banks of the Loire were
strewed with the dead, and the water was
so polluted, that it was prohibited to drink
it  Some months before the fall of  Ro-
bespierre, Carrier was recalled.  The 9th
Thermidor (July 27), 1794, he was appre-
hended, and brought before die revolu-
tionary  tribunal, which  condemned  him
to death, Dec  16, 1794.
   Carrier  Pigeon  (pavedette,  columba
tabellaria).   This bird is a native of the
East; and the practice of sending letters
by pigeons belongs, therefore, principally
to Eastern countries. The pigeons cho-
sen for this service are called, in Arabic,
hamahn. They have a ring of particolored
feathers round the neck, red feet, covered
with down,  and build their nests in the
neighborhood  of human habitations.  In
the province of Irak (that is, Chaldaea,
Babylonia  and Assyria), white  pigeons
are trained with the least difficulty.   The
first pigeon used as a  messenger some
consider to be that which Noah sent from
the ark, and which returned with the leaf
of the olive.  An actual post-system,  in
which pigeons were the  messengers, was
established  by  the  sultan  Noureddin
Mahmood, who died in  1174.   It  was
improved and extended  by  the caliph
Ahmed Alraser-Lidiv-Allah, of Bagdad,
who died in 1225.   The price of a well-
trained pair of such  pigeons was, at that
time, 1000 dinars, that is,  Arabic ducats.
This flying post lasted till 1258, when
Bagdad fell into the hands ofthe  Mongols,
and was destroyed by them.  At present,
only  a few wealthy individuals  in the
East keep  these  pigeons.   It  requires
much time and patience  to train them.
As soon as the young (a cock and a hen
are prefened) are fledged, they  are made
as tame as possible, and  accustomed to
each other's society.  They are then  sent,
in an uncovered cage, to the place whither
they are usually to  cany  messages.  If
one of them is canied away, after having
been well treated for some time, it will
certainly return to its mate. A  small let-
ter  is written on the  finest silk-paper,
sometimes  on a particular kind called
bird-paper.   This is placed lengthwise
 under one wing, and fastened with a pin
 (the point being turned from the body) to
 a feather.  It needs not to be mentioned,
 that no part ofthe letter must hang loose,
 lest the wind should be  collected in it, 
540
CARRIER PIGEON—CARRON.
 the wing become tired, and the pigeon be
 compelled to alight   A  pigeon  of this
 kind can go a distance of upwards of 1000
 parasangs (more than 2700 English miles)
 in a day.  There were similar posts in
 Egypt, in  1450,  for which columbaries
 were prepared in towers, erected at cer-
 tain distances for the  public security.—
 This custom  is, however, not confined to
 the nations of the East.   Decius Brutus,
 according to the elder Pliny's account,
 sent despatches from Modena by pigeons;
 and in  modern  times, they were' made
 use of, during the Dutch war, by the in-
 habitants of  Haerlem, when besieged in
 1573, and in Leyden, in 1574.  It  is also
 well known, that some merchants in Paris
 and Amsterdam employ carrier-pigeons,
 in order  that  the course of exchange and
 the  prices of stocks, in Paris, may  be
 known as soon as possible in Amsterdam.
  Carro, Giovanni  di;  a physician  of
 Milan, who settled in Vienna.  He is cel-
 ebrated for his efforts in spreading inocu-
 lation, as a protection from the small-pox,
 in Germany,  Poland, Hungary and Rus-
 sia.  He found means to overcome  even
 the prejudices of the Turks, by sending
 to lord Elgin, at Constantinople, in 1800,
 a quantity of virus, together with a work
 of his, translated into  Turkish, on inocu-
 lation.   All the attempts of the English
 to introduce  inoculation into India had
 been hitherto unsuccessful,  because the
 virus had always been spoiled on the way.
 Carro procured the matter from Lombardy
 cows, for doctor Harford,  at Bagdad.  It
 retained  all  its strength, and was  the
 means of imparting the benefits of kine-
 pock inoculation to India, which the In-
 dians consider as derived from a  sacred
 cow, and to which they have  given the
 name of amurtum (immortality). Cano's
 Observations et Experiences sur la  Vacri-
nation, avec une Planche colore (Vienna,
1801 and 1802), and his translation  (Vi-
enna, 1802) of an English work, by J. J.
Loy, on the origin of the kine-pock virus,
are  very  valuable works.  In the Biblio-
theque Britannique are some letters deserv-
ing of notice, written by him, particularly
one, dated Aug. 27,1803, on the antipesti-
lential nature  of the kine-pock matter.
  Carroll, John, first Catholic  bishop
of the U. States, was born in Maryland, in
the year 1734. His parents were Catho-
lics of distinguished respectabiUty,  and
sent him, at the age of 13,  to the college
of St. Omer's, in Flanders, where he re-
mained for six years, when he was trans-
ferred to the colleges of Liege and Bruges.
In 1769, he was ordained a priest,  and
 soon after became a Jesuit.  In 1770, he
 accompanied  the  present lord Stourton,
 the son of an EngUsh Catholic nobleman,
 on a tour through  Europe, in the capacity
 of private tutor;  and,  on his  return to
 Bruges, in 1773, accepted a professorship
 in  the college.   Shortly afterwards, he
 was on the point of going back to his na-
 tive country; but his voyage was prevent-
 ed by the intelligence of the entire sup-
 pression of the Jesuits by the pope;  and
 he retired to  England, where he resided
 until 1775, when he returned to America.
 His stay in Europe was prolonged in or-
 der that he might assist his  brethren in
 procuring a mitigation ofthe severe sen-
 tence that had been  passed  upon  them.
 He acted as secretary-general to the dis-
 persed fathers in theh remonstrances with
 the courts, by which they had been per-
 secuted.  Upon  his arrival in Maryland,
 he entered upon  the duties  of a  parish
 priest.  In 1776, at the solicitation of con-
 gress, he  accompanied  doctor  Franklin,
 Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Samuel
 Chase, on a mission to Canada, designed
 to induce the people of that province to
 preserve a neutral  attitude in the war be-
 tween England and the colonies, but was
 unsuccessful.  The Roman Catholic cler-
 gy ofthe U. States having requested from
 the pope the establishment of a spiritual
 hierarchy here,  in preference  to  being
 under the superintendence of one in Eng-
 land,  Mr. Canoll  was appointed  vicar-
 general in 1786, when he fixed his abode
 in Baltimore.  In  1789,  he was named
 first CathoUc bishop of the U. States, and
 went to England, in the summer of 1790,
 where he  was  consecrated.  In  the same
 year,  he  returned  to  Baltimore, and, as
 ftie seat of his episcopal see was estab-
 lished in that  city, assumed the title of
 bishop of Baltimore. He was  universally
 esteemed and beloved  for the  exemplary
 manner in which he discharged his duties,
the mildness and courtesy of his manners,
 and the sanctity of bis life.  He lived  in
 friendly communion with persons of other
sects,  his character being entirely devoid
of intolerance.  A  few years before  his
demise, he was elevated to the archiepis-
copal  dignity.  He died  Dec. 3, 1815,  in
the 81st year of his age.
  Carron ; a viUage of Scotland, on the
banks of a stream of the same  name, in
Stirlingshire, and about three miles  from
the shore of the  Forth.  Its  extensive
hon-foundery  is one of the most noted
in Great Britain.   This  was established
in 1760, and  now  employs nearly  2000
men.  There are about 20 furnaces, and 
CARRON—CARSTARES.
541
many kinds of iron articles are made in
great quantities, as heavy pieces of ord-
nance, cylinders for steam-engines, pumps,
boilers, wheels, with all kinds of ponder-
ous apparatus used  in  the arts.  That
species of ordnance  called a carronade,
used in the navy, derived its name from
being first  made here.  Immense num-
bers of shot and shells, of all  sizes, are
annually  sent from Can-on.  Canon is
about 2 miles north-east of Falkirk, and
26 in the same direction from Edinburgh.
The banks  of the  river Canon were the
boundary of the Roman empire in Britain;
for the wall of Antoninus stood within a
short  distance, and ran parallel to  them
for several  miles.  Two mounds, one of
them  50 feet in height, called the hills of
Dunipail, rise about  the  middle of its
course.   Tradition affirms that they were
monuments of a peace between the Ro-
mans and Caledonians, and that they take
their name from dun, a hill, and pax, peace.
It is more probable that they are barrows.
  Carronades  (from the river Carron,
in Scotland, where they were first mode);
a sort of artillery, resembling howitzers.
They are of very large caliber, and  carry
balls,  shells or  cartouches.  They are
much lighter than  common cannon, and
have a chamber for the powder, like mor-
tars.  They are mostly used on board of
ships, in close engagements, from the poop
and forecastle.  Sometimes they are em-
ployed in fortifications.  They have been
cast from 12 to 68 pounders. They were
first used in the North American revolu-
tionary war.
   Carrot  (daucus carota, Linnaeus) is a
biennial plant, a  native of Britain.  The
leaves are pinnatifid, and much cut.  The
plant rises to the height of two feet, and
produces white  flowers, succeeded  by
rough, hispid seeds. The root of the plant,
in its  wild state,  is  small, dry, sticky, of a
white color, and  strong-flavored; but the
root of the  cultivated variety is  large, suc-
culent, and of a red-yellow or pale straw-
color, and shows remarkably the improve-
ment which may  be effected by cultivation.
Though  long known as a garden  plant,
it is comparatively of recent introduction
in agriculture.  It appears to have been
cultivated from  an early period in Ger-
many and Flanders, and introduced from
the latter country  to Kent and Suffolk
early in the 16th century.  The various
uses  of  the carrot in cookery are well
known.  But, although it contains much
nutriment, it is difficult of digestion, par-
ticularly  if eaten raw or imperfectly boU-
ed.  Carrots are an excellent fodder for
   vol. ii.            46
cattle and horses, either alone or mixed
with hay ; and, if given to cows in winter
or the early part  of spring, they are said
to cause a great increase of milk, which
will  have a much less offensive taste and
smell than when they are fed on turnips.
Hogs thrive well upon carrots boiled with
their wash.  In some parts of England,
this  vegetable has been cultivated as a
winter food for deer; and the tops have
even been made into hay.  Canots con-
tain a large proportion of saccharine mat-
ter, and various but unsuccessful experi-
ments have been made to extract sugar
from them.  They have been more ad-
vantageously employed in  distillation.
Ten pounds weight of canots will  yield
about half a pint  of very strong ardent
spirit; and the  canots produced by  an
acre of  ground, amounting to  20 tons,
have been known to yield 240 gallons of
spirit.  A sirup made of these roots, and
clarified with the whites of eggs, has been
found useful for several purposes.  An  in-
fusion of the seeds, and the expressed
juice of the roots, are said to afford reUef
in fits of the gravel.  A marmalade  of
carrots has been used with success in sea-
scurvy,   and a poultice prepared  from
them is  sometimes employed in cancer-
ous ulcers.  Crickets are so fond of these
roots, that they may easily be destroyed
by making a paste of flour, powdered ar-
senic and scraped carrots,  and placing
this near their habitation.  Parkinson  in-
forms us that, in his day, ladies wore car-
rot leaves in the place of feathers.  In
winter, an elegant ornament is sometimes
formed by cutting  off a section from  the
head or thick end of a carrot, containing
the bud, and placing it in a shallow ves-
sel with  water.   Young  and delicate
leaves unfold themselves, forming a radi-
ated tuft of a very  handsome appearance,
heightened  by contrast with the season
ofthe year.
   Carrying Trade.  (See  Commerce.)
   Carstares, WilUam, a Scotch  divine
of political eminence, was born in 1649,
at Cathcart, near Glasgow, where his fa-
ther was minister.  He pursued his stud-
ies at the university of Edinburgh, whence
he was  removed to that of Utrecht, was
introduced to the prince of Orange, and
intrusted with all his views in regard to
Britain.  He, however, returned to Scot-
land, with the view of entering the minis-
try, but, after receiving a license to preach,
resolved to return to  Holland. As he was
to pass through London, he was employed
by Argyle and his party to treat with  the
EngUsh  exclusionists,  and became privy 
542
CARSTARES—CARTE.
to the rye-house plot.   On the discovery
of that conspiracy, he was apprehended.
After a rigorous confinement in irons, he
was subjected to the torture, and endured
this trial with great firmness; but, being
afterwards  deluded with  the hopes  of a
full pardon, and assured that his answers
should never be  made evidence against
any one, he submitted to make a judicial
declaration. The privy council violated
their engagement, by  producing his evi-
dence in  court  against his  friend, Mr.
Bail lie,  of  Jerviswood.  Being released,
he returned to Holland, and was received
by the prince of Orange as a sufferer in
his cause.   The prince made  him one of
his own chaplains, and procured his elec-
tion to the office of minister of the Eng-
lish congregation at Leyden.   He accom-
panied the prince in  his expedition, and
always remained about his person, both
at home and abroad.  During this reign,
he  was the  chief agent between   the
church of Scotland and the court, and was
very instrumental in the establishment of
the presbytery, to which William  was
averse.  On the death  of WilUam, he was
no longer employed on public business;
but Anne  continued  him her chaplain-
royal, and made him principal of the  uni-
versity  of Edinburgh.  When the union
of the  two kingdoms  was agitated, he
took &  decided  part in its favor.  He did
not long survive this event, dying in 1715,
at the age of 66.   The memory of Car-
Btares is, for the most part, revered by his
countrymen as  that  of an  enlightened
patriot; and few men of active power and
influence have  steered between parties
more beneficially and ably.
  Carstens, Asmus Jacob, a distinguish-
ed  painter, born at St. Jurgen, near Sles-
wic, in 1754, died at Rome in 1798.  He
studied  at  Copenhagen, where he pro-
duced his first picture—the Death of JEs-
chylus.   In 1783, he set out for Rome;  but,
after having seen some works of Julio Ro-
mani and Leonardo da Vinci,  was obUged
to return  to  Germany, from want  of
means, and ignorance  of the ItaUan lan-
guage.   In Lubec, he Uved  almost  five
years by painting Ukenesses.  A  piece,
containing more than 200 figures—the Fall
of the Angels—procured him the place of a
professor in the academy at  BerUn.   In
1792, he went to Rome.   His picture of
Megapont was compared to the produc-
tions of Raphael and Michael Angelo.
His subjects were almost all taken from
Homer,  Pindar,  Sophocles,  iEschylus,
Shakspeare  and  Ossian.   In Carstens'
works, we  find  that effort to attain cor-
rectness of form  and outline, gracefulness
of attitude, and loftiness and vigor of ex-
pression, by which  the works of the an-
cients  are distinguished;  but they fre-
quently exhibit a certain harshness, arising
from too close imitation.  He was often
defective in anatomy and perspective, and,
having begun late to paint in oil, was un-
acquainted with the secrets of  coloring.
(See Fernow.)
  Carte, Thomas, an EngUsh historian,
was born at Dunmoor, Warwickshire, in
1686.  He was admitted at University
college, Oxford, in 1698, and was  after-
wards incorporated  at Cambridge, where
he took his degree of M. A. in 1706.  His
first pubUcation  was entitled the Irish
Massacre set in a true Light, &c Incur-
ring suspicions during the  rebellion of
1715, a warrant was issued for his appre-
hension, which he eluded by concealment
in the house of a clergyman at  Coleshil.
He  subsequently acted as  secretary to
bishop Atterbury; and, as it was supposed
that he was concerned in the conspiracy
imputed to that intriguing prelate, he was
charged with high treason, and a reward
of £1000 was offered for his apprehension.
He  was again successful in making his
escape, and, reaching France, he resided
there  several years under the name of
Philips.  Having obtained various  intro-
ductions to persons of influence and learn-
ing, he obtained free access to the princi-
pal libraries, and employed himself in col-
lecting materials for an English edition of
the  History of Thuanus. At length, queen
Caroline, the liberal patroness of literary
merit of every  party, procured leave for
his  return to  England.   His important
work, the Life of James Duke of Ormond,
was pubUshed in 3 vols, foUo,  1735—6.
This work gained him great reputation,
especially  with the tory  party, and led
him to meditate a general history of Eng-
land, as a counterbalance to the tendency
of that of Rapin de Thoyras, which the
tories charged with enor and partiality.
In 1744, he was arrested, under a suspen-
sion of the habeas corpus act, and exam-
ined, on a suspicion of being employed by
the  Pretender.  Nothing, however, ap-
pearing against him, he  was discharged.
The first volume of his history, in folio,
concluded with  the death of king John,
and might have been very well received,
had not the author materiaUy injured the
credit of his work, and  his own reputation
as a man of sense, by the unnecessary in-
sertion of a note, containing the ridiculous
story ofthe cure of one Christopher Lovel,
who went from Somersetshire to Paris to 
CARTE—CARTHAGE.                       543
be touched for the king's evil by the Pre-
tender.  Still he proceeded with his work,
and published two more volumes, in 1750
and 1752; the fourth, which brought down
the history to  1654, not appearing until
after his death.  The  character of this
work is deservedly very high for  useful
and elaborate research, for which  quali-
ties it has risen greatly in esteem, since the
obligations of Hume to it have been ren-
dered apparent.  In point of style, it is
mean ; and the prejudices  of the author,
who was  utterly destitute of the  philo-
sophical impartiality requisite for a histo-
rian, are every where conspicuous: but
its diligence and exactness, with  regard
to facts, and the intimate  knowledge of
original authors displayed by the  writer,
will always render it valuable.   Mr. Carte
died in April, 1754.  He is the author of
several works besides those already men-
tioned.  He was a man of indefatigable
industry, cheerful and entertaining in con-
versation, but very slovenly and ungainly
in his appearance.
  Cartel ; an agreement for the delivery
of prisoners or deserters: also,  a written
challenge to a duel.—Cartel-Ship;  a ship
commissioned, in time of war, to exchange
prisoners; also to cany any proposal be-
tween  hostile  powers.  She must cany
no cargo, ammunition, or implements of
war, except a single gun for signals.
  Carter, Elizabeth, an English lady of
great learning, was the daughter of doctor
Nicholas Carter, a clergyman  in  Kent,
and was bora in 1717.   She was educated
by her father, and soon became mistress
of Latin, Greek, French and German;  to
which she afterwards added ItaUan, Span-
ish, Portuguese, Hebrew, and even Arabic.
Several of her poetical attempts appeared
in the Gentleman's Magazine,  before she
attained her 17th year, and these procured
her much celebrity.  In 1739, she trans-
lated the critique of Crousaz on  Pope's
Essay on Man;  and, in the same year,
gave a translation of Algarotti's explana-
tion  of Newton's philosophy, for  ladies.
In 1749, she commenced  her translation
of Epictetus.   In 1791, Miss Carter had
an interview with queen Charlotte, by the
queen's own  desire, and,  during  the re-
mainder of her life, occasionally received
visits from different members of the royal
family, who paid her particular attention.
She  died in 1806, in the 89th year of her
age,  and lies  intened in  the burying-
ground of  Grosvenor chapel.   The year
following her  death, her Memoirs were
published, and a new edition of her po-
ems ; and, subsequently, her conespond-
ence with Miss Talbot (in 2 vols., 4to.),
and letters to Mrs. Montague and Mrs.
Vesey (4 vols. 8vo.), all which are much
esteemed.
  Cartes, Des.  (See Descartes.)
  Carthage; the most famous city of Af-
rica in antiquity, capital of a rich and pow-
erful commercial republic  Dido (q. v.),
fleeing from Tyre,  came to this  countiy,
where the inhabitants, according to tradi-
tion, agreed to give her as much land as
could be compassed by an ox-hide. Dido
cut the hide into small thongs, with which
she enclosed a large piece of land.  Here
she built the castle  of" Carthage, and gave
the newly-founded  state excellent institu-
tions. The first period of the history of
Carthage extends to the beginning of the
war with Syracuse, from B. C. 878 to 480.
Carthage extended  its conquests in Africa
and  Sardinia, carried on a commercial
war with the  people of Marseilles and the
Etruscans, and concluded a commercial
treaty with Rome,  B. C. 509, the original
document of which, on stone, is still ex-
tant.  The Carthaginians  then directed
their chief attention to the conquest  of
Sicily, with which commences their sec-
ond and most splendid period, extending
to the beginning of their war with the
Romans,  B. C. 265.  When Xerxes un-
dertook  his campaign  into Greece, the
Carthaginians made a league with him
against Gelon, king of Syracuse, but were
defeated at Himera, B. C. 480, and obUged
to sue for peace, and abstain  from the
practice  of offering human  sacrifices.
(See Gelon.)  In the war with Hiero, the
next king, the Carthaginians conquered
the cities Selliius, Himora and Agrigen-
tum.   Dionysius the elder obtained  a
temporary peace.  But, after  Timoleon
had delivered Syracuse and Sicily from
the yoke  of  tyranny, the Carthaginians
were peculiarly unfortunate.  Contagious
diseases and  frequent mutinies  reduced
the strength  of the city.   When  Sicily
suffered under the tyranny of Agathocles,
Carthage engaged in a war with him, and
was soon attacked and severely pressed by
the usurper.  After the death of Agatho-
cles, Carthage once more took part in
the commerce of  Sicily,  when difficul-
ties broke out there with their auxiUaries,
the Mamertines.  The Romans took ad-
vantage  of these  troubles to expel the
Carthaginians from Sicily, although they
had previously received assistance from
them  (in 275) in a war against  Pyrrhus
of Epiras, in Sicily and  Lower Italy.
Here begins the  third period of Cartha-
ginian history, embracing the thrice re- 
544
CARTHAGE.
peated  straggle for  dominion  between
Rome and Carthage, in the interval be-
tween 264 and 146 B. C. The first Punic
war  (see Punk)  continued  23  years.
The fleets and  armies  of Carthage were
vanquished.  By the peace (B.  C. 241),
the Carthaginians lost all their possessions
in  Sicily.   Upon  this, the  mercenary
forces, whose wages could not be paid
by  the  exhausted  treasury of the city,
took  up arms.  Hamilcar  Barcas con-
quered  them, and restored die Cartha-
ginian power in Africa.  Notwithstanding
the peace with Carthage, the  Romans
took possession of Sardinia in 228, where
the mercenary troops  of Carthage had
revolted.  Hamilcar, who was at the head
of the democratic party, now undertook
the conquest of Spain, whose rich  mines
tempted the Carthaginians.  For the suc-
cess of this enterprise, within 17  years,
Carthage was indebted to  the family of
Barcas, which could boast ofthe glorious
names of Hamilcar, Asdrubal and Hanni-
bal.   To secure the possession of this
acquisition, Asdrubal  founded New Car-
thage (now Carthagena), the most power-
ful of all the Carthaginian colonies.  The
second Punic war (218—201 B. C), not-
withstanding the abilities of the general,
ended with the  subjugation of Carthage.
Hannibal, neglected by bis countrymen,
and weakened by a victory that cost him
much blood, was obliged to leave Italy,
in order to  hasten to the  assistance  of
Carthage, which was threatened by the
Romans.  The  battle at Zama, in the
neighborhood of Carthage, resulted in fa-
vor of the Romans.  Scipio granted the
oity peace under the  severest conditions.
Carthage ceded Spain, delivered up all
her ships of war  except 10, paid 10,000
talents (about $10,000,000), and promised
to engage in no war without the consent
of the Romans.  Besides this, Masinissa,
the ally of Rome, and implacable enemy
of Carthage, was placed on the Numidian
throne.  This king, under the  protection
of Rome, deprived the  Carthaginians of
the best part of their possessions, and de-
stroyed their trade in the interior of Afri-
ca.  The third war with the Romans was
a desperate contest.   The disarmed Car-
thaginians were obliged to demolish their
own walls.   Then, taking up anns  anew,
they fought for death or life.  After three
years, the younger Scipio ended this war
by the destruction of the city, B. C. 146.
Augustus peopled it anew, and  it regained
some degree of renown.  From  A.  D.
429 to 534,  it was the residence of the
Vandal kings.  But the Arabians destroy-
ed it a second time, and few traces now
remain of it, except an aqueduct.
  The government of Carthage, according
to the common opinion, in its origin, was
monarchical; afterwards, it is not known
how nor when,  it became republican.
The Phoenician states, likewise, had kings,
and their government, too, was republican.
As no distinct period is mentioned when
the government  received its form, the
constitution seems to have been gradually
formed, mostly by and  through  domestic
troubles.   The  government was com-
posed of the suffetes, the senate, the tribu-
nal of the  hundred,  and  the  freemen.
The suffetes were at the • head of affairs,
and were commonly called kings, by the
Greek authors, and consuls by the  Ro-
mans.   They were  permanent officers,
and not, like the  Roman consuls, chosen
for short periods.   The Carthaginian sen-
ate seems to have been a permanent and
numerous  body,  in which  there was a
smaller committee, composed, probably,
of the elder  members.  As regards the
power of the senate, and  its relation to
the people, we know that the former had
the right of  deliberating beforehand on
all affairs that were to  be refened to the
people.  If the suffetes agreed  with the
senate, the business might be referred to
the people, or  not, as  these magistrates
saw fit; but if they disagreed, it was al-
ways  referred to  the people; and every
citizen had  the right of expressing his
opinions freely.  War and peace,  Ukewise,
depended on the  decision of the senate.
The tribunal of the hundred was chosen
from the most  respectable families, and
was the  highest  political  tribunal.   It
seems, also, to have been in possession of
supreme  civil jurisdiction.  A highly re-
markable peculiarity of the  Carthaginian
government was,  the separation of the
civil and  miUtary  power at so early a pe-
riod.  The  suffetes were never theh gen-
erals.   The  latter were chosen by  the
people, and, in time of war, had unlimited
power  in regard  to miUtary operations.
Affairs of  state,  on the contrary, alU-
ances, and the like, were administered by
a committee  of the  senate, which was
associated with the generals. In this re-
spect, the Carthaginian constitution was
superior  to  the Roman,  in which  the
union of the two powers cost the state its
freedom.  The religion of Carthage was
a branch of the worship of the stars and
of fire,  which prevailed  in the East
Concerning Moloch  (Baal or the Sun),
the supreme  god of the Phoenicians, the
human sacrifices, and other  peculiarities 
CARTHAGE—CARTHUSIANS.                   545
of the Phoenician worship, the bishop of
Zealand,  doctor  Frederic Miinter,  has
published the result of his interesting in-
quiries, in his Religion of die Carthagin-
ians (Copenhagen, 1821, 2d edition, 4to.).
  Carthagena ; an  ancient town on the
coast  of the kingdom of  Murcia, with
considerable trade, one of the three great
naval harbors of Spain, and the best port
of  the  Mediterranean.  The  basin  is
very deep, even quite close to the town.
The  hills  that surround it,  with steep
ascents, and an island at the  mouth of
the harbor, protect the vessels from all
winds.  The town,  with the citadel, is
situated on a peninsula in the harbor.  It
contains 29,000 inhabitants, fine wharves,
a naval arsenal, a naval school, a mathe-
matical, nautical  and pilot academy, an
observatory, a  botanical  garden, a sail-
cloth  manufactory,  has  some fisheries,
and some trade in barilla, silk, &c  In
the neighborhood of the  town, the Car-
thaginians possessed  mines of silver of
such richuess, that Hannibal was enabled
to carry on the  war against the Romans
out of their produce.  There  are  hot
springs  and salt mines in the neighbor-
hood.  The town was built by the Car-
thaginian general Asdrubal.
  Carthagena ; a province of Colombia,
forming, with the provinces Santa Mar-
tha and Rio Hacha, the department Mag-
dalena (see Colombia), bordering  on  the
Caribbean  sea  and the gulf of Darien.
The country is composed  of mountains
and valleys, covered with large and small
forests.  The variety of plants and trees,
as well as fruits, is wonderful.  The earth
is covered with perpetual verdure.  Wheat
and other kinds of European grain do not
flourish well, but Indian corn and rice are
raised in sufficient quantity for the con-
sumption  of the  inhabitants.  The cli-
mate is very hot.  From May to Decem-
ber, there is a  great  deal of rain. The
variety and beauty ofthe birds is remark-
able.   Poultry, pigeons,  partridges and
geese, are good and plentiful.  The fruits
of the countiy  are pine-apples, papayas,
plantains,  &c   The principal town  is
Carthagena.
  Carthagena ; a city and  seaport of
Colombia, capital  of the province of the
same  name ; lat. 10° 25' N.; lon. 77° 30'
W.   The  population  is rated  at 24,000.
It contains a handsome cathedral, several
churches, convents and monasteries. The
city is situated on a sandy island, which
forms a narrow passage on  the S. W.
The bay is one ofthe best in the country.
It extends seven miles from N. to S., and
                46*
has a safe  anchorage, though  the many
shallows at the entrance make a careful
steerage  necessary.   There are among
the inhabitants of Carthagena very many
of Indian  descent  The  city, like the
whole province, is subjected to the incon-
venience of periodical rains.
  Carthusians ;  a religious order, insti-
tuted by St. Bruno (q. v.), who, in  1086,
built several hermitages in a desert sur-
rounded  by hills and rocks, four leagues
from Grenoble, and, with six companions,
united the ascetic with the monastic life,
like the Camaldulians.  The inhabitants
of this desert built a church, and, by in-
dustry and skill, converted into gardens
a place which seemed to have been des-
tined for the haunt of wild beasts only.
At  the  same time,  they  practised the
greatest  abstinence, wore coarse  gar-
ments, and eat only vegetables and the
coarsest bread.  From their original seat
(La Chartreuse), they were called Carthu-
sians, and  their monasteries, at first only
a few in number, were called Chartreuses,
Their fifth general, Guigues (died 1137),
prescribed, besides the  usual   monastic
vows, eternal sUence and solitude.   Me-
chanical labors and copying of books, to-
gether with religious worship, constituted
their occupation.   They observed a strict
temperance, and  submitted  to  bleeding
five  times  a year. In 1170, they were
confirmed by the pope.  In the following
centuries, they  received additional stat-
utes, which forbade altogether the eating
of flesh, and allowed them to speak only
during certain hours on Thursdays and
the days on which  the  chapter  met
With  increasing wealth, however, many
embellishments were added to  their soli-
tary  life, as the great Chartreuse, near
Grenoble, and their elegant palace at Na-
ples, prove.  The monks were, in general,
well informed, hospitable, and remarkable
for  their neatness.   Excessive  penance
was interdicted, but their laws were ex-
ceedingly  severe   against  disobedience.
Their habit was  entirely  white within,
covered with a black mantle.   The lay
brothers were distinguished by the beard
and a shorter scapulary.  The Carthu-
sian nuns originated in 1616.  They were
dressed in  white,  Uke the  monks, with a
black  veil.  They obtained permission to
dine in  common,  and to interrupt their
silence more frequently.  The general of
the whole order was always the vicar of
the Chartreuse at Grenoble.  In the mid-
dle  of the  18th century, the Carthusian
monks occupied 172 monasteries, of which
75 were in  France, the others mostly in 
546
CARTHUSIANS—CARTOON.
Germany and Italy.  The Carthusians in
Sicily and  Spain  only have escaped  the
general aboUtion ofthe order.
  Cartilage is a semi-pellucid substance,
of a milk-white or pearly color, entering
into the composition of several parts of
the body.   It  holds  a middle  rank, in
point of firmness, between bones, or hard
parts, and the softer constituents of  the
human frame.  It appears, on a superfi-
cial examination, to be homogeneous in
its texture ; for, when  cut,  the surface is
uniform,  and  contains no  visible cells,
cavities, nor pores, but resembles the sec-
tion of a piece of glue.  It possesses a
very high  degree  of elasticity, which
property  distinguishes it from  all other
parts of the body.  Hence it  enters into
the composition of parts whose  functions
require the combination  of firmness with
pliancy and flexibility,  the preservation
of a certain external form, with the power
of yielding to external force or pressure.
Anatomists divide  cartilages   into two
kinds, the temporary and the  permanent.
The former are confined  to  the earlier
stages of existence ;  the latter common-
ly retain   their cartilaginous  structure
throughout life.  The  temporary  carti-
lages are those in which tiie bones  are
formed.  All the bones  except  the teeth
are formed in  a nidus of cartilage. The
permanent cartilages are of various  kinds.
They compose the external ear and  ex-
ternal aperture ofthe nostrils and eyelids.
The larynx is formed entirely  of this sub-
stance, and the trachea or windpipe, with
its branches, is furnished with cartilagin-
ous hoops, by which these tubes are kept
permanently open  for the  ready passage
of air to and from the lungs.   The bodies
ofthe vertebrae are joined by large masses
of a peculiar substance,  partaking of the
properties  and appearance of  cartilage
and ligament, which allow of the motions
of these  parts on each other,  without
weakening the support that is afforded to
the upper  parts of the  body  in general,
and to the head in particular,  by the ver-
tebral column. These cartilages impart
great elasticity to the spine, by which  the
effects of concussion from jumping, from
falls, &c, are weakened and destroyed
before  they can  be  propagated to  the
head.  When  the body has been long in
an erect position, the compression of these
cartilages, by  the  superior parts, dimin-
ishes the height of the person.  They re-
cover their former length when  freed
from this pressure.  Hence a  person is
taUer when he rises in the  morning, than
after sustaining the fatigues of the day,
and the difference has sometimes amount-
ed to an inch.   Cartilages are sometimes
interposed  between the articular surfaces
of bones, where they fill up irregularities
that might otherwise impede the motions
of the part, and increase the  security of
the joint by adapting the articular sur-
faces to each other.   These surfaces are,
in every instance, covered by a thin crust
of cartilage, having  its surface  most  ex-
quisitely polished, by which all friction in
the motions of the joint is avoided.
  Cartoon has many significations.   In
painting, it denotes a sketch on thick  pa-
per, pasteboard, or other material, which
is used as a model for a large  picture, es-
pecially in fresco, oil, tapestry, and, for-
merly,  in glass and mosaic.   In fresco
painting, cartoons are particularly useful;
because, in this, a quick process is neces-
sary, and a fault cannot easily be corrected.
In applying cartoons, the artist commonly
traces them through, covering  the back
ofthe design with black lead or red chalk;
then, laying the picture  on the wall, or
other matter, he passes  lightly over each
stroke of the design with a point, which
leaves an impression of the color on the
plate or wall; or the outlines ofthe figures
are pricked with a needle, and then,  the
cartoon being  placed against the wall, a
bag of coal-dust is drawn over the holes,
in order to transfer the outlines to  the
wall.  In fresco painting, the figures were
formerly cut out, and fixed firmly on  the
moist plaster.   The  painter then traced
their contour with a pencil of wood or
iron;  so that the  outlines of the figures
appeared on  the fresh  plaster, with a
slight but distinct impression, when  the
cartoon was taken away.  In the manu-
facture of a certain kind of tapestry, the
figures are still cut out, and laid behind
or under the woof,  by  which  the artist
directs his  operations.   In this case, the
cartoons must be colored. Of this kind
are the cartoons which Raphael executed
for pope Leo X, from which the famous
tapestries of Raphael (see  Tapestry and
Raphael) in the Netherlands were woven.
There were twelve of them, representing
histories taken from the  New Testament.
Seven of them are  still extant,  and may
be seen at Hampton court, near London.
The best copy of them has been taken by
Nicholas Dorigny, and the collection is call-
ed Pinacotheca Hamptoniana.  (See Rich-
ardson's historical and critical description
of them).   Rubens bought these cartoons
for Charles I, and king  William built a
gallery for them at Hampton court.  The
cartoon of the school of Athens, carried 
CARTOON—CARTWRIGHT.
547
to Paris by the French, and a fragment of
the battle of Maxentius and Constantine,
are preserved in the Ambrosian gallery at
Milan.  There are  likewise  cartoons by
Giulio Romano in the Sala Borgia, by Do-
menichino and other Italian masters, who
caused their pictures to be executed, in a
great degree, by their scholars, after these
cartoons.   The value set upon cartoons
by the old Italian  masters may be seen by
Giov. B. Armenini's Precelti della Pittura
(Venice, 1687, 4to.).  In later times, large
paintings, particularly in  fresco, were not
executed so frequently.  The artists also
labored with less care, and formed their
great works more  from small  sketches.
In  modern times,  some Gennan  artists
have prepared accurate cartoons. Among
them is Cornelius, whose cartoons,  for his
fresco-paintings  in Miinich, have acquir-
ed much celebrity.  He prepared, too, a
cartoon for the  fresco picture represent-
ing Joseph interpreting the Dream.  Over-
beck, also, has made cartoons, from  which
he has painted the Seven Years of Famine,
and  the Selling  of Joseph.  The  Seven
 Years of Plenty he executed, with the as-
sistance of William Schadow and  Philip
Veit  The  representations of Joseph's
history, just mentioned, the late Prussian
consul-general Bertholdy has  caused to
be executed  in fresco, at his residence in
Rome, by the above-named artists.  For
the  villa  Massimi, near Rome,  Over-
beck has prepared cartoons representing
scenes from Tasso's Jerusalem Delivered ;
Julius Schnorr,  illustrations of Ariosto,
and Veit, scenes taken from Dante.
   Cartouch, in architecture,  sculpture,
 &c, denotes an ornament representing a
scroll of paper, being usually in the fonn
 of a table, or flat member, with wavings,
 whereon is some inscription or device.—
 In heraldry; a name given  to  a sort of
 oval shields, much  used by the popes and
 secular princes in Italy, and others, both
 clergy and laity, for jiainting or engraving
 their arms on.—In the miUtary  art; a
 wooden case, about three inches thick at
 bottom,  and  girt  round with marline,
 holding  2, 3, or 400 musket balls,  with 8
 or 10 iron  balls,  weighing one  pound
 each, to be  fired from  a mortar,  gun or
 howitzer,  for the defence of a pass, re-
 trenchment, &c.  It is also  used for a
 cartridge-box, now employed  mostly by
 the cavalry.  The charge of a  cannon is
 also sometimes  called  by this name.—
 Cartouche is likewise the name given by
 the French literati to that oval ring, or
 border, which includes,  in the Egyptian
 hieroglyphics, the  names of persons of
high distinction, as  M. Champollion has
proved.  This  border was  thought, at
first, by Zoiiga, to include every proper
name.
  Cartouche,  Louis  Dominique.  The
pilfering  propensities  of  this man, who
was bom at  Paris,  near  the end of the
17th century, early  showed  themselves.
Being  expelled  from school, and after-
wards from his father's house, for theft,
he joined a band of rogues in Normandy,
and then put  himself at the head of a nu-
merous company of banditti in Paris, over
which he exercised the power of life and
death.   He was  first apprehended in a
tavern, in 1721, and brought to the Chdte-
let.  On  the rack, he named none of his
accomplices.   But  when he arrived  at
the place of  execution, where he was  to
be broken alive on  the wheel, and found
that his  companions had not assembled
to his rescue, he retracted, and named his
accomplices,  to gain  a respite.  His exe-
cution soon  followed.  Various authors
have described his adventurous, and, in
some respects, interesting life.
   Cartridge ; a case of paper, parch-
ment, or flannel, fitted to the bore of fire-
arms, and filled with gun-powder, to  ex-
pedite the discharge  of the  piece. Car-
tridges are of two sorts, viz.6a2/-cartridges,
used in  firing balls, and  Warafc-cartridges,
used in  firing without  ball.  Riflemen
avoid the use of cartridges, because the
cartridge injures the shot of a riflo.   In
most armies, a soldier  carries  60 car-
tridges into battle.
   Cartwright,  Edmund, was  born in
1743, in  Nottinghamshire (brother of ma-
jor John  Cart wright, the well-known advo-
cate of parliamentary reform), and studied
at Oxford. His poems were very popular,
especially  a  ballad entitled  Armyne and
Elvira, 1771.   He was one of the princi-
pal contributors to  the Monthly Review.
He is also distinguished for his mechani-
cal inventions.  In  1786, he took out a
patent for a weaving machine; for which
he obtained  from parliament a grant of
£10,000, and was  often rewarded with
prizes for his inventions.  For the last 30
years of his life, he was employed in plans
for propelling  carriages and  boats  by
steam.  He died in 1824.
   Cartwright, John, an English gen-
 tleman, celebrated for his exertions in the
 cause of political  reform, was  born in
 1740,  at Marnham,  Nottinghamshire, of
 an ancient family.   His early education
 was rather deficient; but he made some
 progress in mechanics and practical math-
 ematics.  He entered the navy, and be- 
548
CARTWRIGHT—CARVER.
came a first lieutenant in 1766.  In 1774,
his attention was turned to politics.  In
his Letters on American Independence,
written in this year, he advocated a union
between  the  colonies  and the  mother
state, under separate legislatures, and ar-
gued this  great question on the founda-
tion of natural, inherent right; maintain-
ing " that the liberty of man is not derived
from charters, but from God, and  that it
is  original in every one."  In 1775, he
was appointed major of the Nottingham-
shire militia, and, after several ineffectual
attempts, on the part  of government, to
remove him from that post, his dismission
was finally accomplished, in 1792, in con-
sequence of an act of parliament.  In the
American war, lord Howe was desirous
of having him with him in America";  but
major Cartwright, although always eager
for promotion in the  navy, refused  the
proposal, alleging that  he could not fight
in  a cause which he disapproved.—From
t.'.is time, he devoted himself to the two
great objects  of annual parliaments and
universal suffrage.  In 1779, he succeed-
ed in the  establishment of a Society for
Constitutional Infonnation, and was  the
author of a Declaration of Rights, distrib-
uted by the society,  which, sir William
Jones said, " ought to be written in letters
of gold."—The  French revolution  was
warmly welcomed by  Cartwright, as by
other friends of liberty.  The alliance of
the sovereigns, which  soon followed, he
considered equally ineconcilable with
policy and with national justice.  The sub-
sequent prosecutions  against the friends
of reform, the fate of Muir and of Holt,
occasioned no small dismay among  the
people.  In the  trials  of Tooke, Hardy,
Thelwall  and others, Cartwright took a
great interest, was present as  a witness,
and  displayed much  openness, fearless-
ness and firmness.  By his writings, pub-
lic addresses, &c,  he  continued to pro-
mote the  work of reform  and constitu-
tional liberty; and, as late as 1819, he
was tried for conspiracy and sedition, for
advising the inhabitants of Birmingham
to  send what he called tlieir " legislatorial
attorney" to the  house; but he escaped
with a fine of £100.—Major Cartwright
was not a poUtical reformer only. The
plan of making the slave-trade piracy, is
said to have been  first developed in  his
Letters on the  Slave-Trade.   The  in-
formation which he furnished  to  Daines
Barrington respecting the possibility of
approaching the  north pole ; his plan for
a perpetual supply of English oak  for the
navy,  which  has since  been partially
adopted, and several other useful projects
and inventions,  are sufficient evidences
of his enterprise, activity and diversified
knowledge.  He died in 1824, in the 84th
year of his age.  He has been described
as alike just in all the  relations of life, as
a citizen, a politician, a husband and a
friend; disinterested, firm and fearless;
and Fox, upon presenting one of his peti-
tions to the house, remarked,  " He is one,
whose enlightened  mind  and profound
constitutional  knowledge  place  him  in
the highest rank of public characters, and
whose purity of principle, and consistency
of  conduct through Ufe,  command  the
most respectful attention to his opinions."
The most prominent traits of his charac-
ter are  enterprise,  firmness  and perse-
verance.   He was a fruitful writer, quick,
ingenious,  powerful  in  argument, and
sometimes  eloquent.   His language is
plain, pure and strong.
  Carver, Jonathan,  was born in Con-
necticut,  in 1732.  He embraced a mili-i
tary career,  and,  in  the  French  war,
commanded with reputation  a company
of  provincials, in the expedition across
the lakes, against Canada.  When peace
was concluded,  in  1763, captain  Carver
undertook  to explore  the  vast territory
which Great Britain  had  goined.   His
object was, to acquire  a knowledge of the
manners, customs,  languages, soil, and
natural productions of the nations and
region beyond  the Mississippi,  and  to
ascertain the breadth of the continent by
penetrating  to the Pacific over its widest
part, between N. lat.  43°  and 46°.  He
accordingly set out  from Boston in 1766,
and, having reached  Michillimackinac, die
remotest  English  post, applied to Mr.
Rogers, the  governor, for  an  assortment
of  goods,  as  presents for the  Indians
dwelling  in the  parts through which his
course was to be directed.  Receiving a
portion of the supply which  he  desired,
and a promise that the residue should be
sent to him at the  falls of St. Anthony,
he  continued his journey. But, not ob-
taining the goods at the appointed place,
in consequence of their having been dis-
posed of elsewhere  by those to whom the
governor had intrusted them, he  found it
necessary to return  to la Prairie du Clrien.
He then, in the beginning ofthe year 1767,
directed  his steps northward, with a view
of  finding  a communication from  the
heads of the Mississippi into lake Supe-
rior, in order to  meet, at the  grand port-
age on the north-west side of that  lake,
the traders  that  usually come, about this
season, from MichiUimackinac, from whom 
CARVER—CARY.
549
he intended to purchase  goods, and then
to pursue his journey.   He reached lake
Superior in good time; but, unfortunately,
the traders whom he met there could not
furnish him with any goods, as they had
barely enough for  their own  purposes,
and,  in consequence, he was obliged to
return to the place whence  he first de-
parted, which he did in October,  1768,
after remaining some months on the north
and east borders of lake  Superior, and
exploring the bays  and rivers that empty
themselves into that  body of water.  He
soon after repaired to England, with the
view of publishing his journal and charts,
and of obtaining a reimbursement for the
expenses which he had incuned.  Having
undergone a long examination before  the
lords commissioners of trade and planta-
tions, he received  permission to pubUsh
his papers;  but, when they were nearly
ready for  the press, an  order was issued
from the council-board,  requiring him to
deUver  immediately into the plantation-
office all  his charts and  journals.   He
was, consequently, obliged to re-purchase
them, at a great expense, from  the  book-
seller to whom he had disposed of them—
a loss for which he received no indemni-
fication, but  was  forced to be  satisfied
with that obtained for his other expenses.
He had fortunately kept copies of his pa-
pers, and he published them ten years
afterwards, in Boston, while in the situa-
tion of clerk of a lottery.   Having sold
his  name to a  historical  compilation,
which was  published in  1779,  in folio,
entitled  The  New  Universal  Traveller,
containing an account of all the empires,
kingdoms and states in the known world,
he was abandoned by those whose duty
it was to  support  him,  and  died in want
of the  common necessaries of life, in
1780, aged 48 years.—Besides  his travels
above noticed, captain  Carver published
a tract on the culture of tobacco.
   Gary, Lucius (viscount Falkland), one
of those rare characters  who serve as pro-
verbial instances of social excellence, was
born about the year 1610.  Being canied
young into  Ireland, he  received part of
his  education at Trinity college, Dublin,
and part at St. John's college, Cambridge.
His youth did not pass without inegular-
ities, but they were suddenly closed by
his marriage with a young lady of small
fortune,  whom  he  passionately  loved.
After passing some time  abroad,  he re-
turned  home, and  devoted  himself to a
Ufe of retirement, and  the cultivation of
polite literature.   In 1633, he  was ap-
pointed one ofthe gentlemen of the bed-
chamber to Charles I, but stiU chiefly
resided  at his seat at Burford, near Ox-
ford, which he made a kind of academy
of learned men, being continually sur-
rounded by the most eminent men of the
neighboring universities.   Here it was
that Chillingworth composed his famous
work against popery; and questions of
morals,  theology and literature were dis-
cussed,  in a congenial circle, with the
utmost freedom.  Lord Falkland himself
was deeply read in works of controversy;
but in him they produced only strictness
of principle, and an  aspiration after per-
fection, without debasing  the man in the
exaltation of the  scholar.  In  1639, he
joined the expedition against Scotland;
and, in 1640, his peerage being Scotch,
he was chosen member of the house of
commons for Newport,  in the  Isle of
Wight.  In the first instance, like many
of the  most honorable characters of the
day,  he  warmly supported  parUament.
He spoke with severity against Finch and
Strafford, and was so disgusted with the
proceedings of Laud, that he concuned
in the first bill for depriving the bishops
of a vote in the house of lords.  A strong
attachment, however, to estabUshed forms,
and some doubts  of the  ultimate objects
ofthe parliamentary leaders, caused him
to retract; and he afterwards strongly op-
posed the same measure.   He still, how-
ever, kept at  a distance from the court;
but his high character rendered it so great
an object to gain him over to the king's
service, that at length he  was induced  to
accept a seat in the  council, and  the office
of secretary of state.  While in office, he
refused to employ spies or open suspected
letters.   He very decidedly embraced the
party of the king, when  hostilities com-
menced,  and attended him at the battle
of Edge-hill, and the siege of Gloucester.
A view, however, of the  evils impending
over the country, and,  very probably, a
conviction  of sinister objects  on  both
sides, broke his spirits.  He would fre-
 quently sit abstracted among  his friends,
and, sighing  deeply, exclaim, " Peace,
peace!" and exhibit every sign of grief
and anxiety.   His  closing scene almost
 proves a detennination to die in battle, as
 he volunteered his  services at  the battle
 of Newbury, without a  command, and,
 putting himself in the front rank  of lord
 Byron's regiment,  was  struck  from his
 horse by a musket-shot and was found,
 the next day, dead  upon  the field.—Such
 was the fate of lord Falkland, at the age
 of 34; and, while  the universal praises
 which  he has received are, doubtless, very 
550
CARY—CASANOVA.
much  owing to the elaborate character
drawn of him  by his friend Clarendon,
there can be no doubt of the strict integ-
rity of his character and intentions.  As
a man  of active talent, he claims little ad-
miration, and  was  evidently framed for
that life of studious retirement and  men-
tal culture in which he so much delight-
ed.  One of his sayings marks his taste
and character—" I pity unlearned gentle-
men on  a  rainy day."   Lord Falkland
left behind him several published speeches
and pamphlets on poUtical and theologi-
cal subjects, as also a few poems.
  Caryatides ; a kind  of pillars, which
represent the upper part of female bodies.
The name is of Greek origin.  The god-
dess Diana, who had a temple in Karyatis,
a Peloponnesian city, was, for this reason,
called Karyatis.  In honor of her, virgins
danced in  a  festive procession, on  the
feast of Karyatis,  which  suggested to
architects the idea of adopting the image
of Virgins in a kind  of column which
ornamented the Pantheon. Thus Lessing
explains the name and form ofthe Caryat-
ides.  Another explanation of the origin
of Caryatides is the following: The in-
habitants of Carya, a city of Pelopon-
nesus, allied themselves with the barba-
rians in the Persian war.   The  Greeks,
on  the successful  termination  of that
struggle, exterminated the males of Carya,
and  reduced aU the women to  slavery.
The  captives, as a further mark of infamy,
were forbidden to lay aside the robes in
which they had decorated the conquerors'
triumph ; and  die architects of the time,
to perpetuate the memory of the transac-
tion, made statues representing  these
women in the servUe office of supporting
entablatures.  (See Architecture, i. 340.)
  Casa, Giovanni  della, an  Italian poet
and orator, of an ancient and noble family
of MugeUo, near Florence, was born 1503,
studied at Bologna, Padua,  Rome,  and
entered, as an ecclesiastic, into the service
of the two cardinals Alessandro Farnese,
the first of whom, in 1534, ascended the
papal chair, under the name of Paul III.
He rose  through various offices in the
church, tiU Paul IV made him his private
secretary.  He died probably in 1556.  His
most celebrated work is Galateo, owero
de3 Costumi,  to which one,  Degli  uffizi,
Communi tra gli Amid Superiori t Infe-
riori, fonns a  supplement.   This last is
a translation of his Latin treatise, De OJjU-
dis inter Polentiores et Tenuiores  Amicos.
The  best and  most complete edition of
his works appeared  at Venice, 1752, in 3
vols., 4to.
   Casanova, Francis, a painter famous for
his battle-pieces, born at London, 1730,
went,  while a boy, to Venice, where he
applied himself to the art of painting. He
afterwards obtained admission  into the
academy in Dresden, and  painted several
pieces for the prince Conde.  The spirit
and Uveliness of his coloring and execu-
tion cannot be surpassed.  At the request
of Catharine of Russia, he painted, in Vien-
na, a piece representing the victory of this
princess over the Turks, which she after-
wards put up in her palace.  He was con-
stantly occupied with his art, and died at
Bruhl, near Vienna,  1805.—His brother
John, likewise a painter, was  bom 1729,
at London; died, 1795, at Dresden, where
he was professor and  superintendent in
the academy of painting, and had instruct-
ed many able pupils in his art.  His work
on the Ancient Monuments of Art, pub-
Ushed in Italian, and also in German (Leip-
sic, 1771),  is stiU in esteem.
   Casanova,  John James  de Seingalt;
eldest  brother of the preceding; born at
Venice, 1725; known by his Memoirs as
an original and gay-tempered man, who
acted an interesting part in all situations,
amongst all classes  of society, and in all
the large  cities of Europe.  His various
adventures are related by himself in  a
most entertaining manner.  They were
first published, in part, at Leipsic, 1826,
in  a German  translation.   The French
original has since appeared.  His father,
Cajetan John James, a descendant of the
Spanish family of Palafox, falling in love
with a dancer, turned actor, but afterwards
united himself with the daughter of  a
shoemaker, Fanosi, who followed the pro-
fession of her husband. James Casanova,
their eldest son, received the rudiments of
his education in Padua, and made rapid
progress in the Latin language, as well as
in the  other branches of learning.   His
ardent  temperament,  early  developed,
soon, however, involved him in many ad-
ventures, that  served  to sharpen his ob-
servation, and enlarge his  knowledge of
human nature.  He studied law, and, in
his 16th year, wrote two  dissertations;
one, De Testamentis,  the  other  on  the
question,  Utrum  Hebrcei posrint constru-
ere novas   Synagogas.  His  talent  for
shining in society introduced him, at Ven-
ice, into the select circles, in which a re-
fined but  frivolous tone of manners pre-
vailed.  The  patriarch of Venice gave
him the inferior ordination, and his first
sermon was received with  general  ap-
plause.  But he failed in his second; and
from this  period  commences his restless 
CASANOVA—LAS CASAS.
551
 career, in which he became entangled in
 a series  of love adventures, that can be
 understood only from  his memoirs.  He
 is anested in Venice, comes into personal
 contact  with  pope  Benedict  XIV at
 Rome, goes to Constantinople, is in the
 miUtary  service at Corfu,  and,  in short,
 visits all the principal cities of Europe,
 being  continually  connected with  the
 highest personages, is followed and ca-
 ressed, till at last he accompanies the count
 of Waldstein to Dux, in Bohemia, where
 he becomes his librarian.  He  died at
 Vienna, in 1803.  The escape of Casanova
 from  the  lead prisons  of Venice  was
 managed with admirable address and in-
 genuity.  He has  left several works in
 Italian and French, which  give  proof of
 the great powers of this  Proteus, though
 he was more  at home  in the  bustling
 world than hi the pursuits  of  learning.
 Of these may be mentioned Confutazione
 della Storia del Goberno Veneto  d'Amelot
 de la Houssaie, divisa in tre Parti (Am-
 sterdam,  1769);  Istoria delle Turbulenze
 della Polonia dalla Morte di Elisabet Pe-
 trowna fino  alia pace fra la Russia  e la
 Porta  Ottomana,  in cui d trovano tutli gli
 Avenimenti  Cagioni della  Rivoluzione di
 quel Regno (Gratz, 1774, 3 vols.); Histoire
 de ma Fuite des Prisons de la Republique de
 Venise, qu' on appelle les Plomos  (Prague,
 1788).  His memoirs are a mirror ofthe
 manners of his time.
   Casas, Bartholomew de  las, a Spanish
((prelate, was born at Seville in 1474, and,
 in his  19th year, accompanied his father,
 who sailed with Columbus, to the West
 Indies.  Five years afterwards, he return-
 ed to Spain, and, pursuing his studies, en-
 tered  the ecclesiastical order.   He again
 accompanied  Columbus  in  his second
 voyage to Hispaniola, and, on the con-
 quest  of Cuba, settled there, and distin-
 guished  himself by his humane conduct
 towards  the  oppressed natives, of whom
 he became, in a manner, the patron.  He
 set at  liberty the Indians who had fallen
 to his  share in the division; and so much
 was he interested for them, that, in 1516,
 he went  to  Spain to lay a statement of
 their case before king  Ferdinand, whose
 death,  at that time, prevented any meas-
 ures for their redress. The regent, cardinal
 Ximenes, however, appointed a commis-
 sion to examine  circumstances upon the
 spot, and to determine  accordingly.  Las
 Casas  was to accompany them,  with the
 tide of protector of the  Indians.   The
 commissioners found that it was impos-
 sible to liberate the Indians, and therefore
 endeavored to secure them humane treat-
ment ; but  Las Casas, still  dissatisfied,
remonstrated so  warmly,  that  he was
obliged to take refuge in a convent, from
the rage of the planters.  He again return-
ed  to Europe, and, on the accession  of
Charles V, in consequence  of his repre-
sentations, the council appointed a chief
judge, to reexamine the points of contro-
versy between  the partisans of Indian
liberty and the  colonists.  Las Casas, by
a singular inconsistency, in his zeal  for
the  Indians, became the author of the
slave-trade, by proposing to purchase Ne-
groes from  the Portuguese in Africa, to
supply the planters with laborers, of the
want of  whom they  complained; and
this was unfortunately put into execution.
He next appUed for a grant of an unoc-
cupied tract, in order to try his own plan
with a new colony.  This he at length
obtained,  and, with 200 persons, whom
he  persuaded to accompany him, landed
at Porto Rico in 1521,  but found that  an
expedition was advancing to ravage this
very tract, and convey its inhabitants to
Hispaniola as slaves.  He endeavored in
vain to prevent the threatened danger, and,
with  the  few who still adhered to him,
returned to Hispaniola to solicit succor.
During his absence, the natives  attacked
the colonists with such success, that, in a
short time, not a Spaniard remained in that
part of South  America.  Las Casas, in
despair at the failure of his project, retir-
ed  to the  Dominican  convent at   St.
Domingo, and assumed the habit of the
order. Notwithstanding  his retirement,
his zeal in the cause of die  Indians did
not abate; and, being sent on a mission to
Spain, by a chapter of his order at Chiapa,
in 1542,  he pleaded their cause  with  his
pristine warmth,  and composed his  fa-
mous treatise Brevisrima Relacion de la De-
struction des Indes, in which he exposed
the cruelties practised by the Spaniards.
His  unremitting perseverance at length
obtained a new set of laws and regulations,
by which  the natives were greatly reliev-
ed.  In 1544, he returned to America as
bishop of Chiapa, and continued there
until 1551, when he resigned his bishop-
ric, and again returned  to  Spain.   He
died at  Madrid in 1556, in the 92d year
of his age.  Besides the treatise above-
named, he was also the author of a trea-
tise, in Latin, on the question—" Whether
sovereigns may in  conscience, by virtue
of any right, ahenate their subjects from
their crown, and transfer them to the do-
minion of any other lord ?" which difficult
question he treats with  great freedom,
spirit and delicacy.  He also composed 
552
LAS CASAS—CASE-HARDENING.
several works which have  never been
 gublished, among  which is a General
 [istory of the Indies, which was a great
assistance to Antonio de  Henera in  his
history.  All  his works evince profound
learning, and  solid  judgment, and piety ;
and, notwithstanding his  great inconsist-
ency in regard to  the Negroes, he must
be regarded  as a  very benevolent man,
and a lover of mankind.
  Casaubon, Isaac de (commonly called
Casaubonus),  born Feb. 18, 1559, at Ge-
neva, of a family  from  Dauphiny, was
educated by  his father, a clergyman.   In
lus 9th year, he spoke Latin fluently.   In
his 19th year, he entered the university at
Geneva, where he  studied jurisprudence,
theology, and the Oriental languages, and,
in 1582, succeeded Portus as professor of
the Greek  language.  He here married
the  daughter of  Henry  Stephens, and
published, every year, editions of Greek
and Latin authors,  with critical notes and
translations.  In 1596, he accepted a pro-
fessorship of Greek  and belles-lettres at
Montpellier, but held it only  two years.
Henry IV invited him to Paris.   His re-
ligious principles (the same as those for
which his father had left his country), the
jealousy ofthe other professors, and per-
haps his rather unyielding character, were
the occasion  of many unpleasant occur-
rences, for which, however, he was in-
demnified by the office of royal librarian.
After the death of  Henry IV, he followed
sir Henry  Wotton,  envoy extraordinary
from James I, to England, where he was
received with distinction, had two bene-
fices and a pension conferred on him, and
died at London, July 1, 1614.  He was
buried in Westminster abbey.  Casaubon
was a liberal  theologian, a man of exten-
sive learning, a good translator,  and  an
excellent critic.  As  a critic, he bas com-
mented on Diogenes Laertius, Aristotle,
Theophrastus, Suetonius, Persius, Polyb-
ius, Theocritus, Strabo, Dionysius of Hal-
icarnassus,  Athenaeus, Pliny the Younger,
&.c  Nearly  all the ancient classics are
indebted to his valuable researches.   His
profound dissertation on  the  satirical
poetry ofthe  Greeks and the satire ofthe
Romans (De Satyrica Grmcorum Poeri et
Romanorum  Satyra)  deserves particular
praise.  His  theological  writings are  of
less value.
   Casaubon, Meric,  son ofthe preceding,
born at  Geneva,  1599,  Ukewise distin-
guished himself by his learning.   He fol-
lowed his father  to England, and was
made  doctor of divinity at  Oxford.  He
fiUed successively several offices in the
church,  when   the  revolution,  which
brought Charles I to the scaffold, deprived
him of his income.  Still he rejected the
proposal of Cromwell to write the history
of his time, as also the invitation of queen
Christina  to  live in Sweden.   On  the
return of the Stuarts,  he was rewarded
for his loyalty by restoration to his office
hi the church, which lie held till his death,
1671.  His learning  was various and ex
tensive, but  not so profound  as his fa
ther's.  He published, besides his theolo-
gical works, observations on several clas-
sic  authors; e. g., Terence,  Epictetus,
Florus, Polybius, &c.
  Casco Bay ; a bay in Maine, between
cape  Elizabeth on W.  S. W. and  cape
Small Point on E. N.  E.  Within these
capes, which are  about 20 miles apart,
there are  about 300  small islands;  most
of which are  cultivated, and are much
more productive than the main land on
the coast of Maine.  Portland harbor  is
on the W. side ofthe bay.
  Case, Action upon  the.  Actio super
causam is a  general action, given for the
redress of a wrong done any man without
force, and not especially provided for by
law, in order to have satisfaction for dam-
age.  This is called an action on the case,
because  the  whole cause or case is set
down in the  writ; and there is no  other
action given in the case, except where
the plaintiff has his choice to bring this
or another action.  This action lies in a
variety of instances; as  for words spoken
or written, which affect  a persons life,
reputation, office or trade, or tend to his
loss of preferment in marriage or service,
or to his  disinheritance, or which occa-
sion him any particular  damage.  Action
on  the  case likewise  lies upon an as-
sumpsit, (q. v.)  It lies, also, in all in-
stances wherein no general action could
be framed ;  e. g., against carriers; against
a common innkeeper, for goods stolen  in
his house;  for  deceit  in contracts, bar-
gains and sales; for neglect  or  malfea-
sance ; for injuries done in commons; for
maUcious prosecution  and  false anests;
against sheriffs, for default in executing
writs, permitting escapes,  &c;  for con-
spiracy, nuisances, &c. &c
  Case, in grammar.  (See Language.)
  Case-hardening is a process by which
iron is  superficially converted into  steel,
in such  articles as require the toughness
of the former,  conjointly  with the hard-
ness ofthe latter substance. The articles
intended for case-hardening are first man-
ufactured in hon,  and are then placed  in
an iron box, with vegetable  or animal 
CASE-HARDENING—CASHMERE GOAT.
553
coals in powder, to undergo cementation.
Immersion of the heated pieces into wa-
ter  hardens  the  surface, which is  after-
wards  polished.   Coarse files and gun-
barrels are among the articles most com-
monly  case-hardened.
  Casemates (from the Spanish casa, a
house,  and mature, to kill), in fortification ;
vaults  which are proof against bombs,
under the main wall, particularly in bas-
tions, for the purpose  of  defending  the
moat of a fortification, also for making
countermines.  They serve,  at the same
time, as a place for keeping  the heavy-
ordnance, and,  in case of necessity, as
habitations for the garrison.
  Case-shot, in artillery, is formed by
putting a quantity of small iron balls  into
a cylindrical tin  box, called a canister,  that
just fits the bore of the gun.  In case of
necessity, the canister is filled with brok-
en pieces of iron, nails, stones, &,c  The
cose is  closed  at both ends  by wood.
Shot of this  sort  are thrown from cannons
and howitzers.   In sieges, sometimes, in-
stead of cases, bags are used.  This kind
of  shot is very injurious  to the enemy,
because the  balls contained in the canis-
ter spread, diverging in proportion to  the
distance.  The amount of divergence is, to
the distance  which the shot reaches, gene-
rally in the proportion of 1 to 10; thus, at
the distance of  600 paces, they make  a
circle of 60  paces diameter.  The canis-
ters used in the Prussian army contain
balls of 1, lt\, 3, 4,  6, 8 and  12  ounces
and of 1 pound.   The distance which the
shot will reach  varies according to  the
weight and number of  the balls.  A  six-
pounder shoots  canister balls of 1 ounce
from 200  to  500  paces;   twelve   and
twenty-four-pounders  shoot  balls of  1
pound 800 to 1000  paces.  The number
of  the balls  varies according to their
weight.
  Cases, Emanuel, count of.  (See  Las
Cases »\
  Cashmere (17,291 sq. miles, 2,000,000
inhabitants) in Hindostan, now a province
of the Afghan state of Cabul, in Asia, is a
very celebrated valley,  sunounded by the
gigantic mountains of Asia, the Himalaya
and Hindoo Koh, and  traversed  by the
river Behat or Chelum  (formerly Hydas-
pes).   From three sides, seven passes only
lead to this region ;  to the east, the Hima-
laya presents an insurmountable barrier of
snow.   The splendor and subUmity of the
diadem of snow-capped mountains,  the
beauty and  richness of the hills, which
form the ascent  to the  higher peaks,  it is
i mpossible to describe.  The elevated situ-
  vol. n.          47
ation of the valley, and the mountains of
snow which surround  it, render the cU-
mate rather cold; but it is, on the whole,
moderate and mild. This region, so rich in
romantic scenery, is watered by numerous
streams, and is blessed with an abundance
of the finest productions.  The Asiatics,
therefore, call it die paradise of India, the
Jlower-garden,  and the  garden of eternal
spring.  The hills  are covered with for-
ests and Alpine pastures; at the foot of
these are  fields of com ; along the sides
of the rivers, rice is planted;  rich orchards
extend over the foremost range of hills ;
mulbeny  trees are cultivated in abun-
dance, for the support of silk-worms, and
are entwined  with vines,  from whose
grapes wine, very  similar to  Madeira, is
prepared.   The fruits of warm climates
do not ripen here.  The vaUey is famous
for its flowers, with which all the gardens
and  meadows  abound.  Violets, roses,
narcissuses, and innumerable European
flowers, besides many that are  not known
in Europe, grow wild.  The  inhabitants
are Hindoos, of the religion  of Brama,
although they are under the dominion of
the Afghans, who profess the Mohamme-
dan religion.   Their language  is a dialect
ofthe Sanscrit.  They  manufacture theh
celebrated  shawls in  great  perfection.
The wool which they use for this purpose
conies from Thibet and Tartary, in which
countries, only, the goat, from  which it is
taken, is  said  to  thrive.  About 80,000
shawls are made yearly, in 16,000 looms,
each of which employs 3 workmen.  The
capital, Cashmere (likewise  Serinagur),
the largest town in the  whole  empire of
Afghanistan, is situated  on  the Behat,
and contains 200,000 inhabitants.
   Cashmere Goat, a nobler species of the
common goats, is descended from the
goat of Thibet, which pastures on the
Himalaya.  The cUmate in Thibet is sub-
ject  to sudden changes.  There is little
rain, but much snow, as the cold in winter
is below  the freezing  point   Thibet  is
situated at the northern descent of the
Himalaya mountains, and Cashmere  at
the southern;  hence  the latter is a Uttle
warmer than  Thibet   In Thibet, this
goat  is a  domestic  animal.   It is not
allowed a  very luxuriant pasture.  The
favorite food of these  animals is  buds,
aromatic plants, rue and heath.  The
people of Thibet give their goats, at least
once a week, some salt, which  has always
proved  a useful  accompaniment to the
customary food of these animals.  If they
are transferred from theh cold, mountain-
ous abode into a  warmer  country, the 
554
CASH3IERE GOAT—CAS1MIR.
natural  consequence  follows, that  the
wool  becomes inferior in quantity  and
fineness.   It grows, also, very slowly in
the warm part of the year,  and more
vigorously as the cold season approaches.
The head ofthe Asiatic goat is large, the
horns situated backwards, and somewhat
curved,  the  legs slender.  The colder
the region where the animal pastures, the
heavier is its fleece.    Proper food  and
careful tending increase the fineness of
the wool.  Yearlings, as in the case with
the Merino sheep, afford the finest wool.
A fuU-grown goat yields not more than 8
ounces.   The goats which pasture in the
highest  vales  of Thibet have  a bright
ochre color.  In  lower grounds, the color
becomes of a  yellowish-white, and, still
farther downwards, entirely white.   The
highest mountains of the Himalaya, in-
habitable by man, contain also a kind of
goats  with black wool, which,  in India,
and in the mountainous  country of the
goats, obtains the highest price, as a mate-
rial for shawls.   The goats of Thibet and
Cashmere have the fine curled wool close
to the skin, just as the under-hair of our
common goat  lies  below the coarse  up-
per-hair.  The wool is shorn in the spring,
shortly before the warm season—the time
when the animal, in  its natural state,
seeks thorns and hedges  in order to free
itself  from the burden of its worm cover-
ing.  All  the  hard and  long hairs are
picked out most carefully.   The wool,
thus purified, is washed, first in a warm
solution of potash, and afterwards in  cold
water, in which process felting must be
carefully  avoided.  It  is then bleached
upon  the gra6s, and carded for spinning.
The shawl-wool is three times dyed—
before carding, after spinning, and in the
shawl.  The Asiatics avoid spinning the
wool  hard, in order that the shawl may be
soft.  They use a spindle, which consists
of a  ball of clay,  with an  iron wire at-
tached.   The finger and the thumb of the
spinner are kept  smooth by steatite pow-
der.  A large shawl, of the finest quality,
requires  5 pounds of the wool; one of
inferior  quality, from  3 to  4 pounds.
Maui, in London, has invented a machine,
which spins this wool, in a very simple
way,  finer than can be done by the best
spindles of Thibet, and, at the same time,
of a firmer thread.  The flesh of the Cash-
mere goat tastes as  well as  that of the
common ene; and its milk  is as  rich,
if it  is  well  tended.  Since 1820, this
species has been introduced into France,
and succeeds  very weU.  The enterpris-
ing baron Ternaux (q. v.) ordered  1289
of these goats to be brought to France
(1820), under the care  of the celebrated
professor of Oriental languages in Paris,
Amadee  Joubert.  Joubert found  these
goats  already spread from  Cashmere to
the Ural, over Bucharia, in Independent
Tartary,  purchased  them in the deserts
there, and transported them over the Volga
along the coast to Theodosia, in the Crimea,
where they were put  on board vessels
to be carried to France.  On the voyage,
which lasted a long time, a great number
died: there  remained, however,  more
than  400 healthy animals, which  were
sent from Toulon and  Marseilles, partly
to the Pyrenees of Roussillon,  partly to
the lime-hills of Provence, and to the
pastures of Alsatia and Rambouillet
  Cashna, or Cassina, or  Kassina ;  a
city  in  Africa,   capital of a  kingdom,
between  Bornou and  Timbuctoo;  220
miles W. N. W. Bomou, 690 E. S. E. Tim-
buctoo ;  lon. 11° 34' E. ; lat 16° 307 N.
A large proportion ofthe country of Cash-
na consists of land of great fertility, inter-
spersed   with  arid  wastes.  Cashna is
level, and said to contain 1000 towns and
villages.  The monarch is called sultan of
all Soudan, i. e. Negroland.  The princi-
pal articles of traffic are senna, gold dust,
slaves, cotton cloths, goat skins, ox and
buffalo hides, and civet  Cashna has no
salt lakes or mines, but is  suppUed with
salt from Bornou.
  Ca9hoo ;  the  common  name of the
anacardium occidentale  of Lin. ; a native
of Bohar.  The fruit of the tree is called
cashoo-nut.  The expressed juice makes
a pleasant wine; and  an aromatic and
medicinal drug is prepared by a decoc-
tion and maceration of several parts of the
tree, afterwards consolidated by evapora-
tion.  The Indians chew it.  The Euro-
peons employ it  as a  digestive, and a
soother of coughs.
  Casimir III, the Great, king of Poland,
son of Uladislaus Loketek,  distinguished
himself by his valor, under the reign of
his father, who had  commissioned him to
take revenge on the knights of the  Teu-
tonic order ;  and, that he might learn the
art of governing, made him regent of
Great Poland.  In 1333, he ascended the
throne, and  had many contests with the
Teutonic knights, made himself master
of Litde Russia, which had formerly be-
longed  to Poland, conquered Silesia, re-
pelled the Tartars, who had advanced to
Poland,  and the Bohemians,  who  at-
tempted to gain possession of Silesia, as a
fief of Bohemia.  He died in 1370, with-
out children, having named a son of the 
CASIMIR—CASSANDER.
555
king of Hungary his  successor, in 1339.
He caused a new code of laws to be com-
piled, and  protected  the  peasants with
much energy, on which account he was
called the peasants' king.   He had  a great
number of mistresses, among whom was
a Jewess, named Esther,  who procured
for her nation those liberties which they
enjoy in Poland to the present day.   With
Casimir, the line ofthe Piasti, which had
ruled in Poland for 523  years, became
extinct.   From that time, the Poles chose
foreigners for their  kings, and thus laid
the foundation of the troubles which dis-
tracted die kingdom till its final ruin.
  Casino, in Germany, is used to  signify
a clubhouse.  They are now to be found
in almost every place  of middUng popu-
lation.
  Casiri, Michael, a  learned Orientalist
and Syro-Maronite  clergyman, was born
at Tripoli, in Syria, 1710, came to Rome,
where  he studied  in  the  college  of St.
Peter and St.  MarcelUno, and, in 1734,
entered the clerical  profession.  The fol-
lowing year, he accompanied the learned
Assemanni to Syria, where he was going,
at the  command of the  pope, to  attend
the synod of the Maronites, and, in 1738,
gave, at Rome, an  exact  account of the
religious tenets ofthe  Maronites.   He af-
terwards taught,  in his  monastery, the
Arabic,  Syrian and Chaldee languages,
theology and  philosophy;  and,  in the
year 1748, was  invited to  Madrid, where
he was appointed to an office in the royal
Ubraiy.   In 1749,  he devoted his atten-
tion, by the king's  orders, to the  library
ofthe Escurial, of which he subsequently
became the superintendent.  Here  he
collected the materials  for his celebrated
work, Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispana (Ma-
drid, 1760—70, 2 vols., folio), which enu-
merates, in 1851 articles, the manuscripts
of the  Escurial library, perhaps the rich-
est in   Europe  in  Arabic  manuscripts.
This work, though not entirely free from
enors,  contains very important informa-
tion  and valuable extracts, and is  indis-
pensable to every Orientalist.  Casiri died
at Madrid in 1791.
  Caspian Sea ; a  large lake, or inland
sea, in  Asia; bounded N. by Russia, E.
by Tartary and Persia, S. by Persia, and
W. by Persia, Circassia and Russia; 646
miles in length from  N. to S., and from
100 to 265 in breadth; supposed to be
die largest lake in the  eastern part of the
globe.   The water is less salt than that of
the ocean,  of  a bitter taste, and of an
ochre color, without ebb or  flow.  In
6ome places it is exceedingly deep, yet it
abounds in shallows, so as to prevent the
navigation of ships which draw more than
9 or 10 feet of water.  Among the rivers
which flow into it are the Volga, Ural and
Kur.   It has  no outlet.  The fisheries
here,  which are  very valuable,  occupy
and train many seamen.   The coasts are
divided  among  the Russians,  Persians
and Tartars.   The Caspian sea was, by
the ancients,  called the Hyrcanian sea ,-
the Tartars caU it Akdingis, i e. the White
sea; the  Georgians  caU  it the Kurtshen-
sian sea; and  by the Persians it is styled
Gursen.  The  level of the Caspian sea is
375 feet  lower than that of  the ocean.
The Truchmenes, on the shores of the
Caspian sea, assert, that the  lake Kuli-
Daria, which is connected with  the gulf
of Karabogaskoi, a part of the Caspian
sea, contains a whirlpool, which takes in
the water of the latter.  In fact, the cur-
rent from the Caspian sea into the gulf
of Karabogaskoi is very great  The most
recent information respecting the shores
of the Caspian sea is that given by Mu-
rawiew in his  Journey to Khiwa, in the
year 1819, in Russian.
  Cassander,  George, born in  1515, in
the island of Cadsand, or Cassand. near
Bruges, in  the Netherlands,  from which
he received his name, is celebrated for
his  endeavors  to  settle the disputes be-
tween reUgious  parties.   At  Bruges,
Ghent and Cologne, he studied,  and
taught philology,  the   canon law  and
Catholic theology, and accepted no pub-
lic office, on account of his ill health.  In
1561,  he published  a work  designed to
allay religious  disputes, in which his cen-
sure of Calvin  for his violence and intol-
erance drew upon him the attacks both
of Calvin and  Beza.  In 1564, he  was
employed by the duke of Cleves to con-
vert the Anabaptists. The emperor Fer-
dinand I  invited him to  Vienna, to com-
pose articles of union between the Catho-
lics and Protestants.  These he pubUshed,
under MaximiUan II, the successor of
Ferdinand—De Articulis Religionis inter
Catholicos et Protestantes Controversis ad
Impp. Ferd. I,  et Max. II, Consultatio, ed.
Hug.  Grot. (1642.)   Though a sincere
Catholic, he founded his opinions on the
doctrines ofthe old Christian fathers, and
showed his concurrence with the  Prot-
estants,  in  regard to  fundamental doc
trines, by proposing communion under
both  forms, the marriage of priests, the
abolition of image-worship, the reform of
many abuses,  and a modification of the
Catholic  system.   But  he asserted the
supremacy  of the pope, supported the 
556
CASSANDER—COURT OF CASSATION.
doctrine  of transubstantiation,  and the
importance of  the  sacrament,  ex  opere
operato.  His proposals were not relished
by the zealots of either party.   He died
at Cologne, in 1566, with the reputation
of a learned and liberal theologian.
  Cassandra, also Alexandra ; daugh-
ter of Priam and Hecuba, and twin-sister
of Helenus.  Both children, according to
tradition, were playing in the vestibule of
the temple ofthe Thymbrsean Apollo, not
far from Ilium; and, having staid there too
late to be carried home, a couch of laurel
twigs was  prepared for  them,  for the
night, in  the temple.  When the nurses
went to  them  the  next  morning, they
found  two  serpents at the side of the
children, which, instead of injuring them,
harmlessly licked their ears.  This mira-
cle  produced  a still greater  one; the
hearing of the children was rendered so
acute,  that they could  distinguish the
voices  of the  gods.  Cassandra subse-
quently spent much of her time in the
temple of  Apollo,  who, becoming en-
amored of  her  charms, disclosed to her
all the secrets of the prophetic art, and,
in return, demanded her love.  But Cas-
sandra, when her curiosity  was satisfied,
refused the dishonorable reward.  Apol-
lo, incensed at  this, put a  curse on her
prophesies, that they should  never find
beUef.   She frequently  and continually
foretold  the  destruction  of Troy, and
warned her countrymen in vain against
the  deceitful horse.  When  Troy  was
conquered, and Cassandra, with the other
maidens, fled to the temple of Minerva,
Ajax tore her from  the altar, deflowered
the virgin in the sacred place, and dragged
her away  to the  other  female slaves,
with her hands  tied.  On the division of
the  booty, she  fell to Agamemnon, who
canied her, as  his  slave and mistress, to
Mycene.   Clytemnestra murdered  them
both.   Agamemnon had twins by her—
Teledamus and Pelops.   The ancients
regarded this rape of Cassandra as a most
infamous atrocity.   It has often afforded
a subject to poets  and sculptors.  The
Locrians, the countrymen  of Ajax, were
afflicted, on this account, for many years,
with storms, and theh country  was deso-
lated with the plague.
  Cassas,  Louis Francis, bom in  1756,
inspector and  professor in the  Gobelin
manufactory, celebrated  as a  draughts-
man, is a pupil of Lagrenee, junior, and
Le Vien.  He travelled as companion of
the count of Choiseul-Gouffier, about 1770,
over Asia Minor, Palestine, Syria, a part
of Egypt,  Istria, Dalmatia, and Troas.
He compared the present topography of
those places with the accounts of the an-
cients,  took exact measurements  of the
finest remains of architecture, made draw-
ings of the  most remarkable places with
equal taste  and accuracy, and published
his labors, engraved by the  best masters,
in splendid  editions.  His Voyage Pitto-
resque  de la Syrie, de la Phenirie, de la
Palestine, et de la Basse Egypte  (1799 et
seq. 30 livraisons, folio, text by De la Porte
du  Theil),  is fully described by Landon
(ii., 133—6).  The original  drawings are
preserved in the kings library at Paris.
In his  Voyage Pittor. de I'Istrie et de la
Dalmatie, he has inserted a  journal and a
short history of this province, digested by
Joseph  la Vallee (Paris, 1802, grand fol.,
with engravings).
  Cassation ; a term used in the courts
on the continent of Europe.  It is derived
from the middle ages, and signifies the
annulling of any act or  decision, if the
forms prescribed by  law have been neg-
lected,  or if any thing is contained in it
contrary to law.
  Cassation, Court of (Cour de  Cassa-
tion) ; one of the most important institu-
tions of modern France,  which gives to
the whole  jurisdiction of  that country
coherency and uniformity, without endan-
gering  the necessary independence ofthe
courts.  It was established by the first
national assembly, and  has  been  pre-
served,  in every essential respect, under
all the  changes  ofthe revolution and res-
toration. It has been maintained even in
those districts which, by their union with
France, became subjected to French laws,
but, by the peace of Paris,  have become
part of the Prussian monarchy. In France,
as early as the reign of Louis IX (1226—
1272),  petitions  were presented  to the
king by appellants  from the decisions of
the courts.   In later times, appeals to the
parUaments, as  the highest  courts  of the
kingdom, came  into use, and theh decis-
ions were not liable to be set aside by the
ordinary forms  of law.   Yet the  parties
were allowed to dispute even these de-
cisions, if they were founded upon enors
of fact, or violated undisputed principles
of law; and, by an ordinance of 1302, it
was provided, that the parties should be
allowed royal letters for  the defence of
their rights against the decisions  of the
supreme courts (lettres de grace de dire
contre les arrets), which should be  issued
from the chancery (by the chanceUor of
France).  The  case was  then sent back
to the parliament for further investigation,
but  was examined and  decided  in the 
COURT OF CASSATION.
557
presence of the king himself or of a spe-
cial commissioner.  An abuse, however,
crept in, of transferring these cases to the
royal  council, where  they were decided
by  officers called  maitres  des requites.
These letters  received the  name of lettres
de proposition d'erreur, and, during the
civil commotions at the end of the 14th
centuiy, began  to  be more  frequently
presented to  the council, which, as  soon
as one party complained of  the partiality
ofthe parliaments, transferred the case to
its own  bar, and obstructed the course of
justice by lettres d'etat (suspensions ofthe
process, on the pretext of  the absence of
one of the parties in the  service of the
king).  Under the chancellor Poyet (1538
—1542), thi3 abuse reached its  highest
pitch; but the chancellors Olivier (1545
—1551) and Hopital (1560—1568), the two
great reformers of French jurisprudence,
limited  the use of these lettres, till, by the
ordinance of Blois  (1576), all the provis-
ions against  the decisions of the parlia-
ments were reduced to these three:—the
proposition d'erreur, for an error of fact;
requite  rivile, to restore  the  parties to
their former condition, on  account of the
fraud of one of the parties, or the mistakes
of the  attorney; and cassation  (petition
for abrogation),  for violation of forms or
settled principles of law.   By the famous
order of procedure of 1667, the first of
these provisions was  abolished,  but  the
province of the requite civile and cassation
was  enlarged,  and more  precisely de-
fined.  The  former was always brought
before the court itself,  and decided there,
the latter  before the council.  For this
purpose,  in  the conseil  prive,  or  cons.
des parties, a particular  committee was
formed, consisting ofthe  chancellor,  the
four secretaries of state (ministers of the
departments), the council  of state, and all
the maitres des requites (in 1789, 78 in
number). The decisions of this committee
were too much influenced by the will of
the king and the ministeis, and by vari-
ous other circumstances, so that they did
not enjoy great respect, though they often
exposed acts of great injustice on the part
of the parliament, and other high courts.
It was therefore aboUshed in the first na-
tional assembly, and its place supplied by
an independent court—the tribunal of cas-
sation (law of Nov. 27, 1790), which was
retained in all the constitutions, and re-
ceived,  under  the  imperial government,
(1804),  the name court of cassation, which
it still retains.  It consisted, according to
the organization of 1800,  of 48 members,
chosen  from  the senate, on the nomina-
                    47*
tion ofthe consuls, who elected theh own
president from among themselves.  The
appointment of president was afterwards
vested in the emperor.  In  the Charte
Constitutionnelle of 1814, the right of ap-
pointing the counsellors was vested in the
king; but they are not removable.  The
minister of justice or keeper of the seals
(garde des sceaux) has the right of presid-
ing when the tnbunal exercises its right
of censorship over the cours royales :  it
has, besides, a first president and three
presidents of sections.  This court never
decides on the  main question at issue,
but on the competency ofthe other courts,
and on the petitions to have their decisions
reviewed  or annulled,  and assigns the
question to another court, if a decision is
to be set aside for an evident violation of
the forms  or the principles of the law.
For this purpose, it is divided into three
sections:—the section des requites, which
decides on the admissibility of the peti-
tions  in civil cases;  the section de cassa-
tion civile;  and the section de cassation
criminelte.  After a decision has been re-
versed, if a second court decides the same
case in the same way, and an appeal  is
entered again, the court of cassation must
either request an authentic explanation of
the law from the government, or, at least,
all the three sections must unite, to pro-
nounce a  second reversal, or cassation ;
and if a third decision is the same as the
preceding, a repeated  petition for a re-
versal makes the authentic  explanation
indispensably necessary.  The sentences
of the court of cassation are not only re-
corded in the journals of the  courts, the
decisions of which are reversed, but pub-
lished likewise in an official bulletin, by
which  consistency  and uniformity are
preserved.   The tribunal of cassation has
enjoyed, from its commencement, the re-
spect  and  confidence  of France,  and
numbers among its  members several of
the  most  distinguished lawyers, as the
president Henrion de Pansey, the counsel-
lors Chabot, Merlin and Carnot—For the
Prussian province on the Rhine (the dis-
tricts of Cleves, Diisseldorf, Coblentz, Aix-
la-Chapelle, Treves and Cologne), by the
ordinance  of June 21,  1819,  a court of
revision and cassation was  established  at
Berlin (consisting of a president and 16
judges, among  whom is  professor  Sa-
vigny), which has under it the  court of
appeal at Diisseldorf (consisting of a pres-
ident, together with 32 other officers), and
six district courts (the former resembling
the French  royal courts,  die  latter the
French  tribunals of  original  jurisdic- 
558
COURT OF CASSATION—CASSINI.
 tion).   (See Appeal, Writs of Error, and
 Courts.)
   Cassava, or Cassada.  The cassava or
 cassada (jatropha manihot)  is  a  South
 American shrub, about  three feet in
 height, with broad, shining, and  some-
 what  hand-shaped leaves, and beautiful
 white and rose-colored flowers.  It is a
 very remarkable circumstance, that the
 roots of the cassava, if eaten raw,  are a
 fatal poison, both to man  and beast, and
 that, when prepared by heat, they yield a
 safe and valuable food;  on which, in-
 deed, many, both of the Indian and Eu-
 ropean inhabitants of South  America,
 almost wholly subsist.   The roots are the
 only edible parts ofthe plant.  These are
 white, soft and  farinaceous, from one to
 two feet in length, and five or six inches
 in circumference.  They are dug out of
 the earth, washed, stripped of their rind,
 and ground  to  a pulp.  The  juice, or
 poisonous part,  is carefully pressed out,
 and thrown away ; since cattle and other
 animals, which  "have  accidentally drank
 of it, have almost instantly died.   The
 flour that remains after pressure is  form-
 ed  into  thin,  round  cakes,  and  baked.
 To  a European,  accustomed  to  eat
 bread, these,  though sweetish  and not
 unpalatable, have  an insipid taste.   If
 placed in close vessels,  and preserved
 from the attacks of insects, cassava bread
 may be kept  for several months without
 injury.  With the natives of South Amer-
 ica, it  is not unusual to  throw a  great
 number of cakes of cassava together to
 heat; after which they soak them in wa-
 ter, which causes a rapid fermentation to
 take place ; and, from the  liquor thus ob-
 tained, they make a very sharp and disa-
 greeable, but intoxicating beverage, which
 will not keep longer than 24 hours with-
 out spoiling.   From  the pure  flour of
 cassava is formed  the substance  called
 tapioca, which  is frequently used for jelly,
 puddings,  and other culinary purposes.
 This is separated from the fibrous part of
the roots by taking a small quantity of the
pulp,  after the  juice  is extracted,  and
working it in the hand till  a  thick, white
cream appears  on the surface.  This, be-
ing  scraped  off and washed in water,
gradually subsides to the bottom.  After
the  water is poured off, the remaining
moisture is dissipated by a slow fire, the
substance  being  constantly stirred, until,
at length, it forms  into grains about the
siae  of sago.  These become hard by
keeping, and  are the purest and most
wholesome part of  the cassava.—The
roots of another species of this shrub,
 caUed sweet  cassava, are usually eaten
 with  butter,  after being roasted in  hot
 ashes.  They have  much the flavor of
 chestnuts, and are an agreeable and  nu-
 tritive food.
   Cassel, the residence of  the  elector
 of Hesse Cassel, lies on  the  Fulda;  lat.
 51° W 20" N.; lon. 9° 3S7  18" E.; and
 has 1586 houses and 23,300  inhabitants,
 among whom are 500 Jews.  One part
 of the city is quite  regular.  The river
 Fulda is navigable at this place. The
 situation .renders the climate pure and
 healthy.  It has 19 squares, 9 churches,
 and  many public buildings,  containing
 highly valuable  libraries, collections of
 works of art,  &c.  The gallery of paint-
 ings contains  some famous masterpieces.
 An observatory is likewise situated here.
 The city was much embelUshed under
 the government of Jerome, king of West-
 phaUa, whose capital it was till the disso-
 lution of this  kingdom, in October, 1813.
 The old eleetor again took possession of
 it, Nov. 21,1813.   About a league  distant
 is the summer palace, called  Willielms-
 hohe.  Cassel  has considerable manufac-
 tories.
   Cassel (Hesse-Cassel).  (See Hesse.)
   Cassia.  Wild cinnamon, or cassia, is
 the bark of a tree of the bay tribe (laurus
 casda), which  grows in the East  Indies
 and China, and is distinguished by having
 spear-shaped  leaves,  each  with  three
 nerves.  This bark was  well  known to
 the  ancients,  and  highly esteemed  by
 them.   But since the use of cinnamon
 has  been  generally adopted,  the  cassia
 bark has fallen into disrepute, on account
 of its inferiority.  It is thicker  and more
 coarse than cinnamon, of weaker quality,
 and abounds more with a viscid,  muci-
 laginous matter.   For  many  purposes,
 cassia, as being much less expensive, is
 substituted for  cinnamon,  but  more par-
 ticularly  for the preparation of what is
 called  oil of cinnamon; and nearly the
 whole  of what is  at present sold  under
 the name either of simple or  spirituous
 cinnamon waters, is prepared from  cassia.
 The buds as well as the bark of this tree
 are used in cooking, &c.  Cassia  is im-
ported mostly from China.
  Cassina.  (See Cashna.)
  Cassini ; a name famous in the history
 of astronomy  and geography  for  three
generations.—1. Giovanni Domenico, bom
July 8, 1625,  at  Perinaldo,  near  Nice,
studied  at  Genoa  with  the Jesuits.
Chance turned his attention  to astrono-
my, in which he made such rapid prog-
ress, that, in 1650, the senate  of Bologna 
CASSINI—CASSIODORUS.
559
 bestowed on him the first professorship
 of astronomy at the university.  A me-
 ridian had been drawn by Ignatio Dante
 (1575), in the church  of St Petronia, in
 that city.  In 1653, Cassirri conceived the
 idea  of extending and collecting it  In
 two years he completed this difficult task,
 the first fruits of which were more cor-
 rect  tables  of the  sun, a more precise
 determination of its parallax, and an ex-
 cellent table of refractions.  By an obser-
 vation at Citta della Piave,  he discovered
 the shadows cast by the satellites of Ju-
 piter on the  disk of  that planet,  when
 tliey  are between  it  and  the  sun.  By
 means of these, he conected his theory
 of the motion of the satellites, and deter-
 mined the period of Jupiter's revolution.
 At the same time, he made a number of ob-
 servations on insects, which were publish-
 ed by Aldrovandi.  In 1668, he published
 his Ephcrnerides ofthe Satellites of Jupi-
 ter.  In 1673, Colbert prevailed on him
 to settle in  France.  He discovered four
 new satelUtes of Saturn, and the zodiacal
 light, proved that the axis ofthe moon is
 not perpendicular to  the  plane of the
 ecliptic, and showed the  causes of her
 libration. The laws of this motion, which
 he determined with much accuracy, are
 one of his finest discoveries.   He also
 wrote observations on  the  Indian calen-
 dar.  The meridian commenced by Pi-
 card  and Lahirc was continued by Cas-
 siiri, in 1700, to the  extreme  limits of
 Roussillon, and, when measured 100 years
 later,  showed a difference of only 21
 toises.  He  died Sept. 14, 1712, having
 lost his sight some years before.  Lalande
 gives a catalogue of his writings in the
 Bibl.  Astronom.  His fiist  work was Ob-
 strv.  Cometa, Anni  1652—53 (Modena,
 1653, fol.).   His Opp.  Astronom. (Rome,
 1666) contain a complete collection of his
 earlier works.   His nephew, Cassini de
 Thury,  has published his biography, writ-
 ten by  Cassini  himself, under the  title
 .Memoires pour  servir  a I'Hist, des  Sci-
 inces (4to.)—2. James, son of the preced-
 ing, born at  Paris,  Feb.  18, 1677,  was
 admitted into the academy of sciences in
 1694.    After several essays on subjects
 in natural philosophy, &c. he completed
 his great work on the inclinations of the
 orbits of Saturn's satellites and ring.   His
 labors to determine the figure ofthe earth
 (q. v.) are well known.  The first measure-
 ment  of 1669 made the degrees of the
 meridian shorter towards the north  than
 towards the  south ; whence it  was  con-
 cluded that the earth was an oblong  sphe-
roid.   Cassini continued  the measure-
 ment, and maintained this opinion in his
 work De la Grandeur et de la Figure de la
 Terre (Paris, 1720).  In order to settle the
 question, the academy was commissioned,
 in 1733, to measure the whole length of
 France from Brest to Strasburg.  Cassini
 directed this undertaking, but was led into
 some en-ors by the defective instruments
 of former observers.  He died in  1756,
 at Thury.   Besides  the  above-mention-
 ed  works,  he wrote  Elemens d'Astro-
 nomie (Paris, 1740, 4to.), and Tables Astr.
 His eloge in the Mem. de I'Acad. contains
 a biographical notice of him.—3. Cassini
 de  Thury,  Caesar Francois,  son  of die
 preceding,  born  June 14, 1714, member
 of the academy  from bis 22d year.   He
 undertook  a geometrical survey of the
 whole of France, embracing  the deter-
 mination of the distance  of every place
 from the meridian of Paris, and from the
 perpendicular of that  meridian.  When
 the support of the government was with-
 drawn, in 1756, Cassini formed a society
 for advancing the requisite sums, which
 were to be  repaid by the sale of the maps
 constructed from the survey.   The work
 was almost entirely finished, when he
 died (1784), leaving many writings relat-
 ing to his  great  topographical under-
 taking.—4.   Jacques Dominique,  count,
 son of the preceding, bom at Paris, 1740,
 is director of the  observatory, and mem-
 ber ofthe academy, and is a statesman of
 ability, as well as a mathematician.  In
 1789, he presented to the  national assem-
 bly the Carte Topographique  de Fiance,
 in 180 sheets, now increased to 182, by
 the addition ofthe Carte des Assemblages
 des Triangles.  The Atlas Nationale is a
 reduction of it on a scale of one third,
 prepared by Dumey, and other engineers.
 Cassini was arrested by order of the  rev-
 olutionary tribunal.  He escaped with life,
 but lost the copperplates  of the Carte de
 Irance, which had  cost half a million
 francs.  There is a second reduction of
 the large map, being only a fourth of the
 size of the original, in 24 plates.
  Cassino ; a game at cards, in which
 four are dealt to each player, four being
 also placed on the board.   The object is
 to take as  many cards as possible, by
 making combinations.  Thus a ten in the
 player's hand  will take a ten from the
 board, or any number of cards which can
 be made to  combine  into tens.   The
greatest number  of cards  reckons three
points, and  of spades, one;  the ten of
diamonds, two; the two of spades, one ;
and each ofthe aces, one.
  Cassiodorus,   Marcus  Aurelius,   a 
560                   CASSIODORUS—CASSOWARY.
learned Roman, Uved at the time of the
dominion of the Ostrogoths, and contrib-
uted to the promotion  and preservation
of learning.   He was born at Squillace
(Scylaceum),  480 A. D., or, as some say,
470, filled several pubUc offices in Rome,
and became  secretary  of the Ostrogoth
king Theodoric, but, in 537,  voluntarily
retired to a monastery in Calabria, where
he died, 577.  He made the monks of his
convent copy the manuscripts of the an-
cient  authors, and his book De Septem
Disciplinis liberalibus, in which he treat-
ed of the trivium and quadrivium, and in-
serted extracts from the ancient  classic
literature, was of much value in the mid-
dle ages.   For Theodoric he  also wrote
his compilation of letters, Variorum Epis-
tolarum Libri XII. He likewise composed
Historia  Gothorum  (a  History  of the
Goths), of which we have an epitome by
Jornandes, and several  theological works
of  Uttle  importance.   His  works have
been collected by J. Caret (Venice, 1679,
fol.; new edit. 1721).
  Cassiopeia ; daughter of Arabus, and
wife of Cepheus, to  whom she bore An-
dromeda.  She dared  to  compare  her
beauty to that of the Nereides, who, en-
raged thereat, besought Neptune for ven-
geance.   The god,  in  compliance with
die request  of the  water-nymphs, laid
waste the  dominions   of Cepheus  by
means of a  deluge  and a dreadful sea-
monster.   Thus it appears that in ancient
times, as well as in modern, nations have
had to suffer for the faults of their mas-
ters.  Cassiopeia was the mother of Atym-
nius  by  an   intrigue with  Jupiter.—In
astronomy, Cassiopeia  is a conspicuous
constellation in the northern hemisphere,
situated next to Cepheus.   In 1572,  a
new  and  brilliant star  appeared  in it,
which, however, after a short time, gradu-
ally diminished, and at last disappeared
entirely.  It was thought, at that time, by
many persons,  that  this was the  star
which appeared to the wise men in the
East.  The constellation Cassiopeia con-
tains 52 stars of the first six magnitudes.
  Cassiquiari ; a river of Colombia, be-
ing a  large branch of the Rio Negro, and
remarkable as forming a communication
between the two great rivers, the Amazon
and  Orinoco.  The   Cassiquiari  flows
from  the  Orinoco, and  joins the Rio Ne-
gro, which last is a  large tributary of the
Amazon.  The reality  of this communi-
cation, which had been previously assert-
ed by the Jesuit missionaries, was con-
firmed by the celebrated traveller Hum-
boldt.
  Cassiterides, in ancient geography;
a name given by Strabo to 10 islands, N.
W. of Spain, in the open ocean, abound-
ing in  tin and lead.  Strabo  says the
Phoenicians  only  visited them.  There
are no islands where he describes them
to have been.  They  are,  perhaps, the
modern Scilly islands.   It is probable diat
the ancient  merchants kept their  true
situation secret from  interested  views,
which, in those times, could easily be
done.
  Cassius, Longinus Caius, the  friend of
Brutus, was  the questor of Crassus,  and
preserved the few troops of  that general
who escaped from the bloody battle with
the Parthians.   With these he  defended
Syria against the Parthians till the arrival
of Bibulus.  In the famous civil war that
broke out between  Pompey and  Caesar,
he espoused the cause ofthe former,and,
as commander of his naval forces,  ren-
dered  him  important  services.  When
Caesar, after  the victory at Pharsalia,  was
in pursuit of Pompey,  he advanced with
a few vessels, while crossing the Helles-
pont, against a fleet of  70 sail command-
ed  by Cassius, and called  upon him  to
surrender.  The latter,  astonished by his
daring courage, surrendered  at  his sum-
mons.   But, when it became evident that
Caesar was  aiming at  sole  sovereignty,
Cassius, who was  a zealous republican,
resolved to destroy the  usurper,  and exe-
cuted  his plan, with the aid of several
fellow-conspirators,  B.  C. 44.  He then,
together with Brutus, raised an army to
maintain his country's freedom.  They
were met by Octavius and Antony, who
professed themselves the avengers of Cae-
sar, at PhiUppi.  The wing  which Cas-
sius commanded being defeated, he ima-
gined that all was lost, and killed himself,
B. C. 42.  Brutus  called him the last  of
the Romans.  (See Brutus and Casar.)
  Cassowary (casuarius, Briss.); a genus
of birds, arranged by Cuvier in his family
brevipennes, the first of the  order gratia,
waders, to which they  are related solely
by their long,  naked, stilt-like  legs,  and
long neck.   In  the  form  of the bill  and
their mode  of  living, they  more closely
resemble  the  galUnaceous   birds.   The
shortness  of their  wings totally unfits
them for flying, and it would seem im-
possible for nature to have furnished mus-
cular  power sufficient to  move wings
large enough to sustain their great weight
in the air.  Unlike other birds, their  pec-
toral  or wing muscles are comparatively
slight and weak, while  those of their pos-
terior limbs  are very robust and  powerful. 
CASSOWARY—CAST  ENGRAVINGS.
561
The wings ofthe ostrich are of some as-
sistance to it in running, but those of the
cassowary are too  short  even  to be of
service in this way.   Indeed, its whole
plumage is so poorly supplied with feath-
ers as to  resemble,  at  a little  distance, a
coat of coarse or hanging hair.  The cas-
sowaries have  three  toes, aU  provided
with  nails.   Two  species  of the  ge-
nus  are well known,  the common casso-
wary (casuarius, B.;  struthio casuarius,
L.), inhabiting various islands of the In-
dian archipelago ; and the emeu (C. Nova
Hollandia), or New  Holland cassowary.
The first species, called galeated or fiel-
meled cassowary, has a laterally compress-
ed beak, with  a  head surmounted by an
osseous prominence, covered with a sort
of horny helmet ;  the skin of  the head
and  superior part of the  neck  is naked,
of a deep-blue  and fiery-red tint, with
pendent caruncles,  similar to those of the
turkey-cock.   There  are   some naked,
rigid quills on the wings, which are used
as weapons of defence.  The inner toe-
nail is the largest of all.  The ostrich is
the only bird which surpasses the casso-
wary in  size  and  strength.  From  the
form of its head, and bright eyes, the cas-
sowary  is  of  a fierce and threatening
aspect.  This, however, is  not a true in-
dication of its character, which is rather
timorous and  shy.  It is about 5£ feet
long, from the tip  of the bill to the  ex-
tremity of the longest claw.   The head
and neck together measure 18 inches, and
the largest toe, including the claw, is 5
inches long.  The claw ofthe inner toe
is 3£ inches long.  All the feathers ofthe
cassowary are of the  same kind, being
entirely designed for covering, and exter-
nally are all of one  color.   They general-
ly  grow double, having two  long shafts
growing out of a short one attached to the
skin.  The double feathers are all of un-
equal length, some  on the rump being 12
or 14 inches long, while others are only 3.
The  stem or shaft is  flat, shining, black,
and knotted below, having a beard arising
from each knot.  The beards at the ends
of the large feathers are perfectly black,
and  towards the root  of a tawny gray.
The  feathers on the head and neck are so
short and scattered, that the skin appears
naked, except towards the hind part of
the  head,  where  they  are  somewhat
longer.  The wings, without the feathers,
are not  more than 3 inches long.   The
rigid quills or prickles already mentioned
are 5 ; the longest is 11 inches in length
and a quarter of an inch thick at the base.
The  helmet is black in front and yellow
behind.  The eye is of a bright yeUow,
and more than an inch in diameter.—The
anatomy of the cassowary differs very
materially from that ofthe ostrich, which
it resembles so much in general  appear-
ance and habits.  The intestines are short,
and the ca-cum small; there is no stomach
intermediate to the crop and gizzard, and
the cloaca is not larger, in proportion, than
that  of other birds.  It feeds  on fruits,
eggs of birds, &c,  but never  on grain.
It swallows its food with  great voracity,
and, Uke the ostrich, bolts down bits of
iron, broken brick, glass, &c, without in-
jury.   In  fact,  such substances perform
the service, in the digestion of these great
birds, that gravel does in that of ordinary
fowls.—As might  be  inferred from its
structure, the cassowary is a swift runner,
and its mode of progression, being unaid-
ed by wings, is as peculiar as it is effi-
cient.  In  running, the  cassowary ap-
pears to strike  out  powerfully with one
leg, so as to project its body violently for-
ward with a bounding motion, far sur-
passing the speed  of a  horse.  It also
kicks violently when, in a state of captivi-
ty, it is provoked to anger, and can inflict
a very severe blow.  The eggs of the ga-
leated  cassowary are  of  a grayish-ash
color, verging to green, and are neither as
round nor as large as those of the ostrich.
The  shell is not very thick, and is  marked
by numerous little deep-green  tubercles.
The  largest of their eggs measure about
15 inches  in  length and 12 round.—The
emeu, or New Holland cassowary, differs
from that of the old world by being much
larger, and standing higher on  its  legs,
being 7 feet 2  inches  in length.  The
head is destitute ofthe helmet, and feath-
ered  throughout, except around  the ear.
The  plumage is thicker, and the webs of
the feathers more perfect.  It has neither
caruncles to the neck nor prickles on the
wings.  The nails of the toes are nearly
equal.  The  legs are  stout,  similar to
those of the galeated species, but jagged
or dentated along the whole of their back
part.   The emeu is swifter in running
than the fleetest gray-hound.  It  has not
yet been found any where but in  New
Holland.   The flesh has a considerable
resemblance to beef.  The young of the
New Holland cassowary are striped with
white and brown.
  Cast.   (See Casting.)
  Cast Engravings.   An important dis-
covery has lately been made, which con-
sists in taking moulds from every kind of
engraving,  whether line, mezzotinto, or
aquatinta, and in pouring on this mould an 
562                   CAST ENGRAVINGS—CASTE.
alloy in a state of fusion, capable of taking,
as it is stated, the finest impression.  No
sooner is one cast worn out, than another
may immediately be procured from the
original plate,  so  that every  impression
may be a proof
   Castagno, Andrea del, an  eminent
painter, was born at the  viUage of Cas-
tagno, in Tuscany, in 1409.  Being de-
prived, when young,  of his parents, who
were  extremely poor, he was employed
by his uncle to attend the cattle in the
fields, and, in  that situation, by his sur-
prising and  untutored essays  in  the art,
attracted the notice  of Bemardetto  de
Medici, who placed him under the tuition
of one of the best masters Florence then
afforded.  At first, he painted only in dis-
temper and fresco, and was in high repu-
tation when Domenico Venetiano visited
Florence, who had  learned,  from An-
tonello da Messina, the new method  of
painting in oil and varnish, till then un-
known in Tuscany.   The splendor  of
this new mode of  coloring  was  very
much  admired,  and, by a  pretended
friendship for  Domenico,  Castagno  ob-
tained his secret from him; but, not sat-
isfied  with this, he desired  to be the sole
possessor, and  determined to murder his
friend and benefactor. This he effected
without any suspicion, and continued to
practise his  ill-acquired  art  with great
success.  The  real author of this atro-
cious act was never discovered until An-
drea made a full confession of his guilt,
shortly before his death, which happened
in 1480. The best of his remaining works
are at Florence, in the church of St. Lu-
cia de Magnuoli, and in  the  monastery
degli Angeli.  The latter contains a cruci-
fixion, by him, painted on a wall.
   Castanets  ;  small  wooden  rattles,
made  in the shape of two bowls or cups,
fitted  together, and tied by a  string, and
then fastened to the  thumbs.   The fin-
gers being rapidly  struck  upon them, a
tremulous sound  is  produced,  which
marks exactly the measure of  the dance.
Something similar to this was the crota-
lon of the ancients, who also made use of
small cymbals in their dances and festivals
in honor of Bacchus.  It is  probable,
however, that they hod theh origin in the
East, and were brought by the Moors in-
to Spain,  Here, too, they received their
name  castanuelas, from being  commonly
made  ofthe wood of the chestnut (casta-
no), or from their color.  They are still in
use in Spain, and here and there in  the
south of France.  The charm of variety
has also procured for them a place in bal-
lets and operas, as, for example, in John
of Paris.
  Castanos, don Francisco de, a Span-
ish general,  born  1743, compelled the
French general Dupont de l'Etang to lay
down  his  arms, July 20, 1808, in the
Sierra  Morena, and concluded with him
the  important  capitulation  of Baylen.
He is  descended  from a distinguished
family  in Biscay, and was a pupil of the
celebrated general  count O'Reilly, whom
he accompanied to Germany, where he
studied tactics in the school of the great
Frederic.   In 1794, he served as colonel
in the army of Navane, under Caro.  In
1798, he  was  made  lieutenant-general,
and soon after was banished, with many
other officers, for  enmity  to the prince
of peace.  On the invasion ofthe French,
he received, in  1808, the command  of a
division of the  army, on the frontiers of
Andalusia,  towards which  Dupont  was
preparing to  advance  his forces.  With
9000 regular  troops,  and  about 30,000
militia, he defeated general Dupont. (See
Baylen.)   He lost, however, a  battle at
Tudela (November, 1808).   In  1811, the
regency appointed  him commander-in-
chief of the  fourth  Spanish army, and
governor of several provinces.   He  was
now the companion in arms of the  duke
of Wellington, and displayed great mili-
tary talent in the battle of Vittoria, which
was, in part, won by his bravery and the
valor of his troops.  The regency depriv-
ed him of his command, and appointed
him counsellor of state.  He wrote to the
minister of war, " I have the satisfaction
of delivering up to  field-marshal Freyre,
on the frontiers of France, the command
which I received before Lisbon, in 1811."
On the return of Ferdinand, he was made
captain-general of Catalonia, and had sev-
eral orders conferred  on him.   In 1815,
he commanded the army that was to in-
vade France.   In 1816, he  resigned his
commission.  In 1824, he  succeeded in
defending himself from the charge of
constitutional  sentiments, was again ap-
pointed captain-general, and,  in  1825,
made counsellor of state.
  Caste ; certain classes whose  burdens
and privileges are hereditary. The word
is derived from the Portuguese casta, and
was originally applied, by the conquerors
ofthe East Indies, to the Indian  families,
whose  occupations, customs,  privileges
and duties are hereditary.  This term has
been sometimes applied to the liereditary
classes in Europe;  and we speak of the
spirit or the prerogatives and usurpations
of a caste, to express particularly that un- 
CASTE—CASTI.                          563
  natural  constitution of  society,  which
  makes distinction dependent on the acci-
  dents of birth or fortune.  The division
  into castes, among the  people  of the old
  world, comes to us from a  period to
  which the  light of history does not  ex-
  tend; hence its origin cannot be clearly
  traced:  but it  is  highly  probable that,
  wherever  it  exists, it   was  originally
  grounded on a difference of descent, and
  in the modes of living, and that die sepa-
  rate castes were originally separate races
  of people.   This  institution  is  found
  among many nations.  According  to  the
  accounts collected  by  Clavigero,  some
  traces of it  are  apparent among  the
  Peruvians and Mexicans; but it prevails
  principally in the East, where it has  ex-
  isted from the earUest times, and has be-
  come blended with the political condition
  of the people,  because  it favors despo-
  tism, which is the prevailing form of gov-
  ernment  Thus, in Persia, even  before
  Zoroaster, there was a  division  into four
  classes or castes ; priests (magi), soldiers,
  husbandmen, tradesmen.   But  the divis-
  ion into  castes was nowhere so perfectly
  formed,  and so entirely interwoven in  the
  whole fabric of civil society, as in  Egypt
  and India.  In Egypt (q. v.), this division
  was perfected, as a political institution, in
  the  flourishing  period of the Pharaohs;
  and  the lines of separation which had
  been drawn, in earlier times, by a  differ-
  ence of descent, and different modes of
  living, were then rendered still more dis-
  tinct.  The  number of castes in  that
  country  was originally seven.  The class
  of priests, who formed, in some respects,
  a highly-privileged order of nobility, and
  maintained possession of the offices of
  state,  was  the  highest.   Next followed
  the soldiers, who were  divided into two
  classes, and whose occupation was hered-
  itary.  Of the remaining castes, the hus-
  bandmen, the watennen (who  navigated
  the Nile), the interpreters (who arose sub-
  sequently to the rest, and sprung from  the
  Greeks who were invited into the coun-
'  try), and the  two  castes  of herdsmen,
  formed a gradation of ranks, the order of
  which is not known, any further than
  that  the  herdsmen were the lowest
  Among these the swineherd was consid-
  ered impure, and despised,  and was ex-
  cluded from the temples.  In India, there
  were originally  four castes. (See  Hin-
  doos.)  Probably the deep researches into
  Egyptian antiquities recently made, or in
  a  state of progress, particularly those of
  Champollion, will throw much Ught upon
  this interesting subject.
   Castelcicala (don  Fabricio  Ruffo),
 prince of, descended from a very ancient
 Neapolitan  family, obtained  great influ-
 ence under  the  minister Acton (1796),
 in  the  infamous poUtical inquisition  or
 junta.   When Acton resigned his minis-
 try, prince Castelcicala became minister,
 and Vanini committed suicide.  After the
 battle of Aboukir, Castelcicala persuaded
 his court  to declare war against France.
 In 1799, he fled with his monarch to Si-
 cily.  Two  years  after,  he was Sicilian
 ambassador in London,  and  still later at
 the French court.   In 1816, he signed the
 important treaty admitting aU British pro-
 ductions and manufactures into Sicily on
 paying 10 per cent. duty.  After the rev-
 olution (1820), he was appointed ambas-
 sador to Madrid, but remained in Paris.
   Castello, Gabriel Lancelot, an emi-
 nent antiquary, was born at Palermo, in
 1727, of a noble  family, and was placed
 under  a private  tutor,  with  a  view  to
 study botany, chemistry, &c; but, acci-
 dentally meeting with  some  old coins,
 which had been dug up  by a ploughman,
 he was  seized with a great desire to de-
 cipher them, and from  tiiat  time devot-
 ed  himself to antiquarian pursuits.  He
 formed  a  splendid  collection  of the  re-
 mains of antiquity found in Sicily, and his
 museum was always open to foreigners as
 well as to  natives.   On his death-bed, he
 bequeathed  a large quantity  of books,
 &c to the public library of Palermo.  He
 died in 1794, being at that time an honor-
 ary member of the royal society, and of
 the academy at Paris.  He published sev-
 eral works.—There was another Castello
 (Ignatius Paterno), who  published an ac-
 count of  the earthquake  in Sicily in
 1783.
  Casti,  Giambattista, a poet, born in
 1721, at Prato, in the vicinity of Florence,
 studied  at Montefiascone, became pro-
 fessor there, was appointed a canon, and
 made a journey to France.   Receiving
 an invitation  from the prince  of Rosen-
 berg, who became acquainted with him
 in Florence, he went to  Vienna, and was
 presented  to Joseph II,  who knew how
 to appreciate the genius  of the poet, and
 delighted in his conversation.   Casti took
 advantage  of every opportunity of visiting
 other courts, and joined several embassies,
 without  office or title.  Catharine II re-
ceived him in the most flattering manner.
He visited also the court of Berlin, and
several other German courts.  After his
return to Vienna, prince Rosenberg, the
director of the imperial theatre, caused
him to be appointed poeta Cesareo on the 
564
CASTI—CASTILE.
death of Metastasio.  After the death of
Joseph II, Casti requested his dismission,
and retired to Florence, where he Wrote
many of his works.  In 1783, he went to
Paris.   Notwithstanding  his  advanced
age, the vigor  and activity of his mind
were still unimpaired.  His vivacity, his
naivete, seasoned by a delicate  irony, and
his knowledge  of the  world, made his
conversation very attractive. At the same
time, he was remarkable for the firmness
of his character and the regulaiity of his
habits.  He  died suddenly, Feb. 6, 1803,
at the age of  82.  His Novelle gatanti
were  republished at  Paris, 1804, under
the title Novelle di  Giamb. Casti, in 3 vol-
umes.  They are 48 in  number.  Almost
all are of a licentious character, but writ-
ten in a Uvely, original and graceful style.
The same may be  said  of  his didac-
tic-satirical poem,  Gli  Animali parlanti,
Poema epico, diviso in 26 Canti, di Giamb.
Casti  (Milan,  1802,  5  vols.),  which he
wrote between 1792 and 1799, and which
did not receive the attention  it deserves
until the present day,  probably  because
people formerly feared to speak  openly
on the bitter truths  which  it contains.
There are two translations of it in French
and one in  German.  It has  been also
translated into English by Rose.   Casti's
Rime  Anacreontiche are  pleasing, and his
comic operas La Grotta di Trqfonio, and
II Re Teodoro  in  Venezia, &c, are full
of wit and originality.
  Castiglione, Baldassare; one of the
most elegant of the elder Italian  writers;
born 1478, at Casatico,  in the territory of
Mantua; studied  at  Milan, and  entered
into the service of  the duke Ludovico
Sforza,  and,  afterwards, of the duke of
Urbino, of whose  elegant and splendid
court  he soon became  an   ornament
In 1505, he  was sent  as ambassador to
Henry VIII of  England, and, in  1507, in
the same capacity, to  Louis XII, at Milan.
In 1513, Castiglione appeared  as ambas-
sador at the court of  Leo X, where he
became intimate  with  the most distin-
guished literati and  artists.  In 1521, he
obtained for the  new  duke  of Urbino,
Federigo, the  command  of  the  papal
troops, and, in 1524, was employed by
pope Clement VII, to  conduct his nego-
tiations with Charles V.  When Rome
was plundered by the constable of Bour-
bon, in 1527, he was accused of negligence,
and his health  was undermined by cha-
grin.  He refused to  accept the rich bish-
opric of Avila,  which was offered to him
by the emperor, until the pope should be
reconcUed with Charles.  He died Feb.
8, 1529,  at Toledo.   Among  his works
the Libro del Cortigiano is the most cele-
brated. It teaches the art of succeeding at
court.  His few Italian and Latin poems
are elegant.  His letters (Padua, 1769) are
valuable contributions to poUtical and lit-
erary history.
  Castile, New; a province of Spain,
bounded  N. by Old Castile, E. by Anagon
and Valencia, S.  by Murcia, Jaen and
Cordova, and W. by Estremadura; 220
miles long, and  160 broad.   It contains
the following subdivisions or provinces:—

 Provinces.  Sq. m.  Pop.    Capitals.
Madrid,____1,&30  228,500 Madrid.
Guadalaxara, 1,970  121,100  Guadakxara
Cuenca,. . . 11,410  294,300  Cuen?a.
Toledo,____8,863  370,600  Toledo.
La Mancho,. 7,620  205,600  Ciudad Real.

           31,193 1,220,100

The surface is diversified, consisting part-
ly of extensive plains, and partly of ranges
of mountains, of which the most remark-
able is the Siena de Cuenca.   The prin-
cipal rivers are the Tagus, Guadiana and
Xucar.  The climate is temperate, the soil
naturally  fertile, but the cultivation back-
ward, and the country thinly  inhabited.
The productions are wheat, barley, hemp,
flax, wine, oil, saffron, honey, sheep, cat-
tle, &c.   It contains one archbishopric
(Toledo), one bishopric (Cuenca) and for-
merly had three  universities, Alcala, To-
ledo and Siguenca.  (For further infor-
mation, see Spain.)
  Castile, Old; a province of Spain, bound-
ed N. by  Asturia and Biscay, E. by Na-
vane and Anagon, S. by New Castile, and
W. by Leon;  220 miles long, and, where
widest, 120 broad.  It contains the follow-
ing provinces or subdivisions:—

Provinces. Sq. m.     Pop.     Capitals.
Avila,----2600 ...  118,100  ... Avila.
Segovia, . . 3502  . . . 164,000  . .. Segovia.
Soria,----4118  . ..  199,000 ,.. Soria.
Burgos,... 7752 ... 470,600  ... Burgos.

         17,972    951,700
The surface is diversified with mountains,
plains and vaUeys.   The soU is generally
fertile, but, in some parts, stony and un-
fruitful.  The productions are rye, barley,
wheat, madder, in some parts, wine;  but
its  chief wealth consists in  its hundreds
of thousands of sheep and cattle.  Its but-
ter is excellent, and its wool, particularly
that of Segovia, is much celebrated for its
fineness.  The country is remarkably bare
of trees, as is ajso much of New Castile.
The rivers are the Ebro, Duero, Xalon, 
CASTILE—CASTING.
565
Carrion and Tormes.  (For further infor-
mation, see Spain.)
  Castillo, Jose Maria del, in 1809, was
an advocate of the province of Tunja;
and, in the junta of notables, convened at
Bogota by the viceroy D. Antonio A mar,
in September of that year, in consequence
of the  revolutionary movement at Quito,
and on other occasions  previous to the
deposition of Amar, he distinguished him-
self by his zeal  in  the cause of America.
He was also a member of the constituent
college, as it was called, which assembled
at Bogota  in  1811, and organized the
state of Cundinamarca.   During the dis-
sensions among the patriots of New Gre-
nada, in the first years of the revolution,
Castillo acted in  opposition to  Narifio,
the political chief  of Cundinamarca, and
was active and  influential in support of
the deputies assembled  at Ibague, being
repeatedly appointed on missions to treat
with Nariiio.  In  the  congress at Neyba,
in October, 1812, he was one of the two
delegates from Tunja, of which province,
in the following year, we find  him the
acting governor.   In  1813, Ukewise, he
and  D. Jose Fernandez  Madrid were de-
spatched by the congress to Bogota, with
full powers to make a final arrangement
widi Nariiio,  and  remained in  the city
for some time  as  representatives of the
congress.  After the change  in the form
of government in  1814, when the author-
ity of the  executive was increased, the
three persons elected to exercise the exec-
utive power being absent, Castillo was one
ofthe deputies appointed to the tempora-
ry discharge of their duties.  When the
Spaniards, under Morillo, took possession
of Bogota in 1816,  Castillo's  life  was
spared; but he was imprisoned at Omoa,
in the  government of Guatemala.  After
the union of New Grenada and Venezu-
ela, and  the adoption of the constitution
of Colombia, Castillo was made secretary
of the  department of  the  treasury,  in
which office he continued until  the  year
1828.  He was a member of the conven-
tion of Ocafia for the province of Cartha-
gena, and was elected president of that
body.  He was one of the twenty deputies
who withdrew from  the assembly, and
testified their confidence in Bolivar in a
printed exposition of theh motives. When
the liberator  assumed all the powers of
the state, after the  dissolution of the con-
vention, Castillo was appointed, by decrees
dated the 27th and 28th  of August, 1828,
president of the council  of ministers, and
also ofthe council  of state, by which the
new government was to be administered,
   vol. ii.          48
with a rank next to that of BoUvar him-
self.
  Castine ; a seaport town, and capital
of Hancock county, Maine,  on  the east
side of Penobscot bay; 34 miles S. Ban-
gor, 122 E. N. E. Portland;  lat. 44° 24'
N.; lon. 68° 46' W.; population  in 1820,
975.   It is situated on a promontory, on
the east side of Penobscot  bay, a little
below the  entrance of Penobscot river
into the  bay.   It  has an excellent  and
very spacious harbor, capable of receiving
ships  ofthe largest size, and accessible at
all seasons of the  year.  Its situation is
such that it might easily be made a place
of great strength.   It  is a pleasant town,
and has considerable trade.
  Casting.  Iron, as well as brass, and
other  metals which melt at temperatures
above ignition, is cast in moulds made of
sand.   The  kind of sand most employed
is loam, which possesses a sufficient por-
tion of argillaceous matter to render it
moderately cohesive when damp.  The
mould is formed by burying in the sand
a  wooden  pattern, having  exactly  the
shape of the article to be cast. The sand
is most  commonly  enclosed in  flasks,
which are  square wooden  frames,  re-
sembling boxes, open at top and bottom.
If the pattern be of such form that it can
be lifted out of the sand without derang-
ing the form of the mould, it is only ne-
cessary to make on impression of the pat-
tern in one flask; and articles of this kind
ore sometimes cost in the open sand upon
the floor of the  foundery.    But, when
the shape is such that the pattern could
not be  extracted  without breaking  the
mould, two  flasks are necessary,  having
half the mould formed in each.  The first
flask  is filled with sand, by  ramming it
close, and is  smoothed oft" at  the  top.
The pattern is separated into  halves, one
half  being imbedded in this flask.   A
quantity of white sand, or burned sand, is
sprinkled over the surface, to prevent the
two flasks from cohering.   The  second
flask  is then placed upon the top of the
first,  having pins to guide it; the other
half of the pattern is put in  its place, and
the flask is filled with  sand, which, of
course, receives the impression of the re-
maining  half of the  pattern on  its under
side.  After one or more holes are made
in the top,  to  permit  the  metal to be
poured in, and the steam  and air to es-
cape, the flasks are separated, and the pat-
tern  withdrawn.   When the flasks  are
again united, a perfect cavity, or mould, is
formed, into which the melted  metal is
poured.  The arrangement of the mould 
566
CASTING.
is, of course, varied for different articles.
When the form of the article is complex
and difficult, as in some  hollow vessels,
crooked pipes, &c, the pattern is made in
three or more  pieces, which  are put to-
gether to form the mould, and afterwards
taken apart to extract them.   In some
other irregular articles, as andirons, one
part is cast first, and afterwards inserted
in the flask which  is to  form the other
part.  The metal for small articles is usu-
ally dipped up  with iron ladles, coated
with clay, and poured into  the moulds.
In  large  articles,  such  as cannon, the
mould is formed in a pit dug in the earth
near the furnace, and the melted metal is
conveyed to it in  a continued stream,
through a channel  communicating with
the bottom of the furnace.  Cannon-balls
are sometimes cast in moulds  made of
iron, and, to prevent the melted  metal
from adhering, the  inside of the mould
is covered with powder  of black  lead.
Rollers for flattening iron  are  also  cast
in iron cases.  This method is called chill
casting, and has for its object the harden-
ing of the surface  of the metal, by the
sudden reduction  of temperature, which
takes place in consequence of the superior
conducting  power  of  the iron  mould.
These rollers are afterwards turned smooth
in a powerful lathe, which has a slow mo-
tion, that the cutting tool may not become
heated by the friction.—Casting in Plaster.
Copies are  most  frequently taken, both
from new models, and from old statues,
by casting them in plaster.  For this pur-
pose, a mould in plaster is first made from
the surface of the statue or figure itself;
and this mould  is afterwards used to re-
produce the figure by casting.  Plaster is
prepared for use by pulverizing common
gypsum, and exposing it to the heat of a
fire until its moisture is wholly expelled.*
While in this  dry state,  if it be mixed
with water, to the consistence of cream
or paste, it has the property of hardening
in a few minutes, and takes a very sharp
impression.  The hardness afterwards in-
creases by keeping, till it  approaches the
character  of stone.  Moulds are formed
in the following manner:—The statue, or
figure to be copied, is first oiled, to pre-
vent it  from cohering with the gypsum.
A quantity of liquid plaster sufficient for
the mould is then poured on, immediately
after being mixed, and suffered to harden.
If the subject be a bass-relief, or any figure

  * The heat requisite for this purpose must be
greater than that of boiling water.  Care must be
taken not to raise the heat too high, as, in that case,
the sulphate of lime would be decomposed.
which can be withdrawn without injury,
the mould may be considered as finished,
requiring only to be sunounded with  an
edging.  But, if it be a statue, it cannot be
withdrawn without breaking the mould :
and, on this account, it becomes necessary
to divide the mould into such a number
of pieces as will separate perfectly from
the original.   These are taken off from
the statue, and, when afterwards replaced,
or put together without the statue, they
constitute a perfect mould.   This  mould,
its parts  having been oiled, to prevent ad-
hesion, is made to receive  a quantity of
plaster, by pouring it in at a small orifice.
The mould is then turned in every direc-
tion,  in  order that the  plaster may  fill
every  part of the surface;  and, when a
sufficient quantity is poured in to produce
the strength required  in  the cost, the re-
mainder is often left hollow, for the sake
of lightness, and economy ofthe material.
When the cast is dry, it  is  extricated  by
separating the pieces of the mould, and
finished  by removing the seams and blem-
ishes with the proper tools.*  If the form
or position require  it, the limbs arc cast
separately, and afterwards  cemented on.
Moulds and busts are obtained in a similar
manner  from  living  faces, by covering
them with new plaster,  and removing it
in pieces, as soon as it becomes hard.   It
is necessary that the skin of the fece
should be oiled; and, during the operation,
the eyes  are  closed,  and the  person
breathes  through  tubes  inserted  in the
nostrils.   Elastic moulds have been form-
ed by pouring upon the figure to be cop-
ied a strong solution of glue.  This hard-
ens upon cooling, and takes a fine impres-
sion.   It  is then cut into suitable  pieces,
and  removed.   The  advantage  of the
elastic mould is, that it  separates more
easily  from inegular  surfaces, or those
with uneven projections  and under cut-
tings,  from  which  a common  mould
could  not  be  removed  without vio-
  * Plaster casts are  varnished by a mixture of
soap and white wax in boiling water. A quarter
of an ounce of soap is dissolved in a pint of water,
and an  equal quantity of wax afterwards  incorpo-
rated.  The cast is dipped in this  liquid, and, after
drying a week, is polished by rubbing with soft
linen.  The surface produced in  this manner ap-
proaches to the polish of marble.  When plaster
casts are to be exposed to the  weather, their dura-
bility is greatly increased by saturating them with
linseed ou, with which wax or  rosin may be com-
bined.   When intended to resemble bronze, a soap
is used, made of linseed oil and soda, colored by the
sulphates of copper and iron.  Walls and ceilings
are rendered water-proof in the same way. (See
an abstract of a memoir of D'Arcet and Thenard,
in Brande's Journal, vol. xxii., 184, and  Franklin
Journal, ii., 276.) 
CASTING—CASTOR-OIL.
567
lence.*  For small and deUcate impres-
sions in relief, melted  sulphur  is some-
times used; also a strong solution of isin-
glass  in proof  spirit.—Bronze Casting.
Statues  intended to occupy situations in
which they may  be exposed to violence
are commonly made  of bronze.    This
material resists both mechanical injuries
and decay from  the influence of the at-
mosphere.  The moulds in which bronze-
statues are  cast are made on the pattern,
out of plaster and  brick-dust, the latter
material being added to resist the heat of
the melted  metal.   The parts of this
mould are covered  on their inside  with
a coating of clay, as thick as the  bronze
is  intended to be.  The mould is  then
closed,  and filled, on  its inside,  with a
nucleus or core of plaster and brick-dust,
mixed with water.  When this is done,
the mould is opened, and the clay  care-
fully removed.  The mould, with its  core,
is  then thoroughly dried, and the  core
secured in its central  position by  short
bars of bronze, which pass into it through
the external part of the mould.  The
whole is then bound with iron hoops, and,
when placed  in  a proper situation for
casting, the melted bronze is poured in
through an aperture left for the purpose:
of course, the bronze fills the same cavity
which was  previously occupied  by the
clay, and forms a metallic covering to the
core.  This is afterwards mode smooth
by mechanical means.  (Bigelow's Tech-
nology.)
  Castlereaoh.  (See Londonderry.)
  Castor.  (See Beaver.)
  Castor ano Pollux; the sons of  Tyn-
darus, king of Lacedaemon, and Leda, or,
according to some, of Jupiter and Leda.
The fable runs, that Leda brought  forth
two eggs, one of which contained Pollux
and  Helen, the other Castor and  Cly-
temnestra.   Pollux and Helen, being the
offspring of Jupiter, were immortal; but
Castor and  Clyteninestra were begotten
by Tyndarus, and mortal. The two broth-
ers were inseparable companions, equally
brave and spirited, and  attached to  each
other with  the fondest affection.  Castor
was particularly skilled in the art of break-
ing horses,  and  Pollux in  boxing and
wrestling.  They were among the heroes
of the Argonautic  expedition,  in which
they acquired divine  honors; for, a ter-
rible tempest having arisen on the voyage,
and all, with loud voices, calling on the
gods to  save them, there suddenly appear-
ed over the  heads of Castor and Pollux
  * See a paper by Mr. Fox, republished in the
FraoklLi Journal, vol. iii.
two  star-Uke meteors, and the  tempest
subsided.  From this time, they were the
patron deities of mariners, and received
the name of Dioscuri; and, from them,
the name of Castor and Pollux was given
to the fires that are often seen on vessels'
masts in storms, and which are electrical
phenomena.   After their  return, they re-
leased their  sister Helen  from the  con-
finement in which Theseus had for some
time held her.   They were also among
the heroes ofthe Calydonian hunt. They
wooed the daughters of Leucippus, Phoe-
be and Ilaria, and were each obUged to
contend for theh mistresses with tlieir ri-
vals, Idas and Lynceus,the sons of Apha-
reus.   Castor killed  Lynceus,  and was
slain by Idas. Pollux revenged his broth-
er's death by killing Idas; but, full of grief
for the loss of Castor, he besought Jupiter
either to take away his Ufe,  or grant that
his brother might share his immortality.
Jupiter listened to his request, and  Pol-
lux and his brother alternately descended
to Orcus, and returned  to life.  It is
doubtful whether the ancients understood
them as being together  or separate  in
theh alternate passage between die upper
and the lower worlds.  The former opin-
ion seems to be the oldest; the latter, to
have gained  ground subsequently. Tem-
ples and altars were consecrated to them.
In great perils, especially in battles, the
ancients believed that they frequently ap-
peared to mortals as two youths on white
steeds, in shining garments, with meteors
over  their heads 5 and  then they were
chiefly called Dioscuri.   They were also
represented  side  by side, either riding or
standing, each holding a horse by the rein,
with  spears hi theh hands and  stars on
their  heads.—In  the heavens, the Dios-
curi appear as one ofthe 12 constellations
ofthe zodiac (the Twins).
  Castor-Oil.  The castor-oil plant (riri-
nus palma Christi) is a native both of the
East  and West  Indies, and has a  stem
from  5  to 15 or 16  feet in height, and
large, bluish-green leaves, divided into 7
lobes, senated and pointed, the foot-stalks
long, and inserted  into the disk.   The
flowers are   produced in a terminating
spike, and the  seed-vessels are covered
with  6pines, and contain  three flatfish,
oblong seeds.—It is to the seeds of this
plant that we are indebted for  the drug
called castor-oil.  It is now often prepar-
ed by pressing the seeds in  the same way
as is practised with oil of almonds.  The
oil thus obtained is called cold expressed.
But the mode  chiefly adopted  in the
West Indies is first to strip the seeds of 
568
CASTOR-OIL—CASTRATES.
 their husks or pods, and then to bruise
 them in mortars.   Afterwards they are
 tied in linen bags, and boiled in water
 until the oil which they contain rises to
 the  surface.  This  is carefully skimmed
 off, strained, to free it from any accident-
 al impurities, and bottled for use.  The
 od which is obtained by boiling  is con-
 sidered more mild than that  procured by
 pressure, but it sooner becomes  rancid.
 The mildest and finest Jamaica castor-oil
 is veiy limpid, nearly colorless, and has
 scarcely more  smell  or taste  than  good
 olive-oil.   Many people, however,  have
 so great an aversion to castor-oU, even in
. its purest state, that they do not take it
 without great reluctance.  The uses of
 castor-oil in medicine ore well known.
 It is at present prepared, in great quanti-
 ties, in various parts of the U. States, and
 of an excellent quaUty.
   Castrametation; strictly, the art of
 tracing out and disposing to advantage the
 several parts of a camp on the ground.  It
 is sometimes used more extensively to in-
 clude all the ordinary operations of a cam-
 paign.  A camp, whether composed of tents
 or barracks, or merely of places assigned
 for bivouacking, must be divided in such
 a way  that the several divisions shall be
 disposed as they are intended to be when
 drawn up in order of batde; so that, on a
 sudden alarm, the troops may rise  in theh
 proper posts.  At the same time, the places
 for cooking, for the baggage, and  for am-
 munition, must be conveniently ananged.
   Castrates.  The change produced in
 men by emasculation is highly remark-
 able, and assimilates their constitution, in
 some respects, to that of females.  The
 elasticity of the fibres and muscles is
 weakened, and the cellular membrane be-
 comes charged with a much larger quan-
 tity of fat; the growth ofthe beard is pre-
 vented ; the upper  part of the  windpipe
 contracts considerably, and the castrate
 acquires the physiognomy and voice of a
 female.  On the moral character  it like-
 wise appears to have some influence, by
 weakening the intellectual faculties, and
 rendering the subject unfeeling, morose,
 faint-hearted, and, on the whole, incapable
 of performing those deeds which  require
 a high, magnanimous disposition.  The
 most numerous class of castrates are those
 who are made such by the removal of the
 testicles.  Another class are not deprived
 of the parts of generation, but have them
 ingeniously injured in such a manner as
 to leave them the  faculty of copulating,
 but deprive them of the power of beget-
 ting.  Juvenal mentions these as the par-
ticular favorites of the licentious Roman
ladies.  To the third class belong those
who are entirely deprived of their genital
members.  They are used in preference,
by the Turks, as keepers of their women.
The castrates of all three classes are called
eunuchs.  Those ofthe third class, to dis-
tinguish them from  the two  others, are
frequently  termed entire eunuchs.  The
word eunuch is Greek, and signifies guard
or keeper of the bed.  The  castration of
adults produces some change in the dis-
position,  but  little  in the bodily constitu-
tion.   Even  the  power  of engender-
ing continues for a short time.  Accord-
ing to the accounts of ancient historians,
the Greeks, particularly the Lydians, cas-
trated women.  The latter are said to
have used these beings as guards of their
wives and daughters.  With females, the
operation produces a completely opposite
effect to that which it has on men.  The
sexual appetite ceases, a beard appears on
the chin and  upper lip, the bosom van-
ishes, the voice becomes harsh, &c  Boer-
haave and  Pott relate  modern instances
of this kind.  Nothing but an immediate
and fatal injury to the parts authorizes an
operation of  such  vital consequence to
the human race.  Among the evils which
religious enthusiasm has at all times pro-
duced, castration  is  conspicuous.   The
emperors Constantine and Justinian were
obliged to use their utmost power to op-
pose this religious frenzy, and could put
a stop to it  only by punishing it like mur-
der.  The  Valerians, a  religious sect,
whose minds had been distracted by the
example of Origen (q. v.), not only consid-
ered this mutilation of themselves as a
duty  which religion imposed  on them,
but believed themselves bound to perform
the same, by fair  means or foul, on all
those who came into  their power.  In
Italy, the  castration of boys, in order to
form them  for soprano  singers,  has been
in use for a long time, evirati having been
employed in  the  pontifical chapel, ever
since the beginning  of the 17th  centu-
ry, to sing the treble parts.   Clement
XIV prohibited this abuse, which, not-
withstanding, continued for a long time,
and, in some Italian towns, was  not only
suffered, but exercised with such shame-
ful openness, that  the practitioners gave
public notice of  their profession.  In
modern times,  severe  laws have been
enacted against castration, and the custom
is going out  of use.  Beings thus muti-      '.
lated, however, are sometimes to be found     "^
on  European  stages  and in  CathoUc
churches.  Among the papal singers, we 
CASTRATES—CAT.
569
found castrates as late as 1823.  It is re-  the dwelUngs than  the  persons of her
markable that so odious and unnatural an  protectors ; in which respect her conduct
operation should produce the fine effect  is very opposite to that ofthe dog, whose
on the tones ofthe singer, which all must  alliance with man is founded upon  disin-
acknowledge who can rid themselves of  terested, personal attachment, not  to be
the disagreeable effect of the association,  affected by changes of place or fortune.
In the Catholic church, no castrate, how-  Her youthful sportiveness, beautiful fur,
ever he became such, is permitted to be  and gentle demureness of manner in after
an officiating  priest.   The  part  which  life, dispose mankind to regard the animal
eunuchs  have always  played, wherever  with  kindness;  but the most persevering
they have belonged to the household of  attempts  to  cultivate  her good disposi-
princes, is well known ; and some authors  tions are  followed with such  sUght suc-
have compared  them to Catholic priests,  cess, and  met with so much of deceit and
who, like them, have often been the intrigu-  ingratitude, as to weary  the patience of
ing advisers of sovereigns, and, Uke them,  the most benevolent  The cat is capable
are not connected with society by the gen-  of showing considerable fondness  for an
tie bonds of marriage and family relations,  individual, but never appears  to confide
   Castriot.  (See Scanderbeg.)         fully? even  in the warmest demonstra-
   Castrum Doloris, a Latin term, signi-  tions of kindness.  Her treacherous calm-
fying castle of grief, has a different mean-  ness of disposition needs but slight  provo-
ing  from catafalco.   The latter is used to  cation to be changed to vengeful malig-
denote an elevated tomb, containing the nity.  When hurt,  or  much alarmed,
coffin of a distinguished person, together  she is ready to attack her best benefactor
with the tapers around, ornaments, anno-  with as much fury as a stranger.  Being
rial  bearings, inscriptions, &c, placed in  highly sensitive, and fond of ease, the cat
the  midst of a church or hall.  The  cas-  evinces little anxiety, except for the con-
trum doloris is the whole room in which  tinuance  of her enjoyment, and is ever
the  catafalco  is elevated, with  all the  prepared to  seek more comfortable quar-
decorations.  The  sarcophagus,  usually  ters, whenever the condition of her pat-
empty, is exposed for show upon an ele-  rons may render a movement poUtic  At
vation covered with black cloth, under a  what period cats became inmates of hu-
 canopy surrounded with candelabra.  Up-  man habitations, it is scarcely  possible,  at
 on  the coffin is laid some mark of the  this period, to determine.  Beyond doubt,
 rank of the deceased, as his epaulette or  their usefulness in  destroying rats, mice,
 sword, and, when the deceased  was a  and other small animals, first introduced
 sovereign or a member of a ruling  fam-  them to notice.  The first mention we
 ily,  princely insignia are  placed on sur-  find made of them, in profane history, is
 rounding seats.   The French call the  by Herodotus, the father of historians,  in
 castrum doloris, chapeUe  ardente, which  his account of Egypt. (Euterpe, vel Ub. ii.)
 is to  be distinguished from chambre or-  He  speaks  of them as diminishing the
 dente. (q. v.)                            vermin infesting human dwelUngs; states
   Casuistrt ; that part of the old theol-  some of the Egyptian superstitions rela-
 ogy and morals, which relates to the  prin-  tive to them, as well as some observations
 ciples  by which difficult cases of  con-   upon  their  breeding,  dispositions, &c
 science (especially where there is acollis-   The celebrated naturaUstTemminck, in his
 ion of different duties) are  to be settled,   excellent monography of the  genus felis,
 Kant calls it the dialectics of consrience.   adduces strong reasons for believing that
 Hence a casuist is a moralist, who en-   the  cat  was originally domesticated  in
 deavors to solve such doubtful questions.   Egypt, and that the gloved cat, F. manic-
 There have been many celebrated  casu-   ulata (chat  gante of Southern Africa) is,
 ists among the Jesuits  (e. g.,  Escobar,   in all probabUity, the original stock of the
 Sanchez, Busenbaum, &c), famous for  domestic cat.  Its  strong resemblance in
 their ingenuity in the invention of such   size, proportions, &c, renders this opin-
 cases, and  for the ambiguity and singu-   ion more acceptable than that which at-
 larity of their solutions.  It is impossible,  tributes the origin  to the common Euro-
 without reading the works of some of the   pean wild  cat, which is smaller, has a
 casuistical writers, to form an idea of the  shorter,  thicker tail, and, indeed, would
 ingenious and fine-spun  sophistry which  seem rather to be  the domestic cat re-
 they contain.                            turned to the savage state, than its origin-
    Cat  (felis  caius, L.); a well-known  al stock.  The subtlety and  circumspee*
 domesticated,  carnivorous  quadruped,  tion ofthe common cat are evinced by all
  whose attachment appears to be rather to  its habits and movemeuts;  and  the ob-
                   48* 
 570                          CAT—Or

 servation of this disposition has obtained
 for it the name it bears in most of the
 living languages of Europe.   In Greek,
 it is called atXovpos, for which we have found
 no derivation.   In Latin, it was called
 caius, from  the adjective signifying cun-
 ning,  wary, subtle, &c  According  to
 Varro, this adjective is a Sabine,  and not
 a Roman word;  but, as we find it  used by
 Horace, in his ode Ad Mercurium,* its ad-
 mission  into the classic vocabulary can
 scarcely be denied.  From this name, ca-
 tus, we have the EngUsh cat, the German
 katze, the French chat, &c  The domes-
 tic  cat belongs to a genus  (felis) better
 armed for the destruction of animal Ufe
 than  all  other quadrupeds.    The  short
 and powerful jaws,  moved  by vigorous
 muscles, are supplied with most  formid-
 ably trenchant teeth: a cunning  disposi-
 tion, combined with nocturnal habits and
 much patience in pursuit, gives them great
 advantages  over their  prey;  and  tlieir
 keen, lacerating claws,  which  are always
 preserved in the most acute  state by the
 peculiar  arrangement that  keeps them
 concealed when not in use, enables them
 to inflict a  death-blow  on their  victims
 with as much certainty as ease.  The cat,
 in a degree, partakes of all the attributes
 of her race—Ues in ambush for her prey,
 and  seizes it  by  a  sudden leap; plays
 with her captives before putting them to
 death ; and does not limit her destruction
 to the mere gratification of appetite.  Cold
 und wet  are disagreeable to the cat, and
 electricity is especiaUy  feared by  her:
 advantage may be taken of the latter cir-
cumstance to avert the troublesome visits
 of the animal.  After having  once re-
 ceived a shock from a Leyden vial, but
 little apprehension  need be entertained of
 the cot's return to  the  same place.  Of
 various aromatic substances,  as catnep or
 catmint,  &c, puss is remarkably fond;
 and the odor of" valerian appears to throw
 aer into an ecstasy of pleasure.  The food
 !)f the cat, in a state of domestication, is ne-
 cessarily very various, but always of flesh
 or fish, if it can be  obtained.   A desire to
 possess herself of the latter article  of diet,
 proves one of the strongest temptations to
 theft that the cat is exposed to: in fact, it
 lakes a very severe education  to make her
 my better than a thief under any circum-
 stances.  The cat  is remarkable  for the
 fetor  of its  eructations, as well  as  the
 powerfully offensive and phosphorus-like

   * Mercuri, facunde nepos Atlantis
     Qui feros cultus hominum recentum
     Voce formasti catus et decorae
      More palaestrae.  Lib. i. Carm.
lT-BIRD.

 odor of its urine, &,c  But, personally, it
 is  a very cleanly animal, avoiding to step
 in  any sort of filth, and preserving its fur
 in  a very  neat  condition.   Of its habits,
 when well taken care of and much petted,
 it cannot be  necessary to  speak here, as
 they  are  universally known.   Equally
 notorious  is  their clamorous mode  of
 making love,  which is designated by the
 term caterwauling, and,  once  heard, can
 never be forgotten.  The  cat goes with
 young for sixty-three days,  and brings
 forth  from three to six at a litter, which
 remain blind  for nine days.
   Cat-Biro  (turdusfelivox, Viell; T. liv-
 idus, Wils.); a numerous and well-known
 species of thrush, which annually advances
 from the south with the progress of agri-
 culture, and, during the summer, is found
 throughout the Middle and New England
 States, frequenting thickets of brambles,
 or the shrubberies of gardens.  The note
 from which the bird  obtains its name is
 strikingly similar to the plaint of a kitten
 in distress, and would almost certainly de-
 ceive the ear of any one unacquainted with
 the  cry of this species.  The cat-bird is
 exceedingly familiar and unsuspicious, al-
 lowing itself to be closely approached, and
 saluting every one passing  near its abode
 by  its  cat-like note.   It is  Uvely and ac-
 tive in its movements, and, but for the
 unfortunate resemblance of its  ordinary
 cry to the voice of an animal by no means
 a favorite, would be considered an agree-
able bird, notwithstanding its plain, lead-
 colored  plumage.   Wilson informs us,
that the cat-bird arrives  in  the lower
parts of Georgia about the end of Febru-
ary, whence he infers that its winter resi-
dence is  not far distant from Florida.  It
reaches Pennsylvania by the second week
in April, and has its nest built  by the be-
ginning  of May.  For this purpose,  a
brier or bramble thicket,  a thorn-bush,
thick vine, or fork of a sapling, is selected.
Little attention  is paid to  concealment,
though few birds are more  solicitous for
the  safety of  their  young.   The nest is
constructed of dry  leaves,  weeds, small
twigs, and fine, dry grass, the inside being
lined with fine, black, fibrous roots.  The
female lays 4 or 5 eggs,  of  a  uniform
greenish-blue color, free from spots. They
generally raise two, and sometimes three,
broods in a season.  The admirable natu-
ralist above mentioned relates,  that he
sometimes, when in  the woods, amused
himself with imitating the  violent chirp-
ing or squeaking of young birds, in order
to discover what species were in his vi-
cinity ; and these sounds, to birds in the 
CAT-BIRD—CATACOMBS.                     571
     breeding seasons,  he compares  to  the
     alarm of fire in a large and populous city.
     On such occasions of alarm and conster-
     nation, the cat-bird is the first to make
     his appearance, not singly, but sometimes
     half a dozen at a time, flying from differ-
     ent quarters to the spot.   Other birds are
     variously affected, but none show symp-
     toms of such extreme suffering.  He hur-
     ries backward and forward with hanging
     wings and open mouth, calling out louder
     and faster, and actually screaming with
     distress, till he  appears  hoarse with his
     exertions.    He  attempts no  offensive
i    measures, but he bewails, he implores, in
     the most pathetic terms  with which na-
     ture has suppUed him, and with an agony
     of feeling which is truly affecting.  This
     species does not readily desert its nest;
     and,  when the  eggs or  young of other
     birds are placed  in it,  they are content to
     throw  out the  intruders, and  continue
     their  attentions  to  their own  family.
     When  the nest  and  eggs are  carefully
     removed to another place by man,  the
     parents  follow, and do  not  remit their
     cares.  Before the dawn, when there is
     scarcely Ught enough to render it visible,
     the cat-bird generally begins  its song,
     while fluttering  with  great sprightliness
     from bush to bush.  His notes are more
     singular than melodious,  consisting  of
     short imitations of other  birds, but failing
     where strength and clearness of tone are
     requisite.  He  appeals to study  certain
     passages with great perseverance, com-
     mencing in a low key,  and, as he suc-
     ceeds, ascending to a higher  and freer
     note, unembarrassed by the presence of a
     spectator, even within  a  few  yards.  An
     attentive  listener discovers  considerable
     variety in  his performance,  apparently
     made up of a collection  of odd sounds
     and quaint passages.  The cat-bird is a
     great enemy to the common black snake
     or horse-runner (coluber constrictor), which
     rifles its  nest whenever an opportunity
     offers.  As the cat-bird uniformly attacks
     or pursues this snake, and is frequently
     seen in the act of hopping eagerly after it,
     numerous ridiculous stories are related of
     its  being fascinated or charmed by  the
     snake.   The  testimony  of Wilson and
     Bartram show that the bird is almost uni-
     formly the  aggressor and victor, driving
     the snake  to its hiding-place.  In one
     instance, the writer  witnessed an  attack
     of a cat-bird on the  black snake, almost
     precisely similar  to  that related in Wil-
     son's Ornithology, by his venerable friend,
     the naturalist Bartram.  The  cat-bird is
     nine inches long,  and, at a short distance,
appears nearly black, but, on a closer in-
spection, is seen to be of a deep slate-color
above, lightest on the edges ofthe prima-
ries, and of a considerably lighter slate-col-
or below, except under the tail coverts,
which are of a very dark red; the tail,
which is  rounded, and the superior part
of the head, as well as the bill and legs,
are black. (See  Wilson, 1st ed., vol. ii.
p. 90.)
  Cat Island, or St. Salvador, or Gu-
anahani, or Guanimina ; one  of the Ba-
hama  islands;  about 60 miles in length
from N. to S., and 12 in its mean breadth.
Population, in 1797, 657.  This island is
remarkable for  being  the first  land of
America  discovered by Columbus, who
landed here Oct. 12, 1492, and named it
St.  Salvador.  Lon. 75° W.; lat 24° 30
N.
  Catacombs (caverns, grottoes, subter-
raneous caves, destined for the sepulture
of the dead).   The respect  felt  for the
dead, by  all nations, naturally led them
to some outward manifestation of regard,
such as the pomp of funeral solemnities,
or the  consecration of a  particular spot
for  sepulture,  or the erection of monu-
ments,  to  transmit to posterity the re-
membrance of the services  or  virtues
of the deceased.   Some nations, as the
Egyptians, constructed pyramids and lab-
yrinths to contain their mortal remains.
Others, as the Phoenicians, and, after them,
the Greeks, hollowed out the rocks for
tombs, surrounding their towns with vast
magazines, containing the bones of their
fathers.  A^ia Minor, the coast of Africa,
and Cyrenais, afford  instances of these
singular and gigantic works.  The Ro-
mans, not so bold, but still more magnifi-
cent, embellished their roads with superb
mausoleums and sarcophagi of marble,
consecrated to their distinguished families.
At  a  later period, when the change of
their religion made it necessary to con-
ceal these last marks of regard, they con-
secrated vast subtenaneous  caverns  to
the  purpose of tombs.   The discovery of
these monuments has always  excited the
curiosity of travellers and the attention of
artists.  The latter have  applied them-
selves  to  learn  from them the character
of architecture  and painting at different
epochs; and,  though  they have  often
found  only coarse representations, the
productions of art in  its infancy or de-
cline,  they have  occasionally met  with
types  of  perfection.  Many monuments
of this description have been preserved
to our days, and still contain traces ofthe
painting and  architecture with  which 
572
CATACOMBS.
they were  decorated.   There are cata-
combs  existing  in  Syria, Persia,  and
among the most ancient Oriental nations.
But  the revolutions in these  countries,
and  the changes which they have occa-
sioned,  have deprived us of the docu-
ments which would have given us exact
information  regarding  them.    The de-
scription of the   catacombs   in  Upper
Egypt gives us an idea of those  whose
existence is still unknown to us.  They
contain the  history of the countiy, and
the customs and manners  of the people,
painted or  sculptured in many  monu-
ments  of  the most admirable preserva-
tion.  The subtenaneous  caves of these
countries, like almost all ofthe  kind, have
their origin in quarries.  From the depths
of the  mountains which  contain them,
stone was  taken,  which served for the
building of the neighboring towns, and
also of the  great  edifices and  pyramids
which  ornament  the  land.   They  are
dug in a mountain situated in  the neigh-
borhood of the Nile, and furnished the
Romans with materials for the construc-
tion of buildings  in their colonial estab-
lishments.   The   excavations  in  these
mountains are found throughout a space
of 15 to 20 leagues, and form subtenane-
ous caverns, which appear to be the work
of art; but there is neither  order  nor
symmetry  in them.  They contain vast
and obscure apartments, low and irregu-
lar vaults, supported,  in different parts,
with piles, left purposely by the workmen.
Some holes, of about six feel in length
and two feet in width, give  rise to the
conjecture,  that they  were destined for
sepulchres.   Cells of very small  dimen-
sions, formed in the hollows of these ob-
scure caverns, prove them to  have  been
the abode of recluses.  In Sicily and Asia
Minor, a  prodigious number of grottoes
and excavations  have  been  discovered,
containing sepulchres.  Some appear to
have served as retreats to the  victims of
despotism :  the greater part are the work
of the waters which traverse  the moun-
tains of these regions, as, for instance, the
great cave of Noto, which passes for one
ofthe wonders of Sicily.  This cave, the
 height, lengtii and breadth of which are
 equal, has been formed by the river Cas-
 sibili, which runs at the bottom, and trav-
 erses it for the length of 100 fathoms.  In
 the interior of this cave are a number of
 houses and tombs.  In the ancient Hybla,
 there  is a grotto  containing many sepul-
 chres, near which is the tomb of iEschy-
 lus.  At  Yela are abodes for the living
 and sepulchres for  the dead, cut in  the
rocks;  at Agrigentum,   subterraneous
caves,  labyrinths  and  tombs,  arranged
with great order and symmetry.  Tliere
are also caverns in the environs of Syra-
cuse,  which  may be  ranked  with the
principal monuments of this description,
from their extent  and depth, their archi-
tectural ornaments,  and from some his-
torical recollections attached to them.  In
the catacombs of Rome, coffins are some-
times found, and it  is supposed that the
bones in  them belonged  to Christians.
Inscriptions are also seen on the walls of
the apartments.   But, though they may
not have been used by the Christians as
tombs, it is certain that they served for
places of assembUng for secret exercises
of devotion.  (See Artaud's Voyage dans
les Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1810.)—
The catacombs in the tufa mountains of
Capo di Monte, near Naples, consist of
subterraneous galleries, halls, rooms, ba-
silicas, and rotundos, which extend to the
distance of two ItaUan miles.  Through-
out  there are seen niches  for  coffins
(loculi) and bones.  A description of them
was given by Celano, in 1643.   They
probably owe their origin to the quanies
which afforded tufa for the walls of the
cities Palaeopolis and Neapolis, and after-
wards served as sepulchres for the Chris-
tian congregations.   The catacombs of
Paris are extensive  subterraneous  galle-
ries, to  which  you  descend  from  the
buildings on the western side of the bar-
riere d'enfer.  The name itself,  which has
been given to this  labyrinth of caverns
and galleries, from its resemblance to the
asylums and places  of refuge of the per-
secuted  Christians   under Naples and
Rome,  informs  us  of the purpose to
which  it has been applied since 1786.
These galleries were originally the quar-
ries from which materials were excavated
for constructing  the edifices of the capi-
tal.  The weight of the superincumbent
houses  rendered it necessary to  prop
them;  and when the cemeteries of the
demolished churches  and the burying-
grounds were cleared in  1786, the gov-
ernment resolved to deposit the bones in
these  quarries, which were consecrated
for that purpose.  The relics of ten gen-
erations were here united in the repose
of the grave.  Eight times as great as the
living tide that rolls over this spot is its
 subterraneous population.  By the light
 of wax tapers you descend 90 feet to a
 world of silence, over which the Parisian
 police keeps watch as strictly as over the
 world of noise and confusion above.  You
 enter a gallery,  where two can just go 
CATACOMBS—CATALAN!.
573
abreast.  A black streak on the stones, of
which  the  walls  consist, points out  the
way, which, from the great number of
intersecting by-passages, it would be dif-
ficult to retrace without this aid, or with-
out guides.  The  plain of Montrouge and
the great suburb  St. Jacques, as well  as
St. Germain, and, according to some,  the
channel of the Seine, are thus under-
mined.   Among  the curiosities of this
part of that lower world is a plan  of the
harbor  of Mahon,  which,  in his hours
of leisure, an ingenious soldier faithfully
copied,  from memory, in the material of
the quarries.   You finally enter  the hall,
whence you are ushered into the realms
of death by the  inscription  which once
stood over the entrance to  the church-
yard of St. Sulpice:—Has ultra metas re-
quiescunt beatam spem exspectantes.  Nar-
row passages between walls of skeletons;
chambers in which mausoleums, altars,
candelabras, constructed of human bones,
with festoons  of  skulls and thigh-bones,
interspersed,  occasionally, with inscrip-
tions, not always the most happily select-
ed, from  ancient and modern authors,
excite  the gloomy  impression which is
always  produced, even in the most Ught-
minded, by the sight ofthe dissolution of
the human frame.  Fatigued with these
honible embellishments, you enter a sim-
ple chapel, without bones, and containing
an altar of granite.  The inscription D. M.
II et III Septembr. MDCCXCII.  recaUs
to memory the victims of those mournful
days, whose remains are here united.  It
is the only spot in the whole labyrinth,
that speaks immediately to the heart of
every  body.   On leaving  these  rooms,
consecrated to death, where, however, the
air is always preserved pure by means of
secret  passages,  you  may visit a  geo-
logical  cabinet, formed by Mr. Hericourt
de Thury, the director of the carriires
sous Paris, who has also published a de-
scription of them (Paris,  1815).  Speci-
mens  of the  minerals furnished  by the
regions you have traversed, and a collec-
tion of diseased  bones, in a contiguous
hall, scientifically ananged, are the lost
curiosities which these excavations offer.
300 toises east ofthe road to Orleans you
finally  return to the light of day.   We
understand that it has lately been prohib-
ited to visit this remarkable spot, because
a person had lost himself in this labyrinth,
and had never been heard of again.  In
Rome, there is a  Franciscan church, un-
der which, for centuries, the bones ofthe
monks of the convent, and of many per-
sons, who think  theh eternal happiness
will  lie  promoted by their burial there,
have been preserved, ingeniously arranged
in columns, altars, arches, garlands, fes-
toons and architectural  ornaments.   Ev-
ery year, mass is read there.
  Catacoustics (from Kara, and <U5«, /
hear), called, also,  cataphonics; the sci-
ence of reflected sounds, or that part of
acoustics which considers  the properties
of echoes.   (See Acoustics.)
  Catafalco.  (See Castrum Doloris.)
  Catalani, AngeUca,  by marriage Val-
abregue; a  celebrated  singer,  born, ac-
cording to her own statement, in 1784, at
Sinigaglia, in the Ecclesiastical States, and
educated in the  convent of St. Lucia, near
Rome. Angelica displayed, in her seventh
year, an uncommon talent for singing, and
such multitudes  came to hear her, that the
magistrates  of  the place prohibited her
singing  any longer in the  convent  But
the favor of a  cardinal, and the love of
the celebrated  Bosello,  enabled  her to
cultivate her talents.  After leaving the
convent, she appeared, in  her fifteenth
year, at the theatre in Venice, and  then
in other Italian cities.  In  Lisbon, she
was, for five years, together with  Cres-
centini and Gafforini, the ornament ofthe
Italian opera.  Her  first concert  in Ma-
drid brought her more than $15,000; and,
from her concerts in  Paris,  her  fame
spread over all Europe.  In London, she
had, in the first  year of her engagement,
a salary  of 72,000 francs ($12,931), and,
in the following,of 96,000 francs ($17,241).
Two concerts, besides, brought her 30,000
francs  ($5,388) each, and  she received
immense  sums  in  her journeys through
the  countiy towns  during  her  eight
months' stay in  the island.   In 1814, she
undertook, in Paris, the direction of the
Italian opera, left  it on the return of Na-
poleon, and obtained it anew on the res-
toration  of the king,  after an  interval
which she spent in journeys through Bel-
gium.   In  1816, she visited  the  chief
cities of Germany and Italy.  She owes
her  fame to an agreeable exterior, to  a
lively way  of  acting, to  an uncommon
fulness and a rare  flexibility of voice,  a
singularly fine  shake, and an  exceeding
richness of difficult and striking, but bril-
liant rather than beautiful, figures and or-
naments, particularly in chromatic pas-
sages, and an original combination of all
those  excellences in a whole, which is
more fit to  excite astonishment  and ad-
miration than to touch the heart.   As the
French  government,  after her  return
were continually obliged to advance con-
siderable sums  for the support ofthe Ital- 
574
CATALANI—CATAMENIA.
ian opera in Paris, whilst she never yield-
ed to the wish of the pubUc in the choice
of the  pieces performed, and, through
jealousy, removed other female singers
of merit, she was dismissed, and travelled
anew, in 1818, through the chief cities of
Germany, and then to Petersburg and
Warsaw; in  1822 to London, in 1825 to
Italy, in 1826 to Stuttgart.   She is marri-
ed to M. Valabregue, formerly a captain
in the French service, by whom she  has
several children.   The latest accounts in-
form us that she has  determined not to
sing publicly any more, except for chari-
table purposes.   She  Uves retired in
Italy.
  Catalepsy.  This is a spasmodic dis-
ease, and, by some,  regarded as a species
of tetanus.  It affects the whole body, so
as to render it  immovable, as if dead.
Tetanus differs from catalepsy in its sub-
jects and causes.  Females are  most  lia-
ble to the lost, while the first is equally
produced in  both sexes by appropriate
causes.   Tetanus is most frequently pro-
duced by punctured wounds of tendinous
textures, and most readily in hot weather.
Sometimes, however, it occurs, like cata-
lepsy,  independently of wounds.  The
spasm is more limited in tetanus; some-
times being most severe in  the muscles
of the  face, producing lock-jaw;  now it
attacks the muscles  of the trunk,  on  the
fore part, producing emprosthotonos, and
now the muscles of the back  part, pro-
ducing opisthotonos, or curvature  of  the
trunk backwards.   During all  this,  the
natural  temperature may  remain,  the
pulse be perfectly natural, and the senses
unimpaired.  Under the most active and
varied treatment, tetanus has always been
a very fatal malady.—Catalepsy is  a uni-
versal spasmodic disease of the organs of
locomotion.   The body remains in the
position in which it may have been when
attacked with the fit, and the limbs pre-
serve any situation in which they may be
placed.  The senses are obliterated, and
the mind  totally inactive, nothing being
able to rouse the  patient.  The pulse and
temperature  remain natural.  The fit is
of uncertain  length; according to some
writers, not lasting more than  a quarter
of an hour, though known by others to be
much longer.  This disease  is an obsti-
nate one, and is very liable to recur, even
when the patient seems in the least re-
spect liable to a recunence.  It is, for the
most part, a  consequence  of some other
disease.  This may  be  a local affection;
but it more  frequently occurs in a gen-
eraUy enfeebled constitution, induced by
some grave malady, or one which  has
been caused by the gradual operation of
unobserved morbid causes.
  Catalogues of Books.  (See Books,
Catalogues of.)
  Catalonia  (anciently  Taraconenris);
a province of Spain,  bounded  N. by
France, E. and S. E. by  the Meditena-
nean, S. W. by Valencia, and W. by Ar-
ragon.  Its form is nearly that of a trian-
gle, the base towards the  Meditenanean
being about 140 miles in length, the side
towards France  120, and that towards
Arragon 140.  The countiy in general is
mountainous,  but intersected with fertile
valleys, while  the mountains themselves
are  covered with valuable woods and
fruit-trees.  Corn, wine, oil, flax, hemp,
legumes, and almost  every kind of fruit,
are abundant.   Here are quarries of mar-
ble of all colors, of crystal, and alabaster;
also topazes,  rubies, jaspers and other
precious stones; mines  of lead, tin, iron,
alum, vitriol and salt, and,  formerly, of
gold and silver.  On the coast is a coral-
fishery. Catalonia is naturally much less
fertile than either of the Castiles; but it
far  surpasses  both,  and,  indeed, every
other province in Spain, in the industry
of its inhabitants, as well as the improve-
ments which they have  effected in man-
ufactures,   agriculture   and   commerce.
Pop. 858,818;  square miles, 12,111.  It
has usually been divided into 15 vigueries
or jurisdictions.  The  principal  towns
are Barcelona, Tortosa,  Tarragona,  Ge-
rona, and ViUa Franca de Panades. (See
Spain.)
  Catamenia  (derived  from these two
Greek words,—Kara, according to, and ^i?v,
the month); menses, the monthly discharge
from the uterus of females, between the
ages of 14  and  45.  Many have question-
ed whether this discharge arose from a
mere rupture of vessels, or whether it was
owing to a secretory action.   There can
be Uttle doubt of the truth of the latter.
The secretory organ is composed  of the
arterial vessels situated in  the  fundus of
the  uterus.  The  dissection  of women
who have  died during the time of their
menstruating  proves  this.  Sometimes,
though very rarely, women, during preg-
nancy, menstruate; and, when this hap-
pens, the discharge takes place  from the
arterial  vessels of the vagina.   During
pregnancy and lactation, when the  person
is in good  health, the catamenia, for the
most part,  cease to flow.  The quantity
a female menstruates at each time is very
various, depending on climate and a vari-
ety of other circumstances.   It is com- 
CATAMENIA—CATARACT.
575
monly,  in  England,  from five  to  six
ounces: it rarely exceeds eight.  Its  du-
ration is from three to four, and some-
times,  though rarely,  five days.   With
respect to the nature of the discharge, it
differs very much from pure  blood.  It
never coagulates, but is sometimes gru-
mous, and membranes like the decidua
are formed in difficult menstruations.   In
some women, it  always smells rank and
peculiar; in others, it is inodorous.  The
use of this monthly secretion is said to be,
to render the uterus fit for the conception
and nutrition of the foetus; therefore girls
rarely conceive before the catamenia ap-
pear, and women rarely after their entire
cessation, but very easily soon after men-
struation.
   Catania (anciently Catana); a  city of
Sicily, in the valley  of Demona,  on  the
borders ofthe valley of Noto, the see of a
bishop,  the  suffragan  of  Monreal;  47
miles S. S. W. Messina, 85 E. S. E. Pa-
lermo ;  lat. 37°  307  N.; lon.  15° &  E.
The population is variously estimated at
from 40  to  80,000.  It is situated on a
gulf of the Mediterranean, at the  foot of
mount ./Etna.  This city has been repeat-
edly visited by tremendous earthquakes,
and was laid in ruins by  one in 1693,
when 18,000  people were destroyed; and
upon the situation which it occupied, the
present city is built;  the lava serving, at
the same time, for a foundation, as well
as a quarry, from which stone was dug
for its construction.  Catania is reviving
with great splendor, and has much more
the features of a  metropolis  and royal
residence than Palermo.   The principal
streets are wide,  and well paved with
lava.  Most of the edifices have an air of
magnificence unknown in  other parts of
the island, and  the  town  has a  title to
rank among the elegant cities of Europe.
Here is a university with three faculties,
much celebrated in Sicily.   The inhabit-
ants have always been noted for their su-
periority over the other Sicilians in polite-
ness.  The Benedictine convent  of St
Nicholas is very large. Every part  has
been rebuilt since the earthquake of 1693.
An obeUsk of red  granite,  placed on the
back of an antique elephant of touchstone,
stands in the  centre of the  great square,
which is formed  by the town-hall, semi-
nary and cathedral.  The cathedral, ded-
icated to St. Agatha, the patroness of the
city, has suffered so much by earthquakes,
that little ofthe original structure remains.
The other religious edifices are profusely
ornamented, but in a bad taste.  The har-
bor, though  one of the largest  in  the
island, is not  much frequented; but the
trade is  considerable.  The exports are
wheat, barley, wine, oil, &c
  Cataplasms, or  Poultices, are soft
compounds, intended to be applied to the
surface of the body.  They are common-
ly made of meals, powders, boiled pulps,
&c, mixed with  water, milk, or  some
other liquid.  They are called rinapisms
when mustard forms their base.
  Catapults  (Latin, catapulta; Greek,
KaTa-niXrai);  certain machines of the an-
cients, corresponding to our heavy can-
non.  The catapults differed  from the
ballista by throwing more horizontally,
the latter more in  a curve.  The  form
also differed, and the catapults resembled,
in their general shape, a cross-bow.  The
whole machine rested on a frame, and, if
intended  for the field, had wheels.  The
size of these  machines  varied much.
The large catapults shot  anows  of 3
cubits, or 4£ Roman feet,  in length,  often
larger ones, and  sometimes beams  12
feet long.  Burning anows were likewise
often thrown by the catapults.  The large
ones threw their anp^ws  4 stadia, but
not more than 2 stadia  with  precision.
Pliny ascribes  the invention of catapults
to the Syrians; Plutarch and Diodorus, to
other nations.  At the siege of Jerusalem,
the Romans had  300 catapults and  40
ballista?.  The Romans did not carry all
the parts  of these machines with them,
but only  the ropes and fastenings, with
the necessary tools; and the soldiers built
the catapults when they  wanted them.
The terms  catapult  and   ballista  were
often used indiscriminately ; and, in later
times, the word catapult went entirely out
of use. Vegetius and Ammianus Marcel-
linus never introduce it, and employ bal-
lista to signify all machines throwing large
arrows or beams, and  onager for those
throwing stones.
  Cataract.  By this term two very dif-
ferent diseases are  designated by  some
writers, viz. the true cataract, and amau-
rods, or  gutta serena.   By the first of
these terms, in its most common signifi-
cation, is  understood opacity of the crys-
talline lens,  or its capsule, or both.  By
the second is meant a disease of the reti-
na,  by which it is rendered unsusceptible
of the action  of light.  In cataract, the
lens becomes  opaque, loses its transpa-
rency, and is no longer capable of trans-
mitting the light.  The causes of cataract
are numerous.  Inflammation  may pro-
duce it  Sometimes it is ascribed to a state
of the vessels of the part  which prevents
a proper  nourishment of  the lens or its 
576
CATARACT.
capsule.  It is produced by various dis-
eases, such as gout, rheumatism, scrofula,
and  accompanies old  age.  Its earliest
approach is marked by a loss ofthe natu-
ral color of the pupil; this becoming tur-
bid,  or slightly  gray.   Musca volitantes
accompany this  period.  The  opacity is
not, at first, over the whole crystalline,
and, most  frequently, first  attacks  the
centre portion; this being turbid, and of a
grayish color, while the sunounding por-
tions remain transparent, and of the usual
black color. While  it exists in this  de-
gree only, the person can  see  in an  ob-
lique direction.   The color of the  pupil
is various;  mostly grayish-white or pearl-
colored ; sometimes  milk-white, or of a
yellowish-gray;  now and then  of a gray-
ish-brown,  and even  of a dark-brown or
dark-gray.  The consistence of the lens
differs in different cases, being either hard,
and even horny, or very soft,  as if dis-
solved.—The treatment of cataract is by a
surgical operation on the eye, and differ-
ent operations have been tried and recom-
mended. They  all consist in  removing
the diseased lens from its situation oppo-
site the transparent  cornea.  By one  of
these operations, the cataract is depressed,
removed downwards, and kept from  ris-
ing by the vitreous humor.  This is call-
ed couching.  Another  operation is  ex-
traction, and consists  in making an  incis-
ion of the cornea, and of the capsule of
the  lens,  by which  the  lens may   be
brought forward, and through the cut in
the cornea. The third operation  is by
absorption.  This consists in  wounding
the capsule, breaking down the crystal-
line, and bringing the fragments into  the
anterior chamber of the eye, where they
are exposed to the action of the aqueous
humor, and are,  at length,  absorbed.
This last operation has the name kerato-
nyxis applied to it.  The  choice of  the
operation is determined  by the character
of the  cataract.  After the operation,  the
patient is  to be  kept from the light, and
from all means of irritation.  Such medi-
cines and such articles of food are to be
prescribed  as will most effectually pre-
vent inflammation; and should this occur,
it must be treated by such means as  are
the most sure to restrain or overcome it.—
Amaurosis is a disease of the optic nerve,
and  its  continuation,  the retina.   Its
causes are  numerous.   It may be  occa-
sioned by organic disease of the parts re-
ferred  to, by mechanical pressure  upon
the nerve, by too powerful light, by long-
continued  use of the eyes in  too  weak
Ught, by rapid transition from darkness to
Ught, and, finally, by old age.  Various
other, and some more general, causes may
produce amaurosis.  Among these  are
wounds of the head, compression of the
brain, fits  of apoplexy, suppressed colds
in the head, habitual inebriety, vomiting,
coughing, sneezing, affections  of the ali-
mentary canal, and some ofthe neighbor-
ing viscera—the liver, for example.  Ac-
cording to the activity of  these various
causes,  the malady comes on sudden-
ly or gradually.  The patients  are some-
times unable to bear the Ught, and, there-
fore, seek the darkness, where sparks and
flames  frequently appear to their eyes.
Objects  sometimes  appear of different
colors, or fluctuate,  swim, and  confuse
themselves.  At other times, the patients
begin to squint, suffer a severe pain in
the ball of the eye, and a straining above
the eyebrows: finally, they begin to see
as if through a crape or fog, and only in
bright daylight can distinguish accurate-
ly: black  flakes and  specks  appear to
hover before their eyes.   The  greatest
insensibiUty of the retina is often oppo-
site the centre of the  cornea; but ulti-
mately the disease produces total blind-
ness, the pupil losing its motion, and be-
coming permanently dilated.   Deep  in
the eye a  white speck is  often visible,
which is traversed by veins.  According
to the  different causes,  the malady is
either easily cured or is incurable.  Re-
gard is especially to be had to them in the
selection and use of remedies.
  Cataract, in  geography  (from  the
Greek KarapaK-ms).  The English language
has more words than most European lan-
guages,  to  express  different degrees of
rapid and sudden descent in streams of
water.   The  most general  term is falls.
A considerable declivity in the bed of
a river  produces rapids;  when it runs
down a precipice,  it forms a cataract;
and, if it falls from steep to  steep, in suc-
cessive cataracts, it is often called a cas-
cade.  In primary and transition countries,
rivers abound in rapids: they also some-
times occur in secondary regions, but the
descent is  always more gentle. In allu-
vial  districts, falls, of course, are very
rare: they are almost  always found in
the passage of streams from the primitive
to the  other formations:  thus falls are
found where the alluvial formations, on
the coast of the U. States, border on the
primitive formations ; but none are found
in the alluvion below.  Rapids and cata-
racts are  often  the  greatest blessing to
rugged  countries, since they furnish the
cheapest  means to  move  machines in 
CATARACT.
577
manufactories, &c.  In flat countries, as
Holland, the lower part of Germany, and
the West  Indies, people must resort to
windmills, on account ofthe want of falls.
Many cataracts are  remarkable for their
sublimity; and the falls of Niagara sur-
pass all others of the  known world  in
grandeur.   The whole  mass of water
which empties itself from the great in-
land seas of North America is here com-
pressed into a channel of three quarters
of a mile  in width, and  plunges  over a
precipice of  150  to 160  feet in  height.
The river,  more  than a  mile above the
falls, is divided by Grand and Navy isl-
ands, and has a gradual descent of 57 feet
from this place.  The banks preserve the
level of the country, and, in some parts,
rise 100 feet from the water: the whole
stream is covered with foam  and waves.
At the grand falls, the river is  three quar-
ters of a mile broad,  and the precipice
curves nearly hi a semicircle, extending
in the longest line  on  the American  or
eastern side.   An island, called Goat isl-
and, divides the cataract into  two princi-
pal portions—the American fall  on  the
east, and the  Horse-shoe  on the west, or
Canada side.   A small portion of the fall
on  the American side is cut off by a
small island  on the precipice: the rest
descends in one body, almost perpendic-
ularly, from a height of 164 feet, and 1000
feet  in width.  Both  the falls on  the
American  side are crossed  by bridges.
The Horse-shoe  fall is  14 feet less  in
height, but surpasses the other much in
grandeur.   The great  body of the water
passes the precipice with such force, that
it forms a curled sheet, which strikes the
water below 50 feet from the  base of the
precipice,  and  visitors  can pass  behind
the sheet  of water.  The best view  of
this cataract is from Table rock.  It is fre-
quently adorned with a rainbow.   Some-
times  three  are  seen in the  clouds  of
spray, which rise 100 feet above the preci-
pice.   (See Dwight's Travels.}—The river
Montmorency forms a cataract  250 feet in
height and 50 feet in breadth; nine miles
below  Quebec—The falls of the river
Chaudiere,  not far from the cataract just
mentioned, are about 100 feet in height—
The Missisrippi fonns a cataract of 40
feet in height, above its junction with the
Ohio.  The stream is 700 feet in width,
and the sunoundiug countiy level.—The
Missouri, at a distance of 500 mUes from
its sources, descends 360 feet in 18 miles.
There are three principal cataracts; one
of 87, one of 47, and one of 26  feet in
height. The river is 1000 feet broad, and
  vol. ii.          49
the whole scene is described as most beau-
tiful, only surpassed by the falls of Ni-
agara.—The falls of Passaic, in New Jer-
sey, at Patterson, about  15 miles from
Newark,  are among the most celebrated
of the  U. States.  The river  is 150 feet
broad, and falls, in one entire sheet, into a
chasm 70 feet in depth, and 12 wide.  Its
waters form the moving power for one of
the most manufacturing  districts of the
U. States.—The Mohawk  river,  near its
junction  with the Hudson, fonns  the falls
termed the Cohoes, about  60 feet high.—
The Housatonic river, in  the  north-west
of Connecticut, forms the finest  cataract
in New England.—In Georgia, the cata-
ract in the Tuccoa creek is interesting.  It
passes  through a channel 20 feet wide,
over a precipice of 187 feet, in one sheet,
if the season is wet—A  sirnUar  cataract
occurs in the river Ache, in Bavaria; fall-
ing 200 feet, by five steps, and being en-
tirely  scattered in  spray.  Its  noise  is
heard at a distance of several miles.—
Bellows falls, on the  Connecticut river,
near Walpole, are grand  and striking.—
Glen's  falls,  in  the Hudson river, ore
similar.—The highest cataract in America
is that  of Tequendama, in the river Bo-
gota, or Funza, a branch of the  Magda-
lena.  The river rises in the lofty plain, in
which Bogota is situated, 9000 feet above
the sea, and is precipitated into the lower
country,  through deep ravines and over
steep precipices, and finally plunges 600
feet into  a deep chasm.—The  cataracts of
the Nile  (one at  Syene, and the other
some distance above)  have been describ-
ed, by Mr. Bruce, as grand,  principaUy
from the wildness and desolation of the
scene; but the highest of them does not
exceed 40 feet  in height.—The primary
regions of Europe  abound in cataracts.
The torrents are seldom of great size, but
the rocky beds over which they roar and
dash in foam and spray, the  dark glens
into which they rash, and the wUdness
ofthe whole scenery, often produce awful
emotions.—The most remarkable  cataract
in Scotland is the Fyers.—The river Go-
tha has a fall of celebrity at Trolhatta, in
Sweden.   It descends 100 feet—One of
the most considerable fells in Europe has
lately been discovered in the river Lattin,
in Swedish Lapland.  It  is described as
half a mile in width and 400  feet in
height—Another, of immense size, has
been discovered by Mr. Esmark, in the
river Maamelven, in Norway, consisting
of three  separate fidls, the whole height
being 800 feet.—The Alpine highlands,
in Europe, abound in beautiful falls. The 
578
CATARACT—CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS.
cataract near  Schaffhausen  is 400 feet
brood and 70 high.—The river Oreo, de-
scending from mount Rosa  into  Italy,
forms a cascade, the height of which  is
estimated at 2400 feet—The fall of the
Evanson, flowing from the same moun-
tain, is stated to be 1200 feet high.—At
Staubbach,  in  the  canton  of Bern,  in
Switzerland, a small stream  descends a
height of 1400 feet—In Italy, the falls of
Terni and TivoU are beautiful, and were
celebrated  even among the  ancients.—
At Terni, about 45 miles north of Rome,
the Evelina plunges over a precipice of
marble rocks, 300 feet high.   The waters
contain lime, which produces  many petri-
factions.—At TivoU,  18 miles north-east
of Rome, are the falls ofthe Anio or Tev-
erino,  a branch of the  Tiber.   It falls
nearly 100 feet deep.  (See Woodbridge's
System of Universal Geography, Hartford,
1827.)  "
   Catarrh (from Karappaa, I flow down);
an increased  secretion  of mucus from
the membranes of the nose,  fauces and
bronchia, accompanied  with fever, and
attended with sneezing, cough, thirst, las-
situde, and want of appetite.   There are
two species of catarrh, viz: catarrhus afri-
gore, which is very common, and is called
a cold in the head;  and catarrhus a conta-
gio, the influenza, or epidemic catarrh,
which  sometimes attacks  a  whole city.
Catarrh is also symptomatic of several
other diseases.  It is seldom fatal, except
in scrofulous  habits, by laying the foun-
dation of phthisis ; or where  it  is aggra-
vated, by improper treatment, or repeated
 exposure to cold, into  some degree  of
peripneumony ; when there is hazard  of
the patient,  particularly if advanced in
Ufe, being suffocated by the copious effu-
 sion of viscid matter into the air-passages.
 The epidemic is generally, but not invari-
 ably, more severe than the common form
 of the  disease.  The latter is usually left
 to subside spontaneously,  which wiU
 commonly happen in a few days, by ob-
 serving the  antiphlogistic regimen.   If
 there should  be fixed pain of the chest,
 with any hardness of the pulse, a Uttle
 blood may be taken  from the arm, or
 topicaUy, foUowed by a blister; the bow-
 els must be kept regular, and diaphoretics
 employed, with demulcents and mild opi-
 ates, to quiet  the cough.   When the dis-
 ease hangs about the patient in a chronic
 form, gentle tonics and expectorants  are
 required,  as  mynh,  squill, &c.   In  the
 epidemic catarrh, more active evacuations
 are often  required, the lungs being more
 s«yiously  affected;  but,  though  these
should be promptly employed, they must
not be carried too far, the disease being
apt to assume the typhoid character in its
progress ; and, as the chief danger appears
to be that suffocation may happen from the
cause above-mentioned,  it  is especially
impo tant to promote expectoration, first
by antmonials, afterwards by squill, the
inhalation of steam, &c, not neglecting
to support the strength of the patient as
the disease advances.
  Catechesis ; the science which teach-
es the proper method of instructing be-
ginners in the principles of the Christian
reUgion by  question and answer, which
is called the  catechetical metliod.  (See
Method.)   Hence catechist and  catechise.
The art of the catechist consists in being
able to elicit and develope the ideas of
the  youthful minds of  learners.  This
part of religious science was first culti-
vated in  modern times, and Rosenmiiller,
Dinter, Schmid, Wolrath, Doltz, Graffe,
Daub, Winter,  Heinrich  Miiller,  and
others  have  particularly  distinguished
themselves by their writings upon it.
  Catechetical Schools ;  institutions
for the elementary education of Christian
teachers, of which  there were many in
the Eastern church from the 2d to the 5th
centuiy.  They were different from cate-
chumenical  schools, which were attached
to almost every church, and which were
intended only for the  popular instruction
of proselytes, and ofthe cbUdren of Chris-
tians ; whereas  the catechetical schools
were intended to communicate a scien-
tific knowledge of  Christianity.   The
first and most renowned was estabUshed
about the middle of the 2d century, for
the  Egyptian church at Alexandria, on
the model of the famous schools of Gre-
cian learning in that place.  (See Alexan-
drian School.)  Teachers like Panta?nus,
Clement and Origen gave them splendor
and secured  their permanence.   They
combined instruction in rhetoric and ora-
tory, in  classical Grecian literature, and
the Eclectic phUosophy, with the principal
branches of theological  study, exegesis,
the  doctrines of reUgion, and the tradi-
tions  of the  church; distinguished the
 popular  religious belief from the Gnosis,
 or the thorough knowledge of reUgion;
 estabUshed  Christian theology  as  a sci-
 ence, and finally attacked the dreams of
 the Chiliasts (beUevers in a millennium);
 but, by blending Greek speculations and
 Gnostic phantasies with  the doctrines of
 the church, by an aUegorical interpreta-
 tion ofthe  Bible, and the assumption of a
 secret sense in the Scriptures, different 
CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS—CATECHISM.            579
from the literal, contributed to the cor-
ruption of Christianity.  The distraction
of the Alexandrian church  by the Arian
controversies proved the destruction of
the catechetical schools in that place,
about the middle  of the  4th  century.
The catechetical school at Antioch ap-
pears not to have been a permanent insti-
tution, like the  Alexandrian, but only to
have been formed around  distinguished
teachers, when there happened to be any
in the place.  There were some distin-
guished teachers in Antioch, about  the
year 220.  We  have no certain informa-
tion, however, of the theological teachers
in that place, such as Lucian, Diodorus
of Tarsus, and Theodore of Mopsuestia,
until the latter part of the 4th century.
These teachers were distinguished from
the Alexandrian by more sober views of
Christianity,  by confining themselves to
the literal interpretation of the Bible, by
a cautious  use of the types of the Old
Testament, and by a bolder discussion of
doctrines.  The Nestorian and Eutychian
controversies, in the 5th century, drew
after them the ruin of the schools at An-
tioch.  Of a similar character were the
catechetical school instituted at Edessa,
in the 3d century,  and destroyed in 489,
and the  school afterwards estabUshed at
Nisibis, by  the  Nestorians, in its stead ;
both of which were in Mesopotamia.  To
these catechetical schools succeeded, at a
later  Hate, tho  cathedral and  monactlo
schools,  especially among the Western
Christians, who, as  late as the 6th cen-
tuiy, made  use of the  heathen schools,
and had never estabUshed catechetical
schools even at Rome.  (See Schools.)
   Catechism; a  book which  contains
the principles and first  instructions to be
communicated  in  any branch of knowl-
edge, particularly in reUgion.  In modern
times, the word has been  applied more
freely than formerly. Thus we see cate-
chisms   of  chemistry,  history,  and, in
 France, catechism des gens de bon sens (a
satire), catechism du bon ton, &c  The
word is  derived from the  Greek tarnx*",
 I sound, i. e., into  the ears  of the person
 to be instructed.  The word, however, is
 chiefly  used to denote the  books  that
 contain the  reUgious  instruction which
 any sect deems most  important  to be
 taught to the children and the people, in
 a popular and easy form, generally in the
 form of question  and  answer.   In the
 Catholic church,  each bishop  has the
 right to make a catechism for his diocese.
 But, in modern times, their catechisms are
 generally a pretty close copy of the one
drawn  up by the council of Trent, of
which  an English translation was pub-
lished in London (1687), upermissu supe-
riorum," under the patronage of James 11.
Among Protestants, the catechism of Lu-
ther acquired  great celebrity,  and still
continues to be used by many clergymen
in Germany, where regular instruction
in religion, during a certain period pre-
scribed by law,  must  precede the  con-
firmation, which  takes  place between the
13th year of age and the 17th.  Clergymen,
however, in some parts of that  countiy,
have been allowed to publish  and use
their own catechisms;  and it is a matter
of no  little interest, to observe how the
many  different philosophical schools of
Germany have influenced the tone ofthe
catechisms by their various systems of
morals, &c  Some, which we have seen,
were books of 300 pages, and rather phil-
osophical systems, supported by numer-
ous quotations from the Bible, than sim-
ple catechisms.  Such catechisms, how-
ever, are going out of use.  The catechet-
ical mode of giving  instructions in Chris-
tianity had  much declined  previous to
the reformation, when  it was revived, and
numerous catechisms  sprung up.  The
proper preparation of such manuals, the
communication  of  reUgious and moral
instruction in a short compass and a sim-
ple form, is a thing of no small difficulty.
In England, soon after the reformed reli-
gion was RStflhliahftd therpi,  n short Jjate-
chism was introduced, consisting of the
creed, the Lord's prayer, and the deca-
logue, to which  a few cautious, explana-
tory passages were added, about 1549, it
is supposed by archbishop Cranmer.  " A
Shorte Catechisme or  Playne Instruction,
conteynynge the Summe  of Christian
Learninge,  sett  fourth  by the King's
Maiesties Authoritie for aU Scholemais-
ters to teach," was the work which closed
the labors of the reformers  in the reign
of Edward VI, whose name it commonly
bears.  It was printed both  in Latin and
in English, in 1553,  and may fairly be
considered as containing the sense of the
church of England then established.  The
catechism of the EngUsh church, now in
use, is drawn up, after the primitive man-
ner, by way of question and answer.  The
 questions and answers relative to the sac-
 raments were subjoined to it, at the revis-
 ion of the  liturgy, in  the  first year of
 James I.  As now extant,  it consists of
 five parts, viz.:—1. the doctrine of the
 Christian covenant; 2. the articles of be-
 Uef; 3. the commandments; 4. the duty
 and efficacy of prayer;  and, 5. the nature 
580
CATECHISM—CATGUT.
and end of the holy sacraments.—Calvin
wrote  a catechism, as Luther did;  but
that of the former has  not  enjoyed so
much popularity, nor been translated into
so many languages, as that of the latter.—
In France, the catechisms of later times
exhibit plain marks of poUtical influence.
The catechism  of Napoleon, in its tenth
chapter, expUcitly states in what light he
and his family were to be  regarded. This
celebrated  chapter has  generally been
thought scandalous, though it was approv-
ed, after a fashion, by the papal nuncio.
Most of the catechisms  pubUshed since
1814 are  equally  scandalous,  because
they contain illegal,  nay,  anti-constitu-
tional,  precepts.  When  the complaints
on this score became too loud to be  dis-
regarded, the pitiful excuse  was made,
that the offensive turn of the passages
was owing to enors ofthe press.
  Catechu (terra japonica);  an  extract
prepared from  the wood and the green
fruit of the mimosa catechu (Lin.) and  of
several other trees of the  same  famUy,
which grow  in the East Indies, princi-
pally in Bengal.   There are three sorts
of catechus.  The first, Bombay catechu,
is in square  pieces, of a reddish-brown
color, friable, of a uniform  texture, fracture
uneven, of a specific gravity of about 1.39.
The second, Bengal catechu, is in round
pieces, of the weight  of three or  four
ounces, of a deep chocolate color inter-
nally, and resembling iron rust externally,
more friable, ofthe specific gravity of 1.28.
The third  kind, catechu in masses, is in
irregular pieces of two or three ounces,
of a reddish-brown color, shining, homo-
geneous, and wrapped up in large-nerved
leaves.  These three kinds of catechu  are
inodorous, of an astringent  taste at first,
but, soon after, sweet and agreeable; at
least, this is the  case with  the first and
last sort Catechu is one of the best as-
tringents to be found in the materia med-
ico, and Ukewise one ofthe most in use.
  Catechumens is a name which  was
applied to those converted Jews and hea-
thens, in the first ages ofthe church, who
were to receive baptism, had a particular
place in the church, but were not permit-
ted to be present at the celebration of the
sacrament.   Afterwards,  it was applied
to those  young Christians,  who, for  the
first time, wished to partake of this ordi-
nance, and, for this purpose, went through
a preparatory course of instruction.
  Category, in logic; an assemblage of
all the  beings contained under any genus
or kind, ranged in order.   The school
philosophers distribute all beings, all the
 objects of our thoughts or ideas, into cer-
 tain genera or classes, which classes the
 Greeks call  categories, and  the  Latins,
predicaments, and which Mr.  Harris has
 styled philosophical arrangements.   The
 ancients,  foUowing  Aristotle,  generally
 make  10  categories.   Under the first all
 substances are comprised, and aU  acci-
 dents  or attributes under the 9 last, viz.,
 quantity, quality, relation, action, pasrion,
 time, place, situation and habit.  This ar-
 rangement, however, is arbitrary, and now
 almost excluded.  Accordingly, some phi-
 losophers think that  all nature may  be
 better considered under these seven divis-
 ions—spirit,  matter,  quantity, substance,
figure, motion and rest.  Others make but
 two categories, substance  and attribute,
 or  subject and  accident; or  three,  acci-
 dent being divided into the inherent and
 circumstantial.  The anangement of the
 10  categories was  bonowed  from the
 Pythagorean school.   It is said to  have
 been invented by Archytas of Tarentum.
 From  him  it passed to  Plato  (who,
 however, admitted only five categories—>
 substance, identity, diversity,  motion and
 rest), and from Plato to Aristotle.  The
 Stoics held four—subjects, qualities, in-
 dependent circumstances, relative circum-
 stances.  (For the categories of Kant, see
 Kant.)
  Catel, Charles Simon,  composer  of
 music, bom about 1773, a pupil of Gossec,
 firofessor of harmony a* *hp conservatory
 q. v.)  m Faria, ha* published many mu-
sical works, of which none has obtain-
ed so much  feme as his Traite d'Harmo-
nie  (1802), which  the conservatory has
chosen as a text-book for instruction in
composition.  Among the works of Catel,
besides a great number of compositions for
wind instruments, particularly for military
music, are the operas Semiramis, Les Ba-
yaderes, L'Auberge de Bagneres, and Les
Artistes par Occasion.
  Caterpillar.  (See Papilio.)
  Catgut. The strings of certain musical
instruments, the cords of clock-weights,
and those of some other machines and
implements, are made of a dense, strong
animal substance, denominated catgut.  It
is made  from the intestines of different
 quadrupeds, particularly those of  cattle
and sheep.  The manufacture is chiefly
 carried on in Italy and France.  The tex-
ture from which it is made is that which
anatomists call the muscular coat, which
is carefully separated from the peritoneal
 and mucous membranes.  After a tedious
 and troublesome  process  of  steeping,
 scouring,  fermenting, inflating, &c, the 
CATGUT—CATHARI.
581
material is twisted, rubbed with  horse-
hair cords, fumigated with burning sul-
phur, to improve  its color,  and dried.
Cords of different size, and strength, and
delicacy, are obtained from different do-
mestic animals.  The intestine is some-
times cut into uniform strips,  with an
instrument made for the  purpose.   To
prevent offensive effluvia during the pro-
cess, and to get rid ofthe oily matter, the
French make  use  of an alkaline liquid,
called eau de Javelle.   Catgut for stringed
instruments, as violins and harps, is made
principally in Rome and Naples.  For the
smallest violin strings, 3 thicknesses are
used; for the largest, 7; and, for the largest
bass-viol strings, 120.   In the kingdom
of Naples, whence the best strings, com-
monly called Roman, are  obtained, there
are large manufactories of this article.
  Cathari ; a denomination  which was
applied, from  the  middle of  the  11th to
the 13th century, to several  parties and
sects, that appeared first  in  Lombardy,
and afterwards in  other countries of the
West, and which were violently persecut-
ed, on account of their Manichean tenets
and usages.  As they originated in Bulga-
ria, they were sometimes  termed  Bulga-
rians, whence  arose the French term of
abuse, Bougres. Sometimes, in token of
their contemptibleness, as men  of the
lowest class, they were  called Patarenes,
or  Patarines,  from Pataria, a region of
bad reputation  near  Milan; sometimes
Publicans, or Popelites, and, in the  Low
Countries, Pipldes.  But the most general
name, by which they were denoted, in the
middle ages,  was Cathari (either  from
xadapoi, the pure, which they claimed to
be, or from the national appellation  Cha-
zars, because they were said to have pro-
ceeded from Chazary, the present Crimea;
whence ketzer, the German word for her-
etics).  The religious views and practice
of  the  sects  comprehended under  this
name differed  much, according to the age
and country in which they appeared, and
according to  the spirit of their leaders;
but they all agreed  in an obstinate resist-
ance to Catholicism, and in the  following
points of doctrine and religious life:—In
common  with the old Manicheans, but
without esteeming Manes a prophet, they
entertained an aversion to the mixture of
Judaism  in  Christianity, professed  the
dualism couched in scriptural  language,
which places  the  devil nearly on a level
with God, and entertained the conceit of
a high moral perfection.   The influence
of Arian and  Platonic  notions was con-
spicuous in their explanations ofthe doc-
                   49*
trine of the Trinity, which defined the
Father to be the unity of the divine will,
the Son, or Logos, to be his first thought,
and the Spirit to be their common opera-
tion.  In every good man they saw a
Christ, and, therefore, in theh congrega-
tions, separated the elect from the novices.
The merit of the Redeemer they beUeved
to consist more in  his example than in
his expiatory death,  and built their hopes
of  happiness, for the consummation of
which a resurrection ofthe body did not
appear to them requisite, on their  own
virtue.  They regarded the exaltation of
the soul over the mortal nature, so as to
become wholly absorbed in mystical con-
templation,  as the  highest stage in the
religious life of man.  They despised the
mass, the service of the altar, and similar
ceremonies, as mere vanity.  The adora-
tion of the cross, of saints and relics, to-
gether with all arbitrary penances and
good works, so called, they deemed idle
superstition.  The daily blessing of their
meats  and drinks they esteemed equiva-
lent to  the celebration of the eucharist
The imposition of the  hands of spotless
teachers served for the communication of
the spirit, for baptism, and as a pledge of
the  forgiveness of  sins.  Deep devotion
ofthe heart in prayer, and a Ufe of purity,
connected  with abstinence from  sexual
pleasure, and from the use of stimulating
food, were their exercises of piety.   The
tenets of popery, and  the whole estab-
lishment of the Catholic priesthood, as it
then existed, they  looked upon as un-
christian and pernicious. They insisted
on the restoration  of the apostolic sim-
plicity, and the literal fulfilment  of the
precepts of the New Testament, which
they read, indeed, with assiduity, but fre-
quently misunderstood.   In an age when
the heartless subtilties of dialectics, the
mechanical administration of divine wor-
ship, and the scandalous morals ofthe cler-
gy, widened more and more the breach be-
tween religion and the estabUshed church,
such doctrines and maxims necessarily
met with approbation, on account of their
opposition to the prevalent practices. The
piety and morahty  at which most of the
separatists diligently aimed, the  charm of
 their secret connexion, and the high  intel-
 ligence of things sacred  to which they
 made claim, the  warmth  of their mysti-
 cism, and the moving power of their sim-
 ple worship, procured  them many adhe-
 rents, and those  not from the common
 people merely.  They were joined by the
 discontented of all  classes, even  by the
 clergy  and nobles; whence they  were 
582
CATHARI—CATHARINE OF  ARRAGON.
called, in France, bons hommes, good, i. e.,
noble, people; and, in the rude state of the
existing political constitutions, amid  the
confusion of civil wars and ecclesiastical
controversy, their congregations, with little
mutual connexion, and not menacing  the
state with danger, were able to pursue with
impunity, for  years, their quiet  course.
But these sects were not free from cor-
ruptions.  The nocturnal assembUes, the
community of goods, the homeless, roving
life (on account of which several of them
were called Passageri, Passagini), and the
contempt of the maniage state, which
originated in ascetic views, gave  rise, in
many cases, since they permitted the two
sexes to live together, to gross immorali-
ties ; and the mystery, in which they  en-
veloped their  religious  exercises, some-
times served to conceal the  errors of an
unbridled fanaticism.  But, when  the old
denominations became disgraced by such
enors, new leaders, and reforms in doc-
trine and  life,  gave rise to new sects, and
imparted a fresh impulse to the once  ex-
cited  spirit  of separatism.   From this
originated  the excitements  occasioned
among the people of France, Switzerland
and Italy, by Peter Bruys, and Henry and
Arnold of Brescia,  in the 12th century,
which introduced  the names Petrobru-
rians, Henricians and  Arnoldists.  (See
Arnold of Brescia.)   The  ecclesiastical
authority now  became zealous  in search-
ing out and punishing heretics; so that
these new, but unconnected, classes of
Cathari soon became extinct.  The older
Cathari, Publicans,  Patarenes, &c, had
the prudence, wherever they were settled,
to adhere publicly to the Catholic church,
and to hold their private meetings in the
night.  They even allowed the persecuted
members to have  recourse, before the
spiritual courts, to an apparent recanta-
tion ; but, the attention of these authorities
being once excited, and the  popes carry-
ing on the persecution of the heretics  by
theh own legates, and  establishing the
horrible inquisition in  the  13th centuiy,
the most blameless Ufe, and the utmost
secrecy in the performance of religious
exercises, no longer afforded  security to
these  heterodox believers.   The fete of
the Albigenses (q. v.), who were mainly
Cathari, finally produced the overthrow
of all this family of sects in the 13th cen-
tury.  The Waldenses (q. v.) alone, who
were  unjustly confounded with the Ca-
thari, escaped.  No sects, of a later  origin,
have borne this general appellation.
  Catharine, St. ;  a  virgin of Alexan-
dria, who, according to CathoUc tradition,
 suffered martyrdom under Mavimin, about
 A. D.  236.   She is represented  with a
 piece of a wheel; and the legend of her
 marriage with Christ has been painted by
 several of the first  masters.  Coneggio's
 Catharine,in Dresden,is beautiful.—There
 are two other St. Catharines mentioned.—
 The knights of St Catharine on mount
 Sinai are an ancient military order,  in-
 stituted for the protection of the pilgrims
 who came to visit the tomb of St. Catha-
 rine,  on this mountain.   In Russia, the
 order of St Catharine is a distinction  for
 ladies, instituted  by  Catharine, wife  of
 Peter the Great, in memory of his signal
 escape from the Turks in 1711.
   Catharine of France, queen of Eng-
 land, youngest child of Charles VI and
 Isabella of Bavaria, was born in 1401,
 aud, in 1420, was manied to Henry V of
 England, who was then declared succes-
 sor to the  crown of France.   To this
 prince she  bore Henry VI, crowned in
 his cradle king of both countries.  After
 the death  of Henry, Catharine privately
 married  Owen Theodore, or Tudor, a
 Welsh gentleman of small fortune,  but
 descended   from  the  ancient  British
 princes.  By this marriage she had two
 sons, the eldest of whom, Edmund, earl
 of Richmond, by a marriage with Marga-
 ret Beaufort, ofthe legitimated branch  of
 Lancaster,  became father of Henry VII,
 and  founder of  the house  of Tudor.
 Catharine was  treated with some rigor,
 on the discovery  of her second  mar-
 riage, and  died in the prime of Ufe,  in
 1438.
   Catharine  of Arragon, queen   of
 England, the youngest daughter of Ferdi-
nand of Arragon and Isabella of Castile,
was born in 1483. In 1501, she was married
to Arthur prince of Wales, son of Henry
VII.   Her  husband  dying about  five
months after, the king, unwilling to return
her dowry, caused her to be contracted to
his remaining son  Henry, and a dispensa-
tion was procured from the pope for that
purpose.   In his  15th year,  the  prince
made a public protest against the mar-
riage ; but, at length, yielding to the repre-
sentations of his council, he consented  to
ratify the contract, and, on his accession
to the throne, in 1509, was crowned with
her.  The inequality of their ages, and the
capricious disposition of Henry, were cir-
cumstances veiy adverse to the durability
of theh union,  and it seems surprising
that Catharine should have acquired and
retained an ascendency over the affections
of the king for nearly  20 years.  The
wont of mole issue, however, proved a 
CATHARINE OF ARRAGON—CATHARINE DE MEDICI.     583
source of disquietude to him, and scruples,
real or pretended, at  length arose in his
mind  concerning  the  legality  of their
union, which were greatly enforced  by a
growing passion for Anne Boleyn, one of
the queen's maids of honor.  He speedily
made application to Rome for a divorce
from Catharine.  An encouraging answer
was returned, and a dispensation promis-
ed, it  being  the interest of the pope to
favor the EngUsh king.  Overawed, how-
ever, by the power of the emperor Charles
V,  Catharine's  nephew, the conduct  of
the pontiff, who depended  upon the em-
pire, became embarrassed and hesitating.
Catharine, meanwhile, conducted herself
with gentleness and firmness, and could
not in  any way be induced  to consent to
an act, which would render her daughter
illegitimate, and stain  her with the impu-
tation  of nicest  Being cited before the
papal legates, cardinals Wolsey and Cam-
peggio, in 1529, she declared  that she
would not submit her cause to their judg-
ment, but appealed to the court of Rome;
which  declaration was declared contu-
macious.  The subterfuges ofthe pope at
length  induced  the king  to decide the
affair for himself; and the resentment ex-
pressed on this occasion, by the court  of
Rome,  provoked him to throw off his
submission to it, and declare himself head
of the  English church—a result of royal
caprice more curious and important than
most in histoiy.  In 1532, he manied
Anne Boleyn; upon which  Catharine, no
longer  considered queen of England, re-
tired to Ampthill in Bedfordshire.  Cran-
mer, now raised to the primacy, pronounc-
ed the  sentence of divorce, notwithstand-
ing which Catharine still  persisted  in
maintaining her claims.  She died in Jan-
uary, 1536.   Shortly  before her death,
she wrote a  letter to the  king, recom-
mending their daughter (afterwards queen
Mary)  to his  protection, praying for the
salvation of his soul, and assuring him of
her forgiveness  and unabated  affection.
The pathos of this epistle is said to  have
drawn  tears from Henry, who was never
backward in  acknowledging the virtues
of his  injured wife, who certainly acted
with eminent dignity and consistency.
Several devotional treatises have  been
attributed to Catharine, which belong  to
queen Catharine Parr.
  Catharine de Medici ; wife of Henry
II, king of France; born at Florence in
1519;  the only daughter of Lorenzo de
Medici, duke  of Urbino, and the niece of
pope Clement VII.  Francis I consented
that his son Henry should marry her, only
because he did not believe she ever would
ascend the throne, and because he was in
great want  of money,  which  Lorenzo
could furnish  him.   The maniage was
celebrated at MarseiUes in 1533.  Catha-
rine was equally gifted  with beauty and
talents,  and  had cultivated her taste for
the fine arts  in Florence; but, at the same
time, imbibed the perverted principles of
politics  then prevailing in Italy, which
justified  a constant  resort to  cabal, in-
trigues  and treachery,  and are partic-
ularly  unsuited to  the  government of
large empires.   Catharine's ambition was
unbounded.  She sacrificed France and
her children to the passion for ruling; but
she never aimed steadily at one  great end,
and had no profound views of policy.
The situation in which she was placed,
on  her  anival at the French court, gave
her great opportunity to perfect herself in
the art  of dissimulation.   She flattered
alike the duchess d'Etampes, the mistress
of the  king, and Diana de Poitiers, the
mistress of her own husband, though these
two  ladies hated each other.   From her
apparent indifference, she might  have
been supposed inclined to shun the tumult
of public affairs; but, when the death of
Henry II, in 1559, made her mistress of
herself,  she  plunged her  children  in a
whirl of pleasures, partly to enervate them
by dissipation, partly from a natural  inch-
nation  towards prodigality; and, in the
midst of these extravagances, cruel and
bloody measures were executed, the mem-
ory of which still makes  men shudder.
Her authority  was  limited under the
reign of Francis II, her eldest  son,  since
this prince, by his marriage with the un-
fortunate Mary Stuart, was entirely devot-
ed to the party of the Guises.  Jealous
of a power she did not exercise, Catharine
then decided to favor the Protestants.  If
it had  not  been for her  patronage, by
which the ambition of the  chiefs of the
Huguenots was stimulated, the conflicting
religious opinions in France never would
have caused such lasting civil wars.  Cath-
arine felt herself embanassed, by this in-
dulgence towards the innovators,  when
the death of Francis II placed the  reins
of government, during the minority of
Charles IX, in  her  hands.  Wavering
between the  Guises on one side, who had
put themselves at the head of the Catho-
lics, and Conde and Coligny on the other,
who had become very powerful by the aid
of die  Protestants,  she  was constantly
obliged to resort to intrigues, which failed
to procure her  as much  power as she
might easily  have gained by openness of 
584
CATHARINE  DE MEDICI—CATHARINE I
conduct   Despised by all parties, but
consoled if she could deceive them; taking
arms  only to treat, and never treating
without preparing the materials for a new
civil war, she brought Charles IX, when
he  became  of age, into a situation in
which he must either make the royal au-
thority subordinate to a powerful party,
or cause part of his subjects to be massa-
cred, in the hope, at  best a doubtful one,
of subduing faction.   The massacre of
St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew, mas-
sacre  of)  was her work.  She induced
the king to practise a dissimulation foreign
to his character;  and, as often  as  he
evinced a disposition to free himself from
a dependence of which he was ashamed,
she knew  how to prevent him, by the fear
and jealousy which she excited in him
by favoring his brother Henry. After the
death of Charles IX, Catharine became
again regent of the kingdom, till the re-
turn of Henry III, then king of Poland.
She contributed to the many misfortunes
of his reign, by the measures which she
had adopted previously to its commence-
ment, and by the intrigues in which she
was uninterruptedly  engaged.   At her
death, in  1589, France  was in a state of
complete dismemberment. The religious
contests were, in  reaUty, very indifferent
to her.  The consequences she was not
able to conceive.  She  was ready to risk
life for the  gratification of her ambition.
She was equally  artful in  uniting her
adherents, and in promoting dissension
among her adversaries.  She was extrav-
agant to folly, and was unable  to limit her
expenses.   To those  who directed her
attention  to the  prodigal expenditure of
the public treasure, she used to say," One
must  live."   Her example   contributed
greatly to promote the conuption of mor-
als which prevailed  in  her  time.  Her
manners,  however, were elegant, and she
took  a Uvely interest in the sciences and
arts.  She caused valuable manuscripts
to be  brought from Greece and Italy, and
the Tuileries and the Hotel de Soissons
to be  built.  In the provinces, also, several
castles were erected by her order, distin-
guished for the beauty of their architect-
ure, in an age when the principles of the
art were  still unknown  in France.  She
had two  daughters, Elizabeth, manied to
Philip II of Spain in 1559, and Margaretta
(q. v.) of Valois, married to Henry of Na-
varre, afterwards Henry IV.
   Catharine of Braganza,  wife  of
Charles II, king of England, and daugh-
ter of John IV,  king of Portugal, was
born  in   1638.   In  1661,  she manied
Charles II, in whose  court she long en-
dured ail  the neglect and  mortification
his  dissolute conduct was calculated to
inflict upon her.  This endurance was
also rendered greater by her proving un-
fruitful ; but she supported herself with
great equanimity, and, after the death of
Charles, received much attention and re-
spect  In 1693, she returned to Portugal,
where, in 1704, she was made regent  by
her brother, don Pedro, whose increasing
infirmities rendered retirement necessary.
In this situation, Catharine showed con-
siderable abilities,  carrying on  the war
against  Spain  with great firmness and
success.  She died in 1705, aged 67.
  Catharine I, empress of Russia.  The
early history of this remarkable woman is
uncertain.  According to some accounts,
she was the daughter of a CathoUc peas-
ant in Lithuania, by name Samuel, for he
had (as is  frequently the case there) no
family name.  It is said that she was born
in 1686, named Martha, and  placed, by
her poor parents, in the service of a Lu-
theran clergyman, named Daut, at  Roop,
in the circle of Riga,  where she imbibed
the principles of the Protestant religion.
She then removed to Marienburg, a small
village in the circle of Wenden, and enter-
ed the service of a clergyman named Gluck,
who caused her to be instructed in the Lu-
theran religion.  Here she was married
to a Swedish dragoon.  But, a few days
after, he was obliged to repair to the field,
and the Russians, within a short period,
took Marienburg, in  1702.  Martha fell
into the hands of general Scheremetjeff,
who relinquished her to prince Menzikoff.
While in his possession, she was seen by
Peter the Great, who made her his mis-
tress.   She became  a proselyte to the
Greek church, and assumed the name of
Catharine Alexiewna.   In 1708 and  1709,
she bore the emperor  the princesses Anna
and Elizabeth, the first of whom became
the duchess of Holstein by maniage, and
mother of Peter III.  The second became
empress  of Russia.   In 1713, the empe-
ror publicly acknowledged  her his wife.
She was subsequently proclaimed empress,
and crowned in Moscow.  Besides the
daughters above-named, she bore the em-
peror five more children, all of whom died
early.  The princesses Anna and  Eliza-
beth were declared  legitimate.  By her
kindness, by her perseverance, and, above
all, by her intelUgence, she gained posses-
sion of the heart of the emperor.  When
Peter, with his army, seemed  irreparably
lost on the Pruth, in 1711, Catharine, in
connexion with Ostermann and Schaffi- 
CATHARINE I—CATHARINE II.
585
 rofF, endeavored to win over the grand
 vizier; and, having succeeded, by bribing
 his  confidant with her jewels,  she dis-
 closed her plan to the emperor, who gave
 it his approbation, and was soon reUeved.
 She afterwards received many proofs of
 the gratitude of her husband.  (Her coro-
 nation, as empress, in  Moscow, which
 some place in 1718, took place, according
 to Weber and Bergholz, in 1724.)  Peter
 even deemed her  worthy of being  his
 successor.  But, in the latter part of 1724,
 she fell under his displeasure. Her cham-
 berlain Mons, with whom Peter had found
 her tite a tite,  was beheaded, on pretence
 that he had been bribed by the enemies
 of Russia; and she was obliged to view
 the  head  of  Mons nailed to a  gibbet.
 This, however,  is only an anecdote, and
 the  affair  of  Mons remains a mystery.
 Menzikoff, who  had always manifested
 much attachment to her, had now been
 in disgrace for some time,  and Peter had
 very frequent attacks  of bodily pain,
 which were interrupted by dreadful ex-
 plosions of rage.   These  circumstances
 made  Catharine's situation critical, and
 her anticipations of the future must have
 been the more melancholy, as the empe-
 ror had uttered some threats of a change
 in the  succession to her  disadvantage.
 To prevent such an event, she applied to
 Menzikoff; and, by the  prudence of Ja-
 guschinski, who then enjoyed the favor
 of Peter, and  whom she  gained over, a
 reconciliation  was effected with the em-
 peror.   The  empress and the  favorite
 were laboring  to confirm theh improving
 prospects,  when  Peter the Great died,
 Jan. 28,1725.  Catharine, Menzikoff and
 Jaguschinski considered it necessary to
 keep  the  death  of the emperor  secret,
 until, by judicious arrangements, they had
 secured the succession of the  throne to
 the empress.  Theophanes, archbishop of
 Plescow, swore  before the people and
 troops, that Peter, on his death-bed, had
 declared Catharine alone worthy  to suc-
 ceed him in the  government  She was
 then proclaimed empress and autocrat of
 all the Russias, and the oath of allegiance to
 her was taken anew. At first, the cabinet
 pursued the plans of Peter, and, under
 MenzikofFs management, the administra-
 tion  was conducted with  considerable
ability.  But the pernicious influence of
 favorites was soon felt, and great errors
crept  into the administration.  Catharine
died suddenly,  on the 17th of May, 1727,
in the 42d  year of her age.  Her death
was probably hastened by excess in the
use of Tokay wine and ardent spirits.
   Catharine  II, empress of Russia,  a
 woman  of remarkable abiUty, was born
 at Stettin, April 25,1729, where her father,
 Christian Augustus, prince of  Anhalt-
 Zerbst, and Prussian field-marshal, was
 governor.  Her name was originally Sophia
 Augusta.  The empress Elizabeth, at the
 instigation of Frederic II, chose her for die
 wife of Peter, her nephew, whom she ap-
 pointed her successor.  The young prin-
 cess accompanied her mother to Russia,
 where  she joined the  Greek  church,
 and adopted the name of Catharine Alex-
 iewna, given to her by the empress. The
 marriage was celebrated Sept. 1,1745.   It
 was not a happy one, but Catharine found
 recreation  in the  improvement  of her
 mind. She was endowed with uncommon
 strength of character; but the ardor of her
 temperament, and the Ul-treatment of her
 husband, led her into errors which had
 the most injurious influence on her whole
 political life. Amongst the friends of her
 husband, count Soltikoff was distinguish-
 ed for talent and the graces of his person.
 He  attracted the attention of Catharine,
 and an intimate connexion between them
 was the  consequence.   When Soltikoff,
 who was employed  in foreign embassies,
 grew indifferent to Catharine, a  young
 Pole, Stanislaus Augustus  Poniatowski,
 celebrated both for his good and UI for-
 tune, gained the affections of the grand
 princess.  Their intimacy was known to
 the  empress, but did not appear  to dis-
 please her;  and it was at her recommen-
 dation that  Augustus III appointed Po-
 niatowski his ambassador at the court of
 St. Petersburg.  This connexion created
 alarm at Paris.  France, at that time at
 war with England, had formed a secret
 treaty with  Austria, and drawn  Russia
 into  the same.  Poniatowski was  known
 to be a warm adherent of England, and it
 was  feared that, through his influence on
 the princess, he might prejudice Elizabeth
 against France; and Louis XV endeavor-
 ed to induce the king of Poland to recall
 him.  In the year 1761, Elizabeth died,
 and Peter III ascended the throne.  The
 emperor now became still more alienated
 from his wife.  Peter Uved  in the great-
 est dissipation, and on such intimate terms
 with a lady ofthe court, named Elizabeth
 Woronzoff, that it was generally thought
 that  he  would repudiate  Catharine, and
 many his mistress.   The empress, there-
 fore, was obliged to take measures for
her personal security. At the same time,
 Peter grew continually more and more
unpopular with his subjects, owing to his
blind predilection for the Prussian military 
586
CATHARINE  II.
discipUne, his poUtics, and the faults of his
character.  This led to a conspiracy,  at
the head of*which were the  hetman
count Rasumowski, count Panin, the en-
terprising princess Doschkoff, and a young^
officer of the  guards,  Gregory  Orloff,
who, since Poniatowski's departure, had
taken his place in Catharine's affections.
AU those who  were dissatisfied, or  who
expected  to  gain  by a  change,  joined
this conspiracy.   Panin and the greater
part of the conspirators were  actuated
only by the  desire to place the minor
prince, Paul,  on  the throne, under the
guardianship  ofthe empress, and a coun-
cil of the  empire.   But diis  plan  was
changed through the influence ofthe Or-
loffs.  The guards were the first to swear
allegiance to the empress, on her present-
ing herself to them at Peterhoff, on the
morning of July 9, 1762; and  Alexei
Orloff prevailed on  Teplow, who  was
afterwards appointed senator, to read, at
the Kazan church,  instead of the proc-
lamation of the conspirators in favor of
the young prince, one announcing the ele-
vation ofCatharine to the throne.  Peter
died, a  few days after, in  prison.   The
accusation  against Catharine, of having
contributed to hasten this event, is with-
out foundation.   The young, ambitious
princess, neglected by her husband, whom
she did not respect, remained passive on
the occasion, yielded  to circumstances,
which were, it  is true, propitious to her,
and consoled herself for an event which
she could not remedy.   She knew how
to gain  the affections  of the people by
flattering theh vanity; showed great re-
spect for theh reUgion;  caused herself to
be crowned at Moscow with great pomp;
devoted herself to the promotion of agri-
culture and commerce, and the creation
of a naval force; improved the laws, and
showed the greatest activity in the admin-
istration of the internal as weU as the ex-
ternal affairs of Russia.  A year after her
ascension  to the throne, she forced the
Courlanders to displace theh new duke,
Charles of Saxony,  and to  recaU Biren,
who was extremely odious to the nobles.
After the death of Augustus III, king of
Poland, she was the means  of Stanislaus
Poniatowski's being crowned at Warsaw.
But, whilst she was forcing  this  king on
the Poles, the number ofthe malcontents
in her own empire increased, and several
attempts against her Ufe were made at
St. Petersburg and Moscow.  The young
Ivan (q. v.) was the person to whom the
hopes of the  conspirators were directed;
but his  sudden death, at the fortress of
 Schlusselburg, overthrew the plans ofthe
 disaffected.   After this, the court of the
 empress was only disturbed, from time to
 time, by intrigues, in which gallantry and
 politics went hand in hand,  and which
 had no other object than to replace one
 favorite by  another.   In the midst of
 pleasure and dissipation, Catharine  did
 not neglect the  improvement of the laws.
 Deputies from  all  the provinces met at
 Moscow.  The empress had herself pre-
 pared instructions for their conduct, which
 were read at the first session ;  but it was
 impossible for so many different nations
 to understand each other, or to be subject
 to the same laws.  In the first sessions,
 the  emancipation  of the peasants  was
 proposed.  This alone would have been
 sufficient to  cause  a bloody  revolution.
 Catharine, who presided at the debates,
 and received from the assembly the title
 of mother of the country, soon dismissed
 the  discordant  legislators.  About  this
 time, France formed a party in Poland
 against Russia; but these attempts only
 served  to accelerate  Catharine's  plans.
 The war to which the Porte was instigated
 had the same result.   The Turks were
 beaten. The Russian flag was victorious
 on the Greek seas; and on the banks ofthe
 Neva, the plan was formed of reestablish-
 ing the repubUcs of Sparta and Athens, os
 a check to the Ottoman power.  The ad-
 vancement of Austrian troops into Poland
 inspired  Catharine  with  the  desire to
 aggrandize  herself in this quarter.   She
 therefore entered into an agreement  for
 the division ofthe country with the courts
 of Berlin and Vienna in 1772,  by which
 the governments of Polotzk and Mohilow
 fell to her share, and she ensured to her-
 self exclusive influence in Poland, by un-
 dertaking to guaranty the PoUsh constitu-
tion.  At the same time, she abandoned
all her conquests, with the exception of
Azoph, Taganrog and Kinburn, in the
peace with the Porte, concluded at Kain-
ardschi in 1774, but secured to herself the
 free navigation ofthe Black sea, and stip-
ulated for the independence of the Cri-
mea.  By this apparent independence, the
Crimea became, in feet,  dependent  on
Catharine.  This peace was as opportune
as it was advantageous to Russia; for, in
the third year of the  war, Moscow and
several other cities were desolated by the
plague; and, about the same time, an ad-
venturer, named Pugatscheff,  assuming
 the name of Peter III, bod excited a revolt
 in several provinces  of Eastern Russia.
 At this time, Potemkin exercised on un-
 limited  influence  on  the  empress.   In 
CATHARINE  II.                          587
1784, he  succeeded in conquering  the
Crimea, to  which  he  gave  its ancient
name of Tauris, and extended  die con-
fines of Russia to the Caucasus.  Catha-
rine, upon this, traversed the provinces
which  had  revolted under Pugatscheff,
and navigated the Wolga and Borysthe-
nes, taking greater  interest in the expedi-
tion, as it was connected with some dan-
ger.  She was desirous, likewise, of see-
ing Tauris.  Potemkin  turned this jour-
ney,  which  took place in 1787, into a
triumphal inarch.   Throughout a  dis-
tance of nearly 1000 leagues, nothing but
feasts and spectacles of  various kinds
were to be seen.  Palaces were raised on
banen heaths, to be inhabited for a day.
Villages and towns were built in the wil-
dernesses, where, a short time before, the
Tartars had  fed their herds. An  immense
population appeared at every step—the
picture  of affluence and prosperity.  A
hundred different nations paid homage to
their sovereign.  Catharine saw, at a dis-
tance, towns and villages,  of which only
the outward walls existed.   She was sur-
rounded by a multitude of people, who
were conveyed on during the  night, to
afford her the same spectacle the foUow-
ing day.   Two sovereigns  visited her on
her journey—the king of Poland, Stanis-
laus  Augustus, and the emperor Joseph II.
The latter renewed his promise, given at
St. Petersburg, to assist her in her projects
against the Turks.  About this time, Prus-
sia and England combined to instigate the
Porte and Sweden to take up arms against
Russia.   The Turks were no more fortu-
nate this time than before; and  perhaps
they would have been driven entirely out of
Europe, had not Catharine been restrain-
ed by the  interference of other states.
(See Reichenbach Congress, 1790.)  Peace
was  concluded  at Jassy in 1792.  Catha-
rine  kept  Oczakow, and all the  country
between the  Bug and the Dniester. Whilst
Russia  was occupied  with the Turks,
Gustavus III had commenced hostilities,
and, at one time,  threatened St. Peters-
burg.  After a  war of two years, peace
was concluded at Werela, in 1790, leaving
the possessions of  both  countries as they
were before the commencement of hos-
tiUties.  Thus  all  the  wars  undertaken
against  Russia bad only tended to  aug-
ment her political preponderance. Cath-
arine's influence on Poland was equal to
absolute dominion.  When the  repubUc,
in 1791, wished to  change its constitution,
she  took  part with the opponents of the
plan, gained the concunence of Prussia,
garrisoned Poland with her troops, and
concluded a new treaty of partition with
the cabinet of BerUn in 1792.  (See Po-
land.)  The insunection, which broke out
in Poland in 1794, could not save this un-
happy country, which, after the storming
of Praga, and the devastation of several of
its provinces, was, at last, in 1795, enthely
divided.  Courland, too, was united with
the Russian empire.  A pension was given
to the last duke of Courland, and the last
king of Poland spent his pension at St
Petersburg.   During these occunences,
Catharine could not take  part in the war
against France.  She, however, broke off
all connexion with the  French republic,
actively assisted the emigrants, and enter-
ed into an alliance with England against
France.  She likewise  made war against
Persia, and, as some historians  assure us,
entertained the  project  of destroying the
power of the English in Bengal, when a
fit of apoplexy put an end to her Ufe, Nov.
9, 1796.—Catharine II  has been  equally
censured  and  praised.   With  all the
weakness of her sex, and with a love of
pleasure  carried  to  Ucentiousness,  she
combined the firmness and talent of a
powerful sovereign.   Two passions were
predominant with her until  her death,
love and ambition.  She was never with-
out her favorite, who,  by the manner in
which she distinguished him, and by the
valuable presents she gave him, was pub-
Ucly designated as such.  She never, how-
ever, lost sight of her dignity.   She was
distinguished for  activity, working with
her ministers, writing a philosophical let-
ter  to Voltaire, and signing an order to
attack the Turks,  or to  occupy  Poland, in
the same breath.  She favored distinguish-
ed authors, and was particularly partial to
the French.  At Paris, she had a literary
agent (baron Grimm).   She several times
invited Voltaire to her court, proposed to
D'Alembert to finish the Encyclopaedia at
St. Petersburg, and to undertake the edu-
cation of the grand-duke.  Diderot visited
her at her request, and  she often  allowed
him the privilege  of familiar conversation
with her.  By these means, she gained the
favor ofthe literati of Europe, who called
her  the greatest of rulers; and, in fact,
she  was not without claims to this title.
She protected commerce,  improved the
laws, dug canals, founded  towns, hospi-
tals and colleges.  Pallas and others trav-
elled at her expense.  She endeavored to
put a stop to the abuses which had crept
into the administration ofthe different de-
partments of government; but she began
without being able to finish. CiviUzation
advanced  but  slowly  in Russia under 
588
CATHARINE  II—CATHARINE PAWLOWNA.
her reign;  and her anxiety to enUghten
her subjects ceased when she began to
entertain the idea that the French rev-
olution had been brought about by the
progress of civilization.  Laws, colonies,
schools, manufactures, hospitals, canals,
towns, fortifications, every thing was com-
menced, but frequently left unfinished for
want  of means.  She issued  no paper
money.  Several letters, and other com-
positions by her, in the French and Rus-
sian languages, bave been  published.  A
statue of Catharine, of white marble, in a
Bitting posture, was executed by professor
Gothe, at Stockholm, in 1825.  The man-
ners of the Russian court, in her time, are
set forth in the diary of Krapomisky (St.
Petersburg, 1826).  Krapomisky was her
private secretary for 10 years.  Among
several histories of her life are Tooke's
Life of Catharine II (3 vols.), and Cas-
tera's  Histoire de Catharine II (3 vols.).
  Catharine Parr, sixth and last wife
of Henry VIII, was the eldest daughter
of sir Thomas Parr of Kendal, and was,
at an early age, distinguished  for  her
learning and good sense.  She was first
married to Edward Burghe, and secondly
to John Neville, lord Latimer, and, after
his death, attracted the notice  of Henry
VIII,  whose queen she became in 1543.
Her zealous encouragement ofthe reform-
ed religion excited the  anger and jealousy
of Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, the
chancellor Wriothesley, and others ofthe
Catholic faction, who conspired to ruin her
with the king.   Taking advantage of one
of his moments of irritation, they accused
her of heresy and treason, and prevailed
upon  the king  to sign a warrant  for her
committal to the Tower.  This being ac-
cidentally discovered to her, she repaired
to the king, who purposely turned the
conversation to religious subjects,  and be-
gan to sound her opinions.  Aware of his
purpose,  she humbly replied, "that on
such topics  she always, as became  her
sex and station, referred herself to the
wisdom of his majesty, as he, under God,
was her only supreme head and governor
here on earth."  "Not so, by  St. Mary,
Kate," replied Henry;  " you are, as we
take it, become  a doctor, to instruct, and
not to be  instructed by us."   Catharine
judiciously repUed, that she only objected
in order to be benefited by his superior
learning and knowledge. " Is it so, sweet-
heart ?" said the king; " and tended your
arguments  to no worse end ?  Then are
we perfect  friends  again."   After the
death of the king, she espoused the  lord
admiral sh Thomas Seymour, uncle to
Edward VI ;  but this connexion proved
unhappy,  and involved her in troubles
and difficulties. She died in child-bed in
1548, not without  suspicion  of poison.
She was a zealous promoter of the refor-
mation.   Among  her  papers, after her
death, was found a  composition, entitled
Queen Catharine Parr's Lamentations of
a Sinner,  bewailing the Ignorance  of her
blind Life; a  contrite meditation on the
years she had passed in Catholic fasts and
pilgrimages.   It was published, with  a
preface, by the great lord Burleigh, in
1548. In her lifetime, she published a vol-
ume of" Prayers or Meditations, wherein
the Mind is stirred patiently to suffer all
Afflictions here, and to set at nought the
vaine Prosperitie of this Worlde, and also
to long for the everlasting FeUcitee."  Ma-
ny of her letters have also been printed.
  Catharine  Pawlowna,   queen of
Wiirtemburg,  grand-princess  of Russia;
born May 21,  1788;  younger sister ofthe
emperor Alexander, and widow of George,
prince of Holstein-Oldenburg,  whom she
married in 1809, and thus got rid of a
 iiroposal of marriage made her by Napo-
 eon.  George died in Russia,  December,
1812.  Her two sons, by this marriage,
bom in 1810  and 1812, are  still  Uving.
She  was  distinguished alike for beauty,
talents  and resolution, and exhibited the
tenderest  affection for her  brother Alex-
ander.  After 1812, she was  frequently
his companion in the campaigns in Ger-
many and France, as well  as  during his
residence  at  London  and Vienna,  and
evidently had an important influence on
several of his measures.  It is said that
she effected, in 1814, the marriage  of the
prince of Orange with her younger sister.
In 1813, William, crown-prince of Wiirt-
emburg, in Germany, formed an acquain-
tance with her, and, in 1814, saw her again
in Paris. They were married Jan.24,1816,
at Petersburg; and, after the death of his
father,  in  October,  1816,  he ascended
with her  the  throne of Wiirtemburg.—
She  was  a generous  benefactor to her
subjects in the famine of 1816.    She
formed the female  associations existing
diroughout the countiy, and established
an agricultural society.  She  labored to
promote the education of her people, and
founded valuable institutions for die poor
(particularly a school for educating and
employing poor chUdren),  a  school for
the females of the  higher classes, and
savings banks for the lower classes, after
the example ofthe English savings banks.
Indeed, she interfered, often  arbitrarily,
in the internal economy of the state, and 
CATHARINE PAWLOWNA—CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION.    589
chiefly imitated the  institutions of Eng-
land.  For the fine arts she had but little
taste.  She died Jan. 9,1819, leaving two
daughters.
   Cat-Harpings ; small ropes in a ship,
running in little blocks, from one side of
the  shrouds to the other, near the deck.
Their use is to force  the main shrouds
tight, for the ease and safety of the masts
when the ship rolls.
   Cathedral ; the Episcopal church of
a diocese.  The word is derived from the
Greek naQitpa, a seat or bench.  From the
early times  of the Christian church, the
bishop  presided in the presbytery, or the
assembly  of priests.  He was seated on a
chair, a  Uttle  higher  than  that of the
others.   The  whole meeting  of priests
was called cathedra; and, at a later pe-
riod, when Christians were allowed to
build churches, this name was appUed to
the  Episcopal churches, and  the name
basilica to the  particular churches erected
in honor  of a saint or a martyr.  In the
middle  ages, the cathedral  received the
form of the cross.  Several of the old
churches  are masterpieces  of Gothic ar-
chitecture.  Among  these are the cathe-
dral at Oviedo, that at Milan  [see Storia e
Descrizione del Duomo di Milano  (com-
menced in 1387, and not yet finished), by
Gaet. Franchetti, with engravings, Milan,
1821, 4to.];  those at  Toledo and Burgos;
those at Rouen, Rheims, Amiens, and the
church of Notre-Darne, in Paris (see Ca-
thedrahs Frangaises, desdntes,  liihogr. et
publ. par Chapuy, avec un Atlas historique
et descriptif, par Jolimont, 36  numbers,
Paris, 1823  et seq.   It contains views of
25 cathedrals).   Those at  Lund, Dron-
theim,  Upsal,  at York, Salisbury  and
Canterbury,  also Westminster abbey, are
celebrated (see J. Britton's Hist, and An-
tiquities of the Metropolitan Church  of
Canterbury,  London, 1823, with engrav-
ings ; and  Cathedratical Antiquities, by the
same author).  The cathedrals at Oppen-
heim, Ulm,  Marburg, Meissen, Freiburg
'q. v.) in the Brisgau, are fine buildings (see
doctor Moller's Denkmale der Deutschen
Baukunst, Darmstadt,  1825; and F. W.
Schwechten's Der Dom zu Meissen,  bildl.
dargest. u. beschr., Berlin, 1826, 3 nos.).
Respecting the cathedral of Cologne, see
Boisseree.  (For further information, see
Wiebeking's work Die Kathedralen  von
Rheims  und York, nebst den  Grundrissen
von  42 andern merkwurdigen  Kirchen,
Munich, 1825, fol., with engravings.)  In
Rome there  has appeared,  since  1822,
the  Collection of the oldest  Christian
Churches, or Basilicas, of Rome, from the
  vol. n.           50
4th  to  the 13th Century ; drawn and
published by J. G. Gutensohn and J. M.
Knapp (architects);  accompanied by an
Archeeol. Histor. Description, by Anth.
Nibby,  professor of Archaeology in the
University at  Rome ;  7 numbers,  each
containing 7 plates.  There is now in the
course of publication at Milan, a splendid
work, entitled Chiese prindpali d'Europa,
which will extend to  36 numbers;  each
of them being devoted to one particular
edifice.  From the numbers already pub-
lished, we extract the subsequent meas-
urements of celebrated buildings.
          St. Peter's, at Rome.
                              English feet.
   Width ofthe cathedral,......233
   External diameter of the cupola,  . 158
   Total height,.............448

           Cathedral at Milan.
                                  Feet
   Width ofthe front,.........216
   Width ofthe cross,.........251
   Total height,.............350

           Pantheon at Rome.
                                 Pleds*.
   Length ofthe portico,.......103
   Width of do.,............ 61
   Interior diameter,..........132
   Height from the pavement to the
     summit ofthe cupola,......132

         St. Stephen's, at Vienna.

   Width ofthe facade,........148
   Great tower, from  the  ground to
     the top of the cross,.......450
   Greatest breadth between the two
     chief towers,............235

     Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence.
                                  Feet.
   Whole length,............517
   Total height,.............386
   Catholic Emancipation.   Emanci-
pation,  with the  Romans, signified the
release  of a son  from  the power of his
fether, or of a slave from that of his  mas-
ter.  It was performed before the pretor,
attended by certain solemnities. By the
emancipation of the  Catholics is under-
stood the  abolition of those civil and
ecclesiastical  restraints,  to which the
Catholics of Great Britain, and particu-
larly of Ireland, were once  subjected.
Ireland, from the  time of its subjugation,
was maltreated by its conquerors;  and
repeated attempts, on the part of the na-
tives, to free  themselves from foreign
domination, only increased the  severity
  * The measurements of this edifice are given in
feet; but they are neither Roman nor the Parisian,
nor any other feet we are acquainted with. 
590
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION.
of theh rulers.  (See Orangemen.)  The
CathoUc inhabitants of the country were
excluded from pubUc offices, and from all
participation in the choice of members of
parliament.  None but the Anglo-Irish,
belonging to the Episcopal church, which
had now become the estabUshed  church
in Ireland—men who possessed the great-
est part of the landed property, that had
b«en torn from the original inhabitants—
were eligible to public offices, or to a seat
in parliament  In  this  oppressed condi-
tion  the  Irish CathoUcs remained  till
1793.  But when  the principles dissemi-
nated at the time of the French  revolu-
tion   produced a  general fermentation,
which extended to the Irish Catholics, a
lively desire was  awakened in them to
obtain equal rights with theh Protestant
fellow-citizens.  They were supported in
England itself by a very respectable party.
Burke repeatedly spoke in parliament in
favor of their emancipation.  In  1792,
they presented a petition, praying for the
abolition of all the restrictions to which
they had hitherto been  subjected.  Upon
this, a recommendation  was  addressed
from the throne to the Irish parliament,
to contrive  means for the melioration of
the condition of the CathoUcs.  Accord-
ingly, the Irish act, so called, was passed
in 1793, which  confened  the  elective
franchise on the Catholics, threw  open to
them all employments  in  the army in
Ireland, and aU offices in the navy. Three
offices in the army only were excepted—
diose of the commander-in-chief, master-
general of  the ordnance, and generals on
the staff. They continued to be excluded,
however, from 30 public offices, and from
parliament—an arrangement which could
not be changed without a repeal of the
corporation and test acts. (q. v.)  A part
of the Irish CathoUcs were satisfied with
the concessions.  Another party, however,
encouraged by a few noblemen, who had
entered  into  connexion with  France,
cherished the hope that Ireland would
succeed, with die help of France, in free-
ing itself from the British power.  An
insunection speectily broke out, which
was quelled by the severity of the gov-
ernor, lord Camden.   It  blazed  forth
again, however, in 1798, and Ireland  be-
came the theatre of a new civil war.  By
this   rebellion,  judicious men, both in
England and Ireland,  were  convinced
that, as long as the two kingdoms had
separate legislatures, and  that  of  the
weaker was dependent  on that of the
stronger, and the  inhabitants of  the two
kingdoms  thought their interests incon-
sistent, jealousy and distrust would con-
tinue.  The Anglo-Irish, also, who  had
previously desired the  independence of
Ireland, and, at first,  supported  the  re-
bellion, perceived that the superior num-
bers of the Catholics, and their bitter
enmity to the Protestants,  would make
the separation of Ireland from England a
great  misfortune  for them.   It was  re-
solved, then, to unite Ireland  with Eng-
land ; and, three years after die  last  re-
bellion, the  union was effected, and the
united parUament was opened Jan.  22,
1801.   In regard to ecclesiastical affairs,
nothing further was provided in  the  act
of union, than that the Episcopal church
in Ireland should remain the  estabUshed
church, and should constitute, with  the
English,  one  church.   Respecting  the
Condition of the  Catholics nothing  was
done, and Pitt observed that it would be
well to reserve  this business for future
deliberation.  The united parUament had
been in session  but a few days, when re-
ports  were  spread, which cast  a dark
shade over the union, and gave occasion
for much anxiety.  The Catholics in Ire-
land, it was said, complained of the non-
fulfilment of expectations which had been
held out to them, to make diem favorable
to  the union.   Full  emancipation  had
been  promised them, as a certain conse-
quence of it.   Pitt, the author  of  the
union, had pledged himself, with  his col-
leagues, to promote the fulfilment of this
wish  of the Catholics.   After the union
was  completed,  invincible obstructions
were found in the way ofthe accomplish-
ment  of their promise.   Pitt and his col-
leagues had encouraged these hopes with
the expectation  of being able to fulfil
them.  For this reason, they endeavored,
after the  union was completed, to obtain
an act of parliament, by which admission
to parliament and to offices of state, from
which the Catholics were still excluded,
should be made possible for a certain
number of them, by dispensing with  the
test-oath.  But the king set himself against
this measure, as  being inconsistent with
his coronation-oath.   Pitt  and his  col-
leagues, therefore, in 1801, resigned their
places.  Pitt foresaw that, if both houses
agreed to this measure, the king would
still withhold his permission ; and thus the
discontent of the CathoUcs would be di-
rected against  the  person  of the king
himself.  This, like a wise statesman, he
wished by all  means to avert;  and, on
this ground, in 1805,  he spoke against
the emancipation, when the opposition
proposed anew to  grant the CathoUc  a 
CATHOLIC EMANCIPATION—CATHOLIC  MAJESTY.
591
seat and a voice  in parliament, and ad-
missibility to all offices of state.  During
late  years,  the  petition for complete
emancipation has been several times re-
newed in vain.  In 1822, on  the motion
of Mr. Canning, a bill was passed, in the
house  of commons, by a majority of 21
voices, enabling Roman Catholic peers to
sit in parliament; but, in the house of
lords, the bill was rejected.  The same
happened in 1825, when the duke of
York,  who  died  in  1827, solemnly op-
posed  it  In 1827, under Canning's ad-
ministration, the motion for emancipation
was  lost, in the house of commons, by
a majority of 3.   The measure has,  at
last, been effected, under  the  administra-
tion  of the duke of WelUngton.   The
disturbances  in  Ireland  were assuming
continually a more organized character,
under the influence of the CathoUc asso-
ciation, which was spread through the
country, and directed  by men of great
abilities—such as O'Connell and Shiels—
so that his grace was, at last, driven to
support the cause of emancipation.  He
said that he had to choose between  con-
cession to the Catholics  and civil  war.
Mr. Peel, who had formerly spoken warm-
ly against emancipation, now moved it in
the house of commons.  One  ofthe chief
opposers of the measure was  lord Eldon,
the former lord chancellor;  one of the
royal family—the duke of Cumberland—
also  took  part with the opponents.—The
emancipation of the CathoUcs is so inter-
esting an event, that the following abstract
of the fate of various motions respecting
it may not be unacceptable to our readers.
In the year 1805, a majority of 129 in the
house of lords, and of 212 in the house
of commons, refused  to act on the  peti-
tion of the Catholics, moved severally by
lord  Grenville and  Mr. Fox.  In  1807,
lord  Grenville  withdrew his motion  in
favor of emancipation, it being under-
stood that his majesty was averse to  it.
In 1808, Mr. Grattan's motion  was reject-
ed, in the house of commons, by a major-
ity of 153, and lord Donoughmore's, in
the house of lords, by a majority of 87.
In 1810, a motion to the  same effect, by
the same  members, was  again lost, by a
majority of 112 in the commons, and 86
in the lords.  In 1812, there  was a ma-
jority of 72 in the lords, and 85 in the
commons, against the movers. Mr. Can-
ning's motion was lost, in the same  year,
by a  majority of 129 in the commons,
and that of the marquis of Wellesley, by
a majority of 113 in the lords.  In 1813,
the motions of Mr. Grattan, sir John Cox
Hippesley and doctor Duigenan, drew forth
majorities against the Catholics of 40, 48
and 42, and, on the 24th of May, the bill
was given up.  In 1821, Mr. Plunkett car-
ried the bill through the house  of com-
mons by a majority of 19; but it was lost
in the lords by a majority of 39.  In 1822,
Mr. Canning carried it, in the commons,
by a majority of 21 ; but it was thrown
out, in the lords, by a majority of 42.   In
1825, sir Francis Burdett carried it, in the
commons, by a majority of 27 ; but it was
again thrown out, in the lords, by a ma-
jority of 48.  In 1827, sir Francis Bur-
dett's motion for a committee was lost, in
the commons, by  a  majority of 3.  In
1828, the motion  for a conference with
the lords was carried, in the commons, by
a majority of 6; but thrown out,  in the
lords, by a majority of 45.  And, in 1829
(April 10), a relief bill, abolishing the  civil
disabilities  on  Roman  Catholics, by re-
pealing  the oaths  of  supremacy,  &c,
was  carried through the  commons  by
Mr. Peel, with a majority  of 180 on the
second  reading, and 178  on the  thhd;
and through the lords, by the  duke of
Wellington, with a majority of 105 on
the second reading,  and  104 on the
third.  By this bill, Catholics are eUgible
to all offices of state, excepting the lord-
chancellorships of England and Ireland,
the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, the office
of regent or guardian of the United King-
dom, and that of high commissioner to
the church of Scotland.  They are still
excluded from the right of presentation to
livings, and all places connected with the
ecclesiastical courts  and  establishment.
The church patronage attached to any
office in the hands of a Catholic is to be
vested in the  archbishop of Canterbury.
Attached to the  bill  is a clause for the
gradual suppression of the  Jesuits  and
monastic orders (religious establishments
of females excepted).  At the same time,
the duke carried  a disfranchisement bill,
by which the 40 shilling freeholders of
Ireland were  disfranchised,  and the in-
come of real estate necessary to entitle to
a vote in elections in that country raised
to £10 sterling.  There has  lately  been
published a History of the late Catholic
Association of Ireland, from its Institu-
tion, in 1760, to its final  Dissolution in
1829; by Thomas Wyse, junior, Esq., one
of the members of that body ; 2 vols. 8vo.,
London, 1829, Colburn.
   Catholic Majesty ; a title which  pope
Alexander  VI gave to the kings of Spain,
in memory ofthe perfect expulsion ofthe
Moors out of Spain, in 1491, by Ferdi- 
592                      CATHOLIC MAJESTY.

nand of Arragon.   But even before that  Toledo, in 589, several Spanish kings had
time, and especiaUy after the  council at  borne this title. 
CONTENTS.
Page.
 X>attle-Axe.......
 -------Piece .
 Battoges, Battacks .
 Battuecas (Las)..........  4
 Baucis................
 Bauman  Islands.........
 Baumann's Cavern.......
 Baumgarten (Alex. Gottlieb)
 Bause (John Frederic)  ....
 Bautzen...............
 Bavaria........
 ------(constitution if).....  9
 Bavius (Marcus) ana Maevius  10
 Bawdy-House........... "
 Baxter (Andrew)......... "
 ------(Richard)......... "
 Bayadeer...............11
 Bayamo................ "
 Bayard (chevalier de)...... "
 ----- (James A.)........13
 Bayle (Pierre)...........14
 Baylen (capitulation at).....15
 Bayley (Richard).........16
 Bayonet................ "
 Bayonne................17
 Bazar................. "
 Beacon (see Signals, and Light-
  house) ..............• • "
 Beagle...............'. • "
 Bear.................. "
 Beard..................18
 Beam.................19
 Beatification............. "
 Beaton (archbishop)........20
 Beattie (James).......... "
 Beaucaire...............21
 Beaufort (in S. C.)........ "
------ (Henry)........."
 Beauharnais (viscount)....."
--------- (marquis de)...."
Beaumarchais (P. A. Caronde) 22
Beaumont and Fletcher....."
 -------(mad. Leprince de). 23
Beauty (see Philosophy)....."
Beaver................."
Beccaria  (Cesare Bonesanal
       ■  (Giovanni Battista)
25
Becher (John Joachim)
Beck (Christian Daniel)....."
Becket (Thomas)..........  ''
Beckmann (John).........27
                     50*
Bed (in gunnery).........
— of Justice (see Lit de Jus-
  tice) .................
Beddoes (Thomas).........
Bede...................
Bedford (duke of).........
----- (m Eng.)..........
----- (in Penn.).........
----- Level............
       (New)............
27
Bedouins.
Bee.......
Beech.....
Beef-Eaters.
Beejapoor.
Beek (David)
Beelzebub.....
Beer.........
----(Michael) .
Beering (Vitus).
------'s Island
------'s Straits
see Bija-pur)
Beet..............
Beethoven (Louis von).
Beetle.............
Befana................
Beg..................
Beggary (see Pauperism)  . .
Beglerbeg...............
Beguards (see Beguines) .. .
Beguines..............
Behaim (Martin).........
Beheading.............
Behn (Apnara)..........
Behring (see Beering) .....
Beira.................
Beiram  (see Bairam)......
Bekker (Elizabeth).......
       (Immanuel).......
33
36
37
Bell (see Lancaster)........
Bella (Stefano della).......
Bellamy (James)..........
Bellarmin (Robert)........
Belle Alliance (see Waterloo)
Bellegarde (count)........
         (Gabriel du Pac de)
Belle-Isle (in bay of Biscay). .
         (in N. A.)
Bel (see Baal).
Belem..........
Belfast (in Ireland)
       in Maine).
Belgium........
Belgrade.......
Belgrano (Manuel)
Belial..........
Belisarius.......
Belknap (Jeremy).
Bell...........
39
40
Belleisle (count de)
Bellenden (William).......
Belles-Lettres.....;......
Bellevue................
Bellini (James)...........
Bellisle (see Belle-Isle)......
Bellmann (Charles Michael). .
Bell-Metal  (see Copper).....
Bellona.................
Bellows.................
Belloy (P. Laurent Buirette de)
Bell-Rock...............
Beloochistan (see Belujistan).
Belt (Great and Little).....
Belujistan...............
Belvedere...............
Belzoni (Giambattista)......
Bembo (Pietro)...........
Ben...................
Benares................
Benavides...............
Benbow (John)...........
Bencoolen...............
Benda (George)...........
Bender.................
Benedict XD7.....„......
         (St.)
Benedictbeurn...........
Benedictines.....'.......
Benediction.............
Benefit of Clergy.........
Benevento..............
Benezet (Anthony).......
Bengal................
Bengel (John Albanus).....
Benger (Elizabeth Ogilvy)..
Benguela..............
Benin (kingdom).........
-----(town)......*.....
Benjowsky (count of)......
Ben-Lawers............
   -Lodi...............
   -Lomond............
47
48
a

49
Ci
a

50
n
it

51
tt
li

52
a

53

54
56

it

51 
594
CONTENTS.
Ben-Macduie.............58
----More...........
----Nevis...........
Benningsen (baron of)..
Bennington..........
Benno (St.)..........
Benserade (Isaac de). .  .
Bensley (Thomas).........59
Bentham (Jeremy)........
Bentivoglio (Cornelio)......
----------(Guy, or Guido)..
BenUey (Richard).........60
Benzef-Sternau (count).....61
Benzenberg (John Frederic).. "
Benzoic Acia............."
Benzoin................62
Beranger (Pierre, Jean de) .  . "
Berber................. "
Berbice.................63
Berchtesgaden.......
Berchtold (count)......
Bercy..................64
Berengarius............
Berenhorst  (F. Leopold von)
Berenice...............
Beresford (William).......
Berezina................65
Berg...................
 ---  Book of (see  Symbolic
  Books)...............66
Bergamo................
Bergamots..............
Bergasse (Nicholas).......
Bergen  (several towns of this
  name)................
Berger (Louis von)........67
Bergerac............... "
Berghem (Nicholas)........"
Bergmann (Torbern Olof)..."
Bergstrasse..............68
Berkeley (George)........"
Berlichingen (Gotz or Godfrey) 69
Berlin.................. "
Bermudas' Islands.........71
Bern...................72
Bemadotte (see Charles XIV) 73
Bernard (Pierre Joseph) .... "
-------(duke of Weimar)... "
—-----of Clairvaux.......74
-------(Great St.)........75
Beraardi (Augustus Frederic). "
Bernardin de St. Pierre (see
  Pierre, St.)............76
Bernardine Monks (see Cister-
  cians) ................
Bernburg (Anhalt).........
Berners, or Barnes (Juliana)..
Berni  (Francesco).........
Bernini (Giovanni Lorenzo). .
Berais (cardinal del........
Bernouilli (James, «c.).....
Bernstorff (count of, &£.). ...
Berri  (duke of)...........
----  (province aid dukedom)
Berserker..............
Berthier (marshal).........
Berthollet (count).........
Berthoud (Ferdinand)......
Bertoli (count of)..........
Berton (Henry Montan).....
Bertrand (count)..........
Bertuch (Frederic Justin)....
Bervic (Charles Clement)....
Berwick (duke of).........
Berwick-upon-Tweed......
Beryl..................
83
Berzelius (James)........  84
Besancon  ..............  "
Bessarabia.............  "
Bessel (Frederic William) . .  "
Betel..................  85
Bethania...............
Bethesda...............  "
Betlilehem (in Palestine)...  "
---------(in Penn.)......  86
Betrothment.............  "
Betterment.............  "
Betterton (Thomas).......  "
Bettinelli (Saverio)........  87
Bey.................  "
Beza (Theodore).........
Bezant................
Bezoar................
Bia...................  89
Biagioli (Josaphat).......
Bianchini  (Francesco).....
Bias..................
Bibbiena (Fernando)......  90
Bible.................
----(geography of).......  92
----Societies...........
Biblical Archaeology.......  95
Bibliography............
Bibliomancy............  97
Bibliomania............
Bicetre................  99
Bidassoa...............
Biddle (John)...........
Bidpai (see Pilpay).......100
Bielefeld...............  "
Bievre (marquis de)......  "
Big (see Barley).........101
Bigamy................100
Bignon (Louis Edward). ... 101
Bija-pur...............  "
Bilbao (see Bilboa).......102
Bilboa.................  "
Bilderdyk (William)......  "
Bildge (see Bilge)........  "
Bile..................  "
Biledulgerid............103
Bilin..................  "
Bilious Fever (see Fever) ..  "
Bill of Exchange.........  •'
-----Lading...........106
-----Rights............   "
Bill in Equity............   "
Billiards...............   "
Billington  (Elizabeth).....  "
Bingen................107
Bingley...............  "
Binnacle...............  "
Binomial...............108
Bioernstaehl (James Jonas) .  "
Biology  and  Biometry (see
  Life)................  «
Bion..................  "
Biot (Jean Baptiste).......  "
Birch.................  «
-----(Thomas)..........109
Bird (Edward)..........  "
----Island (several islands of
  this name)............  "
Birds (see Ornithology) .... 110
---r-' Nest.............  "
Biren (Ernst John von) ....  "
Birman  Empire..........  "
Birmingham............113
Biron (duke of)..........114
Birth (see Labor)........
Biscay................
------(bay of)..........ltfl
Biscay (bay of, Newfoundland) 115
-----New (in Mexico) ....  "
Bischofswerder..........  "
Bishop................  "
------'s Hood (see Mitre).. 116
------'s Staff (see Crosier)  .  "
Bismark (count)..........  "
Bismuth...............  "
Bison.................117
Bissago................118
Bisset (Robert)..........  "
Bitaube (Paul Jeremiah) ..."
Bithynia...............  "
Bitsch.................119
Bittern................  "
Bitumen...............  "
Bivouack...............120
Blacas (count)...........  "
Black (Joseph)..........  "
-----Art (see Magic).....  "
Blackbird..............  "
Blackfish...............121
Black Forest............122
Blackfriars' Bridge.......123
Blackguard.............  "
Black-Lead (see Plumbago).  "
Blacklock (Thomas)......  "
Blackmore (sir Richard) ... 124
Black Rock (see Buffalo)... 123
-----Sea____.•.........  "
Blackstone (sir William) ... 124
---------Canal.........126
Bladensburg............  "
Blair (Hugh)............  "
---- (John)...........,  "
---- (Robert)...........  "
Blake (admiral)..........127
Blakeley (Johnston).......128
Blanc, Mont (see Mont Blanc)  "
Blanchard (Francis)......  "
Blanco (cape)...........129
Blanginl (G. M. M. Felice)..  "
Blank Verse............  "
Blasphemy.............  "
Blasting................130
Blazoning..............  "
Bleaching..............  "
Blemmyes..............  "
Blende (see Zinc)........131
Blenheim..............  "
Blessing...............132
Blight.................  "
Blind.................133
----(institutions for the) ...  "
Blinds.................135
Blister.................13(j
Bloch (Marcus Eliezer) ....  "
Blockade...............  "
Blockhouse.............  "
Blocks................  "
Bloemart (Abraham)......137
Blois..................  "
Blomfield (Charles James)..  "
--------(Edward Valentine)  "
Blondel................138
Blood (Thomas)..........  "
-----(in animals)........  "
-----Vessels............139
Bloodhound.............140
Bloomfield (Robert).......  "
Blowing-Machines........  "
Blowpipe...............  "
Blucher (prince)..........141
Blue (see Color)..........143
Bluebird...............  "
Blue (Prussian)..........  « 
CONTENTS.
595
Blue Ridge........
----Stocking...........
Blumauer (Aloysiusi......
Blumenbach (John Frederic)
Boa.................;
Boadicea..............
Boat..................
Boccaccio (Giovanni)......
Boccage (Marie Anne du). .
Boccherini (Luigi)........
Bocchetta..............
Bochica...............
Bockh (Augustus)........
Bode (John Elert)........
Bodin (Jean)............
Bodleian Library (see Libra-
  ries).................
Bodley (sir Thomas)......
Bodmer (John Jacob)......
Bodoni (Giambattista).....
Boece (see BoCthius)......
Boehme (Jacob).........
Boeotia................
Boerhaave..............
Boethius (A. M. T. Severinus)
Boettcher (John  Frederic) ..
Bogdanowitsch (H. F.).....
Bogota................
-----(city in Colombia). . .
-----River (see Tequen-
  dama, Cataract of).....
Bohemia...............
Bohemian Brethren.......
--------and Bavarian For-
           est ..........
-------- Language ......
--------Literature......
Boiardo (MaUeo Maria)....
Boil..................
Boileau (Despreaux Nicholas)
Boiler (see Steam, and Steam
  Engine)..............
Bois-le-Duc.............
Boisseree...............
Boissomde (Jean Francois) .
Bojaca (battle of)........
Bole.................
Boleyn (An»e)..........
Bolingbroke (viscount).....
Bolivar (Simon)..........
Bolivia................
Bollandists..............
Bollman (Erich).........
Bologna...............
Bomb.................
Bombast...............
Bombay...............
Bombelles (marquis de) . .
Bomb-Ketch............
Bona..................
---- Dea..............
Bonald (viscount de)......
Bonaparte family ........
Bonaventura (John of Fidan-
  za).................
Bond..................
Bondage (see Villenage) .. .
Bondi (Clemente)........
Bondy (count of).........
Bone..................
Boner (Ulrich)...........
Boneset................
Boniface (popes).........
----- (*•) ; •.........
Bonn (in Prussia)........
---- (Andrew)..........
144
146
148
149
150
151
180
Bonner (Edmund)......
Bonnet (in fortification) ..
Bonnet (Charles).......
-----(French advocate)
Bonneval (count of).....
Bonny castle (John).....
Bonpland (Aime).......
Bonstetten (Charles von) .
Bonzaniga (Giuseppe)...
Bonzes..............
Book-keeping.........
Books, (catalogues of). . ,
       (censorship of)..
Book-Trade
Boone (Daniel).........
Boors................
Bootan...............
Bootes................
Booth (Barton).........
Bopp (Francis).........
Bora (Catharine von).....
Boracic Acid...........
Borak Al (see Alborak)..  .
Borda (Jean Charles).....
Bordeaux (see Bourdeaux)
Bordelais Wines........
Bordentown............
Bordone (Paris).........
Boreal................
Boreas...............
Borghese..............
-------(prince).......
         (princess)......
186
187
188
189
190
191
189
193
194
 It
195
196
197
198
199
Borgia (Caesar)
-----(Stefano).........
Borgne................
Boring................
Borneo................
Bornholm..............
Bornou................
Borodino (see Moscow, Bat-
  tle of) ...............
Borough...............
Borromei Islands.........
Borromeo (count)........
Borstell (L. G. Leopold von)
Bory-de-Saint-Vincent.....
Bos (Lambert)..........
Bosc (L. Antome Guillaume)
Boscan (Almogaver Juan) . ■
Boscawen (admiral)......
Boscovich  (Roger Joseph)..
Boshmen (see Hottentots).. .
Boshuanas (see Bushwanas).
Bosio (N.)..............
Bosjesmen (see Hottentots)..
Bosnia................
Bosphorus..............
Bossi (baron de)..........
Bossuet (Jacques Benigne)..
203
204
205
206
207
Bots (see (Estfas).........216
Bona (Carlo G. G.).......216
Bottles................215
Bottomry...............  "
Botzen................216
Bouchardon (Edmund).. ..:  "
Boucher (Alexander)......  "
------(Franeis)........  "
Bouches-du-Rhdne........217
Boudinot (Elias).........  "
Boudoir...............  "
Boufflers (marshal de).....  "
        (chevalier de)
Bougainville (L. Antoine de) 218
Bouflle (marshal de)......  "
Bouillon...............  "
Bouilly (J. N.)...........219
Boulevards (see Paris).....  "
Boulogne..............  "
         (wood of).......220
Boulton (Matthew).
Bounty................  "
Bourbon family.........222
   ---- (duke of)........224
   ----  isle of).........225
   ---- (Louis).........  "
Bourbonnais............  "
Bourdaloue (Louis).......  "
Bourdeaux.............226
Bourdon (Sebastian)......227
Bourges...............  "
Bourgogne (see Burgundy)  .  "
Boungnon (Antoinette) ....  "
Boursault (Edme)........  "
Boustrophedon...........228
Bouterwek (Frederic).....  "
Boute-Rimes............  "
Bow..................  "
----(in music)..........229
----Instruments.........  "
Bowdich (Thomas Edward).  "
Bowdoin (James).........230
Bower (see Anchor)......  "
Boxing (see Gymnastics)...  "
Box-tree...............  "
Boydell (John) . ..
Boyeldieu (Adrian)
231
183
Boston (in Eng.).........
■-----(in Mass.).........
Bsswell (James)......
Bosvorth...............
Botanical Gardens........
Botany  ...............
       B»y (see New South
  Wales)
Both (John and Andrew).
Bothnia (East)........
        gulf of)......
        West).
214
Bothwell (in Scotland).
        (earl)......
Botocudes.
Boyer (Alexis)
----- (Jean Pierre)......  "
Boyle (Robert)..........232
Boylston (Zabdiel)........233
Boyne................  "
Bozzaris (see Greece).....  "
Brabant...............  "
Brachmans (see Gymnoso-
  phists)...............234
Bracteates.............  "
Bracton (Henry de).......  "
Braddock (Edward)......  "
Bradford (William).......  "
Bradley (James).........235
Bradshaw (John).........  "
Braga (see Mythology, North-
  ern) ................  "
Braganza..............  "
Braham...............  "
Brahe, Tycho de (see Tycho) 236
Brahilow...............  "
Brahma (see Brama)......  "
Brailow (see Brahilow) ....  "
Brails.................  "
Brain.................  "
Brainerd (David)........237
         (in Tenn.).......238
Brakenburg (Regner)
Brama. 
596
CONTENTS.
Bramante of Urbino... .
Bramins.......^.. ..
Brandenburg (province).
            (town). . . .
238
Brandes (Ernest)
Brandt (Nicholas)........
------(Sebastian)........
Brandy (see Distillation)...
Brandvwine............
Brantome (Pierre).......
Brasil (see Brazil)........
Brass (see Copper).......
Brattleborough..........
Brauwer (Adrian)........
Bravo (Nicholas).........
Bravura Air............
Bray (vicar of)..........
----(count de)..........
Brazil.................
Breach................
Bread.................
 ----Fruit............
Breakers...............
Breaking Bulk...........
Breakwater (see Cherbourg,
  Plymouth and Delaware).
Breast (see Chest)........
 ----Plate............
 -----Wheel...........
 -----Work............
Breath................
Breathing (see Respiration) .
Breccia................
Brechin...............
Breda.................
Bredow (Gabriel Godfrey). .
Bree (Matthew van, &c). ..
Breeches...............
Breeching..............
Breezes (see Winds)......
Breguet (A. L.)..........
Brehon................
Breisgau (see Brisgau) ....
Breislak (Scipio).........
Breitkopf (J. G. Emmanuel).
Bremen...............
Brenner...............
Brennus...............
Brentano (Clement).......
Brentford..............
Brescia................
Breslau................
Brest.................
Bretagne (see  Brittany). . . .
Breteuil (baron de).......
Bretschneider (H. G. von) . .
Breughel (Peter, &c.).....
Breve.................
Brevet................
Breviary...............
Brewing...............
Brewster (David)........
Breze (marquis de).......
Briareus...............
Bribe.................
Briceno Mendez (Pedro)... .
Brick.................
Bridewell Hospital........
Bridge ................
Bridgetown.............
Bridgewater............
---------Canal  (see  Ca-
  nal) ................
Bridle.................
Brief.................
Briel.................
239
240
241
243
252
254
256

256
 tt

257

 It

258
 ti
 It


259
 tt
 tt

260
 n
 a

264
 it

 it

265
 It

266

269
270
Brienne (in France).......270
  -^- cardinal (see Lome-
  nie).................271
Brig..................  ;;
Brigade ...............
Brigandinc.............
Brigantine (see Brig).....  "
Brighella (see Mask)......  "
Bright.................  "
Brighthelmstone.........  "
Brighton, in Eng. (see Bright-
          helmstone) .....  "
-------(in Mass.).......  "
Brilliant (see Diamond)----272
Brimstone..............  "
Brindley (James).........  "
Bring-to...............  "
Brinkmann (Charles G.)  .. .  "
Brion (Luis)............  "
Brisach................  "
Briseis (see Achilles)......273
Brisgau...............
Brissac (see Cosse).......
Brissot de Warville (Jean P.)
Brissotins..............
Bristol (in Eng.).........
-----(inR.l.).........274
-----Channel..........
Britain................
-----New (in Australia). . 275
-----New (in N. America)
Britannicus Caesar........
Britinians..............276
British America..........
-----Channel (see English
         Channel).......
-----Museum..........
Brittany...............
Brizard (see French Theatre) 277
Broach (in Hindostan).....
------(a clasp).........
------to..............
Broad Piece............
Broadside............
Broad-Sword...........
Brocade...............
Brocken (see Hartz)......
Brody.................
Broekhuizen (Jan van).....
Broglio (family of).......!
------(duke of)........
Broker................279
Brome................  "
Bromelia (see Pine-Apple). .  "
Bromius...............  "
Bronkhorst (Peter van, &c).  "
Bronner (Francis  Xaver). ..  "
Bronze................  "
Bronzes................28C
Bronzing..............  "
Bronzino (Angelo)........  "
Brooding (see Ornithology).  "
Brooklyn..............  "
Brooks (John)...........931
Broom................  "
Brasses (Charles de)......282
Brothel (see Bawdy-House).  "
Brotherhood, Holy (see Her-
  mandad)............_.  "
Brotherhoods (see Fraterni-
  ties).................  "
Brothers...............  "
Brougham (Henry).......  "
Broughton's Archipelago . .. 283
Broussonet (P. M. Auguste).
Brower (see Brauwer).....284
Brown (Charles Brockden).
       count)..........
       John) ..........
       Robert)........
       Thomas)......
       William). .
284
Browne (count)..........287
       (Simon)......:..  "
       (sir Thomas)......288
Browny.
Bruce (James)..........  "
-----(Michael)..........289
-----(Robert)..........  "
-----(Robert, son ofthe pre-
  ceding)  ..............290
Bruges Tin the Netherlands).  "
       (viscount of)......  "
Brugmans (Sebald Justinus). 291
Brun] (F. Aloysius, count of)  "
----(Henry, count of)....  "
----(John Maurice)......292
Brulotta (see Fire-Ship). ...  "
Brumaire (the 18th of)____,  "
Brun (see Lebrun)........  "
Brunck (R. Francis Philip) .  "
Brundusium.............  "
Brune (marshal).........  "
Brunehaut (see Brunehild).. 293
Brunchild (Brunichild).....  "
Brunelleschi (Philip)......294
Brunet (JamesCharles)....  "
       Theatre of (see Paris)
Brunhildis (see Nibelungen).  "
Bruni (see Bruno, Giordano)  "
Brunings (Christian)......  "
Brunn.................295
Bruno the Great.........  "
-----(St.).............  "
-----of Arezzo..........  "
-----(Giordano)........296
BrunonianSystem (see Brown,
  John).
Brunswick (family of)
--------(duchy of)
298
299
300
301
------— (in Maine).....
--------  New (see New
             Brunswick)...
________(C. W. F. duke of)
--------(Ferdii.   "  "
_______(F.Vm.   "  "
---------(Lo-is E.  "  "J
--------(M.J. L.prince of)
Brush-Whens..........  "
Brussels..............  "
Brutus................302
______/Lucius Junius) ....  "
-----■ (Marcus Junius).... 303
BrutereJJean de la)......  "
Br»yn (CorneiUe le).......304
Pryant (Jacob)..........  "
Bubna (count of).........  "
Buccaneers.............305
Bucentaur..............306
Bucephalus.............  "
Bucer (Martin)..........  "
Buch (Leopold von).......  '•'
Buchanan (George).......  "
Bucharest..............307
         (peace of)
Bucharia (Great).........308
         (Little).........309
Bucher (Anthony von).....
Buchholz (Paul F. Frederic)
Buck.................
Buckeburg (see Lippe) .... 
CONTENTS.
597
 Buckets................309
 Buckinck (Arnold).......  "
 Buckingham (duke of).....  "
 ————— (duke of, son of
   the preceding).........311
 Buckler (see Shield)......  "
 -------(John)..........312
 Buckminster (Joseph S.) ..  .  "
 Buckwheat.............313
 Bucolics (see Pastoral Poetry)  "
 Buda................  .  "
 Buddha................  "
 Bude (Guillaume)........314
 Budessin (see Bautzen) ....  "
 Budgell (Eustace)........  "
 Budget................315
 Budweiss..............  "
 Buenaventura (in California)  "
 ------------(in Colombia)  "
 Buen Ayre.............  "
 Buenos Ayres (country  in S.
                America)..  "
 ------------(city).......316
 Buen Retiro............
 Buffalo (in N. Y.)........
 ------(an animal).......317
 Buffet.................  "
 Buffon (count of).........   "
 Buffone................318
 Bugenhagen (John).......   "
 Bugge (Thomas).........319
 Bugle-Horn  (see Horn)....   "
 Buhrstone (see Quartz)  ....   "
 Builth.................  "
 Buinaah Point...........   "
 Bukharia (see Bucharia)...   "
 Bukowina (see Galicia)....   "
 Bulac.................   "
 Bulama................   "
 Bulgaria...............   "
 Bulgarians.............   "
 Bulimia................320
 Bulkh (see Afghanistan)....   "
 Bulk-Heads............   "
 Bull..................   "
 ---Baiting............   "
 ---Dog...............  "
 ---(papal).............  "
 Bullen, Anne (see Boleyn) .. 321
 Bullers of Bucnan........  "
 Bulletin...............  "
 -------Universel, &c.....  "
 Bull-Fights.............  "
 Bullfinch...............322
 Bullfrog (see Frog).......  "
 Bullion................  "
 Bull, John (see John Bull)  ..  "
 Bullock (see  Ox).........  "
 Bullock's Museum........  "
 Bullrush (see Scirpus).....  "
 Bull's Bay.............  "
 Bulmer (William)........  "
 Bulow (Frederic William)..   "
 ------(Henry von).......323
 Bulwark (see Bastion).....   "
 Bum-Boat..............
 Bundelcund.............
 Bungalow..............

 S«T.::::::::::::::::  -
Bunker Hill  (see  Charles-
  town) ...............
Bunt..................  u
Bunting................  fl
Bunyan (John).........•
Buonaparte (see Bonaparte). 324
Buonarroti,   Michelagnolo
  (see Angelo)..........
Buoy.................
Burats (see Buriats)......
Burchiello (Domenico).....
Burckhard (John Louis). . . .
Burckhardt (John Charles). .
Burden................
Burdett (sir Francis)......
Bureau................
Burg (John Tobias).......
Burgas................
Burger (Godfrey Augustus) .
Burgess................
Burghers (see Seceders) .. .
Burglary...............
Burgomaster............
Burgos................
Burgoyne (John).........
Burguetta..........,. . .
Burgundians............
Burgundy (Lower).......
         (circle of)......
         (duke of).......
         Wines.........
Burial.
Buriats................
Burin.................
Burkard (Waldis)........
Burke (Edmund).....
Burleigh, lord (see Cecil)..
Burlesque..............
Burletta...............
Burlington.............
Burman Empire (see Birman
  Empire).............
Burmann (family of)...
                 Willia
324
325
331
335
(Gottfob William). 336
Burmhan (see Birman Em-
  pire) ........
Burnet (Gilbert) .
       (Thomas)
Burnett (James)
Burney (Charles)........
       (Charles, son  of the
  preceding).
Burning-Glass...........
Burning Mirrors..........
Burning of houses (see Arson)
Burnisher..............
Burns (Robert)..........
Burrampooter...........
Burrill (James)..........
Bursa.................
Burschen..............
Burton (Robert).........
Burton-upon-Trent.......
Bury St Edmund's.......
Burying-Places..........
Busaco................
Busbecq...............
Busching (Anthony Frederic)
Busembaum (Hermann)....
Bushel..............,.
Bushire................
Bushmen..............
Bushwanas.....«.......
Buskin................
Bust..................
Bustard...............
Butchers...............
Bute (earl of)...........
----(island of, Scotland) ..
Butler (James)..........
----- (Joseph) ..........
----- (Samuel).........
337
Butter.................349
Butterfly (see Papilio).....  "
Buttmann (Philip Charles)..  "
Buttons................360
Buttresses..............  "
Buttura (Antonio)........  "
Buxhowden (count of).....  "
Buxton (in Eng.).........361
          jedian)
(Jedediah).
Buxtorf (John)
       (John, the younger).  "
Buyukdere.
Buzzard...............352
-------'s Bay..........353
By-law................  ''
Byles (Mather)........
Byng (John)..........
Bynkershoeck (Cornelius) . .  "
Byron (John)............358
------(lord)............364
------'s Island..........359
361
Byzantine Empire........  "
--------Historians......363
         School of Art----364
Byzantium.............367
C....................368
Cabal.................  "
   — (a beverage).......  "
Cabala................  "
Cabanis (P. John George).  . 369
Cabarrus (count of).......  "
Cabbage...............  "
Cabbala (see Cabala).....370
Cabello (see Porto Cabello).  "
Cabenda...............  "
Cabin.................  "
Cabinet...............  "
Cabiri...........______  "
Cable.................371
Caboose...............  "
Cabot (George)..........  "
   — (Sebastian)........372
Cabrera...............37S
Cabul.................  "
Cabulistan..............  "
Cacao.................  "
Cachao................374
Cachelot (see Whales).....  "
Cachet (Lettres de).......  "
Cacique...............  "
Cacodemon (see Demon)...  "
Cacophony.............  "
Cactus................  "
Cacus.................375
Cadalso (Jose)...........  "
Cada Mosto.............  "
Cade (John)............376
Cadence...............  "
Cader Idris.............  "
Cadet.................  " .
   — de Vaux..........  "
Cadi..................  "
Cadiz.................  "
   — (straits of).........377
Cadmus...............  "
Cadsand...............  "
Caduceus..............  "
Cadwalader (John).......  "
Caelius Mons............378
Caen..................  "
Caerleon..............  "
Caermarthen............  u i 

CONTENTS.
382
Caernarvon.............379
Caerphilly..............  "
Caerwent..............  "
Caerwys.............,.  "
Caesar.................  "
Caesar (Caius Julius)......
Caesarea...............
Caesarean   Operation   (see
  Midwifery)...........  "
Caestus................  «
Caesura................  "
Caf..................  »
Cafe (see Coffee-Houses). . .  "
Caffa.................  "
----  (strait of).........  "
Caffarelli (seeMajorano)...  "
du Falga.
Calcutta............396
Caldara (Polidoro)........ 397
-------(a composer of music) "
Caldas de Monbuy........ "
Calder................398
Calderari..............  "
Calderon...............  "
Caleb..................400
Caledonia............n .  "
         (in N. Y.)......  "
         New (in N. A.) . .  "
             (in the Pacific)  "
Camaieu...............488
Camaldohtes............  "
Camargue..............  "
Cambaceres (Jean J. Regis)
Cambodia (country in Asia).
         (river in Asia)...
Caffe (Daniel)...........383
Caffila...............
Cam-aria..............
Caffres...............
Caftan.................384
Caglia, cape (see Matapaa,
  cape) ...............
Cagl.ari (in Sardinia).....

Cagliostro (count of)......
Cagnoli (Anthony)........385
Cagots................386
Canoes Falls (see Mohawk).  "
Cahors Wine............  "
Caiaphas...............  "
Caic..................  "
Caicos.................  "
Cailas.................  "
Caillaud (Frederic).......  "
Caille (Auguste).........  "
-----(Nicholas Louis de la) 387
Caimacan..............388
Caiman (see Cayman Islands)  "
------(see Alligator).....  "
Cain..................  "
Caique (Grand)..........389
Ca-Ira................  "
Cairn.................  "
Cairngorm .. r ..........  "
Cairo.................  "
Caisson................  "
Caius..................390
Cajeput Oil.............  "
Calabar...............  "
Calabash-Tree..........  "
Oalabrese____..........391
Calabria...............  "
Calahorra..............392
Calais.................  "
------(pasde)......----  "
------straits of (see Dover,
   straits of)............  "
Calahe (see Turquoise)....  "
Calamanco.............  "
Calamata (see Greece) ....  "
 Calamine (see Zinc)......  "
Calamines..............  "
 Calamus...............393
 Calandra (see Mosaic).....
 Cala8(John)............
 Calatrava (see Orders) ....
 Calcar (John van)........
 Calcarions Spar (see Lime).
 Calchas...............
 Calcination.............394
 Calcography (see Engraving) "
   Iculus...............  "
Caledonians
Calembourg............401
Celenberg.............  "
Calendar..............  "
Calender...............404
Calenders..............  "
Calends...............  "
Calenture..............  "
Calepin...............  "
Caliber................  "
Calico................  "
Calicut................405
Calif and Califate (see Ca
  Kph)...............
California (gulf of)......
-------- (New)........
         (Old)
Caligula (Caius C. A. G.)..
Caliph.................407
Calixtins...............412
Calixtus (
(popes)
Georee
426
Cambray
Cambridge (in Mass.).....  "
       — (m Eng.)......427
       — (duke of)......428
         Manuscript.
Cambronne (baron).......429
             of this
Camden.
Cambyses (two of this name)
Camel................430
      (in mechanics)......432
Cameleon (see Chameleon).  "
Camelopard............  "
Camenz...............433
Cameo................  "
Camera iEolia..........  "
-------Clara...........  "
—■----Lucida  (see Came-
          ra Clara)......  "
——— Obscura (see Came-
          ra Clara) ......  "
Camerarius (Joachim I)... .  "
           (Joachim II)..
434
413
 tt
414
435
Calk................
Calkar (see Calcar)......
Calkoen (Jan F. van Beek).  "
Can..................  -
Callao................  "
Callimachus............  "
Calliope...............  "
Callisen (Henry).........415
Callisthenes.............  "
Callisthenics (see Gymnastics) "
Callisto................  "
Callot (Jaques)..........  "
Callus.................  "
Cahnar................  "
Calmet (Augustine).......416
Calms (region of)........  "
Calmucs...............  "
Calomel (see Mercury) ....  417
Calonne (C.  Alexander de) .  "
Calorie................418
Calorimeter.............420
Calorimotor  (see   Galvanic
  Battery).............
Calottists..............
Caloyers...............
Calpe (see Abyla  and Gib-
  raltar)...............   "
Calprentde (G. de C. de la).  "
Calpurnius (Titus Julius)...  "
Caltrop................421
Calumet...............  "
Calvados...............  "
—•------(see Department)'  "
Calvart (Dionysius).......  "
Calvary.
Camerlingo.
Cameromans...........
Cames..............
Camillus (Marcus Furius).
Camisards............
Camlet................  "
Camma...............  "
Camoenae..............  "
Camoens (Louis de)......  "
Camomile..............437
Camp.................  "
Campagna di Roma......  "
Campaign.............438
Campan (Jeanne Louise H.)  439
Campanella (Thomas).....  "
Campania..............  "
Campanile.............  "
Campbell (George).......440
         John).........  "
         .Thomas)......  "
Campe (Joachim Heinrich)..  441
Campeachy............  "
Camper (Peter)..........  "
Campetti...............442
Camphor..............  "
Campistron (Jean G albert de)  443
Campo Chiaro (duke of).. .  "
       Formio ,
444
Calc
— (in voting, &«.)
— (in animals)...
395
Calvert (George)
4X2
 Calvin (John)
 Calvinism..............4124
 Calvisius (Seth)
rCabt..................425
 Calydon
 Calypso
446
Campomanes (count of).
Campus Martius......
Camuccini (Vicenzo).  . .
Canaan (see Palestine) .
Canada............
       (Lower)......
       Upper).......
Canaille...............447
Canal.................  "
Canals of Egypt.........448
   -----China..........449
   -----Italy...........450
   ----- Russia.........  "
   -----Sweden........  "
   ----- Denmark.......451
   -----Holland........  "
   -----Germany.....,.  "
   -----Spain..........  "
   ------France.........  "
   ------Great Britain____453 
Canals of America........464
Canaletto (Antonio, &c.). . . 466
Canaries...............
Canary-Bird (see Finch) . .. 467
------(Grand)..........
Cancer (in astronomy).....
------(in medicine)......
------Root............468
Candelabra.............
Candi.................469
Candia................  "
Candidate..............471
Candide...............472
Candlemas.............
Cane (see Bamboo and Ratan)
Canea................
Canga-Arguelles (don Jose).
Cange, flu (see Du Fresne). 473
Canisius (Petrus).........
Cannae................
Cannes................
Cannibals (see Anthropophagi
  and Caribs)...........
Canning (George)........
Cannon................475
Cano (Alonzo, or Alexis) . . . 476
Canobus (see Canopus) ....
Canoe................
Canon (a dignitary)......477
----/in the arts)........   "
  i    (in music).........   "
----of the Scriptures .... 478
___________[by a Catholic]   "
____and Caput in Councils 479
---- Law.............   "
Canonical Books (see Canon
           and Apocryphal) 481
----—— Hours.........   "
Canonization............  "
Canopus...............   "
Canosa (city)...........   "
-----(castle)..........482
Canova (Antonio)........   "
Canstein (Charles H. von) . . 484
Cantabile..............
Cantabri...............
Cantacuzeno (Geo.and Alex.)
Cantacuzenus (John)......485
Cantal................   "
Cantata...............   "
Canteen...............486
Cantemir (Demetrius).....   "
Canterbury.............   "
Cantharides............   "
Cantharidin.............487
Canticles (see Solomon, Song
  of).................   "
 Cant Timbers...........484
 Cantium...............487
 Canto Fermo...........   "
     ■ Figurato..........   "
 Canton................   "
 Canute L..............488
 Canzona.............;: 489
 Canzonet..............   "
 Caoutchouc.............   "
 Cap..................490
 Cape.................   "
 — Ann..............   u
 ---Breton............   "
 ---Cod..............491
 ---Fear..............   "
 ---Fear River.........   "
 ---Francois   (see  Cape
       Haytien)..........   "
 ---of Good Hope.......   "
       CONTENTS.

Cape of Good Hope (colony) 491
----Hatteras...........492
----Haytien...........  "
----Horn.............  "
----Lookout...........  "
----Town.............  "
----Verde.............493
----Verde Islands.......  "
Capellen (baron de).......  "
Capello (Bianca)........  "
Caper.................494
-----(in shipping)......  "
Capernaum............  "
Capet.................495
Capi Aga..............  "
Capias................496
Capigi (see Capi Aga)  .... 497
Capillary Tubes.........  "
-------Vessels........  "
Capital (in  political  econo-  "
  my)................  "
----- (in geography)  .... 499
-----(in architecture; see
         Architecture)  .... 500
------ Offence (see Crime)  "
------   Punishment   (see
  Death, punishment of) ...  "
Capitanata.............  "
Capitani..............  "
Capite Censi............  "
Capitol................  "
Capitulary.............501
Capitulation............  "
Capnist  (Wassil  Wassilje-
  witsch)..............502
Capo d'Istria (count of). . . .
----------- (in Austria) ..
Capoc.................503
Caponier..............
Cappadocia............
Caprea (see Capri).......
Capri............... • ■
Capriccio..............
Caprification (see  Figs)....
Capsicin...............
Capstan...............
Captain...............504
Capture (see Prize).......505
Capua ................
Capuchins (see Franciscans).
Caput-mortuum..........
Caqueta...............
Carabine...............
Carabobo..............
Caracalla..............
Caracas...............506
Caracci (see Carracci).....507
Caraccioli (Francisco).....
------- (Louis Antoinede)
--------(marquis de)  . . . .
Caractacus.............
Carafa (Michael).........
Caraites...............
Caramania.............
Carascosa (baron)........508
Caravaggio (Mich. Ang.Am.)
-------— (see Caldara) ..
Caravan...............
Caravansaries...........
Caravan Tea (see Tea). ...
Caraway Seeds..........609
Carbon................
Carbonari..............513
Carbonic Acid (see Carbon). 514
_______Oxyde  (see  Car-
  bon) ................
                         599

Carbuncle (see Garnet)...   514
   ■-----(in surgery).....  "
Carcass................  "
Carcinoma (see Cancer) ...  "
Card.................  "
Cardamom.............515
Cardan (Geronimo).......  "
Cardinal...............516
   -----  Points..........  "
   -----Virtues.........517
Carding...............  "
Careening.............t  " '
Carew (Thomas).........  "
Cargillites..............  "
Cariaco................  "
Cariati (prince)..........  "
Cariatides  (see  Caryatides
  and Architecture).......518
Caribbean Sea..........  "
Caribbee Bark...........  "
Caribbee Islands.........  "
Caribbees..............  "
Caribs (see Caribbees).....  "
Caricature.............  "
Carignano (prince).......519
Carillons (see Chimes).....  "
Carinthia...............520
Carissimi (Giacomo)......  "
Carita................  "
Carleton (sir Guy)........  "
Carli  (count)............  "
Carlin.................  "
Carlisle (in England)......521
----- (in Penn.)........  "
Carlos (don)............  "
Carlovitza____.........523
Carlsbad...............  "
------ (congress of).....524
Carlscrona..............  "
Carlsruhe..............  "
Carlstadt..............  '•'
Carmagnole............525
Carmel................  "
Carmer (count of)........526
Carmine...............  "
Carmontelle............  "
Carnatic...............   "
Carnation..............   "
Carneades..............  "
Carnelian (see Quartz) .... 527
Carniola...............   "
Carnival...............   "
Carnot (L.  N. M.)........528
Caro (Annibale).........529
Carolina...............  "
------Maria (of Naples). . 530
------(North).........   "
-------(South).........532
Caroline Amelia Elizabeth.. 534
------Laws (see Carolina) 535
-------Matilda (of Denmark) "
Carp..................  "
Carpathian Mountains......536
Carpentaria............  "
Carpets...............  "
Carpi (Girolamo da)......537
----(Ugodaj..........  "
Carracci (family).........  "
Carreras (family)........538
Carrier, common (see Com-
         mon Carrier).... 539
------(John Baptist).....  "
------Pigeon..........  "
Carro (Giovanni  di).......540
Carroll (John)...........  "
Carron................  " 
600
CONTENTS.
Carronades.............641
Carrot................  "
Carrying  Trade (see Com-
  merce)...............  "
Carstares (William).......  "
Carstens (Asmus Jacob). . .. 542
Carte (Thomas).........  "
Cartel.................543
Carter (Elizabeth)........
Cartes, Des (see Descartes).
Carthage,..............
Carthagena (in Spain).....545
----------(province in Co-
             lombia) .....  "
----------(city in Colom-
             bia)  .......  "
Carthusians.............  "
Cartilage...............546
Cartoon...............  "
Cartouch...............547
Cartouche (Louis Dominique) "
Cartridge..............  "
Cartwright (Edmund).....  "
----------(John)........  "
Carver (Jonathan)........548
Cary (Lucius)...........549
Caryatides.............550
Casa (Giovamii della).....  "
Casanova (Francis).......  "
---------(J. J. de Seingalt)   "
Casas (Bartholomew de las).  551
Casaubon  (Isaac de)......552
--------- (Meric)........  "
Casco Bay.............  "
Case (action upon the).....  "
----in  grammar  (see Lan-
       guage) ..........  "
----hardening..........  "
Casemates..............563
Case-shot..............  "
Cases, count of  (see  Las
  Cases)...............  "
Cashmere..............  "
--------Goat..........  'I
Cashna................554
Cashoo................  "
Casimir III, the Great ....  "
Casino.................555
Casiri (Michael).........  "
Caspian Sea............  "
Cassander (George)......  "
Cassandra..............556
Cassas (Louis Francis).....  "
Cassation,.............  "
--------(court of).......  "
Cassava...............558
Cassel................. "
------, Hesse  (see Hesse). . "
Cassia................ "
Cassina (see Cashna)...... "
Cassini (family)......... "
Cassino................559
Cassiedorus  (Marcus Aurel.) "
Cassiopeia..............560
Cassiquiari............. "
Cassiterides............. "
Cassius (Longinus Caius)  . . "
Cassowary............. "
Cast (see Casting)........561
----Engravings......... "
Castagno (Andrea del)  .... 562
Castanets.............. "
Castanos (don Francisco de). "
Caste................. "
Castelcicala  (prince of) ...  . 563
Castello (Gabriel Lancelot) . "
Casti  (Giambattista)...... "
Castiglione (Baldassare). . .. 664
Castile____............ "
Castillo (Jose Maria del) ... 565
Castine................ "
Casting................ "
Castlcreagh (see Londonder-
  ry)..................567
Castor (see Beaver)....... "
------and Pollux........ "
------Oil.............. "
Castrametation..........568
Castrates.............. "
Castriot (see Scanderbeg)..  . 569
Castrum Doloris......... "
Casuistry............... "
Cat................... "
Catacombs.............571
Catacoustics............573
Catafalco (see Castrum Dolo-
  ris) ................. "
Catalani (Angelica). ...... "
Catalepsy..........'. . .  . 574
Catalogues  of  Books  (see
  Books, Catalogues of) . .. "
Catalonia.............. "
Catamenia............. "
Catania...............575
Cataplasms............. "
Catapults.............. "
Cataract............... "
   ----- (in geography).... 576
Catarrh................578
Cat-Bird...............570
Catechesis........».....578
Catechetical Schools......  "
Catechism..............579
Catechu................580
Catechumens............  "
Category..............  "
Catel(Charles Simon).....  "
Caterpillar (see Papilio). ...  "
Catgut................  "
Cathari................681
Catharine (St.)..........682
--------of Arragon......  "
--------of Braganza.....684
--------of France.......682
--------de Medici.......683
--------I of Russia......584
-------- II............585
-------- Parr.......•.... 588
-------- Pawlowna......  "
Cat-Harpings............589
Cathedral..............  "
Catholic Emancipation.....  "
-------Majesty.........591 
 
 
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