J. ■ ■{" fs^i
''*$&&m>m~
V '-U

U^M
t 
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
Washington
Founded 1836
U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
             Public Health Serrice 
 
 
ENCYCLOPAEDIA  AMERICANA.
         POPULAR  DICTIONARY   ^   /O     >

                       of  c^4^ Wffr^ v y^r **'


ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE, HISTORY, POLITICS AND .q^  _

                   BIOGRAPHY,


          BROUGHT DOWN TO THE PRESENT TIME;


                     INCLUDING


    A COPIOUS COLLECTION  OF ORIGINAL ARTICLES
           AMERICAN BIOGRAPHY;

                       ON


THE BASIS OF THE SEVENTH  EDITION  OF THE GERMAN



      CONVERSATIONS-LEXICON.

                     EDITED BY
FRANCIS  LIEBER,
ASSISTED BY
E. WIGGLESWORTH AND T. G. BRADFORD.
Vol. XII.
                 iJf)t laticlrjfjta:

              CAREY  AND LEA.
SOLD IN PHILADELPHIA BY E. L. CAREY AND A. HART—IN NEW YORK
         BY G. &. C. & H. CARVILL—IN BOSTON BY
               CARTER & HENDEE.
1832. 
        Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1832, by

                        Carkt and Lea,

In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
Mc_}.ri-«;t.
 At
r
t£*+ 
ENCYCLOPEDIA   AMERICANA.
Steuben, Frederic William  Augustus,
baron von ; a distinguished Prussian offi-
cer, who attached  himself to the Ameri-
can cause in the revolution of 1776.  He
had been aid-de-camp to Frederic the
Great, and had attained the rank of lieu-
tenant-general in his army.  Sacrificing
his honors and emoluments in Europe,
Steuben came to America in 1777, and
tendered his services to congress, as a vol-
unteer  in their army,  widiout  claiming
any rank or compensation.  He received
the thanks of that body, and joined the
main army  under  the  commander-in-
chief at Valley Forge.  Baron Steuben
soon rendered himself  particularly useful
to  the  Americans, by disciplining  the
forces.  On the recommendation of gen-
eral Washington, congress, in May, 1778,
appointed the baron inspector-general of
the army, with the rank of major-general.
His efforts in this capacity were continu-
ed  with remarkable diligence,  until  he
had placed  the troops in a situation to
withstand the enemy.  In the  estimates
of  the  war  office, 5000  extra muskets
were generally allowed for waste and de-
struction in the army;  but such was the
exact order under the superintendence of
Steuben, that in his inspection return, but
three muskets were deficient,  and those
accounted for.  A  complete scheme  of
exercise and discipline, which  he com-
posed, was adopted  in the army by the
direction of congress.  He possessed the
right of command in the line, and at one
period was at the head  of a separate de-
t ichment in Virginia.   At the  battle  of
Monmouth,  he was  engaged as a volun-
teer.  When reviewing the troops, it was
his  constant  custom  to reward  the disci-
plined soldier with praise, and to pass se-
vere censure wpon the negligent.   Nu-
merous anecdotes  are related illustrative
of the  generosity, purity and kindness of
his disposition.  After the treacherous de-
fection of Arnold, the baron held his name
in the utmostabhorrence. One day, he was
inspecting a regiment of light horse, when
that name struck his ear.  The man was
ordered to the front, and presented an ex-
cellent  appearance.  Steuben told him
that  he was too respectable  to bear the
name of a traitor ; and at his  request the
soldier ad6pted that of the baron, whose
bounty  he afterwards  experienced, and
brought up a son by the same name.  At
the siege of Yorktown,  baron Steuben
was in  the trenches at  the head of a di-
vision,  where he  received the first offer
of lord  Cornwallis  to capitulate.   The
marquis de la Fayette appeared to relieve
him in the morning ; but, adhering to the
European etiquette, the baron would not
quit his post until the surrender was com-
pleted  or hostilities recommenced.   The
matter being referred to  general Wash-
ington, the baron was suffered to remain
in the  trenches till the  enemy's flag was
struck.  After the  capture of Cornwallis,
when the superior American officers were
paying  every attention  to  their captives,
Steuben sold his, favorite horse in order to
raise money to  give an entertainment to
the British officers, as  the other major-
generals had previously done.   His watch
he had previously disposed of to relieve the
wants of a sick friend.  On another occa-
sion, when he desired to reciprocate the in-
vitations of the French officers, he ordered
his people to sell his silver spoons and forks,
saying  it was anti-republican to make use
of such things, and adding, that the gentle-
men should have one good dinner if he ate 
4
STEUBEN—STEWARD.
his meals with a wooden spoon  for ever
after.  Steuben continued in the army till
the close of the war, perfecting its disci-
pline.   The silence and  dexterity of his
movements  surprised  the French  allies.
He possessed the particular esteem of gen-
eral Washington, who took eveiy proper
opportunity  to recommend him  to con-
gress ; from which body he received several
sums of money, that were chiefly expend-
ed in acts of charity, or in rewarding the
good conduct of the soldiers.
  Upon  the disbandment of the conti-
nental  army at Newburgh, many  affec-
tionate bonds,  formed  amidst the danger
and hardships  of a long and arduous ser-
vice, were to be broken asunder for ever.
At this season  of distress, the benevolent
Steuben exerted himself to alleviate the
forlorn condition of many.  He gave his
last dollar to a wounded black, to  procure
him a passage  home.  Peace being estab-
lished, the baron retired to a farm in the
vicinity of New York, where, in the socie-
ty of his friends, and the amusements of
books and chess, he passed his  time as
comfortably  as his exhausted purse would
allow.   The state  of  New Jersey  had
given him a  small farm, and that of New
York 10,000 acres  of land in the county
of  Oneida.    The  exertions  of  colonel
Hamilton and general Washington sub-
sequently procured him  an annuity  of
$2500, from the general government.  He
built a  log house, and cleared 60 acres of
his  tract of land, a portion of which he
partitioned out, on  easy terms, to twenty
or thirty  tenants, and distributed nearly
a tenth among his  aid-de-camps and ser-
vants.  In this situation he lived content-
edly, until the year 1795, when an apo-
plectic  attack put an end to his life, in his
sixty-fifth year.  An abstract of his sys-
tem of military manoeuvres was published
in 1779.  The year preceding his death,
he published a letter on the established
militia  and military arrangements.  (For
further  information  concerning baron
Steuben, see Johnson's  Life of Greene,
Thatcher's Journal, Garden's Anecdotes.)
  Steubenville, a flourishing post-town
of Ohio, on Ohio river, is the seat of jus-
tice for Jefferson county.  It was laid out
in 1798, with  streets crossing each other
at right  angles.   In 1810,  it contained
800 inhabitants; in 1817, 2032; and in
1830, 2937.  It is 147 miles east by north
from Columbus, and thirty-eight west of
Pittsburg;  lat. 40°23 N. ; Ion.  80° 35'
W.   It contains three churches, a market-
house, a woollen factory,—the machinery
of which  is moved by steam,—a steam
paper-mill, and  a flour and cotton fac-
tory,  also moved by steam.  There are
two printing-offices, an  academy, two
banks, the county buildings, and  many
shops for mechanics and traders.   The
country around it, on the Virginia as well
as the Ohio side of the river, is rich and
populous.
  Stevens, George Alexander, a whim-
sical and eccentric character, was bora in
London, and brought up to a  mechanical
business, which he quitted to become a
strolling  player.  In 1751, he published
a poem entitled Religion, or the Libertine
Repentant, which was succeeded, in 1754,
by the Birthday of Folly.   These were
followed  by a novel called  Tom  Fool,
and the Dramatic History of  Master Ed-
ward  and Miss  Ann.  He subsequently
invented his entertainment, called a Lec-
ture on Heads, which possessed no small
portion of drollery, and became very pop-
ular.  Several of his songs have also been
much admired.
  Stevens, Edward, an officer in  the
American revolution, was a native of Vir-
ginia.   At the  battle of the great bridge,
near Norfolk, he commanded a battalion
of riflemen.   Soon afterwards,  he was
made  a colonel.  At the battle of Brandy-
wine,  he was greatly instrumental in sav-
ing the American forces, and received the
public thanks of the commander-in-chief.
He  was honored in the  same way for his
behavior  at the  battle  of  Germantown.
He  was soon  afterwards intrusted with
the  command of a brigade, and despatch-
ed to the southern army.  He evinced his
wonted gallantry in the battle of Camden.
In that of Guilford court-house, he re-
ceived a severe wound  in his thigh; but,
before quitting the field, he brought off his
troops in  good  order.  He closed his mil-
itary  career at the siege of Yorktown.
From the foundation of the  state consti-
tution until the year 1790, he  was a prom-
inent member of the senate  of Virginia.
He  died in August, 1820.
  Steward.   The lord high steward of
England  was  formerly an  officer who
had the supervision and regulation, next
under the king, of all affairs of the realm,
both civil and  military.  The office was
hereditary, belonging to the earls of Lei-
cester until forfeited to Henry III.  (See
Montfort.)  The power of this officer was
so great, that the office has for a long time
only been  granted for some particular act,
as the trial of a peer on indictment for
a capital  offence, the solemnization of a
coronation, &c.  The lord high steward
is the firet  of the nine great  officers 
STEWARD—STEWART.
5
of the crown.—The lord steward  of the
household is the chief officer of the king's
household: his authority extends over all
officers and servants of the royal house-
hold except those of the chamber, chapel
and stable.  Under the lord steward, in
the counting-house, are  the treasurer of
the household, cofferer, controller, clerks
of the green cloth, &c.   It is called the
counting-house because the household ac-
counts are kept in it.   (See Courts.)
  Stewaro, in naval  affairs, is an  officer
in a ship of war, appointed by the  purser
to distribute the different species of  pro-
visions to the officers and crew.
  Stewart, sir James Denham, an emi-
nent  political  writer,  was born at  Edin-
burgh, Oct. 10,1713.   His father was so-
licitor-general of Scotland.  After having
been admitted to the bar, he travelled on
the  continent  five years, and  formed an
intimacy with the  Pretender, whom he
aided in his attempt  in  1745.  On the
failure of that attempt, Stewart retired to
France, and, in 1755, to Flanders.  Here
he  published  a  Vindication of Newton's
Chronology, a Treatise on German  Coins,
and a Dissertation  on the Doctrine  and
Principles  of Money.  He returned to
Scotland in 1763, where  he was allowed
to remain unmolested, and concluded his
Inquiry  into the Principles  of  Political
Economy—a work of much research and
acuteness, though the  style and method
are imperfect. He obtained a full pardon
in 1771, and afterwards published various
works of a philosophical and politico-eco-
nomical  character.  His complete  works
were published  in 1805 (in 6 vols., 8vo.).
He died in 1780.
  Stewart, Dugald,  was  born  in 1753,
and was the son of doctor Matthew Stew-
art, professor of mathematics in  the  uni-
versity of Edinburgh.  He was educated
at the high school,  and admitted,  at the
age of thirteen, as a student in the college,
under the tuition of doctor Blair and doc-
tor  Ferguson.  Such was the progress he
made, that, at the age of eighteen, he  was
appointed to  read lectures for his father,
which he continued to do till the death of
the latter.  In 1780, he received a num-
ber of pupils into his house, and, in 17>3,
visited the continent in company  with the
marquis of Lothian. When doctor Fergu-
son was sent to North  America on  a mis-
sion, Mr. Stewart taught his class in mor-
al philosophy during his absence; and, in
1785, when the professor  resigned,  Mr.
Stewartwas chosen to fill his chair,in which
he continued many years widi great rep-
utation. His Elements of the Philosophy
                 I*
of the Human Mind (1792) was succeed-
ed by Outlines of Moral Philosophy, for the
Use  of Sudents  (1793);  Doctor Adam
Smith's Essays on Philosophical Subjects,
with an Account of the Life and Writings
of the Author  (1801);  An  Account of
the Life and Writings of Doctor Robert-
son (1803);  An Account of the Life  and
Writings of Doctor Thomas Reid. The me
moirs of Smith, Reid and Robertson were
afterwards collected into one volume, with
additional notes.   In  the  election of a
mathematical professor  of the university
of Edinburgh,  Mr. Stewart was reflected
on for his conduct to the successful can-
didate, and he therefore thought proper to
publish a statement of facts relative to
that election  (1805).   In 1796, he again
took a number of pupils under his care;
and, besides adding a course of lectures
on political economy to the usual courses
of his chair, he repeatedly  supplied the
place of his colleagues in case of illness
or absence.   In  1806,  he accompanied
his friend, the earl of Lauderdale, on his
mission to Paris, and, in 1810, relinquish-
ed his professorship, and retired to Kin-
neil house, about twenty miles from  Ed-
inburgh, where he continued to reside till
his death,  June 11, 1828.  His publica-
tions subsequently to his  removal were
Philosophical Essays (1810); Dissertation
on the Progress of Metaphysical and Eth-
ical Philosophy, prefixed to the Supple-
ment to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (un-
fortunately rendered imperfect by the au-
thor's  ignorance of German philosophy,
and  left incomplete  in regard to ethical
philosophy—a deficiency partly supplied
by Mackintosh's Essay on the Progress of
Ethical Philosophy); a second volume of
the Philosophy of the Human Mind (1813),
with a continuation (1827); and the Phi-
losophy of the Active and Moral Powers
(1828).  Stewart was a man of extensive
and various  acquisition, but not of a pro-
found or original mind. As a writer, he is
too often heavy and prolix, though his style
is clear, pure and elaborate.  In philoso-
phy, he was a disciple of Reid, whose
method and  principles he  followed with
little deviation.  (See Philosophy.)
   Stewart,  John ;  commonly  called
Walking Stewart,  from  his pedestrian
feats; an eccentric individual, who wan-
dered, on foot,  over  a great part of the
habitable globe.  He  was born in Lon-
don, and, having received  the rudiments
of education  at the  Charter-house, was
sent  out, in  17(>3, as a writer to Madras.
Before he had been in that situation quiie
two years, he wrote a letter to the directors. 
6
STEWART—STIGMA.
telling them that he " was born for nobler
pursuits than to be a copier of invoices
and  bills of lading to a company of gro-
cers, haberdashers, and cheese-mongers;"
and  a few  weeks after, he took  his leave
of the presidency.  Prosecuting his route
over Hindoostan, he  walked to  Delhi, to
Persepolis, and other  parts of  Persia,
traversing the greater part of the  Indian
peninsula, and visiting Abyssinia and Nu-
bia.   Entering  the Carnatic, he  obtain-
ed the favor of the nabob, who made him
his private secretary ; and to this circum-
stance he, in his latter days, owed his sup-
port, the British house of commons voting
him  £15,000 in liquidation  of his  de-
mands upon the nabob.  Quitting the ser-
vice  of this prince, he  set out to walk to
Seringapatam, where Tippoo Saib compel-
led him to enter his army, with a commis-
sion  as captain of sepoys.   After serving
some time in this capacity, sir James Sib-
bald, the  commissioner for settling the
terms of peace between the presidency
and  the sultan, procured  his liberation.
Stewart then started to walk  to Europe,
crossing the desert of Arabia, and arriv-
ing at length safely at Marseilles. Thence
he   proceeded,  in  the  same  manner,
through France and Spain, to his native
country;  and,  having walked through
England, Scotland and  Ireland, he cross-
ed the Atlantic, and perambulated the U.
States of  America.  The  last ten years
of his life were passed  in London, where
he died in 1822.
  Stewart,  Robert,  marquis  of Lon-
donderry.  (See Londonderry.)
  Stewart, Gilbert,  an eminent portrait
painter,was born at Newport, Rhode Island,
in 1757,  gave  early  manifestations  of
his fondness for the  pencil, and was sent
to London, where he  was placed under
the care of Benjamin West. In the execu-
tion of portraits, the pupil soon surpassed
the master. In 1784, he was established as
one of the first portrait painters of London,
and had, in the exhibition of that  year, sev-
eral full lengths of distinguished individ-
uals.  He lived elegantly and gayly ; but
it is  believed  that,  notwithstanding  his
great success, he was obliged, by pecuniary
distresses, to remove  to Dublin.  In 1790,
he returned to his native  country,  from
which he  never again departed.   He  re-
sided successively in New  York, Phila-
delphia and its neighborhood, Washing-
ton,  and  last in  Boston, continuing to
paint with unabated  power, although  for
years racked by the gout.   Soon after his
return to  America, he painted the best
portrait of Washington.   The  head  he
carefully finished, but never completed the
remainder.  He made several copies, all
varying from the original.   His death oc-
curred at Boston, in July, 1828; and such
of his works as could be  collected were
exhibited for the benefit  of his family.
Mr. Stewart was  gifted with uncommon
colloquial powers, and lus genius for por-
trait painting was of the highest order.
  Sthenic Diseases. (See Brown, John.)
  Stheno ; one of  the Gorgons. (q. v.)
  Stichomanct (from <-*-'x<>f, a line, verse,
and uavrtia,  prophecy); a kind of divina-
tion, in  use  even among  the  Romans.
Verses fromthe Sibylline Books (q. v.) were
written on small slips of  paper, which
were shaken in a vessel, and one of them
was drawn out, in order to discover some
intimation of future events.  Something
similar has often been practised by Chris-
tians, putting a  pin at hazard between the
leaves  of a  closed Bible.   The verse
which  was  pointed out served as an ora-
cle.  Even at the present time, this is not
unfrequentlydoneby the superstitious; and
some sects even resort to it for guidance
on important occasions. (See Bihliomancy.)
  Stick,  Gold ; an  officer  of  superior
rank in the English  life-guards, so called,
who is in immediate attendance upon the
king's person.   When his  majesty gives
either of his regiments of life-guards to
an officer, he presents him with a gold
stick.   The colonels of the two regiments
wait alternately month and month.  The
one on duty is  then called gold stick in
waiting; and all orders relating to the life-
guards are transmitted through him.  Dur-
ing that month he commands the brigade,
receives all reports,and communicates them
to the king.—Silver stick: the field officer
of the life-guards when on duty is so called.
  Stigma (Greek);  with the Greeks and
Romans, a mark impressed with a hot iron
on the foreheads  of slaves who had run
away or committed theft.   The Greeks
used a <p, signifying $ivktoc  (fugiendus)
or QevicriKos (runaway), and  the  Romans
an F, signifying/ur orfngitivus.  A black
coloring substance was put in the wound.
Such slaves were called sligmatici, inscrip-
ti, literati, irr.y/.<ma., onyiavtf.  The Sami-
ans, who freed many slaves, and  admitted
them  to office, were called, in  derision,
noXvypa/iiiaToi, literati.  This name,  how-
ever, may have  had another origin, as
many believe.   Prisoners  of war  were
also  branded,  as the slave-traders now
brand the negroes with the marks of their
several owners.   (See Slavery.)   Recruits
also were burned in the hand, generally
with the name  of the general.  This was 
STIGMA—STILLINGFLEET.
7
not considered a disgrace.  In some coun-
tries,  criminals sentenced to the galleys
are branded in a sunilar way to this day.
  Stiles, Ezra, a president  of Yale col-
lege,  was the son of the reverend Isaac
Stiles, of North Haven, Connecticut.  I le
graduated in that institution in 1746, with
the reputation of being one of the greatest
scholars it had ever produced.  He then
studied  law," but  subsequently  devoted
himself to theology, and settled at New-
port,  as  pastor of the  Second church,
where he continued from 1755 to 1776.
During this and several succeeding years,
the enemy were in possession of New-
port,  and the inhabitants of the  town
scattered.  Doctor Stiles was  solicited to
preach in several places : he accepted the
invitation from the church at Portsmouth,
where he was looked up to with great ad-
miration.   In 1788, he was chosen presi-
dent  of Yale college, and  continued to
adorn that station, by his great learning,
abilities and piety, until his death, May
12, 1795, in the  sixty-eighth year of  his
age.  In person doctor Stiles was small,
but well proportioned.  His countenance
was expressive of benignity and mildness,
and his manners were amiable and kind.
He had  a  thorough knowledge of the
Hebrew,  Greek and  Latin, and French
languages;  in the Samaritan, Chaldee,
Syriac and Arabic he had made consid-
erable progress, and had bestowed some
attention on the Persian and  Coptic.   He
was well versed  in  most  branches  of
mathematical knowledge.  He had a thor-
ough acquaintance with  the rabbinical
writings, and with those of the fathers of
the Christian church.  Sacred literature
was his favorite study; and  next to it he
most  delighted in  astronomy.   As a
preacher, he was impressive  and eloquent
in a high degree : the intrinsic excellence
of his sermons was enhanced by the  en-
ergy of his delivery.  He  published vari-
ous discourses,  among which  was  an
election  sermon,  entitled  The United
States elevated  to  Glory  and  Honor,
preached  May 8, 1783.  He  also wrote a
history of the three judges  of Charles I
(Whalley, Goffe and Dixwell), and left an
unfinished ecclesiastical history of New
England, and more than, forty volumes of
manuscripts.
   Stilicho ; a Vandalic  general,  in  the
service  of the emperor Theodosius  the
Great, whose niece Serena he married.
Theodosius  having bequeathed the em-
pire of the East to his son Arcadius, and
that of the West to his second son, Hono-
rius,  the  former was left under the care
of Rufinus, and the latter under the guar-
dianship of Stilicho.   (See Western Em-
pire.)   No sooner was  Theodosius  no
more, than Rufinus stirred up *an invasion
of the Goths in order to procure the sole
dominion, which  Stilicho put down, and
effected the destruction of his rival. After
suppressing a revolt in Africa, he marched
against Alaric, whom he signally defeated
at Pollentia.  After this, in 406, he repel-
led an invasion of barbarians, who pene-
trated  into Italy under Rhadagasius,  a
Hun or Vandal leader, who formerly ac-
companied Alaric, and produced the en-
tire destruction both  of the force and its
leader.  Either from motives of policy or
state  necessity,  he then  entered into a
treaty  with  Alaric,  whose  pretensions
upon the  Roman  treasury for a subsidy
he warmly supported.   This conduct ex-
cited suspicion of his  treachery on the
part of Honorius, who massacred all his
friends during his absence.  He received
intelligence of this fact at the camp  of
Bologna,  whence he was obliged to flee
to Ravenna.  He took shelter in a church,
from which he was inveigled by a solemn
oath, that no harm was intended him, and
conveyed to immediate execution, which
he endured in a manner worthy his great
military character.  Stilicho was charged
with the design of dethroning Honorius,
in order to advance his son Eucherius in
his place ;  and the memoiy of this distin-
guished captain has been  treated by the
ecclesiastical historians with  great severi-
ty.   Zosimus, however, although  other-
wise unfavorable to him, acquits him  of
the treason which was laid to his charge ;
and he will live in the poetry of Claudian
as the most distinguished commander of
his age.   (See Gibbon's Decline and Fall,
ch. 29 and 30.)
   Still.   (See Distillation.)
   Stilling.   (See Jung.)
   Stillingfleet,  Edward,  bishop  of
Worcester, was born in 1635, and receiv-
ed  his education at  St.  John's college,
Cambridge, where he was elected,in 1653,
to the first fellowship that became vacant
after he had taken his bachelor's degree.
His chief work,  Origines  Sacree,  or a
Rational Account of Natural and Reveal-
ed  Religion, is esteemed for  the erudition
which it displays.  It was followed (1664)
by a  treatise On the Origin  and Nature
of  Protestantism.  Having distinguished
himself by the prominent part which he
took  previous  to  the  revolution, against
the establishment of the Romish church
in  England, he was  elevated to the see
of  Worcester by William III.   Besides 
8
ST1LLINGFLEET—STIRIA.
the writings enumerated, he was the au-
thor of an appendix to Tillotson's  Rule
of Faith (1676); the Unreasonableness of
Separatiorf (1683); and  Origines Britan-
nicee, or Antiquities of the Churches in
Britain (folio, 1685). A short time before
his death, bishop Stillingfleet engaged in
a  controversy with  Locke,  respecting
some part of that philosopher's writings,
which he  conceived had a  leaning  to-
wards materialism.  His death took place
in 1(399.  His  works have been collected
and published entire, in six foho volumes
(1710).
  Still Life, in painting; the represen-
tation of inanimate  objects, such as  dead
animals (game,  fishes,  &c), furniture,
sometimes with fruits and flowers in ad-
dition.  The interest of such representa-
tions can consist only in the form, group-
ing and light; hence the pictures  of still
life belong to the lowest species of painting.
But some scenes of still life are ofa higher
order than others.  The object  of the
lowest kind is merely to produce a close
imitation of nature.  A  higher kind com-
bines objects so as to form an interesting
whole; and the  highest employs the ob-
jects only to express a  poetical idea, as
in representing the  room of a painter, a
table with Christinas presents, the game
ofa hunter returned from his  day's sport.
All these  may be  so represented  as to -
have  a poetical character, by remind-
ing us of the individuals with  whom
they are associated.  The Dutch painters
Van iElst, John Fyt, Francis Sneyders,
David Koning, John Weeninx, Melchior
Hondekoeter,  William  Kalf, and  Van
Streeck, are distinguished  for the repre-
sentation of still  life.
  Stimulants are all  those  medicinal
substances, which,  applied either exter-
nally or internally, have the property  of
accelerating the pulse and quickening the
vital actions.   They are among the most
valuable and important of medicines, and
perhaps are more often the direct means
of saving  life  than any others.  But as
they are powerful, their  injurious effects,
when misapplied, have been even more
prejudicial to mankind  than their best
use has been beneficial. ' In fact, it  may
be said, that the abuse of this one class of
medicines, under the  names of cardiacs,
cordials,  alexipharmics, &c, was  the
cause  of more numerous deaths during
the dark ages of medicine, than the sword
and the pestilence united.  The dreadful
mortality of the  small-pox and of fevers
during the middle ages, and even during
the earlier parts of the last century, were
mainly  owing  to the administration, by
nurses and physicians, of strong cordials,
and heating stimulants of all  sorts, the
tendency of all of which was to increase
the violence of the disease, although they
were intended  merely to expel the nox-
ious and poisonous humors from the sys-
tem.  But, happily for mankind, a more
cautious use of these articles  has  been
introduced, and they are now the constant
means of preserving, when properly ap-
plied, the life which  they were formerly
so quick to destroy.  Stimulants are either
simple and  direct in their  operation,  as
the  external application of  heat in  all
forms, dry  and moist,  by friction, &c,
the  application  to the  stomach  of hot
liquors, spices, camphor, hartshorn, warm
and aromatic gums and  oils, as mint, car-
damom, cajeput, ginger, assafoetida, red
pepper, spirits of turpentine, &c.; or they
act first as stimulants, but produce after-
wards effects of a different character, as
is  the case  with all  which are  termed
diffusible stimulants, as wine, brandy, and
spirits of  all sorts, opium,  &c, all  of
which are  highly stimulant at first, and in
small quantity, but afterwards, and when
taken in larger doses, produce exhaustion,
debility, sleep and death.  The first class
are, upon  the whole, the most safe, and
should be always used, in preference  to
the last, when they can be had, in all cases
of suspended animation, from cold, drown-
ing,  suffocation, &c.;   while the others
are more valuable for their secondary and
remote  effects,  by means of which  they
ease pain,  relieve spasm, &c.; and for
these purposes they should be used freely,
as they can do no hurt, while the violence
of the disease subsists.   But they should
never be resorted to, unless pain is urgent,
or debility become so  great  as to en-
danger life.
  Stink-Pot;  an earthen jar, charged
with powder, grenades, and other mate-
rials of an  offensive and  suffocating smell.
It is sometimes  used  by  privateers, to an-
noy  an enemy  whom  they  design  to
board.
  Stippling.  (See Engraving.)
  Stiria (in German, Steiermark); a prov-
ince of the Austrian empire, which takes
its name (see Marches) from the county of
Steier, in the Land above the Ens.  The
eastern  part was anciently a portion  of
Pannonia, the western of Noricum, which
were  conquered  by  the Romans at the
close of the last century  before the Chris-
tiar era.   The Avars afterwards occupi-
ed  t per Stiria, and the Veneti Lower
Stiria,  whence  the latter was called 
STIRIA—STOCK EXCHANGE.
9
the  Wendish  mark.   Charlemagne set
markgraves over it; and, as the counts of
Steier were  among the number, it hence
received the name of Steiermark.   It is
bounded north by the archduchy of Aus-
tria, east by Hungary, south by Carniola
and CarLnthia, and west by Carinthia and
Salzburg.  Population, 836,128 ;  square
miles,  8480.   Upper Stiria lies  to the
north, and is mountainous, consisting, in a
great measure, of a continuation  of  a
branch of the  Alps.   Lower Stiria  com-
prises the southern  part.   A number of
lateral branches  of the Alps extend into
Lower Stiria, but become gradually lower
as they remove from the main chain, till
they present nothing but small elevations.
There are, however, but few  extensive
plains.  The rivers are the Drave, Save,
Muhr and Ens.   The climate in the ele-
vated parts is cold, but the air is pure and
elastic;  the   soil, except  on  the  high
mountains, very  fertile, producing wheat,
oats, rye, potatoes, and in  warmer situa-
tions, wheat.   Great  attention  is paid to
raising  cattle,  and poultry is  abundant.
Agriculture is  in a backward state.  Stiria
abounds in  mineral productions.   The
iron mines  are  the most important, and
yield annually from 16,000 to 20,000 tons.
Salt and coal are  abundant.  Gold, silver
and copper hardly defray the expense of
working : lead is more common. Cobalt,
arsenic and  molybdena  are found.  The
manufactures are chiefly derived from the
mines.  The  exports consist  of metals,
corn,  flax,  wine, clover-seed  and cattle.
The Stirians have the hospitality, frank-
ness and pimple  habits of an agricultural
people; but they  are imperfectly educated,
though parish schools have been establish-
ed in the principal villages.  The major-
ity are Catholics, though the  Protestants
enjoy a full, and the Jews a limited, tole-
ration.  The chief town is Gratz.  (q. v.)
  Stirling, Lord.  (See Alexander, Wil-
liam.)
  Stith,  William, president of William
and Maiy college, Virginia, was born in
that province.  He embraced  the eccle-
siastical profession, and, in 1740, withdrew
from  the  laborious office which he  had
sustained in  the college.  He published a
history of the  first discovery and settle-
ment  of Virginia (Williamsburg,  8vo.,
1747).   It brings  down  the history only
to 1624.  An appendix contains a collec-
tion of charters  relating  to the  period
comprised in  the volume.  Besides die
copious materials of Smith, the author de-
rived assistance from the manuscripts of
his uncle,  sir John Randolph,  and  from
the records of the London company, put
into his hands by colonel William Byrd,
president of  the council, and from the
valuable library of this  gentleman.   Mr.
Stith was a man of classical learning, and
a faithful historian; but  he was destitute
of taste in style, and  his details are ex-
ceedingly minute.
  Stoa. (See  Stoics.)
  Stoat.   (See Ermine.)
  Stob-eds, John, the name of a Green
writer, who, about the middle of the fifth
century, was  the author of a  variety of
miscellaneous works, most of which have
perished;  but his collection of excerpts
from  those of various philosophers  and
poets, has come down  to posterity, and
is important, from  the fragments of lost
authors which it contains.  It consists
of  four books, of which the third  and
fourth form a separate work; and its ex-
tracts are important contributions  to the
history of philosophy.   The best edition
is that of Heeren (Gottingen, 1792—1801,
4 vols.).
  Stock Exchange ; originally the build-
ing, in London, where the stock brokers
assemble to transact their  business.  It
was erected  in 1804, in consequence of
the inconvenience to which they were
subjected, and the general interruption of
public business, occasioned  by the stock-
jobbers,  who intermingled with  them
when they transacted business in the bank
rotunda. No person is allowed to act here
but regular stock brokers, who are balloted
for annually.  The name is also applied in
general to the place where the same busi-
ness is transacted in other cities. The great
stock exchanges of Europe are those of
Amsterdam,  London,  Paris, and Frank-
fort on the  Maine, which decide the price
of  stocks in all the  rest of the world.
Those of Petersburg, Berlin and Vienna
are of much  less importance.  We have
given an account of the 6tocks of differ-
ent countries in the article Public Stocks:
we shall here give a view of the manner
of creating, purchasing, and transferring
stock,  as practised  in  London.    New
loans are paid at stated periods, by instal-
ments of 10 or 15 per cent., and the terms
on which they are  made generally occa-
sion an increase  on  different kinds of
stock, to the amount of three per cent.
and upwards (according to the emergency
and state of the money market) more
than the sum borrowed.  Thus, for every
hundred pounds capital, new stock is cre-
ated to the amount of one  hundred and
three pounds.  The  difference is called
the bonus,  and the  aggregate of the ad- 
10
STOCK EXCHANGE—STOCK-JOBBING.
ditional stock of different kinds is termed
omnium.   If these  be disposed of sepa-
rately, before all the instalments are paid,
the  different  articles are called scrip,
which is an abbreviation of subscription.
The value of the stocks is  perpetually
fluctuating, the variations being occasion-
ed by unfounded as well  as  real causes.
Any occurrence by which  the  security
of the state is either hazarded or strength-
ened, though  one  may  he  as  imagi-
nary  as  the  other, has  an   immediate
effect upon  the price, which will  ad-
vance or fall  as the  news may be con-
sidered good or otherwise.  The  gaining
of a victory, the signing of an armistice,
and the conclusion of a peace, have each
a direct  influence  on  the  rise  of  the
stocks; whilst,  on  the other hand,  the
loss of a battle, the death of a sovereign,
the commencement  and  protraction  of
war, are  equally certain to  lower  the
funds; even  the mere  report of a mo-
mentous  event will frequently lead to a
considerable  alteration  of price.   The
quantity of stock in the market will also
either  depreciate or  raise the value, as
purchasers may be  more  or less  nu-
merous.  The manner  of buying stock
is, to give  a  specific  number of pounds
for a nominal hundred pounds.  Thus, if
the purchase be  made  in the three  per
cents., and the  current price be eighty
pounds, that sum is paid for one hundred
pounds stock, which yields a dividend of
three pounds  per annum.  Persons con-
versant in these things will sometimes ob-
tain  a considerable advantage by trans-
ferring stock  from one branch  of  the
funds  to  another, the variations in the
value of the  different  stocks not being
always adjusted to their  proper level.
Every possible degree of facility,  consist-
ent with prudence, is given  to the pur-
chase and  sale  of stocks; yet the inter-
vention of  a stock broker is generally
thought requisite, as  the identity of the
persons  making the  transfer must  be
vouched for, before the witnessing clerk
will allow his signature to be  made in the
bank books.   All transfers of stock are
made on the appointed transfer days ; and
no stock can be transferred twice on the
same day. The space between the shutting
and opening the books of any stock is usu-
ally about six weeks. (See Stock-Jobbing.)
  Stock-Fish.  (See  Cod, vol. hi., p. 288.)
  Stock-Jobbing.  The practice to which
the term stock-jobbing is more particularly
applicable, is that which is  carried  on
amongst persons who possess but little
or no property  in any of the funds, yet
who contract for  the  sale or transfer of
stock at some future period, the latter
part of the day, or the next settling day,
at a price  agreed  on at the  time.  Such
bargains are called time bargains, and are
contrary to law; and this practice is gam-
bling, in every sense  of the word.  The
business of jobbing is carried  on to  an
amazing extent, and is of this character:
—A. agrees  to sell B. £10,000  of bank
stock, to be transferred in twenty days,
for £12,000.  A.,  in fact, does not possess
any  such  property; yet if  the price  of
bank stock on the day appointed for the
transfer should be  only £118 per cent.,
he may then  purchase as much as will
enable him to fulfil his bargain for £11,800;
and thus he would gain £200 by the trans-
action.  Should the price of bank stock
advance to  125 per cent, he will then
lose £500 by completing his agreement.
As neither A. nor B., however, may have
the  means to purchase stock to the  extent
agreed on, the business is commonly  ar-
ranged by the payment of the difference—
the  profit or the  loss—between the cur-
rent price of the stock on the day appoint-
ed and  the  price bargained for.   In the
language  of the  alley, as it is  called in
London (all dealings in the stocks having
been formerly transacted in 'Change  al-
ley), the buyer in these contracts  is de-
nominated a bull, and the seller a bear.  As
neither  party can be  compelled to com-
plete these bargains (they being illegal),
their own sense of " honor," the disgrace,
and the loss of future credit, that  attend
a breach of contract,  are the sole princi-
ples on which this singular business is
regulated.   When a person refuses, or
has not the ability  to  pay his  loss, he is
termed a lame duck,* but this dpprobrious
epithet  is not bestowed on those whose
failure  is owing to  insufficient  means,
provided they make the same surrender of
their property voluntarily, as  the  law
would have compelled had the transac-
tion fallen within its  cognizance.  This
illegal practice is nothing more  than  a
wager as  to  what  will be  the price of
stocks at a fixed  period; but the facility
which it  affords  to extravagant and un-
principled speculation, and the mischief
and ruin which have frequently followed
it, determined the legislature to lay a pen-
alty of £500 on every  person  making
such time bargains ; and the like sum on
all  brokers, agents and scriveners  em-
ployed  in transacting or writing the said
contracts.  By the same statute also (7
Geo. II, ch. 8), a similar penalty  is im-
posed upon all persons contracting for the 
STOCK-JOBBING—STOCKINGS.
11
sale of stock, of which they are not possess-
ed at the time of such bargain; and £100 on
every broker or agent employed in procur-
ing the said bargain. (See Stock Exchange.)
  Stockbridge; a  post-towii of Berk-
shire  county, Massachusetts,  on  both
sides of the Housatonic.  The river runs
nearly west through this town, and then
turns  to the  south.  The intervals are
very rich,  and well cultivated.  There
are some  factories on the  river.   It is a
very pleasant town, about 130 miles west
of Boston, on  the mail route from Spring-
field to Albany.   Population in 1830,
1580.    Here was the residence  of the
Stockbridge tribe of Indians, till they re-
moved  to New Stockbridge,  near the
Oneidas, in New York, in 1775.   This
town  suffered severely from the attacks
of the Indians in 1754—5.
   Stockholm ; the capital of Sweden,
and the handsomest city  in the north of
Europe, situated  at the  junction of the
lake Malar with an inlet of the Baltic ;
Ion. 18° 4' E.;  lat.  59°  21'  N.;  popu-
lation in  1826,  79,526.   Stockholm  is
generally described as standing  on seven
islands,  but is chiefly built on three, of
which the small one in the centre consti-
tuted the original city, and is still the most
busy part of the town, and the  residence
of the principal  merchants.  The Norr-
malm and Sodermalm, the two principal
suburbs, occupy  several islands.   The
form  of the  city is an  oblong, and its
situation is extremely picturesque, as well
from  the mixture of land and water as
from  the unevenness of the ground on
which it  is built.  The view  from the
higher grounds  embraces edifices of all
sorts,  and vessels  at anchor,  or sailing
across the channels, and is terminated by
mountains, with  a variety of romantic
scenery.   Constantinople is perhaps the
only city  of Europe which surpasses  it
in situation.   There are thirteen stone
bridges, and several of wood.  The houses
in  the  central  part are  of  stone  or
brick, covered with plaster, of four or five
stories, with  their foundations on piles,
but in the suburbs of only one  or two
stories, and partly of wood.  Among the
public buildings are the royal palace, the
palace or house  for the nobility  of the
diet, arsenal, bank, royal stables,  ware-
house for iron, hospitals, and twenty-four
churches, eighteen of which are Luther-
an.  The  royal  palace is a large  quad-
rangular edifice,  the  lower part  of the
walls  of polished granite, the upper part
of brick, covered with stucco, and is ac-
counted second to no palace  in Europe,
except that at  Versailles.  The literary
associations are  numerous and  respecta-
ble ;  the principal are the academy of
sciences, founded in 1739, having a mu-
seum, library, an  observatory,  and  160
members ; the Swedish academy, founded
in 1786, for improving the Swedish lan-
guage, having  eighteen  members;  the
academy of fine arts, history and antiqui-
ties ; the military academy,  academy for
painting  and sculpture, and for  music,
and the  medical college.  The royal li-
brary contains about 50,000 volumes, and
there are several important private collec-
tions.   Stockholm is the  mercantile em-
porium  of the  eastern part of Sweden.
The  harbor is of great  depth, and so ca-
pacious that  1000 vessels may lie here in
safety ; and the largest  come close up to
the quays.   The number of vessels that
enter  annually  is, on an  average, about
1000.   The  chief exports are  iron and
steel, also  copper, pitch, tar, and timber ;
imports, colonial produce, wine, fruit, salt,
and British manufactures.  The  manu-
factures are various, but  not on a large
scale.  (See Sweden.)
   Stockings are made of only one thread,
entwined so as to form a species of tissue,
extremely elastic, and readily adapting it-
self to the part  it is  employed  to cover.
The tissue cannot be called cloth, for  it
has neither warp nor woof, but approach-
es it closely, and for the purposes to which
it is applied, is much superior.   It is well
known  that  the ancient Romans had
no particular covering for the  legs (see
Breeches);  but during the middle ages,
hose, or leggins, made of cloth, came into
use; and, at a later period, the art of knit-
ting  stockings was invented.   Very  dif-
ferent accounts are given of  the time  and
country of this important invention, some
attributing it to the Scots, and others deriv-
ing it from  Spain.   Woven  stockings
are manufactured by the machine called
stocking frame, which is  exceedingly in-
genious, but  too complex to  be  described
without  plates.    It  was invented   by
William Lee, of Nottinghamshire (Eng-
land), in 1589.  He met with little  en-
couragement in  his attempts to set up an
establishment in England,  but was in-
vited into France by Henry IV, and re-
ceived with great favor.  Henry's assassi-
nation soon  after interrupted  his pros-
pects, and he died in Paris in great pov-
erty.   A knowledge  of his machine was
carried back to England  by some of his
workmen, who established themselves in
Nottinghamshire, which  has since con-
tinued to  be the principal  seat  of the 
12                   STOCKINGS—STOICHIOMETRY.
manufacture.  For near 200 years, few
improvements were made on Lee's inven-
tion, and two men were usually employed
on one  frame ;  but it  has recently been
much improved, and adapted also  to the
manufacture  of ribbed stockings.  (See
Beckmann's History of Inventions, iv, arti-
cle Knitting  Netts and Stockings.)
  Stocks ; a wooden  machine used  to
put the legs  of offenders in, for the  re-
straining of disorderly  persons, or as a
punishment for certain offences.
  Stocks, Pcblic  (See Public Stocks.)
  Stockton, Richard,  a  signer of  the
Declaration of  Independence, was born
near Princeton, Oct. 1,1730, of an ancient
and respectable family.   After graduating
at the college of New Jersey, in 1748, he
commenced the study of the law, and, be-
ing admitted to  the bar in due time, soon
attained great eminence as an advocate.
In 1766, he crossed the Atlantic, and spent
two years in making the tour of England,
Scotland and Ireland. When in London,
he was consulted on American affairs by
various  distinguished  persons, including
the marquis of Rockingham  and the earl
of Chatham, and at Edinburgh  was com-
plimented with  a  public dinner, by the
authorities, and the  freedom of the city.
On his return to  New Jersey, in 1768, he
was appointed one of the royal judges of
the province, and a member of the execu-
tive council.  At the time when the rev-
olutionary struggle commenced, his pros-
pects from  the  royal  favor were very
bright; but he sided zealously with those
of his countrymen who were determined
on independence, and, June 21,1776, was
chosen, by the provincial congress of the
colony, a delegate to the general congress
then sitting at  Philadelphia, where  he
discharged numerous, and often arduous,
duties with unwearied  energy and  fideli-
ty.   At first, he is  understood to  have
entertained some doubts as to the expedi-
ency of the declaration of independence at
the time when it was made; but they were
soon dissipated, and he  spoke  in its  be-
half.  Nov. 30 of the same year, he was
taken prisoner by a party of refugee roy-
alists, who dragged him from his bed at
night, and carried him to New York.  In
the way thither he  was treated with great
indignity, and in the city he  was thrown
into the common  prison, where he was
deprived of even the necessaries of life.
When intelligence of his capture and suf-
ferings reached congress, that body passed
a resolution,  directing  general Washing-
ton to  make immediate inquiry into  the
truth of the report, and, if he found reason
to believe  it,  to send a flag to general
Howe,  remonstrating against  this de-
parture  from  the  humane procedure
which had marked the  conduct of the
states  to prisoners who  had fallen into
then* hands, and to know of him whether
he chose that  this should be the future
rule for treating prisoners.   Mr.  Stockton
was  at length released; but the shock
given to his constitution by the hardships
of his  confinement  was  mortal.   His
health gradually declined, and, after lan-
guishing for several  years, he  died  at
Princeton, Feb. 28, 1781, in the fifty-first
year of his age.
  Stoddard,  Solomon,  pastor of the
church of Northampton,  was  born  at
Boston, in 1643, and graduated at Harvard
college in 1662, of which  he was subse-
quently made a fellow.  Intense applica-
tion having impaired  his health, he went
to Barbadoes  as chaplain to  governor
Serle,  and  preached  to the  dissenters in
that island for  nearly two years.  On his
return, he was invited to take charge of
the church of Northampton, and was or-
dained Sept 11, 1672.  In  this place he .
continued until his death, Feb.  11, 1729,
in the eighty-sixth year of his age.  Mr.
Stoddard is considered one of the greatest
divines of New England.   His sermons
were plain, but powerfully searching and
argumentative.   He was a man of learn-
ing, and particularly able in controversy.
He waged a polemical contest with doc-
tor Increase Mather respecting the Lord's
supper, maintaining that the sacrament
was a converting ordinance, and that all
baptized persons, not  scandalous in life,
may lawfully approach the table, though
they know themselves to be unconverted,
or destitute of true religion;  and most of
the churches of Connecticut were induced
by his arguments to coincide in his senti-
ments.  His diligence was  so  unremit-
ting that he left a considerable number of
sermons which he had never preached;
and so fine was his hand-writing, that one
hundred and  fifty of  his discourses are
contained in a small  duodecimo manu-
script volume, which may easily be carried
in the pocket.  He published various ser-
mons and treatises.
  STOicHiOMETRY(from oroixtiov,element,
original  matter).  The  article  Affinity,
Chemical, treats of the general principles
of chemical combinations and  solutions.
Neutrality is that state of solution of two
substances in which each  seems to have
lost  its  peculiar characteristics.  That
branch of chemical science which treats
of the proportions which the substances 
ST01CHIOM ETRY—STOICS.
13
must have, when they enter the state of
neutrality,  has been  called by modern
chemists stoichiometry.
  Stoics ; an ancient philosophical sect,
founded by Zeno, which received its name
from  the  oroa (porch or portico),  called
Pcecile (q.  v.), in Athens, where Zeno
taught his doctrines  (about B. C. 300).
Zeno (q. v.), a contemporary of Epicurus,
after  having studied the systems of the
Socratic, Cynic and  Academic schools,
opposed to scepticism views  resting on
rigorous moral principles.  Philosophy is,
according to him, the way to  wisdom;
wisdom itself is the knowledge of human
and divine things; and virtue is the appli-
cation of wisdom to life. The chief heads
of his doctrine—logic, physics and mor-
als—were  connected   into a  systematic
whole.  In logic, which he defined the sci-
ence of distinguishing truth and falsehood,
he made experience the basis of all knowl-
edge ; ideas, or conceptions, which, in all
respects, resemble their objects, he called
true, and the power of judging according
to principles, the mark ofa sound reason.
In his physics, he refers  to nature itself
for the highest standard of human duties,
and derives the  moral precepts from the
laws of the universe.  He assumes two un-
created  and eternal, but  material princi-
ples of all things—the passive matter, and
the active intelligence, or God, which re-
sides in matter, and animates it. The Deity
is the original intelligence, and of an ethe-
real, fiery nature:  he made the world, as
an organic whole, out  of matter and form,
by the separation of the elements; and* he
also rules the world, but  is limited in his
operations by unchangeable fate or the
necessary laws of nature.  The universe,
according to  Zeno, is penetrated by the
divine intelligence as  by a soul, and is
therefore living and rational, but destined
to be destroyed by fire.  He considers the
heavenly bodies, and the powers of nature,
ofa divine character, and  therefore admits
the worship of  several gods, and teaches
that their  connexion  with  men may be
beneficial to the latter. The human soul
he considers as produced by the union of
the creative fire with air, and endowed with
eight faculties—the five senses, the powers
of generation, speech, and reason : the lat-
ter, as the active principle, governs  the
whole soul. The ethics of the Stoics treats
the will of God (which also animates the
soul of man), or nature, as the source of the
moral law, which binds man  to aim at
divine perfection, since this only can lead
to a virtuous  life, harmonizing with God
and nature, which is the only true happi-
  VOL. XII.        2
ness.  Their practical maxim is, Follow na-
ture, live  according to nature, or, which
amounts to the  same  thing, Live in ac-
cordance with the laws of consistent rea-
son.  They considered virtue the highest
good, and vice the only evil; every thing
else is indifferent, or only relatively agree-
able or  disagreeable.   They call human
actions  honest, when  they have a  rea-
sonable foundation in the nature of the
agent; perfectly proper, and therefore ob-
ligatory, when good in themselves; inter
mediate or lawful, in so far as, indifferent in
themselves, they are expedient or allowa-
ble only in certain relations, but criminal
when they are  inconsistent with the rea-
son of the agent  Virtue they according-
ly explain as the true harmony of ma*
with  himself,  independent of reward or
punishment, to  be attained by  correct
moral judgment, and the mastery over the
passions and affections: this virtue  pre-
supposes the highest  inward tranquillity
and elevation (apathy) above the pleasures
and pains of sense ;  it makes  the wise
man not destitute of feeling, but invulner-
able, and  gives him a dominion over his
body  which permits even  suicide.  Vir-
tue, therefore, is represented chiefly under
the character  of self-denial.  Zeno,  and
his  celebrated  disciple  and  successor,
Cleanthus, both put themselves to death
at an advanced age, the  latter by starva-
tion.   Cleanthus, originally a  pugilist,
gave to the Stoic philosophy its distribu-
tion into dialectics, rhetoric, ethics, poli-
tics, physics and theology.   He enlarged
theology by his proof  of the existence of
God, and expressed his reverence of one
God in  his admirable Hymn, yet extant,
Cleanthi Hymnus (ed. Sturz, 1785); Chry-
sippus of  Soli (died 208 or 212 B. C), the
successor  of Cleanthus, carried logic and
dialectics  to  greater  perfection, and, in
physics, proved that the influence of fete,
or the necessary relation of things, neither
destroyed  the operation of divine provi-
dence nor the  free agency of man.   In
morals, he distinguished, like his prede-
cessors, a natural and  a positive law, and
derived  the latter from the mutual rela-
tions  of men,  as fellow-creatures of the
same nature.   His successors were Zeno,
Antipater  (both of Tarsus), Pananius  of
Rhodes, the pupil of Antipater, and Posi-
donius of Apamea, in  Syria, the disciple
of Panaetius.   Chrysippus, through his
writings, also exerted a  most important
influence upon  the  Roman philosophers,
among  whom  Seneca,  Epictetus,  and
Marcus  Aureiius (see Antoninus), were
Stoics.  They employed themselves prin- 
14
STOICS—STOMACH
cipally on practical questions ; and their
moral doctrines have so many points of
resemblance to those of Christianity, as to
have given rise to the opinion, that they
were  borrowed  from  the  latter.—See
Tiedemann's System der stoischen Philo-
sophie (Leipsic, 1776).
  Stola ; a garment worn by the Roman
women  in later times, they having origi-
nally worn the toga only,  like the men.
The stpla was a long tunic with  sleeves,
reaching to the  feet,  worn  both  by the
rich and  the  poor,  with  this difference
only, that the stola of the latter had but a
single gold  stripe, whilst  that  of the
former had  stripes of gold and  purple,
and at  the  bottom  a broad border or
fringe, called instita.  Public women, and
those who had been found guilty of adul-
tery, were forbidden  to  wear the stola;
hence they were called togatee.  By stola,
therefore, a chaste woman, as well  as a
womau of condition, was designated.  In-
stita was  used in the same way.—The
stola, which  forms a part of the sacerdotal
dress of Catholic pries:s, is a lon^r, broad,
white band, of silk or silver stuff, lined with
stiff linen, worn by the deacons over the
li'ft shoulder,  and reaching  to the right
hip, like the riband of an order ; but the
priests wear it over both   shoulders, and
hanging down across the breast.   It is
marked with three crosses,  and not uufre-
quently has little  bells at the end.  Prel-
ates wear it ornamented with pearls and
embroidery.   The stola  is necessary for
reading  the  mass: hence  jura stola-,, or
the dues which are paid for baptisms,
marriages, interments, confirmation, con-
fession, aud similar religious services per-
formed by  the priest.  This name has
been retained by the German Protestants,
although  they  no  longer  use the stola.
The teachers  of the ancient church were
supported by  the  voluntary gifts of the
faithful (oblations);  and it was  long left
optional with  laymen whether they would
give any thing to the priest on such occa-
sions, or not.   What was given, was paid
 over, as late as the  sixth  century, to the
 bishop, who allowed a part  to the paro-
 chial clergy.  After that time, every pastor
 acquired the  right to retain what he re-
 ceived in this way from his parishioners;
 but the councils, down to the tenth cen-
 tury, insisted  that the priests should not
 ask any thing for the above   services,
 but merely  receive what  was voluntarily
 given.   In  the sixteenth century, this per-
 mission became a right  (jus), confirmed
 by the  ecclesiastical  authorities;  hence
 jura stola.
  Stolberg;  an ancient German house,
which was formerly divided into the two
lines of the  Hartz aud the Rhine.  The
latter becoming extinct, its possessions
fell to the former, which, subsequently to
1638, was divided  into the  elder line, in
the two branches of Ilsenburg (extinct hi
1710)  and  Gedern,  and  the  younger
line,  in the two branches of Stolberg-Stol-
berg and Stolberg-Rossla.  To the Gedei 11
branch  belonged the  Stolberg-Wei nige-
rode family, that of Stolberg-Gedern (see
Albany), now extinct, and that of Stolberg-
Schwarza, also  extinct.  In  the time of
the empire, the counts of Stolberg belong-
ed to the Wetteravian college. Their pos-
sessions  have been  mediatized, and  are
now  under  Prussian or Hanoverian sov-
ereignty.
  Stole, Groom of the ; theeldest gen-
tleman  of  his  majesty's  bed-chamber,
whose office it is to  present  and put on
his majesty's shirt, every morning, and to
put the room in  order. (See Stola.)
  Stomach (stomachus; ventriculus; gas-
ter);  a membraneous bag, situated in the
epigastric region, which receives the food
from the oesophagus.  Its figure is some-
what oblong and round.  It is largest on
the left side, and gradually diminishes to-
wards its lower orifice, where  it is  the
least.   Its  superior  orifice, where  the
oesophagus terminates, is called the cardia;
the  inferior orifice,  where  the  intestine
begins, the pylorus.  The anterior surface
is turned towards the abdominal muscles,
and the posterior opposite the lumbar ver-
tebra.   It has two curvatures: the first is
called the great  curvature of the stomach,
and  extends downwards from one orifce
to the other, having the omentum adher-
ing to it; the  second is the small  curva-
ture, which is also between both orifices,
but  superiorly  and posteriorly.   The
stomach, like  the intestinal canal, is com-
posed of three coats, or membranes:—I.
The outermost,  which is  very  firm,  and
forms  the peritonaeum ; 2.  the muscular,
which is very thick, and composed of va-
rious muscular  fibre.1;  and, 3.  the inmr-
most, or  villous coat, which is covered
with exhaling and inhaling vessels,  and
mucus.   These coais are  connected  to-
gether by cellular membrane. The glands
of the stomach  which separate the mucus
are  situated between the villous  and mus-
cular coat, in  the cellular structure.  The
nerves of the  stomach are very numerous,
and come from the eighth  pair and inter-
 costal nerves.   The lymphatic vessels are
 distributed  throughout the whole sub-
 stance,  and proceed imm 'diately to the 
STOMACH—STONE.
15
thoracic duct  The use of the stomach is
to excite hunger, and partly thirst, to re-
ceive the food  from the oesophagus, and
to  retain  it, till, by the  motion  of  the
stomach, the admixture of various fluids,
and many other changes, it is rendered fit
to pass  the right orifice  of  the stomach,
and afford chyle  to the intestines. (See
Gastric Juice, Digestion, Dyspepsia.)
   Stomach-Pump.   A  small pump—in
this application called  the stomath-pump—
has lately been  introduced  into practice,
for removing poisons from the stomach in
cases where the action of vomiting cannot
be excited.   It  has already saved many
lives.  It  resembles the  common Finall
syringe, except that there are two aper-
tures near the end,  instead of one, which,
owing to valves in them, opening different
ways, become what are called a  sucking
and a forcing passage.   When the object
is to extract from the stomach, the pump
is worked while its sucking orifice is in
connexion  with  an elastic  tube  passed
into the stomach ■ and  the discharged
matter  escapes  by the  forcing  orifice.
When it is desired, on the  contrary, to
throw cleansing water or other liquid into
the stomach, the connexion of the aper-
tures  aud  the  tubes is  reversed.  As a
pump may not  be  always procurable
when the occasion for it arises, the profes-
sion should  be aware, that a simple tube
will, in  many cases, answer the purpose
as well, if not better.  If the tube be in-
troduced, and the body of the patient be
so placed that the tube forms a downward
channel from the stomach, all fluid matter
will escape from the stomach by it, as
water escapes from  a funnel by its pipe ;
and if the outer end of the tube  be kept
immersed in liquid, there will be, during
the discharge, a siphon action of consid-
erable force.  On changing the posture of
the body, water may be poured in through
the same tube to  wash the  stomach.
Such  a tube, made long enough,  might,
if desired, be rendered  a complete bent
siphon, the necessary preliminary suction
being made by a syringe, or  by the mouth
through an  intervening vessel.
   Stomach-Staggers ; a dangerous dis-
ease with horses, which is even  yet  but
little understood.  In the stable, the horse
dozes, and  rests his head  in  the manger;
he  then wakes up, and  falls to eating,
which he continues to  do until the  dis-
tention  of  the  stomach becomes enor-
mous  ;  for the  peculiarity of the com-
plaint consists in the total stoppage of di-
gestion, and the uneasy  feeling of disten-
tion, consequent to  such  indigestion,  ap-
pears to deceive the horse, whose morbid
excitement induces him to continue eat-
ing.   This he does until the distenticn
prevents the return of die blood from the
head ; and the animal dies from apoplexy,
or his stomach bursts.   When recovery
has taken place, it has been only in very
mild cases.  (See Loudon's Encyclopaedia
of Agriculture.)
  Stone, or Calculus ; even hard con-
cretion, not bony, formed in the body of
animals.  The article  Caladus treats of
the variety  and chemical composition of
these  concretioi.s.   We shall add here a
few words  respecting  their probable ei i-
gin, and the cere of this disease  in  man.
These concretions originate immediate ly
in a disturbance of the secretions; but
this disturbance may,  perhaps,  in  most
cases, be caused  by a  disordered condi-
tion of" the juices, particularly of the blood,
and a want of* due assimilation.   This
may he supposed, because, in the c( m-
plaints of the  gravel and the gout, which
frequently  interchange, the diges ion al-
most always suffers, and acid is found in the
prima; vice; also because cattle often  have
biliary ralculi  in  the spring, which disap-
pear after they have fed for a time  on
green  fodder.  Calculi form  themselves
in those secreted  fluids which   contain
many ingredients, aud which have an  in-
clination to assume a solid form, especially
in such as are collected in  particular re-
ceptacles (the gall  bladder and  urinary
bladder); and  they have even been found
in the salivary ducts.  They consist < f a
nucleus and  several surrounding coats,
similar or various in their nature.  Their
component parts vary according to the fluid
in which they have been formed. They ob-
struct lhe passages, and prevent the dis-
charge of the secreted fluid; they irritate the
vessels in which they are contained, and
thereby cause  convulsions,  pains,  inflam-
mations and suppurations; they also af'ect,
indirectly, other organs, e. g. the stomach,
producing  sickness and vomiting; the
stones in the  bladder occasion itching in
the glands  of the genitals, pains in the
loins,  testicles, &c.  The most common
calculi are, A. biliary calculi, often found
in great numbers in the bile, sometimes in
the liver, from the size  ofa pea to lhat of
a hazel-nut They are dark, brown, black,
and usually polished on several parts of
the surface, and generally  occasion dis-
ease only when they move, and are very
jagged.  But  in such cases violent pains
exist,  which extend from the right side to
the centre of the body.   They also some-
times cause periodical and obstinate jaun- 
16                       STONE—STONINGTON.
dice.  The convulsions and  pains which
they occasion  frequently require the ap-
plication of particular medicines to relieve
the immediate suffering, besides those di-
rected against the disease itself: the patient
is often  relieved from them  by vomiting
or by stool. B. Urinary calculi  are some-
times a kind of coarse sand, called gravel,
which sinks immediately to the bottom of
the vessel  in which the urine is left.
Sometimes they are real stones, of the size
of a pea, of a walnut, or even of the fist.
They are found either about  the kidneys,
and then cause pains, inflammations, and
suppuration, or in the pelvis of the kid-
neys. In this case, from time to time,sin-
gle stones pass into the bladder, with vio-
lent pains extending  from the  region of
the kidneys downward or backward, and
are carried off with the urine; or  they
originate in the bladder itself, where they
often acquire a very considerable size. They
cause pains in the region of the bladder
and in the perinaeum, and great  suffering
during the discharges  of the  urine.  It
often happens that this can be discharged
only  in certain positions, and drop by
drop, with great pain; is  slimy, smells of-
fensively, and is  mixed with blood and
gravel.  The examination by the catheter
affords the most  certain information re-
specting the  existence of calculi,  if,  as
sometimes  happens,  the  stone  does n6t
lie enclosed (encysted) in a certain part of
the bladder.  To destroy urinary stones,
internal means have been recommended ;
but they are little  to be depended on.   If
the  stone  in  the bladder increases  so
much that it prevents entirely  the dis-
charge  of  the urine, it is necessary to
remove  it by the  knife (lithotomy), or by
breaking it to pieces in the bladder (li-
thotrity). The operation of lithotomy may
be performed in four different  ways: 1.
By the apparatus  minor, an operation de-
scribed  by Celsus, and very simple, re-
quiring  few  instruments; whence  the
name.  The operator introduces his mid-
dle finger and fore finger up the anus, and
endeavors to bring the stone towards the
neck of the bladder.  He then cuts  on
the left side of the perinaeum, directly on
the stone.  2.  In  the high operation, the
bladder is  opened on the opposite side,
over  the pubes.  3.  When the apparatus
major is applied, the urethra is widened
so much, that a forceps can be introduced,
and the stone  extracted.  The name of
apparatus major is used on account of the
number of instruments required.  4. The
lateral operation  is generally considered
as  the safest and most effectual, and is
the most common.  Its object is to di-
vide that part of the urethra which suffer-
ed extremely in the application of the ap-
paratus  major, from  the  means  used to
distend it; and as  the lower  side of the
urethra  cannot  be  divided far enough,
without the rectum being wounded, the
cut is directed  sideways.   This  is  the
reason of the name.  Lately, the opera-
tion of  cutting  the bladder through  the
rectum has been introduced.
  Stone, Thomas, a signer of the Decla-
ration of Independence, was a descendant
of William  Stone,  governor of Maryland
during the protectorate of Cromwell.  He
received a  classical education.   Having
subsequently studied law, he commenced
its  practice  in Fredericktown, Md.   In
May, 1775, he took his seat in the general
congress, and was for several years re-
elected  to the same station.  Soon  after
the declaration of independence, to which
he  had  subscribed his name, he was one
of the committee appointed by congress
to prepare articles  of confederation.  Af-
ter  the  plan reported was agreed to, Mr.
Stone declined a reelection, but "<ecame a
member of  the  Maryland  legislature, in
which he greatly contributed to  procure
favor for the system adopted,  In 1783,
he was again sent to congress.  1 le then
finally retired, and engaged  actively in
the duties of his profession; but, in 1787,
the death of his  wife  engendered a deep
and abiding melancholy.  His health de-
clined ;  and, on the fifth of October of the
same year,  he suddenly  expired, in the
forty-fifth year  of his age, when on the
point of embarking for England.
  Stone Ware.   Under the denomina-
tion stone ware  are  comprehended all
the different artificial  combinations  of
earthy bodies which are applied to useful
purposes.   (See Pottery.)
  Stones, Precious.  (See Gems.)
  Stones, Showers  of.   (See Meteoric
Stones.)
  Stonehenge.   (See Salisbury Plain.)
  Stonington; a seaport, and incorpo-
rated  borough,  in  New London county,
Connecticut. It is situated in the town-
ship of Stonington, on  a point of land,
half a mile long, at the eastern extremity
of Long Island sound.   It is a commer-
cial town, and has  several vessels employ-
ed in the fisheries, and others in the West
India and coasting trade.   Population  in
1830,3401.  August 8,1814, while a Brit-
ish fleet was lying off this harbor, a brig
of eighteen guns was ordered to bombard
the town.   The village was wholly un-
prepared fur this  attack, and was, for a 
STONINGTON—STORTHING.
17
oonsiderable  time,  in  much  confusion.
At  length, two eighteen pounders were
found; and with these  so active and well
directed a fire was kept up  on the brig,
that she was greatly damaged, and  com-
pelled to  cut her cables and retire, with
many killed and wounded.
  Stool  of  Repentance.   (See  Cutty
Stool.)
  Stop; a word applied by  violin and
violoncello performers to that pressure of
the strings by which they are brought in-
to contact with  the finger-board, and by
which the pitch of the note is determined.
Hence a string, when so pressed, is said to
be stopped.—Stop of an organ; a collection
of pipes similar in tone and quality, which
run throughthe whole, ora great part, of the
compassofthe instrument. In a greatorgan,
the stops are numerous and multifarious.
  Stop-Laws.  (See Execution.)
  Storax ; a  gum-resin, obtained by in-
cisions in the branches of  a  small tree
(styrax officinalis), which grows wild in the
countries about the Mediterranean.  The
leaves are alternate, oval, petiolate, green
above, whitish and  downy  beneath, re-
sembling those of the quince.  The flow-
ers  are disposed  in racemes, white, and
very much resemble those of the orange.
The fruit is whitish and downy, juiceless,
and contains one  or two  angular  nuts.
The storax  of commerce  is chiefly ob-
tained from Asiatic  Turkey.  It has a fra-
grant odor,  and  an agreeable,  slightly
 {ningent, and  aromatic  taste;  is  stimu-
 ant, and in  some degree  expectorant.
Formerly it was much employed in med-
icine, but now is  little used,  except in
perfumes.  Benzoin is  a  gum-resin, ob-
tained, in a similar manner, from a  species
of styrax, growing  wild in  the East In-
dies.  We have three species of styrax
in the southern parts of the U. States.
  Stork (ciconia).   These tall and state-
ly birds are easily distinguished from the
herons by the small mouth, the angle not
reaching beyond the eyes,  as with the
last; the beak is also destitute of the na-
sal furrow, but is similar in other respects,
is straight, long, pointed, and compressed.
Most of them inhabit the  eastern  conti-
nent, especix'ly  between  the  tropics.
South Americ is not altogether destitute
of them ;  but \ a. have  none  in  the  U.
States.  They v Ik slowly, with measur-
ed steps; but the. flight is powerful and
long continued.  1 'iey have no voice, but
produce a clattering with their bills, by
striking the mandib'es  together.   Their
food consists of fish, reptiles, small quad-
rupeds, worms, and insects.   The  com-
                   2*
 mon stork of Europe (C.  alba) is about
 four feet in  length, from the tip of the
 beak to the extremity of the nails.   The
 prevailing color of the plumage is white,
 with some black about the wings.  It is
 found throughout the greater part of Eu-
 rope, but passes the winter in Africa.  It
 takes up its  residence and breeds in the
 midst of cities, and is every where pro-
 tected, as it renders important services in
 destroying noxious animals.  Among the
 ancients,  to kill them was  considered a
 crime, which, in some places, was pun-
 ished even with  death; and,  like  the
 ibis, this bird became an object  of wor-
 ship.   The  stork is remarkable  for its
 great affection towards its young, but es-
 pecially for its attention to its parents in
 old age.   The  gigantic stork, or adjutant
 of Bengal (C. argala), is a celebrated bird,
 very common  about  the  mouths of the
 Ganges,  and even in the streets of Cal-
 cutta, where it is protected  by  law, as
 also in   other parts  of  the East  In-
 dies.  It  is stoutly framed, and  the  ex-
 treme length  is nearly seven feet.   The
 head and neck are destitute of feathers,
 and covered with  a reddish and callous
 skin ; and from the middle of the  latter
 hangs  a fleshy appendage.  The bill is
 enormously large.   It lives on reptiles,
 fish, &c, and even on quadrupeds, whose
 bones it breaks previously to swallowing.
 In captivity its gluttony is extreme.
  Storr, Gottlob Christian, doctor of the-
 ology,  consistorial  counsellor  and  first
 minister to the court at Stuttgart,  was
 born, in 1746, at Stuttgart, where  he  died
 in 1805.   Storr was distinguished for his
 pious life, and faithful fulfilment of his
 duties as professor of theology and preach-
 er at Tubingen, as well as for his  great
 learning,  exhibited  in various  works,
 among which are his Observations on the
 Syriac Translations of the New Testa-
 ment, in 1772, and on the Arabian Gos-
 pels, in 1775, both in German; Observa-
 tiones ad Analogiam et Syntaxin Hebraicam
pertinentes (1779); his Commentary on
 the Epistle to the Hebrews ;  his learned
 treatise  On the true  Object of Christ's
 Death  (2d ed. Tubingen, 1809);  On  the
 Object of the  Evangelical History, and the
 Epistles of John (1786); New Defence of
 the Revelation of John (1783), the Dis-
 sertationes in Apocalypsis qumdam  Loca
 belonging to  it, and his Doctrinee Christi-
 ana Pars theoret. e sacr. Lit. repetita (1793).
  Storthing; the Norwegian diet (from
 Thing, assembly, and star, great, elevated).
 The citizens  qualified  to  vote  choose
 electors, who, from among themselves c r 
18
STORTHING—STOVES.
their  constituents, select  the  representa-
tives,  whose  number is not to be under
seventy-five, nor above one hundred.  A
member  of the storthing must be thirty
years  old; must have resided ten y■ are in
the realm ; must hold no office, civil or
military; must not be attached to the court,
nor receive a pension.   Generally  the
storthing is held every third  year, at the
beginning of  February,  in the capital,
Christiania.  After the storthing is open-
ed by the king or his deputy, it  chooses
one fourth part of its members to form the
logthing: the other three fourths form the
odelsthing.  Each thing holds its sessions
separately, and  with open doors, and the
debates are published, unless a resolution
to the contrary be passed.  The storthing
is authorized  to make and abolish laws;
to impose taxes; open loans; see that the
finances are properly administered ; grant
the civil list, &c.  The government  pro-
tocols, and all  public  papers, including
treaties with foreign powers, must be laid
before them, the secret articles only ex-
cepted, and these must not be contrary to
the ptihlic ones; it may summon any body
before it,  except  the king and viceroy;
and it confers naturalization.  Laws are
proposed ii > the odelsthing, by its mem-
bers, or by  a counsellor of state : if they
pass there, they go to the logthing.   The
king is  to  sign the bills, or to decline so
doing.  If a  bill, twice rejected by the
king, is  adopted without  alteration by a
third  regular storthing, it becomes a law,
even without the king's sanction.   In this
mariner nobility was abolished in Norway.
  Stosch, Philip, baron  von, a  distin-
guished numismatist, lxjrn 1691,  at  Ciis-
trin, in Germany, studied  at Frankfort on
the Oder, and was  designed for the ec-
clesiastical profession; but his  taste led
him to devote his time to numismatics. In
1708, he visited Jena, Dresden,  Leipsic,
and other places in Germany, for the pur-
pose of examining cabinets of medals and
antiquities.  In  1710,  the  Dutch states-
man Fagel employed him on a mission
to England, where he became acquainted
with  sir  Hans Sloaue, lords Pembroke,
Winchelsea, Carteret, and other  virtuosi.
In 1714, he went to Rome ; and, returning
to Germany, he engaged in collecting oth-
er antiques, particularly engraved gems.
At Augsburg he discovered the celebrat-
ed " Peutinger Table." (q. v.)  He was af-
terwards English resident at Rome, for the
purpose of observing the conduct of the
Pretender and his adherents.  This post
becoming hazardous after the accession
of pope  Clement XII, who favored the
Stuarts, baron Stosch withdrew to Flor-
ence, where he died in 1757.  His collec-
tions, and especially those of cameos and
engraved gems, were peculiarly valuable.
A catalogue of the latter was drawn up
by Winckelmann.  The baron  himself
published two volumes of plates, repre-
senting his  gems, engraved by Picart and
Schweikart                     •
   Stoves.   Stoves differ from fire-places
(q. v.)  by enclosing the fire  so as to ex-
clude it from sight, the heat being given
out through  the  material of which the
stove is composed.  The  common  Hol-
land stove, of which we have an almost
infinite variety of modifications, is an iron
box, of an  oblong square  form, intended
to stand in the  middle ofa room.  The
air is admitted to the fire through a small
opening in the door, and the smoke passes
off through a narrow funnel.  The ad-
vantages of this stove are,  1.  that, be-
ing insulated, and detached from the walls
of the  room, a greater part of the  heat
produced  by  the  combustion  is saved.
The radiated heat being  thrown into the
walls of the stove, they become hot, and,
in their turn, radiate heat on all sides to
the room.  The conducted heat is also re-
ceived  by successive portions of the air of
the room, which pass in contact with the
stove.  2. The air being made, as in fur-
naces,  to pass through  the fuel, a  very
small supply is sufficient to keep up the
combustion, so that little need  be taken
out of the  room.  3.  The smoke, being
confined by the cavity of the stove, cannot
easily escape into  the room, and may be
made to pass off by a small funnel, which,
if sufficiently thin and circuitous, may
cause the smoke to part with a great por-
tion of its heat, before it leaves the apart-
ment   These circumstances render the
Holland stove one of the most powerful
means we can employ for keeping  up a
regular and effectual heat, with a small
expense  of fuel.   The  disadvantages of
these stoves  are, that houses containing
them are never well ventilated, but that
the same air  remains  stagnant in a  room
for a great length of time.   A dryness of
the air is also produced, which is oppres-
sive to most persons, so that it often be-
comes  necessary to place an open vessel
of water on the stove, the evaporation of
which may supply moisture to the atmos-
phere.   Stoves are very useful  in  large
rooms, which are frequented occasionally,
but  not  inhabited constantly;  as  halls,
churches, &c.  In cold countries, where
it is desirable to obtain  a  comfortable
warmth, even  at  the  sacrifice of oth -c 
STOVES—STOW.
19
 conveniences, various modifications of the
 common stoves have been  introduced, to
 render  them  more  powerful, and their
 heat more effectual.  The Swedish and
 Russian stoves are small  furnaces,  with a
 very circuitous smoke flue.  In principle,
 they resemble a common stove, with a
 funnel bent round and round, until it has
 perfon*ied a great number of turns or rev-
 olutions, before it enters the chimney.  It
 differs, however, in being wholly enclosed
 in a large box of stone  or brick  work,
 which is  intersected  with air  pipes.  In
 operation,  it   communicates  heat  more
 slowly,  being longer in becoming hot, and
 also slower in becoming cold, than the
 common stove.  Russian stoves are usu-
 ally provided with a damper, or valve, at
 top, which is used to close the funnel or
 passage, when the smoke has ceased to
 ascend.  Its operation, however, is highly
 pernicious, since  burning coals,  when
 they have ceased to smoke, always give
 out  carbonic  acid  in large  quantities,
 which, if it does not escape up chimney,
 must deteriorate the air of the apartment,
 and render it unsafe.
   Cellar Stoves and Air Flues.  Such is
 the tendency  of heated or rarefied air to
 ascend, that buildings may bo effectually
 warmed by air flues communicating with
 stoves  in  the cellar, or  any part of the
 building below  that to be warmed.  A
 large suite of apartments may be suffi-
 ciently  heated in this way by a  single
 stove.  The stove, for this purpose, should
 be ofa kind best adapted to communicate
 heat.  It should  be entirely enclosed in a
 detached brick chamber, the wall of which
 should be double, that it  may be a better
 non-conductor of heat.   The  space  be-
 tween the brick chamber and stove should
 not exceed an inch.   In the apparatus of
 the Derbyshire and  Wakefield infirma-
 ries, which has  been imitated  in this
 country, the whole of the air is repeated-
 ly conducted, by numerous pipes, within
 half an  inch  of the stove and its cockle.
 For  the supply  of fuel,  the same  door
 which  opens  into the chamber, should
 open also  into the stove, that there may
 never be any  communication with the air
 of the cellar.   A current  of external air
 should  be brought down by a separate
 passage, and  delivered under the  stove.
 A part of  this air is  admitted to supply
 the combustion;  the  rest  passes upward
in the cavity between the hot stove and
the wall of the brick chamber, and, after
becoming thoroughly heated, is conducted
through passages in which its levity causes
it to ascend,  and be delivered into any
 apartment of the house.  Different branch-
 es being established  from the main pipe,
 and commanded by valves or shutters, the
 hot  air can be distributed at pleasure to
 any one or  more rooms at a time.   This
 plan is very  useful in large buildings, such
 as manufactories, hospitals,  &c, on ac-
 count of the facility with which the same
 stove may be made to warm the whole,
 or any part of them.  The advantage ofa
 long vertical  draught enables us to estab-
 lish  a more  forcible  current of warm air.
 The rooms, while they are heated, are al-
 so ventilated, for the air which is contin-
 ually brought in by the  warm pipes, dis-
 places  that which was previously in the
 room, and the air blows  out at the crev-
 ices and key-holes, instead of blowing in,
 as it does in rooms with common fire-
 places.   (See Bigelow's  Technology, 2d
 ed. 1832.)
  Stow, John ; an English historian and
 antiquaiy, born about 1525, in London.
 His father, a tailor, brought him up to his
 own business; but  his  mind early  took
 a bent  towards  antiquarian researches.
 About the year 1560, he formed  the de-
 sign of composing the annals of  English
 history, for the completion  of which he
 quitted his trade.  For the purpose of"ex-
 amining records, charters, and other doc-
 uments,  he  travelled on foot to several
 public establishments, and purchased old
 books, manuscripts, and parchments, until
 he had made a valuable collection.  Being
 thought to be favorable to the ancient re-
 ligion,  an information was  laid against
 him, in  1568, as a suspicious person, who
 possessed many dangerous books.   The
 bishop of London accordingly ordered an
 investigation of  his  study, in which, of
 course, were found many popish books
 among the rest;  but the result  has not
 been recorded.  Two years afterwards,
 an  unnatural brother, having  defrauded
 him of his goods, sought to take away his
 life by preferring one hundred and  forty
 articles against him, before the ecclesias-
 tical commission; but he was acquitted.
 He had previously printed his first work,
 entitled a Summarie of the  Englyshe
 Chronicles, compiled at the instance of
 Dudley,  afterwards earl of  Leicester,
 which was published in  1565, and after-
 wards continued by Edmond  Howes, who
 printed several editions.   He contributed
 to the improvement of the second edition
 of Holinshed, in 1587, and gave correc-
 tions and notes to two editions of Chau-
 cer.  At  length, in  1598, appeared his
Survey  of London,  the  work  on which
be had been  so long employed, and which 
so
STOW—STRADA.
came to a second edition during  his life-
time.  He was very anxious to publish his
large chronicle, or history of England, but
lived only to print an abstract of it, entitled
Flores Historiarum,  or Annals  of Eng-
land.  From  his papers, Howes  publish-
ed a folio volume, entitled Stow's Chron-
icle, which does not, however, contain the
whole  of the  larger work, which he had
left, transcribed for the press, and which is
said to have fallen into the possession of
sir Symonds Dewes.  A license was grant-
ed him by James I, " to repair to  church-
es or other places, to receive the  charita-
ble benevolence of well-disposed  people,"
in the seventy-eighth year of his age.  He
died, afflicted by poverty and disease, in
1605, at the age of eighty.  Stow's Sur-
vey has run through six editions, the last
in 1754, with considerable additions, and
a continuation of the useful lists.
  Stowe ; a parish in  Buckinghamshire,
England, two miles north-west of Buck-
ingham,  containing the celebrated  seat,
garden and pleasure-grounds of the duke
of Buckingham.   The  house, situated on
an eminence rising from a lake, measures
916 feet from east to west;  the saloon, 60
feet long, 43 feet broad, and 56<_ feet high,
cost nearly 60,000 dollars;  the state draw-
ing-room, 50 feet by 32, and 22 feet high,
contains a collection of fine pictures, most-
ly by the old  masters.  The library con-
sists of 10,000 printed volumes, with many
valuable manuscripts.  The house is ap-
proached through a Corinthian  arch, 60
feet high by 60 wide.   The gardens com-
prise four hundred acres of highly deco-
rated grounds. Temples, obelisks, statues,
grottoes, &c, scattered around  in  great
profusion, seem to  realize the descriptions
of enchanted  gardens. The Elysian fields,
watered by a small rivulet, issuing from a
grotto, and emptying into a lake, contain
the  figures of heroes, poets and  philoso-
phers. In the temple of Ancient  Virtue, a
circular  building  of  the  Ionic  order,
stand  the  statues of Homer, Lycurgus,
Socrates,  and Epaminondas.  The tem-
ple of British worthies contains busts of
Shakspeare, Milton,  Pope, Newton, Ba-
con, Locke, &c.  The temple of Concord
and Virtue is a handsome  building, of an
oblong shape, surreunded with 28 fluted
Ionic columns.  Lord Cobham's pillar is
a column 115 feet high, surmounted by a
statue. The Gothic temple, a triangular
building,  with a  tower at each end, is
richly adorned with old painted glass.
   Stowell, lord.  Sir William Scott,
who was created baron Stowell in 1821, is
the elder  brother of lord Eldon (q. v.),
and was born at Newcastle, in 1745. Hi*
father, a respectable proprietor of coal
mines  there, determined  to train  him to
his own  business.  But the talents and
eager inclination for study, manifested by
the young man, finally induced his father
to send him to Oxford, where, after tak-
ing his degree of doctor of civil law, he
was appointed Camden professoi* of his
tory.  His lectures there gained him rep-
utation ; and, in 1779, he  left the univer-
sity, and entered upon the study of eccle-
siastical law.  His practice in the spiritu-
al courts soon became extensive, and rais-
ed him, in 1788, to the post of king's ad-
vocate-general : he  was at the same time
knighted.   In  1799,  he was  appointed
judge  of the high  court  of  admiralty,
which post he resigned a few years ago.
(See  Commercial Law.)   Sir William
Scott entered parliament in 1792, and con-
tinued to represent the university  of Ox-
ford, in that body, from 1802 till  he was
summoned to the  house of peers, in 1821.
   Strabo, a distinguished  Greek  geog-
rapher, was born at Amasia, in Cappa-
docia, about 19 A. D., studied rhetoric and
the Aristotelian philosophy,  and after-
wards embraced the Stoic doctrines.  He
travelled through  Greece, Italy,  Egypt,
and Asia, endeavoring to obtain the most
accurate  information in regard  to the
geography, statistics and  political condi-
tions of the countries which he  visited.
The time of his death is unknown.   His
great geographical  work,  in  seventeen
books, contains a full account of the man-
ners and governments of different people:
his materials were derived from his own
observations  and inquiries, or  from the
geographical works of Hecataeus, Artemi-
dorus, Eudoxius,  and Eratosthenes, now
lost, and the writings of historians and
poets.  His work is invaluable to us. The
last editions are those of Siebenkees (con-
tinued by Tzschucke, but not completed,
Leipsic, 1796—1811,7 vols.) and of Coray
(4 vols., Paris,  1819.)  Those  of Casau-
bon (1620, fol.) and  Almeloveen (Amster-
dam, 1707, 2 vols., fol.) are also highly es-     f
teemed.
   Strada, Famianus;  an Italian histo-
rian, and elegant writer  of modern Latin
poetry, born at Rome, in 1572.   He enter-
ed into the society of the Jesuits in 1592,
and became professor of rhetoric  at the
Roman college, where he resided till his
death, in 1649.  His most famous works
are a  History of the Wars in the Neth-
erlands, in Latin, and Prolusiones Acade-
mical, which have been  repeatedly pub-
lished.  In one of these prolusions, he has 
STRADA—STRAFFORD.
31
introduced ingenious imitations of  the
style of the most celebrated Roman poets,
of which there are many translations, in-
cluding  those published by  Addison, in
the Guardian.
  Strafford,  sir Thomas  Wentworth,
earl of, an eminent minister and statesman,
was the eldest son of sir William Went-
worth, of an ancient  family in Yorkshire.
He was born in London, in 1593, and enter-
ed of St John's college, Cambridge. After
leaving the university, he travelled, and, on
his return, received the honor of knight-
hood.  The death of his father,  in 1614,
gave him possession of a large fortune;
and he  was soon  after  appointed custos
rotulorum of the west riding of Yorkshire,
in lieu of sir John Savile.  In 1621, he
was chosen member of parliament  for
the county of York;  and when Charles I
asserted  that the  commons enjoyed no
rights but by royal permission, sir Thomas
Wentworth, already distinguished for abil-
ity, strenuously called upon the house to
maintain that their privileges were rights
by  inheritance.   In 1622, he lost his first
wife, of the noble family of Clifford,  and
in 1625, married Arabella,  second daugh-
ter of Holies, earl of Clare.  On the con-
vening  of the  new  parliament, in  the
same year, he was one of the six popular
members who  were prevented  serving
their country in that assembly, by being
appointed sheriffs for  their respective
counties.  He submitted to this arbitrary
act in silence ; and, soon after, the duke
of Buckingham, alarmed at the measures
taken against him in parliament, made him
overtures, which proved ineffectual,  and
the favorite revenged himself by obliging
him to restore his office of custos rotulo-
rum to sir John Savile.  When Charles,
among other expedients for raising money,
had recourse to a forced general loan,
Wentworth refused  to pay his contribu-
tion, and was first imprisoned in the Mar-
shalsea, and then  confined to a  range of
two miles  round the town  of Dartford.
This  restraint  was, however,  removed
when it became necessary to summon  a
new parliament, in 1628; and he again took
his seat for Yorkshire, and  became one of
the most conspicuous advocates  of  the
petition of right  As he had now proved
the strength of his  abilities, high terms
were offered him by  the court, which he
finally accepted; and, in 1628, he was cre-
ated baron Wentworth, and some months
afterwards a viscount and privy-counsel-
lor, and on the resignation of lord Scrope,
nominated president  of the  north.  The
assassination of Buckingham, soon after,
freed  him  from a  powerful enemy  at
court, and he became so influential in the
king's councils, that his powers in the four
northern counties, over which he presid-
ed, became  enormous; and  his commis-
sion contained fifty-eight  instructions, of
of which scarcely one did not exceed  or
violate the common  law.  In the exercise
of  this  authority,   he  displayed  equal
haughtiness, impetuosity, and ability,  and,
by his strictness in  levying exactions, in-
creased  the revenue in his district to four
or five times the previous amount.   Hav-
ing assiduously cultivated the friendship
of archbishop Laud, he was selected by
that prelate to proceed to Ireland, as lord-
deputy,  in  1632.   He  greatly improved
the state of the country, both as regarded
law, revenue, and trade  (the  manufac-
ture of linen being of his own creation);
but, at  the  same time,  nothing  could be
more arbitrary than his  system of govern-
ment, it  being his boast that he had ren-
dered the king as absolute in Ireland " as
any prince in the whole world could be."
On the  first symptoms of resistance  to
the royal  authority, he  counselled the
strongest measures; and after the failure
of the king's first expedition against Scot-
land, he was sent for from  Ireland, and
created  earl of Strafford, and knight of
the garter.   He returned with the full title
of lord  lieutenant, with a view to  gain
subsidies and troops, in which he fully
succeeded;  and, again repairing to Eng-
land, took the command in the north, but
found  himself obliged to retire before
the Scottish army, and retreat to York.
Charles was now by his necessities oblig-
ed to call the long parliament; on which
Strafford, aware of the  enmity which he
had inspired among the popular leaders,
wished to return to  his government; but
the king,  hoping that his  great talents
would be serviceable, encouraged him by
a  solemn promise  that "not  a hair of
his head should be touched by parlia-
ment."  Strafford's  apprehensions  were
well founded. The very first movement
of the party opposed to arbitrary power,
was to impeach him of high treason, with
which charge  Pym  appeared at the bar
of the house of lords, November 18,1640.
The articles of impeachment, at first nine
in number, were afterwards increased  to
twenty-eight, the object of which  was
to convict  him of an attempt to subvert
the fundamental laws of the  country. As
in the case  of Laud, it was easy to prove
that he acted as a friend and  promoter of
arbitrary measures,  but not  to substan-
tiate any particular fact to justify a capital 
22                     STRAFFORD-STRAPPADO.
charge.  Although  treated with the ex-
treme of legal rigor, and debarred the as-
sistance of counsel, his own great abilities
and  force of mind supplied  every defi-
ciency; "And  never  man," says Wiiite-
lock, the chairman of the impeaching
committee, " acted such a  part, on such a
theatre, wi.h more wisdom, consis.ency
and  eloquence, or  with great:-t reason,
judgment and semper."  His defence, in-
deed, was so strong, that the original im-
peachment was deserted, for the uujusti-
fiable proceeding  of  a  bill of attainder.
The bill passed by a great  majority;  and
so great was the animosity borne towards
him, that the house of lords was intimi-
dated into compliance.  The king, who
had imprudently endeavored to stop the
bill by his personal  interference, had not
sufficient firmness to redeem  the pledge
of safety which he had previously given,
but yielded to the advice of his counsel-
lors, backed  by a letter from  Strafford
himself, who urged him, for his own safe-
ty, to ratify the; bill.  This act has the sem-
blance of being truly  heroical;  yet it is
probable that he did  not  think that the
king would have been swayed by it, since,
being assured of the fatal truth, he lifted
his eyes to heaven, and, with his hand on
his heart, exclaimed, " Put not your trust
in princes, nor in the sons of men;  for in
them there is no salvation."  His conduct,
from this time  to his execution, was in
the highest degree  composed and  noble.
At the scaffold, he addressed the people,
expressing entire resignation to his fate,
and asserting the good intention of his ac-
tions, however  misrepresented.   He fell
in the forty-ninth year of his age, lament-
ed by some, admired by more, and leaving
behind a memorable but certainly not an
unspotted name.   The parliament,  not
long after h's death,  mi igatod his sen-
tence as regarded his children ; and  in the
succeeding reign, his  attainder was  re-
versed.  Ha married three times, and, by
his second wife, left an only son, and sev-
eral daughters.  (See Macdiarmid's Lives
of British Statesmen.)
  Stralsund ;  a town of Prussian  Pom-
erania, capital of a government of  the
same name, formerly  capital of Swedish
Pomerauia, on a strait which separates the
island of Rugen from the main land ;  120
miles east of  Hamburg;   Ion.  13°  32*
E.; lat.54° 19' N.  population, 15,800.  It
has a safe and  capacious harbor, admit-
ting ships of fifteen  feet, draught.  It  was
formerly one  of  the principal  Hanse
towns.  (See Hms't.)  It  has considera-
ble trade.  Corn is the principal article of
export,  of which  there are sometimes
sapped from 30 to 40,000 quarters.  It
contains a government house, town house,
pubhc library, &c. The aspect is gloomy,
the s.reets narrow, the houses low, built
of br.ck, and remarkable for being point-
ed at the top.  (See Pomerania.)
  Stramonium (.-ometimes called James-
town-weel),  a species of datura,' is now
common in waste places throughout the U.
States, as well as in Europe.  It belongs
to the solanem, the same  naural family
with the tobacco and nightshade, and am-
ply sustains the poisonous character of the
tribe. The stem  is herbaceous, fleshy, two
or three feet high, and branching, furnished
with larg • angular and dentate laves. The
flowers are  large, and the corolla funnel-
shaped.   All parts of the plant  exhale a
strong and nauseous odor.  It  is one of
the most dangerous of narcotic  poisons;
and when taken  internally, produces ver-
tigo, torpor, and  death.  Goats, however,
eat it with impunity.   In  small doses, it
has been  employed  with advantage  in
convulsive and epileptic affections; and
smoking the dried leaves has proved ben-
eficial in asthmatic complaints.
  Strand ; a street in London,  running
from Westminster to London proper.  It
was  formerly the road which  connected
the two towns, when they were entirely
distinct  from each other, aud received its
name from it. position along the Thames.
  Strangles ; a disorder which attacks
most horses,  and generally between the
ages of three and five years.   When
strangles occurs  in the stables, and now
and then also in the field, it proves a se-
vere disease, and  shows itself under the
appearance  of a cold, with cough, sore
throat, swelling of the glands  under the
jaws, or  behind  and  under the  oars.
Sometimes there is  not  much  evtenial
swelling, and the tumors  break Liwardly,
and naure effects a cure.   At others, they
break outwardly, and  sometimes disperse.
When the swelling lingers, poultices are
preferable to fomentations.  Peal recom-
mends blistering the part, to promote sup-
puration.  The horse should be kept very
cool, and bran mashes, with warm water,
should  be his  principal support, unless
the  complaint  last  long,  and  produce
much weakness, when malt mashes should
be substituted.  Bleeding  is only advisa-
ble when  the early symptoms are violent
  Strappado ; a barbarous military pun-
ishment, now abandoned.   It consisted in
having the hands of the offender tied be-
hind  his back, by which  he was drawn
to a certain eltv^tion, by a rope, and then 
STRAPPADO-!
STRATFORD.
23
left to run suddenly towards the ground,
when, biing stopped with a sudden jerk,
his shoulders were dislocated.  This was
also one of the punishments of the inqui-
sition, and of niiiiy cr.m.mds in Italy.
  Strasburg (anciently Argentoratttm);
a city of France, capital of Lower Rhine,
form: rly cap tal  <f Als-c, situated at the
conflux of the Brusche  and Ille, half a
m le  west of the Rhine ; Ion.  /°  4,V
E.; lat. 48° ',15'  S.;  pupnla.ion,  50,000,
of  wli.ch  one   third  are  Protestants.
It is an anci. nt, strong, and commercial
ci.v,  « f s. inicirci.lar form, built on  a
plain, aud divided into s:\eral pars, by
ca ta.s,  over  w.ich  are several bridges.
Tiie ho* ises are chiefly ofa red s.oue, lofty,
but ift'ii heavy and inelegant, built after
the German manner; the iauguage  and
customs of a  majoi i.y of the inhabitants
bang si.II  German.   A  few s.ree*s are
wide and straight, but most of them are
narrow.  The fortifications are extensive,
divided into the old aud new.  The cita-
del is a regular pentagon, lying to the east,
and with i.s out-w< i*i.s ext"tiding almost
to the Rhine.  Strasburg is a bishep'ssee,
and  contains  a  cathedral,  six Catholic
churches, seven Lutheran, and one  Re-
formed, two hospitals, two theatres, two
public libraries, a b< tauic garden, a medi-
cal school, a high school, a royal and a
Lutheran academy, or university.  The
caihedral,  or  minster, founded in 1015,
and  not  completely finished till  1365, is
one of the  most distinguished specimens
of Go hie architecture existing,  lis tow-
er, 474  feet high, is ascended by  a stair-
way of 725 steps, and is a mas'erpiece of
architectur",  being built of hewn stone,
cut wi.h such nicety as  to give  it at a
distance some resemblance to lace.  The
tower was planned and begun by Ervvin
of Steinbach,  after whose death, in 1318,
it was continued  by  his  brother John.
The clock is also a masterpiece of mech-
anism, for, besides the hour of the day,
it describes the motions  of the planets.
The Protestant  church of St. Thomas
contains a splendid  monument,  erected
by Lues XV, to marshal Saxe. This city
is famous in  the history  of the reforma-
tion ; anil  the two principal Protestant
seminari sin France are nt Strasburg and
Montauban.  It  is favorably situated  for
trade, in a fertile and well-cultivated coun-
try, the Rhine connecting it with Swit-
zerland on  the one side, and with Nether-
lands on the other. The exports are corn,
flax, hemp, wine, and spirituous liquors;
hIso  linen, sail-cloth, blankets, carpets,
.-uruware, leather, cotton, lace, tobacco,
and  snuff.  Guttenberg (q.  v.) is said to
have invented the art of printing al Stras-
burg, in 1436.  The ancient bishopric of
Strasburg, in Alsace, lying on both sides
the Rhine, has beeu secularized,  and is
now incorporated with  France  and Ba-
den. (See Alsace.) It contained 500 square
miles, with a population of 30,000 souls.
  Strategy  (from the Greek arparnyia,
military command,  military skill) ;  the
art and science of leading armies,  the art
of conducting military operations; a branch
of military science, which has only of late
been  treated separately, and  in a certain
sense contradistinguished to tactics, which
treats of the mode of disposing troops for
battle, of directing  them during its con
tinuance,  and of all the exercises, arms,
&c,  necessary  to  fit  them  for  action.
Some writers on strategy have run into
extremes,  as is usual in treating of subjects
whose limits have not been settled.  Bil-
low (q. v.), for instance,  has attempted to
reduce this branch  of the military art  to
the  geometrical  calculation  of angles,
lines, &c, in his Theory of Modern War-
fare—a work which was opposed by Hen-
ry de Jomini  (q. v.) and other French wri-
ters. The  latter, in his Traite des grandes
Operations  Mlitaires,  avoids  Bulow's
fault of theorizing,  and founds  his views
more on die results of actual experience,
especially on the campaigns  of Frederic
the Great  and Xapoleon, but  falls,  in  his
turn,  into  partial  views,  by  insisting
constantly on the  principle  of keeping
forces concentrated, and leading them by
the shortest  possible way to  meet  the
enemy.   He  has forgotten that all armies
are not  so traiued for battle as the troops
of those two great  generals, and that  the
forte of all  generals does not  lie  in  the
conduct of an engagement.   His theory
of" internal lines of operations,  therefore,
though  correct in  certain cases, cannot
hold good so universally  as he  repre-
sents.  Though  the principles of Btilow
will  never be adopted in their whole ex-
tent, yet he did considerable  service  to
military science, by directing attention to
what is  now called strategy,  as a particu-
lar branch.  To the works mentioned in
the articles  Bidow  and  Jomvri,  we may
add  the archduke  Charles's (q. v.) Prin-
ciples of Strategy, illustrated by the. De-
scription of  the Campaign of 1796,  in
Germany.
  Stratford upon Avon ;  a town  in
Warwickshire, England, upon the  Avon,
ninety-four miles north-west of London,
celebrated as the birth-place and burial-
place of  Shakspeare.    The  house  ia 
24
STRATFORD—STRAWBERRY.
which he is said to have been born, is still
shown; that in which he resided after his
return to Stratford, and died, was pulled
down, in  1759,  by  a  clergyman  who
bought the place a few years before. The
same person cut down the famous mul-
berry tree, planted by Shakspeare.  The
church contains the monument and bust
of Shakspeare.  The latter was originally
colored to resemble life, and, in 1793, was
painted white, by order of Malone. These
coats of paint  have much disfigured the
characteristic markings of  the bust.  This
monument was erected within seven years
after his death, and contains the Latin dis-
tich cited in the article Shakspeare.  On
the grave-stone beneath are the following
lines, attributed to himself:

   Good friend, for Jesus' sake, forbear
   To di«r the dust encloased here ;
   Blest be the man that  spares these stones,
   And curst be he that moves my bones.

  Strath, in Scotland, is generally un-
derstood to mean  a valley  broader than a
dale or glen, which receives its peculiar
appellation from a river passing through
it, as Strathbogie, Strntlispey, &c, or some
particular characteristic,  as  Strathmore,
the Great Valley, &c, which traverses
Scotland on the south side of the  Gram-
pian mountains.
  Stratus.  (See Clouds.)
  Straw.  In the manufacture of straw
hats, the culms of several kinds of grasses
are used.  The  Leghorn straw  is the
culm  of a sort of wheat  sown on  poor
soils, and cut green.  Rye straw is much
used in this manufacture.   The straw is
cut at the joints;  and  the  outer covering
being removed, it is sorted of equal sizes,
and made up into bundles of eight or ten
inches in length, and a foot in circum-
ference.  They are then to be dipped in
water, and shaken a little, so as not to re-
tain too much moisture : the bundles arc
afterwards to be  placed on their edges,
for the purpose of bleaching, in  a box
which is sufficiently close  to prevent the
evaporation of smoke.   In the middle of
the box  is an  earthen  dish, containing
brimstone, broken in small pieces: this is
set on fire, and the box covered over and
kept in the open air several hours.  It is
the business  of one person to split and
select the straws for fifty others, who are
braiders.   The splitting is done  by  a
small machine, made principally of wood.
The straws, when split, are termed splints,
of which each worker  has  a  certain
quantity:  on one  end  is wrapped a linen
cloth, and they are held under the  arm,
and drawn  out  as  wanted.   Plaiters
should  be taught to  use their second
fingers and thumbs,  instead of the fore-
fiugers,  which  are   often  required to
assist in  turning  the  splints,  and thus
much  facilitate  the  platting ;  and they
should be cautioned against wetting the
splints too much. The finest hats are
made in  the neighborhood  of Leghorn,
whence they are exported in great num-
bers. The Dunstable manufactures in Bed-
fordshire, England, are of a fine quality.
The plaiting of straw has also been re-
cently  carried   on very extensively in
Norfolk county, Massachusetts, and the
plait  is   of excellent  quality.  In  the
English plait, the straws are flattened in
a hand mill, previous to working;  but in
the Leghorn, the pressure is applied after
the plaiting is made.
  Strawberry (fragaria).   This is one
of the most wholesome and most delicious
of our fruits.  The pulp is light, melting,
and, notwithstanding, but  little watery,
and does  not undergo  the  acetous  fer-
mentation in  the stomach.   It  exhales a
most delightful perfume, and the flavor is
exquisite,  especially  immediately  after
being plucked from the stem.  The plant
belongs to the natural family rosacea, to-
gether with the rose and raspberry.  The
root gives out   several  long,  slender,
creeping shoots,  which take root at inter-
vals, and form so many new stocks; the
leaves are composed of three leafletsysup-
ported on  a long foot-stalk, which is pro-
vided with stipules at the base.  From
the midst  of the  leaves arise two or three
simple, slender,  silky stems, from four to
six inches high, and terminated by a few
white flowers, disposed in a sort of cor-
ymb.   After flowering, the  receptacle
increases,  acquires a pulpy and  succulent
consistence, and finally a red color, when
the strawberries have attained maturity.
The strawberry is easily cultivated,  and
numerous varieties have been produced;
some of great excellence  have been ob-
tained recently.   It forces well, and, with
a little  trouble in choosing a succession
of sorts, may  be  had almost every month
in the year.   An open situation, and rich,
loamy soil, rather strong, is required for
most varieties ; and from their large mass
of foliage  and flowers, they must, till the
fruit is set,  have copious  supplies  of
water.   The  row culture is most con-
venient, and  frequent  renewal ensures
vigorous plants  and  large fruit.  A  pal-
atable jam, wine  and vinegar are pre-
pared from strawberries; and  they are
sometimes preserved entire, in sirup or in 
STRAWBERRY—STRONG.
25
 wine.   Besides the cultivated strawl)erry,
 we have a wild species, common in most
 parts of the U. States.
   Streaks ;  the uniform ranges of plauks
 on the bottom or sides of a ship, or the
 continuations of planks joined by the ends
 to each other,  and  reaching  from the
 stem, which  limits the vessel forward, to
 the stern-post and fashion-pieces, which
 terminate her length abaft.
   Streets,  Pavement of.  (See Pave-
 ment.)
   Strelitz  (Russian, strielzi,  or strelzi,
 guards);  the life-guards of the Russian
 czars, until the reign of Peter the Great.
 They were instituted in the latter half of
 the sixteenth century, by Ivan Wasilie-
 witsch, and  formed, also, the  standing
 infantry of the empire, amounting, some-
 times,  to  40,000 men.  Their numerous
 privileges  and their frequent  insurrec-
 tions rendered them  as formidable as the
 Roman pretorians (q. v.),  or  the Turk-
 ish janizaries, (q.  v.)   Peter  the  Great
 dissolved  the corps in 1697, in conse-
 quence of an  insurrection, put several
 thousands to  death, and banished the rest
 to Astrachan.   Having  been guilty  of
 some disturbances here, they were entire-
 ly dispersed and destroyed in 1705.
   Stretto (Italian)  signifies, in music,
 that the movement to which it is prefixed,
 is to be performed  in a  quick, concise
 manner.
   Strike ; a measure of capacity,  con-
 taining four pecks.
   Strike, among seamen, is a word vari->
 ously used.   When a ship, in  a fight, or
 on meeting with a ship of war, lets down
 or lowers her top-sails at least  half-mast
 high, she is said to strike,  meaning that
 she yields, or submits, or pays  respect to
 the ship  of  war.    Also, when a  ship
 touches ground in shoal water, she strikes.
 And when a top-mast is to be taken down,
 the word of command is, Strike the top-
 mast, &c.
   Stroganoff ; a distinguished Russian
 family,  descended  from  a  merchant,
 Anika  Stroganoff,  who, in  the  sixteenth
 century, resided  at   Solwytschegodzka,
 and gave rise to the discovery of Siberia.
 The czar Ivan granted to Jacob and Greg-
 ory Stroganoff the desert  country  along
 the Kama, from Perm to the Ssiilwa river,
 and  on the  banks of the Tschussowa.
 They were originally fur-traders, but, to
 defend  themselves against the Siberian
and  Nogaian robbers, were allowed  to
 build forts and, collect troops.   They also
administered  justice,  suppressed insur-
rections, and,  in fact,  protected the north-
   VOL. XII.         3
 east of Russia.  They had extended the
 Moscovite  territory to the chain of the
 Ural; and when the Mongolian conqueror
 of Siberia, Kutschjum, intended to destroy
 the settlements of the Stroganoffs, on the
 Kama,  they received, May 30, 1574, a
 grant of the enemy's country, which  al-
 lowed them to  settle on the banks of the
 Tobol, to wage war with Kutschjum, and
 to work mines.  They offered five bands of
 robbers, commanded by revolted Cossack
 hetmanns,  employment in their service,
 exhorting them to give up their dishonest
 mode of life.  Thus the Cossack Jermack
 and his companions  were induced  to
 leave the Wolga,  and, being  joined  by
 many additional forces collected by the
 Stroganoffs, entered Siberia.  The coun-
 try was conquered after three battles, and
 the  taking of  Kutschjum's  camp  by-
 storm.  The capital, Sibir, was captured,
 October 26, 1581.   (See the Chronicle of
 the Stroganoffs, Muller's History of Sibe-
 ria (in German), and Karamsin's History
 of Russia.)—A descendant  of Anika,
 baron Gregory Stroganoff, since 1827 a
 member of the  council of the Russian
 empire, is proprietor of the important salt
 and iron works in Perm, established  by
 his ancestors.  From  1805 to  1808,  he
 was Russian   ambassador at  Madrid ;
 afterwards  at  Stockholm, and in the
 memorable period  of 1821, at Constanti-
 nople, where he distinguished himself by
 talent, firmness and humanity, in the most
 critical conjunctures, and labored strenu-
 ously to protect  the  Greeks  and the
 Greek church.
   Stroke  of the Sun  (coup de soleil).
 When the direct rays of the sun, during
 the hot season of the year, are allowed to
 strike for some time  upon the skin,  an
 inflammation is produced, accompanied
 with blisters and sharp  pains.   After a
 few days, the inflammation ceases, and
 the epidermis peels  off.   If the head is
 exposed to the sun, the brain is sometimes
 affected in a similar manner.  The  blood
 collects  in  great  quantities, the vessels
 become swollen, the face and eyes appear
 red, and violent pains  in the head follow.
 A feverish heat pervades the whole body ;
 lethargy, or suffering which   prevents
 sleep, apoplexy, with or without extrava-
sation of blood, or an inflammation of the
 blood ensues, and often terminates fatally.
 Exposure by sleeping in the sun is par-
 ticularly dangerous.
  Stromboli.  (See Lipari Islands.)
  Strong, Caleb, LL. D., a governor of
Massachusetts,  was  born  in  1744,  at
Northampton, in that state.  He gradu- 
26
STRONG—STRONTITES.
ated at Harvard university, in 1764, and,
after studying law, commenced its prac-
tice in his native place.  In the beginning
of the revolution, he took  an active part
in the cause of hberty.  In 1775, he was
a member of the committee of safety, and,
the following year, of the state legislature.
Of the convention which  formed a con-
stitution for the  state in 1779, he was also
a member, and, on the organization of the
government, was elected a senator.  Two
years afterwards, he was offered a seat on
the bench of the supreme court,  but
declined it  In 1787, he  was chosen a
member of the convention which framed
the constitution  of the U.  States, and
likewise of the state convention by which
it was adopted.  When the general gov-
ernment went  into operation, he  was
chosen a  senator in congress.  In 1800,
he was chosen governor of* Massachusetts,
and continued in that station  for seven
consecutive years.  In 1812,  he  was
reelected to it, and retained it until 1816.
He then retired from public life, and died
in November,  1820.  In the discharge  of
all the various functions with which he was
intrusted,  governor  Strong  was  distin-
guished  for  wisdom,  uprightness,  and
patriotism,  whilst he  possessed,  hi  an
equally eminent  degree, the virtues adapt-
ed especially to private  life.  He was an ac-
complished scholar, jurist and statesman.
  Strong  Beer.   (See Brewing.)
  Strontites ;  a peculiar earth,  dis-
covered in 1793, and thus named   by
doctor Hope,  of Edinburgh, in allusion
to its having been first  noticed in a mine-
ral brought from Strontian, in Argyleshire.
Klaproth examined the mineral the same
year, without a knowledge  of the experi-
ments of  doctor Hope,  and  called the
earth  strontian.   Pure  strontites  is of a
grayish-white  color, possesses a pungent,
acrid  taste, and, when  powdered in  a
mortar, the dust that  rises irritates .the
lungs and  nostrils.  It is  an  unusually
heavy earth, approaching barytes in spe-
cific gravity.   It requires rather more
than 160 parts of water at 60° to dissolve
it;  but of boiling water much  less.  On
cooling, it crystallizes in thin, transparent,
quadrangular plates, seldom exceeding a
quarter of an inch  in length, and fre-
quently adhering together.  These crys-
tals contain about 68 parts in 100 of water;
are soluble in little more than twice their
weight of boiling water.  The solution
of strontites has the property of converting
vegetable  blues  to green.  It tinges the
flame of a  candle ofa beautiful red color.
The experiment may be made by putting
 a little of the salt composed of nitric acid
 and strontites into the wick of a lighted
 candle, or by setting fire to alcohol hold-
 ing muriate of strontites in solution.*   Sir
 II. Davy decomposed this earth by means
 of the same processes as he employed in
 the decomposition of the  other  earths.
 To the metallic  base of it  he gave  the
 name of strontium, which is a white, solid
 metal,  much  heavier  than water,  and
 bears a close resemblance to barium in its
 properties.  When exposed to the air, or
 when  thrown into water,  it rapidly  ab-
 sorbs  oxygen,  and  is converted  into
 strontian.  The salts of strontites  are in
 general more soluble  than the  salts of
 barytes, but less so  than  the  salts of
 lime.  The sulphate  of strontites  is of
 a pure white color,  and is not  sensibly
 soluble in  water.  Anhydrous  nitrate of
 strontites may be prepared by dissolving
 carbonate  of strontites in nitric acid,
 evaporating the solution to  dryness,  re-
 dissolving and evaporating slowly, till the
 salt crystallizes.   It crystallizes in regular
 octahedrons, which are perfectly  trans-
 parent.  It is  soluble hi little more than
 its own weight of water, at the tempera-
 ture of 60°; but  is insoluble  in  alcohol.
 The hydrous nitrate of strontites is formed
 occasionally, when a  solution  of nitrate
 of strontites, sufficiently concentrated, is
 set aside for crystallization.  Its crystals
 are oblique, rhombic prisms.  About one
 quarter of its weight  is water.  The car-
 bonate  of strontites is slightly  soluble in
 water  impregnated with carbonic acid.
 It is easily formed by pouring an alkaline
 carbonate into a  solution  of  nitrate  of
strontites.  Muriate of strontites is formed
 by  dissolving carbonate of strontites in
 muriatic acid, and concentrating the solu-
 tion till it crystallizes.  The crystals  are
 very long needles, consisting, most com-
monly, of six-sided prisms.   Water, at the
temperature of 60°, dissolves one  and a
half times its weight of this salt  Boiling
water dissolves  any  quantity  whatever.
The crystals slowly deliquesce  in a moist
atmosphere.  When heated, they under-
go the watery fusion, and then are  reduced
to a white powder. In a strong red heat,
it melts into a liquid.
  Native salts of strontites.—1. Celestine
is found in right rhombic prisms of 104°—
the primitive form of the species—which
  * The beautiful red fire, which is  now  so  fre-
quently used at the theatres, is composed of the
following ingredients:—40 parts dry nitrate of
strontites, 13 parts of finely powdered sulphur, 5
parts of chlorate of potash, and 4 parts of sulph'u-
ret of antimony.  No other kind of mixture than
rubbing together on a paper is required. 
STONTITES—STROPHE.
27
are sometimes terminated  by  dihedral
summits, and also have their acute lateral
edges truncated, besides presenting vari-
ous other partial modifications.  Cleavage
takes place readily, parallel with all the
faces of the primary figure ; lustre vitre-
ous, inclining to resinous, sometimes, also,
a little to pearly, upon the lateral faces of
the prism;  color white, passing to  sky
and smalt-blue; also reddish-white; trans-
parent or translucent;  brittle ; hardness
between calcareous spar and fluor; spe-
cific gravity 3.8.  Besides occurring in
 >erfect crystals, celestine is found in broad,
 bliated, in columnar and fibrous masses,
as well as compact; the latter, however,
appears to be a mixture of celestine and
common limestone.   It is  composed  of
strontites 56, and sulphuric acid 42.  Be-
fore  the blow-pipe, it  decrepitates  and
melts, without perceptibly coloring the
flame, into a white, friable  enamel.   Re-
duced to powder, it phosphoresces upon
red-hot iron. Celestine is most commonly
found in kidney-shaped masses, dissemi-
nated through the more recent limestones,
sandstones and amygdaloidal rocks.  It
also occurs  in gypsum  rocks, along with
marl.  Beautiful crystals, of a prismatic
form and massive columnar varieties, oc-
cur in the sulphur mines of Sicily ; also,
under the same circumstances, at Bex, in
Switzerland, and near  Cadiz, in Spain.
Tabular crystals and lamellar masses are
found at Monte Viale, and  in the Bristol
channel, in  England.   But the  most
magnificent crystals come from Strontian
island, in  lake Erie.   Handsome blue
foliated  specimens  are also found at
Ijockport, in New York.  It is also found
in several other countries.—2. Strontianite
is found regularly crystallized in the form
of six-sided prisms, modified on the edges,
and terminated in a pyramid.  It affords,
on cleavage, a right rhombic prism for its
primary form, whose angles are 117° 32'
and  62° 28'.  But  regular crystals are
very uncommon.  Lustre vitreous, slight-
ly inclining to resinous ; color asparagus
or apple-green, pale  yellowish-brown,
yellow and gray;  white ; streak white;
transparent or translucent; hardness in-
termediate between calc-spar and  fluor;
specific gravity 3.6.  Strontianite is found,
for the most part, in fibrous  masses, the
fibres slightly diverging.  It is composed
of
    Strontites,.........69.50
    Carbonic acid,  ......30.00
    Water............   .50
100.00
It is soluble  with effervescence  in the
muriatic and nitric  acids ;  and  paper
dipped  into this solution, and afterwards
dried, will burn with a red flame.  It
melts before   the  blow-pipe, and  intu-
mesces,  at  the  same  time phospho-
rescing with  a red fight  It is dissolved
by borax, with a  violent effervescence,
into a clear globule.   Strontianite occurs
in metallic veins, traversing primitive and
transition mountains.   It  is found at
Strontian, in  Scotland ;  at Braunsdorf, in
Saxony; at Leogang, in Salzburg;  and
also in Peru.
  Strophades ; four small, rocky islands
in the Mediterranean, west of the Pelo-
ponnesus ;  according to the ancient poets,
the residence  of the Harpies.  The largest
abounds in olives  and  other fruits, and
produces a little  corn,  hardly sufficient
for its few inhabitants ; 26 miles south of
Zante ;  Ion. 21° 12' E.; lat. 37° 29/ N.
  Strophe (from the Greek o-Tpo<pt), from
(rrpiqiia, I turn); a systematic union of
several  verses.  According to the  pre-
vailing metre  in the verses, strophes are
called  alcaic,  Asclepiadeean,  &c.    The
dithyrambus  with  the Greeks was con-
fined  to no precise rhythm, and  rolled
along without any division  into strophes
But the hymns and choruses, with which
the tragedies  were  interspersed, consisted
mostly of long strophes and antistrophes,
of uniform measure, with  which, also,
sometimes alternated  pro-odes,  mesodes,
or epodes, of various measure.    The
single verses  of such poems, considered
as mere  members  of  strophes,  were
called cola.  As the length of* the verses
is determined by the number of feet, so
the length  of strophes is  determined by
the number of cola.   Monocola are lyric
poems, in which verse ofa uniform char-
acter   is  used,  without   division   into
strophes.   Dicola  are poems in which
the strophes  contain  verses of but  two
different kinds.  Sometimes these verses
interchange in equal number: sometimes
two or three verses of the same kind are
followed by  one  of a  shorter measure.
So there are  tricola, tetracola, &c.   The
system  of strophes,  antistrophes, &c,
appeal's  to be most  developed  in the
dramatic choruses of the  Greeks.  The
singing of the strophes on the stage, was
accompanied  with a motion or turn from
right to left,  towards the  images of the
gods placed on the sides of the orchestra
(in the  ancient sense of this word); but
the singing of the antistrophe, with a con-
trary motion,  from the left to the  right;
hence  the  appellations of strophe  and 
28
STROPHE—STRUIA SEE:
aniistrophe, which  seem to  have been
given to these performances of the  dra-
matic chorus, alone, as ode  and  antode
were applied to the song, unaccompanied
with mimic representations.  The chorus,
originally consisting of fifty persons, but,
by degrees, reduced to fifteen, was some-
times divided, for the purpose of singing
the strophe and antistrophe, into  two
semi-choruses.  In the epode, these were
again united.  The motions  were those
of a rhythmic dance, and therefore ac-
companied by flutes, by which the move-
ment of the verse and that of the dancers
were made to harmonize, as appeal's from
the circumstance that the leader  of the
chorus beat, or indicated time, with shoes,
the soles of which were  covered with
iron.
  Strozzi, Philip, a celebrated Floren-
tine patriot, one of the richest citizens of
Florence in the early part of the sixteenth
century, was allied by marriage with the
Medici, but was too much attaehed to the
ancient republican constitution to  acqui-
esce in the domination of  that  house.
When  the  sovereignty  was assumed by
Alessandro de' Medici, he joined the party
which aimed  at  restoring a free govern-
ment.  Their application for  support, to
the emperor Charles V, being unattended
to, Strozzi induced Lorenzo de' Medici to
assassinate  the  duke.  The  only result
of this action was the immediate succes-
sion of Cosmo,  whom he opposed at the
head of  a body  of troops;  but, being
defeated at the battle of Marona, he was
made prisoner.  Apprehending that he
should be put to the torture, to force a
disclosure of his accomplices, he  antici-
pated the trial by a voluntary  death, with
a poniard.  Having first traced, with the
point of it, the line from  Virgil—Exoriare
aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor! he pierced
his  breast, and  immediately  expired
(1538).
  Struensee and Branot.   John Fred-
eric, count of Struensee, born  at Halle, in
1737, after having completed  his medical
studies, entered upon the practice of phys-
ic at Altona, where he formed an  ac-
quaintance with the count of Rantzau-
Aschberg and Brandt,   In 1768,  he re-
ceived the appointment of physician to
Christian VII, king of Denmark,  whom
he accompanied on his travels through
Germany,  England and France.  After
Christian's marriage with Caroline Matil-
da (q.  v.), a coolness arose between the
royal pair, of which the queen-dowager
took advantage  to  promote the interests
of her son, Christian's half brother.  The
birth of a crown prince, the present king
of Denmark (see Frederic VI), widened the
breach between Caroline  and the queen-
dowager, without reconciling Christian to
his wife.  The  nation  was divided into
two great parlies—that of the king, at the
head  of which  was  the young count
Hoik, the royal favorite,  and that of the
queen-dowager, at Friedensburg.  Caro-
line Matilda aimed at effecting the remov-
al  of Hoik, with the  hope of regaining
the king's favor, while Hoik endeavored to
increase the distance between her and the
king.  Thinking Struensee to be as warm-
ly opposed to the queen  as he was him-
self, he advised  Christian to employ hiin
in his messages to the queen.  But this
proved the ruin of Hoik: the king became
more  and more attached to Struensee,
and the queen, who observed the change,
and contrasted the respectful deportmen.
of Struensee with  the arrogance of the
favorite, soon admitted him to her confi-
dence ; and he effected a reconciliation
between  her  and  the  king.   Struensee
now pursued his ambitious plans with
redoubled zeal.   Bernstorf (q. v.) was re-
moved ; Brandt succeeded Hoik as director
of the theatre and maitre des plaisirs, and
the friends of the queen were  brought
into  office.   To secure   his  influence,
Struensee endeavored to occupy the king
with amusements, and particularly to pre-
vent him from  communicating  directly
with his ministers.  In 1770, at the insti-
gation of Struensee, the king abolished
the council of state, establishing,  in place
of it, a committee of conference, consist-
ing of the heads of the different  depart-
ments of the administration, who were
only  occasionally  assembled, and  had
neither rank nor influence.   This meas-
ure threw  all authority  into the hands
of  the  queen  and the  favorite,   and
roused  the  indignation  of the   Danish
nobility,  which  had enjoyed a seat  and
vote in the council.  Struensee next pro-
cured the removal  of the old ministers ;
and all affairs were now administered in
the name of the kmg, by his personal
attendants.   But the favorite had neither
prudence nor firmness to support  him
iu this situation.   He became overbearing
and  impatient of contradiction,  and  his
attempts to introduce  reformations in the
finances, the army, law,  &c, raised him
up many enemies.  He now caused him-
self to be created count, and, not satisfied
with  this, procured the  dignity  of cab-
inet-minister, with such powers as  no
Danish minister had ever before possessed.
When his enemies attempted to expose 
STRUENSEE—STRYCHNIA.
29
his usurpations, the freedom of the press,
which he had himself introduced, was
subjected to restrictions.  But the friends
of Struensee were already  becoming in-
disposed towards him, and the people be-
gan to show symptoms of dissatisfaction.
Struensee was conscious of his danger,
and took some precautions to defend him-
self.   But on  the night of  Jan. 16, 1772,
the queen, the favorite, Brandt, and their
other partisans, were seized.  The officer
who commanded the guard (an old enemy
of Struensee) had led his officers into the
palace,  declaring that the king had com-
manded him to arrest the queen.   Count
Rantzau-Aschberg then penetrated to the
chamber of the  king, waked him, and
told  him that his life was in danger, and
that  he must sign an order which the
count presented to him. The feeble king
obeyed, and the queen was conducted to
Kronenburg.  An extraordinary commis-
sion  was instituted for the  trial of Stru-
ensee, consisting in part of his personal
enemies.  The proceedings were pushed
with severity ; and, on  the 25th of April,
he was condemned to lose his right hand
and his head, his body to be quartered and
exposed upon the wheel,  and  his head
and  hand to  be stuck  upon  a  stake.
When informed that the king  had con-
firmed the sentence, he received the news
with composure, and was executed on the
28th  of April,  1772.—See  Host's  Count
Struensee  and his Ministry (in  Danish,
1824, and  more  complete in  German,
1826), and Memoires de Falkenskiold (Par-
is, 1826).
  Strutt, Joseph, an English antiquary,
born, in 1749, at Springfield, in Essex,
was articled to an engraver, and obtained
the gold and  silver  medals of the royal
academy.  He published, in 1773, his work
entitled the Regal and  Ecclesiastical An-
tiquities of England (4to.), containing rep-
resentations  of  the  English  monarchs
from  Edward the Confessor  to Henry
VIII.  This was  followed by Horda An-
gel Cynnan, or a complete view  of the
manners, customs, arms, habits, &c, of
the English  from the arrival of the Sax-
ons  to  the  times  of Henry VIII, &c
(1774, 1775  and 1776, 3 vols.,  with 157
plates).  In 1777 and  1778, he published a
Chronicle of England, which he meant
to extend to six volumes, but dropped the
design for want of encouragement. His
Biographical Dictionary of Engravers ap-
peared in 1785 and 1786, in two volumes,
and  his Complete View of the Dresses
and  Habits  of the People of  England,
&c,  in 1796 and 1799 (4to.). In 1601, he
                 3*
published his last and favorite work, enti-
tled  the Sports and Pastimes of the Peo-
ple of England  (with forty plates, new
octavo edition, with 140 plates, 1827).  He
died in London, in  October, 1802, aged
fifty-three.   His  modest character scarce-
ly met, during his life-time, with the en-
couragement it deserved.   He left some
manuscripts, from which have since been
published his Queen Hoo  Hall,  a  ro-
mance, and Ancient Times,  a drama (4
vols., 12mo.); also  the Test of Guilt, or
Traits of Ancient Superstition, a dramatic
tale.
  Strychnia ; a vegetable alkali, found
in the fruit of two species of the strych-
nos.   It is obtained by the following pro-
cess  : The  bean  is rasped down as small
as possible, and exposed to the action of
nitric ether in  a  Papin's digester.   What
remains after the digestion is treated with
alcohol, and the  alcohol is evaporated to
dryness, and the  residue dissolved in wa-
ter.  To  the aqueous solution potash is
added, which throws down the strychnia
in the form of a  white crystalline precip-
itate. This alkali has also been extracted
from the upas poison. The properties of
strychnia, in a state of perfect purity,  are
as follows: It has a crystalline structure
(often presenting four-sided prisms,  ter-
minated  by four-sided pyramids),  is of
a white  color, has an intolerably  bitter
taste, and leaves a metallic impression in
the mouth; it is  destitute of odor, and is
not altered by exposure  to the air; it is
neither fusible nor volatile, except at tem-
peratures at which  it undergoes decompo-
sition.  It is very little soluble in cold wa-
ter, 100,000 parts of that liquid dissolving
only fifteen parts of the alkali; but  it dis-
solves in  2500 times  its weight of boiling
water.  When it is introduced into  the
stomach,  it acts  with prodigious energy.
A locked jaw is  induced in a very  short
time, and the animal is speedily destroy-
ed.  Half a grain of strychnia blown into
the throat of a rabbit, proved fatal in five
minutes,  and  brought on  locked jaw in
two minutes.   A great variety of salts of
this alkali may be obtained by treating it
with the different  acids, and by double
decomposition.—Sulphate  of strychnia
crystallizes in cubes, and is soluble in less
than ten  times its weight of cold water.
It consists of sulphuric  acid 90.5 and
strychnia 9.5.  Muriate of strychnia crys-
tallizes in very small needles, and is more
soluble in water  than the sulphate.    Ni-
trate of strychnia acts with more violence
upon animals than the pure alkali.    So-
lutions of  the salts  of  strychnia,  when 
30
STRYCHNIA—STUART
exposed to a heat  of 212°, become  vol-
atile.
  Strype, John, a  voluminous contribu-
tor to English ecclesiastical history and bi-
ography, was born in 1643, and educated at
St. Paul's school, whence, in 1661, he was
removed to Jesus college, and  afterwards
to Catharine hall, Cambridge.   He grad-
uated M. A. in 1666, and, taking orders,
was nominated to the perpetual curacy of
Theydon Boys, in Essex.  His works are,
Ecclesiastical Monuments (in 3 vols^folio);
Anna's of the Reformation (4  vols., folio,
1709—1731);  an augmented  edition of
Stow's Survey of  Loudon (in 2 vols.,
folio, 1720); and Lives of Cranmer, Par-
ker, Grindal, Whitgitt, sir John Cheke,
sir Thomas  Smith,  and bishop Aylmer.
He was for many years rector of Hack-
ney, in which  he spent the latter part of
his life, which was  prolonged  to the age
of ninety-four.
  Stuart.   The Stftart or Stewart fami-
ly was descended from the great Anglo-
Norman family of Fitz Alan, in England.
The dignity of seneschal or steward of
the king's household having become he-
reditary in a branch of this family, settled
in Scotland, thejitle was converted ihto a
surname. Walter, the sixth high steward,
married Marjory, daughter of Robert (see
Bruce, Robert); and, on the extinction of
the male line of Bruce, Robert Stewart,
their only son,ascended the Scottish throne
(1371) under the title of Robert II.   His
grandson, James I (q. v.), was  murdered
in his bed, in 1437.   His successors were
James II, killed in  a war with  England
(1460);  James III,  who  fell in  battle
against  his  rebellious subjects  (1488);
James IV, who perished fighting against
the English (1513); James V (q. v.), died
of chagrin on account of the  rebellion
of his subjects.  His last words were, on
hearing of the birth of his daughter Mary,
" God's will be done. It came with a lass ;
it will go  with a lass,"—alluding to the
crown, which had come into his family by
marriage.  That daughter (see Mary Stu-
art) perished on the scaffold, and her son
James VI  (I of  England)  united  the
crowns  of England and Scotland (1603).
James I, Charles I, Charles II, James II,
Mary and Anne (see the articles) wore
the double  crown  of the two kingdoms
until  1714,  343  years from  the period
when the  family ascended  the Scottish
throne,  and 111 from the time of its ac-
cession  to  that of  England.   James II
was deposed in 1688, and his son James
Edward (see Stuart, James Edward), who
styled himself James HI, died in exile,
 after ineffectual  attempts  to  regain tne
 throne of his ancestors.  James Ill's son,
 Charles Edward  (see Edward, Charles),
 died childless, in 1788.   His only brother,
 Henry, cardinal of York, died in 1807,
 and with him the house of Stuart became
 extinct.
   Stuart, John; earl of Bute. (See Bute.)
   Stuart, Arabella.  (See Arabella Stu-
 art.)
   Stuart, James Edward Francis; the
 eldest son of James II, by his second wife,
 Mary of Modena, born in London, June
 10,  1688.  He was but five  months old
 when  his father was dethroned; and his
 mother, with her infant, fled  to France,
 where Louis XIV afforded an asylum to
 the  exiled family at  St. Germains.  (See
 James II.)   An attempt was made at the
 peace  of Ryswick, in 1697, to ensure the
 restoration of this young prince to the
 throne of his ancestors, which was defeat-
 ed only by the opposition of his father—as
.William III had agreed to procure the
 recognition of the prince of Wales, as he
 was styled, as his successor;  but James
 II rejected the  proposal, observing that
 he  could support with resignation the
 usurpation  of his son-in-lawr, but  he
 could not suffer his son to become a par-
 ty to it  On the death  of the ex-king, in
 1701, Louis XIV recognised  his son as
 king of England, by the title of James HI,
 and a proclamation, in the name of the
 latter,  was addressed to the English na-
 tion;  but  no effective  measures  were
 adopted in his favor.  The death of Will-
 iam III  (q. v.) revived the hopes of his
 party; but nothing beyond unavailing ne-
 gotiation took place till 1708, when a mar-
 itime expedition against  Scotland was
 fitted out, in which the  prince embarked,
 under the command of the chevalier For-
 bin.  This armament, however, being at-
 tacked by an  English  fleet of superior
 force, returned to France without landing
 the  invading forces; and the  young ad-
 venturer (who assumed the name of the
 chevalier de St. George) joined the French
 army in Flanders, and distinguished him-
 self by his valor at the battle  of Malpla-
 quet  In  the latter part of the reign  of
 Anne, repeated intrigues were set on foot
 to secure  the  restoration of her brother,
 or his succession to the crown after her
 death; but they proved entirely abortive,
 and, on the treaty of Utrecht taking place,
 in 1713, he  was obliged to  submit to a
 temporary retirement from France ; and
 when he  returned to  Paris,  he  resided
 there incognito.  Had not the decease of
 queen Anne  been speedily followed by 
STUART.
31
that of Louis XIV, in 1715, the invasion
of Scotland by the Pretender, as he was
called, might have led to a very different
result from that which actually took place.
(See Anne.)  The regent duke of Orleans
wished to maintain peace with George I,
and the British ambassador at Paris was
informed  of the projects of the chevalier
de St George by the abbe Strickland, one
of his ageuts, who betrayed his confidence.
The earl  of Mar, in Scotland, raised  the
standard of revolt against the house of
Hanover, proclaiming the heir of the Stu-
arts  king, under the title of James III;
and  the  latter, embarking at Dunkirk,
made a descent on the Scottish  coasts;
but he soon perceived that  success was
hopeless,  and was obliged  to return to
France.   Even that kingdom no longer
yielded  him  an asylum,  and  he was
forced to remove, first to Avignon, and
then  to Rome.   In  consequence of the
disputes   which  occurred between  the
duke of Orleans  and cardinal Alberoni,
the prince was, a few years after, invited
to Spain, where he was well received by
Philip V; but the visit had no important
influence  on his affairs, and  Rome again
became his retreat, as it was his future res-
idence.   In 1720, he married the princess
Mary Casimira  Sobieska,  grand-daugh-
ter of the famous John Sobieski,  king of
Poland.   This union was not attended
with domestic happiness, and a separation
between the husband and wife was with
difficulty  prevented  by the interference
of cardinal Alberoni,  then a resident at
Rome.  He took no active part in the ex-
pedition  against Scotland, under his son,
in 1745;  and the latter part of his  life
was dedicated to exercises of piety.  He
died Jan.  2, 1766.
  Stuart, Charles Edward.  (See Ed-
ward, Charles.)
  Stuart, Henry Benedict  Maria  Cle-
ment, cardinal of York,  younger son of
James Edward, and the last descendant
of the royal line of the Stuarts, was born
at Rome, in 1725, and, being destined for
the church, the pope bestowed on him the
right to hold benefices without receiving
the ecclesiastical tonsure.  In 1745, when
the last effort was made for the  restora-
tion of his family, he  assumed the com-
mand of troops assembled at Dunkirk, to
aid the operations of his brother in Great
Britain; but the  news of the battle of
Culloden  prevented the embarkation of
this armament, and prince Henry return-
ed to Rome.  The visions of regal splen-
dor,  in which he might have indulged,
being thus dissipated, he took holy orders,
and, in 1747, pope  Benedict  XIV raised
him to the purple.  He was subsequently
made chancellor of the basilica of St. Pe-
ter, and bishop of Frascati.  On the death
of his brother,  in  1788, he assumed the
barren title to  which the family had as-
pired, and  caused  a medal to be struck,
with the inscription, Henricus Nonus An-
glioz Rex, and on the obverse, Gratia Dei,
non Voluntate Hominum. When the French
conquered Italy, he was obliged to flee to
Venice, and was indebted for his support
to a pension from the English court.  His
death took place in 1807. The valuable
papers of his grandfather  and his father,
which had remained in his possession,
were, after his decease, sent to England.
  Stuart, doctor Gilbert,  an eminent
historical  writer,  born  at  Edinburgh,
in  1742,  was   educated  in   the  uni-
versity  of that  city, where  his  fa-
ther was  professor  of  humanity,  and
was destined  for  the legal profession,
which he relinquished for that of an au-
thor.  In 1767, he published  an Historical
Dissertation concerning the Antiquity of
the  British  Constitution, the  merit of
which procured him the degree of LL. D.
This  was followed, a few years after, by
his View of Society in  Europe, in its
Progress from  Rudeness  to Refinement.
Being disappointed in an  attempt to ob-
tain the professorship of public law in the
university of Edinburgh, he removed  to
London; and, from 1768 to 1774, he was
a contributor to the Monthly  Review. He
then returned to his native city, and es-
tablished the Edinburgh  Magazine and
Review;  but  his  illiberal and  virulent
criticisms ruined the credit of the work,
which was discontinued in 1776.  About
this time,he published hisObservations con-
cerning the Public Law and Constitutional
History of Scotland (8vo.); the History of
the Reformation in Scotland (1780, 4to.);
and the History of Scotland (1782,2 vols.).
In the year last mentioned, he again re-
paired to London,  and engaged  as a wri-
ter ; but habits  of intemperance had un-
dermined his constitution, and he  once
more returned to his native place, where
he died in 1786.  His works display eru-
dition,  industry and  sound judgment,
wherever the  latter quality is not influ-
enced by his jealousy and hatred of  con-
temporary writers.
  Stuart, James ; a distinguished  anti-
quary and architectural draughtsman,
born in London, in 1713.  His father hav-
ing died when  he was young, he assisted
his mother  by  practising fan-painting.
Prompted by his inclination, he studied 
32
STUART—STURGEON.
anatomy, geometry, and other branches of
science; and, having, by his industry, pro-
vided  for the support  of his younger
brother and sister, set out, with  a very
small supply of money, for Rome.  He
supported himself during  his  travels by
the exercise of his talents, and at Rome
made acquaintance with Nicholas Revett,
a skilful architect, with whom he went
to Athens, in 1751.  Here  they remained
till the latter part of 1753, making draw-
ings and taking measurements of archi-
tectural relics.  After visiting Salonica,
Smyrna, and some of  the ^Egean islands,
they returned to England, in the begin-
ning of 1755.  The result of their labors
appeared in the work entitled the Anti-
quities of Athens (1st vol. 1762, folio;  4th
vol. 1816).  A new and improved  edition
of this valuable work  has recently been
published.  Stuart died in 1788.
  Stucco  (Italian)  in architecture; a
composition of white  marble pulverized
and  mixed with plaster of lime,  which,
being sifted and  wrought up with water,
is used like common  plaster.  Architec-
tural and  sculptural ornaments, such as
fruits, flowers, garlands, festoons, &c, are
made of it.   In  the interior of huildings,
stucco work  is  generally  applied to  the
ceilings of apartments, the  mouldings,
&c.   On the  exterior, it should be con-
fined to those parts which  are  not much
exposed to the rain.  In some  countries,
a stucco of common mortar and of plas-
ter is applied to the outside of houses, and
is extremely durable.   Vitruvius seems to
mention stucco in the second, third and
sixth chapters of the seventh book, under
the name of opus albarium, or opus coro-
narium.  Immediately after the stucco is
mixed, it forms a very soft and ductile paste,
which, however, soon hardens, and then
the desired form is given to it with moulds
or with a little spatula of iron.  During
this operation, it continues to harden, and
may even  be  cut; and  at  this period,
those parts of the ornaments are executed
which  demand a nice finish.  In a few
days, it acquires the  consistence  of dry
clay, and  ultimately becomes  hard like
stone, and takes a beautiful polish.
  Studding-Sails ; certain sails extend-
ed, in moderate and steady breezes, beyond
the skirts  of the principal sails,  where
they appear as wings  to the  yard-arms.
The top-mast and top-gallant studding-
sails are those which are set on the out-
side of the top-sails and top-gallant sails.
  Studies.  (See Drawing?)
  Stuff, in commerce, is a general name
for all kinds of fabrics of gold, silver, silk,
wool, hair, cotton, or thread, manufactur-
ed  on the loom ;  of which number are
velvets, brocades, mohair, taffeties, cloth,
serges, &c.  The term is also used more
particularly  to denote slight woollen arti-
cles used principally  for linings and wo-
men's apparel.
  Stuhlweissenburg ; or, in Hungarian,
Szekes Fejervar ; in Sclavonic, Bieli-
grad ;  a royal free town  of  Hungary,
capital  of a county of the same name,
thirty miles south-west of  Buda ; Ion.
18° 25'  E.;  lat.  47° 12' N.;  population,
12,244.   It was built in the eleventh cen-
tury, and, during five centuries, was the
place where the  kings of Hungary were
crowned, and on that account called Alba
Regalis.  It is now declined from its for-
mer importance, and has a mean appear-
ance, though it contains some good build-
ings.  It has a Catholic gymnasium and
some manufactures.
  Stum, in the  wine trade, is a name for
the unfermented juice of the grape, when
it has been several times racked off' and
separated from the sediment.  The casks
are, for  this purpose, well fumigated with
brimstone, in order to prevent fermenta-
tion, through which the juice would be-
come wine.
  Sturdy,  Staggers,  Gid,  Turnsick,
Goggles, Worm under the Horn, Wa-
tery Head, and Pendro, are all popular
names for hydatids, caused by an animal
now  known  as  the tcenias  globulus,
which, by some unaccountable way, finds
entrance into  the brain of  the sheep,
and settles there,  either in some  of its
ventricles, or more frequently in its sub-
stance.  Their size varies from that of the
smallest speck to that  of a pigeon's egg;
and the sheep attacked are generally under
two years old.   These Animals are like-
wise occasionally found in all the natural
cavities  of the body.  Stupidity, a dispo-
sition to sit on the rump, to turn to one
side, &c, are the indications  of this dis-
ease, which  is not incurable, as  has been
supposed, but can be cured only by  a
manual  operation—instruments are thrust
through  the skin  and  skull, or a  wire
through the nostrils, and the hydatid thus
destroyed.  The latter is called by  the
English shepherds wiring.  It is always
fatal, if not relieved by art.
   Sturgeon (acipenser).  A genus  of
cartilaginous fishes, allied  somewhat  to
the shark and ray, but differing essentially
in structure, as well as in  the  habits of
the species.  The  mouth  is situated be-
neath the snout,  is small, retractile, and
destitute of teeth ; there are several fleshy 
STURGEON—STTJRLASON.
33
beards also beneath the snout, and anterior
to the mouth ; the body is massive, elon-
gated,  and furnished with several longi-
tudinal rows of bony plates implanted in
the skin; the gill openings are very large.
The sturgeons inhabit the ocean, Medi-
terranean, Red,  Black, and Caspian seas,
and the Canadian lakes, keeping in inac-
cessible depths during the winter  season,
and in the  spring  ascending the larger
rivers.   The common sturgeon of Eu-
rope (A. sturio) is found  in  most of the
large rivers  of that continent, and some-
times  is  excessively multiplied  in  the
more  northern  countries.   Its flesh is
delicate and well flavored, somewhat re-
sembling veal, and  has been esteemed in
all ages; but modern nations do not con-
sider it so great  a luxury as the ancients,
especially the Romans.  Its fishery is an
object of importance, and caviar is some-
times  made of the  eggs of the  female.—
The isinglass sturgeon, or beluga of the
Russians (A. huso),  is the largest species.
It  is not  so extensively diffused  as  the
former, and is chiefly found in the Black
and Caspian seas, ascending the tributary
streams in immense multitudes.  It fre-
quently attains the length of twenty  or
twenty-five  feet; and individuals have
been taken  weighing nearly three thou-
sand pounds.  It enters the rivers in the
middle of winter, while they are still cov-
ered with ice, is very voracious, and pur-
sues all the smaller  fishes, but feeds like-
wise on vegetables.  The fishery of this
species is  vastly important in the south of
Russia; and upwards of a hundred thou-
sand are  taken  yearly.   The  caviar of
commerce is  chiefly made from its eggs,
which exist in such abundance  as to con-
stitute  nearly one third of the total weight.
This is a very common aliment in Tur-
key, Russia,  Germany,  Italy, and espe-
cially in Greece, and forms an  important
article  of commerce, very  profitable to
Russia.  The flesh is white, fat, resem-
bling veal, very  wholesome, nutritious,
and agreeably tasted.  The isinglass of
commerce is prepared from the air bladder.
The fat is also agreeable to the taste, and
may be used as a substitute for  butter or
oil.  A kind  of leather is made from the
skin, and that of the young ones, cleaned
and dried, is  used  for window-glass  in
some parts of Russia and Tartary.  There
are a few other species of sturgeon in the
rivers of Europe.   We have several stur-
geons  in the U. States, but  their useful
properties appear to be  not yet fully ap-
preciated : it is probable that, at some fu-
ture day,  they  may become important,
though not to the same extent as the Eu-
ropean.—The common round-nosed stur-
geon of the Delaware and Hudson is the
largest, attaining  the length of ten feet.
During the hot season, it is fond of leap-
ing out  of the water, forming a  familiar
and interesting  spectacle.    It  is very
troublesome to the shad fishermen, some-
times breaking their nets when enclosed.
It is sometimes brought to the Philadel-
phia market; but the majority that are ta-
ken in the Delaware are  left to rot along
the shores.   The short-nosed  sturgeon
(A. brevirostrum  of Lesueur) is  a small
species, remarkable for the shortness of
the head in proportion to its breadth.  It
grows  to the length of about three, feet,
and inhabits the  Delaware, but is  rather
rare.  When taken, it  is brought to  the
Philadelphia market,  and commands  a
higher price than  the large one;  but it is
eaten by the common people only.—The
sharp-nosed sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus) of
Mitchell, distinguished by  its long and
somewhat acute snout, grows to the length
of four feet and  upwards.  The skin is
rough.   It is found in  the Delaware, but
not so abundantly as  in the  Hudson.
Probably this is the species which inhab-
its the Merrimack and the rivers of Maine.
A. rubicundus (Les.) inhabits  lakes Erie,
Ontario, Huron, and Michigan.  It  grows
to the length of four feet or more.   The
color is reel, inclining to yellowish on the
back, and to olivaceous on the  sides. The
Indians use it for food,  and  take it by
means ofa harpoon or dart, having a lon^
line attached, in order to enable them to
play the animal till exhausted.   It is not
sought after for the table, but, when taken
by the fishermen  in their seines, is occa-
sionally salted  down, as  a substitute for
more  esteemed food.  Travellers  assert
that it is good, palatable food.  The same,
or a variety, is  found  in the Ohio.  A.
maculosus (Les.)  is  a small species of a
reddish olive color, with black spots, found
in the Ohio.
  Sturlason, Snorro, a native  of Ice-
land, of an old noble family, was born in
1179.   He lived  for a long time at  the
courts  of Norway and Sweden, was at
last lagmann of Iceland, and was mur-
dered in 1241,  in his  castle.   He  was a
man of great talents, and rendered him-
self famous as a poet, lawgiver, zealous
republican, and historian.  He composed
a general history  of the  north,  from the
ancient  songs of the  scalds, and  other
historical sources, with taste, and a faith-
ful  use  of  his sources.  His historj' is
rich in  information respecting  Sweden 
34                         STURLASON—STYLE.
and Iceland, somewhat less so in regard to
Norway, and affords some notices respect-
ing  Russia.   Its  title  is  Heimskringla
(i. e. Orbis Terrarum), edr. Noregs Konun-
ga Soegorseu Historic Regum Scptentrio-
nalium a Snorrone Sturlonide conscripts,
edited by John Peringskioeld (Stockholm,
1697).   A new edition, enlarged and cor-
rected  by G. Schoning and S. Th. Thor-
lacius, appeared in 3. vols., folio, at Copen-
hagen (1777—82).   The continuation by
SturlaThoraldson (of Norway), and an un-
known writer, is to be found in Christian
Jakobi's Norvegia  Monarchica et Chris-
tiana (Gliickstadt,  1712, 4to.).   (See  our
article Scandinavian Literature.)  A long
account of Snorro Sturlason is to be found
in Wheaton's History of the Northmen,
page 98 et seq. of the American edition.
  Stuttering, Stammering, or Hesita-
tion of Speech, are terms implying an in-
terrupted articulation, accompanied gene-
rally with more or less of straining and
distortion  of feature.   If owing to  a
vicious  conformation  of the tongue,  or
other organ of speech, it  is incurable;
but  when merely  spasmodic, the cure is
possible, and  sometimes easy.  In some
cases, stuttering is  relievable at once, by
avoiding carefully the usual hurried repe-
tition of the same syllable, or by opening
the mouth, and allowing simple sound to
pass, when any one oral position threat-
ens to become spasmodically permanent.
Should it arise from the attempt to speak
being made while  drawing in the breath,
it may be avoided by filling the chest well
before  beginning to speak.  A scale of
articulate sounds, or table of articulations,
with minute  directions as to the proper
position of the organs in producing  the
different sounds, may, likewise, in some
instances, prove useful to the patient.
  Stuttgard, or Stuttgart ; capital of
the  kingdom of  Wurtemberg, on  the
small river Nesenbach; Ion.  9° 11'  E.;
lat 48° 46'  N.; thirty-five miles south-
east of  Carlsruhe, one  hundred   and
sixteen  north-west of  Munich;  popula-
tion in 1827, 22,000; with the mihtary
and strangers, 31,330.   It is situated in a
valley, two miles from the Neckar, and is
divided into three parts,  the town proper,
two suburbs adjacent to  each other, and a
separate suburb, called  Esslingen.  The
town proper is badly built, the streets be-
ing narrow, and the houses frequently of
wood: the suburbs have a better appear-
ance, particularly that of Esslingen, which
contains the royal palace, gymnasium,
barracks,  and  other  public  buildings.
The palace is a noble structure, situated
near an extensive  park, and contains  a
good collection of paintings, statues, &c.
The royal library  contains 200,000 vol-
umes, including 12,000 copies of the Bible
of different editions. The town has a public
library, an old  palace, mint, town  house,
great church, and royal stables.  Though
surrounded by a wall and  ditch, Stutt-
gard is  a place of no strength.   The
manufactures  are  on a small scale ; the
expenditures of the court and  nobility
forming the chief support  of the inhabit-
ants.  The surrounding country is fertile
and  delightful, consisting of eminences
covered with  vineyards, and valleys  laid
out in corn-fields.   The  Solitude, near
Stuttgard, is a beautiful country residence
of the sovereign.
  Stye (hordeolum); a little tumor on
the  eyelids, resembling  a  barley-corn.
The stye is strictly only a little bile, which
projects from  the  edge of the eyelids,
mostly near the great angle of the eye.
This little tumor is of a dark red color,
much inflamed, and a great deal more
painful than might be expected, consider-
ing its small size. The latter circumstance
is partly owing to the vehemence  of the
inflammation  producing  the stye, and
partly to the exquisite sensibility and ten-
sion of the  skin, which covers the edge
of the eyelids.    On  this account,  the
hordeolum very  often  excites fever and
restlessness in delicate, irritable constitu-
tions:  it suppurates slowly and  imper-
fectly ;  and, when suppurated,  has no
tendency to burst.  The  stye forms an
exception to the  general rule, that the
best mode in which inflammatory swell-
ings can end, is resolution; for, whenever
it extends so deeply as to  destroy any of
the cellular substance, the  little tumor
can never be resolved, or only imperfect-
ly so.  This event, indeed, would rather
be hurtful, since there would still remain
behind  a greater  or smaller portion of
dead  cellular  membrane,  which, sooner
or later, might bring on a  renewal of the
stye, in the same place as  before, or  else
become converted  into a hard, indolent
body, deforming the edge of the  eyelid.
  Style,  from arvXoi,  originally  the in-
strument with which the  ancients wrote
on  hard  substances, came afterwards  to
signify the peculiar way of expressing a
thought or  idea  in language  or form.
Thought strives for manifestation.  Its
most  effectual instrument  is language.
The object of  language is to give an ac-
curate picture of the  thoughts  of the
speaker to the  person addressed.  Hence
it  must vary  with the character of the 
STYLE.
35
 persons spoken to.   It should always,
 however,  be the natural product  of a
 man's own mind ; and when thoughts are
 folly matured, they can be easily express-
 ed  by one who has the riches of a culti-
 vated language at his command.  A style
 of expression which betrays the effect of
 i nutation is always disagreeable ; and the
 more so the more  perfect is the imita-
 tion.  It is body without spirit, the cov-
 ering of the pupa without the butterfly
 within.  The study of the style of others
 can be of advantage only as it shows the
 connexion between  their  thoughts  and
 their manner of expression.   The  first
 requisite of a good  style is  clear and in-
 dependent thought   Some have  even
 considered  it the only thing necessary;
 but this is going too far. There is a cer-
 tain mechanical skill required, to find the
 best expression ofa thought in a language
 which is the common means of commu-
 nication  among millions of people,  all
 differing in character and circumstances ;
 and it would be mere loss  of time  for
 every one  to attempt to acquire this by
 his own experience, for which he may
 not have a good opportunity ; but, unless
 it is acquired, even the most highly gifted
 intellects can  produce but an  imperfect
 effect  This circumstance, that we speak
 and write for others; that our expression,
 as far as  regards ourselves, is the effect
 of thought, whilst, as respects others, it is
 intended to become the cause of thought,
 —is, perhaps, the chief reason for studying
 style.  Still, however,  we must repeat,
 that  the most  important means for be-
 coming clear to others, is to be clear  to
 ourselves.  To excel in writing or speak-
 ing, as to excel in music, painting, architec-
 ture,  mathematics, &c, original talent is
 the first thing necessary ; yet study is in-
 dispensable,  and without it, hardly  any
 progress could  be made in  the  various
 branches  of human activity.  The  col-
 lected experience  of  many  furnishes
 principles for a theory of style as well as
 of every art ; but this theory will be of
 advantage only to him who has the main
 requisites of clear and just thought. One
 of the best general rules of style is to be
 as brief as perspicuity  allows;  though
 there are some exceptions, particularly in
 the case of public  speaking, in which it
 is often necessary to dwell long on impor-
 tant ideas, in order  to  afford the hearer
time  to comprehend  them  fully.    In
writing, there are very few exceptions to
the rule.   Logical correctness of thought,
though essential to a good style, does not
need  to be particularly treated of in dis-
cussing the theory of style.  It falls prop-
erly under the head of a disquisition on
logic.  Beauty of style consists in har-
monious expression, an easy flow, and a
happy connexion of ideas ; in the avoid-
ance of every thing which can  offend
good taste and decorum; in the use of
imagery  fitted to strike and gratify the
imagination, &c.   The two chief branch-
es of style are those of prose and poetry.
(See these articles.)  The ancient rheto-
ricians speak of a genus dicendi tenue,
medium, etsuhlimc, or a lower, middle, and
higher style.   No work, however, neces-
sarily falls, from beginning to end, under
either of these heads.   Style must sink
or rise with the thoughts and feelings exT
pressed.   The various  relations  of  life,
and the  various  modes and subjects of
communication, render the division  of
prose into various kinds of style necessa-
ry.  Thus we have the didactic style, the
style of business, the epistolary, the  his-
torical style,  and the various oratorical
styles. Style began early to be cultivated.
Among the Greeks, who, however, con-
fined themselves  almost entirely to ora-
torical expression,  Aristotle,  Demetrius
Phalereus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
Hermogenes, and Longinus; among the
Romans, Cicero and Quinctilian, are the
principal writers on style.
   Style, in  the  arts.    Style,  or mode
of representation, in the arts, depends on
the character  of the artist, the subjects,
the art itself, the  materials used, the ob-
ject aimed at, &c.   The  style varies in
different periods : thus we have the ante-
Greek, or old Oriental style, in which the
powerful and colossal prevails; the clas-
sical or antique style of the Greeks and
Romans  (see Antique),  and the style of
Christian  art  (the romantic  or  modern
style). It is influenced by differences of
national  character.  Thus  we  have  a
German,  Italian,   French, and  English
style or school.   The  effect of the  na-
tional character is particularly apparent in
certain arts, e. g. painting or music.  The
national style also has its periods;  at one
time aims particularly at the sublime or
great, at other times strives after the beau-
tiful, the pleasing and graceful; as Winck-
elmann has  observed in respect  to  the
Greek plastic art.  The  style varies, too,
with  the  character of  the  individual.
Here we  must distinguish between  the
style which proceeds from the nature of the
subjects to which  the genius of the artist
inclines him, and his mode of represent-
ing those  subjects.  The latter is  called
more particularly manner.  The manner 
36
STYLE—STYX.
of an artist may be noble or petty, strong
or weak;  but it is always  uniform, and
in a certain  degree  arbitrary, while  the
style,  in  its proper sense,  is not.   The
style of great artists continues  in their
schools, and  there  usually degenerates
into manner.   The word style  is also ap-
plied to the different modes of representa-
tion, occasioned by the different nature of
the various arts: thus there is  an archi-
tectural, a plastic, a  picturesque  style.
The various branches of an art, too, have
each its peculiar style;  e.  g.  in poetry,
there are the  epic, lyric, dramatic styles;
in music, the  sacred, opera,  concert styles,
the  vocal and instrumental  styles,  the
quartetto, sonata,  symphony styles, &,c.;
in painting, there  are the historical, land-
scape, &c. styles.
  Style, Old and New. (See Calendar,
and Epoch.)
  Styles of  Architecture.  (See Ar-
chitecture, vol. i, page 339.)
  Stylites (from arOXos, column; in Latin,
sancti  columnares).   The  most  singular
saints of the Christian church were ancho-
rites (q. v.),  who, by way of penance,
passed the greater part of their lives on the
top  of hi'.h columns.  Simeon, a Syrian
monk,  of the fifth century, invented this
insane method of self-torture,  about 423.
He lived, for nine years, on a column, the
top of which Was only two ells  in circum-
ference, in the open air,  near Antioch,
afterwards  changed  it for a higher one,
and at  length for one forty cubits, and on-
ly three feet in diameter at top; when he
slept,  he leaned  against a sort of balus-
trade.  On this pillar he remained twenty-
eight years, till his death, in 459 or 460.
The whole time  which he passed on the
top of pillars, was about thirty-seven years.
It appears, however, that  he must have
descended  at times, since  he  cured the
sick by his touch, and performed sundry
other  miracles; wrote epistles, and took
part in political quarrels.   The example
of this strange being, who was canonized
after his death, was  imitated  by  many
persons in Syria and Palestine; and the
mania  continued  until the  12th century.
The Dictionnaire  de  TMologie, a modern
Catholic work, chiefly in defence of the
Roman church, has a long article Stylite,
vindicating St. Simeon, as  an instru-
ment in the hands of the Creator, for the
conversion of the heathen.  " Shall we
refuse  to God," says  the writer, " the lib-
erty of attaching the grace of  conversion
to such means as he may choose ? "  The
article also relates the miracles of St.
Simeon.
  Stymphalides, in mythology; certain
birds of prey, which derived  their name
from the town or the lake of Stymphalus,
in Arcadia, near which they lived; or
from an ancient hero Stymphalus, whose
daughters they were considered to be.
They were large birds, with  iron wings,
beaks and claws, of the size of cranes, in
form  similar  to  the ibis,  but having
straight beaks.  They could  shoot  their
feathers like arrows, and  thus  kill  men
and  beasts.  (See  Argonauts.)  Eurys-
theus imposed on Hercules the task of
drivmg them  from the  place  of  their
abode, in which he succeeded.
  Stymphalus.  (See Stymphalides.
  Styptic ; a remedy that has the virtue
of stopping blood, or of closing  the aper-
ture ofa wounded  vessel.  Many waters
and powders are of this nature; but in most
of them vitriol is the chief ingredient.
  Styria.   (See Stiria.)
  Styx ;  a nymph,  according to Hesiod,
the daughter of Oceanus and Thetis, ac-
cording to others, of Erebus  and Night.
By Pallas, she became the mother of Ze-
los and Cratos, Nike and Bia (Zeal, Pow-
er, Victory and  Strength); according to
Pausanias, she bore  the Hydra to a certain
Piras; and, according to Apollodorus, Pros-
erpine to  Jupiter.   Her children, by Pal-
las  (according to  Hesiod), enjoyed tho
honor of living with Jupiter, and of being
inseparably connected with him, because
they and  their mother assisted him in the
war  with the Titans.  In honor of Styx
herself,  it  was provided, that  the  gods
should swear by her. According to anoth-
er passage of Hesiod, Styx lived with her
children  in the region of Tartarus, in a
palace of rocks, separated from the dwell-
ings  of the other deities residing there, or
in a grotto resting on columns.   From
this  rock issued a cold  stream, which
flowed far under the earth unseen.  It
was  the  tenth arm of Ocean.   Nine of
them flowed around the  earth, and the
sea,  and  then emptied  into the tenth,
which (the Styx) descended to the lower
regions, where it  formed  the celebrated
Stygian pool.  By  this the gods swore;
and if any god violated his oath, he was
banished  from Olympus,  stretched out
lifeless,  and  became  overgrown  with
mould.  In this state he remained a year;
after  which, he  suffered other torments
for nine years, and, during this period, was
excluded from the society of the gods.
Styx  was originally a rivulet in Arcadia,
springing from a high rock, near the town
of Nonacris.  Its water was considered
poisonous  to men  and  beasts*  metals 
STYX—SUBHASTATIO.
37
were corroded, and vessels burst to pieces
by it.
  Suabia, or Swabia (in German,Schtva-
ben); one of the ten circles into which the
German empire was divided, previous to
its dissolution in 1806. It lay in the south-
western part of Germany, comprising some
of the most fertile and beautiful parts of
the country, traversed from south-west to
north-east by the Danube.   The  Black
Forest (q. v.), or Schwarzvvald, intersects
the western part of the country, and the
Suabian Alps (see Alps, Suabian) stretch
through the interior.  The circle of" Sua-
bia, comprising 13,150 square miles, with
2,200,000 inhabitants, was surrounded by
France, Switzerland, the  Austrian terri-
tories,  Bavaria, Franconia, and  the  cir-
cles of the  Rhine.  The soil is fertile, the
ta.ee  of the country mountainous.  The
circle comprised the sovereign bishoprics
of Augsburg and Constance, the princely
provostship of Elwangen, and the prince-
ly abbey of Komptcn ; the abbeys of Sal-
mansweiler, Weingarten,  Ochscnhausen,
Klehingen, Irsee, Ursperg, Kaisersheim,
lioggenburg. Roth, Weissenuu, Schie-sen-
ried, Marchthal, Petershausen, Wetten-
Iiausen, Zweifalten and Gengenbach, Ne-
resheim, IIcggbnch,Guttenzeil, llothmiin-
ster, Baindt, Soflingen, Isni, Lindau and
Buchau ; the duchy of Wiirtemberg; the
margraviate of Baden; the principalities
of Hohenzollem and Lichtenstein ;  the
iandgraviates of Klettgau, Stuhlingen and
Baar;  the  Teutonic  commandery of
Alschhausen;  the   counties  (grafschqfl)
of Thengen,   Heiligenberg,   OZttingcn,
Fricdberg-Scheer, Kcinigsegg, Eherstein,
Hohenems, Bondorf,  Hohengeroldseck;
the lands of the  counts Fugger; the coun-
ty and lordships of Truchsess of Wald-
liurg;  the lordships  of  Trochtelfingen,
Juugnau, Wicsenstei{.,llausen, Moskirch,
Tetiiang, with Argen, Miudelheim,Schwa-
beck,   Gundelfiugen,  Justingcn,  Eglof,
Tannhausen and Burg, with Neusicking-
en, and the thirty-one imperial  free cit-
ies of Augsburg, Ulm, Esslingen,  lleut-
lingen,  Nordlingen,  Hall, Ueberlingen,
Rotweil, Heilbronu, Gemiind, Memmin-
gen, Lindau, Diinkelsbuhl, Biberacb, Ra-
vensburg, Kempten, Kaufbeuern, Weil,
Wangen,   Isny,  Leutkirch,   Wimpfen,
Giengen, Pfullendorf, Buchhorn, Aalen,
Bopfingen, Buchau, Offenburg, Gengen-
bach,  Zell on  the  Hammersbach.   Of
these numerous sovereignties, the posses-
sions  of the Wiirtemberg,  Baden  and
Furstenberg houses were the most exten-
sive.  Wiirtemberg, Baden, the two Ho-
henzollem  lines, and Lichtenstein, are the
  VOL. XII.         4
only ones that have not been mediatized.
(See Mediatization.)  The diets of the cir-
cle were commonly  held  at Ulm, and in
time of peace  twice a year.  Austrian
Suabia  was composed of the hereditary
states of the house of Hapsburg, compris-
ing Burgau, Nellenburg, the prefectorate
of Suabia,  Hohenberg,  the Brisgau, Or-
tenau, and some towns and convents, con-
taining  in  all  a  population  of  about
170,000; but these have been renounced
or exchanged. The kingdom of Wiirtem-
berg and the  grand duchy of Baden com-
prise at present the greater part  of Sua-
bia.  The kingdom of Bavaria includes a
part on  the east side; and  other  portions
are subject to the princes of" Hohenzollem
and Lichtenstein.   (See Pfister's History
of Suabia, and Leichtlen's Suabia  under
the Romans (both in German).   (See also
our articles Germany, and Hohenstaufen.) ,
  Suabian Alps.  (See Alps, Suabian.)
  Suabian Poets.  (See Minnesingers.)
  Suada, or Suadela ;  with the Greeks,
Peitho,  the goddess of persuasion, whose
worship Theseus is  said to have estab-
lished at Athens, in memory of the union
of the scattered population of Attica into
one state.  A statue of this goddess, made
by  Praxiteles, stood in Athens, in the
temple of Aphrodite  (Venus).   She was
represented as belonging, with the Graces,
to the company of Venus.  Some  make
Suada herself one of the Graces.
  Suard, JeanBaptiste Anthony, a French
miscellaneous writer, born at Besancon,
in 17313, was  the editor of the Journal  de
Paris.   During the revolution,  he  con-
ducted  a publication entitled  Nouvelles
Politiques,  which, professing to oppose
democracy, was suppressed, and he was
forced to quit France.  When Bonaparte
was first consul, he returned, and became
member of the legion of honor, and of the
national institute, and perpetual secretary
of the class of French literature.  He then
established a journal called the Publiciste,
which was soon given up for the Archives
Littiraires, and the  Opuscules  Philoso-
phiques.   Suard was familiar with  Eng-
lish literature, and translated Robertson's
Charles V, and History of America, with
several  other English works.   Many  of
thenoticesofEnglishmeninthe.BiogTa/>Ztt'c:
Universelle are from his pen. See Garat's
Mimoires historiques  sur Suard (1820).
He died at Paris in 1817.
   Subhastatio, in the civil law, is the
public sale of immovable property, to the
highest  bidder, as  auction, in that law, is
the sale of mobUia, or personal property.
The jus primi liciti in some countries, al- 
38
SUBHASTATIO—SUBSTANCE.
lows the first bidder at an auction sale to
take the article at the highest price  bid ;
but he must declare  his intention before
the hammer falls.  The name subhastutio
originated  from  the Roman usage of
planting a spear  (hasta) on the spot where
a pu.-lic sale was to take place.
  Subject, in philosophy.  (See Object.)
In  ethics, subject ofien  designates a free
agent, in contradistinction  to things inan-
imate.   In music, the theme ofa fugue is
called subject.  In politics, all the people
who owe allegiance to a monarch, have
been heretofore called the  monarch's sub-
jects, even whi n his authority rested  on a
con ract  with the  people, and his power
was limited.   But  the French seem un-
willing to allow this name  to be applied to
them since the revolution of 1830.   The
use of the word in ibis application, by the
minister Montalivet, in the session of Jan-
uary 4, lo32, caused  much  excitement in
the  chamber of  deputies,  and  minis-
ters have since  avoided it.   Those  per-
sons who are under the sway ofa repub-
lic, without participating in all the righls
of those  in  whom ihe sovereignty re.-ts,
are also called subjects.  Thus Hamburg
calls the inhabitants of Ritzebiittel  sub-
jects.
  Subjective, and Subjfxtivity.  (See
Objeci.)
  Sublimate,Corrosive. (SeeMercury,
vol. viii, p. 421.)
  Sublimation;  a  process by  which
volatile substances are ra'sed by heat, and
again condensed in  a solid form.  This
chemical  process  differs  fiom evap-
oration  only  in  being conf ned  to solid
substances.   It is usually performed either
for the purpose of purifying  certain  sub-
B'ances, and disengaging them from ex-
traneous matters, or else to reduce them
into vapor, and combine them under that
form.  As all fluids are volatilized by heat,
and consequently  capable of being sepa-
rated, in most cases, from fixed matters,
so various  solid  bodies are subjected to a
sunilar treatment.  Fluids are said to dis-
til, aud  solids to sublime, though some-
times both  are  obtained  in one and the
same operation.   If the subliming matter
concretes into a solid, hard mass,  it is com-
monly called a sublimate; if into a pow-
dery  form, flowers.  The principal  sub-
jects of this operation are, volatile alka-
line salts;  neutral  salts, composed of vol-
atile alkali and  acids, as  sal ammoniac;
the salt of amber, and flowers of benzoin,
mercurial   preparations,  and   siilph'ir.
Bodies of themselves not volatile, are fre-
quently made to sublime by the mixture
of volatile ones; thus iron is carried over
by sal ammoniac, in the preparation of the
flores  martiales, or ferrum  ammoniatum.
The fumes of solid bodies in close vessels
rise  but a little way, and adhere  to that
part of the vessel where they concrete.
  Sublime Porte.  (See Turkey.)
  Subornation   of   Perjury.    (See
Perjury.)
  Subsidies.  With  the  Romans,  the
third line  of  troops  (corps de  reserve),
which, in case of necessity, assisted the
two  firsr, was  called subsidium.  Hence
subsidiary is used  in the sense of auxilia-
ry.   The,  substantive subsidy is used to
denote the pecuniary assistance afforded,
according to treaty, by one government to
another, sometimes to secure its neutral-
ity,  but more frequently in consideration
of its furnishing a certain  number of
troops.  Subsidies, or  supplies,  in Eng-
land, also denotes  the  money granted by
parliament to the government.
  Substance (substantia), in a philosoph-
ical  sens.1, is contradistinguished  to acci-
dent, and signifies  that which exists inde-
pendently and unchangeably; whilst acci-
dent denotes the  changeable phenomena
in substance, whether these phenomena
are  necessary or  casual, in which latter
case  they  are called accidents, in  a nar-
rower sense.  The relation  of accident to
substance is called the relation of inhe-
rence, and  corresponds to  the logical re-
lation of subject and predicate ; because
the substance is the subject, to which are
assigned the qualities, states and relations
as predicates:  substance itself is  the  es-
sence, which is capable of these phenom-
ena,  and, in spite of these changes,  re-
mains the same.   Some  schoolmen gave
the name of substance  to that  in which
exists our ideal of perfection ; others to a
thing which exists through  itself and  for
itself. Leibnitz calls substance that which
contains in itself the cause of its changt s.
In  natural science and  in  common  life,
substance  is used to  designate material
beings, especially simple, inorganic bodies,
and  the fundamental  constituents of or-
ganic  bodies;  e.  g.  a  liquid substance.
But every  substance  which falls within
the scope of our observation, if we under-
stand  by substance that which  is  un-
changeable in  its phenomena, is  only a
relative one; i. e.  is such only in  res*>ect
to some others, and is  not uncondition-
ally  independent,  but must be conceived
dependent  upon  one  original  cause of
things.  In contradistinction to the rela-
tive substance, therefore, we speak of ab-
solute substance,  as  the  one  original 
SUBSTANCE—SUCKLING.
39
 essence of all things; and the relation of
 the latter to the former has been variously
 considered.  Spinoza has treated  particu-
 larly of the one absolute substance, and
 given to it infinite thought and infinite
 extension as inseparable  attributes.
   Substantive.  (See Noun.)
   Substitution, in the civil law, is the
 appointment of an heir to succeed in case
 of the failure of one previously appoint-
 ed.  If the second person is to  succeed
 in case of the  death of the  first, or of his
 not accepting the inheritance, the substi-
 tution  is called direct, if the first heir is
 bound to  convey the  inheritance to the
 substitute or second heir.   This is a fidei-
 commissary substitution.  (SeeFidei Com-
 missa.)  The former kind comprises the
 vulgar substitution, which is merely the
 appointment of a second heir in case the
 first should not inherit, and the pupillary
 substitution, which is the appointment of
 an heir,  by a father or  grandfather, in the
 name  of a minor child, over whom he
 has pafrnal  power, in case  the  latter
 should die a minor.  The  mother cannot
 make  a  pupillary substitution.  The lat-
 ter ceases, I.  by the death of the minor
 in question before the death of the  testa-
 tor; 2. by his arriving at full age ;  3. by
 the  paternal appointment tailing  to take
 effect; 4. by the withdrawing of the minor
 from  the  paternal power.   The  quasi
 pupillary substitution (substitutio exempla-
 ris) is the appointment of an heir by pa-
 rents for an idiot child, in case the child
 should die in a state of idiocy. If the child
 has lucid intervals, the parents are not al-
 lowed to make such substitution  ; other-
 wise, even the mother may do it.
   Subtangent of a Curve, in the higher
 geometry,  is the  line  which  determines
 the intersection of the tangent with the
 axis, or  that determines the point where
 the tangent cuts the  axis prolonged.
   Subtense, in geometry ; the same with
 the chord of an arch.
   Succession Powder.   (See  Poudre
 de Succession.)
   Succinic Acid  ; an  acid derived from
 the distillation of amber.  By adding one
 twelfth part of sulphuric acid, diluted with
 an equal weight of water, the yield ofacid is
 much increased. The acid, being dissolved
 in hot water, and filtered, is to be  saturat-
 ed with potash or  soda,  and boiled  with
 charcoal.  The solution being  filtered,
nitrate of lead  is added ; whence results
an  insoluble  succinate  of  lead;  from
which,  by  digestion   in the equivalent
quantity of sulphuric acid, pure succinic
acid 13 separated.  It is in  white trans-
parent crystals, which  possess a  sharp
taste, and powerfully redden tincture of
turnsole.  It is soluble in  both alcohol
and water.  It. forms salts  with the alka-
lies and oxides.  The succinates of pot-
ash and  ammonia are crystallizable and
deliquescent That of soda does not attract
moisture. The succinate  of ammonia is
useful  in analysis to separate oxide  of
iron.
  Succory.  (See Endive.)
  Suchet, Louis Gabriel,  duke of Albu-
fera, marshal of France, born at Lyons
in 1770, entered the military service at an
early  age  (1790), and passed  rapidly
through  the inferior ranks.  In 1/96, he
was attached to the army of Italy, and
attracted the notice of general Bonaparte,
by  his  courage, boldness and  caution.
He then  served  wiih distinction  under
Massena and Joubert, and  was one of the
most active and successful of Napoleon's
generals  in  the campaigns of 18C5 and
18C6.  In 18C8, he received the command
of a division in Spain, and was almost
constantly victorious till after the  battle
of Vittoria.  His brilliant services in that
country obtained him the marshal's staff,
and the title of duke.   After the  restora-
tion, Suchet was created peer of France.
Having accepted, under Napoleon, a com-
mand during the hundred days,  he was
deprived of his seat on the second resto-
ration, but readmitted in 1819.  He died
in 1826.
  Sucking Fish.  (See Echeneis.)
  Suckling, sir  John, a wit, courtier,
and  dramatist,  son  of  a  knight  of the
same name, was bom in  1613,  at Wit-
ham, in Middlesex.  He is  said to have
spoken  Latin  fluently at  five years old,
and  written it with ease and elegance
at nine.  After lingering some time about
the court, he was despatched upon his
travels,   and  served  a  campaign  under
the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, in the
course of which he was present at three
battles and several  sieges.  At the time
of the Scotch war, sir John raised a troop
of horse  for the king's service, who be-
haved so badly in the field as to disgrace
both themselves and their  commander.
An abortive attempt to effect the escape
of the  earl  of  Strafford,  confined  in
the Tower  under articles of impeach-
ment from  the  commons, implicated sir
John so  seriously, that he thought it ad-
visable to retire to France, where he died
in 1641.   His writings consist of letters
written with ease and spirit; some mis-
cellaneous poems ;  Aglaura,  a  play;
Brennoralt, a  u'agedy;  the  Sad One, a 
40
SUCKLING-SUCRE.
tragedy left incomplete ;  and the Goblins,
a tragi-comedy.
  Sucre, Antonio  Jose  de, was bom in
1793, at Cumaua, in Venezuela.  He was
educated at Caracas, and entered the ar-
my in 1811, where he served with credit
under the orders of the celebrated Miran-
da.   Afterwards he  became  favorably
known for activity, intelligence and cour-
age, under Piar, the  mulatto  general.
From 1814 to 1817, Sucre served in the
staff of the army, and displayed the zeal
and talent which characterized him.  In
1819, he had  attained  the rank of briga-
dier-general, and was one  of the  com-
missioners appointed,  after  the battle of
Bojaca, to negotiate a suspension  of hos-
tilities with Morillo.   Subsequently  to
this, he received the command of a divis-
ion sent from Bogota to assist the province
of Guayaquil. He met with a severe check
at Huachi, but succeeded, late in the year
1821, in concluding an armistice  with
Aymerich,  the royalist  general, which
was, in its effects, equivalent to a victory.
It enabled the Peruvian division, under
Santa Cruz, to form a junction with  the
Colombians.  Hostilities recommenced in
February, 1822, and  the united armies
were so fortunate as to achieve the deci-
sive victory of Pichincha, May 24, 1822,
which was immediately followed by the
capitulation of Quito.  This brilliant suc-
cess fixed the public attention upon Su-
cre, and raised expectations  of his future
eminence, which the event fully justified.
Meanwhile Bolivar had  proceeded to the
south, at the head of a large army destined
to act against  the Spanish forces  in that
quarter; and, in July,  1822,  had an inter-
view with the protector, San Martin, at
Guayaquil.   Early  in  1823,  Sucre  was
despatched to Lima as Colombian envoy,
accompanied by an  auxiliary Colombian
army of 3000 men.  Lima,  having been
left unprotected, at this  tune, by  the de-
parture  of Santa Cruz to reduce  the
southern provinces, was  retaken by Can-
tcrac, and abandoned by the  president,
Riva-Aguero, and the Peruvian congress,
June 18, 1823.  Hereupon Sucre was ap-
pointed commander-in-chief of the forces,
and, a few days afterwards, supreme milita-
ry chief,with powers almost unlimited.  He
retired to Callao, which  was invested by
the royalists, until the  successes of Santa
Cruz  in  the  south  obliged Canterac to
evacuate Lima,  July  17,   1823.   Sucre
then determined to place himself at the
head  of an expedition sent against Are-
quipa, and to cooperate with Santa Cruz.
But the total destruction of the patriot
army,  under the latter, in Upper Peru,
made it necessary for Sucre to rei'mbark,
and return to Callao.   In September, gen-
eral Bolivar  made his public  entry into
Lima,  having  obtained permission  from
the Colombian government  to prosecute
the war in  Peru, and was  immediately
invested with supreme authority in mili-
tary  and political affairs.    Of  course,
general Sucre now became only second in
command of the liberating army, consist-
ing of 10,000 men, assembled at Huaras,
preparatory to  commencing offensive op-
erations. But after the battle of Junin,
gained  by  the patriots, August 5, 1824,
Bolivar quitted  the  army, and went to
Lima,  to attend to affairs on the coast,
leaving the prosecution of the war with
Sucre.   In  the arduous  and masterly
movements which followed, Sucre dis-
played the skill ofa consummate general.
The scene of operations was the  moun-
tainous region  of Peru.  It  was  neces-
sary that he  should inarch and counter-
march, for the space of two months, over
this difficult ground, in  the  face  of a
much superior army, commanded by the
ablest royalist generals in America, whose
aim it was to  cut  off his resources, and
reduce him without the hazard of a bat-
tle.  But the impatience of the troops on
each side brought on a general engage-
ment in the field of Ayacucho, Dec.9,1824,
the most brilliant ever fought in South
America. Both armies consisted of veteran
troops, well  appointed and  disciplined,
who  fought with undaunted  courage.
The battle resulted in the capture of the
viceroy La  Sema, and the loss of 2000
of the  royalists in killed and wounded;
and on  the same day  general Canterac,
with the rest of the army, comprising fif-
teen general officers and nearly 4000 men
in all, surrendered themselves prisoners of
war, by capitulation.  Sucre promptly fol-
lowed  up this glorious victory, and his
troops entered Cuzco on the  12th  of De-
cember in triumph.  As Olaiieta, with a
small body of royalists in Upper Peru, re-
fused  to comply with  the  terms of the
capitulation  of  Ayacucho,   Sucre was
obliged to march upon Puno, which he
entered in February, and thence proceed-
ed to Chuquisaca.  The death of Olaiie-
ta, who was killed in April, in   an af-
fray with his  own troops, accomplished
the delivery of Upper Peru.   Until a reg-
ular  government  could  be  established,
Sucre, of course, remained in the exer-
cise of authority  as  supreme  chief; but
he summoned  a congress to .isseinble, as
sp-.'\i;!y- as  might be, at  < 'i-iijui.sica, to 
SUCRE—SUEVI.
41
decide whether Upper Peru should be
annexed  to  Lower Peru, or to Buenos
Ayres, or form a republic by itself.   The
constituent congress decreed, August 11,
1825, to form a new republic, by the name
of Bolivia, and to call the capital by the
name of Sucre, in whom the government
was  vested  for the  time  being, with the
title  of " captain-general and grand-mar-
shal  of Ayacucho."  The congress, hav-
ing solicited Bolivar to prepare a funda-'
mental code for Bohvia,  dissolved itself,
Oct 6,1825.  The new congress assem-
bled to receive it, May 25, 1826.  Sucre
then  resigned the  discretionary power,
which he had exercised  hitherto; but,
contrary  to his expressed  wish, and con-
trary, probably, to his real desire, he was
elected president of Bolivia, under the
new constitution.  How far apprehensions
of the auxiliary Colombian army, still re-
maining  in  Upper Peru,  influenced this
decision of the electors, we do not know;
but  Sucre's reluctance to  assume  the
presidency seems to have been  sincere,
because it was constantly persisted  in by
him, and  ended in his resigning the office,
and  returning  to  Colombia.   The  influ-
ence of the revolution at Lima, in Janua-
ry, 1827, when the Colombian troops there
overturned the government of Bolivar,
and the  people trampled  under foot  the
Bolivian code,  was of course  felt in Bo-
hvia.  But Sucre endeavored to guard
against the example being followed in
Bolivia,  and at the same time gave  the
strongest assurances to the new govern-
ment of Peru, of his determination to
maintain a strict neutrality.  This did not
prevent uneasiness and disturbances from
growing up, which  eventuated in a seri-
ous insurrection, and an attack upon Su-
cre, in which he was dangerously wound-
ed, and  lost, an  arm.  If his resolution
had not already been taken, these events
would have served to hasten his  de-
parture, with that of the auxiliary Colom-
bian army, which took place  in August,
1828, in  consequence  of some hostile
movements of the anti-Colombian party,
aided by  general Gamarra, from Peru.
Notwithstanding this reverse in Bolivia,
fortune soon threw a new field of distinc-
tion  in  the  way  of Sucre, in  the  war
which now broke  out between Peru and
Colombia.  He was made commander of
the Colombian army  of  the  south, and
political  chief of the southern  depart-
ments of the  Colombian republic,  and
led  the  troops in the series of military
operations which terminated in the battle
of Tarqui, and the humiliating defeat and
                 4*
 capitulation of the Peruvians under gen-
 eral La Mar, Feb. 26, 1829.   Sucre be-
 came a member of the constituent con-
 gress of 1830, and, on his return to Quito
 from that  body, was assassinated in the
 neighborhood  of Pasto, in June, 1830,
 whether  by private  enemies  among the
 Pastusos, or by the instigation of some of
 his political rivals, is not ascertained.  It
 probably was the act of some of the Pas-
 tusos,  who remembered  the severities
 which the Colombian army  inflicted  on
 them in the campaign of 1822, under the
 orders of Sucre.
   Sudermannland.   (See Sweden.)
   Sueaborg, or Sweaborg ; the northern
 Gibraltar;  a fortress  of Russian Finland,
 on the gulf of Finland ; three miles south
 of Helsingfors ; population, exclusive  of
 the garrison, 3500.  The harbor is capa-
 ble  of containing seventy" men-of-war,
 easily defended by batteries  that  sweep
 the  channel forming the  only entrance
 for large  ships.  It is formed by  several
 small islands,  of which  the principal,
 called  Margoe,  contains  the  arsenals,
 docks, basins,  and magazines for fitting
 out or repairing men-of-war.
   Suetonius.   Caius  Suetonius  Tran-
 quillus, a Roman writer, born of  a  ple-
 beian family, flourished about  ICO A.  I).
 Little is known of the circumstances  of
 his life.   He distinguished himself as an
 advocate, obtained the u-ibuneship through
 the influence of Pliny the younger, and
 was appointed  secretary  (magisttr  epistc-
 larum) to the emperor Adrian.  From an
 expression  of  Spartian in his Life of
 Adrian, we learn that  Suetonius lost this
 place, on  account of his  intimacy with
 the empress Sabina; but the particulars
 of the affair are unknown to us.  Of the
 works of Suetonius, only the Lives of the
 Twelve Caesars, and Notice s of celebrated
 Grammarians, Rhetoricians and Potts, are
 yet extant.  The former work gives an in-
 teresting account of the private life  M.d
 personal character of the twelve first Ro-
 man emperors, from Julius Caesar to Domi-
 tian, and is of great value to us from the
 light which it throws on domestic manners
 and customs. The best editions of  Sueto-
 nius are those of Pitiscus(1714), Burmann
 (1736), Oudendorp (1751), Wolf  (lt02.,
 and  Baumgarten-Crusius  (1816  seq.).
 There  is   an   English  translation   by
 Thompson.
   Sueur, Le.  (See Lesueur.)
   Suevi ; the general name ofa number of
united tribes, who, before the Christian era,
inhabited the greater  part of  Germany.
The  Hermunduri, Semnones,  Lombards, 
42                           SUEVI—SUFISM.
Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Rugii and
Heruli, were the most important, at least
the most known.   In Csesar's time, they
advanced  to the Neckar and the Rhine.
Tacitus says that their name was derived
from  the  cue in which they tied their
hair.  In  the  great migration  of  the
northern nations,  the Suevi joined  the
Alans, entered Gaul, and, in 409, Spain.
After the Vandals had gone to Africa, the
Suevi spread as far as Portugal.  The
Visigoths overcame them entirely in 586,
and their empire and name disappeared
from  Spanish  history.  Those  of them
who remained in Germany were the  an-
cestors of the present Suabians.
   Suez, a city of Egypt, on the borders
of Arabia (Ion. 323 28' E.; lat. 29° 59' NA
is remarkable for its situation at the north
end of the Red sea, and on the south bor-
der of the isthmus to which it gives name.
It was formerly a flourishing mart,  being
at once  the emporium of the trade with
India, and the rendezvous of the number-
less  pilgrims, who, from various parts of
the Turkish empire, resorted to Mecca.
The assemblage of these, though the sta-
tionary population  was never large, pro-
duced an immense crowd.   When Nie-
buhr was there, Suez appeared to him as
populous as Cairo.  Since that time, it has
greatly declined, in consequence both of
the diminution of the general trade of the
Red sea, and of the concourse to Mecca.
It also  sustained great  injury  from  the
French.   The population  is now only
about 500. Suez, though a maritime place,
is so situated that vessels cannot approach
nearer than  two and a half miles. The
surrounding country is a mere bed of
rock, slightly covered with  sand.  It is,
however, the channel of much of the trade
of Cairo to Arabia and India, and of the
whole of that to Syria and Palestine.   It
is without  walls; has 500 stone houses,
of which more than one  half were  de-
stroyed by the French, and still continue in
ruins.  The canal  which  formerly con-
nected the gulf of Suez with the Nile, is
now choked up.
   Suffetes.  (See Carthage, vol.  ii., p.
544.)
   Suffocation.   The three  ordinary
modes of suffocation, or death by the in-
terruption of  the  breath, are,  hanging,
drowning, and the respiration of fixed air,
or carbonic acid gas.  The eame  result
takes place from either of these causes,
which  is  described under  the  article
Drowning,and the same process is requir-
ed for the restoration of animation.   In
the  instance of suffocation  by  carbonic
acid air, whether arising from mines, lime-
kilns,  or vats of fermenting liquor, the
vital powers  become  more  speedily ex-
tinct
  Suffragans.   (See  Bishops, vol. ii,
p. 115.)
  Suffragium  (Latin  for  vote; hence
the  English suffrage),  with  the  Romans,
signified particularly the vote which eve-
ry Roman citizen had a right to give in
the  comitia, in regard  to the introduction
or abolition of laws, the appointment to
offices, or any similar  business.  The citi-
zens assembled, on such occasions, in the
Campus Martius, every one in his centu-
ry,  which proceeded  in its turn to the
ovile, the place assigned for voting. At the
entrance there were small bridges, upon
which certain persons (diribitores)  gave
them small ballots;  if anew law was to be
introduced, two ballots, one with the letters
U. R.  (Uti rogas, Let  it  be  as proposed),
the  other with the  letter A. (Antiquo, I
leave  it as it  is); or, if an officer was to
be chosen, as many ballots were given as
there were candidates. The majority then
decided.
  Sufism ;  the  pantheistic mysticism
of the East, which strives for the highest
illumination  of the  mind, the most per-
fect calmness of the soul, and the union
of it with God, by an ascetic life, and the
subjugation of the appetites.  This  pan-
theism, clothed  in a mystico-religious
garb, has been professed, since the ninth
and tenth  centuries, by  a sect which at
present is gaining adherents continually,
among the more cultivated  Mohamme-
dans, particularly in Persia and India, and
about   twelve  years ago, comprehended
80,000 disciples in Persia,  who  had re-
nounced Mohammedanism.  One of the
most zealous Sufis is the  Arabian Azzed-
din, bom at Jerusalem, in the twelfth cen-
tury, whose  work Birds  and Flowers, a
moral allegory, has been translated by
Garcia de Tassy (Paris, 1821).  All  reli-
gious  persons who live together  in a mo-
nastic way, devoted  to an ascetic life, are
called in the East Sufis.   Some have de-
rived  this word from the  circumstance
that they dress in  wool only; but Joseph
von Hammer  (q. v.)  has disproved this
derivation, in the Vienna Journal of Art,
Literature, the Theatre, &c. (1828, No. 59),
and maintains that the name Soft, is relat-
ed  to  the Greek oo<p0{, wise, and  <rop0?,
clear,  on account of the mirror  which
the  Sofi carried as  a  symbol, as well as
to the  Arabian sqfi (pure).   The Ara-
bians  had, from the earliest times, an in-
clination to a life of  religious comtempla- 
SUFISM—SUGAR.
43
tion  and  monastic solitude.   Hence  as
early as under the  first caliphs, religious
fraternities were formed, which renounc-
ed every thing earthly.  As the four or-
thodox  Mohammedan sects  established
several  systems of  scholastic philoso-
phy, and  a number  of monkish orders
grew  up, in  the  second century of the
Hegira, devout  persons,  perplexed  by
this labyrinth of discordant  theological
opinions, found consolation in  pious mys-
ticism.  This was the origin of the Sufis,
whose idea of a mystical  union of man
with God (which,  however, is not found-
ed in the doctrines of Mohammedanism,
but, according to  Langles, Reiske,  Ham-
mer,  and Malcolm,  is of Indian  origin)
gave rise to fanaticism, similar to that of
the Christian mystics. The Sufis teach
their doctrine under the images of love,
wine, intoxication, fire, &c; and the songs
of Hafiz (q. v.), one of the most distin-
guished Sufis, which seem to be Anacre-
ontic strains in praise of love and wine,
should  rather be  considered  as  setting
forth  the mystic doctrines of his  sect
Even the  dances of the  Mohammedan
monks have  a mystic meaning.  By the
Devil, the Sufis generally understand the
sensual appetite;   they acknowledge  no
other devil than the darkness of the soul,
unenlightened by truth. In the first volume
of the Transactions of the learned society
at Bombay (London, 1819) is an important
treatise on the mystic doctrine of the Sufis,
by Graham. The doctrines of the Orien-
tal mystics have  also been illustrated by
Silvestre de Sacy, in the Pendnameh, by
Erskine, in several treatises in the Bombay
Transactions, by  Hammer,  in his His-
tory of Persian Belles-lettres (under the
heads of Dschelaleddin, Rumi, and Dscha-
mi), and particularly  by Tholuck, in his
Ssiiftsmus Persarum, Sec. (Berlin,  1821),
from Oriental manuscripts. The most im-
portant information on this subject is con-
tained in the Drops of the Well of Life, a
Persian work, translated into Turkish, and
published, in  1820 (Hegira 1236), at Con-
stantinople (printed at Scutari), a work of
the greatest authority with the Persians
and Turks.   (See  Hammer's remarks in
the Leipsic Literary Gazette of 1822, p.
2054.)   Hussein, known under the name
of Sufi, wrote a History of the most fa-
mous Sheiks of the Order of the Dervises
(Nacshbendi)  in the  year 1503 (Hegira
909).   The order of  Nacshbendi origin-
ated, indeed,  as late as the time of sultan
Osman  (1319; Hegira 709); but all the
Mohammedan religious orders  trace their
doctrines, and  their claims to mystic
power (transmitted by  the communica-
tion of the breath and mantle), to Abube-
kerand AH, the disciples of the prophet
Mohanmied had said, indeed,  " There is
no  monasticism  in the  Islam  ;"  but the
spiritofmonasticism, which originally had
its seat in  India  and Upper  Asia,  soon
penetrated into  his  religion,  when the
Arabians, having become acquainted with
Indian, Greek and Persian literature, be-
gan to devote themselves to  study and
contemplation.  Thus originated the Mo-
hammedan ascetics. But the pantheistic
doctrine of the modem Sufis, subsequent-
ly introduced, agrees so remarkably with
the doctrine of the Indian Vedanta, thai
the Indian origin of Sufism  cannot be
denied.
  Sugar.  This important substance is a
constituent part  of a number of plants-
It is afforded especially by the sugar-cane,
the maple, and the beet.  When thecani
is ripe, it  is cut down, and crushed be-
tween iron cylinders, moved by the steam-
engine, water, or animal strength.  The
juice  is  received in a shallow trough,
placed beneath the cylinders;  whence it
is conveyed into boilers, where  it is heated
with  lime, care being taken to  remove
the scum as it rises.  After having under-
gone considerable evaporation, it is called
syrup, and is poured into a vessel called
the cooler, where it is agitated with wood-
en  stirrers, which break the crust  as it
forms  on  the surface.  It is  afterwards
poured into casks, to accelerate its  cool-
ing; and, while it is  still warm, it  is con-
veyed into barrels, standing upright over
a cistern, and pierced through  their bot-
tom with several holes, stopped with  cane.
The syrup, which is not condensed, filters
through these canes, into the  cistern be-
neath, and leaves  the sugar in the  state
called Muscovado.   This sugar is yellow,
and is further purified by various process-
es, as that of boiling with bullock's blood,
or with animal charcoal (bone black): and
the passing of the syrup through a system
of canvass filters, aided by the intermix-
ture with it of a small quantity of pasty,
gypsum and alumina, made by saturating
a solution of alum with quicklime. Loaf
sugar is procured by putting die sugar, af-
ter  it has been thus purified, into unglaz-
ed, earthen, conical-shaped vessels, having
a hole at the apex, but placed in an in-
verted position:  the  base, after the sugar
is poured in, is covered with clay.  When
thus drained of its impurities, it is taken
out of the mould, wrapped in paper, and
dried or baked in an oven. It is now loaf
sugar, and, according to the  number of 
44
SUGAR
processes which  it undergoes, is  called
single  or double refined.  Sugar candy is
formed by dissolving loaf sugar in water,
over a fire, boiling it to a syrup, and then
exposing it  to  crystallize in a cool place.
This is much esteemed in the East. The
syrups which cease to afford sugar are
sold by the name of molasses.  The man-
ufacture  of  sugar  from the beet, which
has now  become so extensive in France,
is a more complicated process.  The beet
roots are pulled out of the ground, and
their necks  and rootlets cut off.  They
are then washed, reduced to a pulp by a
rasping machine, and  pressed to obtain
their juice,  which scarcely differs from
that of the  cane, except in being some-
what  less rich  in sugar.   The juice is
transferred to a copper boiler, famished
with two stop-cocks, the one of which is
fixed near the bottom, and the other a few
inches higher up, being previously mix°d
with one  four hundreth part of sulphuric
acid and a quantity of cream of lime, rather
more  than enough for the  saturation  of
the acid.   Heat is now applied as briskly
as possible to the copper.   A solid, thick
froth, ofa greenish-gray color, forms, and
deposits to  a considerable  amount, and
the juice assumes a yellow hue, and be-
comes clarified.  After an  hour or two,
the scum is removed, and thrown on
drainers,  to save as much of the juice as
possible.   The clear juice is now run off
successively, by the two  stop-cocks, be-
ginning with the higher, and the sediment
is added to the froth on the filters.   The
juice is next transferred to  a boiler, built
on a level below the first, and is  there
evaporated by  a quick fire.  Whenever
its density reaches to 1.12 (24° of Twad-
del's hydrometer),animal charcoal is intro-
duced  in powder, and  the  concentration
carried on, till  its specific gravity is 1.24
(48° of Twaddel).   The froth is removed
as it forms.  About two parts of animal
charcoal are usually added to 100 of juice.
The syrup is now filtered through wool-
len cloth, and  allowed to  cool. In the
course of the night, a considerable quan-
tity of sulphate of lime is deposited, which
must be carefully separated, prior to boil-
ing up the liquor for crystallization. This
concluding stage of the process is the same
as that employed for the juice of the sugar-
cane.  The  refining of the raw beet su-
gar is conducted in the same way as that
of the cane, and the results are described
as being equally productive. The extrac-
tion of sugar from the juice of the maple
is  exceedingly simple.   At  the  com-
mencement  of the spring, in the Northern
 States and Canada, the sugar maple trees
 are tapped near the ground, by numerous
 apertures, and the  sap  is collected in
 wooden troughs ; two hundred pounds of
 which  afford,  by  evaporation,  fifteen
 pounds of a brownish  sugar,  which is
 capable of being refined in the same man-
 ner as the sugar from the cane and the
 beet.
   Pure sugar occurs as a white granular
 solid, but  may be crystallized  in four or
 six-sided prisms, terminated by two-sided,
 or sometimes by three-sided summits. Its
 specific gravity is 1.4' to  1.6'.  The crys-
 tals are nearly anhydrous.  When expos-
 ed to heat, sugar swells up, is decomposed
 with a peculiar smell, and finally burets
 into flames  at a  temperature somewhat
 below ignition.  When dissolved i:i  one
 third  its weight  of water, it forms  a
 syrup, which  keeps well  in  close  ves-
 sels; but  if considerably  diluted  with
 water, it  rapidly changes, particularly
 with contact of air,  becoming sour  and
 mouldy.   Sugar is hardly soluble in pure
 alcohol, though  proof spirit  dissolves it
 in considerable quantity.   Syrups, which
 have been rendered uncrystallizable,  bit-
 ter and  astringent, by combination  with
 lime, barytes and  strontites, resume their
 original properties, when  these bases are
 separated  by the equivalent quantity of
 sulphuric  acid.  The same holds   true
 with regard to potash and  soda.  When
 quicklime is left for several months in com-
 bination with syrup, carbonate of lime is
 deposited  in veiy acute  rhomboids,  and
 the sugar is converted into a mucilagmous
jelly, of the  consistence of paste. Several
 other  oxides, and especially that of lead,
 have  the power  of  combining  with
 sugar.   Thus, when  ground  litharge is
 heated with  sugar and water, it is dissolv-
 ed ; but after a while the liquor becomes
 opaque, and lets fall a white, insipid, light
 powder, insoluble in even a great quanti-
 ty of boiling water, and which is a com-
 pound, in its dried state, of 100 of sugar,
 and 139.6 of oxide of lead.  This saccha-
 rate of lead is decomposed by the  fee-
 blest acids, which seize the lead. Subace-
 tate of lead  does not precipitate sugar
 from its solution; and as this salt throws
 down almost every  other  vegetable  and
 animal substance,  it may be employed to
 separate sugar from other matters. Sugar
 has no action on salts, except at an elevat-
 ed temperature.   With the aid of water,
 it then  reduces muriate of gold, the ni-
 trates of mercury,and silver, the sulphate
 of copper, and reduces to the lowest term
 of oxidation  several other salts.  Sugar 
SUGAR—SUGAR-CANE.                        45
has been analyzed by  several chemists.
results:
The following is a general view of the
	G. Lusaac and Thenard.	Berzelius.	Prout,	Ure.
Oxygen,	50.63	49.856	53.35	50.33
Carbon,	42.47	43.265	39.99	43.38
Hydrogen,	6.90	6.879	6.66	6.29
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
   M. Braconnot has recently extended
our views concerning the artificial produc-
tion of sugar and gum.   Sulphuric acid
(specific gravity 1.827) mixed  with well
dried elm dust,  became very hot, and on
being diluted with water, and neutralized
with chalk, afforded a liquor  which be-
came gummy on  evaporation.   Shreds
of linen triturated  in a glass mortar, with
sulphuric acid, yield a similar  gum.  Ni-
tric  acid  has a similar  power.   If the
gummy matter from  linen be boiled for
some time with dilute sulphuric acid, we
obtain a crystallizable sugar, and an acid,
which M. Braconnot calls the vegeto-sul-
phuric  acid.  The conversion of  wood,
also, into sugar, will no doubt appear re-
markable ;  and when persons not familiar
with chemistry, are told that a pound of
rags can be converted into more than a
pound of sugar, they may be disposed to
consider the statement as a piece of pleas-
antry, though nothing can be more true.
   Sugar-Cane  (saccharum  ojficinarum).
The art of cultivating the sugar-cane has
been practised in China from the highest
antiquity.   It was unknown to the ancient
Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, or Romans, and
did not  pass into Arabia till the end of the
thirteenth  century.  From Arabia it was
earned  into Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia.
The Moore obtained it from Egypt, and
the Spaniards from the Moore. In the fif-
teenth century, the  cane  was introduced
into the Canary islands by the  Spaniards,
and into Madeira by the Portuguese, and
thence into the West India islands and the
Brazils.   Previous to the year 1466, sugar
was known in England chiefly as a med-
icine ; and, though cultivated  in a few
places on  the Mediterranean, it  was not
more generally  used on  the  continent.
Now, in point of importance, it ranks next
to wheat and rice, among all the products
of the vegetable world, and has become
the first article  of maritime  commerce.
The Atlantic has been the principal thea-
tre of this  trade, which,  more than any
other circumstance, contributed to  give a
new spring to commerce in Europe, and
to engraft the curse of slavery upon the
new world.   The sugar-cane,  like the
bamboo and Indian corn, belongs to the
family of the  grasses.   It grows to the
height of seven or eight feet,  or more,
and its broad leaves, and large, silky pani-
cles, give it a beautiful aspect  The stems
are very smooth, shining, and filled  with
a spongy pith :  the flowers are small, and
very  abundant, clothed  externally  with
numerous silky hairs.   The sugar-cane
flowers only after  the lapse of an entire
year.   In the West Indies, it is propagat-
ed by cuttings from the  root end, planted
in hills or trenches in the spring or au-
tumn.  The cuttings  root at the joints
under ground, and from those above, send
up shoots, which, in eight, twelve, or four-
teen months, are from six to ten feet long,
and fit to cut down for the mill.   A plan-
tation lasts from six to ten years.  (For the
process of making  sugar, see the preced-
ing article.)  The juice of the sugar-cane
is so palatable and nutritive, that, during
the sugar harvest, every  creature which
partakes freely of it, whether man or an-
imal, appears to derive  health and vigor
from  its  use.   The meagre  and sickly
negroes exhibit  at this season a surprising-
alteration ; and  the laboring horses, oxen,
and mules, though constantly at work, yet,
as they are allowed to eat, almost without
restraint, of the refuse plants and scum-
mings from the boiling house, improve in-
finitely more than at any other period of
the year. The sugar-cane is now cultivat-
ed in all the warm  parts  of the globe. In
the U. States it flowers, but does not ripen
seed.   Its growth  is constant, but varies
in rapidity according to the situation, the
season, or the weather.   The variety from
Otaheite has lately elicited some attention,
as it is said to succeed in soils too poor for
the common variety, and to produce four
crops, while the other yields only three:
the crystallization is also more  regular.
Sugar is now  cultivated to  considerable
extent in  the   U.  States,  chiefly in the
southern parts  of  Louisiana, about the
mouths of the Mississippi; and a sufficient
supply for  home consumption might be
obtained in  that quarter.  The consump-
tion   of  England  alone  now  amounts
to upwards of 400,000,000 pounds, which 
46
SUGAR-CANE—SULLA.
gives  an average of about thirty pounds
for each individual.  In some parts of the
interior, su«,*ar is manufactured to consid-
erable extent from the sap of two species
of maple. This is superior to the common
brown sugar of the  West Indies,  but
probably will eventually be superseded by
that article, on account of its cheapness.
(See Maple.)
  Sugar of Lead.  (See Lead.)
  Suhl, or Suhla ; a town  in  the gov-
ernment of Erfurt, in the Prussian  prov-
ince of Saxony, lying in a romantic val-
ley on the Lauter, on the  south-west side
of the Thuringiaa forest.   It owes its im-
portance to  the  mines which  were dis-
covered  here in the fourteenth century.
The iron works, and the  manufacture of
arms, form the chief employment of the
inhabitants.  The  fire-arms  made here
are highly esteemed.  Population, 5800;
twenty-eight miles south-west  of  Er-
furt.
  Suhm,Peter Frederic von, Danish cham-
berlain  and  historiographer at  Copenha-
gen, born in 1728, was a philosopher,  po-
et and historian.  His father, a Danish ad-
miral, educated him carefully.   He died,
in 1798, at Copenhagen. Sulun possessed
a large fortune, which he used in  aid of
charitable objects and literary enterprises.
He acquired reputation,  as  a  critic and
philosopher, by his moral essays and trea-
tises of practical utility, as a poet, by his
Northern Idyls and Tales, and as a classi-
cal historian, by  his works on the history
of  his  country.   His  library  contained
100,000 volumes. He supported a librari-
an, and  paid large sums for copying man-
uscripts, and in aid of poor students. The
library was  open to every one. Of his
numerous works we need  only mention
his Scriptorum Rtrum Danim Medii Mvi ;
his Introduction to the Critical History of
Denmark (1769—73, 5  vols., 4to.);  the
Critical  History  of Denmark during the
Pagan Ages (1774—81, 4  vols.); the Mod-
ern History of Denmark (of  which  seven
volumes have been published, the first of
which appeared in 1782).  His miscella-
neous works were collected and reprinted,
with an  account of his life, at Copenha-
gen (1788—98, 15 vols.).
  Suicide.  (See Homicide.)
  Suidas ; a  Greek  grammarian,  who
lived, according to some, in  the eleventh
century, according to others in the  tenth.
He wrote an encyclopaedia, particularly
relating  to  geographical and  historical
subjects, which,  though not perfectly ac-
curate, is yet important, as it contains ma-
ny things not to be found elsewhere. The
best edition is that of Kiis.er (Cambridge,
1705, 3 vols., folio).
  Suit at Law.  (See Action.)
  Suliots ; a mixed people of Amaout
and Greek descent, speaking the Arnaout
and  the  Romaic  dialects.  They derive
their origin from Arnaout and  Grecian
shepherds,  who, in the seventeenth cen-
tury, settled in the Cassiopeian mountains,
occupying  a  wild  valley,  enclosed  on
three sides by almost inaccessible moun-
tains, and accessible on the fourth only by
a narrow defile.  Here their numbers had
increased, towards the end of the last cen-
tury, to 10,000 souls, in seventy villages, of
which Suli or Souli was the capital of the
district.   The Suliots are of the  Greek
church;  their government was  republi-
can.  They are brave, hardy, active, res-
olute and faithful.   When, after a strug-
gle of twelve years, Ali Pacha (q. v.) had
rather reduced them to despair than con-
quered them (1803), they abandoned their
country, and  entered  the service of the
[lowers  who had  possession of the Ioni-
an Islands.   But when Ali found himself
hard pressed by the Turks and deserted
by the Albanians, he recalled the Suliots
to his assistance.   Their  brave leader,
Marco Botzaris, gained some brilliant suc-
cesses ; but the tyrant, who trusted  nei-
ther the  Suliots nor the other Greeks, per-
ished in 1822.  The Albanians then join-
ed the Turks; but  the Suliots remained
true to the cause of  Grecian liberty. Suli,
however, was reduced bv famine, Sept. 4,
1822, and 3000 Suliots embarked in Eng-
lish  ships for Cephalonia: the rest dis-
persed themselves in the mountains. The
younger Marco Botzaris, son of the above-
mentioned  leader  of  the  same  name,
threw himself into Missolonghi, which he
successfully defended, and afterwards fell
at Carpinitzi.  (See  Greece, Revolution of.)
His uncle, Noto Botzaris, defended Misso-
longhi in 1826. (See Missolonghi.) The
corps of 500 men, raised and equipped by
lord Byron at his own expense, was com-
posed of Suliots, for whom he had a great
admiration.  (See Byron.)
  Sulla, or  Sylla, Lucius  Cornelius,
Roman dictator, was bom at Rome, U. C.
617 (B. C. 137), of the old and noble, but
reduced, family of the Cornelii.   He re-
ceived  a good education, but indulged
himself in  excessive  dissipation and de-
bauchery.  A  large  forUne,  partly left
him by  a courtesan, and partly  obtained
by  marriage, enabled  him  to  take  a
distinguished  rank  among the   Roman
knights,  and to turn his attention to the
career  of  ambition.   He served, with 
SULLA.
47
 brilliant success, asquestor in Africa; and
 it was  through his instrumentality  that
 Bocchus was prevailed upon to surrender
 Jugurtha to the Romans—an event which
 terminated the Numidian war. Sulla next
 served  under Marius  in  the Cimbrian
 war,  until, to avoid the jealousy of the
 latter, he joined the  army of the consul
 Catulus, and, having twice defeated the
 Samnites, was chosen  pretor.   Having
 passed the year of his pretorship at Rome,
 he was, at the expiration of his term, ap-
 pointed to the government of Asia Minor,
 where he established Ariobarzanes upon
 the throne of Cappadocia, and complete-
 ly subdued Gordius, guardian of a son of
 Mithridates, then on the throne, in a single
 battle. He then concluded an alliance with
 the king of the Parthians, and conducted
 with so much haughtiness that one of the
 Cappadocians present exclaimed,  " Surely
 this  man  is  or will  be  master  of the
 world."  In the social war, in which Sul-
 la and  Marius were  at the head of two
 separate armies, the indefatigable  activity
 and daring courage of the former threw
 the reputation of the latter into the shade.
 Yet he himself declared that fortune  had
 a greater share in his success than his
 own merit; and he readily accepted the
 surname of Felix (fortunate).  The con-
 sulship  was the reward  of his  services
 (B.  C. 88); and the province of Asia, with
 the conduct of the war against  Mithri-
 dates, fell to  his lot   But  Marius was
 also ambitious of this command, and pro-
 cured a decree of the people that it should
 be intrusted to him.   Sulla therefore en-
 tered Rome at the head of his army, and,
 after setting a price on  the head of his en-
 emy,  finally sailed for Greece, a great part
 of which had been conquered by Mithri-
 dates.   Here  his good fortune still follow-
 ed  him.  He expelled Mithridates from
 Europe, pursued him into the heart of his
Asiatic dominions, was victorious in every
direction, and finally granted peace, on his
own terms, to the  enemy,  on account of
 the state of affairs in  Italy.   During his
three  years' absence from Italy,  his ene-
 mies  had  regained the  superiority  in
 Rome.  Marius  had been recalled ; the
 blood of the  friends of Sulla had been
shed  in  torrents;  he  himself had been
 proscribed, and  his property  confiscated.
Marii:s, exhausted by  age and  tortured
 by a guilty conscience, left his bed to op-
pose the return of his rival (sac Marius),
but died soon after entering upon his sev-
enth consulship.  The leaders of his par-
ty, China  and Carbo, still, however, con-
tinued to conduct the public affaire, when
Sulla,  having intrusted  the chief com-
mand in Asia to Murena, hastened to Ita-
ly at the head of 40,000 men.  He landed
at Brundusium, and was joined by many
of  liis  friends  who had been  banished
from Rome.   His  enemies were  much
superior in numbers ; but his courage and
address rendered him  victorious.  After
having gained four battles over the Roman
forces in person, besides several  through
his generals, and, at the  close of  the war,
defeated a Samnite army under Telesi-
nus, before the walls of Rome, and hav-
ing witnessed the destruction, captivity or
flight of his enemies, he entered the city
as a master.  One of his first acts was, to
put to death between 60CO and 7000 pris-
oners of war in the  circus; and when the
senate, assembled in the temple of Bellona,
testified their horror at hearing the shrieks
of the victims, he coldly said, " Regard it
not, fathers ; it is only a  few rebels who
are punished by my orders."  Rome and
all the provinces of  Italy were filled with
the most revolting scenes of cruelty.  Af-
ter  satisfying his vengeance by the murder
or proscription of several thousands, de-
s:roying all the cities of  Samnium except
three, aud  massacring  the  whole popu-
lation of Preneste,  he  celebrated a  tri-
umph,  exceeding  in splendor any that
had preceded  it, and  caused   himself
to be named dictator for an indefinite pe-
riod (B.C. 81).   He now ruled  without
restraint; repealed and made laws ; abol-
ished the tribuneship ; added 300 knights
to the  senate, and admitted 10,000 slaves
of persons  proscribed to the rights of citi-
zenship. After a few years, to the aston-
ishment of all, he laid down his dictator-
ship (B.C. 79), and declared himself ready
to answer for his actions, although he had
caused above 100,000 men, among whom
were ninety senators, fifteen men of con-
sular rank,  and 1600 knights, to be put to
death.   Retiring to Puteoli,  and  aban-
doning himself to all sorts of debauchery,
he  died, the following year, of a disgust-
ing disease, occasioned  by  his excesses.
Naturally insinuating and persuasive, Sul-
la endeavored, in his youth, to please uni-
versally. He spoke of" himself with mod-
esty, but was lavish  of praises, and even
of  money, towards others.   With  the
common soldiers  he was familiar, adopt-
ing th  ir customs, drank with them,  and
partook of their amusements and  hard-
ships.   At times, he was severe, active
and vifilant, and impenetrable   even to
the companions of his excesses.   He lent
a ready ear to soothsayers and astrologers;
and his character was stained by sensual- 
48
SULLA—SULLIVAN.
ity, avarice  and cruelty.   Yet he  had
sufficient  self-control to  tear  himself
from his pleasures when ambition com-
manded.   He  was an able general  and
a  great statesman;  cruel, but faithful
to his promises;  calm and cold, but in-
flexible in his purposes.   He  sacrificed
even his  friends to  the  laws which he
himself made aud violated, and compel-
led his fellow citizens to be better than
himself.  He ordered it to be inscribed
on his tomb, that no man had ever equal-
led him in doing evil to his enemies, nor
in doing good to hiss friends.
  Sullivan, John, a distinguished  gen-
eral in the American revolutionary army,
was the eldest son ofa Mr. Sullivan, who
came from Ireland about  the year 1723,
and, after keeping  a school in several
parts  of the eastern country,  settled at
Berwick, in  the district of Maine, where
he died at the age of 105.  For several
years before the revolution, the  subject of
this sketch practised  law in New Hamp-
shire with great success.  In 1772, he be-
came major ofa regiment of militia; and
as soon as hostilities commenced, he  was
among the  first to tike an active part
In 1774, he  was a member of the  firet
general congress, but resigned his seat to
enter the army.   In 1775, he was appoint-
ed a brigadier-general  in  the  American
army; and, during that campaign, com-
manded on Winter hill.  In the follow-
ing year, he was promoted  to the rank of
major-general, and sent to Canada, where
he took command  of the  troops on the
death of general Thomas. In effecting his
retreat from that province, he  displayed
great military  skill  and resolution.   He
was  soon  afterwards, in the same  year,
invested with the command of Greene's
division, on Long Island, in consequence
of the  illness of that general, and, in the
battle of August 27, was taken prisoner.
Iii October, he was exchanged for general
Prescott,  and, in the ensuing December,
was  placed at the head of the division of
general Lee, who had been  captured by
the enemy.  At the battle of Trenton, he
commanded the right division.  August
22, 1777, he planned  and executed an ex-
pedition against Staten Island, for which,
on an inquiry intc his conduct,  he receiv-
ed the approbation of the  court.  In the
battles of  Brandywine and Germantown,
he also commanded the right division. In
the winter of  1777, he was  detached to
take command of the troops  in Rhode
Island; and in August of the  following
year, he  laid  siege  to Newport    The
causes of the failure of this enterprise ; the
difficulties which occurred between gen-
eral Sullivan and  count d'Estaign, the
commander of the French fleet, who was
to assist the land operations, but abandon-
ed the siege, and sailed to Boston,—are too
well known to require relation.  He rais-
ed the siege, and was pursued by the en-
emy, whom he repulsed.  The next day
he passed over  to the continent, without
the slightest suspicion, on the part of the
British, of his movements.   In the sum-
mer of 1779, he commanded an expedi-
tion, planned  by  general  Washington,
against the Six Nations of Indians in New-
York.  Being joined by general Clinton,
August 22, he  began his  march towards
the enemy, who were stationed  at New-
town, between  the south end of Seneca
lake and  Tioga  river, and, attacking them
in their works, completely dispersed them.
He then  laid waste  the country, and de-
stroyed all their villages, in order to put a
stop to their depredations.   General Sul-
livan had made such high  demands for
military  stores,  and had so  freely com-
plained of the government for inattention
to those demands, as to give great offence
to some members of congress, and to the
board of war.  He, in consequence, re-
signed his command, November 9.  After
the peace, he resumed the practice of his
profession.  He was one of the convention
which  formed  the state constitution for
New Hampshire, and was chosen a mem
ber of the first council.  In 178(1, he was
chosen president of that state, in  which
station he continued  for three years.   In
October,  1789, he was appointed district
judge of New Hampshire.   He died Jan-
uary 23,  1795, aged 54 years.
  Sullivan, James, a brother of the fore-
going,  and  governor of Massachusetts,
was born at Berwick, Maine, April 22,
1744.  He was educated entirely by his
father.  The fracture of a limb, in early
life, caused him to turn his attention  to
legal pursuits, instead of embracing the
military career,  for which  he had been
destined.  After studying with his broth-
er, general  Sullivan, he was admitted  to
the bar,  and soon  rose to celebrity.  He
was appointed king's attorney for the dis-
trict in which  he resided; but the pros-
pects of  advancement  which he might
have reasonably entertained, did not pre-
vent him from taking an early and decid-
ed  part on the side of his country, at the
commencement of the revolutionary strug-
gle. Being a member  of the provincial
congress of Massachusetts,  in  1775,  he
was intrusted, together with two other
gentlemen, with a difficult commission to 
SULLIVAN—SULLY.
49
Ticonderoga, which was executed in  a
very satisfactory manner.  In the follow-
ing year, he was appointed a judge of the
superior court.  In  1779 and  1780, he
was a member of the convention which
framed the  constitution of the state. In
February, 1782, he  resigned his judge-
ship, and returned to the bar.   In 1783,
he  was chosen a member  of  congress,
and, in the following year, was one of the
commissioners  in the  settlement of the
controversy between Massachusetts and
New York, respecting  their claims to the
western lands.   He was repeatedly elect-
ed a representative of Boston, in the legis-
lature.  In  17^7, he was a member of
the executive council, and judge of pro-
bate for Suffolk ; and, in 1790, was ap-
pointed attorney-general, in  which office
he  continued till June, 1807, when he was
elevated to the chief  magistracy of the
commonwealth.  He  was subsequently
appointed, by president Washington,agent,
under the fifth  article of the  British trea-
ty,  for settling the boundaries between the
U. States and the British provinces.  He
was a second time chosen governor of the
state; but soon afterwards, his health be-
came enfeebled, and on  the 10th of De-
cember, 1808, he died, in the 65th year of
his age.  Governor Sullivan was the pro-
jector of the Middlesex  canal.   Amidst
his professional  and  political pursuits, he
found  time to  prepare  several  works,
mostly  on   legal or  political  subjects.
One is a History of the District of Maine,
which is a creditable monument of his in-
dustry and research.
  Sullivan  Island is between Ashley
and Cooper rivers, six miles below Charles-
ton, South Carolina.  It is much resorted
to by the people of Charleston, during the
summer season.  Fort Moultrie, on this
island,  received its  name in  honor of
colonel Moultrie, for his very gallant de-
fence  of it, June 28, 1776.   Sir Henry
Clinton made an attack on it with the
British  squadron, for the purpose of tak-
ing possession of Charleston.  The Amer-
ican army at this place was  then  com-
manded by general Lee.  The  fire from
the fort was so well  directed, that the
British  suffered  very severely.   The de-
fence of the city was completely success-
ful, and the American loss was only thir-
ty-five men.
  Sully, .Maximilian de Bethune, duke
de; marshal of France, and firet minister
of Henry IV ; one of the most estimable
men that ever  guided the helm of state.
He was bom at Rosny, of an ancient and
noble family, in 1559,and educated in the
  vol. xii.          •*"»
Protestant (Caivmistic) faith.  At the age
of eleven years, he was presented by his
father to the queen of Navarre, and her
son Henry, with whom he was educated.
In 1572,  he  accompanied  the  young
prince to Paris, for the purpose of pursu-
ing his studies there, and was preserved,
during the massacre of St. Bartholomew's,
by the president of the college of Burgun-
dy, who concealed him for  three days.
In the service of the young king of Na-
varre (see Henry IV), the baron de Ros-
ny, as he  was  then styled, distinguished
himself, on several occasions, by a bravery
approaching to rashness.  At  Ivry (1590),
where he took the standard of the duke
of  Maine,  he  was  most  dangerously
wounded.  In 1591, he took Gisors; and
the capture of Dreux in  1593, Laon in
1594, La Fere in 1596, Amiens in 1597,
and  Montmelian in l600, added to his
reputation as a warrior.  But  his abilities
as a  diplomatist and  financier  were no
less remarkable. In 1586, he concluded a
treaty with  the Swiss, for a supply of
20J000 troops for his master's service;
and in 1597, he was placed  at the head of
the department of finance, and two years
after, he  was declared  superintendent.
About the same  time (1599), he also ne-
gotiated the marriage  of Henry with Ma-
ry de' Medici.   In his embassy to Eng-
land,  after the  death of queen Elizabeth,
(1603), he displayed great penetration and
address,  and  concluded  a treaty with
James 1, advantageous to the  interests of
both  countries.  In addition  to his other
offices, he was appointed grand surveyor
of France, grand master of the artillery,
governor of the Bastile (1602), and super-
intendent of fortifications throughout the
kingdom.   His labors, as  minister of fi-
nance, were attended with the happiest
success ; and the revenues of the govern-
ment, which had been reduced to a state
of complete dilapidation, by the combined
effect of civil anarchy and open warfare,
were  by his care restored to order, regu-
larity, and affluence.   With a revenue of
thirty-five millions, he paid  off,  in ten
years, a debt  of two hundred  millions,
besides laying up  thirty-five  millions.
Though frequently thwarted in  his pur-
poses by the rapacity of the courtiers and
mistresses of the monarch, he nobly pur-
sued his career, ever distinguishing" him-
self as the zealous friend of his  country,
and not the temporizing minister of his
master. His industry was unwearied. He
rose every morning  at four o'clock, and,
after dedicating some time to business, he
gave audience to all who solicited admis- 
50
SULLY—SULPHUR.
sion to him, without distinction of persons.
After his return from his mission to Eng-
land,  he was made governor of  Poitou,
and  grand master of the ports and har-
bors of Provence; and the  territory of
Sully-sur-Loire was erected into a duchy
in his favor, in  1606.  On the murder of
Henry IV, he was obliged to retire from
court (1611); but,  after some years,  he
was  recalled by Louis XIII; and,  on
making his appearance in the royal circle,
the courtiers did not treat  him with that
respect to which he thought himself en-
titled ; on which  he said to the king,
" Sire, when your father did me the honor
to consult me, we  never spoke on busi-
ness till  he  had dismissed his flatterers
and buffoons to the  ante-chamber."   In
1634, he  received  the staff of a marshal,
in exchange for the office of grand master
of the artillery.   His death  took place at
Villebon, December 22,  1641.  Although
Sully approved  Henry's conversion to the
Catholic  faith, yet he  himself remained
true  to  his  Protestant  principles.  The
courtiers, dissatisfied with his strictness,
often ridiculed  and complained of him ;
but even the king's most favored mistress
could not prejudice  his  royal  master
against him.  (See Estrtes.)   Sully's Mi-
moires des sages  et  royales  Economies
d,Etat, domestiques, politiques, et militaires
de Henri le Grand, was printed at Sully,
under the eye  of the  author, in 1636.
The second and third volumes did not ap-
pear till 1662.  There have been many re-
impressions, some of which  have been
mutilated by other hands.   These me-
moirs give us a  vivid and accurate picture
of the courts of Charles IX, Henry III,
and  Henry  IV, and  particularly of the
character, habits, public policy, and pri-
vate life of the latter monarch.
  Sulphate.  (For the various sulphates,
see the respective articles.)
  Sulphur.  We shall first give the min-
eralogical history of this substance.   It
occurs abundantly in nature, both  crystal-
lized and massive.  The form of its crys-
tals is an acute  octahedron, either  perfect,
or variously modified, and derivable from
an  octahedron   with  equal and  similar
scalene  triangular planes, of which the
common  base  of the  two pyramids is
rhombic; cleavage  imperfect; fracture
conchoidal; lustre resinous ; color sever-
al shades of sulphur-yellow, inclining
sometimes to red or green; streak sulphur-
yellow,  passing into white; transparent
or translucent; sectile; hardness between
gypsum  and calcareous  spar;  specific
gravity  2.072.    The  massive varieties
occur in imbedded globules, also in  largo
pieces, having a granular or impalpable
composition, and  an uneven or flat con-
choidal fracture.   The present species has
usually been treated of under two divisions,
viz. common and volcanic sulphur, in allu-
sion to the geological situation of the two
varieties;  the volcanic  sulphur being a
product of sublimation, while the common
sulphur is found in strata not immediately
connected with volcanic rocks.  Volcanic
sulphur appears  in  the shape  of crusts,
superficial  coatings, stalactites, or loose,
mealy masses, r-nd consists generally of
columnar  particles  of  composition, not
unfrequently terminating  in  crystalline
points.  Common sulphur has been fur-
ther divided into  compact and earthy, the
last of which comprehends those  varie-
ties which, on account  of the  smallness
of the individuals in the granular compo-
sitions, appear as  a friable, mealy powder.
Sulphur is principally met with in beds
of gypsum, or hi the accompanying strata
of clay.  It is generally associated with
sulphate  of  strontian.   It also  occurs
with  copper  pyrites, galena,  and  orpi-
ment.  It is deposited from several springs,
and in large quantities from  volcanoes.
In Sicily, and several provinces of  Italy,
sulphur is found  in splendid crystals, as
well as in globular concretions.  It occurs
in  imbedded  spheroidal  masses  of a
brown color, which is owing  to bitumen,
at Radoboy, near Crapina, in Croatia. The
finest crystals, after those of Sicily, are
brought from Conil, near Cadiz, in Spain.
It occurs in veins in Suabia,  Spain and
Transylvania.  The  earthy sulphur  is
found in  Poland, in Moravia, and  other
countries;  the  volcanic sulphur in  Ice-
land,  near Vesuvius in  the Solfatara, in
fine crystals in Teneriffe, in great profu-
sion near the volcanoes of Java, and in
the vicinity of most other active volca-
noes.   In general, it requires to be puri-
fied, either by melting or by sublimation,
in order to render it fit for use in the arts.
  Sulphur, in a  state of purity, is desti-
tute of odor, and  of a weak, though per-
ceptible taste.  It is a non-conductor of
electricity,  and of course becomes elec-
tric by friction.   The specific gravity of
roll sulphur  varies from 1.97 to 2.00.  It
undergoes  no change from exposure to
the air, and is insoluble in water.   If a
considerable piece of sulphur be exposed
to a sudden, though gentle heat, by hold-
ing it in the hand, for instance, it breaks
to pieces with a  crackling  noise.  Whon
heated to the temperature  of about 170°,
it rises up in the  form of a fine powder, 
SULPHUR
51
 which may be easily collected in a proper
 vessel.   This powder is called flowers of
 sulphur.  When heated to the tempera-
 ture of 218°, it melts, and becomes as liquid
 as water. Between the melting point and
 252°, it is  as liquid as varnish, and its
 color is that  of amber.  About the tem-
 perature of 340°, it begins to grow thick,
 and assumes a reddish tinge; and if we
 continue  to increase the temperature, it
 becomes  so thick, that the  vessel con-
 taining it may  be turned  upside  down
 without the risk of spilling any  of it.
 Between the  temperature of 428° and
 that of 482°, it  is thickest of all, and its
 color is reddish-brown.  From 482° to its
 boiling point, which  is'not far from 750",
 it becomes  thinner, but never so  thin as
 it was  when  below  the  temperature of
 248° ; and its reddish-brown color does
 not alter. If it be suddenly cooled while in
 the most liquid state, as by throwing it into
 water,  it becomes instantly brittle ;  but if
 it was so hot as to be viscid, and  be sud-
 denly  cooled,  it remains quite soft; so
 that it may be  drawn  into threads.  In
 the first case,  it crystallizes ; in the sec-
 ond, it  does not.  This state of softness
 is probably connected with the viscidity ;
 which, when the cold is suddenly ap-
 plied, prevents the possibility of the par-
 ticles arranging themselves in regular or-
 der.  If sulphur be melted in a ladle, or
 oval vessel, and, as soon as its surface be-
 gins to congeal, the liquid portion be-
 neath the surface be poured out, the in-
 ternal  cavity  will  exhibit long,  needle-
 shaped   crystals.    Alcohol,  sulphuric
 ether and the oils dissolve  a small por-
 tion of sulphur.  It combines in five pro-
 portions  with oxygen, and  forms  five
 compounds, which  have  received the
 names of sulphuric acid, stdphurous acid,
 hyposulphurous  acid, suosulphurous acid,
 and hyposulphuric  acid.   We shall de-
 scribe  the  sulphurous  acid  first.    It is
 formed when  sulphur is burnt, either in
 the open  air or in oxygen gas.  But the
 way in which it  is usually obtained for
 experiment, is to heat a mixture of sul-
 phuric  acid and mercury in a small re-
 tort ; a  gas is evolved, which is sulphur-
 ous acid.  It is  colorless, is possessed of
 an exceedingly suffocating and disagreea-
 ble smell, precisely similar to that of burn-
 ing sulphur.  Its  taste is intensely acid
and sulphureous.  It converts vegetable
blues to red, and then gradually destroys
them.   Its specific gravity is 2.2293.  The
gas  may be collected over mercury, or
received into water, which, at the tempe-
rature  of 61°,  will  absorb  thirty-three
 times its  bulk, or nearly an eleventh of
 its  weight.   It consists of  sulphur 50
 and oxygen  50.   It is used in bleaching,
 particularly  for silks:  it  likewise  dis-
 charges vegetable stains and  iron moulds
 from linen.  In combination with the sal-
 ifiable bases, it forms sulphites,  which
 differ from the sulphates in their proper-
 ties.  The alkaline sulphites  are more
 soluble  than the sulphates;  the earthy,
 less so.   They are converted into  sul-
 phates by an addition of oxygen, which
 they acquire even by exposure to the air.
 By putting sulphuric acid and mercury
 into the sealed end of a recurved glass
 tube, then sealing  the other end, and ap-
 plying heat to the former, a liquid sul-
 phurous  acid  may be  obtained:  it  re-
 mains in a liquid  state  in the air at 0°
 Fahr.:  it  is colorless,  transparent, and
 very volatile ;  specific gravity 1.45.  It
 boils at  14°;  but,  in consequence  of the
 cold produced by the evaporation  of the
 portion  that  flies off, the residue remains
 liquid.   It causes a feeling  of intense
 cold when dropped on the hand.
  Sulphuric acid is obtained by burning a
 mixture  of about  seven parts sulphur,
 and one  part nitre, in  large chambers,
 lined with  lead.   By this combustion,
 sulphurous acid and deutoxide of nitro-
 gen are  formed.  The deutoxide absorbs
 oxygen  from the atmosphere, and  is con-
 verted into nitrous acid.  Both the acids
 are absorbed by water.  The nitrous acid
 gives out part of its oxygen to the  sul-
 phurous acid, and converts it  into sulphu-
 ric  acid; and, being reduced  to the state
 of deutoxide, again flies off, unites to oxy-
 gen, is converted to nitrous acid, and ab-
 sorbed by the water.  This process goes
 on  till the whole  of the  sulphurous  acid
 is converted into  sulphuric  acid.   The
 water, thus acidulated, is evaporated in
 leaden  vessels to  a certain point.  The
 evaporation is then continued in glass re-
 torts, till the acid  acquires the requisite
 degree of strength.  The ordinary form
 of a sulphuric acid lead chamber is the
 parallelopiped, and its dimensions about
 seventy  feet long, ten or twelve high, and
 sixteen wide.   At the middle height of
 one end, a small oven is built up,  with a
 cast-iron sole, having a  large lead pipe,
 ten  or twelve  inches in diameter, pro-
 ceeding from its arched  top into the end
 of the lead chamber.   On the sole the
sulphur is burned ;  the combustion being
aided, when  necessary, by heat applied
from a little furnace below it.   Above the
flaming  sulphur, a  cast-iron basin is sup-
ported in an iron  frame, into which the 
52
SULPHUR.
nitre, equal to one tenth of the sulphur, is
put,  with  a little  sulphuric acid.  The
combustion of the sulphur is regulated by
a sliding door on the oven.   In the roof
of the remote end of the  large chamber,
a small orifice is left for the escape of the
atmospheric nitrogen,  and other incon-
densable gases.  This apparatus is used
for the continuous process; but there is
another,  or that  of  the  intermitting
combustion, which  is  worthy  of  no-
tice.  Large flat trays, containing the sul-
phur and  nitre, are introduced into the
interior of the chamber, or into the oven,
and fire is applied to the materials. When
the sulphur is  burned, and the chamber
filled with sulphurous and  nitrous acids,
the steam of water is  thrown in, in de-
terminate quantity, by a small pipe at the
side.  This causes a tumultuous motion
among the  gases and the atmospheric
oxygen, which  favors  the  mutual reac-
tion.  As the  steam condenses, the sul-
phuric acid falls with it. After some time,
»he chamber is aired by opening valves
of communication with the external at-
mosphere.  The operation  is then com-
menced anew.  Sulphuric  acid was for-
merly obtained by  distillation from sul-
phate of iron; sixty-four pounds  are
yielded  by six  hundred  pounds  of the
sulphate of iron.  The  following are the
properties of pure sulphuric  acid.  It is
colorless,  has  somewhat of  an oily or
glutinous consistency, and hence the an-
cient name of oil of vitriol.  It speedily
chare animal  and vegetable  substances,
when placed in contact  with them.  It
converts vegetable  blues to red,  and is
possessed  of  an exceedingly acid taste.
Acid of the specific gravity 1.85, boils at
the temperature of 620°.  The  boiling
point diminishes with the strength.  Acid
of the specific gravity 1.78, boils at 435°,
and  acid of the  specific gravity 1.65, at
350°. The quantity of water present in
one  hundred parts of  concentrated  and
  fure sulphuric acid is  very nearly 18.46.
 t consists of three  proportionals of oxy-
gen, one of sulphur, and one of water;
and  by  weight, therefore, of 3.0 oxygen
-\- 2.0 sulphur -j-1.25 water, which equals
6.125, which represents  the combining
weight  of the concentrated sulphuric
acid; while 3 -|-  2 = 5, which  is the
equivalent of the dry acid.   Sulphuric
acid strongly attracts water, which it takes
from the atmosphere very rapidly, and in
larger quantities if suffered to remain in
an open vessel—imbibing one third of its
weight  in twenty-four hours, and more
than six times its weight in a year.  If
four parts by weight be mixed with one
of water at  50°, they produce an instan-
taneous heat  of 300°; and four  parts
raise one of ice to 212°.  On the contrary,
four parts of ice  mixed with one of acid,
sink the thermometer to 4° below 0.  It
requires a great degree of cold  to  freeze
it; and, if diluted  with half a part or
more, of water, unless the dilution be car-
ried very far, it becomes more and more
difficult to congeal; yet, at  the specific
gravity  1.78, it  may  be frozen by sur-
rounding it with  melting ice.   Its conge-
lation forms regular prismatic  crystals,
with six sides.  All the simple combusti-
bles decompose  sulphuric acid with the
assistance of heat.  At about  400°, sul-
phur converts sulphuric acid into sulphur-
ous acid.  Several metals at an elevated
temperature  decompose this acid, with
evolution of sulphurous acid gas, oxidize-
ment  of the  metal, aud combination of
the oxide with the undecomposed portion
of the  acid.  Sulphuric acid is of very
extensive  use  in  chemistry, as well as in
metallurgy,  bleaching, and some  of the
processes  for dyeing.  In medicine, it is
given as  a  tonic and stimulant, and  is
sometimes used  externally as a caustic.
The combinations of this  acid  with the
various  bases are called sulphates, and
constitute a very important class of salts;
for an account of which, see their respec-
tive bases.—Subsulphurous acid.   It has
been found, that  sulphurous acid has the
property of dissolving iron, without the
evolution  of any gas.  The acid gives
out half its  oxygen to the iron, and con-
verts it into  the protoxide  of iron, which
combines with the acid in question, and
which consists of half the oxygen found
in sulphurous acid.  When the salt is de-
composed, the subsulphurous acid is  re-
solved into  sulphurous acid and sulphur.
It seems incapable of existing  except in
combination  with a base.   When insu-
lated, half the sulphur separates, and sul-
phurous acid remains.—The hyposulphur-
ous acid also seems incapable of existing
except in combination with a base.  When
sulphuric acid in a slight excess is poured
into a dilute  solution of hyposulphite of
strontites, the whole strontites  is thrown
down, and  the  filtered liquid consists
chiefly of a  solution of hyposulphurous
acid in water.  This liquid is transparent
and colorless, is destitute of smell, and
has an acid,  astringent, and very bitter
taste.  On standing a few  hours, it un-
dergoes spontaneous decomposition,  the
liquid becomes milky, sulphur is deposit-
ed, and sulphurous  acid remains in so- 
SULPHUR.
53
lution.—Hyposulphuric acid.  By causing
a current of  the sulphurous  acid gas to
pass through  black  oxide  of  manganese,
suspended in water, a neutral salt is form-
ed, which, when dissolved, consists of a
mixture of neutral sulphate and hyposul-
phate of manganese.  By pouring into
this solution  barytes water, the whole of
the  sulphate  of  manganese  is thrown
down, while the hyposulphate is convert-
ed into  hyposulphate of  barytes, which
remains in solution.   A current of car-
bonic acid throws down any excess of ba-
rytes  that  may have been added; and
then, by evaporating the liquid, the hypo-
sulphate of barytes is obtained in crystals.
These crystals are dissolved in water, and
the barytes they contain precipitated, by
means of sulphuric acid ;  care being ta-
ken  not to add the sulphuric acid in ex-
cess.   The liquid  now consists of water
holding hyposulphuric  acid in solution.
This acid  is colorless  and destitute of
smell.   It  may be concentrated till  its
specific gravity is 1.347.   It then begins
to be  decomposed by  heat, sulphurous
acid flies off, and sulphuric acid  remains
behind.  It is found  that  it can  be com-
pletely resolved  into  sulphurous  and sul-
phuric acids, in the proportion  of four
parts  of the  former to  five parts  of
the latter.  Thus  we know five com-
pounds of  oxygen and sulphur, all  of
which  are acids.   Their names,  con-
stituents, and  combining  weights, are as
follows:
                           Sulphur.
1. Hyposulphurous acid,     2 atoms
2. Subsulphurous acid,      1
3. Sulphurous acid,         1
4. Sulphuric acid,           1
5. Hyposulphuric acid,      2
Oxygen.	Combining Weigh	
1 atom		5
1		3
2		4
3		5
5		9
Sulphur combines readily  with  chlo-
rine, forming a liquid compound  called
chloride of sulphur. It is formed by pass-
ing a current of chlorine through flowers
of sulphur,  or by heating sulphur in a
dry glass vessel, filled with chlorine gas.
Its color is brownish-red, and it possesses
an odor similar to sea-plants.   Its taste is
acid, hot and bitter.  It does not change
the color of litmus paper; specific  gravi-
ty 1.67.  When dropped into water, it is
decomposed, sulphur being evolved.  It
is composed of sulphur 2 and  chlorine
4.672.   By pouring bromine  on flowers
of  sulphur,  an analogous compound is
formed, called bromide of sulphur.  Cold
water has but little action on it, but, at a
boiling  temperature, a  slight  detonation
takes place, and hydrobromic acid is form-
ed, together with sulphuric acid and sul-
phureted hydrogen.   It consists of bro-
mine 10 and sulphur  2.  Sulphur  has
the property of  combining with iodine,
and of forming a  compound called iodide
of sulphur.   It is easily formed  by mix-
ing together the two constituents in a glass
tube, and exposing them to sufficient heat
to melt  the sulphur.  It is of a grayish-
black color, and has a radiated texture.
It has not  been analyzed.  Sulphur has
the property of combining  with hydro-
gen, and of forming a gaseous compound,
which has received the name of sulphu-
reted hydrogen.  It has  also been  called
hydrosulphuric acid.  It may be obtained
by  pouring  sulphuric  or muriatic acid
upon several metallic sulphurc's.   Sul-
                   5*
phuret of  iron is commonly  employed,
and may be formed by heating together
iron filings and sulphur in a covered cru-
cible. Sulphureted hydrogen gas is color-
less, and has a strong, fetid smell, not un-
like that of rotten eggs.  It does not sup-
port combustion, nor can animals breathe
it without suffocation.  Its specific grav-
ity  is 1.1805.  It is  rapidly absorbed by
water,—100 cubic inches of this liquid
absorbing 308 cubic inches of sulphureted
hydrogen.  The water thus impregnated
is colorless, but  it has the smell of the
gas; and a sweetish, nauseous taste.  It
converts  vegetable blue  colors  to red.
When the gas is mixed  with common
air, it burns rapidly, but does not explode.
When three volumes of sulphureted hy-
drogen gas, and two volumes of sulphur-
ous acid gas, both  dry, are mingled over
mercury, they unite together, and are con-
densed into a solid body, which adheres
firmly to  the sides of the vessel.  To this
compound, which possesses acid proper-
ties, the name  of hydrosulphurous acid is
applied.  Its taste is acid and hot; and it
leaves an impression in the mouth, which
continues  for some time.  It requires
a greater heat to  produce fusion than sul-
phur.  Another compound of  sulphur
and hydrogen, called bisulphuret of hy-
drogen, is formed as  follows:  Carbonate
of potash is fused with  an excess of sul-
phur  in a  covered crucible, by which a
sulphuret  of potash is  formed.  A con-
centrated  solution of  this sulphuret is
poured, by little and little, into dilute muri- 
34
SULPHUR—SUMACH.
atic acid, whicn gives rise to a yellow, oily-
looking liquid, which  collects at the bot-
tom of the vessel.  This  liquid is the bi-
sulphuret  of hydrogen.   It  cannot  be
kept,  for  it  undergoes spontaneous de-
composition  even in well-closed vessels,
being converted  into sulphur and sul-
phureted  hydrogen.   Sulphur has  the
property  of  combining with carbon, and
of forming a very remarkable compound,
called bisulphuret of carbon.  It is formed
as follows •-'-Fill a porcelain   tube  with
charcoal, and make it pass through a fur-
nace in such a way, that one end shall be
considerably  elevated  above   the  other.
To the lower extremity lute a  wide glass
tube, of such a length and shape, that its
end cau  be  plunged  to the bottom of a
glass bottle filled with  water. To the ele-
vated extremity lute another wide  glass
tube, filled with small  bits of sulphur, and
secured at the further end, so that the sul-
phur may be pushed forward by means
of a wire, without allowing the inside of
the tube to communicate with  the exter-
nal  air.    Heat  the porcelain  tube, and,
consequently, the charcoal which it con-
tains,  to  redness, and continue the  heat,
till air bubbles cease to  come from the
charcoal; then push the  sulphur slowly,
and piece after piece, into the porcelain
tube.   A  substance  passes through the
glass  tube,  and  condenses,   under the
water of the  bottle, into  a liquid.   This
liquid  was  obtained  by  Lampadius  in
1796, and described under the name  of
alcohol of sulphur.  It is as transparent
and colorless as water; its taste is acid,
pungent,  and  somewhat aromatic;  its
smell is nauseous and fetid, though quite
peculiar;  specific gravity 1.27.  It boils
at 105°, and  does not congeal when  cool-
ed down to  60°.  It is one of the  most
volatile  liquids  known,  and produces  a
greater  degree of cold by its evaporation
than any  other substance.  It takes fire
in the open air, at a temperature scarcely
above  620°.   It is scarcely  soluble  in
water; but alcohol and ether  dissolve it
readily.  It is composed of sulphur 84.83
and carbon 15.17.  Bisulphuret of carbon
was found by doctor Brewster  to  exceed
all fluid  bodies  in refractive power.  In
dispersive power,  it exceeds every fluid
substance except oil of cassia, holding  an
intermediate place between phosphorus
and balsam of Tolu.  Sulphur combines
with  boron,  silicon and phosphorus, and
forms sulphurets of these substances. (For
an account of the sulphurets of the metals,
see the different metals.)
   Sulphuric Acid.  (See Sulphur.)
  Sultan, in Arabic, signifies mighty.
The Turkish  emperor is called sultan,
or grand sultan, although the title oi'pa-
dishah (q.  v.) is  more  dignified.   The
princes of the family of the  khan of the
Crim Tartars are also styled sultan.  The
pacha of Egypt is likewise  honored with
this title, by the  inhabitants  of the coun-
try, but not at the court  of  Constantino-
ple.  In common life, every  person is ad-
dressed, out of civility, as sultanum (my
lord).  The Europeans also call the wives
of the sultan, sultanas; but the Turks call
them merely first, second, or third  wife,
&c.  The  first is  she who first bears a
son to the sultan.   She is likewise called
by Europeans the favorite sultana.  She
has the precedency of all the  women of
the  seraglio,  unless her  son dies before
the sultan, and another of the wives has a
son older than any of hers surviving. The
title of sultana is applied  properly only to
one of the wives, who is actually declared
wife and empress ; but this is rarely done,
on account of the expense  of a second
court,  which would  be  necessary.  At
Constantinople, only  the  daughtere of
the  sultan are called sultanas ;  and they
retain  this title even after marriage with
the officers of the sultan.  The daughters
of such a  marriage  are termed kanum
sultanas (ladies of the blood). If the moth-
er of the sultan is living, she  is styled
Walidet-sultana, or sultana  Valide.  She
is treated with great respect, and her son
cannot choose a new wife  or concubine
without her consent.  (See Harem.)  Sul-
tana is also the name ofa Turkish ship of
war, carrying about sixty-six guns, with
800 men.
  Sumach (rhus); a genus of plants, be-
longing to the natural family terebintha-
cem,  consisting of shrubs or small trees,
with small, inconspicuous flowers, dispos-
ed in racemes or panicles, and leaves usu-
ally pinnate, somewhat resembling those
of the walnut, but in some species ternate
or simple.   More  than  seventy species
are known: all have a lactescent juice,
more or less acrid, and containing a gum-
resin.—R. coriaria is found  in the coun-
tries about the Mediterranean. The young
branches, dried and powdered, were used
by the ancients for tanning  leather; and
at the present time, in some parts of Spam
and  Italy, the black  morocco  is chiefly
prepared with this plant.   The roots con-
tain a brown, and the bark a yellow dye.
The seeds are in common use at Aleppo,
at meals, to  provoke an appetite.   Both
leaves and seeds are used in medicine, as
astringent and  styptic.—R.  typhina is a 
SUMACH—SUMATRA.
55
shrub, twelve or fifteen feet high, com-
mon in the northern parts of the U. States.
The young branches are thick, and cov-
ered with a dense coating of hairs ; hence
the common name of stag's horn sumach.
The leaves are pinnate, and composed of
eleven  to fifteen serrated leaflets.  The
flowers are small and numerous, disposed
in an upright hairy panicle, and are suc-
ceeded  by small berries,  which  finally
turn red, und render this shrub a conspic-
uous object  in  the  woods.  It has been
long cultivated in the European gardens
for ornament.  The hemes possess the
same properties as those of the preceding,
and a  very  abundant milky juice flows
from the bark.  This last  is pulverized,
aud employed  for  tanning.—R.  glabra
precisely resembles  the preceding  in hab-
it, and is only distinguished by the smooth-
ness of the leaves and  young shoots.  It
extends farther south, and is common in
the Middle States; often overrunning land
left for a few years in pasture.  The ber-
ries dye red, and the branches boiled with
the berries afford a black, ink-like tinc-
ture.  It is likewise  cultivated for orna-
ment, in the European gardens, and pos-
sesses the same properties as the preced-
ing.—R. pumila is a low, pubescent spe-
cies, from the  mountains of Carolina,
which is said to be the most poisonous of
the genus.—R.  venenata, commonly call-
ed dog-wood  or poison sumach, is not un-
common  in  the Northern  and  Middle
States.   It attains the height of twelve to
twenty feet.   The  leaves are smooth and
entire;  the flowers  greenish-white,  dis-
posed in loose panicles, and succeeded by
whitish berries.  The poisonous qualities
of this plant are well known. Some per-
sons are affected by touching or smelling
any part of it, or even by  coming within
a certain distance;  while others appear to
be entirely   exempt from  its influence.
When  the poison has been communicat-
ed, inflammation appears  on the skin, in
large blotches, in a  day or two; soon af-
ter, small pustules  rise  in the  inflamed
parts, and fill with watery matter, attended
with intolerable itching and burning, and
lasting several days.—R.copallina is abun-
dant in sandy soil, in many parts of the Mid-
dle and Southern States. It is easily distin-
guished  by  the leafy expansion on each
side of the common petiole.  The  flowers
are greenish-yellow, and are disposed in
panicles at the extremities of the branch-
es.—R. radicans, often called, in this coun-
try, poison ivy, is a climbing, woody vine,
which adheres to the trunks and branches
of trees, by  means  of root-like suckers.
The leaves are ternate, and the floWers are
disposed in little axillary racemes.   It is
common  in  the  Northern  and Middle
States, and  affects  certain indiv iduals in
the same manner as the poison  sumach;
but it seems to be less virulent, and fewer
persons  are exposed to its  influence.—R.
aromatica differs widely in habit from die
others.  It  is a small shrub,  with ternate
leaves, having  the flowers  disposed in
aments, which grows chiefly on the Alle-
ghanies, and in the  Western States.   The
berries are  hairy and red.  The celebrat-
ed Japan varnish is obtained from a spe-
cies of rhus, which was formerly consid-
ered identical with our poison  sumach ;
but now is  recognised  as a  distinct spe-
cies, having the under surface of the leaves
downy and velvety.  This varnish  oozes
from the tree, on its being wom:ded, and
grows thick and black when exposed to
the air.  It is so transparent, that  whei
laid pure and unmixed  upon  boxes or fur-
niture, every  vein  of the wood may be
clearly seen.  With it the Japanese var-
nish over the posts  of their doors and win-
dows, their drawers, chests,  boxes,  citn-
eters, fans, tea-cups, soup-dishes, and most
articles of  household furniture made of
wood.
  Sumarokoff, Alexander  Petrowitsch,
a distinguished Russian tragic poet, who
formed himself on French  models, was
bom in 1718, and died at Moscow in 1777.
His tragedies, in point of harmony, taste,
and purity  of style, are  compared to those
of Racine,  though  inferior in poetical in-
spiration.   His principal works  are Sine-
us and Truwor (which appeared in 1755),
Semire, Jaropolkund Deinise, Korew and
Aristone; all of which were  translated
into French  in 1801.   He also wrote
Hamlet,Ritschelas,  and the Pseudo-Deme-
trius.  The  last is considered his best
work (translated into French in  1800, also
into English).   Sumarokoff also  wrote
comedies, fables and epigrams.
  Sumatra ; an island in the eastern seas,
the largest  and most westerly of the Sun-
da  islands, separated from the  continent
by the straits of Malacca, and from  Java
by  the  straits of  Sunda.  It  is divided
obliquely by the equator into almost equal
parts, and  its  general  direction is from
N. W. to S. E.; lat. of one extremity 5° 5&
N., of the other 5° 56' S.  It  is about 1000
miles long,and 165,on an average, broad;
square miles, about 160,000.  A chain of
high mountains runs through the whole
extent of the island, and the ranges are, in
many parts, double and  treble. Mount
Ophir, immediately under the equinoctial 
56
SUMATRA—SUMMER.
line, is supposed to be the highest visible
from the sea, its summit being elevated
13,842 feet above that level.  Among the
ridges of mountains are extensive plains
of great elevation,  and  of temperate  cli-
mate, the most valuable and best inhabit-
ed portion of the island.  Here, too,  are
found many  large and beautiful lakes.
The ridges of mountains lie towards the
western shore; in consequence, all  the
greatest  rivers are  found on the eastern
side.  The climate  varies with the height
of the ground; but on the plains, the heat
is not so great as might be expected from
the position;  the  thermometer, in  the
greatest heat, about  two o'clock P.  M.,
generally fluctuating from 82° to 85°: at
sunrise, it is  usually as low as 70°.  The
soil is generally fertile ;  the population for
the most part thin ;  and a great portion
of the  island is covered with an impene-
trable forest  The most important article
of cultivation is rice, of which there are
many different species.  Of  articles  of
commerce, the most abundant is  pepper,
formerly obtained in greater quantities than
at present.  Other productions are, gum-
benzoin,  camphor, cassia, cotton, coffee,
&c.  The upas (q. v.) tree, and the gigan-
tic  rafflesia (q.  v.), are  among the vege-
table curiosities.  It is rich in mineral and
fossil productions ;  has long been famous
for gold, which is  still procured in con-
siderable quantities;  and has  mines of
iron, copper, and tin.   It produces a great
variety and abundance of fruits, and wild
animals, as elephants, tigers, rhinoceroses,
alligators, &c.;  also birds of various kinds.
The inhabitants are rather below the mid-
dle size: their limbs are for the most part
slight, but well shaped.   The women flat-
ten the noses and compress the  skulls of
children newly  born; and the males  de-
stroy their beards.  The inhabitants have
made but little progress, generally, in the
arts of  industry,  though they  excel  in
some particular manufactures.  The Ma-
lay language is every where spoken along
the coasts of  Sumatra. (See  Malays.)
Among the modern political divisions of
the island, the principal are the empire of
Menancabow and  the Malays, the Achi-
neese (see Acheen), the  Battas (q. v.),  the
Rejangs, and  the  people of Lampong.
The Dutch first began to form settlements
on  the coasts  in  1666, and in 1685, the
English  also established themselves  at
Bencoolen. (q. v.)   In 1825, the presiden-
cy of Bencoolen, of which the capital was
Fort  Marlborough, was ceded to  the
Dutch, in return for Malacca, (q. v.) The
latter  were already in possession  of  Pa-
dang, a strong  fortress  on the western
coast, and of Palembang (25,000 inhabit-
ants), on  the  eastern coast.   Previous t"
the late  revolution  in  the  Netherlands,
they were making preparations to -'educe
the whole island.  Sir Thomas Stamford
Raffles (q. v.) was the first European who
penetrated to the interior of the  island,
which he crossed from Bencoolen to Pa-
lembang.  See Marsden's  History of Su-
matra, and  Anderson's Mission  on the
East  Coast  of Sumatra (Edmb.,  1826,
2 vols.).
  Summer ;  in the northern hemisphere,
the season comprehended in the months
of June,  July, and August; the wannest
period of the year.   South of the equator,
the summer corresponds, in time, to our
winter.   The entire year is also sometimes
divided into the summer, or warm season,
and  the  winter, or  cold  season.   The
astronomical  summer  begins,  in   the
northern  hemisphere, when  the sun luis
reached its greatest northern elevation,—
therefore about June 21,—and ends when
it crosses the equator  the  second  time
in the year, about September 23.   Not-
withstanding the changes in the signs of
the ecliptic,  produced by the precession
(q. v.) of  the equinoxes, the ancient signs
of summer have remained in the calendar.
In  the northern hemisphere, they  are
Cancer, Leo, Virgo ;  in the southern, Cap-
ricorn, Aquarius,  Pisces.  Our summer
takes place at the time when the earth is
at the greatest distance from  the  sun,
and hence moves the slowest.  The di-
ameter of the sun, therefore, appears con-
siderably smaller at this season than in
winter, and the summer of the northern
hemisphere  has ninety-three  and  a half
days,—a few days more than the winter,—
and, therefore, more than the summer of
the southern hemisphere.  Notwithstand-
ing the  greater distance of the sun  in
summer,  his rays have much more effect
than in winter, because they fall  more
directly upon the northern hemisphere.
He also rises much sooner, and sets much
later,  and, therefore, describes  a much
greater  arc   in  the  heavens  than  in
winter.   At the time when he has reached
the tropic of Cancer, he ascends highest
in the heavens, and remains longest above
the horizon ; and  we  might, therefore,
suppose that this would be the period of
the greatest heat.  But  experience shows
that the   greatest  heat generally  takes
place in  August,  throughout the whole
northern  hemisphere,  for  beyond  the
polar circle.   The reason of this circum-
stance is, that, in August, the influence 
SUMMER—SUN.
57
of the  sun's rays  has been felt for a long
time on the earth, and  that, within the
polar circle, as far  as  to  the tenth or
twelfth degree from the  pole, the ice has
been thawed and  the temperature of the
air  moderated; hence the wind which
blows from those  northern regions to the
south is milder.—See  Meyer's  Manual
of Physical Astronomy, Theory  of the
Earth,  and  Meteorology (German,  Got-
tingen, 1805).
  Scmter, Thomas, a distinguished par-
tisan officer, during  the American revo-
lutionary war, died June 1, 1832, at his
residence,  near  the Bradford  springs,
South  Carolina, after a short illness, in
the ninety-eighth  year of his age.  In the
commencement of his military career, he
was severely tried by adversity, and ac-
quired  such  circumspection  and  pru-
dence,  that  the  enterprises  which  he
subsequently  conducted were,  for  the
most part, crowned with brilliant success.
He gave the firet check  to the success of
the British in South Carolina, after the
fell of Charleston, in 1780.   The affairs
of the  state then wore  the most gloomy
aspect; the citizens were in the deepest
despondency, and  had abandoned all  hope
of further resistance, when  colonel Sum-
ter, at  the  head of a small  band of fol-
lowers, who had  been forced to retreat,
returned to the  state,  raised again the
standard of opposition,  and revived and
maintained the spirits of the people by a
series of gallant achievements.   He  firet
routed, July 12,1780, at Williams's planta-
tion, a marauding detachment of the ene-
my's army, commanded by captain Huck,
a miscreant who had excited  universal
abhorrence  by his cruelty and profanity.
In the  same month, he made attacks on
the posts of Rocky mount  and Hanging
rock, the first of which was completely
successful, as would have been  the  sec-
ond, also, could  he  have restrained the
insubordination of his  troops,  and de-
stroyed their  avidity for  plunder  and
liquor.    He  destroyed,  however,  the
prince  of Wales's regiment.  Soon  after,
he  captured a convoy  of stores passing
from Ninety-Six to Camden ; but, unfortu-
nately,  encamping  within  striking  dis-
tance of the enemy,  he  was surprised by
Tarleton, and  routed, with the loss of
many  men and  all  the  prisoners  and
stores that had recently fallen  into his
hands.   He was next attacked near Broad
river by Wemyss, who was repulsed, and
he himself wounded and taken. Major
Garden, in his Anecdotes of the Revolu-
tion, states, that  lord Cornwallis wrote,
immediately after  this, to Tarleton, " I
shall be glad to hear that Sumter is in no
condition to give us further trouble; he
certainly has been our greatest plague  in
this country."   He  was accordingly at-
tacked by Tarleton, in his strong position
on Blackstock  hill, with the usual impet-
uosity of that officer, who, however, was
compelled to retreat, with a severe loss,
leaving his wounded to the mercy of the
victor.   In this  action, Sumter received
a severe wound, which, for a considerable
time, arrested his career; but he was no
sooner able to take the  field, than he
again appeared  as  an active  partisan,
breaking up the British posts in the lowrer
country.  About this period, he was pro-
moted  to the  rank of brigadier-general.
On one occasion, lieutenant-colonel Hamp-
ton, commanding under him, dispersed a
large  body of tories,  near Dorchester.
Placed at the head of the light troops, both
regulars and militia, Sumter  next com-
pelled lieutenant-colonel Coats to destroy
his stores, at Monk's corner, and abandon
his position.   Important  services  were
again performed by Sumter  at Eutaw,
after which, the enemy,  retiring within
their lines, seldom ventured beyond the
gates  of Charleston.   General  Sumter
was  for a  long  time  a member  of the
American  congress, first as a representa-
tive, and then a senator, and enjoyed the
highest respect.  He is thus  described in
Lee's Memoirs:—" Sumter  was younger
than Marion, who  was about forty-eight
years of age, larger in frame, better fitted,
in strength of body, to the toils of war,
and,  like  his  compeer, devoted  to the
freedom of his country.  His aspect was
manly and stem,  denoting insuperable
firmness and lofty courage.  Determined
to deserve success, he risked his  own
life and the lives of his associates without
reserve."
   Sux. This magnificent luminary, the
great source of  light, heat, and life, ap-
pears to us a circular and resplendent
disk; from which appearance, and the
observation of the solar spots (described
below), it  follows that this body has a
fonn nearly spherical, and turns round its
axis once in about twenty-five  and a half
days, because a sphere only can appear to
the eye like a circular disk in all positions.
The true relation of the sun, not only to
our earth, but to all  the planets of "our
system, has been known since the discov-
eries  of Kepler.  The primary planets,
accompanied  by their moons, revolve
about the  sun in elliptical  orbits, which
have but little  eccentricity the  sun  Itself 
58
SUN.
being situated in a focus common  to  all
these ellipses.  His mean distance  from
the earth, which has been finally deter-
mined, with  tolerable  accuracy, by the
observation of his  parallax (see the sub-
sequent part of-this article), amounts, in
round numbers, to about 95,000,000 miles:
the sun, therefore, is above 400 times far-
ther distant from us than the moon; and
a cannon ball which moves 600 feet in each
second, would require  about  26 years to
reach it.   The apparent diameter of the
sun is  pretty nearly the same as that  of
the moon: it is somewhat above half a
degree ;  yet, according  to  the various
points of the earth's orbit, from which we
observe the same,  varies somewhat—a
necessary  consequence  of the  elliptical
fonn of this orbit.  The conclusions which
we draw from the differences in the ap-
parent magnitude of the  sun as  to the
different distances of this  body from the
earth, agree perfectly with what  we learn,
respecting the same subject,  from  other
sources; so that this point may be  con-
sidered as well settled.   The mass of the
sun, which exceeds that of all the planets
together 800 times, is, in proportion to that
of our earth, according to Piazzi,as 329,630
to 1; the diameter exceeds that of the earth
112 times, the surface  12,700 times, the
solid contents 1,435,000 times.   The earth
appears, as Biot says, by this statement, a
mere grain of sand, compared to the sun,
which, again, in his turn, is but a point
in  infinite space.  Respecting the physi-
cal structure of the sun, astronomers  have
entertained different opinions, from times
immemorial.  The hypothesis of Herechel
is, that the sun is an opaque body, having
on its surface mountains and valleys, like
the earth, the whole surrounded  by an
atmosphere constantly  rilled  with  lumi-
nous clouds.  These sometimes open  in
particular  places, and allow the body of
the sun to be seen ; hence the appearance
of solar spots.  This hypothesis seems to
be  preferable to that  of Laplace  (who
imagines the  sun to be  a burning body),
because it allows  us to conceive that the
sun is inhabited, which  better agrees with
the wise use made of space by a benefi-
cent Omnipotence.
  Parallax of the  Sun.—Parallax and
horizontal parallax have  been explained
in  the article Parallax.  The  horizontal
parallax of the sun has been known with
greater accuracy since the transit of Venus
over the  sun's disk in 1761 and 1769.
As the orbit of the earth includes that of
Venus, the latter must  sometimes appear
between us and the sun.  The duration
of such a  transit  for the  centre of the
earth may  be  calculated; and on com-
paring this with the duration actually ob-
served on  the  surface of the earth, the
difference of the two results enables us to
deduce the horizontal parallax of the sun,
and hence the distance of the two lumi-
naries from each other.  In this way the
mean horizontal parallax of the sun  has
been estimated by Durejour at 8' 8", and
by Biot at  8' 7", which  makes the mean
distance of the sun from the earth amount
to 23,439  times the radius of the earth
(which is about 4000 miles in length), or,
in round numbers,  94,000,000 miles.   If
this horizontal parallax is taken but one
tenth of a  second smaller, we must add
to this distance an  amount equal to 215
times the radius of the earth, which ex-
plains the difference in the statements of
the distance.   This distance having been
ascertained  with  tolerable accuracy, we
possess the measure of our whole plane-
tary system, as, according to  the second
law of Kepler (q. v.), the cubes of  the
mean distances of  the planets from the
sun are as the squares of the periods of
their revolutions (which have long been
known).  Therefore the determining of
this distance is of the highest importance.
Respecting the transit of Venus, see La-
lande's Astronomic, Enke's Distance of
the  Sun from the Earth, by the Transit
of Venus in 1761, and the Transit of Ve-
nus in 1769 (in German).  (See Transit.)
  Spots on the Sun.—Spots of irregular
form are often observed in the disk of the
sun (q.  v.), in greater  or  less number.
They appear in the centre dark, and to-
wards  the  margin  have a whitish-gray
umbra, which, however, is often observed
spreading over large surfaces,  without
that  black  centre.  They originate and
disappear,  sometimes quickly, and with-
out apparent cause, in the middle of the
disk; but more frequently are observed
to rise on the eastern margin, and move
towards the western, where, thirteen days
after being firet seen, they disappear, and
again appear on the eastern margin after
a little longer period.  The  spots appear
to revolve round the sun in about twenty-
seven days.  At particular seasons, they
move over  the sun in straight lines; at all
other times, in lines more or less curved ;
and the paths described by different spots
observed at the same time are always par-
allel to each other, and always have their
curvature and position determined by the
season.  They appear  broadest  when
near the middle  point  of their passage.
All this is satisfactorily explained, if the 
SUN—SUNDAY-SCHOOLS.
59
 spots are considered to adhere to the sun,
 and the latter is considered to turn ac-
 cording to the order of the signs round its
 axis, which is inclined at an angle of 82^°
 to the ecliptic  of the earth.  The real
 duration of this  rotation,  as  deduced
 from  the  apparent rotation  of twenty-
 seven days, is equal to twenty-five days.
 This  difference  is  occasioned by the
 fact  that  the  earth,  from which this
 rotation is observed, is itself  moving
 in the mean time.  Herschel's opinion on
 the  nature of these spots we  have men-
 tioned in the previous part of this article.
   Sun-Dial.   (See Dial.)
   Scnda  Islands ; a group of islands
 lying to the south of Farther India.   The
 principal islands of the group are Suma-
 tra,  Borneo and Java.  (See the articles.)
 The straits of Sunda lie between Suma-
 tra and Java.
   Sunday : the  first day in  the  week,
 which has its  name from the sun, as this
 day was already called dies solis with the
 Romans.   It is celebrated by Christians
 in commemoration of Christ's having risen
 on the first day of the week.  It was also
 on the first day of the week that the Holy
 Ghost was poured out  upon  the disciples.
 We have given a history of the Christian
 Sunday under  the  article Sabbath, and
 shall here  only refer the reader, for more
 information on some points, to Hallam's
 Constitutional  History of England (ch.
 vii. viii.).   In the church services of Eu-
 rope, the Sundays are named from the
 feasts which  precede  them, or from the
 collects or passages of  Scripture with
 which the  religious service was formerly
 commenced on  the  several Sundays :—
 1. Sunday after New  Year, so  called
 when new year begins on one of the four
 last days of the week.   2. Sundays after
 Epiphany,  which vary from  one  to six,
 according to the time of Easter.  3. Sep-
 iuagesima  (q.  v.),  Sexagesima, and Esto
 mihi (in the English church, quinquagesi-
 ma (q. v.)  Sunday).  The third has  its
 Latin  name  from the beginning of the
 lesson of the day (Psalm lxxi, 3). 4. Sun-
 days  in Lent.  (q. v.)  Their names are
 taken from the words with which the les-
 sons of the day begin: Invocavit (Psalm
 xci,  15);  Reminiscere (Psalm  xxv, 6);
 Oculi (Psalm  xxv,  15);  Lmtare (Tsaiah
 lxvi, 10); Judica (Psalm xliii, 1); Palma-
 rum,  Palm  Sunday, (q. v.)   5. Sundays
 after Easter, six in number, which almost
 all have names of rejoicing : Quasimodo-
geniti (1 Peter ii, 2), or Whitsunday (see
 Pentecost); Misericordias Domini (Psalm
 xxiii, 6, or Psalm Ixxxix,  2);  Jubilate
 (Psalm lxvi, 1);  Cantate (P<salm xcvi, 1);
 Rogate (Matt, vii, 7); Exaudi (Psalm xxvii,
 7).  6. Sundays after Trinity.   The feast
 of Trinity was established in 1150.  The
 greatest number  of  these  Sundays  is
 twenty-seven:  the number depends upon
 the  time of Easter.   The  later Easter
 falls, the more Epiphany Sundays  and
 the fewer Trinity Sundays are  there.   7.
 Sundays in Advent.   (See  Advent.)   8.
 Sunday after Christmas, so  called when
 this festival falls upon one of the first four
 days of the week, reckoned from Mon-
 day.   (See  Festivals.)    In  the English
 church,  the sixth  Sunday after Easter is
 called Sunday  after Ascension, and  the
 seventh Whitsunday.
   Sunday  Letter.    (See  Dominical
 Letter.)
   Sunday Schools. The founder of the
 modern Sunday schools  was Mr. Raikes
 (q. v.), editor of  the  Gloucester  (Eng-
 land) Journal.  Struck with the wretched
 appearance  of  a  number  of children
 whom he saw playing in the street in the
 suburbs, he was informed by an inhabit-
 ant to whom he addressed  himself, that
 on Sundays, when they were released
 from work,  and the few who enjoyed the
 benefit of  any  instruction  during  the
 week, were let  loose from  school, they
 presented a  more afflicting sight of mise-
 ry and vice. This observation immedi-
 ately suggested to him  the idea that  the
 profanation of the  day might be prevent-
 ed by putting them to school; and he en-
 gaged several women, who kept schools in
 the  neighborhood, to receive such chil-
 dren as he should  send to them on Sun-
 days, and instruct  them in  reading and
 the  catechism,  paying  each of them  a
 shilling for their day's work.  He soon
 collected a considerable number of chil-
 dren, distributed books among them, gave
 them advice, settled their quarrels; and
 the  effects  of  his benevolent  exertions
 were so striking, that  his example was
 followed by other  charitable persons  in
different quarters of the city;  and in  a
few years Sunday schools were establish-
ed in almost every  part of England.  Mr.
Raikes made his first experiment in 1781,
and, in 1786, it was estimated that 250,000
children  were  receiving instruction   in
Sunday schools.   (See a letter of Mr.
Raikes, giving an account of his proceed-
ings,  in the Gentleman's Magazine, vol.
liv, p. 410, 1784.)   A Sunday school so-
ciety was formed in 1785 for the encour-
agement of Sunday schools by pecuniary
aid, &c, the schools having  been at first
taught by hired teachers.  Gratuitous  in-
struction was a great improvement in the
system, and appears to have become gen-
t 
60                SUNDAY-SCHOOLS—SUN-FLOWER.
eral about 1800.  In 1803, the first Sun-
day school union was formed in London,
and  the  example was  soon imitated in
many large towns and some of the coun-
ties.   In  1826, the  number of Sunday
schools in England under the care of the
established church was about 8000, with
550,450 pupils:  the number  of  those
established by dissenters  is  also very
great   The   Scotch   Sabbath  evening
schools (first established in Edinburgh in
1787) arose from  the  English Sunday
schools, but are modified by the circum-
stance that, as nearly all the children in
tnat country are taught  to read in the pa-
rochial  schools,  the   Sabbath  evening
schools are more entirely devoted to di-
rect religious  instruction than the Sunday
schools.  In this country, the first Sunday
schools were  opened  at New York, in
1816; and they have since multiplied rap-
idly, and overspread the whole country.
  Sunderbunds ; an  extensive,  woody,
inhospitable district of Hindoostan, inter-
■  cted by the  mouths of the  Ganges, in
ue south part of the country of Bengal.
This district is about 10,000 square miles
in extent, and is intersected by innume-
rable rivers and creeks, all of which are
salt; and through the whole tract nothing
but  brackish  water is  found; and  it  is
generally uninhabited,  except by tigers
and  deer.    The  navigation  by  boats
through the Sunderbunds is very roman-
tic, and boats coming down to Calcutta
in the hot season are obliged  to take this
route.  The trees are all of small size, not
useful for  timber, but very valuable in
affording a supply  of  fuel for  Calcutta
and other towns on the river.
  Sunderland ; a market-town and sea-
port of England, county of Durham, near
the mouth of the Wear. Here the malig-
nant cholera made its first appearance in
England in 1831.  With  Monk  Wear-
mouth and Bishop Wearmouth, it forms
one  connected town.   The High street
is  spacious,   and  tolerably  handsome,
especially the central  part, which rises
with  a considerable ascent   Some of
the other streets  are  narrow and dirty;
but of late years the general appearance
of the town has been improved.  Of its
public buildings, the church, a chapel of
ease, a Methodist chapel, and  meeting-
houses  for   the  Presbyterians,   Inde-
pendents, Baptists, Quakers,  and Unita-
rians,  the  exchange, &c, are the  princi-
pal.   The harbor is formed by two piers,
on the south  and  north sides of the river.
The iron bridge consists of an arch of iron
frame-work,  thrown over the river, 237
feet span, and rising 100 feet above the
level  of the water; so that ships of 400
tons can sail under  it, by striking  their
top-gallant masts.  The trade of Sunder-
land has been long on the increase.  Coal
is the staple article of export, employing
600 craft.   The manufactures are chiefly
of flint and bottle glass, earthen ware, cop-
peras. Coal is the staple article of export
Ship-building  is carried on to a great ex-
tent.  By the  reform bill it returns, with
the Wearmouths, two members to parlia-
ment.   Population of the whole town in
1821,33,911. 267milesnorthfrom London.
  Sun-Dew  (drosera).   These delicate
plants are found in marshes  and moist
places.   They  attract  attention  chiefly
from  their leaves, which are  all  radical,
and fringed with  hairs, each of which
supports a globule of pellucid, dew-like
liquor, even in the hottest weather.  The
flowers are small, and mostly white ; but
in one North American species, they are
conspicuous, and of a fine purple color.
These plants are remarkable for having
the unexpanded  leaves rolled up in the
same manner as the ferns—a disposition al-
most  unique among phaenogamous plants.
The  most common  species,  D. rotundi-
folia, is  an acrid, caustic plant, which cur-
dles milk, removes warts  and corns, and
takes away freckles and sunburn: distil-
led with wine, it produces a very stimu-
lating spirit; and  it was formerly much
used as a tincture, spiced and sweetened.
   Sun-Fish  (orthagoriscus); a cartilagi-
nous  fish of  a  very singular  form: the
body  is  compressed, broad,  abruptly
truncated, resembling, in fact, the head of
a large  fish separated from the body: the
mouth  and eyes  are very small.   Its
nearly  circular  form, and  the  silvery
whiteness of the sides, together with their
brilliant  phosphorescence during  the
night, have obtained  for it veiy generally
the  appellations of  sun or moon-fish.
WThile swimming, it turns upon itself like
a wheel.   It grows to an immense size,
often attaining the diameter of four feet,
and  sometimes even that of  twelve,
and weighing from three to five hundred
pounds.  It is very fet, and yields a great
quantity of oil;  but  the flesh is ill tasted,
and  exhales  a  disagreeable  odor.   It
is  found in all seas, from  the arctic
to  the antarctic circle.  Two  or  three
species are known.   In  the U. States,
the same name is often applied to  a fish
of the  perch  family (pomotis), of a com-
pressed and elevated  form, very common
in  most of our lakes and rivers.  The
genus pomotis is peculiar to North Amer-
ica, and several species are now known.
   Sun-Flower (helianthus) ; a genus cf 
SUN-FLOWER—SUPERIOR.
61
plants, so called from  the  ideal resem-
blance of the  yellow flowers to the sun
with his golden rays.  The root is mostly
perennial; the stem herbaceous, upright,
and often very tall; the leaves opposite
or alternate, undivided, often rigid  and
scabrous ; the flowers large and terminal,
usually disposed in a corymb.  It belongs
to the composite.  The species are nume-
rous,  and mostly inhabit North America.
The gigantic sun-flower (H. annuus),  so
common in our  gardens, is a native  of
Peru.  The root is annual;  the   stem
thick, cylindrical, rough, from six to fif-
teen feet in height; the leaves alternate,
petiolate,  large,  and  somewhat heart-
shaped ;  the flowers, sometimes a foot in
diameter, are so inclined as to take nearly
a vertical position, and  usually are turned
towards  the south; they have  the  disk
very large, and the  rays short in propor-
tion.   The seeds form  excellent nourish-
ment for poultry and for cage birds ; and
an edible oil has also been expressed  from
them.—H. tuberosus is  a native of Brazil,
and has been extensively cultivated in Eu-
rope  for the sake of its tuberous roots,
which are used as a substitute for the po-
tato.  It is often  called Jerusalem  arti-
choke, the first term being a corruption  of
the Italian  word girasole; and the latter
has been applied  to it from the resem-
blance in the flavor of the roots to that of
the common  artichoke.  These roots are
eaten  cooked in  various manners, but
are not so generally liked  as potatoes;
neither are they so nourishing or whole-
some : they are,  however, excellent for
sheep and other domestic animals during
the winter  season.  The plant flourishes
in  every soil, requiring little  attention ;
but in a good soil the roots are larger and
of a better quality.  When once planted,
they may be left for years upon the  same
ground, as there are always enough  roots
remaining for reproduction, after the re-
moval of all that are wanted for the  pur-
poses of aliment.   The season  in which
they are dug up for use is from about the
middle of September to November.  So
extremely  productive  is  this  valuable
plant,  that between seventy and eighty
tons of the  roots are said to have  been
obtained in one season from a single acre of
ground.  This plant grows to the height
of eight or nine feet: the flowers are much
smaller than those of the preceding.
  Sunna ;  with  the  ancient  northern
tribes,  the goddess of the  sun.   Her
brother was Mani, god of the moon.*  In
  * In German, the sun (Sonne) is feminine, and
the moon (Mond) masculine.
  vol. xii.         6
honor of her, a boar was fattened through
the year; and at the beginning of Febru-
ary, it was sacrificed, with many ceremo-
nies.   Eight days before January, the
boar was carried to the ruler of the coun-
try, and on its back the principal men took
the oath of fidelity and allegiance.  The
image  of Sunna was  a half-naked  wo-
man, standing upon a  column, with rays
round her head.   Before  her  breast she
held a  radiant wheel  with  out-stretched
arms.
  Sunna, in the Mohammedan  religion.
(See Sunnites.)
  Sunnites; those Mohammedans who
receive the Sunna (i.e. a collection of tradi-
tions relating to Mohammedanism) as of
equal importance with the Koran. There
are several diversities in the copies of the
Sunna.   Those of the Persians, Arabians
and Africans are entirely opposed to each
other;  hence the various sects.  The ad-
herents of Ali, who reject the  Sunna, and
regard Ali as Mohammed's successor  in
the dignity of  high-priest  (for instance,
the Persians), are  called by the Sunnites
(the  Ottoman Turks) Shiites (i. e.  her-
etics).
  Suovetaurilia ; a Roman sacrifice,
usually offered after  the census of the
people had been taken.  It consisted ofa
hog (sus), a sheep (ovis), and a steer (tau-
rus); hence the name.   All these animals
were males.
  Superior; the largest  lake in North
America, and the largest body of fresh
water  that has been  discovered in any
part of the globe.   Its length is different-
ly estimated by  travellers  and  geogra-
phers: some  make it 490 or 500  miles
long, and 1700 in  circumference ; others,
350  miles long, and 1500 miles in cir-
cumference.  Its  widest  part is said  to
be 190 miles.  This is the most  western
of the  great chain of lakes,  which dis-
charge their waters by the St. Lawrence.
Its surface is 641 feet above the Atlantic.
It is 900 feet deep.  Its waters are very
pure and transparent; and  it  abounds
with trout, white fish and  sturgeon.   The
names of these fish are likely to convey
diminutive ideas both  as to numbers and
quantity; but we must  think  of trout
quite equal in size to the cod of the New-
foundland banks,  and  of white  fish and
sturgeon comparatively large.   The ave-
rage weight of the trout exceeds twelve
pounds, and many weigh forty, and some
even fifty pounds.  These  fish exist  in
such numbers, that there can be no doubt
that they will supply the  whole  country
in the north-west section of the U. States, 
62                  SUPERIOR—SUPERNATURALISM.
and Upper Canada, with dried fish, when
that  country shall be peopled by many
millions.  Lakes Huron  and Michigan
also  abound with them.   This lake, and
the others, also, abound with pike, pick-
erel, carp, bass, herring, and numerous
other kinds  of fish.   The  great lakes,
from the comparative shallowness of their
beds, and the  circumstance that their
waters possess less specific  gravity than
those of the ocean,—and it may be from
other causes,—when swept by the winds,
raise waves  more rough and dangerous
than those of the sea, though not quite
so mountainous.  It has  been often  as-
serted that they  have  diurnal and septen-
nial fluxes and refluxes.  This,  howev-
er, is not an established fact;  and  we
are certain that, even if they exist, they
are irregular and  inconsiderable.  The
waters  of  lake  Superior  are   partly
derived from the  marshes and shallow
lakes, covered with wild rice, which sup-
ply the upper waters of the Mississippi.
These  are slimy  and  unpalatable until
they find their level, and undergo  the
action  of the lake, where they  become
transparent, and lose  then* swampy taste.
The  lower strata of the  waters  of the
lake never gain  the temperature of sum-
mer.  A bottle  sunk to the depth of a
hundred feet, and there filled, in midsum-
mer, feels, when brought  to the surface,
as if filled with ice-water.  The  shores
of this lake,  especially on  the north and
south,  are rocky and nearly barren.  In
some places, the coast is very rough, and
highly elevated.  The lake is of difficult
navigation ; but there seem to be no in-
surmountable obstacles  to  its becoming a
pathway for all vessels of strength and
good  size.  It  contains  many  islands.
Isle Royal, the largest, is said to be one
hundred miles long, and forty broad.   It
receives more than thirty rivers, and dis-
charges its waters into lake Huron by the
river or strait of St Mary.  The pictured
rocks, so  called from  their  appearance,
are on the south side  of the lake, towards
the east end.  They are  an extraordinary
natural curiosity.  They fonn a  perpen-
dicular wall 300  feet  high, extending
about twelve miles.  They present a great
variety of forms, having  numerous  pro-
jections and  indentations, and vast cav-
erns, in which  the entering waves make
a janing and tremendous sound.  Among
the objects  here which attract particular
attention, are the cascade La  Portaille and
the Doric arch.   The cascade consists of
a considerable  stream, precipitated from
the  height of  about seventy feet by a
single  leap  into  the  lake.  It leaps to
such a distance, that a boat may pass dry
between it and  the  rocks.  The  Doric
rock, or arch, has the  appearance of a
work of art, consisting of  an  isolated
mass of sandstone, with four pillars sup-
porting an entablature or stratum of stone,
covered with soil, and a handsome growth
of pine and spruce trees, some of which
are fifty or sixty feet high.  The only
outlet  to this lake  is St Mary's  strait.
This extends to lake Huron: others con-
nect the other lakes; and the combined
waters of all find their way to  the  ocean
by the St Lawrence.  It is not, however,
to be  imagined,  that the St.  Lawrence
discharges an amount of water that is at
all comparable with  what the  lakes re-
ceive.  They spread over so  great a sur-
face, that the evaporation from them must
be immense.  They are scarcely affected
by the spring floods of the hundreds of
rivers which they receive ; and their out-
lets have ryo such floods.  Like the ocean
itself, these mighty inland  seas seem  to
receive without increase, and  to impart
without diminution.
  Superior Planets.  (See Planets.)
  Supernaturalism,  a  word chiefly
used in German  theology,  is contradistin-
guished to rationalism.  It is difficult to
give any satisfactory view of these con-
flicting  religious opinions,  within  our
limits; but the subject is too interesting to
be wholly passed over.  In its widest ex-
tent, supernaturalism is the doctrine, that
religion and the knowledge of God re-
quire a revelation from God.  So far there
is no difference of sentiment.  All  admit
that God cannot  be conceived of, except
on the supposition that he has manifested
himself; but  the next step  gives rise to
disagreement.  What is this manifesta-
tion or revelation, from which  we derive
the knowledge of God ?  Some conceive
such knowledge to be conveyed only by a
direct external communication from God;
to which it is objected  that freedom of
faith and knowledge  would be thereby
destroyed, and, at the same time, all exam-
ination of true religion, and distinction of
it from superstition and fanaticism, would
cease.   To  this supernaturalism, which
considers religion as something supernat-
ural, excluding the free activity of the intel-
lectual nature of man, is opposed the other
extreme, that religion is founded on hu-
man reason alone, and can dispense with
a revelation  from God.   But, generally
speaking, the words supernaturalism and
rationalism are used particularly in refer-
ence to the Christian religion. Rationalism 
SUPERNATURALISM—SUPREMACY.
63
 maintains  that  the Christian religion
 must be judged of, like other phenomena,
 by the only  means  which we have to
 judge  with, viz. reason.   It  often goes
 farther, and asserts, that Jesus was only
 a man of an elevated character, who pu-
 rified religion  from corruption, and incul-
 cated nobler views respecting God, and
 the destiny of man, than those which had
 prevailed among the Jews and heathens
 before him, and preached and practised a
 purer morality, which, through God's fa-
 vor, became widely diffused.   All notions
 which cannot be  reconciled with these,
 they say, ought to be considered as addi-
 tions to the simplicity of Christianity, and to
 be set aside, or rejected. Supernaturalism
 considers the Christian religion as an ex-
 traordinary phenomenon, out  of the cir-
 cle of  natural events, and  as  communi-
 cating truths above the comprehension of
 human reason.  Jesus is that person of
 the Godhead  who brought this supernat-
 ural truth to men, and, by his blood, saved
 the human species from the lost state to
 which it had been reduced by  the fall of
 Adam, rose again, and now rules the world
 with God  the Father.   Human  reason
 must therefore  receive, unconditionally,
 the mysterious truths, divinely communi-
 cated  in the  Holy  Scripture; and this
 is the only way to learn the truth and ob-
 tain salvation.   These views are variously
 modified ;  and, as is the case with all im-
 portant questions, many believe that both
 run into extremes; that in the one, too
 much is claimed for human reason, whilst
 in the  other, feeling has an undue ascen-
 dency; that supernaturalism  has  depth
 without  clearness, and rationalism, such
 as we have represented it, clearness with-
 out depth.   This intermediate  party, who
 by some have been termed rationalists,
 whilst the  extreme party are  called hy-
perrationalists, say  that supernaturalism
removes religious truth beyond the sphere
of the  human understanding, and even
beyond the possibility of recognition. If,
say they, divine truth is something which
comes  entirely from without, and is un-
connected  with other truth, where is our
capacity to recognise it ?  The revelation
of the  omnipresent Ruler of the world,
which  pervades all ages, is, they further
say, annihilated, if Christianity has no con-
nexion with that revelation, or manifes-
tation, and if it is essentially different from
what existed before, or without it.  On
the other hand, they allow that the hy-
fierrationalists  misunderstand the charac-
ter of  human  reason, and oppose it to
Christianity, so as to reduce this to an or-
 dinary subject of human judgment. Chris-
 tianity  they  consider as  intermediate
 between these two views, as presenting in
 Christ the sublimest union of man  with
 God, whilst it leaves to theological sci-
 ence the task of unfolding the full extent
 of revealed truth.
  Superstition ;  the error of  those
 who, in their opinions of the causes on
 which the fate  of men depends, believe
 or  disbelieve,  without  judgment  and
 knowledge. The external causes by which
 the  fate of men  is  decided, are  God
 and  nature; and  accordingly there  is  a
 religious,  and a  philosophical supersti-
 tion.  Superstition shows  itself either in
 deriving natural effects from  supernatural
 causes,  attributing,  for instance, an un-
 common disease, connected with striking
 symptoms, to the influence of some evil
 spirit, or  in believing such  events  as
 accidentally follow  each  other to be
 united by invisible connexions; as, for ex-
 ample, in considering a comet a messenger
 of distress, because it has happened some-
 times, that, after the  appearance  of a
 comet, a misfortune has taken place.  It
 is impossible to point out all the kinds of
 superstition, as they have existed among
 different nations, and to estimate the  mel-
 ancholy effects which they have had on
 human virtue and happiness.  Yet it is not
 always easy to  fix the limits of supersti-
 tion ; and many an assertion or opinion,
 which has been rejected, at one  time, as
 mere superstition,  has been  proved; in
 later times, to be founded in truth. Med-
 ical science, in  particular, affords many
 such instances.
  Supplement of an Arc, in geometry,
 is the number of degrees that it wants of
 being an entire semicircle; as complement
 signifies what an  arc  wants of being  a
 quadrant.   In  literature,  supplement is
 an appendage to a book, which supplies
 what was deficient in it
  Supporters, in heraldry; figures stand-
 ing on the scroll, and placed by the side of
 the escutcheon, and  seeming to  support
 or hold up the same. They are sometimes
human figures, and at other times animals,
and creatures of the imagination.
  Supremacy.  According to the Roman
 Catholics, St. Peter was not only the head
of the apostolical college, but the pastor
of the universal church.  The  Roman
pontiff is the successor of this prince of
the apostles, and, like  him, has authority
and jurisdiction over the whole church, all
believers, without exception,  owing  him
respect and obedience.  The council of
Trent declared that the sovereign pontiff 
64
SUPREMACY—SURGERY.
is  the vicar of God upon earth, and has
supreme power over all the church.  The
extent of the authority thus assumed by
the pope, is different in different countries,
and the whole doctrine of the papal su-
premacy is of course rejected by the Prot-
estant  Greek and other churches.  In
1534, Henry VIII assumed the title of the
only supreme head, on earth, of the church
of England.  The oath of supremacy (that
is, of renunciation of  the papal suprema-
cy), with  the oath of abjuration (q. v.),
was formerly required to be taken by all
persons in office, and might be tendered, by
two justices of the peace, to all persons
suspected  of  disaffection  in England.
Some modifications of the law requiring
this oath were made  in  1793 (see  Cath-
olic Emancipation); but  it was still, with
the declaration against transubstantiation,
the invocation of saints, and the sacrifice
of the  mass, requisite as a qualification
for sitting  and voting  in parliament, and
for holding certain offices, until the jias-
sage of the Catholic relief bill. This bill re-
peals all former acts on the subject, and re-
quires ofa Roman Catholic peer, or mem-
ber of the house  of commons, &c, be-
sides the oath of allegiance and abjuration,
the following oath of supremacy:  I do
declare that it is not an article of my faith,
and that I do reject, renounce and abjure
the opinion, that princes excommunicated
or deprived by the pope, or any other au-
thority  of the see of Rome, may be de-
posed or murdered by their subjects, or
by any person whatsoever; and I do de-
clare that I do not believe that the pope
of Rome,  or any other foreign prince,
prelate, person, state or potentate, hath, or
ought to have, any temporal or civil juris-
diction, power,  superiority  or preemi-
nence,  directly or indirectly,  within this
realm.
   Supreme Court of the U. States.
(See Courts of the U.  States, paragraph 3.)
   Surat; a city of Hindoostan, in Guzerat,
on- the  Taptee,  twenty miles from its
mouth  ; Ion. 73° 3' E.;  lat.  21° 13' N.
The population was estimated, in 1796, at
800,000; the returns of 1816 gave a pop-
ulation  of about 325,000.   It is one of
the most ancient and populous cities of
India, and was formerly called the impe-
rial port,  and  was  the place whence
Mohammedan pilgrims were conveyed to
Mecca,  often at  the  expense of govern-
ment.  The articles of its commerce were
of the richest kind, viz. diamonds, pearls,
gold, musk,  ambergris,  spices, indigo,
saltpetre, silk, and fine cottons. But since
the rise of Bombay, its commerce has
much declined, and now consists chiefly
of raw cotton, a few of its own manufac-
tures, and articles imported from Guzerat.
The greater number of vessels that now
enter the port are Arabs.  All large ves-
sels are obliged to remain at the mouth of
the river  called Swallow  roads,  where
they are somewhat exposed to storms; but
the anchorage is good.  The value of the
exports, in 1811, amounted to 3,964,523
rupees.   Surat is situated  in a  fertile
plain, protected on one side  by the river,
and on the three others by a brick ram-
part and ditch.  It also possesses a strong
citadel, surrounded by an esplanade.  It
is inhabited by a great variety of people ;
but the Parsees, or fire worshippers, are
most  affluent.  In 1807, there were reck-
oned 1200 Parsees of the sacerdotal class,
and 12,000 of the laity. The hospital for
the preservation of maimed  or diseased
animals was  formerly occupied by  rats,
mice, bugs, &c.  The squares of the city are
large, the streets spacious, but not  paved,
and  the dust troublesome.    The larger
houses are flat roofed ; the houses of the
common people high  roofed.  The  civil
administration of this city has been vested
in the hands  of the English  East India
company since 1800.
  Surd, in arithmetic and  algebra,  de-
notes any  number or quantity that is in-
commensurable to unity; otherwise called
an irrational  number  or quantity.   (See
Irrational  Quantity.)
  Surgery (from the Greek x«P> the hand,
and ipyov, work); that branch of the heal-
ing art which cures or prevents diseases
by the application of the hand, either un-
aided  or  with  the  aid of  instruments.
War early  made  the healing of wounds
more important than  the curing  of dis-
eases, which were then less  frequent, on
account of the  simple manner of living.
Fifty years before the Trojan war, Melam-
pus, Chiron, and his disciple ^Esculapius,
accompanied  the Argonautic expedition in
the quality of surgeons; and in the Tro-
jan war, two sons of iEsculapius,  Ma-
chaon and Podalirius, took care  of the
wounded  Greeks.  The Greek and Ara-
bian physicians, at a later period, cultivat-
ed surgery and medicine together,  as is
proved by the works of Hippocrates, Ga-
len, Celsus, Paulus of jEgina, Alhucasis,
&c.  However, in  the time  of Hippoc-
rates, some surgical operations were kept
separate from medicine.  In the oath of
Hippocrates,  lithotomy was  forbidden to
physicians.  The Arabians  also  felt an
aversion for operations, and it was con-
sidered beneath the dignity of physicians 
SURGERY—SURINAM.
65
to operate themselves.   The Romans left
them  generally to their slaves.  In the
middle ages, the practice of the  healing
art  was  almost exclusively  confined to
the  monks and priests.  But, in 1163, the
council of  Tours prohibited the clergy,
who then shared with the Jews the prac-
tice of medicine in Christian  Europe,
from  performing any bloody operation.
Surgery was banished from the universi-
ties, under the pretext  that the church
detested all bloodshed.   Medicine  and
surgery were now completely separated.
This separation was the more easily ef-
fected, since the bath-keepers and barbers
had undertaken  the practice of surgery.
At the time of the crusades (from 1100),
many diseases were introduced  into Eu-
rope from the East, particularly into Italy,
France and Germany, which caused the
frequent use of baths, and the establish-
ment of bathing-houses.  In France, the
company of barbers was formed, in 1096,
when the archbishop William, of Rouen,
forbade the wearing of the beard. These
bath-keepers and barbers remained  for
several centuries in possession of the prac-
tice of surgery.  Meanwhile the mists of
the middle  ages disappeared.   Enlight-
ened  by anatomy,  surgery  assumed a
new form ; and the works of Berengario
de'  Carpi,  of Fallopius,  of Eustachius,
&c, were the true source of the knowl-
edge with which Ambrose Pare  enriched
this science, which had been degraded by
its union with  the barber's trade.   By the
discoveries of Caesar Magatus, Fabricius
ab  Aquapendente, Wiseman,  William
Harvey, and Fabricius Hildanus, surgery
made new progress.  In 1731, the surgi-
cal academy was established in France,
which soon became celebrated throughout
Europe.   Marechal la  Peyronie, Lamar-
tiniere, &c, were distinguished surgeons.
The  collection  of memoirs and prize
writings of the surgical  academy contains
the history of this flourishing period.
There are  preserved the labors of J. L.
Petit, Garengeot, Lafkye, Lecat, Sabatier,
and of several other practitioners.  The
emulation of all Europe was excited by
such an example.  At this period  flour-
ished, in England, Cheselden, Douglas, the
two Monros, Sharp, Alanson, Pott, Smel-
lie,  the two Hunters; in Italy, Molinelli,
Bertrandi, Moscati; in Holland, Albinus,
Deventer, Camper; in Germany and the
north of Europe, Heister, Zach, Plataer,
Stein, Roderer,  Bilguer, Acrell, Callisen,
Theden, and Richter.   Down to the end
•f the last cenlury, the French surgical
academy  contained many distinguished
                 6*
members.   Desault  (q. v.)  became  the
chief of the  new  school.  Besides the
surgical school of Paris, that of Strasburg,
and particularly that of Montpellier (where
Delpech distinguished himself), which
has not always agreed with that of Paris,
are celebrated.  Now that surgery goes
hand in hand  with medicine, and is sup-
ported by exact anatomical knowledge, it
advances with certainty  towards perfec-
tion.   All surgeons, however, are not ca-
pable of performing great operations.
Some of the  necessary qualities may be
acquired by practice ; but some of them
must be received   from nature.  Sam.
Cooper's Dictionary of Surgery,  &c.
(fourth edition), and Richerand's Origin
of Modern  Surgery (fifth edition, Paris),
are much celebrated.
  Surinam ; a territory and colony of South
America, in  Guiana, belonging to  the
Netherlands, lying west  of French Gui-
ana  and east of English Guiana; bound-
ed north by the Atlantic, east by the river
Maroni, south by a country of the Indians,*
and west by the river Courantyn.  It is
about 150 miles from east to west, and up-
wards of sixty from north to south ; square •
miles, about 11,000 ; population, 57,000.'
The  principal rivers are the  Surinam,
from which the colony takes its name, the
Courantyn,  Copename,   Seramica,  and
Maroni.  The first  only is navigable: the
others, though long and broad, are so shal-
low,  and so crowded with rocks and small
islands, that they are of but little conse-
quence to Europeans; nor are their banks
inhabited, except by Indians.   In  all of
them the water  rises and falls for  more
than sixty  miles from the  mouth, occa-
sioned by the  stoppage of the freshes by
the tide. In the Maroni is found a peb-
ble  called  the Maroni  diamond.    The
climate, which was formerly  extremely
fetal to Europeans,  has, within the last
twenty years, been much improved, by the
increased  population of the colony and
the better clearing of the ground.   The
year is divided into  two  wet and two dry
seasons. The highest heat during the
hot season  is stated  at 91°; the common
temperature from 75° to 84°.  This equal
degree  of heat is owing to sea-breezes,
which regularly  set in at  ten o'clock, and
continue till five P. M., cooling the atmos-
phere with a constant stream of delightful
air.  The settlements are chiefly on the
Surinam and  its branches.  The  soil is
very fertile, producing sugar, coffee, cot-
ton,  cocoa, maize, and indigo.  The un-
cultivated  parts are covered  with  im-
mense  forests, rocks,  and  mountains; 
66                         SURINAM—SUSSEX.
some of the latter enriched with a variety
of mineral productions.   The river Suri-
nam, which gives name  to the colony,
rises from mountains in the interior, and,
after a course of about  150 miles,  flows
into the Atlantic, Ion. 55° 40' W., lat. 6°
25' N.  It is about four miles wide at  its
mouth, and from sixteen to eighteen feet
deep, at low water mark, the  tide rising
and falling above twelve feet.   It is navi-
gable for small craft 120 miles.  Parama-
ribo, twelve miles from its mouth, is the
capital of the colony.  It has a safe and
convenient harbor, with an active com-
merce, and contains a population of 8000
whites, and several thousand free blacks,
slaves, &c.  The English have several
times been in possession of Surinam, but
finally restored it, in 1815, to  the Dutch
government.
  Surrey.  (See Howard, Henry.)
  Surrogate ; one who is substituted or
appointed  in the room of another; as the
bishop or chancellor's sunogate (from the
Latin surrogare).
  Sursolid, in arithmetic and algebra;
the fifth power, or fourth multiplication
of any number or quantity, considered  as
a root.  (See Root.)
  Surturbrand, fossil wood, impregnat-
ed more or less with bitumen,  is found in
great abundance in Iceland.  A bed of it
extends nearly through the whole of the
north-western  part of the island.  It  is,
in fact, a subterranean forest, impregnated
with bituminous sap, and compressed by
the weight of the  superincumbent rocks.
Branches and leaves are pressed together
in a compact mass; but the fibres of each
may be distinctly traced.  The surturbrand
is used by the  Icelanders chiefly in their
smithies, and in small quantities.  It is
sometimes so little mineralized as to be
employed for timber.—Surtur is the name
of the northern god of fire. (See North-
ern Mythology.)
  Surveying, in a general sense, denotes
the art of measuring the angular and line-
ar distances of objects, so as to be able to
delineate their several positions on paper,
and to ascertain the superficial area, or
space between them.   It is a  branch of
applied mathematics, and supposes a good
knowledge of arithmetic and  geometry.
It is  of two kinds, land surveying and
marine surveying, the former having gen-
erally in view the measure or contents of
certain  tracts of land, and the latter the
position of beacons, towers, shoals, coasts,
&c.  Those extensive  operations which
have for their object the determination of
the latitude and longitude of places, and
 the length of terrestrial arcs in different
 latitudes, also fall under the  general term
 surveying,  though  they are  frequently
 called b^onometrical surveys, or geodetic
 operations, and the science itself geodesy.
 (See Trigonometry, Degrees, Heights, and
 Triangle.)  Land surveying consists of
 three distinct operations: 1. the measur-
 ing of the several lines and angles; 2. pro-
 tracting or laying down the same on pa-
 per, so as  to form a correct  map of an
 estate or country; 3. the computation of
 the superficial  contents, as  found by the
 preceding operation.   Various instru-
 ments are used for the purpose of taking
 the dimensions, the most indispensable of
 which is the chain commonly called Gun-
 ter's chain, which is 22 yards long, and is
 divided into  100  links, each 7.92 inches:
 10  of these  square chains, or 100,000
 square links, is one acre.   This is used
 for taking the linear dimensions when the
 area of the land  is required; but when
 only the position of objects is to be deter-
 mined, a chain of 50 or  100 feet is more
 commonly used.  A great deal of labor is
 frequently saved by having proper instru-
 ments for  measuring angles.  The most
 usual and  the best adapted for this pur-
 pose  are  the circumferentor, theodolite
 and semicircle.   The surveyor's cross, or
 cross-staff, is  likewise very convenient for
 raising perpendiculars.   For surveying in
 detail, the  plain table is the best instru-
 ment.  Of the German works on  this
 subject, Meyer's Unterricht zur praktischen
 Geometric (1815),  and  Lehmann's An-
 weisung zur richtigen Erkennung und ge-
 nauen Abbildung der Erdoberfldche (1812),
 deserve to be recommended.   (See  To-
pography.)
  Sus. per Coll.  On the trial of crimi-
 nals in England,  the usage at the assizes
 is for the  judge  to sign the calendar, or
 list of all the prisoners' names, with their
 separate judgments in the margin.  For
 a capital felony, the sentence " Hanged by
 the neck" is written opposite the prison-
 er's name.   Formerly,  in  the  days of
 Latin and  abbreviation, the phrase used
 was sus. per coll., for suspendatur per coUum.
  Susquehanna,  the  largest  river of
 Pennsylvania, is formed by two branches
 which unite  at Northumberland.   The
 east branch rises  in Otsego lake, in New
 York: the western branch rises in Hunt-
 ingdon  county,  Pennsylvania.   After
 their junction, the river flows south-east
 into the head of Chesapeake bay, and is
 one and one fourth mile wide at its mouth.
 It is navigable only five miles.
  Sussex, Augustus  Frederic, duke of, 
SUSSEX—SUTTEE.
67
sixth son of George III, and second sur-
viving  brother of the present king, was
born Jan. 27, 1773, and received his edu-
cation,  with his brothers, the dukes  of
Cumberland and Cambridge (see the ar-
ticles), at Gottingen.   He  then travelled
in Italy, and spent four years at Rome,
where, in 1793, he manied lady Augusta
Murray, daughter of the Catholic earl  of
Dunmore, according to the forms of the
Roman  Catholic  church.   On their re-
turn to England, they were again married
by bans in London ; and the duke offered
to resign his claims as a member of the
royal family, on condition that his mar-
riage should not be disturbed. It was, how-
ever, soon  after declared  invalid by the
ecclesiastical court, as contrary to the pro-
visions of the royal marriage act, 12 Geo.
Ill, c.  11, which declares  that no  de-
scendant of George II shall be capable of
contracting matrimony without the con-
sent of the king.   On the publication  of
this sentence, lady Augusta, who had  be-
come the mother of two  children, sepa-
rated from the duke, and passed  the rest
of her life in  retirement.  In 1801,  the
prince was created earl of Inverness and
duke of Sussex, and received a parlia-
mentary grant of £12,000  per annum,
which was subsequently increased by the
addition of £9000.  It is the boast of the
duke that he has never applied for any
grant from parliament, and that he has
paid his debts  fully  from the  savings of
his  pension.  The duke is an easy speak-
er, and has often spoken in the house  of
lords, particularly in favor of measures for
the relief of Catholics, and usually ad-
dresses  the many charitable and literary
societies of which he is a member.  He
has been for a long time president of the
society for the encouragement of the use-
ful  arts, and  has recently been elected
president of the  royal society.  He  has
been the  friend  and patron of learned
men, and is himself a scholar.  He has
collected a  valuable library, particularly
rich in  Bibles and dictionaries.  A cata-
logue has been published by Pettigrew
(Bibliotheca Sussexiana, 1828).   In  his
political principles, the duke has  been at-
tached to the whigs, and was consequent-
ly in the opposition  during the  regency
and reign of his brother George IV. His
liberal  opinions in politics, and the part
which he took in  favor of the  queen (see
Caroline Amelia), estranged him from the
court;   but  a  reconciliation  took  place
during the  king's last illness.  The chil-
dren of the duke by lady Augusta Murray
bear the name of D'Este.
  Sussmeyer, Francis Xavier; a  com-
poser at  Vienna,  a pupil of Salieri, and,
from 1795, attached to the imperial opera
at Vienna.  He died in 1803, thirty-seven
years old.  He composed several operas,
and supplied those parts of Mozart's re-
quiem which that great master left unfin-
ished.
  Suttee,  or,  more  properly, Sati ; a
word in the Sanscrit, or sacred languaire
of the Hindoos, meaning pure, and hence
extensively applied to their female deities,
and to acts of purification, especially to
that preeminent species, the self-immola-
tion of the widow on the funeral pile of
her deceased  husband.  The  name of
this horrid sacrifice is commonly written
suttee by the English ; but  sati is the cor-
rect mode of spelling it, according to the
orthographical system  of  sir W.  Jones:
The origin  of satiism, or sutteeism, is
buried in mythology.  The goddess  Sati,
to avenge an insult offered to her  hus-
band Iswara by  her  father's  neglect to
invite him  to an  entertainment, consum-
ed herself  before  the  assembled  gods."*
To  lord   Bentinck,  governor-general
of India, belongs the honor  of having
abolished this shocking perversion of de-
votion  in the British dominions.   This
abolition took place in December, 1829.
Until then, the British  government had
permitted it, provided the act was perfect-
ly voluntary (which the religion of Brah-
ma also prescribes), and if notice of such
resolution had been previously given to a
magistrate, who was required to see that
the suttee was public, and  that all  the
requisitions of the law were fulfilled. We
learn from bishop Heber's Narrative that
the opinions of well-informed men,  to
whom the cause of humanity was equal-
ly dear, were divided respecting the abo-
lition of these self-sacrifices, some believ-
ing that suttees would then take place in
secret, and be more common than before,
and that opportunities, moreover, would
be afforded for many murders.  The peo-
ple are  said  to have  heartily rejoiced at
the abolition; but,  what may well  sur-
prise us, the  East India Magazine states
that an English lawyer went from India
to England to prosecute an appeal before
the privy council, made by some Brah-
mins in  Bengal, against lord Bentinck's
prohibition  of suttees.   The same journal
states that this " custom had its origin in
the excessive jealousy of the early Hindoo
princes, who, with a view to prevent their

  * See Tod's Annals and Antiquities of Ra-
jast'han; also the review of it  in the American
Quarterly, number xx, December, 1831. 
58                       SUTTEE—SUWAROFF.
numerous widows forming subsequent at-
tachments,  availed themselves  of their
irresponsible power; and, with the aid of
the priests, it was promulgated, as if by
sacred authority, that the wives  of the
Hindoos of every caste, who desire future
beatitude, should immolate themselves on
the demise of their  husbands.  Since
1756, when the  British  power  in India
became firmly established, upwards of
70,000 widows have been cmelly  sacri-
ficed !  A Brahmin possesses the privilege
of marrying as many wives as he pleases.
Ununtu, a  Brahmin who died at Bagna-
pore, had more than one hundred  wives:
twenty-two were bumed at his  death.
The fire was kept burning three days.
He had married four sisters, two of whom
were burned with his corpse.  A short time
before lord Bentinck's order, a rajah in the
hill country, who died, had twenty-eight
wives burned with his body." So far the
East India  Magazine.  Perhaps, however,
this self-immolation is in part owing  to
the surprisingly  little  value  which Hin-
doos put on human life (hence so many
suicides,  infanticides, immolations  and
self-immolations), and to the relation of
the Hindoo wife to her husband. None of
the sacred books of the Hindoos command
the suttee,  though they speak of it  as
highly meritorious: it is believed to render
the husband and his ancestors happy, and
to purify him from all offences, even if he
had killed a Brahmin.  (Seethe Veda, &c,
quoted before the privy council, June  23,
1832, to support the above-mentioned peti-
tion.) The rule is, that the act of the widow
must be voluntary;  but we can easily
imagine that the  fanaticism or cupidity of
relations often compels the Hindoo wid-
ow to immolate herself, just as they forced
women, in  the middle ages, to  take the
veil, Which also is  required,  by the rules
of the church, to be voluntary.  The cer-
emonies of a suttee are various, and last
from a quarter of an  hour to two hours.
Sometimes the widow is placed  in a cav-
ity prepared under the  corpse of the
husband; sometimes  she is  laid by the
body, embracing it.  If the husband was
not a Brahmin, it is not required that the
corpse should be burned with the widow:
any thing which belonged to the deceas-
ed—his garments, slippers, walking-staff—
may be substituted for the corpse.  There
were,  according to official report, above
forty suttees  in the province of Ghaze-
poor in 1824; and several had taken place
not reported  to the magistrate.
   Suwaroff-Rimnitzkoy, Peter Alexis
Wasiliowitsch, count of, prince Italinski,
field-marshal  and  generalissimo of the
Russian armies, one of the most distin-
guished generals of the eighteenth centu-
ry, was  bom  at Suskoy, a village of the
Ukraine, in 1730.   His father, an officer,
placed him in  the military  afcademy  at
Petersburg; and, in his seventeenth  year,
Suwaroff entered the service as a  com-
mon soldier, and gave proofs of his  cour-
age in the war against Sweden.  In  1754,
he became lieutenant, and,  after distin-
guishing himself in the seven years' war
(q. v.), received the command  of a regi-
ment, in 1763.  In 1768, he  obtained the
rank of brigadier-general, and served sev-
eral  campaigns in Poland, receiving,  in
reward for  his courage and conduct, the
crosses of three Russian orders of knight-
hood.  In 1773, he was appointed to the
command ofa division of the trobps under
count Romanzoff, and completely defeated
a portion of the Turkish army at Turtu-
key, killing several of the enemy1 with his
own hand.   Crossing the  Danube, he
afterwards, in conjunction with the  force
under Kamenskoy, routed the army of
the reis effendi with great  slaughter, and
the capture of all  his artillery.  In 1783,
he reduced the Budziac Tartars  under
the Russian yoke.  In 1787, being  chief
in  command, he  was  intrusted  with
the defence of Kinbura, then attacked by
the Turkish forces both by sea and  land;
and, after an obstinate siege, succeeded in
repulsing his  assailants with  considerable
loss.  At Oczakow and Fockzami (at the
former of which places he received a se-
vere wound) his daring valor was equally
displayed ;  and,  in  the  September of
1789, the  Austrian  troops,  under the
prince  of  Saxe-Coburg,  being   sur-
rounded, on the banks of the Rimnik, by
100,000 Turks, owed their  preservation
to his timely arrival with 10,000 Russians,
who not only rescued them from  a de-
struction that appeared inevitable, but oc-
casioned the utter overthrow of the ene-
my.   To this victory he was indebted for
the first of his above-named titles, and the
dignity ofa count of both empires.   The
next, and perhaps the most sanguinary of
his actions, was the  storming of Ismail
(q. v.), in 1790.  This strongly fortified
town had resisted all attempts to reduce
it for a period of seven  months,  when
Suwaroff received peremptory orders from
prince^Potemkin [4. v.) to  take it without
delay, and pledged himself to execute the
task assigned him' in three days.  Of the
sacking of the place on the third, and the
indiscriminate massacre  of 40,000  of its
inhabitants, of every age  and sex, the ac- 
SUWAROFF -SWALLOW.
69
counts of the period give the most revolt-
ing reports.   The  announcement of his
bloody triumph was made by the general,
who affected a Spartan brevity in his  de-
spatches, in  the words "Glory to  God!
Ismail is ours."  Peace being  proclaimed
with Turkey, the empress (see Catharine
II) had leisure to mature her designs
against  the devoted kingdom of Poland ;
and Suwaroff was selected as  a fit instru-
ment  to carry them into  execution.  He
marched, accordingly, at the head of his
troops, to Warsaw, destroying about 20,000
Poles in his way, and ended a campaign
of which  the  unprincipled  partition of
the country was the result. (See Praga,
and Poland.)   On this  occasion, he re-
ceived  a  field-marshal's baton, and an
estate in  the  dominions  which he had
contributed  to  annex  to  the  Russian
crown.  The last and most celebrated of
his actions was his campaign  in Italy in
1799, when his courage and genius for a
while repaired the disasters of the allied
forces.  Paul gave him the command of
the Russian forces destined to act with
the Austrians, and the emperor of Germa-
ny created him field-marshal, and com-
mander-in-chief of the Austrian troops in
Italy.   He gained  several brilliant victo-
ries at Piacenza, Novi, &c, and drove the
French from all the towns and  fortresses
of Upper Italy, and was rewarded for his
services with the title of prince Italinski.
But, in  consequence of a change in  the
plan  of operations, he passed the Alps;
and the defeat of Korsakoff at Zurich (see
Massena), together with the failure of the
expected  assistance from the Austrians,
obliged Suwaroff to retreat from Switzer-
land.   Paul,  offended with the Austrian
court, now recalled the prince, in spite of
his remonstrances; and preparations were
made for"his triumphal entry into Peters-
burg.    Meanwhile,   Suwaroff, having
evaded  an imperial order, directing the
generalissimo  to name  each general in
turn general  of the day, by  appointing
prince Bagration standing general of the
day, was declared, by command of the
emperor, to  have deserved censure, and
the preparations for his triumph were sus-
pended.  Chagrin at this disgrace hasten-
ed  his  death, which took place  May 18,
1800,  sixteen days after his arrival at  Pe-
tersburg.—Suwaroff was a  remarkable
man.  Though feeble and sickly in his
youth, he  had acquired a sound  constitu-
tion by  his simple and abstemious mode
of  life: he  slept  upon  straw,  and  his
whole wardrobe  consisted of  his regi-
mental uniform and a sheepskin. He ob-
served punctiliously all the ceremonies of
his religion, and never gave the signal for
battle without crossing himself, and kissing
the image of St. Nicholas.  He was inflexi-
ble in his purposes, faithful to his promises,
and incorruptible: in courage, promptness
of decision and action, he has  had few
equals.  His contempt of money, his coarse
manners, and his intrepidity, rendered him
the favorite of his soldiers; but the supe-
rior officers were often  offended  by the
severity of his discipline.  Although ac-
quainted with several modern languages,
he never  entered  into any political or
diplomatic correspondence; and he  was
accustomed to say that a pen was unbe-
coming the hand ofa soldier.  His orders
and reports were often written in doggerel
verse.
  Swabia.  (See Suabia.)
  Swallow (hirundo).   The air seems to
be truly the home of  the swallows: they
eat, drink, sometimes even  feed  their
young, on the wing, and  surpass all other
birds  in the  untiring rapidity  of their
flight and evolutions.   The beak is short,
broad at base, very much flattened,  and
very deeply cleft, forming  a large mouth,
well adapted to the purpose of seizing
winged insects, which constitute their ac-
customed  food. The feet are very short,
and the wings remarkably long.  In win-
ter they migrate to tropical climates, a few
days being sufficient to pass from the arctic
to the torrid  zone.  In  the spring they
return; and it has been found by experi-
ment that  individuals always come back
to their former haunts.  They sweep over
our fields, our rivers, and through our
very streets, easily eluding all enemies by
their powers of wing. We have six spe-
cies in the U. States.—The barn swallow,
(H. rufa)  is most  abundant east  of the
Alleghany mountains. Here it is our most
common species, always seeking the soci-
ety of man, and very frequently attaching
its nest to  the rafters  in bams, &c.  The
upper parts are steel blue, the lower light
chestnut, and the wings and tail brownish-
black; the tail is greatly forked, and each
feather, except the two middle ones, is
marked on the inner vane with a white
spot.—The white-bellied  swallow (H. vi-
ridis) is less abundant than the preceding,
but not unfrequently takes possession of
the boxes  intended for the purple martin.
The upper parts are light, glossy, greenish-
blue ; the  wings brown-black, with slight
green reflections, and the whole lower
parts  pure white: the tail is forked, but
slightly, in comparison with the barn swal-
low, from which it  may  also be distin- 
70                     SWALLOW—SWAMMERDAM.
guished by its sailing more in its flight—
The purple martin (H.purpurea) inhabits
all parts of the  U. States, and Canada to
Hudson's  bay.  It is a general favorite,
and every where takes up its abode among
the habitations of men.   The Indians and
Negroes  hang up gourds, properly hol-
lowed, for its convenience; and,  in the
more settled parts of the Union,  consider-
able  expense is  sometimes incurred  in
preparing for it a suitable residence. In
the country, it renders  essential  services,
by attacking and driving  away  crows,
hawks, eagles, and other large birds.  Its
note is loud and musical.   It  is  much
the largest of our  swallows. The color of
the male is a rich  and deep purplish blue,
with the wings and tail brownish-black; the
female is more plainly attired, and has the
under parts whitish, with dusky and yel-
lowish stains.—The bank swallow (H. ri-
paria) is common  in the U. States, as well
as in the  eastern continent.   Unlike the
others, it has no partiality for the society
of man, but dwells in communities along
steep gravelly banks, in which it scratches
out horizontal holes for breeding places.
It is particularly  fond of the shores of
rivers, and is found in immense multitudes
in several places  along the  Ohio.   It is
the smallest of our swallows.  The color is
brown above, and beneath white, with a
brown band  across the breast.—The re-
publican  or cliff  swallow (H. fulva)  is
easily distinguished by its even  tail. The
upper parts of the body are black, glossed
with violaceous; the under parts whitish,
tinged with  ferruginous   brown;  the
throat and cheeks dark ferruginous; and
the front pale rufous.   The  note is very
.angular, and may be imitated by rubbing
moistened cork round  the neck  of  a bot-
tle.  It lives in  communities, building in
unsettled  places, under projecting ledges
of rocks.  The nests are formed of mud,
t-re very friable, and somewhat resemble, in
form, a  chemist's retort. It is  common
about the base  of the Rocky mountains,
and within a few  years has become  famil-
iar in many parts  of the Western  States,
as well as in the state  of New York, and
even in Maine.—The chimney  swallow
(H. pelasgia) differs widely from the oth-
ers, in its form and manners. The color
is entirely deep sooty  brown; the  tail is
short and rounded, having the shafts ex-
tending beyond the vanes, sharp pointed,
strong and elastic, by means of which
structure the bird is enabled to rest against
perpendicular walls.   It is easily distin-
guished in the air by  its short body and
long wings, their quick and  slight  vibra-
tion, and its wide, unexpected, diving ra-
pidity of flight.   In  the settled parts of
the country, it builds only in vacant chim-
neys, and in passing  up and down pro-
duces a noise somewhat resembling  dis-
tant thunder.   The nest is small and shal-
low, attached by one  side, and composed
of very small twigs glued together with
a strong adhesive gum. Sometimes chim-
ney swallows  congregate in  immense
numbers, to roost in certain hollow trees ;
and such are generally noted in the coun
try as " swallow trees."  While roosting,
the  thorny extremities of  the tail are
thrown  in  for  support. The birds' nests
of China, so celebrated as an article of
food, are the fabric of a small species of
swallow, found  hi  the  Indian archi-
pelago.
  Swammerdam, John,  a very  distin-
guished naturalist, was born at Amsterdam,
in 1637.  His  father, who was an apoth-
ecary, designed him for the church ;  but,
as he preferred physic, he was allowed to
pursue his studies in that profession.  He
was sent to Leyden,  where  he quickly
distinguished himself by his anatomical
skill, and the art of making preparations.
After visiting Paris for improvement, he
returned to Leyden, and took the degree
of M. D., in 1667, and about the same
time began to  practise his invention of
injecting the vessels with a ceraceous mat-
ter, which  kept  them  distended  when
cold—a method from which anatomy has
derived very important advantages.   En-
tomology, however, became his great pur-
suit ;  and,  in 1669, he published, in the
Dutch language, a General History of In-
sects.  In  1672 appeared his Miraculum
Natural, sen Uteri muliebris  Fabrica, to
which was  added an account of his new
method of waxen injection.   Rendered
hypochondriacal  by  intensity  of study
and other causes, he became totally unfit
for society,  in which state he received im-
pressions from the mysticism of Antoi-
nette Bourignon, whom he followed to Hol-
stein. He afterwards returned to Amster-
dam, where he died, in 1680.  Previously
to his death, in  a paroxysm  of enthusi-
asm, he  burnt all his  remaining papers,
but, under the  pressure of indigence, had
already  sold the greater part of his writ-
ings and drawings to Thevenot.  These,
half a century afterwards, came into pos-
session  of  Boerhaave, who caused them
to be published in Latin and Dutch, under
the title of Biblia Natural, sive Historia
Insectorum  in Classes certas reducta,  &c.
(2 vols., folio, Leyden, 1737).  This publi-
cation,  which has been translated  into 
SWAMMERDAM—SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
71
English by sir John  Hill,  abounds with
the most curious discoveries.  Besides the
works before mentioned, he is author of
Tractatus Physico-Anatomico-Medicus de
Respiratione  (Leyden,  1679,  8vo.,  and
1738, 4to.).
  Swan  (cygnus).   The  swans  are so
closely alhed to the duck  and goose, in
their  anatomical structure, that it is diffi-
cult to point  out  distinctive characters;
although most of the species are readily rec-
ognised by their external form. The color
of the plumage is, in general, pure white;
a black species, however, has been lately
discovered in New Holland.  In northern
climates, the swans are  the ornament of
the rivers and lakes, over which they seem
to preside, from  the majesty, ease  and
grace of their movements.  They swim
rapidly, and their flight is  powerful and
long  continued; they live in society, and
feed chiefly on the seeds, roots, and other
parts of aquatic plants, but eat frogs, in-
sects, and worms. They make their nests
near the  margin of the  water, upon the
ground, and attain a great age. The flesh
is coarse, dark-colored, and in general not
much esteemed.  The tame swan is dis-
tinguished by  its red bill, having a protu-
berance on the front.  In its wild state, it
inhabits the great interior seas of Eastern
Europe, but is now domesticated in all
parts of that continent It often measures
eight feet, when the wings are extended,
and weighs twenty or twenty-five pounds.
Its strength is such, that it has no formi-
dable enemy, except the eagle, and in its
battles with this antagonist often comes
off victorious.  It is to be regretted  that
we have not  this noble bird more com-
mon  in  the  U. States.  The American
wild  swan breeds and  passes the sum-
mer in the Arctic regions, but on the ap-
proach of winter,  migrates to temperate
climates.  In the Atlantic  states,  it is
hardly known east  of  the Chesapeake,
which seems to be a favorite resort during
the winter season.
  Swan River ; a British colony, on the
western coast of New Holland, establish-
ed in 1829.  It is situated on Swan river,
so called from the great  number of black
swans seen upon  it, which empties  into
the ocean in  lat 32° 16' S., Ion. 115° 40'
E.  Several settlements have been form-
ed,  and the soil is represented as fertile.
Swan river was explored for nearly sixty
miles from its  mouth, by M. Bailly, min-
eralogist to the expedition of Baudin, who
found it to flow over calcareous rocks,
through a country covered with thick for-
ests of gum  trees.   At the point  where
his examination ceased, the river  was a
third of a mile in width, with a slow cur-
rent  A group of islands opposite  the
mouth of the river offers some roadsteads
with safe anchorage for large vessels.
   Sweaborg.  (See Sueaborg.)
   Sweat.   (See Perspiration.)
   Sweating Sickness, in medicine; a
febrile epidemic disease, of extraordinary
malignity, which prevailed in England, at
different periods, towards the end of the
fifteenth century and the beginning  of the
sixteenth, and spread very extensively in
the neighboring countries, and on the con-
tinent.  It appears to have spared no age
nor condition, but to  have  attacked more
particularly  persons  in high  health, of
middle age,  and of the better class.  Its
attack was very sudden, producing a sen-
sation of intense heat in some particular
part, which afterwards  overspread  the
whole body, and was followed by profuse
sweating,  attended with insatiable  thirst,
restlessness,  head-ache, delirium, nausea,
and  an irresistible propensity to sleep, to-
gether with great prostration  of strength.
The patient was frequently carried  oft' in
one, two or three hours from the eruption
of the sweat.  It seems to  have first ap-
peared in  the army of the earl of  Rich-
mond, upon  his landing at Milford haven,
in 1485, and soon spread to London. This
body of troops had been much crowded
in transport vessels, and was described by
Philip de Confines as the most wretched
that he bad ever beheld, collected proba-
bly from jails and hospitals, and buried in
filth.  It broke out in England  four times
after this, in 1506, 1517, 1528,  and  1551.
The process eventually adopted for its
cure, was to promote perspiration, and
carefully avoid exposure to cold.  The
violence of the attack generally subsided
in fifteen hours; yet the patient was not
out of danger under twenty-four hours.
   Sweden and Norway, or, as the united
kingdoms are sometimes  styled, even  in
official  papers, Scandinavia, form the
Scandinavian peninsula, which is connect-
ed with the continent of Europe by Lap-
land, and comprises 295,468, or, according
to some, 291,224 square miles.   It extends
beyond the Arctic  circle, stretching from
55° 22' to 70° 11' 30" N. lat, and is bound-
ed by the North sea and the Cattegat on
the west and south-west; by the Baltic and
the gulf of Bothnia on the east and south-
east; its northern  boundary is the  Fro-
zen ocean; on the  north-east, Norwegian
and Swedish Lapland border on Russian
Lapland.  The Paes, and (since 1809) the
Torneo and Muonio, here form the  sepa- 
72
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
rating line between Russia and  Sweden.
A chain of mountains forms a natural di-
vision between Norway and  Sweden: the
highest summits are the Syltop, 6079 feet
high,  and  the Schneehattan, 8337 feet
high, in Sweden; and the Folgesonde, 5432
feet high, in Norway.  The northern part
forms the Kj61 or Kiel mountains, and
the southern, the Seve mountains.  The
former terminates in the North cape, the
extreme  northern point  of  Europe; the
latter is  nearer the western  than the east-
ern shore, whence the main streams are
on  the eastern declivity, and  flow partly
into the  gulf of Bothnia, and partly into
the Cattegat  It divides into three branch-
es ; the Long  Fjalls (Langfield and Dofre-
field), extending to cape Lindesness (Lin-
denas), on the North sea; a second branch
separating  the Norwegian  basin  of the
Glommen from the Swedish basin of the
Gotha-Elf, and sinking down to the Cat-
tegat; and a  third dividing the  sources
of the Clara, which, after flowing through
lake Wener (1100 square miles in extent),
in Sweden, takes the  name of Gotha-Elfj
from those of the Dai-Elf, and stretching
between lakes Wener and Wetter, to the
sound.   The  summits of the Scandina-
vian mountains, from 67° to 70° N. lat, are
masses of barren rocks (Fjalls), covered, at
the height of from 3900 to 2700 feet, with
perpetual snow, and abounding with steep
precipices, frightful clefts, lakes, and rapid
ton-enls.  The declivity towards the North
sea is extremely precipitous, and  full of
abrupt crags  and awful chasms.   Nearer
the eastern coast lies  lake Malar, fifty-five
miles long, and  from  twenty-three  to
twenty-seven miles broad, containing 1300
islands,  whose waters are  emptied into
the Baltic: lake Hielmar  is  connected
with it   Lake Wetter receives forty riv-
ers, and empties itself through the  Motala
into the Baltic.   To  Sweden  belong
OZland  and Gothland, two  fertile  islands
in the Baltic. The Aland  group, at the
mouth of the gulf of Bothnia, was ceded
to Russia in 1809.  The coast, broken by
numerous  indentures (Fiords j, forms nu-
merous holms or rocky islets (Stockholm,
for instance),  and safe harbors, especially
on the shores of Norway; on which the
Saltstrom, a  dangerous strait,  and the
Maelstrom, a whirlpool, are particularly
remarkable.  The climate of Sweden and
Norway, owing to the nature and eleva-
tion of the country, is, with the exception
of the southern and  western shores, dry
and cold. Among  the productions are
orchard  fruit, com (in inadequate quan-
tity, so that, in many places,  the  people
mix powdered fir-bark or moss with their
com meal; in the south of Sweden, how-
ever, the cultivation of com is increasing),
potatoes, flax, hemp, hops, and tobacco,
which, however, thrive only  in the south-
ern regions. In the north, the country is
an almost  impenetrable forest  of pines
and firs, and dwarf-birches, and abounds
in deer, hares, elk,  bears,  and wolves.
Berries and  reindeer  moss only grow
here.   Gluttons, lynxes, foxes,  marmots,
tame and wild birds, are also found.  The
poverty of the pasturage renders the horn-
ed cattle, goats, swine and sheep small;
though the breed of the latter  has been
improved, since 1715, by the introduction
of English and Spanish rams.  The rein-
deer is a native of the north. (See Deer, and
Lapland.)  The climate of Sweden is, on
the whole, warmer than that of Norway.
On the coast, particularly on the Cattegat,
the herring fishery was, a short time ago,
of considerable importance.  Seals, dol-
phins, and other fishes, are taken in plenty.
The mineral  kingdom is rich.   Gold oc-
curs only in small quantities.  Silver is
more abundant.  The silver mines of Sa-
la have yielded,  during  the three last
centuries, 1,640,000 marks of pure silver.
The copper mines at Fahlun (a mining
town, with  4200 inhabitants) produce,  at
present, 1,200,000 to 1,800,000 pounds,
and all the  Swedish copper mines, a total
of 1500 tons annually. Excellent iron is
obtained in large quantities: 120,000,000
pounds are smelted  every year, consti-
tuting seven eighths of all the mining prod-
ucts.  The richest iron mines are those
of Danemora, in Upland.  Lead, cobalt, vit-
riol, sulphur, alum, some salt, marble, por-
phyry, granite,  grind-stones, mill-stones,
and sandstone, asbestos, slate, talc, lime,
&c.  occur.  There are many mineral
springs in Sweden; in Norway, only one
  The Swedes and  Norwegians are of
a middle stature, and compactly built
The purity and coldness of the air, and
the necessity of extorting  every  thing
from the earth, gives them a hardness akin
to their native iron, and a  bold  indepen-
dent spirit.   In the sciences, the Swede
shows a sound  and  penetrating  mind.
Poetry and the  fine arts  have also put
forth some fair blossoms in this rude cli-
mate.  The language is of Teutonic ori-
gin.   The Swedish and Norwegian dia-
lects differ but little.  The  language of
Lapland is a Finnish dialect.  The two
kingdoms, Norway and Sweden, had, in
1825, according to official documents, a
population of 3,819,714—about thirteen
to a  square  mile.  But in the southern 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
73
provinces of Sweden, there are 142  in-
habitants to a square mile.   The popula-
tion, in 1828,  was 3,878,700.  Sweden
alone contains 168,363 square miles, and
2,800,000 inhabitants.   In  all the cities,
there  are  about  322,000  inhabitants.
Stockholm, the capital of the kingdom,
has a population of 79,526; Gottenburg
(Gotaborg), the principal commercial city
in Sweden, 24,000 ; Christiania, the capi-
tal of Norway, 20,600; and Bergen, the
chief commercial city of Norway, 20,800.
But few towns, however,  number  more
than 4000  inhabitants, and many  have
scarcely 500.   Out of Europe, Sweden
possesses,  since  1784,  St.  Bartholomew,
one of the West India islands, containing
fifty-three square miles and 18,000 inhab-
itants.—A.   Sweden (Svea)  comprehends
four regions: 1. Sweden Proper, or Svea-
land, comprising eight provinces, among
which are  Upland, Siidermannland, or
Sudermania, DaIarne,or Dalecarlia(a poor,
hilly country, in which there were 40,000
men, in 1819, destitute of the means of
support), and Wermeland, now forming
eight governments (lane);  2. Gothland,
or Gothia,  comprising thirteen govern-
ments  (Schonen, or  Scania,  one of its
provinces, contains Helsingborg, on the
sound, the place of embarkation for Den-
mark, and  Ystadt,  the place of embarka-
tion for Stralsund); 3. Norrland, contain-
ing five provinces (Herjedalen, Jamtland,
Westerbottn, &c.);   4. Swedish  Lap-
land, containing from  34,000 to 38,000
square miles.   The  whole number  of
Swedish Laplanders  was  estimated, in
1818, at only 3000 persons, of whom 669
were owners of reindeer.   To these must
be added about 2000 colonists. Several of
the colonies in Lapland were founded by
baron  Hermelin, at his own  expense.
This region yields but a trifling revenue
to the crown.—B.  Nonoay.  The south-
ern part (Sodenfield) comprehends Chris-
tiania and  Christiansand ;  the northern
(Nordenfield), the  dioceses of Bergen,
Drontheim  and Nordland: to  the  latter
belongs Finnmark, or Norwegian Lapland.
(See Norway.)
  The original inhabitants of Sweden were
of Finnish  descent—Finns and Lapland-
ers, who were driven to the extreme  north
by  Germanic tribes.  Among the latter,
the Goths  and  Swedes soon  gained the
ascendency, subjecting the other tribes.
Their chief magistrates were judges of
the fabulous family of the Ynglings, which
claimed a descent from a son  of  Odin.
In the fifth  century, they assumed the title
of kings of Upsala, and reigned in Swe-
  VOL. XII.          7
den till 1068.   A regular government was
first  established  by Olofj or Olaf I, in
994,  who  was converted to Christianity.
The  Goths and Swedes still remained dis-
tinct, and their  disputes  distracted the
kingdom for centuries.  In  1250, when
the powerful family of the Folkungs as-
cended the throne, the two hostile tribes
became united into one nation; and, at the
same time, the  succession was  settled.
Sweden then extended  only to Helsing-
land.  In  1248, Eric XI  conquered the
interior  of Finnland; and, in 1293, Tor-
kel Knutsen, the guardian of Birger, con-
quered Carelia, the extreme province of
that country; so that Sweden now became
the immediate neighbor of Russia.   In
1332, Magnus Smek obtained possession,
through Mats Kettilmundsen, of the prov-
inces of Schonen, Bleckingen and Hal-
land  ; but they were lost  again in 1360.
Tired of his oppression,  the Swedes re-
belled in 1363, and gave the crown to his
sister's son, Albert of Mecklenburg. The
Swedes soon  became  dissatisfied  with
their new king, who fell, in 1388, in the
battle at Falkoping, fighting against the
Danes, whom his subjects had called in to
their assistance. In 1389, Margaret, queen
of Denmark and Norway, added Sweden
to her other possessions ;  and the diet of
Cahnar  (q. v.) ratified this union,  1397,
each state retaining its own constitution.
Troubles,  rebellions,  and, finally,  com-
plete anarchy, followed this measure ; and,
in 1448, the  Swedes and  Norwegians
elected  a  separate king, Karl Knutsen
(i. e.  Charles, the son of Canute), and for-
mally renounced  the  union.   After the
death of  Charles, several of the  family
of Sturc reigned in succession, with the
title of presidents, though  with regal au-
thority,  until, in 1520,  Christian  II of
Denmark  was acknowledged king of
Sweden.  But his tyranny disgusted the
people.  Even during the ceremony of
the coronation, notwithstanding his prom-
ises of amnesty, he ordered ninety-four
Swedish noblemen to be beheaded in the
market-place  of Stockholm,  and perpe-
trated similar acts of cruelty  in the prov-
inces.  In 1521, Gustavus Wasa,or Vasa,
who had  escaped from the Danish pris-
ons,  put himself at the head of the mal-
contents, and,  in  1523,  after the expul-
sion  of  Christian, was  elected  to the
crown.  He introduced  the  reformation
among his subjects, added the estates of
the clergy and the monasteries to his own
domains,  promoted the  trade and  com-
merce of  Sweden by treaties with Eng-
land and Holland, and, in 1544, secured 
74
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
to his family the succession to the throne.
His son and successor, Eric XIV (reigued
1560—68), added Esthonia  to Sweden,
and, at his coronation, in 1561, introduced
the titles of count and baron, before un-
known  in  Sweden, which he bestowed
upon several  families.   His suspicious
disposition and tyrannical acts made him
an  object  of popular hatred. He  was
deposed, and,  after nine years' imprison-
ment, poisoned  in  a dungeon.  He was
succeeded  (1568 to 1592) by  his brother,
John II, who,  by  the peace of  Stettin,
1570, ceded to Denmark Schonen, Hal-
land, Blekingen, Herjedalen   and  Goth-
land ; and, in 1580, embraced the Catho-
lic religion, in  which he caused his son,
Sigismund, to be educated.  Sigismund,
who received at the same time the Polish
crown, was dethroned,  in  1602, in  Swe-
den, by his ambitious uncle, Charles, a
zealous  Lutheran,  who   was formally
crowned, in 1604,  as Charles IX.  The
wars, in which he became involved with
Russia, Poland and Denmark, were hap-
pily concluded after his death, in 1611, by
the great  Gustavus Adolphus II  (q. v.),
who fell at Liitzen, in 1632.  (See  Thirty
Years'1 War.)  In the reign of his daugh-
ter, Christina (q. v.), the war in Germany
was honorably carried on and completed.
During  its progress, Sweden was  men-
aced by Denmark;  but  the victories
of Torstenson,  and  the  mediation  of
France, led to the  peace  of  Bromsebro
(1645),  by which  Denmark gave  up
to Sweden Jemtland  and  Herjedalen,
With the  islands  Gothland  and  G3sel,
agreed  to surrender Halland for  twen-
ty-five  years,  and  exempted Swedish
vessels from the sound dues.  By the
peace of  Westphalia, Sweden obtained
the German duchies of  Bremen, Ver-
den, Hither Pomerania, a part of Fur-
ther Pomerania, and Wismar, with a seat
in the German diet.  In 1654, Christina
resigned her crown to Charles X, Gusta-
vus of Deux-Ponts, the nephew of Gus-
tavus Adolphus. This martial prince ad-
ministered the government till 1660.  He
had to contend  with the Poles, Russians
and Danes, and astonished the world by
his daring enterprises; but he was unable
to procure permanent tranquillity for his
nation. The guardians of his  son, Charles
XI, concluded the peace of Oliva (q. v.),
with the Poles, in 1660, by which all Livo-
nia to the Dwina was transferred to Swe-
den ; the peace of Copenhagen, with Den-
mark, by which they restored Drontheim
and Boraholm (gained by Charles  Gusta-
vus in the  peace of Roschild with Den-
mark (1658), together with  Blekingen,
Schonen and Halland), and came to a
reconciliation with Russia, on the basis of
the peace of Stolbow.  Sweden became
involved in  an  unsuccessful war against
Brandenburg,  Holland  and  Denmark;
but,  by the  peace of St.  Germain and
Lund, in  1679, she lost only the part of
Pomerania beyond  the Oder.   Charles
XI entered upon the government in 1682,
and  admitted females to the succession.
He improved the internal condition of his
kingdom, revoked the grants of the crown
lands, augmented the revenue, but made
many enemies among the nobles, and left
a  full  treasury  to his son Charles XII
(q. v.), who  reigned from 1697 to  1718.
But  all  his  treasures were expended, to-
gether with  the blood of his subjects, in
protracted and useless wars.  (See Gatrtz,
and  Northern War.)   On the death of
Charles, in  1718,  Ulrica Eleanora, his
youngest sister,  the last of the  house of
Wasa,  succeeded to the throne, less by
hereditary right  than by the  voluntary
choice of the states, who revived the an-
cient form of government, but with great-
er limitations of the royal power.   The
ruling party, by the  peace of Stockholm,
in 1719, ceded Bremen and Verden to the
elector of Brunswick,  and, in 1720, Stet-
tin and Hither Pomerania, as far as the
Peene, to Prussia; by the  peace of Ny-
stadt, in 1721, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria,
Wiburg, and a part of Carelia, to Russia;
and,  by  the peace  of Fredericksborg,
with Denmark,  in  1720, renounced all
claim to the exemption from sound dues.
Frederic of Hesse, the husband of Ulrica
Eleonora, who assumed the government,
with the consent of the states, and ad-
ministered it from  1720 to 1751, was a
weak prince, ruled by his nobles; and the
council of state made itself entirely inde-
pendent.  Instigated by France, he en-
gaged in a new war with Russia (17411,
for the recovery of the provinces that had
been ceded to Russia.   By the peace of
Abo  (q. v.),  which concluded the war, in
1743, he lost part of Finland, to the river
Cymmene; and, as the queen was child-
less, the succession was settled on Adol-
phus Frederic, duke of Holstein and bish-
op of Lubeck.   Adolphus Frederic, in
whose person the house of Holstein. as-
cended the Swedish throne, reigned from
1751 to 1771. He took part feebly in the
seven years' war. (q. v.)  The kingdom
was distracted by the factions of the hats
and caps, and the regal authority became
a mere  shadow.  Gustavus III (q. v.) at
length happily threw off the yoke of the 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
75
 aristocracy.  He restored to the kingdom
 its strength and its honor;  but, in 1792, he
 fell  a victim to a conspiracy.  His son,
 Gustavus IV (q. v.), ascended the throne
 under the guardianship of his uncle, but
 lost it in 1809.  His uncle, who assumed
 the government under the title of Charles
 XIII (q. v.), gave the kingdom a new con-
 stitution,  and chose,  for his successor,
  Erince  Christian Augustus of Sleswic-
  [olstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, who
 adopted  the name of  Charles Augustus.
 He concluded the war  with Russia by the
 peace of Friedrichshamm, in 1809, by
 which he ceded all Finnland, and, in  1810,
 renewed the  previous relations  of the
 kingdom with France.  The crown-prince,
 however, died suddenly ; and the diet of
 Oerebro chose, for his  successor, the
 French  marshal Bernadotte,  prince of
 Ponte Corvo, who was  adopted by the
 king under the  name  of Charles John.
 (See Charles  XIV.)   Sweden now de-
 clared war against Great Britain; but the
 pressure of the  war, and the increasing
 encroachments  of France,  produced  a
 change of policy (1812), and she joined
 the allies against Napoleon.  (See Charles
 XIV, and Russian- German War.) By the
 peace with Denmark, concluded at Kiel
 (Jan. 14, 1814), Sweden received Norway
 as an independent,  free,  indivisible and
 inalienable kingdom, in  return  for her
 possessions in Pomerania and the island
 of Rugen.
   Since the union of Norway and  Swe-
 den, concluded by the storthing at Chris-
 tiania, Oct. 18,  1814 (see Norway), this
 double kingdom has combined, under one
 king and two very different  constitutions,
 two proud and free-spirited nations, each
jealous of its peculiar privileges.  The
political condition of Sweden and  Nor-
way forms  a permanent partition between
them: there, a jealous aristocracy is per-
petually watching over its ancient privi-
leges ; here, the  democracy struggles to
defend its new-born rights. In both  king-
doms, the peasantry and the citizens hold
a  higher rank than in most  European
states.  In  Norway, there is no heredita-
ry nobility, and the veto of the king is
only conditional.  These circumstances
seem to separate the Scandinavian penin-
sula from the European system of politics,
with which, however,  it is  closely  con-
nected.  To the discrepancy of domestic
and foreign relations is added an inces-
sant struggle with the climate and soil, widi
obstructions in trade,  depreciated paper
money, and an  oppressive  public  debt.
Charles XIV  is  a sovereign suited to the
 country  and the age.   Looking steadily
 to the future, he meets present difficulties
 with firmness and wisdom. He possesses
 the affections of the majority  of the na-
 tion, and especially of the army; and has
 imbued his successor with his own prin-
 ciples.  The crown-prince,  Oscar,  lives
 and thinks as a Swede.   He met with a
 distinguished reception, at Verona, at the
 time of the congress, Oct. 26,1822, where
 the visits of  the  two  emperors seem to
 confirm the opinion that his succession to
 the throne was  guarantied by Russia.
 Soon afterwards, the marriage of the prince
 with Josephine Maximiliana, daughter of
 Eugene Beauhamais, duke of Leuchten-
 berg (whose  wife was Augusta Amelia,
 princess of Bavaria), took place at Stock-
 holm, June  19, 1823.    The first fruit of
 this marriage, Charles,  born May 3, 1826,
 is styled duke of Schonen; the second,
 Francis,  born July 9, 1827,   duke of
 Upland; the  third, born 1829, duke of
 Gothland.  Some intrigues  and conspi-
 racies for the restoration of the family
 of Wasa have occurred in Sweden; but
 the estates took this opportunity (1823)
 to give  the king and  the crown-prince
 the strongest  assurances of fidelity.  The
 king and Swedish estates, in order to in-
 terrupt all communication with the  ex-
 iled family, determined to transfer to it all
 its  property remaining in the kingdom,
 and to extinguish its pension by the  pay-
 ment of a  certain sum mutually agreed
 upon by the two parties, which was done
 in 1824. The personal character and c  -
 stitutional principles of the king have *•  •
 cured him the love and  fidelity  of 1  .
 subjects.  He often visits the remote prov -
 inces of his two kingdoms, relieving dis-
 tress wherever he finds it, usually from
 his private purse, and  takes no important
 measures without being  assured of the
 concurrence  of the estates, which meet
 every six years, and  of the  majority of
 the nation.
  It has been the object of the govern-
 ment in  Sweden to give unity to the ad-
 ministration ; and the minister at the head
 of each department is responsible for its
 measures.  The constitutional committee
 of every diet has the right to examine the
journals  of the  cabinet, to discover any
 violation of the constitution.  Since 1821,
 the judicial  power has  been  separated
 from the executive.  The  administration
 of justice has been essentially improved.
 The new Swedish constitution of June 7,
 1809, is given in the second volume of Con-
 stitutions of the European States (in Ger-
 man, Leipsic, 1817).  To separate the roy- 
76
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
al power more completely from the judi-
cial, the king proposed, in  the  diet of
1823, the abolition of his right to preside
in the supreme court The  proposal of
the estates, in 1823, to make then* sessions
and  those of the supreme  courts public,
was,  however, negatived  by the  king.
The finances and credit of the state were
restored by careful management and great
economy. The public accounts were rigid-
ly inspected, and reduced to perfect order,
and government soon had it in its power to
pay off, annually, §120—150,000 of the na-
tional debt, which amounted, in 1820, to
b',500,0C0 Swedish  rix dollars.  The diet
of  1823 fixed the total expenditure of
Sweden at 8,121,357 dollars banco.   Still
complaints were made of the expenses of
the court, and the state of the currency
stood in need of further changes.   The
organization  and discipline of the anny
have been improved, while the burden of
military service and the expenses of the
military establishment have been dimin-
ished.  The army is composed of 45,203
men, and the whole armed force amounts
to 138,569 men, exclusive of the naval
service.  The number of officers in the
anny is very  small: there  is not more
than one officer to forty men;  while, in the
French army, there  is one  to every ten
men.  The navy consists of twelve ships
of the line, thirteen frigates, sixty smaller
vessels, and a Scheeren fleet  of 342  sail.
(See  Scheeren.)  The Swedish  soldiers
are employed, in peace, in building canals,
roads, forts, and other public works.  The
freedom  of'  the press is established by
aw, but under such  restrictions that it is
ittle more than nominal.  Still the jour-
nals often speak with great freedom, and
exercise considerable influence upon pub-
lic opinion.   Political clubs  and friendly
societies  cannot exist without the  con-
sent of the  government; and  a society
modelled on the  plan of our common
debating societies,  was  put  down.   In
conformity  with the  principles  of the
prohibitive  system, which  prevailed in
1820, but has since  been modified, the
government  attempted to encourage do-
mestic industry by  laying restrictions on
foreign manufactured articles.   Foreign
manufacturers were encouraged to estab-
lish new branches of industry in Sweden
by  bounties.  The  abolition of guilds,
which was attempted under the direction
of the king, was not accomplished.   The
whole system of policy in regard  to com-
merce and manufactures was abolished in
1821, and a new tariff has been adopted
since the beginning of 1825.  Since 1820,
the navigation of the rivers, especially in
the northern provinces, has been improv-
ed.  Steam navigation has also been in-
troduced,  and  canals  have  been  con-
structed.
  The government of Norway is prompt
and regular, and much more economical
and simple  than  that of Sweden.  The
organization of the courts, and the admin-
istration of justice, are also  better;  thus,
in the supreme  court of Christiania, pub-
licity of procedure  and oral  pleadings
have long been established.  The fami-
lies  of the  ancient  national nobility in
Norway had  gradually sunk to the  rank
of peasants, while Danish and German
families had  taken their place, by being
appointed to  offices  of government for-
merly  held  by  Norwegian  noblemen.
The constitution  of 1814  prohibits the
creation of counties,  baronies, &c, and
admits no hereditary  rank.  The Norwe-
gians further wished to abolish the exist-
ing nobility; and resolutions to that effect
passed the Norwegian diets of 1815 and
1818; but the royal sanction could not be
obtained for  them.   In the  storthing  of
1821, a majority voted a third time for its
abolition; and the measure, having  been
approved by  three successive storthings,
became a law without the royal sanction.
The Icing asked for a delay, at least, in the
measure, but it was refused, and endeav-
ored to obtain the right of creating a new
nobility in Norway, as a reward for dis-
tinguished services; but without success.
The storthing also rejected a proposal  of
the king to establish a jury for the trial of
offences of the press, a censorship and
jury not being consistent with the legisla-
tion of Norway, although offences of the
press were, in  fact, punished by impris-
onment, and, in 1825, by a fine.  It was
not  till after a long opposition, that the
storthing finally consented to pay, within
eight years, the Norwegian debi to  Den-
mark, whose demands were supported by
Austria,  Russia, Prussia and  England.
These proceedings  induced the king to
visit Christiania in person; and Swedish
and Norwegian troops, with a squadron
of ships, were assembled in the neighbor-
hood of the  capital, seemingly with the
purpose of overawing the storthing.  No
measures, however, were taken; and it is
said that a note from the emperor Alex-
ander, as a guarantee of the peace of Kiel,
dissuaded any  innovation  upon the con-
stitution of Norway.  The acts  of the
storthing, during the  session of 1824,  at-
tracted much attention even in  foreign
countries.  The king had appointed  his 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
77
son viceroy of Norway, and thus made
him commander-in-chief of the land and
sea forces.  The presence of this prince
was, perhaps, designed to countenance the
propositions for changes in thirteen sec-
tions  in the constitution, namely, the in-
troduction of the absolute veto; the crea-
tion ofa Norwegian nobility; the appoint-
ment  of the president of the storthing by
the king, &c.   But these and other  pro-
posals were  unanimously rejected by the
storthing,  May 22.   (See the Norwegian
Constitution, in the 2d volume of the Eu-
ropean Constitutions.)  When the crown-
prince prorogued  the  storthing,  Aug. 9,
1824, he expressed a hope that the wishes
of the government would meet with more
favor  in a future session; but, in the session
of 1827, the proposition for an absolute veto
was unanimously rejected.  The  crown-
prince was then recalled to  Stockholm,
and his appointment as viceroy of Nor-
way was revoked.   The king and queen
visited Christiania in September, 1825;
and their presence in that city in the year
1827,  at the fifth  regular storthing,  and
again in 1828,  gave the  monarch  an op-
portunity to  witness  anew  the  love  and
i'aith  of his Norwegian subjects.   But
their attachment to their constitution was
as warmly displayed on the anniversary
of the establishment of the  Norwegian
constitution, May  17, 1827.  (See  Nor-
toay.)
  In  1822,  the free navigation  of the
Black sea by  Swedish and  Norwegian
ships  was obtained from the Porte, and a
treaty was concluded with Great Britain,
in 1824, for the suppression of the slave-
trade. In 1828, a treaty of commerce and
navigation between  Sweden  and the U.
States placed the vessels of the contracting
powers on the  footing of national vessels
in the ports  of the respective nations.
—See Geijer's Histoiy of Sweden  (in
Swedish,  1826); Ekendahl's History of
the Swedes (in German, 1827 seq.).
  We have already given an  account of
the present condition of Norway in a sep-
arate  article.   Sweden  is a hereditary
monarchy, limited by estates.  They are
divided into four ranks, the nobility, cler-
gy, citizens and peasantry.  The nobility
are subdivided  into three classes,  the
lords, including counts  and barons, the
knights, or those  whose ancestors  have
held the  place of  royal counsellors, and
the simple noblemen. The clergy is rep-
resented by the bishop  of each  diocese,
and the citizens and peasants, the latter
comprising only the  free peasants of the
crown, by deputies.  The sovereign dis-
poses  of the higher civil  and military
offices, from  which  foreigners are ex-
cluded by law.  Without the consent of
the  states, the  king  cannot enact new
laws or abolish  old ones.  The constitu-
tion requires  the  king  to  assemble the
states once in five  years. The  legislative
power in Norway is  lodged in the stor-
thing,  which meets  every  three  years.
A viceroy, or governor-general, resides at
Christiania.   The revenue and  troops of
the two kingdoms are kept distinct  The
fortifications  of Norway are only in part
occupied by  Sweden.  For  the levying
of taxes, the consent of the states is neces-
sary, and  all the troops and officers are
required to take  the oath of allegiance to
them, as well as  to the king.   Since 1798,
the sovereign has had the right to make
war aud peace, to regulate the  judiciary,
and to conduct the general administration
without restraint.  The succession to the
throne is hereditaiy in the male line ac-
cording to the law of primogeniture.  On
the extinction of the male line, the estates
have full  power to elect a  king.  The
sovereign is of full age in Norway at the
completion of his eighteenth year, and in
Sweden  at  the  close of his twentieth.
Before his coronation, the king is requir-
ed to take the inaugural oath, and to sub-
scribe an engagement to maintain invio-
late  the Evangelical  Lutheran religion.
A Swede who abandons the Lutheran re-
ligion  loses  his  cjvil  rights.  The king-
dom contains one archbishop, thirteen
bishops, and 192 provosts. The principal
administrative bodies in Sweden are,
1. the  council of state, the highest delib-
erative body, consisting of nine members;
2. the committee on the  general affairs of
the kingdom, consisting of eight  mem-
bers ; 3. the royal chancery, which  is un-
der  the king's immediate direction, and
superintends  the general affairs of state,
foreign and domestic.  Connected with it
is the  royal  cabinet  for foreign  corre-
spondence, the bureau of the president of
the chancery  and the  archives of the
kingdom.  The finances are managed by
a board of finance.  The war and navy
boards have the control over those depart-
ments, under the presidency of a general
and the high admiral.  The highest tribu-
nal of justice is  the supreme court, the
president of which, in the king's absence,
is chief magistrate of the kingdom.   The
decisions of this court are regulated by the
code of 1731, as revised in  1778.   The
ecclesiastical affairs are conducted by the
consistory, the president of which is the
first court preacher.   The medical  insti 
78
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
tutions  are  directed  by  the  collegium
medicum.   All the high  offices  in  the
Swedish army have hitherto been venal.
The present government has made great
exertions to abolish this abuse, so that the
road to promotion is now open alike to rich
and poor.  In  Sweden, there are five or-
ders of knighthood: 1. the order of Sera-
phim,  founded, according to tradition, by
king Magnus.  History shows that it ex-
isted in 1336.   It was renewed by king
Frederic I, April 17, 1748. Its motto is
I. H. S.  2.  The order of the Sword, ac-
cording to tradition, was  instituted by
king Gustavus I, and was renewed, April
12, 1748, by king Frederic  I.  3. The or-
der of  the North Star is  traced by some
to the age of Odin.  King Frederic I re-
newed  it April 17, 1748.  The motto is
Nescit  occasum.  4. The order of Wasa,
or Vasa, founded May 26,  1772.  5.  The
order of Charles XIII, instituted by the
king, May 27, 1811, is bestowed only up-
on  freemasons of  the  higher degrees.
Agriculture and manufactures have flour-
ished since the accession of the present
king.   In  Sweden, there  are about 900
manufactories of cloth, silk, cotton, wool-
len, linen, leather,  sugar,  tobacco,  glass,
mirrors, watches, porcelain, paper, marble,
porphyry, and of metals, in which the iron
works hold the most important place, yield-
ing annually 72,000 tons of bar iron, and
10,000  tons of manufactured iron. Accord-
ing to the tabular views of Sweden, the val-
ue of its annual productions is estimated at
88,000,000 Swedish bank dollars, including
wooden ware to the value of half a million;
manufactures, more than 12,000,000; trade
and navigation, about 14,500,000 dollars.
The iron works of Norway (the most im-
portant are at Laurvig and at Moss) yield
8000 tons of iron per annum.  Many ves-
sels are built,  both in Sweden and Nor-
way, for  foreign  countries,  and  large
quantities of wood are  worked up into
boards (especially on the river Drammen),
laths, joists, masts, &c.   The situation is
favorable  to trade, which is  carried on
with the nations bordering on the  Baltic,
Great  Britain, Holland,  France,  in  the
Mediterranean sea, and with the U. States.
A Swedish East India company trades
to China.  Articles of export are wood,
boards, ship timber, joists,  tar, pitch, pot-
ash, iron, steel,  copper, herrings, whale-
oil, peltry,  &c.   The  imports  consist
mostly of  grain, wine, resins, oil, salt,
wool, flax, hemp and groceries.  In 1818,
the use of coffee was prohibited.  The gov-
ernment of Sweden appropriates 4,000,000
Swedish bank dollars annually to  pur-
chase corn;  but no  such provision is
made in Norway, whence the scarcity of
com is more sensibly felt, and, at the same
time, the high duties render the importa-
tion of grain very difficult    In 1818,
Sweden  had about 1100 trading vessels,
with 9200 sailors, and  Norway about 800,
with 6500 sailors.  Half of them  can be
fitted out in war as privateers.   The chief
commercial towns in Sweden are Stock-
holm,  Gottenburg, Nordkoping, Gefle,
Carlscrona, Malmoe, Landscrona, Ystadt,
and Udawalla;  in Norway, Bergen, Chris-
tiania, Drontheim, Christiansand, Stavan-
ger, Drammen, and Fredrickshald.   In
1818, four new  roads  were  constructed
through Darlecarha and Helsingland, for
the promotion  of trade.  Two  of them
lead to Norway.  There are likewise sev-
eral canals ; for  example, the Trollhatta
canal, round the falls of the  Gotha-Elf,
whose perpendicular descent is estimated
at 130 feet; and the Gotha canal, joining
the Baltic with  the German ocean, which
was completed  in 1827.  (See  Canals.)
The whole distance from Gottenburg to
Soderkoping, on the Baltic, is  240 miles  ;
of which 186 are occupied by the Gotha-
Elf, the Trollhatta canal, and  some lakes.
A third canal is  that of Sodertelje, thirteen
miles from Stockholm, by which a  new
junction of lake Malar with the Baltic was
made in 1819; thus bringing twenty towns
in the interior into connexion with the sea,
and facilitating the commerce of the capital.
Under  the  reigns of Gustavus Adolphus,
Christina, and Charles XI, manufactures
of iron, brass, steel, leather, soap, woollen,
and silk, first became prosperous ; but the
wars of Charles XII involved the whole
in a general ruin.  The manufactures of
the Swedes, however, recovered them-
selves ; and they produce all wares (of
which the raw materials are not too high
in other countries), as far as the want  of
hands, occasioned by numerous wars, per-
mits.  Nevertheless, when we compare
the productions and revenue  of Sweden
with its extent, in which  it yields only to
Russia, we must pronounce it the poorest
country in  Europe.  Excellent  institu-
tions have  been established, especially in
Sweden, for the instruction of the people.
The university founded  in 1476, at Upsal,
with twenty-four professors,  has an ex-
tensive library, a  botanical garden, a cab-
inet of coins, and of natural history, an ob-
servatory, &c.  The university erected at
Lund, in 1666, with twenty-three profes-
sors, has also a  library, a museum, a bo-
tanical garden, and an observatory.  The
two universities, in 1829, contained 2156 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
79
 students: they are under the direction of
 eleven  bishops and the archbishop, the
 heads of the clergy : the same protection
 is shared by eighteen gymnasia.  There
 are common schools in every town of the
 kingdom.  At Carlsberg there is a milita-
 ry academy ; at Skara, a veterinary school;
 at Stockholm, a  military academy.  In
 1739, an academy of sciences was  insti-
 tuted at  Stockholm, and,  in  1753, the
 academy of fine arts, which was divided
 into the Swedish academy and  the acad-
 emy of fine arts, and afterwards reorgan-
 ized.  In Norway, a few years since, the
 university of Christiania was established,
 and in 1827 it contained 549 students.  It
 has a library, a botanical garden, and col-
 lections of natural history.   At  the  same
 place there  is a military academy and a
 commercial institute. At Kongsberg, or
 Conisberg, there is a mining school, and
 at Drontheim  a seminary for young Lap-
 landers.  Norway has also five gymnasia,
 and two  seminaries for school-teachers.
 The village schools are few.—See Brooke's
 Travels through Sweden, Nonvay and Fin-
 mark (London,  1823, 4to.); Schubert's
 Travels  through Sweden, Norway,  Lap-
 land, Finland and Ingermanland, or Ingria
 (in Gennan,  1823, 3  vols.);  Everest's
 Journey throitgh Norway, &c. (1829).
   Swedish Language and Literature.  On
 account of the distance  of Sweden from
 the  parts of Europe which were  early
 civilized,  Christianity  did  not gain a
 firm footing throughout  the country until
 the middle of the twelfth century ; and
 even then civilization followed but  slow-
 ly, because of the incessant feuds of fac-
 tions and  families, which continued for
 centuries.  It  derived little  aid from the
 clergy, who were numerous, but rude, and
 mainly bent on securing  their own power
 and influence, or from the kings; and the
 favorable  circumstances which, in  some
 other countries, enabled  it to  develope  it-
 self unaided,  did not exist  in  Sweden.
 If this dark period was enlightened by na-
 tive sagas, their light is lost to us.   The
 writings of the foreigners Saxo (q. v.) and
 Snorro  (see  Sturlason) are  the   only
 known sources of information respecting
 the ancient times of Sweden; and  their
 records  are  but meagre.  The  Swedish
 Chronicle of Erik Olafsen, belonging to
 the end of the  fifteenth century, and writ-
 ten in Latin,  follows   too  closely the
rhymed chronicle and  fables of  John
Magnus (1488—1544) to  be considered of
importance,  in regard to the history of
this early period.  But the historical in-
vestigator may learn much from the an-
 cient provincial and country  laws,  and
 from the Kununga oh' Hofdinga  Stirilse
 (The Government of Kings and Chiefs)—
 a picture of the princes of the  end of the
 fourteenth century.  The Gothic Union,
 founded by Geijer in 1811, has awakened
 an  interest for domestic antiquities.  The
 Aurora Union, estebhshed by Atterbom
 in  1808,  had prepared  the way for it
 Jacob Adlerbeth (son of the  poet men-
 tioned below) is at present the most active
 member of the Gothic Union; he is the
 editor of the Iduna. Afzelius, editor of the
 Eddas in the original, and of the old pop-
 ular ballads, is also indefatigable.
  From the time of the reformation more
 monuments  exist  for the history of the
 Swedish language.  The reformation; the
 translation of the  Bible (the Old Testa-
 ment by Lor. Andrea?, Stockholm, 1526,
 folio, and  the Old and New Testament
 by Ol. and Lorenz Petri, Upsal, 1541, fol.);
 the various commercial and political re-
 lations  of  Sweden with  Germany ; its
 monarchsof German origin; and even the
 wars with  that country,—caused a lean-
 ing towards the German in the Swedish
 language,  which  derived some  support
 from the translation of the Bible after Lu-
 ther's version, and from the other trans-
 lations of German works which soon'fol-
 lowed.  In the middle of the seventeenth
 century, and at later periods, the Swedish
 literati (for instance, Ihre and Rudbeck)
 turned their attention towards the remains
 of ancient northern times ; but they wrote
 in Latin; and the short reign of Christina
 led  to the study and imitation of  foreign
 models, particularly French, which main-
 tained itself in the unquiet period that
 followed, whilst the language  of  society
 was neglected.  Louisa  Eleonora, sister
 of Frederic the Great,- awakened  an in-
 terest  for  polished  conversation.  She
 founded an academy of  sciences in 1753,
 which published its transactions  in  the
 language of the country, and thus attracted
 the  regard of the scholars of Europe to
 the  Swedish idiom.   In this period Olaus
 Dalin attempted to  give to Swedish prose
 a flexibility  and  brilliancy ill suited to
 the  northern idioms.  This style, borrow-
 ed from the French, maintained its place
 for some time, but  could not be of long
 duration.  Gustavus III, though the pupil
 of  Dalin,   and expressing  himself  in
 French with greater ease than in Swedish,
strove to restore the dignity of the Swedish
idiom, by the foundation  of the Swedish
academy in 1786;  but the forms  which
he prescribed to this society, his own ex-
ample, tuid the favor bestowed on foreign 
80
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
customs and modes of thinking, made the
labors of the society of little avail.  The
language had certainly gained, during this
period, in extent and polish; but it  had
been also burdened with so much  foreign
matter, that a very thorough renovation
was required.  The first steps were taken
by a society of young men  at Upsal, in
1803.  A thorough study of classical lite-
rature and reflection on the labors of for-
eign nations, particularly  Germans, in the
department  of criticism, led them to a
close investigation of the state of literature
in their country, and to  a deep disrelish
for the existing French taste.  A patriotic
feeling was awakened ; the old historical
sources and the first monuments of the
Swedish language  were now studied, and
the more recent works on the Swedish
language, e. g. Silverstolpe's (died 1816)
Attempt  at  a general  Grammar  (Stock-
holm, 1814), Broocmann's Larobok  (Stock-
holm, 1813), and especially Collner's Forsbk
i'Svcnska Sprdklaran (Stockholm, 1812),
and Larobok i Sv. Sp., by the same author,
depart considerably from the standard of
the Swedish academy.   The study of the
Icelandic, which gains daily in interest;
Winter's De Origine et ant Lingual Suec.
Monum.  (Stockh., 1802, 4to.), ^and Lin-
tbr's Introduction to Icelandic Literature
and its History in the Middle Ages (1804),
mostly from Danish sources ;  Litjegren's
Nordiska Fornald Hjelte Sagar  (Stock-
holm, 1817), and Nordiska Fornlemningar
 Stockh., 1819—22),—must have an im-
portant influence upon  the  developement
of the language, particularly at a period
in which so much attention is paid to the
monuments of the ancient history of the
country.  Yet there are many vestiges of
the French influence in the Swedish lit-
erature.  It is much to  be regretted that
modem Swedish poets have paid  so little
attention to the old national songs, the re-
mains of which are now zealously sought
for; e. g. Ismal's Marriage,  an  ancient
Faroe song, recast by Gumaelius in the
tenth number of Iduna;  also the  Svenslca
Folkvisor (Swedish Popular Melodies),
edited by Geijer and  Afzelius (Stockh.,
1814—16, 3 vols.), and the Swedish Pop-
ular Harp, with an appendix containing
Songs and Melodies, by Studach (Stockh.,
 1826).  If poets of talent had  employed
themselves  in the composition of sacred
hymns  after the reformation,  perhaps
poetry would have risen above a learned
school-exercise, or an  entertainment of
Swedish scholars, and  gained a hold on
the hearts of the people.—For informa-
tion respecting that early period of poeti-
cal activity, we  refer  to  C.  Carleson's
Forsbk til su Skalde Konstens uphjelpande
Hock  (Stockh, 1737,  2  vols.,  4to.).—
Olof Dalin, who was bom in 1708, at Vin-
berga,  in Holland, gave an impulse to
Swedish  literature  by his  periodical,
called Argus (1733—34), which appear-
ed when the country was much distracted
by the factions of the  nobility.  At this
period of  degeneracy  and  humiliation,
particularly of the higher classes, a zeal
for science prevailed in Sweden, hardly
equalled at any subsequent  period.  We
need only mention Linnaeus (1707—1778),
Hire and Lagerbring.  At this time, Dalin
attracted the  attention of  the  Swedish
public by his wit, polish of language, and
accommodation to the French taste, which
he did much to fix in the literature.  His
poems (best edition, 1782,  2 vols.), served
to entertain the  court  ladies of Louisa.
His prose works—e. g. his History of the
Realm  (Stockh., 1747, 3 vols., 4to.)—are
more to be commended  for their style
than  for their critical research.   Dalin
died in  1763.  He  had made poetry a
kind of court entertainment, cultivated by
circles of beaux esprits (vittre), but having
little  of an elevated  character.   Under
such circumstances,  madame  II. C. Nor-
denflycht (died 1763) received the  name '
of the Swedish Sappho (Utvalda arbtten,
Stockh., 1778).    But count  de  Creutz
(q. v.) and his friend Gyllenborg deserve
to be  distinguished.   The historical epic
of the latter  (he  died in  1808)— Tagct
bfver  Ba.lt (Stockh., 1800)—as well  as his
didactic poem—Forsbk  om  Skaldecon-
stcn (Stockh., 1798)—will  preserve  his
name in the history of Swedish literature
(Skrifler, Stockh., 1795, seq.).  The con-
temporaries of Gustavus  III, who were
also  his  literary confidants—Kellgren
(died 1795), Oxenstierna, the translator
of Milton (died 1818), and Leopold (sec-
retary of state), followed the impulse given
by Dalin.  Gustavus himself took part in
the endeavors of Swedish authors; but the
narrowness of his views, and his disposi-
tion for show in language, tended rather
to check than assist the developement of
talents.   Kellgreo,   however, did  most
to  prepare  the  public for the change
which  was beginning, by  deriding the
mania for  foreign literature,  in his peri-
odical, the  Stockholm Post (1778, seq.).
 Still  more  independent,  in  his poems,
was  Bened.  Lidner (died  1793), whose
poems, full of feeling and elevated thought,
were  strongly contrasted with the pas-
sions which put an end to his life.  Tho-
 rild also (1759—1808) assisted in giving 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY
81
a favorable  direction to  poetry  (Saml.
Skr., Upsal, 1819,  2 vols.).  But Charles
Mich. Bellmann (born 1741, died 1795) is
the first lyric poet of Sweden.  His pic-
tures  of Swedish life are so true; their
colors so fresh ; they exhibit such  fulness
of imagination and purity of feeling,—that
to him, before all others of his  time and
nation, is due the fame of an original and
national  bard (Bacchi   Tcmpel,  1783);
Sions Hogtid (1787); Frcdman Epistlar
och  Sanger  (1791);  Fr.  Handskrifter
([Jpsal,  1813);  Skaldestyklten  (Stockh.,
1811, 2 vols.). Compared with his pro-
ductions, Adlcrbeth's works are intellect-
ual, but cold  (Podiska Arbeten, Stockh.,
1802), and  Shenhammar's verses mere
t tudies.  The change in Swedish belles-
lettres,  after these  preparatory attempts
against the literary despotism of the Swe-
dish academy, was first  brought about by
that association of young literati, in 1803,
at  Upsal,  who  formed  the  Vitterhetens
 Vdnner (Friends of Science).   The study
of the German works of A. W.  and F.
Schlegcl  first excited   the  zeal  for  a
thorough  criticism;  and Askelof's Poly-
fem gave the  signal  for the storm which
broke out against the obsolete prejudices
of  the Swedish  academy.    Atterbom
(q. v.) labored with particular success, for
instance, in his Phosphoros (1810—1813).
Hammarskold* embraced the  views of
Atterbom,  in  his Lyceum, a periodical;
and the Gothic Union, above mentioned,
contributed to the furtherance of their
views.  Swedish poetry, since these efforts,
is more vigorous  and  elevated.   Isaiah
Tegner, bishop of Wexio, in Smaland, is
u lyric and  pastoral poet of genius,   lie
lately Avrote  Frithiofssaga (three times
translated  into  G('nnau)-   We-  should
also mention the poems  of Geijer and At-
terbom, likewise Francen's lyric Idyls—
Sam!, .'lib. (Stockh., 1819)—the writings
of Stagnclius, who  died in 1822—Liljori
Saaron (Stockh.,  1821;  complete works,
edited by Hammarskold, in  1824)—Dal-
Kren's successful imitation of Bellmann,
particularly  in  his  Mollbergs Epistlar
f Stockh.,  1819);  Beskow's Poetical Es-
savs,  (collected  Stockh.,  1818—1819);
and the translations by Regner (died 1819),
as  well as  Palmblad's works.   These
show that great  progress has been made
in the art of versification.  The drama is
less cultivated. It remained foreign to the
people, and only  served  for the entertain-
ment of the court.  The productions of
Dalin, Gustavus  III, Adlerbeth,  Gyllen-
  * Hammarskold  has been much  used in this
article.
borg,  Leopold, were insignificant, and
mostly in a foreign manner; Hallmann's
humor was too coarse;  Lindegren's at-
tempts in  Kotzebue's  manner are no
longer liked; and  Ling alone seems  to
afford some hope for this branch of poetry.
His Agnes (Lund,  1812) has some fine
lyrical passages, though it is void of true
dramatic life.  The  numerous class of
female  Swedish   authors  and  poets is
mostly confined to novels.  Euphrosyne
(Christ. Julia Nyberg) has written lyrical
poems, full of tenderness (Dikter of Eu-
phrosyne,  Upsal,  1822).  Charlotte  Ber-
ger's jiroductions betray their French mod-
els (De fransca Kriegsfongame, Stockh.,
1814); Trollgrottan(lSl6); Ruinernavid
Brahelms   (1816) ; Albert  and  Louisa
(1817).  Livijus has written the novels,
the Knight St. Jorrn, the Pique-Dame,
&c.  Before them, Dalin's elegance and
affectation were applauded at the expense
of truth and accuracy.    The novels  of
J.  H. Mork (1714—1763)—Adalrik and
Gothilda  (Stockh.,  1742), and Thekla
(1749)—were  not  popular, though they
directed attention  to  domestic history.
Gustavus  III showed skill in the oratori-
cal style, so that his anonymous iloge on
Torstensohn  gained the  prize  of the
academy; but his French education  by
count Tessin and Dalin (he hated nothing
more  than German and  tobacco) had
made him too fond of rhetorical phrases,
which easily degenerate  into empty dec-
lamation.   The great change of taste was
not without effect  upon this  branch  of
writing.  Swedish pulpit eloquence is in
great want of good models, and the print-
ed sermons of bishop  Lehnberg  (died
 1808), which were published in Stockholm
in lfc09—1813,  and his  occasional  dis-
courses (1819), did not supply the want;
but we find subjects of general interest
treated with considerable talent in Swe-
dish  newspapere.  Bocthius (died 1810)
strove to diffuse Kant's principles.  Schel-
ling's works have been translated.  Gei-
jer's History of the Swedish Realm (1824
seq.) is an addition to the treasures of Euro-
 pean literature.   Geijer and J. H. Schro-
 der, sub-librarian at Upsal, have  united
 to edit the Scriptores Rcrum  Suecicarum
 Medii .LY;'.  About fifty newspapere are
 published in Sweden, one literary gazette,
 and several magazines; among the latter,
 since 1819, Svea, at Stockholm—a peri-
 odical devoted to science and the arts.
 In Norway, there were published, in 1827,
 three scientific  magazines  and  twelve
 newspapere, devoted to  politics and gen-
 eral information, eight of them at Christi- 
82
SWEDEN AND NORWAY—SWEDENBORG.
 ania.   The collections of two literary
 societies are  important, particularly as
 respects ancient northern literature—those
 of the Scandinavian literary society, and
 those of the royal Norwegian society of
 science, in the nineteenth century.  The
 natural sciences  are   particularly culti-
 vated in Christiania, by men like Lund,
 Hansten,  Maschman,  Schielderup,  and
 others.  Falsen, formerly attorney-gene-
 ral of the kingdom of Norway, has  pub-
 lished  a History  of Norway under the
 Government of Harald Harfagar and his
 male Successors (Christiania, 1824,4 vols.).
 The works printed in Sweden, during the
 year 1818, amounted to 362,  of which
 91  were  translations.   The Notices sur
 la Litterature d les Beaux Arts en Suede,
 by Marianne  de Ehrenstrom  (Stockh.,
 1826), are somewhat panegyrical.
   Swedenborg, Emanuel,  the  most cel-
 ebrated mystic of the eighteenth century,
 was bom  at Stockholm, in 1688.  Edu-
 cated by  his father,  Jasper  Swedberg,
 bishop  of West Gothland, in the severe
 doctrines of Luthernnism, which prevailed
 in Sweden, his ardent and imaginative
 mind soon took a religious turn. His stud-
 ies embraced theology, philosophy, math-
 ematics, and the natural sciences.   His
 firet poetical efforts appeared, in 1710, at
 Skara, under the title of Carmina Miscel-
 lanea.   The period from 1710 to 1714 he
 spent in scientific travels through Eng-
 land, Holland, France and Germany,  and
 visited the uliiversities of these countries.
 He then returned to Upsal, and published
 his Dcedalus Hyperboreus (six numbers,
 containing experiments  and observations
 in mathematics and natural philosophy).
 He had several interviews with diaries
 XII, who in 1716, appointed him assessor
 in the mining college, and formed an ac-
 quaintance with Christonh Polhem, the
 Archimedes  of Sweden, whose experi-
ence was  of great service to him.  The
 invention of a rolling machine, by  means
<if which he conveyed a shallop, two gal-
 leys  and four large boats (which Charles
 Xll  used,  in 1718, to transport cannon to
 the siege of Frederickshall) five leagues,
 over mountains and valleys, from Strom-
stadt to Idefjal, and his treatises  on al-
 gebra,  the value of money, the revolu-
 tions of the planets,  and on  tides,  gained
 for him the  favor  of  the government.
 Queen  Ulrica raised him to the rank of
 nobility in 1719, upon which occasion his
 name was changed from Swedberg to
 Swedenborg.  In the  discharge  of the
 duties  of his office, he visited, in 1720,
 the Swedish mines, and, in 1721, the Sax-
on, and  wrote some valuable treatises on
them.   He  likewise made similar jour-
neys to the mines of Austria and Hungary.
A collection of his works on philosophy
and mineralogy (Opera Philosophica  et
Mineralogica) was published  in 1734 (in 3
vols., folio), and attracted much attention
among the scholars of Europe.  He  was
chosen a member  of the academies of
Upsal and Petersburgh.   The academy at
Stockholm had already  elected  him an
honorary member, in 1729. He increased
his stock of knowledge by new travels to
France and  Italy,  in   1738—40.   The
(Economia Regni Animalis, which he pub-
lished  after his return, in 1740—41, con-
tains the application of the system of na-
ture, unfolded in his philosophical works,
to the animal creation.   The principle of
a necessaiy emanation of all things from
a central power, is the  basis of  this sys-
tem, which is ingeniously unfolded,  and
illustrates the extent of the author's read-
ing. It  is explained particularly in the
Principia Rerum Naturalium.  Sweden-
borg was first introduced to an  inter-
course with the spiritual  world, according
to his own statement, in  1743, at  London.
The eyes of his inward man,  he says,
were opened to see  heaven, hell,  and the
spiritual  world,  in  which he conversed,
not only  with his deceased acquaintance,
but with  the most  distinguished men of
antiquity.  That he might devote all his
life to  this spiritual intercourse  and his
mediatorial connexion betwt lii the visible
and invisible  world, he resigned,  in 1747,
his office in the mining college, which he
had hitherto discharged with punctilious
exactness, and refused a higher  appoint-
ment that was offered  him.  The  king
still paid him his full salary as a  pension.
With  no  occupation  but  to  see   and
converse with  spirits, or to record celes-
tial revelations, he now resided alternate-
ly in Sweden and England.  The theolo-
gical works which he wrote  in this peri-
od, he printed at his own expense.  They
found multitudes of readers;  and while
he was an object of the deepest  venera-
tion and wonder to his followers,  his
statements were the more mysterious to
the rest of the world, because he could
not be  suspected of dishonesty,  and ex-
hibited, in other respects, no mental aber-
ration.   All  respected him as a man of
profound learning, an acute thinker, and a
virtuous member of society.   His moder-
ation and his independent circumstances
made it impossible to suppose  him  actu-
ated by ambitious or interested views; his
unfeigned piety gave him the character of 
SWEDENBORG.
83
a saint, who lived more in the society of
angels than of men.  In those trances,
during which, as he said, he conversed
with spirits, received revelations, or had
views of the invisible  world, he seemed
like one in a dream:  his features were
stamped with  pain or rapture, according
as heaven or hell was opened to him.   In
common life, he exhibited the refinement
of polished society ; his conversation was
instructive and pleasant;  his personal ap-
pearance was dignified.   Though he was
never married, he esteemed the company
of  intellectual  women,  and  studiously
avoided eccentricity.  His pretended rev-
elations, which he published at first freely,
though not boastingly, but in later years
with more  reserve, and the mysterious
doctrines contained in  his writings, drew
upon him the  ill will of the clergy;  but
the principal bishops favored his writings,
and he enjoyed the protection  of king
Adolphus Frederic.  With uninterrupted
health, he attained the age of eighty-four
years, and  died of apoplexy, at London,
March 29,1772.   To the day of his death,
he was fully persuaded of the  reality of
his visions and divine inspirations.  This
faith became, at length, a fixed  principle
in his mind, which  was  every day more
and more detached from sublunary things.
When this illusion had once gained as-
cendency over him, his own prolific mind,
and the writings of earher mystical theo-
logians, furnished  him  with  materials
enough to form such a spiritual world as he
pleased.   His descriptions of it, even in
die minutest points, bear the stamp of the
age in which he lived, and those views of
the external world which he had gained
as a natural philosopher ; his spirits con-
verse with a distinct individuality, and the
family likeness of his  interpretations of
the Bible, with the explanations and alle-
gories  of the earlier mystics,  is  every
where  obvious.  But whatever we may
think of his revelations, his purposes were
praiseworthy—to  collect  a church of re-
ligious persons, and preserve them from
the irreligious and demoralizing systems
of the age by the diffusion of his religious
and edifying works.  In the moral parts
of his writings, we meet  with the purest
doctrines, and with passages of peculiar
religious elevation; and, though he wrote
in a bad style and  in careless  Latin, he
deserves rather to be classed among re-
ligious poets  than  among  theologians.
The stories of his prophecies and super-
natural  knowledge  of events of actual
occurrence—for instance, the information
which he gave, in Gottenburg, of the con-
flagration at Stockholm, the hour when it
happened—are curious from the amount
of testimony adduced in their support.
The doctrines of the sect which bears his
name, are founded on the Bible and the
following books, written by Swedenborg,
in Latin, between the years 1747 and 1771:
Arcana Catlestia ; De Calo et Inferno; De
TeUuribus; De Ultimo Judicio;  De Equo
Albo ; De Nova Hierosolyma et ejus Doc-
trina  Cmlesti; De Domino ; De Scriptura
Sacra;  De  Vita; De Fide;  De  Divino
Amore et Divina Providentia; De Amort
Coniugiali;  De Commercio Animal et Cor-
poris ; Summaria Expositio Sensus Pro-
phetici;  Apocalypsis Explicata;  Apoca-
lypsis  Revelata;  De   Vera  Theologia
Christiana.  Of the Bible, they consider
canonical only the Pentateuch, the book
of Joshua, the book of Judges, the books
of Samuel and of Kings, the Psalms, the
prophets, the Gospels, and the Apocalypse.
The members of this  sect are not distin-
guished by dress, or by any outward sign,
from the rest of the world.  In Sweden,
where they are estimated at 2000 persons,
they are obliged to keep their opinions
private.  In England, where, since 1783,
they have had chapels in London and in
many of the large  cities, they are openly
tolerated,  like the  other  dissenters; and
this has contributed to increase their num-
bers.  The members  are mostly people
of the middle and higher ranks.   Charles
XIII, king of Sweden, when duke of Su-
dermania, was, for  a time,  attached to
them.   In France, Germany and Poland,
the adherents of this sect are few; in the
East  Indies,  North  America and South
Africa, there are many churches.  With-
out acknowledging  any general  govern-
ment, the churches all administer their
own affairs.  The famous travellers Sparr-
mann and Nordenskiold are among their
disciples; and the latter, with Afzelius of
Sweden, founded a church at Sierra Le-
one, in Africa.  For this and other Afri-
can colonies, and for the  abolition of the
slave-trade,  the  Swedenborgians have
done  much.  In the  African society at
London, their  influence is  very  great.
They are constantly laboring to  diffuse
their  doctrines by editions of the works
of Swedenborg, and by several periodical
works in England, and one in Boston, in
this country.
  We shall now give a short statement
of the doctrines of Swedenborg, in  the
language of his followers:—The principal
tenets of Swedenborg  are  these:  lie
teaches that  there is one God, the Lord
Jesus Christ, in whom is a divine Trinity, 
84
SWEDENBORG.
which  is not a Trinity of persons, but is
analogous to that which exists in man, the
image and likeness of God.  In man is a
soul or essential principle of life, a fonn
or body, natural in this world and spiritual
in the spiritual world, in which the soul
exists, and by .which it manifests itself in
operation: these three, soul, form and op-
eration, are as the Father, Son, and Holy
Spirit.   And as some affection is within
all thought, and causes it, and forms it,
and as all action is the effect  of volition,
or affection operating by and through
thought, so the Father is the divine love,
the Son the divine wisdom, and the Holy
Spirit the divine operation. So, too, as ev-
ery effect  must be  produced  by some
cause, and for some end, end, cause and
effect consist in all things, as a Trinity.
This Trinity Swedenborg does not consid-
er as arbitrary and figurative,  but as most
real, grounded in the divine  nature, and
existing  from the  divine nature  in  all
tilings.   With regard to  regeneration,
Swedenborg teaches, that, as the Lord glo-
rified his humanity by resisting and over-
coming the infernal influences which as-
sailed  it, so  man, by following the Lord
in his  regeneration, through his divine
grace, may gradually become  regenerate;
that is, receptive of good affection and
wisdom from the Lord through the heav-
ens ; and in proportion as his  sins are re-
sisted and put away, he becomes thus re-
ceptive more and more perpetually.  Swe-
denborg teaches that the Lord foredooms
none to hell, condemns none, and punish-
es none; that his divine grace is constant-
ly with  all,  aiding those on earth who
strive to cooperate with him, sustaining
and  leading  forward angels  in heaven,
and  endeavoring to preserve the  devils
from the evils which they love and seek;
but that  he always perfectly regards and
preserves the free will of every one, giv-
ing to every one the utmost aid that will
leave him  at liberty to turn  himself ei-
ther to heaven or to hell, and to no one
more. Salvation, accordingto Swedenborg,
is not salvation from punishment, but sal-
vation from sinfulness.  They who coop-
erate with the Lord, and confirm in them-
selves a principle of good, in  the  other
life  become  angels, and  associate with
angels; and  their association constitutes
heaven.    They who resist the  divine
grace, and confirm in themselves a prin-
ciple of self-love, which is the root of all
evil, become devils ; and their association
constitutes hell.  Both in heaven and  in
hell there are many societies, each  influ-
enced by some ruling principle of good or
of evil, like seeking like, both in general
and in particular.  None go into the other
life entirely good or evil:  while  here, the
good and evil are permitted to endure the
conflicts  of opposing  influences witbui
them, that the good may thereby be made
better, and the evil good; but after death,
when no further radical change can take
place, the ruling principle of every one is
made manifest, and the whole  character
conformed to it.  This final change is ac-
complished by degrees; and while it  ij
going on, deceased  men are neither an-
gels nor devils, but are spoken of by Swe-
denborg  as  not in heaven nor hell, but in
" the world of spirits;" and, in the writ-
ings  of Swedenborg, spirits are thus dis-
tinguished from angels and  devils.  With
regard to the resurrection, Swedenbor<,'
teaches that it is not a resurrection of the
natural  body, but of the spiritual  body
from  the natural; and that this occurs
generally about the third day after appar-
ent death, when the flesh becomes rigid,
and all  vital warmth  and  motion cease.
According to him, the spiritual body forms
the natural  body, and, while within  it,
uses it as an instrument.  Thus the natu-
ral eye sees only  because  the spiritual
eye sees natural  things  through it, the
sense strictly residing  in the spiritual or-
gan ; and so of the other senses.  Hence,
when the spiritual body rises, it finds  it-
self  in perfect possession  of the senses
and organs, and the man is still perfectly
a map.   So the spiritual world forms the
natural world, and all things which exist
naturally in this natural world are spiritu-
ally in the spiritual world. There, spiritual
things affect the spiritual organs  and
senses of men, as natural things affect
their  natural organs  and   senses  here.
Hence, says Swedenborg, many who die
do not know, upon their awaking, that they
are in another world.   They who, in this
life, have their spiritual senses opened,
as Swedenborg says  was  the case with
himself,  see plainly spiritual persons and
things, as did the prophets in their visions.
From this circumstance, say the Sweden^-
borgians, connected with  their belief in
the active and constant influence of dis-
embodied spirits  upon men in the body,
has arisen the common notion of their
believing in a perpetual intercourse be-
tween the living and the  dead.   Spiritual
things have  not, however, a similar per-
manence and independent existence with
natural things.  Swedenborg rather rep-
resents them as appearances  changing
with the states of those about whom they
are—existing from their relation to them, 
SWEDENBORG—SWEET WILLIAM.
85
and  exactly reflecting and  manifesting
their affections  and thoughts.  From the
principle that natural things correspond
to spiritual things,  and represent  them,
comes the doctrine of correspondences,
according to which  Swedenborg explains
the spiritual senses of the Word; that is,
the senses in which the Bible is read  by
those in the spiritual world.  He teaches
that this spiritual sense is within the liter-
al, as the spiritual body within the natu-
ral, or as the soul within the body; that it
is in every word and letter of the  literal
sense, which every where exists from it,
and on account of it, and derives from it
all its power and use.   Swedenborg con-
siders the  New  Jerusalem, foretold in the
Apocalypse, to be a  church now about to
be established,  in  which  will be known
the true nature of God and of man, of
the Word, of heaven and of hell—con-
cerning all which subjects error and  ig-
norance  now  prevail—and   in  which
church this knowledge will bear its proper
fruits—love to the Lord and to one's neigh-
bor, and purity of fife.
  Swedish  Turnip, or  Ruta  Baga.
(See Turnip.)
  Sweet  Bay.  (See Laurel.)
  Sweet  Flag (acorus calamus).   This
plant is widely diffused;  it is found  in
marshy  places  throughout the northern
hemisphere.  In the more northern cli-
mates, it is the only  native  aromatic plant.
The leaves are  all radical,  long and nar-
row, sword-shaped, and somewhat resem-
ble those  of the iris ; the stem does not
differ much in appearance from the leaves,
and bears a lateral, dense, greenish spike
of flowers, two  or three inches in length;
the root is long, cylindrical, and knotted.
This plant is referred to the natural fam-
ily aroidtaz, although  it   presents  some
anomalies in its structure.  The root has
a strong, aromatic odor, and a warm, pun-
gent, bitterish taste: the flavor is greatly
improved  by drying.   It  has  been em-
ployed in medicine since the time of Hip-
pocrates ;  it has sometimes been success-
fully  administered  in  intermittent fever,
even after bark  has failed, and certainly
is a very useful addition to  cinchona;
powdered, and infused   in   old wine,
it is an   excellent  stomachic,  tonic,
and   cordial.   Although  so  common,
what is  used by druggists  is imported
from the Levant  No cattle whatever eat
this plant
  Sweet  Gum.  (See Liquidambar.)
  Sweet  Leaf (symplocos tinctoria)', a
email tree, found in  the southern parts  of
the  U.  States.   The  leaves  are  three
   VOL. XII.           8
or  four  inches  long,  oval, smooth  and
shining,  and, in sheltered situations, re-
main for two or three years; otherwise
they  turn yellow at the first frost:  the
flowers are small, yellowish, and sweet-
scented,  springing from  the base of the
leaves, and appearing early in the season:
they  are succeeded  by small cylindrical
drupes, of a deep blue color when  ripe.
The tree sometimes attauis the height of
twenty-five  or thirty feet,  with a trunk
seven or eight  inches  in  diameter;  but
usually it does not exceed  half these di-
mensions.  The name which is univer-
sally  applied to it,  is  derived from the
sugary taste of the leaves.   The wood is
of no value: but the dried leaves  afford,
by  decoction, a beautiful  yellow color,
which is rendered permanent by the  ad-
dition  of a  little alum, and  is used for
dyeing wool and cotton.
  Sweet Potato  (convolvulus batatas).
This plant is a native of the East  Inches,
but is now cultivated in all  the warmer
parts of the  globe, and has produced nu-
merous varieties.    Formerly the roots
were  imported  into England from  the
West Indies by the way of Spain, and
sold as a delicacy.   It is the potato of
Shakspeare  and  contemporary writers,
the common potato  being then scarcely
known in Europe.   The  roots are fleshy
and spindle-shaped, giving rise to  herba-
ceous vines, which take root at intervals;
the leaves are smooth, varying in form,
but usually hastate,  or three lobed;  the
flowers are white externally, and purplish
within, disposed in clusters upon axillary
foot-stalks. In warm climates, the culture
is very easy, and they are obtained almost
throughout the year, by planting at differ-
ent periods.  In northern climates,  the
culture becomes more difficult; but one
variety succeeds even in  the vicinity of
Paris.   Considered as an aliment,  the
Bweet potato is  very nutritious, whole-
some, and easy  of digestion.  The con-
sumption is very considerable, especially
in the warmer  parts of America,  where
even several savage tribes have introduc-
ed it, on account of  its  easy culture.  In
the  U.  States,  it  is  very little  culti-
vated north  of  New Jersey, and even
there is inferior in quality to those which
grow in Carolina.
  Sweet William  (dianthus barbatus).
This species of pink is an old inhabitant
of the flower garden, and has produced
numerous varieties;  but they have  not
been  named  or improved,  as the plant
has never been treated by florists as a
leading flower. 
86
SWEYN—SWIFT.
  Sweyn,  or  Sweno, properly Svend.
(See Denmark, and Ethelred II.)
  Swieten,  Gerard van,  a celebrated
physician,  bom  at  Leyden,  in  1700.
After studying at Louvain, his parents
being Catholics, he returned to Leyden,
and became the pupil of Boerhaave.  In
1725, he took his doctor's  degree, and
published an  inaugural  thesis On  the
Structure and Use of the Arteries.  He
afterwards employed himself in illustrat-
ing the  doctrines of his master, in his
Commentaria in Boerhaavii Aphorismis de
cognoscendis et curandis Morbis (1741—
1772).  Soon after, he was appointed to a
medical professorship at Leyden; but ob-
jections arising on the score of his reli-
gion, he was obliged  to resign his office.
The empress Maria Theresa  indemnified
him for the injury he had sustained from
the illiberality of his enemies, by inviting
him to Vienna,  where, in i745, he was
made a professor  in the  university, and
afterwards first physician to the empress,
and a baron of the empire.  He was also
imperial librarian, and director-general of
the study of medicine in Austria—an office
which afforded him opportunities for in-
troducing many important improvements
in the healing art.  His Commentaries
were reprinted at  Paris and Turin, and
they have  been translated  into French
and  English.   He enjoyed  the highest
reputation till his  death,  in  1772.   His
other works are, Treatises on the Diseases
of the Army, and on Epidemics.
  Swift, Jonathan, an eminent English
writer, was the  posthumous son of an
Englishman, who settled in Ireland, and
was bom at Cashel, in the county of Tip-
perary,  November 30, 1667.   He was
placed at a school  in Kilkenny when six
years old, and in his fifteenth year was
removed  to  Trinity  college, Dublin,
where, applying himself to history and
poetry, to the neglect of academical pur-
suits, especially  mathematics, he was, at
the end of four years, refused the degree
of B. A. for  insufficiency, and, even at
the end of seven years, was only admitted
speciali gratia—a species of favor which
was deemed highly discreditable.   To
this mortification is  attributed  the con-
tempt with which he treats mathematical
learning  in his various writings; but an-
other and a better effect of it was evinced
in a resolution to apply to his studies with
more diligence.   ITjis determination he
6teadily adhered to for the following seven
years, three of which he spent  at the uni-
versity of Dublin, during which last men-
tioned period he is said to have composed
his celebrated Tale  of a Tub   In his
twenty-first  year, the death of his uncle
rendered it  necessary  for him to pay a
visit to Leicester, for the purpose of con-
sulting his mother, then resident  in that
neighborhood.  By her advice he was in-
duced to communicate his situation to sir
William  Temple, who had married one
of her relatives,  and who at that  time
lived in retirement at Moor park, Surrey.
He was received by the latter with great
kindness; and he rendered himself so ac-
ceptable  to the aged statesman, that he
resided with  him  at Moor  park and
Sheene for nearly two years.   At the lat-
ter place he  was  introduced to  king
William, who often  visited Temple pri-
vately;  and  the  king, whose  feelings
were all military, offered him a captaincy
of horse, which, having already decided
for the church, he  declined.  Being at-
tacked by the disorder which  occasioned
those  fits of vertigo that  afflicted him
more  or  less all his life, and  finally de-
stroyed his reason, he was induced to re-
visit Ireland, but  soon returned, and re-
sided with sir William Temple as before.
Some  time  after, he  determined upon
graduating M. A. at  Oxford ; and, having
entered at Hart hall, in May, 1692, he re-
ceived the desired honor in the July fol-
lowing.  He was probably indebted to
his known connexion  with Temple for
this mark of respect; but it has also been
suspected that the words speciali gratia,
in his Dublin testimonials, were mistaken
for a compliment at Oxford.   He had
certainly not distinguished himself at this
time by any public specimen of talent, al-
though he made some attempts at poetry
in the form of odes to his patron and king
William.  This species of composition
being wholly unfitted  to his  genius, his
relation Dryden is said honestly  to have
told him  that he would never be a poet;
to which is  attributed  the extraordinary
rancor with  which he always alluded to
that eminent writer.  After residing two
years longer with  his patron, conceiving
the latter to be neglectful of his  interest,
he parted from him,  in 1694, with some
tokens of displeasure,  and  went  to Ire-
land, where he took orders. But he soon
returned  to  sir William Temple, who.
sinking under age and infirmities, requir-
ed his company more than ever.  During
the few  remaining  years of that states-
man's  life, they therefore  remained to-
gether; and, on his death, Swift found
himself benefited by a pecuniary legacy
and the bequest of his papers.  He then
accepted an invitation  from the earl of 
SWIFT.
87
Berkeley, one of the lords justices in Ire-
land, to accompany him as chaplain and
secretary.  While in the family  of  the
earl of Berkeley, he began to make him-
self known  by his talent for humorous
verses, as may be seen by the petition of
Frances Harris, and other specimens.  On
the return of that nobleman  to England,
he went to reside at his living of Laracor;
and,  during his residence there,  he  in-
vited to  Ireland Miss  Johnson, the lady
whom  he has rendered celebrated by the
name of Stella, daughter of the steward
to sir William Temple.  She was accom-
panied by Mrs. Dingley; and the two la-
dies  resided  in the  neighborhood when
Swift was at home, and at the parsonage
house during his absence: this connexion
lasted till her death.  In 1701, he took his
doctor's degree, and, the  same year, first
entered on the stage as a political writer,
by a pamphlet in behalf of the ministers,
entitled,  Contests  and Dissensions  be-
tween the Nobles and Commons of Ath-
ens and Rome—a work of no great force.
In 1704, he published, anonymously,  his
famous Tale ofa Tub, of which, although
he would never own it, he is the undoubted
author.   This piece  of humor, while it
advanced his reputation as a  wit, did him
no small injury as a divine, being deemed
light and indecorous, by the functionaries
of the church.  The  Battle of the  Books,
appended to the Tale of a Tub, is a bur-
lesque comparison  between  ancient and
modern authors, in which  he exercises
his satire against  Dryden and Bentley.
In 1708 appeared his Sentiments of  a
Church of England  Man, in respect to
Religion and Government;  Letter con-
cerning  the  Sacramental  Test;  Argu-
ment for the Abolition of  Christianity;
and  Predictions for the year  1708, by
Isaac Bickerstaff, Esq.  Of  these pieces,
the first two set the seal to his adhesion
to the tories, while the others exhibit that
inimitable talent for  irony and grave hu-
mor which forms his principal distinction.
In 1710, being engaged by the Irish prel-
acy to obtain a remission of the first-fruits
and twentieths, payable by the Irish cler-
gy to the crown, he was introduced to
Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford, and to
secretary St. John, subsequently lord Bo-
lingbroke.   He gained the confidence of
these leaders, and took  a leading share in
the famous  tory periodical,  entitled  the
Examiner.  Although  immersed in poli-
tics, he did not  neglect literature,  and, in
1711, published a Proposal for correcting,
improving and ascertaining  the English
Tongue, in a letter to the earl of Oxford,
the object  of which was to establish an
institution to secure the purity of the lan-
guage.  Several political tracts appeared
about this  time from his pen.  A bish-
opric in England  was the object of his
ambition ; but archbishop Sharpe, on the
ground, it  is said, of his Tale of a Tub,
having infused into the mind of queen
Anne suspicions of his orthodoxy,  the
only preferment his ministerial friends
could give him, was the Irish deanery of
St. Patrick's, to which he was presented
in 1713.  The  dissensions between  Ox-
ford and Bolingbroke, whom he in vain
attempted to reconcile, and the death of
the queen, which  soon followed, put an
end to his prospects, and condemned him
to unwilling residence for life in a country
which he disliked.  He accordingly re-
turned to Dublin, and introduced a meri-
torious reform  into the chapter of St.
Patrick's, over  which  he  obtained  an
authority never  before possessed  in  his
station.   In 1716, he was privately mar-
ried  to Miss Johnson;  but the ceremony
was attended with no  acknowledgment
which could gratify the feelings of the vic-
tim of his pride and cruelty.  The ascend-
ency which he acquired over Miss Hester
Vanhomrigh,  another accomplished  fe-
male, was attended with circumstances still
more censurable.  He became acquainted
with this lady in London, in 1712; and as
she possessed, with a large fortune, a taste
for literature, Swift took pleasure in afford-
ing her instruction.  The  pupil  became
enamored of her  tutor, and even  pro-
posed marriage to him; but being  proba-
bly at that time engaged to  Stella, he
avoided a  decisive  answer.   That  he,
however, felt her  attractions, seems  ob-
vious from  his Cadenus and  Vanessa, the
longest and most finished of his poems of
fancy.  This affair terminated  fatally;
for, discovering his secret  union with
Stella, the  unfortunate lady never recov-
ered the shock, but died fourteen months
after, in 1723.  She  previously cancelled
a will she bad made in his favor, and  left
it in charge to her executors (one of whom
was bishop Berkeley) to publish  all  the
correspondence between her and Swift,
which, however, never appeared. After
residing  some  time  in  Ireland  without
attending to public affairs, in 1720 he was
roused, by  the ilhberal manner in which
Ireland  was governed, to publish a  Pro-
posal for the universal Use of Irish Man-
ufactures, which rendered him very popu-
lar.   His  celebrated  Letters followed,
under the  name  of M. B. Drapier, in
which he ably exposed the job of Wood's 
88                         SWIFT—SWIMMING.
patent for a supply of copper coinage.  A
large reward was offered for the discov-
ery of the author; but  none took place,
and the dean  became the public idol of
the Irish people.  It was about this  time
that he composed  his famous  Gulliver's
Travels, which appeared in 1726, exhibit-
ing a singular union of misanthropy, satire,
irony,  ingenuity, and  humor.   In the
same year he joined Pope in  three vol-
umes  of miscellanies, leaving  the profit
to the poet.  On the death of George I,
he paid  his court to the new king and
queen.   But he was disappointed; and
the death of Stella, about this time, who
had been long languishing  in a state of
decline, completed his chagrin.   When
her health  was ruined,  he  offered to ac-
knowledge her as his wife; but she replied,
" It is too late."  He allowed her to make
a will in  her maiden  name, in which she
consigned her property to charitable  uses.
From the death of this  injured female,
his life became  much   retired, and the
austerity of his  temper  increased.  He
continued, however,  for some years, to
exercise both his patriotic and his  sple-
netic feelings, in various effusions of prose
and verse, and was earnest in his exertions
to better the condition  of the wretched
poor of Ireland; in addition to which en-
deavors he dedicated a third of his income
to charity.   Some of his most striking
poems were written  about  this time, in-
cluding his celebrated Verses on his own
Death, fonned on one of the maxims of
Rochefoucault.  He  kept  little  compa-
ny at this advanced period, but with  infe-
riors, whom he could treat as he pleased,
and especially a knot  of females,  who
were always ready to administer the  most
obsequious  flattery.  In 1736, he had an
attack  of deafness and  giddiness.   The
fate, which, owing to his  constitutional
infirmities, he had always feared,at length
reached  him; the faculties of his mind
decayed  before his  body, and a gradual
decay of reason settled  into absolute idi-
ocy early in 1742.   He  died in 1745, in
his seventy-eighth year.   He bequeathed
the greatest part of his fortune to an hos-
pital for lunatics  and idiots.  Pride,  mis-
anthropy, and stern  inflexibility of  tem-
per, formed  the basis of his character,
which was strangely compounded of sin-
cerity,  arrogance, implacability, careless-
ness of giving pain, and  a total want of
eandor as a politician or partisan.  Of
his obdurate and unfeeling nature, besides
his treatment of his wife and Miss Van-
homrigh  (for  which  various reasons, in-
cludiojnr secret constitutional  infirmities,
have been  conjectured), his utter  aban-
donment of an  only sister, simply  for
marrying a tradesman, and  many other
instances, might  be adduced.  Even his
whim  and  humor was  indulged with a
most  callous  indifference  to the  pain
which he might inflict, or the sensibibties
he  might wound.   As a writer, he was
original, and has, perhaps, never been ex-
ceeded in  grave irony, which he veils
with an air of serious simplicity, admira-
bly calculated to  set it off.   He also
abounds in ludicrous ideas, which often
deviate, both  in  his poetry and  prose,
into very unpardonable grossness.   His
style forms the most perfect example of
easy familiarity that the language affords;
but, although admirable  for  its pureness,
clearness, and simplicity, it exhibits none
of the glow  of genius,  its  highest mer-
its  consisting  in its  extreme accuracy
and precision.   His works have been
often  printed,  and  in various  forms:
the latest  and best edition  is  that  of
sir  W.  Scott, in 19  vols., 8vo.  (Edin-
burgh, 1821).
  Swift, Zephaniah, LL.  D., chief-jus-
tice of Connecticut, graduated at Yale
college, in  1758.  He then studied law,
and established  himself  at Windham,
Connecticut.   Early in life, he was chosen
a member of congress, and,  in 1800, ac-
companied  Ellsworth, Davie and Murray
in their mission to France, as secretary.
Soon after  his return, he was placed on
the bench of the superior court  He re-
tained the seat for eighteen years, during
the last five of which, he filled the station
of chief-justice with distinguished ability
and probity.  He was afterwards a mem-
ber of the state legislature,  and was  one
of the committee appointed to revise the
statute laws of the state.  His death oc-
curred  at  Warren,  Ohio,  October 27,
1823,  in the sixty-fifth year of his age.
He published a Digest of the Laws of Con-
necticut, in two  volumes,  on the model
of Blackstone.
  Swimming is one of the most important
branches of gymnastics,  both in a physi-
cal  and moral  respect.  Its effects in de-
veloping, invigorating and giving health
to the body are so great, and it is so easily
learned, that it is of the highest conse-
quence, particularly in climates where
the heat of the summer prevents  active
exercise on the land.  To all the advan-
tages of cold bathing, it adds many others;
it  enables  the  bather to  remain  mucHi
longer in the water, on account of the ex-
ercise which it affords, and thus—in salt
water at least—gives more opportunity to 
SWIMMING.
89
  invigorate the skin—one of the greatest
  benefits of frequent salt-water bathing, as
  a large number of diseases spring from a
  debilitated state of the skin, which is very
  frequent  in  changeable  climates,  pro-
  ducing colds, inflammations, rheumatism,
  &c.   The  exercise greatly  strengthens
  the  lower  extremities, the  abdominal
  muscles, the muscles of the chest, and  the
  organs of respiration, the spine, neck and
  arms.  It increases courage, and furnishes
  an agreeable excitement—the usual attend-
  ant of manly and brisk exercise, but  pe-
  culiarly so of swimming—on account of
  the  mastery which it  gives us over an
  element for which the  human structure is
  but partially fitted.   The means which it
  affords of preserving  our  own lives, or
  those  of others, in situations of peculiar
  peril,  is also a great recommendation of
  this exercise, which may be easily learned
  wherever there is water of five feet depth.
  No danger whatever is connected with it.
  Of the many methods  of teaching swim-
  ming, we shall give  that  introduced,
  originally, by general  Pfuel, into  the
  Prussian swimming schools, having found
  it, by experience, much superior to other
  systems.  By this  method, a person may
  become  a perfect swimmer (able,  we
  mean, to  swim  at least half an hour in
  succession)  in a very  short time.   We
  have known many individuals, who could
  not  swim a single stroke, enabled,  by
  taking daily one,  and  sometimes two
  lessons, for three weeks, to swim half an
  howr: some  have  even  acquired  this
  proficiency within a fortnight.   The  ap-
  paratus for teaching consists of a hemp-
  en girdle of a hand's  breadth, of a rope
  from  five to six fathoms in length, of a
  pole eight  feet long,  and  a horizontal
  rail fixed about three and a half feet above
  the platform on which  the teacher stands,
  to rest the  pole on.   The depth of  the
  water, in the place chosen for swimming,
  should, if possible,  be  not less than eight
  feet,and the clearest and calmest water pos-
  sible should be selected. The pupil wears
  drawers, fastened  by a string above  the
  hips, and covering about half the thighs.
  They  must be made loose, so as to allow
  the freest action of the legs.   The pupil is
  now placed near the horizontal rail,  his
  hands resting  upon it,  whilst the teacher
I shows him the motion which he will have
  to make with his legs in the water.  This
  he does by guiding the motion of one leg,
  while  thepupil rests on the other.   This
  motion will  be explained immediately.
  The swimming girdle, about five inches
  wide, is placed round  the pupil's breast,
                   8*
so that its upper edge  touches the paps,
without sitting tight.  The teacher takes
the rope, which is fastened to a ring of
the girdle, in  his  hand, and directs the
pupil to leap into the water, keeping the
legs straight and  close together, and the
amis close to the  body; and—what is
very important—to breathe out through
the nose, as soon as his head  rises above
the water, instead of breathing in  first,
which every man naturally does after a
suspension of breath.   The object of this
is to prevent the water from getting into
the throat, which produces an unpleasant
feeling of choking and head-ache.   The
expiration soon becomes perfectly natural
to a swimmer.  The pupil is then invited
to leap—never pushed.   He is drawn  up
immediately by  the rope, pulled to the
ladder, and allowed to gain  confidence
gradually.  The rope is now fastened by
a noose to the end of the pole, the end of
it being kept in the hand of the teacher;
the pole is rested on the  horizontal rail,
and the pupil stretches  himself horizon-
tally  in the water,  where  he remains
supported by the  pole.  The amis  are
extended stiffly forward, the hands clasp-
ed; the chin touches the water; the legs
are also stiffly  stretched  out, the  heels
being together, the feet turned out, the
toes drawn up.  This horizontal position
is  important, and must be executed cor-
rectly. No limb  is  permitted to be re-
laxed. The motion of the legs is taught
first:  it is divided  into  three parts.   The
teacher first says,  loudly and  slowly,
" One;" when the legs  are slowly dravvn
under the body, and, at the same time, the
knees are separated to the greatest possi-
ble distance; the spine is bent downwards,
and the toe kept  outwards. The teacher
then says,  briskly, " Two;" upon  which
the legs are stiffly stretched  out with a
moderate degree of quickness, while  the
heels are separated, and the legs describe
the widest  possible angle, the toes being
contracted  and  kept  outwards.    The
teacher then says, quickly," Three;" upon
which the legs, with the knees held stiff-
ly, are quickly brought together; and thus
the original position is again obtained.
The point at which the  motions two and
three join, is the most important, because
it is the object to receive as large and com-
pact a wedge of water between the legs as
possible, so that, when the legs are brought
together, their action upon this wedge may
urge the body forward.   In ordinary easy
swimming, the hands  are not  used  to
propel, but merely to assist in keeping on
the surface. By degrees, therefore,  two 
90
SWIMMING.
and three are counted in quick succession,
and the pupil is taught to extend the legs
as widely as possible.  After some  time,
what was done under the heads two and
three, is done  when two  is called out.
When the teacher sees that the pupil is
able to propel himself considerably, which
he frequently acquires the power of doing
in the first  lesson, and that he performs
the motions already mentioned with reg-
ularity,  he  teaches the motion  of the
hands, which must not be allowed to sink,
ils they  are much  disposed to do, while
the motion  of the legs is practised.  The
motion of the hands consists of two parts:
when the teacher says " One," the hands,
which were held with the palms together,
are opened, laid  horizontally an inch or
two under  the water, and the arms are
extended, until they form an angle of 90°;
then the elbow is bent, and the hands are
brought up to the chin, having described
an arch  downward and upward; the low-
er part of the thumb touches the chin, the
palms being together.  When the teacher
says '* Two," the  arms are quickly stretch-
ed forward, and thus the original horizon-
tal position is regained.  The legs remain
stiffly extended during the  motion of the
hands.  If the motion of the hands is cor-
rectly performed, the legs and arms are
moved together;  so that,while the teach-
er says " One,"  the pupil performs the
first motion of the hands and legs; when
he says " Two," the second and third mo-
tions  of the feet, and  the  second of the
hands.  As soon as the teacher perceives
that the pupil  begins to support himself,
he slackens the rope a little, and instantly
straightens  it, if the pupil is about to sink.
When the pupil can swim  about ten
sfrokes  in succession, he is released from
the pole, but not from the rope.  When
he can swim about fifty strokes, he is re-
leased from the rope too; but the teacher
remains near  him with a long  pole, until
he can swim 150 strokes in succession, so
that, should he sink, the  pole is immedi-
ately held out to  him.  After this, he may
swim in the area of the school under the
superintendence  of the teacher, until he
proves that he can  swim half an hour in
succession, when he is considered  fit to
be left to himself, and, in some swimming
schools, receives a particular mark on the
drawers, that the proficient may be distin-
guished from  the unskilful.  Before this
degree of progress is reached, pupils are
not allowed to  take part in long excur-
sions.  Swimming on the back  is  easily
taught   The  swimmer places his hands
over his hips, the thumbs turned towards
the back, and, letting himself sink perpen-
dicularly in  the  water, bends  his  head
backward, and makes the  common  mo-
tion with the feet, when he will swim on
the back;  or, after having  made a stroke
when swimming on his  belly, he  may
leave one  arm  extended,  and turn the
palm of the hand upward; in which  case
the whole  body will follow, and the swim-
mer thus be placed on his back.  To ex-
pedite  the motion in swimming on the
back, the arms may be used as paddles.
To swim quickly on  the belly, the hands
are turned with the palms outward, so as
to press sideways against the water, instead
of being allowed to  rest flat on it.   Thi.<
makes  the efforts of swimming  greater,
and,  of course,  exhausts  sooner.   The
teacher may early begin to let the pupil
make running leaps into the water.  In
many  cases,  the  pupils  have sufficient
confidence to leap  from  a considerable
height the very first  time.   Every swim-
ming school ought to have a leaping  tow-
er, from which the  swimmers may leap
at different heights.  The tower should
not be  less than thirty feet  high.  Diving
is one of the greatest amusements  con-
nected with swimming.  There are many
kinds: the two most common, easiest and
necessary  modes of plunging below the
surface, are, 1. by a simple jump, feet  fore-
most, the legs, arms  and head being  kept
stiff.   The pupil must not  allow  fear, or
the strange sensation felt  in the abdomi-
nal region, in leaping from considerable
heights, to induce him to spread the anns
or legs, or to bend his body. 2. The other
mode is to plunge head foremost, which
is the safest mode for many persons who
are  heavily built about  the chest and
shoulders, if they have to enter the water
from great heights.  It must be learned
by degrees.   The head is drawn down
upon the  chest, the arms stretched for-
ward, and, as soon  as the  swimmer be-
gins  to  feel  that he  has lost his balance,
he stiffens his knees, which, till then,
were bent The diver must avoid striking
on his belly—the general consequence of
fear—and turning  over so  as to  come
down  on  his back  or side—the conse-
quence of pushing with the feet.  When
he has gone as deep as  he wishes, the
arms are to be raised, and  pressed down-
wards.  In saving a person from drown-
ing,  which can be done most effectually
if he has already lost consciousness, pull
him  by the hair, or  push him before you,
if far from shore; otherwise take him by
the arm.  If the person in danger is an
exhausted swimmer, call  to him to be 
SWIMMING—SWITZERLAND.
91
quiet;  support mm ?>y one shoulder; or,
if he still retains his presence of mind, let
both his hands rest on  your  shoulder, or
under  your  arm-pits, and let him work
slowly  with his legs.  If the person  in
danger is not a swimmer, and is struggling,
take care not to  approach him in front;
his convulsive grasp maybe fatal to both ;
but approach him from behind, and, if he
sinks, pull him  up by the hair, and sup-
port him with the utmost caution.   If he
grasps  you, so that you are unable  to
move, struggle with him under the water.
The drowning  person, in this  situation,
will often let go his hold, striving instinc-
tively  to reach the surface  ; but, if the
struggle  becomes  one  for life, the  only
mode of making your antagonist relax his
hold is said to be to grasp his throat and
render him senseless, as we have  known
done in a case where a person was thus
seized,  and both  parties were  floating
swiftly towards the wheels  of a  mill.—
Swimming may be begun very early, at
five or six years of age ; and, at the same
time, there are many instances of persons
past forty learning to  swim well.  It is
unfortunate  that prejudice has excluded
females from an exercise so  healthful  to
body and mind, so  useful  in times of dan-
ger,  and so  easily acquired, particularly
as they would learn it more easily than
males, and as the  exercise of swimming
would  be  peculiarly  useful to  certain
functions peculiar to females. A covered
place, female teachers, and a loose dress
from the neck to the ankles, would satisfy
all the  claims of propriety. It is time that
a beginning should be made.—The hu-
man body, with air in the lungs, is a little
lighter than  fresh and considerably light-
er than salt water; hence it does not sink
entirely in water; but the  entrances  to
the organs of respiration are so  placed
that they would be under water in a body
floating naturally.  With a little manage-
ment,  however, and perfect confidence
(which, it is true, can only  be  expected
from a swimmer), any person can float on
his back, especially in  salt water.  Ani-
mals, in swimming, do  not vary much
from their motion in walking; but man is
obliged to change his motion entirely.
All the Sclavonic tribes—Russians, Poles,
&c.—swim  in a way somewhat  resem-
bling the motion of dogs in the water,
making a separate  effort with each of the
four extremities.   Every teacher  should
remember that swimming is  half learned
when the pupil has gained  confidence;
and it is generally very easy  to inspire it
The best  treatise  on  swimming  with
which we are acquainted, is a thin pam-
phlet, published by general von Pfuel, in
Berlin, 1817.  There are now swimming
schools in Paris, Vienna, Munich, Berlin,
Breslau,  and  many other places in Eu-
rope.  In the U. States, we know of none,
as yet, except in Boston.
  Swinden, John Henry  van, a  Dutch
philosopher, born  at the Hague, in 1746,
was educated at Leyden, and became pro-
fessor of philosophy, logic and metaphys-
ics at Franeker, in 1767.   Nineteen years
after, he was called to the chair of phys-
ics, mathematics  and astronomy at the
Athenaeum at Amsterdam.  In 1770, he
became a member of the academy of sci-
ences at Paris;  and he gained the prize
offered by that learned body for the best
memoir  Sur  les  Aiguilles aimantics  ct
leurs Variations, and, in 1780, obtained a
prize from the academy of Munich, for a
memoir in answer to the question, " What
analogy is there between electricity and
magnetism ?" which was afterwards print-
ed (2 vols., 8vo.).   In 1798, he appeared
at Paris, at the national institute, to assist
in the establishment of a  nevi* system of
weights and measures, when he was ap-
pointed  to  draw up the reports on  those
subjects.   In  1803, he was nominated a
correspondent of the French institute;
and he belonged to the  principal learned
societies  in Europe.  He  also occupied
the office  of member of the executive
directory, under the Batavian republic,
and that of counsellor of state in the ser-
vice of the king of the Netherlands.  He
died March 9, 1823.  Van Swinden was
the author of several works besides those
already mentioned, of which notices may
be found in the annexed authorities.  Bi-
og. Nouv. des Contemp. Biog. Univ.
  Swine.  (See Sieinemiindc.)
  Swinemunde (that is, mouth of the river
Sioine); a town in Pomerania, on the isle
of Usedom, on the  Swine, one of the
branches by which the Oder empties into
the Baltic. It is  the harbor  of Stettin.
(q. v.)  Long and expensive moles have
lately been built, to render the harbor
safe, and  prevent the river  from being-
choked with sand.   The beacon is in lat
53° 15' N., and Ion. 14° 15' 15" E. Depth
of water from  Swinemunde  to Stettin,
twelve Prussian feet; inhabitants, 3800.
  Switzerland   (German,  Schweitz ;
French, Suisse); the Swiss or Helvetic
confederacy.  The northern  and south-
ern nations of Europe have been singu-
larly intermingled  in the ancient Helvetia,
whose  Alpine walls seem like a barrier,
separating  them from each other.  The 
92
SWITZERLAND.
Roman legions, indeed,  conquered the
Gauls, Rhsetians and Alemanni in their
forests and marshes; but they could not
destroy the northern spirit of freedom.
The traces of its  ancient subjugation to
Rome are  still visible, in the Romanic
language of a part of Switzerland.  Hel-
vetia  (q. v.),  under the Romans,  had a
flourishing  trade, which covered the land
with cities and villages; and Switzerland
still forms  the  connecting link  between
Northern Germany, the Netherlands and
France on  the one  side, and  Italy  on
the other.  Before the fall of the Roman
empire  in  the  West, the  northern and
largest part of Switzerland, occupied  by
die Alemanni, had been conquered by the
Franks. (See Clovis.)  On the Jura dwelt
the Burgundians, and Rheetia was under
the Ostrogoths. Three German nations,
therefore, freed the country, about A. D.
450, from the dominion of Rome. Chris-
tianity had  already been introduced into
Helvetia from Italy,  and as early as the
fourth  century  there  were  Christian
churches at  Geneva,  Coire,  and other
places.  The Alemanni and  Burgundi-
ans gave their  laws and  their habits to
the Helvetians; and the Alemanni occu-
pied the greater  part  of the  country.
Each  soldier received a farm;  a judge,
or centgrave, was set over one hundred of
these  farms (forming a cent, or hundred);
and the place of judgment, where he set-
tled all questions between the free citizens,
was called Mallus.  Several cents formed
a  Gau (hence  Thurgau,  Aargau, &c),
the judge  of which  was styled count
(graf);  and  the  counts  were under  a
duke.   The great  irruption of barbarians
swept through the peaceful valleys of the
Alps, and Roman civilization disappeared.
Ostrogoths, Lombards,  and even  Huns,
settled in different parts of the country.
At last, the Franks, who had  taken pos-
session of the lands of the conquered Ale-
manni, drove  the  Ostrogoths over the
Rluetian  mountains.  In 534,  they like-
wise subjected the Burgundians, and all
Switzerland  became a portion of the
Frankish empire.  The country, howev-
er, retained  its ancient constitution ; the
Romans  and the  old inhabitants were
governed by Roman, the Alemanni by
Alemannic, laws ;  and each of the other
nations by its peculiar code.  The Chris-
tian religion was restored  anew,  and the
desolated fields were again brought under
cultivation.   On the partition of the em-
pire of the Franks among the Merovingi-
ans, Switzerland  was divided between
two sovereigns: one  reigned over Ale-
 mannian, and the other over Burgundian
 Switzerland, or Little Burgundy. (See
 France.)  Pepin  re-united  the  whole
 country, and  Charlemagne  encouraged
 the arts and sciences in Helvetia..  Under
 his feeble successors, the counts became
 more and more independent of the royal
 authority, and finally made the possession
 of their Gaus hereditary.  One  of them
 (Rodolph) established (888) the new king-
 dom of Burgundy, between the Reuss and
 the Jura.  N ine years previously, Boso had
 established the kingdom of Aries,  in the
 territory between the Jura and the Rhone.
 Thirty years afterwards,  the two Burgun-
 dian  kingdoms were  united. (See Bur-
 gundians.)  The counts in the other parts
 of Switzerland were still nominally sub-
 ject to the German kings; but they con-
 ducted  themselves as princes, assumed
 the name of their castles, and compelled
 the free inhabitants of their Gaus to ac-
 knowledge  them  as their lords.   Hence
 arose a multitude of independent and
 complicated governments, whose  chiefs
 were engaged in continual  feuds with
 each other.  War was the business of the
 nobles, and  misery the fete of the people
 in the  distracted land.   The emperor
 Conrad, therefore, set a duke over the
 counts in Alemannia in 911. But the em-
 perors of the Saxon  house (919—1024)
 were the first who compelled the dukes,
 counts and  bishops, in  Switzerland, to
 respect  their authority.  After the  death
 of Rodolph III, the fifth  and last king of
 Burgundy (1032), the emperor Conrad II
 re-united  Burgundian Switzerland with
 Alemannic, which belonged to the Ger-
 man empire. But under Henry IV, grand-
 son of Conrad II, the royal authority in
 Switzerland was again overthrown.   Hen-
 ry (see Henry IVof Germany), persecuted
 by the pope, sought adherents.  He gave
 to the duke of Zahringen the Alemannic
 part of Switzerland, to  which, in 1125,
 after the conquest of the count of Hoch-
 burg and of Raynold  of Chalons,  Con
 rad of Zahringen added  the Burgundian
 portion.  The dukes of Zahringen hum-
 bled the proud and quarrelsome nobility,
 but favored  Zurich and the other  impe-
 rial cities; and built several new  cities,
 among which were Friburg, in Uchtland,
 in 1178, and  Berne in 1191.  The country
 people became  more secure; the  feuds
among the nobility less frequent; manu-
factures and  industry flourished;  Geneva
and Lausanne, among  the Romanic, and
Zurich  and  Basle among the German
cities, became thriving towns.   The fami-
lies of Savov, Kyburg and Haosburg were 
SWITZERLAND.
93
the most powerful among the noble fami-
lies.   Many nobles went, about this time,
to Palestine; and thus the country was
delivered from  their oppression.  After
the  death  of  Berthold  V,  last duke
of Zahringen, in 1218, Alemannia again
came into the possession  of the emperors.
His hereditary estates in  Uchtland and in
Little Burgundy passed, by his sister Ag-
nes, to the house of  Kyburg.  From this
time, the Hapsburgs (q. v.)  in northern
Helvetia, and the counts of Savoy (q. v.),
in the south-west, grew more and more
powerful.  The emperor appointed some
nobleman  as governor of each city,  or
community, which was not under a count,
to collect the public revenue and to punish
violations of the public peace; still, how-
ever, private feuds continued.   The Ger-
man kings were no longer able to afford
protection; might gave right, and the bold-
est became the mightiest.  Several inferior
lords, and several places, therefore, sought
the  protection  of Hapsburg or Savoy.
Zurich,  Berne,  Basle  and  Soleure,  the
districts of Uri,  Schweitz and Underwal-
den, gradually  acquired the seigneurial
rights from the emperors, by purchase or
by grant, and assumed the name of im-
perial cities or imperial  districts.  They
were more prosperous and powerful than
the nobility, who lived in their  solitary
castles, at enmity with each other.  Even
the  cmsades, by promoting commerce,
improved the already flourishing condi-
tion  of the cities, as a part of the troops,
arms, provisions, &c, were transmitted
to Italy, through the passes of the Alps.
The crusaders  brought back new inven-
tions in the arts, new  kinds of fruits,
&c.   The gold  and  silk manufactures of
the Italians and  Eastern nations were imi-
tated in Switzerland; refinement took the
place of rudeness, and poetry became the
favorite  amusement  of the nobles.  The
cities now formed affiances for then* mu-
tual  protection against the rapacity of the
nobles,  and  demolished  many  castles,
from which they exercised their  oppres-
sion upon the  peaceful  merchants.   At
the end of  the thirteenth century, Ro-
dolph of Hapsburg (q. v.),  who, in 1264,
had  inherited the estates  of his uncle,
Hartmann,  count of  Kyburg, became
more powerful  than the old lords of the
r*oil.   As king and emperor of Germany
(1273), he held a court in Helvetia; but
he dia not abuse his power to reduce the
freemen to vassalage. His ambitious sons,
however, Rodolph and A lbert, encroached
upon the rights of the Swiss.  Albert, in
particular, who  succeeded  to the imperial
dignity in  1298, by his tyranny and  ob-
stinacy, gave rise to the first confederacy
of the Swiss cantons. (See Tell.)  On the
night of November 7, 1307, thirty-three
brave countrymen met at Riitli (Gmthn),
a solitary  spot on the lake of Lucerne.
(q.  v.)  Fiirst of Uri,  Stauffacher of
Schweitz,  and Melchthal (q. v.) of Under-
walden, were the leaders on this occasion.
All swore  to maintain their ancient inde-
pendence.  The three Waldstadte, or For-
est-Towns (as these cantons were called),
rose, therefore, January 1,  1308,  deposed
the Austrian  governors, and  destt*oyed
the castles built to overawe the country.
(See Albert I.)  Henry VII, the successor
of Albert  on  the German throne, con-
firmed to the Forest-Towns the rights of
which Albert had endeavored to rob them.
But the house  of Austria still  contended
obstinately for its lost privileges.  The
victory  of Morgarten  (q. v.),  gained by
the Forest-Towns (1315) over Leopold of
Austria, gave rise to the perpetual league
of Brunnen, on December  9 of the same
year, to which,  previous to 1353, Lucerne,
Zurich, Glarus, Zug and Berne  had  ac-
ceded.  The victories  of Sempach (July
9, 1386), where Arnold Winkelried sacri-
ficed his life, and of Nafels (April 9,1389),
gave them an uncertain peace.  But  the
warlike spirit  of  the  people  fostered  a
love of conquest  and plunder;  mutual
hatred kindled  civil wars between neigh-
boring cantons;  foreign powers sought
the aid  of the  confederates in their con-
tests.  In  1424, the  people of the Grey
League established  their independence,
and were  soon after joined by those of
the other two leagues. (See GrisonsJ The
emperor Frederic III then called a French
army into  Switzerland to protect his fam-
ily  estates. The  Swiss made a second
Thermopylae of the church-yard  of St
Jacob at Basle, where 1600 of them with-
stood 20,000 French under the  dauphin
Louis, August  26,1144.  They next pro-
voked Charles the  Bold  of  Burgundy
(q.  v.), who marched into  their  country,
but was defeated  at Granson, Murten, or
Morat (q.  v.),  and Nancy (1477).  The
confederates themselves aspired to con-
quest, the  people being fired by the desire
of plunder, and the nobles by ambition
of glory.  In 1460, they •wrested Thurgau
from Austria; and from 1436 to 1450,  Zu-
rich, Schweitz and Glanis contended for
Toggenburg, till Beme decided  the  dis-
pute in favor of Schweitz.  The confed-
erated cantons from  this time bore  the
name of the Swiss confederacy in foreign
countries.   In  1481, Friburg and Soleure 
94                            SWITZERLAND.
entered the  confederacy.  The emperor
Maximilian  I  now determined to  force
the Swiss to join the Suabian league, and
to submit to the court of the imperial
chamber.  But they suspected Germany
on account of Austria, and joined the Ori-
sons.   Hence  arose the  Suabian war,
which  was concluded, after the Swiss had
gained six victories over the Germans, by
tiie peace of Basle, in 1499.   Basle and
Schaffhausen  (1501),   and   Appenzell
(1513), were afterwards admitted into the
confederacy.  But the  country and peo-
ple were disturbed by domestic and for-
eign wars.   In the Milanese war of 1512,
the Swiss conquered the Valteline and
Chiavenna, and obtained from  Milan the
Italian bailliages, which  form  at present
the canton of Tessin.   They fought on a
foreign soil, now for, now against, Milan; at
one time for France, and at another time
against her, till after the great battle of
Marignano, gained by Francis I, in  1515,
they concluded  a perpetual peace with
France, at Friburg, in 1516, which was fol-
lowed, in 1521, by the first fonnal alliance
with that kingdom.*  About this time the
work of reformation began in Switzerland.
Zuinglius (q. v.), in 1518, preached against
indulgences, as Luther  had done in 1517.
Even  as early as 1516, he had attacked
pilgrimages, and the invocation of the
virgin Mary; and in 1517, with the knowl-
edge of his  patron, the abbot  of Einsie-
deln, several nuns abandoned the monas-
tic life.  His removal from Einsiedeln to
Zurich, in  1518, gave  him courage  to
speak more  openly, as Luther had, mean-
while, appeared  in the cause  of refonn.
But when the  principles of the reforma-
fion were diffused through Zurich, Berne,
Schaffhausen,  Basle (by the  labors of
CEcolampadius), St Gall, Muhlhausen
and Bienne, religious jealousy separated
the reformed  and the Catholic cantons.
(See Reformed Church.)  In Glarus, Ap-
penzell and  the Grisons, the people were
divided  between the  two  confessions.
Luzerne,  Uri,  Schweitz, Underwalden,
Zug, Friburg and Soleure adhered to the
uncieut faith; as did likewise the Valais
and the Italian bailiwicks.   Fanaticism
kindled a civil war.  The Schweitzers
burnt  a Protestant preacher   of Zurich.
Two Swiss  armies,  nearly 30,000  strong,
awaited  the signal for civil  war, when
tiie word concord was  pronounced, and
the first religious peace was concluded in

  * From Louis XI to Louis XV, the Swiss fur-
nished for the French service 1,110,798 men,  for
which France paid 1,146,808,623 francs.  (See
Guards.)
1529.   It was agreed that the majority of
votes in the  communities should  decide
all questions relating to changes of faith.
But the rapid progress  of the reformation
again  provoked the Catholic  cantons to
war; and the troops of Zurich were routed
at Cappel (1531),  where Zuinglius fell,
and at the mountain of Zug.  After the
second public peace, the Catholic religion
was restored in Soleure and the common
provinces.   In the mean  time,  Savoy,
which had long possessed episcopal and
seignieurial rights in Geneva, reduced the
city to entire  submission.  But the  op-
pressive manner in which  the ducal au-
thority was exercised, led Geneva (q v.),
in 1525, to join Berne and Friburg.  The
duke was forced to yield. Berne and Gene-
va concluded the perpetual league of 1531,
and Berne gained possession of the Pays
de Vaud. (q. v.)  At the same  time, the
reformed doctrines were propagated from
Geneva by Calvin, (q. v.)   By the peace
of Lausanne,  in  1564, Savoy  firet  re-
nounced her claims upon  the Pays de
Vaud, and was thus driven from Helvetia,
as Hapsburg had  been before.   About
this time  (1555), Beme and Friburg di-
vided between themselves the territories
of the counts  cf Gruyere, so  that, in all
Helvetia, no great family of the  ancient
nobles retained"  its patrimonial  estates,
except that of Neuburg.  The  Swiss,
however, were distracted by religious and
political controversies.   Aristocracy and
democracy struggled for the superiority,
and the intrigues of Spain filled the people
of the Valteline (1617—21) with a spirit
of fanaticism.  In foreign, and especially
in the French  service, the Swiss adopted
foreign manners :  he  sold  his blood to
foreign masters ; and the ancient Swiss
purity and  simplicity retired to  the re-
mote  valleys of the higher Alps.  At the
same  time, the connexion of the confed-
eracy  with  the German empire became
less and less close, while the cantons ob-
tained the  confirmation of their rights
from  the emperor  Maximilian II.  But
the influence  of  France   soon  l>ecame
predominant,  and  Rome swayed  the
minds of its adherents by means of Jesu-
it colleges at Lucerne  and  Friburg ; and
particularly  through the papal  nuncio at
Lucerne (since 1580).   In the thirty years'
war, the confederates maintained a pru-
dent  neutrality;  and, by  the peace  of
Westphalia (1648), the  complete  separa-
tion of Switzerland from the German em-
pire was at length solemnly acknowledg-
ed.   In 1663, France  renewed her alli-
ance  with the Swiss, and asserted that 
SWITZERLAND.
95
they had no right to form alliances with
other  powers.   The  conquest  of the
Franche Comte, in 1674, and the siege of
Rheinfeld, in 1678, by the  French, to-
gether with the erection of the fortress of
Huningen (q. v.), in 1679, excited the ap-
prehensions  of the Swiss.  They, how-
ever, happily maintained their neutrality,
even in the  war of the Spanish succes-
sion (1701—14).  During the persecution
of the Protestants in  France (from 1685),
to whom they  readily gave an  asylum
and pecuniary aid, they paid as Uttle re-
gard to the remonstrances of Louis, who
viewed the reformers as rebels, as he did
to the intercession of the Protestant Swiss
cantons i .1 favor of their brethren in the
faith.   The Swiss  had Uttle influence  in
foreign  politics  during the  eighteenth
century ; and, until towards its close, they
suffered  little from foreign interference.
This  tranquillity,  which, however,  was
often  interrupted by internal dissensions,
was alike favorable  to the  progress of
commerce, agriculture and manufactures,
and to the arts and sciences.  In  almost
every department  of human knowledge,
the Swiss of the eighteenth century, both
at home and abroad, acquired distinguish-
ed  reputation, as  the  names of Haller,
Bonnet, Bernoulli, J. J. Rousseau, Lava-
ter, Bodmer, Breitinger, Gessner, Sulzer,
Hirzel, Fuseli, Hottinger, John von Miil-
ler, Pestalozzi, and many others, bear wit-
ness.  The people of the democratic can-
tons enjoyed an almost unlimited free-
dom, and took a large share in the affairs
of  government    Those  places  which
were under the general protection of the
whole confederacy,  were  not  burdened
by  excessive taxes; they enjoyed a high
degree of civil freedom, and numerous
municipal rights.   The larger cantons,  as
Beme and Zurich, in which the govern-
ment was administered by the capitals,  or
by  a body of the  citizens, who enjoyed
many peculiar privileges, were also in a
flourishing condition.  There  were  no
oppressive taxes; but almost every where
the government was conscientiously con-
ducted ;  the administration of justice was
cheap and simple, and benevolent insti-
tutions were numerous. Notwithstanding
all  these  favorable circumstances, inter-
nal dissensions still continued, and new
troubles  arose in 1790, which shook the
political fabric; blood was often spilt, and
punishment rendered necessary. Although
the Swiss had at firet  firmly maintained
their neutrality in the wars of the French'
revolution, French power  and  intrigue
gradually deprived them of their former
constitution; and, after incorporating sev-
eral  portions of  Switzerland with the
French  and Cisalpine  repubhcs,  the
French converted the Swiss confederacy
into  the Helvetic republic, one and indi-
visible, under an executive  directory  of
five persons.  The legislative power was
divided  between a  senate and  a  great
council, to  which each  of  the  fourteen
cantons elected twelve membere.  It was
in vain that some of the  democratic can-
tons  attempted to prevent this revolution.
They were speedily overpowered.  But
the  oppressions of the French ;  the arbi-
trary manner in which they disposed  of
the highest offices ; the great number  of
weak and corrupt men who were  raised
to power,—soon made the  new officers
contemptible.  Aloys Reding, a man of
enterprising spirit, whose family was cel-
ebrated in the annals of his country, form-
ed the plan of  overthrowing the central
government.   Underwalden,  Schweitz,
Zurich,  Glarus, Appenzell and  the Gri-
sons wished to restore the federal consti-
tution ; and Reding imagined that Bona-
parte himself, who had just withdrawn
the   French  troops  from  Switzerland,
would favor his plan.  The smaller can-
tons, in their diet at Schweitz (August 6,
1802), declared  that they would  not ac-
cept the constitution which had been forced
upon them, and that they preferred a fed-
eral government.  The consequence was
a civil war.  Zurich was besieged  to no
purpose by the troops of the Helvetic re-
 Sublic, against whom its  gates were shut.
 lodolph von Erlach and general Auf der
Maur, at the head  of the insurgents, oc-
cupied Beme and Friburg.  The Helvetic
government retired to  Lausanne.  Aloys
Reding now summoned a general assem-
bly, which  was held at  Schweitz,  Sept.
27*.   Three days after, the first consul  of
France offered to the cantons his media-
tion ; but  the small cantons, guided  by
Aloys Reding and Hirzel of Zurich, per-
severed  in  their  opposition.   Twelve
thousand French troops entered  Switzer-
land, under Ney, and the diet separated.
Reding and Hirzel were  imprisoned.  In
December, both parties sent deputies  ef
the  eighteen cantons to  Paris, to whom
Bonaparte transmitted, by  Barthelemy,
Fouchfe and Roderer, the act of media-
tion of Feb. 19,1803, restoring the can-
tonal system, but granting freedom to the
former subjects  of the  cantons.   The
cantons were now nineteen in number—
Aargau, Appenzell,  Basle, Beme,  Fri-
burg, Glarus, Grisons, Lucerne,  St. Gall,
Schaffhausen, Schweitz,  Soleure, Tessin, 
96
SWITZERLAND.
Thurgau, Underwalden,  Uri,  Pays  de
Vaud, Zug, and  Zurich.   The republic
of Valais was changed, by a decree of Na-
poleon, in  1810,  into a French  depart-
ment ; and as early as 1806,  he granted
Neufchatel (which  had been ceded  to
liim by Prussia, but which was under the
protection of Switzerland) to general Ber-
thier, as a sovereign principality.  Napo-
leon assumed the title of " mediator  of
Switzerland;" and the military service re-
quired of the Swiss  became more and
more oppressive.  It  was only by great
firmness  and the sacrifice of  immense
sums of money, that most of the cantonal
governments  could avert greater oppres-
sion : they were obliged to adopt the con-
tinental system ; and the canton of Tes-
sin was long garrisoned by French troops.
In 1813, when the theatre of war ap-
proached Switzerland, France permitted
the   Swiss  to  maintain  their neutrality;
but the allies expressed themselves am-
biguously, and  large  armies  were  soon
marched through  the  country in  various
directions to  France.  Their arrival ex-
cited a fennentation  in many quarters.
The act of mediation was annulled, Dec.
29,  1813, at Zurich, and several cantons,
of which Beme (1814)  was the first, la-
bored  to revive  their old constitutions.
Through the influence of the allied mon-
archy the cantons were finally prevailed
on  to assemble a  general council; but
revolutions and counter-revolutions agi-
tated several of the cantons.  Some of
them were  in arms against each other;
others enjoyed a happy tranquillity, and
the  respect of the foreign  powers.  AH,
meanwhile, were engaged in settling their
constitutions.  The old cantons adhered
more or less closely to their former frames
of government, and the new cantons en-
deavored to  give to  those which they
adopted  more  stability.   A  diet was at
length assembled at  Zurich, and new
articles of confederation were agreed upon
by nineteen cantons, Sept. 18,1814. They
resembled  the  old federal pact in many
respects.  This confederacy was acknowl-
edged by the congress of Vienna.  The
bishopric of Basle, with Bienne, was given
to  the  canton  of Berne,  excepting the
district of Birseck, which fell  to Basle,
and a Bmall portion, which fell to Neuf-
chatel.  The former relations of the latter
 place to Prussia were restored, and, with
 Geneva and the Valais, it joined the con-
 federacy of the  Swiss cantons,  making
 their number twenty-two.  Aug. 7,1815,
 the compact of Zurich was publicly and
 solemnly adopted,  after the  deputies of
the confederacy at Vienna had given in
their accession to the acts of the congress
of Vienna, so far as they related to Switz-
erland (74—84,  and  91—95).   Nov. 20,
1815, the  eight powers, Austria, Russia,
France, England, Prussia, Spain, Portu-
gal and Sweden, proclaimed,  by a sepa-
rate act, the perpetual neutrality of Switz-
erland, and the inviolabiUty  of its soil.
Soon after,  Switzerland became a mem-
ber of the holy alliance. But the political
state of the Swiss cantons, as  settled  by
the congress of Vienna, and jealously
watched by the holy  alliance, gave rise to
much disaffection in the great body of the
people.    Though  republics  in  name,
nothing could be less republican than ma-
ny of their laws  and  customs: privileges
of orders, of corporations, of localities, and
of family, interfered with the equal rights
of the majority of the citizens.  The fed-
eral diet  was overawed by the holy alli-
ance, and oppressed, in turn, the cantons ;
the chief towns tyrannised over the coun-
try districts, and a few trades or families
tyrannised over the towns.  Refugees for
political offences from the neighboring
states were  refused an asylum,  and tho
press was shackled by the diet, in opposi-
tion to the voice of the nation,  and in
compliance with the  requests of the great
powers.  In  the democratic  cantons, in
which the people were not oppressed by
their  cantonal   authorities, they  were
often  disgusted  with these servile com-
pliances of the diet; but in the aristocrat -
ical cantons, in  which almost all the au-
thority was in the hands of some patrician
families, or the corporations of the trades,
it was often abused to oppress the masn
of the people.  This was particularly the
case in Beme, Basle,  Friburg, Lucerne,
Zurich, Schaffhauseu and Soleure.  Still
a third class of cantons was composed of
the new  members of the confederacy,
professedly  organized  on popular repre-
sentative principles, but in which, in 1815,
the elections were so arranged, that the
whole power, in fact, was possessed by a
small executive council.  In this state of
things, the general demand for reform, in
the electoral assemblies of Tessin (one of
the new cantons), compelled  the council
(June, 1830) to  yield to the pubUc voice,
and establish a system of direct elections,
and  of publicity of proceedings in the
great council, and to  guarantee the liberty
of the press, and the inviolability of per-
sons, as parts of the constitution.   This
event, and the French revolution of July,
1830, set the example for general risings
in various parts of the country.  In the 
SWITZERLAND.
97
 new cantons, the popular demands were
 generally 60 readily complied with  as  to
 prevent any serious disturbances, and the
 democratic cantons took hardly any part
 in  the  troubles ;  but in the o.d aristo-
 cratic cantons, the opposition was stronger
 and more systematic.   Still, as many of
 the towns people were favorable to  more
 popular institutions, the governments, even
 in  these  cantons, generally  yielded, with
 little opposition, to the wishes of the citi-
 zens;  and in  Friburg, Beme, Lucerne,
 Soleure,  Schaffhausen,  the revision of
 the constitution, the abolition of privileges,
 the extension  of the right of election,
 abolition of censorship of the press, <_cc,
 were  among  the concessions  to popu-
 lar rights.  In Basle  alone, where the
 jieasantry are  more  ignorant and  rude
 than in the other cantons, the  insurgents
 were not satisfied widi the concessions;
 and a second insurrection, in the summer
 of 1831, was not put down without blood-
 shed.   The ordinary session of the  diet
 took place at Lucerne, July  4, 1831,  and
 the common concerns of the  confederacy,
 both in  its foreign and domestic relations,
 were found to be in  a satisfactory condi-
 tion.  But towards the close of 1831, the
 canton of Neufchatel (q. v.) was disturbed
 by risings of some portions of the popula-
 tion, who renounced the  authority of
 Prussia, and demanded  a new  constitu-
 tion.  The insurgents  were put down;
 and the country has  since been tranquil.
 Switzerland,  the most elevated  country
 in Europe, consists chiefly of mountains,
 lying^ near together, or piled one  upon
 another, Avith  narrow  valleys  between
 them.   The  highest  mountains (among
 which are St. Gothard,  in the canton of
 Uri, and the Finsteraarhorn, in the canton
 of Berne, 14,100 feet above the level of
 the  sea)  are found  in Uri,  Beme,  Un-
 derwalden and Grisons.  Of about sixty
 Swiss mountains which have been meas-
 ured, the  highest  is Monte  Rosa (q. v.),
 15,535 feet  high;  the lowest, Cholet, is
 3000 feet high.   (See Alps.)  The lowest
 region  of the  productive mountains is
 covered with thick forests and rich mead-
 ows ; the middle consists  of hills and
 narrow  passes, containing pastures; the
 third region  is composed of sharp and
 almost  inaccessible rocks, either wholly
 bare, without earth or grass, or covered
 with perpetual ice and snow.  The mid-
dle  regions are inhabited in  summer by
 herdsmen, who find  good pasturage for
their cattle,  and obtain  excellent water
from the mountain springs and streams.
The herdsmen give an  account  of the
  vol. xn.        9
 milk, butter and cheese, to the owners of
 the cattle, or pay them a stipulated portion
 of the proceeds.  (See Senn.)  The glaciers
 (q. vA more than 400 in number, are either
 the barren parts  of the  mountains,  or
 heights which consist  only of snow and
 ice.  These icy mountains begin in the
 canton of Glarus, and extend to the Gri-
 sons, thence  to  the canton of Uri, and,
 finally, down to Berne.  The glaciers are
 produced by rocky valleys, whose de-
 clivities  are too small to admit of the
 ready descent of the water of the melted
 snow and ice, so that they are gradually
 filled up by vast masses of 6uow and ice,
 which accumulate in  them.  The con-
 tinual  alternation of hill  and  valley af-
 fords the most striking natural scenes hi
 every  part of Switzerland.   In  some
 places, within a short  distance, one may
 see at the same time  all the seasons of
 the year; and it is often possible  to stand
 between spring and summer, so as to col-
 lect snow with one hand, and to  pluck
 flowers  from the  soil with the  other.
 Every mountain has its waterfalls; and,
 as their sources are sometimes  lost  in the
 clouds,  the  cataracts  seem  to descend
 from the skies.   Switzerland abounds  in
 lakes and rivers, the fisheries of which
 are valuable and which serve to embellish
 the landscape.  But none  of the streams
 are navigable.  The lake of Zurich, one
 of the largest  in  Switzerland, is twenty-
 five miles in  length by three in breadth.
 The lake  of Geneva is about fifty  miles
 long and eight to ten wide.  The lake of
 Neufchatel, twenty-eight by six, and the
 lake of Lucerne or the  Vierwaldtstiidter-
 see, twenty-five  miles  long, and, where
 widest, as many broad,  are celebrated for
 their  beautiful  environs.   The largest
 rivers are the Rhine, the Reuss or  Riiss,
 the Rhone, and the Tessino or Ticino.
 The Rhine is remarkable for its falls, and
 the Reuss for a  bridge,  called the Devil's
 bridge, which leads over it in the canton
 of Uri.   It connects two  mountains, be-
 tween which the water rolls at  the depth
 of seventy-five feet below it.   There are
 springs of excellent water among the hills,
 with warm and cold baths, and mineral
 springs.  In Thurgau,  a part of Zurich,
 Basle, Schaffhausen, Beme,  Soleure and
 Friburg, every thing is  different;  for, al-
though there  are  some  mountains, yet
this part of Switzerland  is more level;
there are here no Alps, no cataracts, few
trees,  and, in summer, neither ice  nor
snow.  In general, the foot of the moun-
tains almost every where is covered with
farms, meadows, vineyards and trees; and 
98                           SWITZERLAND.
even  amidst  the rocks, there are nume-
rous cultivated patches.  Switzerland is
rich in minerals, especially lime and clays,
slate,  black, gray and  dark-red  marble,
porphyry and alabaster (especially in Va-
lais) ; also quartz, crystals (weighing some-
times 7—8 cwt), peat, coal, &c.  Silver,
copper and iron ore likewise occur. Gold
dust is found  in the rivers.   The flora
of Switzerland is peculiarly rich.  The
cultivation of the vine is carried to a great
extent, and a considerable trade is carried
on  with France,  Holland, England and
Suabia. Fruits are abundant, but corn is
not produced  in great quantities, owing
partly  to  the  great  numbers  of cattle
which are raised here.  The breeding of
cattle is the chief employment  of the in-
habitants,  for which the rich pastures of
the valleys and hills afford great advan-
tages.  The Swiss  cheeses are imported
in great numbers  into Germany, France
and Italy.   Of the wild animals, the most
important  is the chamois (q. v.); the ibex,
the marmot, and the lammergeier, or vul-
ture of the Alps, are also found.  As to
manufactures, those of linen, cotton, and,
of late years, silk, are the most important
The Swiss confederacy, according to  the
terms of the federal compact between  the
twenty-two cantons (Zurich, Aug.7,1815),
is a federative state of twenty-two repub-
lics, who conduct their domestic concerns
wholly  independently  of one another.
Appenzell and Underwalden,  however,
consist of  two distinct parts; and, in 1832,
Basle was also  divided into two Rhodes.
The confederacy, as its limits were deter-
mined by the  congress of Vienna (art
74—84), contains an area of 18,490 square
miles, or,  according  to some,  of 14,769,
with a population,  in 1827, of 2,037,030
persons. Among them are 1,217,210 Prot-
estants (mostly Calvinists), 817,110 Cath-
olics, 900 Anabaptists, 1810 Jews, in 92
cities, 100 market towns, 7400  villages
and hamlets.   The  size and population
of the cantons are as follows:—
  Cantons.             Sq. miles.  Population.
  Zurich,........  953     224,150
  Beme,.........3665     356,710
  Lucerne,.......  762     105,600
  Uri,..........  508     13,930
  Schweitz,.......  466     36,040
  Underwalden, ....  258     23,150
  Glarus,........  460     28,000
  Zug,..........  116     14,710
  Friburg,.......  487     67,814
  Soleure,........  487     54,380
  Basle,.........  275     55,330
  Schaffhausen, ....  169     28,050
  Appenzell,......  222     57,510
   St. Gall,  .......   847    157,700
   Grisons,.......2966     98,090
   Aargau,........   762    152,900
   Thurgau,.......   349     89,845
   Tessin,........1133    103,950
   Pays de Vaud, ....  1483    178,880
   Valais,........1949     77,570
   Neufchatel,......   296     56,640
   Geneva,........    95     53,560

Consequently Geneva is the most  popu-
lous ; next comes Appenzell;  the least
populous cantons are the Grisons, Uri and
Valais.  The German language is com-
mon  to nearly the whole country, with
the exception of the Pays de Vaud, Ge-
neva and Neufchatel, and a part of the
cantons of Valais and Friburg, where the
French prevails.  Italian is spoken only
in a part of the Grisons and in Tessin ;
Romanish at the sources  of the Rhine
and  Ladin,  on  the Inn.  The  Germans
are 1,428,671; French, 438,489; Italians,
119,970, and those who speak the Ladin
and  Romanish  languages, 48,090.   The
prevailing religion is, in some of the can-
tons, Catholic; in others, Calvinism ; and
in others, mixed.  There are 120 monas-
teries, of which Tessin has the most (18);
59 for monks, and 61 for nuns; among
them are  seven Capuchin houses.   In
1815, Switzerland contained all  that had
previously belonged to it, with the excep-
tion  of Muhlhausen and the  Valteline.
Frickthal, with the cities of Lauffenburg
and Rheinfelden, which belonged to Aus-
tria, were annexed to the canton of Aargau.
Gersau (for 500 years a free state, and the
smallest in Europe,  with 1294 citizens,
mostly engaged  in  the  manufacture of
silk), by an act of the congress of Vienna
and  the decision of the diet, was  again
made a part of the canton of Schweitz.
In  1815,  France  ceded  some  places in
Gex, and the king of Sardinia the city of
Carrouge, with some villages on the left
shore of the lake and on the Rhone, to
Geneva.   The  fortress  of Hiiningen, in
Alsace, opposite to  Basle, has been  de-
molished.  The castle  and lordship of
Rhazins,  above Coire, on the Rhine, in
the Grey League, which formerly belong-
ed to Austria, were ceded to the Grisons
by an act of the congress of Vienna, Jan.
19,1819.   The  diet,  which is composed
of the representatives of the cantons, and
which manages such affairs of the con-
federacy as  are  committed to it by the
sovereign cantons (such as  the declaring
of war and  making of peace, the con-
cluding of commercial and other treaties
with foreign states, the regulation of the 
SWITZERLAND.
99
 federal army, &c), is held every two years,
 alternately at Zurich, Berne and Lucerne,
 which are called  the  directing cantons
 (vororte).  The Schultheiss, or governor of
 the directing canton in which the session
 is  held, then takes the name of Landam-
 mann of Switzerland. Each canton has one
 vote in the diet. Military capitulations, and
 treaties  on  subjects of police and eco-
 nomical regulation, may  be  entered  into
 by  the  separate  cantons  with  foreign
 states; but  not without  the knowledge
 of the diet.   The revenue of the confed-
 eracy, arising from the contingents of the
 cantons, is about 2,000,000 dollars.  The
 public debt,  fixed by the congress of Vi-
 enna, in 1814, at 3,118,330 Swiss francs,
 has been cancelled by the interest accru-
 ing,  from 1798 to  1814,  on the capital
 (£200,000 sterling, and £100,000 sterling)
 invested by  the  cantons of Berne  and
 Zurich  in the bank of  England.  The
 property of this sum is, however, reserved
 to  the two cantons, and also the interest
 accruing since 1815.   The federal army
 was  fixed (Aug. 5,1816)  at  67,516 men,
 of which half is a reserve.   In 1819, an
 artillery school, or scientific and practical
 military  academy,  was  established  at
 Thun, by the confederacy; and,  in 1820,
 the first camp for  military practice was
«held at Wohlen.  Each canton is govern-
 ed by its own laws, and the government
 is administered by a great council, which
 holds the legislative power, and the small
 council, which holds the executive, or by
 the Landesgemeinde (or general assembly
 of citizens),  and the Landrath (an execu-
 tive council).  In Uri,  Schweitz, Under-
 walden, Zug, Glarus, Schaffhausen, Ap-
 penzell  (Inner and  Outer Rhodes),  St.
 Gall, Grisons, Aargau,  Thurgau, Ticino,
 Pays  de Vaud, Valais and  Geneva, the
 constitutions are democratic ; in the re-
 maining cantons, they are  of a mixed
 aristocratic  and  democratic  character.
 Neufchatel  has  a  monarchical  govern-
 ment, with  estates.  The  literature  of
 Switzerland  is a branch of the German;
 that  of Geneva, the  Pays de  Vaud and
 Neufchatel,  of the French.   There is a
 university at  Basle,  and the  academies
 of Beme and Zurich have scientific col-
 lections.   At Lucerne,  Winterthur, Zop-
 fingen, and other cities, there are libraries,
 and cabinets of natural and artificial cu-
 riosities.   Several learned societies, par-
 ticularly those for natural history, are dis-
 tinguished for activity and zeal.   The
 school of  Pestalozzi  (q. v.) at Yverdun,
 and the agricultural institute of Fellen-
 berg (q. v.)  at Hofwyl,  are celebrated.
In 1824 appeared at Zurich Kritische An-
zeigen der Schweizerischen Literatur (Criti-
calNoticesof Swiss Literature), containing
a notice  of the best works printed in and
concerning Switzerland, and of the  la-
bors of Swiss literati abroad.  The histo-
ry of Switzerland by John von Muller
(q. v.) is a classical work: it has been con-
tinued by  Glutz-Blotzheim to  the per-
petual peace with France in 1516. His
valuable  labors were interrupted  by  an
early death.  Balthasar's  Helvetia, oder
Denkwurdigkeiten fur  die 22 Freistaaten
der   Schweizerischen   Eidgenossenschajl
(Helvetia, or Memoirs  of the 22 Repub-
lics  of the Swiss Confederacy, 1st vol.,
Zurich, 1823),  may be joined  with  it.
Zschokke's History of the  Swiss Nation
(in   Gennan, Aarau,   1822;  French  by
Monnier) is a masterly work.  Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia contains a short his-
tory  of Switzerland.    Raoul-Rochette's
Histoire de la  Rivolution  Helvetique  de
1798—1803 (Paris, 1823) is  less  accurate
and impartial than Zschokke's Historical
Memoirs of the Helvetic Revolution.  On
the ancient  history of the country, see
Haller's Historical and Topographical Ac-
count of Helvetia  under the Romans (2
vols., 3d  edit, Berne,  1818).  On Swiss
public  law, Usteri's Manual is  valuable
(2d edit,  Aarau,  1821); also  the Hel-
vetic Almanac,  and Picot's  Statistique de
la  Suisse (Geneva, 1819).  Lutz's Com-
plete Description of Switzerland (in Ger-
man, alphabetically arranged, 2d edit., Aa-
rau,  1827,  3 vols.), is  a valuable work.
(See the separate  articles,  Basle, Berne,
Geneva, Lucerne,  Neufchatel, Chaux  de
Fonds, Zurich, &c.)
  Travels  in Switzerland.   This beau-
tiful  country is so much visited, that it
may, perhaps, be acceptable to our read-
ers to have a few of the best guide-books
pointed out, and a few directions given
for  the traveller.  Ebel's  Guide to the
most useful and pleasant Way of Travel-
ling in Switzerland (3d ed., Zurich, 1810,
4 vols., in German) is the best companion.
It embraces all Switzerland.  The abridg-
ments which have appeared in Geneva
and Paris are not satisfactory. Reichard's
Guide des Voyageurs en Italie et en Suisse
(Weimar, 1819); also  Glutz-Blotzheim's
Manual for Travellers  in Switzerland  (in
German, 5th ed., Zurich, 1823); the Nou-
veau Guide des  Voyageurs dans les XXII
Cantons  Suisscs, traduit d'un Manuscrit
Allemand du Professeur H. par R. W.;
and Simond's Tour in  Switzerland (Bos-
ton,  1822), deserve to be  mentioned.
Coxe's  Travels describes  the   state  of 
100
SWITZERLAND.
the country before the Frcncli revolution.
The late numbers of the Helvetic Alma-
nac  afford an accurate view of tho statis-
tics of the different cantons.  Of works
relating to particular parts of Switzerland,
the  best  are Ebel's Description of the
Mountaineers   of  Switzerland  (Tub.,
1798—1802,  2  vols.), and, above  all,
Travels in the  Bemese  Oberland, by J.
R. Wyss  (Beme, 1816, 2 vols.), with ex-
cellent maps.   The same region is  de-
scribed in Voyage pittoresque a? Oberland,
accompagne de  Notices historiques  et to-
pographiques (Paris and Strasburg, 1812).
Of the maps of all Switzerland, that pub-
lished  by  Keller and Scheuermann (Zu-
rich, 1815 and 1819) is particularly worthy
of attention.  The  great atlas of Weiss
embraces only a part of Switzerland. For
the use of naturalists, we mention Manu-
el  d'Herboriser en Suisse et en  Valais, re-
digi  selon le Systeme de  Linne  (VVinter-
thur, 1811*); and Precis (Tun Voyage bo-
tanique fait en 1811 par Villars, Lauth et
Nestler (Paris,  1812).—For travelling in
Switzerland, the months  of July, August
and  September afford the most settled
weather.  The  most delightful  season is
in September, and often even in October,
when the shores of the lakes of Geneva,
Neufchatel and  Bienne, and the channing
scenes in the Pays de Vaud, enchant the
visitor.  The  beginning of summer, and
even the close of spring, are often equally
favorable.   The Alpine meadows, which
are then  decked with the most beautiful
and  rarest flowers, delight the eye, and
afford  rich stores to the botanist   The
curious atmospheric phenomena, which
are  frequently  seen,  and  on   elevated
mountains, even below the spectator, af-
ford  a new and  sublime  spectacle.  The
mild wannth, and the long days, render
travelling, at this period, peculiarly pleas-
ant  May, however, is commonly more
beautiful than June, which  is often rainy.
Most travellers devote  only six or eight
weeks  to  visiting Switzerland, and  limit
themselves to the most interesting parts.
With a proper  and systematic plan, one
can  travel through all   the cantons  in
three and  a half months, if he  proceeds
mostly on foot, and remains in every place
only as long as  is necessary to view all its
curiosities;  but, owing  to the frequent
changes of weather, it is  impossible to
reckon upon three  weeks  in succession
dry and warm: as much as fourteen days,
therefore,  ought to be allowed out of the
three and a half mouths  for obstructions
from rain or storms.  There are no proper
extra posts in Switzerland, though persons
travelling in their own coaches may pro-
cure a  change  of horses.   There are
good regular coaches, however.   Most
travellers  who  anive  at the  frontier
places in  the  post-coaches, or  in  their
own carriages, hire the  horses  and car-
riages which are always in readiness in
the towns.   The prices at which horses
and mules are let, are high.  The horses
and mules are  so used to the steep and
rocky mountain roads, that, even on the
brink  of a deep precipice, the  traveller
feels  himself  perfectly  safe.   Those
should be chosen,  however, which  have
been used to carry, and not to draw. Roads
lead over the Cenis, the  Simplon (q. v.),
and, since 1818, over the Splugen.  The
road over the Simplon may well be  com-
pared with the proudest works of the an-
cient Romans.  (See Alps, Roads  over.)
Over the other summits, no one can trav-
el, except on foot, or, perhaps, part of the
way on  horseback.   In  the  valley  of
Chamouni, and in Grindelwald, there are
very low and  small four-wheeled car-
riages, which are extremely inconvenient
It is possible to travel in  these a part  of
the way, also, over the great mountain  of
St. Bernard.  On account of  the  sud-
den changes of weather  and the cold  air
on the  mountains, it is  necessary  to  be
provided with warm clothing.  The  trav-
eller, on excursions, should wear a  light
and easy dress, with half-boots, or,  what
is still better, shoes with gaiters, fastened
tight about the feet to prevent gravel from
getting  in.   A  traveller  should provide
himself with two pairs  of shoes,  very
strong, with  thick heels and large-headed
nails, to be worn over stony passes, in wet
weather, and on glaciers ;  and with  light
ones for the smooth plains.  Experienced
travellers disapprove of the common  irons
fastened to the shoes.  The Alpine shoes,
invented by Pictet, are very good.  The
soles are at least six lines hi thickness,
with a  strong but pliable upper leather,
covering the whole foot, and with a cov-
ering of leather rising about one and a
half inches above the sole, to secure th«
foot from any blow.  Large steel nails, or
rather screws, with heads somewhat more
than four lines  wide, which  resemble a
truncated four-sided  pyramid, are insert-
ed in the soles  and heels,  about seven in
the former and five in the latter.  In the
intervals between the steel nails, common
nails are driven in so that the heads touch
one another.  With this durable and not
heavy shoe,  one may walk safely over the
naked granite, over ice and smooth grass.
A staff, pointed  with iron, is indispensable. 
SWITZERLAND.
101
In warm weather, a straw hat is prefera-
ble to a felt one. A cloak, of oiled taffeta
or oiled linen, to keep off the rain, is very
convenient and warm, and, for this reason,
a good protection on the high mountains
or in a piercing wind. The traveller should
also take a flannel shirt, the best protection
against sudden colds, light  woollen pan-
taloons, and a great coat of light cloth;
also a covered flask for cherry hrandy to
bathe the tired limbs.  The  best comes
from Grindelwald.  To the mineralogist,
the apron of thin  leather, invented  by
Pictet, deserves to be recommended. It is
never well for one to travel  on the moun-
tains alone, nor, on the other hand, in com-
pany with more than three or four persons,
because of the scanty accommodations of
the inns in the small places.  A guide
should always be procured; and very  in-
telligent ones are easily to be met with.
If a person is  not used  to walking,  he
should begin with short  journeys every
day; but  walking in Switzerland, even
for females,  is not so difficult as is com-
monly supposed.   The mountains should
be ascended, where it is possible, on the
western side.  The best descent is on the
eastern  declivities.  It is unsafe to travel
on the  high mountains in spring until
after the avalanches have rolled down the
sides.  After a  long and  violent rain,  a
person should wait two days before trav-
ersing the high valleys among the rocks,
where pieces are  Uable to fall from the
sides at such seasons.  In snowy vales
and among the glaciers, it is well to cover
the face with a green or dark gauze.  Vol-
atile alkali,  diluted with water, mitigates
the burning pains in the face, caused  by
the bright reflection of the sun's rays from
the fields of snow and the glaciers.  One
should never travel over the glaciers after
a fresh fell of snow (which sometimes
happens even  in  the  summer months),
particularly  at mid-day;  for a  travel-
ler might then very easily break through
the soft mass.  To these rules the travel-
ler will easily add such as his own expe-
rience may suggest.  Many circumstances
combine to make travelling in Switzer-
land more expensive than in the adjacent
countries.  But few of the cantons  pro-
duce the  necessaries of life in sufficient
quantities for the  inhabitants.  In many
places, the people are obliged to procure
them from a distance ; and then the ex-
pense of conveyance augments the price.
Inn-keepers on the mountains and in re-
tired valleys are especially subjected  to
this advanced price, and  are, therefore,
obliged  to charge  higher than those  in
cities and frequented roads.  The hotels,
in towns and in large  villages, often even
in the rudest Alpine vales, as in Lauter-
brunnen and the valley of Chamouni, are
very good.  In Italian Switzerland, and
generally beyond the southern chain, it is
common to agree upon the price to  be
paid to inn-keepers, guides, servants, and
the like, beforehand; for otherwise a per-
son is very liable to be imposed on.  The
expenses for one who  makes only a short
stay at the various places, are, of course,
greater than for one who remains longer.
If a person devotes five or six months to
travelling through Switzerland, in a car-
riage or on horseback, his daily expendi-
ture will  amount to  twelve or  sixteen
Swiss  francs ;* but if he limits himself
to six,  four or  two weeks, his  expenses
will be at least eighteen francs a day.  If
he  travels on foot, and has a guide who
carries his luggage, twelve francs a day
will be sufficient   The  difference in the
standard of money  in the different Swiss
cantons is inconvenient,  particularly since
some cantons have begun to refuse to ad-
mit the money of others.  The Manual
of  Glutz-Blotzheim,  before  mentioned,
presents a useful view  of the worth  of
the different coins.   The old louis-d'or
(twenty-four livres  tournois*), the French
twenty franc piece,  the  Brabant, Bavari-
an  and Wiirtemberg  dollar, and French
five franc piece, are in most general cir-
culation.  The reckoning by Swiss francs
(sixteen to a louis-d'or) is pretty  general.
In the hotels they reckon much by French
francs.  Any one who intends to visit  all
the cantons cau  proceed in the  follow-
ing order—either  through  Constance,
Schaffhausen, Eglisau  and Winterthur,
or through Lindau, the lake of Constance,
Roschach  and  St.  Gall, to  Zurich (see
Voyage de Zurie a Zuric, 1818);  then
over mount Albis to Zug, over lake Zug
to Arth, at the foot of the Righi (q. vA  of
which Fuessly and Keller have publish-
ed beautiful sketches,  with a description
by J. H. Meyer (Views  of Mount Righi,
drawn from nature, Zurich, 1809); over
the lake to Lucerne (q. v.), which Busin-
ger describes in his guide—Lucerne and
its Environs, with a  good Map of the
Lake of the four Forest-Towns (Lucerne,
1811).   The  traveller  now enters  on the
route over the mountains.  The way leads
through Stanzstadt, Stanz, the abbey of
Engelburg, and over the Surenian Alps;
or from Stanz through Buochs, over the
lake of the  four Forest-Towns,  Rutli,
  * A Swiss franc is about twenty-seven or twea
ty-eight cents. 
102
SWITZERLAND.
Toll's Chapel to Altorf.   Thence you
pass on  the  great  road from  German
Switzerland to Italy, in three days, to Bel-
linzona.  Through Ursern, the road leads
from Altorf to Dissentis,  and the adjacent
springs of the Rhine ; and further through
Trons to Coire, where  a  traveller  who
wishes to visit Graubiindten (the Grisons,
q.  v.) stops.  Among the principal cu-
riosities of  the Grisons are the valley of
 omlesch,  the  bridge of Solis, which
is the highest in  Europe, the Via Mala,
the glaciere of  the  Rhine, the valley of
Misocco,  the glacier of  Bernina.  From
Coire, the  traveller  pursues his journey
through Sennwald to Appenzell and Gais,
and then through Utznach and Einsied-
eln ; or, if he does not intend to visit first
the bath at  Pfeffers (q. v.), through Panyx,
Elm and  Matt, to Glarus, and thence to
Einsiedeln, from  which  he returns, over
Schweitz and the ruins of Goldau, to Lu-
cerne.  Then he goes through  the charm-
ing Entlibuch, or over the battle-field of
Sempach, through Zopfingen, Morgenthal,
Hindelbank, llofwyl (q. v.), to Beme. (q. v.)
From Berne, the traveller proceeds over
Thur, in four to six days (including the
time occupied in returning through In-
terlaken  and Brientz), to  the beautiful
Oberland,to Lauterbrunnen, to Staubbach,
over the little Scheideckto Grindelwald,at
the foot of the Jungfrau (first ascended by
the two Meyers in Aarau, 1811 and 1812;
see Travels over  the Glaciers of Berne,
Aarau, 1813), and of the Schreckhorn,
and over the  great Scheideck to Haslithal.
From Merzringen, the chief place in the
valley, those who have not travelled from
Altorf to   the hospice  of  St.  Gothard
can go by the new road through the Sus-
ten valley.  The hospice on the Grimsel,
5887 feet high, is particularly worthy to
be visited.    Thence  the  traveller  pro-
ceeds to the glaciere of the Rhone. From
Beme he goes through Murten and Aven-
ches,  or  Friburg,  Murten,  Avencbes,
Payerne,  Lausanne, Aubonne, to Geneva.
Thence he proceeds to the icy  heights
and glaciere  of the valley  of  Chamouni,
either through Thonon, Evian. Simoens
and Sixte, or through Bonneville and Sa-
lenche,to Servoz; thence on to Chamou-
ni, at  the  foot  of  Mont  Blanc (q. v.),
which requires three days.  The glacier
of Montanvert and LaFlechierc, opposite
to it, are commonly the limit in this di-
rection.  The best guides are Saussure's
and Bourrit's works,  Pictet's Itineraire,
and Gottschalk's  description  (the Valley
of Chamouni, Halle, 1811), with a map.
In 1812, Lori published some beautiful
views of the valley of Chamouni. If the
traveller does not return from Chamouni
to Geneva, he either takes a difficult path
through the valley of Valorsine, and over
the village of Trent, or the Col de Balme,
to Martigny, at the foot of the Great Ber-
nard.  From this place, one may go over
the  Simplon  road to  the Borromean
islands (to go and return, six or seven days
are necessary), or over St. Branchier to
the Val de Bagnes (where, in 1818, owing
to the fall of the glacier Getroz,  lake
Mauvoisin broke through its banks, and
spread fearful devastation);  then to the
hospice on St. Bernard, and back to Mar-
tigny, which requires three days. A good
map of the  mountain  was published by
Lapie  (Paris, 1803).   A  full  description
of it is given by Wibel of Beme in his
Voyage Pittoresque depuis Lausanne jus-
qu'au Mont Bernard,ornamented with four-
teen colored plates.  From Martigny, the
traveller goes through St Maurice, by the
Pissevache, or, by a circuitous way, which
well rewards him for his trouble, through
Sitten, and along the new road, so called,
over mount Azeindaz, to Bex (where  the
remarkable salt mines  may be seen), and
then through Aigle and Clarens to Vevay,
whence the traveller may proceed by wa-
ter to Geneva, if he does not wish to go
by  land through Lausanne.  On the op-
posite shore of the lake, the road passes
through Meillerie and  Evian to  Geneva;
then through Orbe, adjacent to the beau-
tiful valley of the Lac du Joux and the
valley of Romainmotier, to Yverdun (q. v.),
and along the lake to  Neufchatel (q. v.),
whence a visit may be paid to the manu-
facturing villages Chaux de Fonds (q. v.)
and Locle (in the neighborhood of the
latter is the Saut de Doubs); from Neuf-
chatel through Bienne, or Aarberg, to So-
leure (q. v.), near which rises the Weis-
senstein, affording from its summit a fine
view  of the wide valley that divides  the
Jura (q. v.) from  the Alps.  It is one of
the most splendid prospects in  Switzer-
land.   If a person wishes  to go through
the Munster valley to Basle (q. v.), he must
return to Bienne; and, following the direc-
tions in Bridel's text to Birrmann's Voyage
Pittoresque de Bale  a Bienne, two days
are requisite to pass over the road leading
through Pierre Pertuis, an ancient Roman
gate of rock, forty feet high.  If one de-
sires to visit the principal curiosities in
Switzerland in six or  eight weeks,  it is
best to  pursue  the following course:—
Schaffhausen, Zurich, Zug, Righi,  Lu-
cerne, Schweitz,  Altorf (perhaps to the
hospice on mount Gothard), Beme, 01>er- 
SWITZERLAND—SWORD.
16?
land, to  Meiringen ; from Berne to Lau-
sanne, Geneva;  thence to the valley  of
Chamouni,  to  Chamouni  or Martigny
(perhaps along the Simplon road to Do-
mo d'Ossola, or to the hospice on mount
Bernard), and, in the way before mention-
ed, through Bex, Vevay, Yverdun, &c, to
Basle. In two or three weeks, the follow-
ing journey may be made : through Basle,
Munsterthal, Bienne, Soleure, Berne,Ober-
land, Hofwyl, Lucerne, Righi, Schweitz,
Zug, Albis,  Zurich, Schaffhausen, Con-
stance.   If a traveller wishes to visit par-
ticularly  French Switzerland and the Sa-
voy  Alps, he can perform the following
journey in about twenty-five days: Schaff-
hausen,  Baden,  Aarau, Berne, Friburg,
Vevay, Bex, St. Maurice, Martigny, Val
de Bagnes,  Col de Balme,  Chamouni,
Geneva,  Lausanne, Bienne, Munsterthal,
Basle.  Since Aberly, the following ar-
tists  have   distinguished  themselves by
views of scenes in Switzerland :  Rieter,
Konig, Hegi, Fuessly, Keller, Birrmann,
Wocher, and the two  Loris.—See, also,
Wetzel's Voyage  Pittoresque  aux Lacs
Suisses (Zurich,  1824, containing eighty-
five plates).
   Swivel ;  a small piece of artillery, car-
rying a shot of half a pound, and fixed  hi
a socket on the top of a  ship's side, stem
or bow, and also in the tops.  The trun-
nions of  this piece are contained in a sort
of iron crotch, whose lower end termi-
nates in a cylindrical pivot resting in the
socket, so as to support the weight of the
cannon.  By means of this swivel (which
gives name  to the piece of artillery) and
an iron  handle on its cascabel, the gun
may be directed  by hand to any object.—
Swivel is also a strong link of iron used in
mooring-chains,  &c, which permits the
bridles or cables to be turned  as occasion
requires,
   Sworo.   This weapon,  probably be-
cause it is more  constantly carried about
the person than  other weapons, such as
the arrow, spear, &c, has acquired a pe-
culiar connexion with  the  circumstances
of the wearer. To  this day, the  surren-
der of the sword denotes submission, and
the breaking of it degradation. In many
countries, it  has  become the emblem of
power.   In Germany, the sword was one
of the imperial insignia.  In Turkey, the
sultan is girded with the sword of Osman
on ascending the throne.   In England,
the sword of state is one of the  regalia,
and  the " offering of the sword"  one of
the ceremonies of coronation.  In France,
the sword is also one of the royal insignia.
In the middle ages, knights gave  names
to  their  swords ;  thus  Charlemagne's
sword was called Joyeuse,  and Orlando's
Durindana.  The efficacy of no  other
weapon depends so much upon the cour-
age and skill of the individual.  It is the
poetical representative of all arms; and, in
the middle ages,the word degen (sword) was
used in German to denote a worthy man;
later, a servant, but a servant of a dignified
character, and a free man.   In this sense,
Otfried, in his  translation of the Gospels,
calls John the Baptist  Christi Thegan.
In a German poem of the fourteenth cen-
tury, the apostle Peter is called Gotes De-
gen, and the forste and senat  of all apos-
tles.  Thane, which is derived from the
same word, is  also an Anglo-Saxon title
of honor familiar to the readers of Shak-
speare.  Under the emperors of Rome, no
one was allowed to wear a sword except
soldiers; hence the custom of presenting
the sword on  investing with a military
dignity.   Trajan,  when he  made  Sura
Licinius commander of his guards, put a
naked  sword into his hands, with  the
words, " Take this, and use it for me if
I rule well, against me if I rule ill."   The
secular infeoflment of crown vassals, in
the middle ages, was  performed by pre-
senting the vassal a naked sword.   To
this day, decapitation  with the sword is
considered more honorable than hanging,
in those  countries where both modes of
execution are in use, as in many on  the
continent  of Europe.   In  England,  the
axe is used, and only in  cases of high
treason.  As soon as  the art of forging
metals was invented, arms of metal  were
probably made; and the sword must  have
been one of the first, as the club, and sim-
ilar weapons, would naturally lead to it.
Wooden swords  are  found  at present
among many savage tribes.   Some histo-
rians mention Belus,  king of Assyria, as
the inventor of the sword.  The Greeks
ascribed the invention, according to Dio-
dorus, to the Cretans.  From  the Scrip-
tures we learn that swords  were used in
tiie earliest times in Asia.  Abraham
drew his sword to sacrifice his son Isaac.
The knife probably originated from the
sword  by degrees. The knife, in many
countries, as in Spain, is still a  formidable
weapon.   Swords were probably made at
firet, like  other weapons, of  copper, as
men acquired the art of forging this metal
sooner than any other.  The  heroes of
antiquity never appear without  the sword.
Whether the Greeks wore it on the left or
right side is not determined; but the Ro-
mans, as long as they used short swords,
wore themhigh on the right side, as ap- 
304
SWORD—SYDENHAM.
pears from the bass-reliefs of the columns
of Trajan and Antoninus at Rome ; and
Polybius explicitly states this fact  in his
history  (vi, 21).   The  kinds of swords
are too numerous to be given here.  The
straight,  long sword  was  used by the
Christians of the West in the middle
ages, while the Poles, and all the tribes of
Sclavonic origin, employed, and still pre-
fer,  the crooked  sword.  The  Saracens
also had the crooked sword at that time;
and it is still the common one in Asia.
At  present,  light cavalry in  Europe, as
hussars, lancers, &c, wear the crooked
sword, while  the straight, long sword is
the weapon of the heavy cavalry.   The
latter is, generally speaking, a better and
more trustworthy weapon.  In  the mid-
dle ages, double-handed  swords also were
worn; and in books on the art of fencing,
this branch is treated, as is also the art of
fighting with the dagger. It was an un-
wieldy weapon, and probably originated
from the  wearing of plate  armor.   The
sword of the executioners is, to this day,
a double-handed one ;  but, as  it requires
considerable skill and coolness, it has been
exchanged,  in most countries, for  the
heavy axe.  The Highland  claymore, a
broadsword  with a basket hilt,  has been
introduced into the Highland regiments
in the British service.  The  blade of a
sword is divided into  the upper, middle
and lower part, or the forte, middle and
foible.  Fencing with  the  small  sword
and the broad sword are quite  different
arts.  The former is of a  much nobler
character.   (See  Gymnastics.)   Some
places, as Toledo, Saragossa,  Damascus,
are particularly celebrated for fine sword
blades.
  Sword-Fish  (xiphias);  a genus of
fishes, remarkable for having the upper
jaw prolonged, somewhat in the form of
a sword, and constituting at least one third
of the total  length.  It  is placed by Cu-
vier in the same family with the  mack-
erel.  The body is elongated, almost des-
titute of scales, and is carinate on each
side at the base of the tail.  There are no
proper teeth.—The common  sword-fish
(X gladius) is sometimes more than twen-
ty feet long, the beak included.   It swims
with greater swiftness than almost any
inhabitant of the deep, and is possessed of
vast muscular strength.  It attacks, and
generally puts to flight, the smaller ceta-
ceous animals, notwithstanding its food id
usually vegetable.  Its flesh is good; and,
in some countries, the fishery is an object
of importance.  It is taken with the har-
poon, and usually tears the net, if enclos-
 ed.  The female approaches the shores
 in the latter part of spring or beginning of
 summer.  The sword-fish is found in al-
 most all seas.
   Stbaris ; an ancient Greek  city of
 Lower  Italy, in  Lucania, on  the gulf of
 Tarentum.  It is supposed to have been
 built by a colony of Achseaus and Troe-
 zenians, about 720 B. C.  The Sybarites
 were celebrated for their luxury and vo-
 luptuousness, and had  become enervated
 by the mildness of the climate, the rich-
 ness of the  soil, and their great wealth.
 Becoming involved  in a war with Croto-
 na, the  city  of Sybaris brought into  the
 field 300,000 men, while the forces of the
 former  amounted  to but 100,000.  The
 Crotonians,  however, were victorious, and
 totally destroyed Sybaris.—Sybarite is still
 used to signify an effeminate  voluptuary.
  Sycamore.   This term was given by
 the ancients to a species of fig (flcus  sy-
 comorus).  By the moderns, it is applied to
 a European  species of maple (acer pseudo-
platanus); and, in the western  parts of
 the U. States,.to  the  Occidental plane, or
 button-wood.   (See Fig,  Maple,   and
 Plane.)
  Sycophant,  with the Athenians;  a
 man who denounced others  on account
 of violations of law, or kept watch  on
 their  doings in order  to  misrepresent
 them, and to make  them the basis of an
 accusation.  The name is derived from
 ovkov, a fig, and <patvu, I discover, and was
 originally applied to certain persons who
 gave information of  such as, contrary to
 the Athenian laws, exported  figs. Sub-
 sequently, every false accuser, cheat, or
 other wretch, who strove to injure men,
 whether by  legal process or in the course
 of ordinary  dealing, was called by this
 name.  It was in Athens a term  of great
 reproach.
  Sydenham, Thomas, a celebrated Eng-
 lish physician, was born in  Dorsetshire,
 in 1624, and, in  1648, took the degree of
 bachelor  of medicine at Oxford.   He
 subsequently commenced practice as a
 physician  at Westminster,  and speedily
 attained great reputation.  From 1660 to
 1670 he held the first place in his profes-
 sion, though it was not till the latter part
 of his career that he became a licentiate
 of the  college.  Being a great  sufferer
 from the gout, he was unable, in the lat-
 ter  part of his life, to go  much from
 home; but he continued to benefit society
 by his writings and advice till near  the
 time of his decease, in 1689.   Doctor Sy-
 denham's  improvements form an era  m
 the history of medicine.  He first applied 
SYDENHAM—SYLLABLE.                     105
 himself to an attentive observation of the
 phenomena of  diseases, founding  his
 practice on the obvious indications of na-
 ture,  rather than on  prevalent theories,
 drawn from the principles of chemistry
 or  mathematics.   Febrile  disorders at-
 tracted his especial notice, and, in 1666, he
 communicated to the  public the result of
 his observations,  in a work entitled Me-
 thodus curandi Febres propriis Observa-
 tionibus supcrstructa, which was re-print-
 ed, with additions, under the title  of Ob-
 servationes Medical circa Morborum acu-
 torum Historiam  et  Curationem  (1675).
 Among his principal  works are Epistola.
 Responsorim.  dua,  1. De Morbis epide-
 mics a 1675  ad 1680; 2. De Luis vene-
 real Historia d Curationc (1680); De Po-
 dagra et Hydrope (1683, 8vo.); and Pro-
 cessus integri in  Morbis fere omnibus
 curandis, published posthumously.
   Sydney ; capital of the British colony
 of New  South Wales, in Australia; lat
 33° 15' S.; Ion. 151° 15'  E.; population,
 about 12,000.   Sydney is situated on  a
 cove, on the south side of Port Jackson,
 about seven miles from its mouth.  The
 water is of sufficient depth to allow ships
 of the largest size to come close up to the
 shore. Port Jackson  is  one of the finest
 natural basins in the world, stretching 15
 miles into the country,  with  numerous
 creeks and bays.  The anchorage  is eve-
 ry where excellent, and ships are protect-
 ed from every wind.   The streets of Syd-
 ney are built  without any  regular plan,
 and the town covers  a considerable ex-
 tent of ground. There arc several banks,
 a savings  institution, schools for the poor,
 and several higher seminaries.  Several
 newspapere,  and other  periodicals,  are
 also published at  Sydney.  The value of
 tie imports, in 1828, was £570,000; that
 of exports about half as much, but rapid-
 ly increasing.  In 1825, there belonged to
 Sydney thirty-four vessels of the burthen
 of 4129 tons.  The whale and sea fishe-
 ries are carried  on from here with suc-
 cess.  (See New SoiUh Wales.)
   Syoney ; a free port in the eastern part
 of the inland of Cape Breton,  on  a bay,
 which is sometimes called Spanish River,
 aud sometimes Dartmouth Harbor.  The
 entrance of the harbor is about two miles
 wide.  The harbor itself  is very large and
 well protected.  The  town stands at the
 head  of the harbor, in a very pleasant sit-
uation, and seems to enjoy great local ad-
vantages as a  commercial place.  There
are mines of good coal  on the western
side of the harbor, and  the place is ad-
mirably situated for trade in lumber and
fish.  Still, it is neglected ; and the popu-
lation is only 450 or 500.   It is the scat
of justice for the whole island.  The pub-
lic buildings are the barracks, government
store, commandant's  house, court house,
three houses of worship,  and a market
house.  The town is well built, and has a
pleasant surrounding country.   Sydney is
important,  at  present, in  a commercial
view, principally on account of its exten-
sive coal mines.   A great  portion  of the
coal exported from this  island has been
derived from these mines; and the quan-
tity exported from the island in 1828 was
10,000 chaldrons.
  Sydney.  (See  SidncyA
  Syene, or AssuAN,orEssouAN; a town
of Upper Egypt, on the east  side of the
Nile, six miles below the first cataract;
Ion. 32° 55' E.; lat. 24° 5' N.  It is the
most southerly town of Egypt, forming
its  frontier  towards  Nubia.  It is cele-
brated in the  annals  of ancient astron-
omy, for the attempt made, about 276
B. C., by Eratosthenes (q. v.), to measure
the height of the sun, according to which
Syene was said to lie directly under the
tropic.  A well was  formed,  which was
supposed to mark the precise moment of
the summer solstice, by the image of the
sun  reflected  in  it.   But  according to
modern observations,  Syene is found to lie
37' 23" north of the tropic. In the Nile,
opposite to the town, is the island of Ele-
phantina, remarkable  for its ancient niins
and quarries of stone.  There are, also.
some niins at Syene.  (See Burckhardt's
Nubia.)
  Syenite. (See Sienite.)
  Sygambrians, or Sicambrians ; a Ger-
man tribe, which occupied tiie country on
the Rhine, from Emmerich southwards,
to the Sieg, and on the Lippe eastward.}-,
to the frontiers of the  Bructeri.  After
the  victories of Gennanicus  (q. v.) we
hear nothing of them for some time; but
when the Romans, by the  command of
Claudius, withdrew to the west bank of
the  Rhine,  the  Sygambri  re-occupied
their fonner seats, and, at a later period,
formed one of the great confederacy of
tribes who took  the  common name of
Franks.  (See Germany, History of, and
Franks.)
  Sylla.  (See Sulla.)
  Syllabic Alphabet.  (See Syllable.)
  Syllable (from the Greek avWaim, lit-
erally comprehension,  or collection)  is the
least natural division of articulated speech,
or, in other words, syllables are the nat-
ural elements of speech.  Men have gone
farther, and, in most languages at least, 
106                      SYLLABLE-SYLLOGISM.
have divided syllables again into letters;
but the circumstance that the consonants
cannot be pronounced without the aid of
vowels (hence their name), or as syllables,
shows the natural division  of words into
syllables.  We may then say,  with Ade-
lung, a syllable is a sound  produced by a
single opening or closing of the mouth,
and, consequently, consists of one vowel
or diphthong, or of either together with
one or more consonants.  This definition
has some few exceptions, according to
the artificial divisions of some languages:
in general it is perfectly correct. A vowel
is always necessary for a syllable, though
it may not always be written, nor even be
supposed, by particular nations, to exist.
It is evident that it would be  impossible
to pronounce such a word  as Srb, the na-
tive name for Servia, without supplying
some  vowel sound.   Syllabic alphabets
are such as have signs for all the syllables
composing the language, and for the syl-
lables only.  Such is the Cherokee alpha-
bet, Which has eighty-five  signs, or char-
acters, for its  elementary syllables, and
which has  been spoken  of in the arti-
cle Indian Languages, appendix to vol-
ume vi.
  Syllabub ; a  kind of drink, ordinarily
made of white   wine and  sugar, into
which some  new milk is thrown  by  a
syringe.
  Syllogism (onXAoy.oyios), in logic; an ar-
gument or  form of reasoning, consisting
of three propositions, having this proper-
ty, that the conclusion necessarily follows
from the two premises, so that if the first
and second  propositions  be granted, the
conclusion must  be also granted.  If the
premises be only probable, or contingent,
the syllogism is  said  to be dialectical; if
they be certain,  apodictical; if false, un-
der an appearance of truth, sophistical, or
paralogistical.  As often as the mind ob-
serves any two notions to agree with a third,
which is done in two propositions, it im-
mediately concludes that they agree with
each other ; or, if it finds that one of them
agrees, and the other disagrees, which  is
likewise done in two propositions, it imme-
diately pronounces that they disagree with
each other; and  such is a syllogism.  Of
the three propositions  of which a syllo-
gism consists, the first is, by way of emi-
nence, called the proposition, as being the
basis  of the  argument; the second, the
assumption, as being assumed to assist in
inferring the third; and  both, the prem-
ises, as being antecedent to it The first is
called the major, the second the minor, the
third  the conclusion.   As  the  conclusion
is the principal part, it hence arises that
though  the  proposition  and assumption
have each  its subject and attribute, yet
the subject  and attribute  of a syllogism
are properly understood of the conclu-
sion.  In the constitution of a syllogism
we may consider the matter and the form
of it.  The matter is three propositions
made up of three ideas, or terms, vari-
ously joined, and called the major, minor
and middle.  The following proposition,
for instance, forms a syllogism :—Every
animal lives; man is an animal; therefore
man  lives.   The predicate of the conclu-
sion is called the major term, because it is
generally of larger extent than the minor
term, or subject.  The  major and  minor
terms are called the extremes.  The mid-
dle term, or  medium, is the third idea, so
disposed in two  propositions as to show
the connexion between the major and the
minor term in the conclusion; whence the
middle term is sometimes called the argu-
ment.  The proposition which contains
the predicate of the conclusion, connected
with the middle term, is usually called the
major proposition: that which connects the
middle term with the subject of the con-
clusion is called the minor proposition.  In
a regular syllogism, the major proposition
is  placed first, the minor second, and the
conclusion last. Syllogisms are distributed,
with regard to the question to be proved,
into universal affinnative, universal nega-
tive,  particular affirmative and ; articular
negative, and with respect to their nature
and  composition,  into  single and com-
pound.  Single syllogisms may be divided
into  simple,  complex  and conjunctive.
Simple,  or categorical  syllogisms,  are
made up of three plain, single or categor-
ical  propositions,  in which  the  middle
term  is evidently and  regularly  joined
with one part of the question in the ma-
jor,  and with the other in the  minor,
whence  follows  a plain, single conclu-
sion.   A  complex syllogism  is  that  in
which the whole middle term is not con-
nected  with the whole  subject,  or the
whole predicate,  in two distinct proposi-
tions, but is intermingled, and compared
with them  by parts, thus:—The sun is  a
senseless being; the Persians worshipped
the  sun;  therefore  the  Persians wor-
shipped a  senseless being.  Conjunctive
syllogisms  are those in which one of the
premises—viz. the major—has  distinct
parts joined by a conjunction or some such
particle of speech. Compound syllogisms
are made up of two or more single ones,
and  may be  resolved into them.  The
chief kinds are the  epichirema, dilemma, 
SYLLOGISM—SYMBOL.
107
prosyllogismus and sorites.   A syllogism
in which one  of the premises is sup-
pressed,  but so as to be understood,  is
called an enthymeme.
  Sylvester II, whose true  name was
Gerbert, was born of an obscure  family
in Auvergne, and at an early age entered
the monastery of St.  Gerard, in Aurillac.
After laying a foundation for  all the sci-
ences cultivated in that age, he travelled
into Spain  to hear the Arabian doctors,
and, at length,  became so  distinguished,
that he  was appointed  by Hugh  Capet
preceptor to his son  Robert.   Otho III,
emperor, who  had also been  his  pupil,
conferred upon him the archbishopric of
Ravenna; and  on the death of Gregory
V,  in 999,  procured  his election  to the
papacy,  when he  took the name of Syl-
vester.   He acted with great vigor in this
capacity, and maintained the  power of
the  church with a high hand.  He was
also a great promoter of learning,  and a
proficient in various  branches of science
himself.   He expended large sums in the
collection of books; composed a number
of works, particularly on arithmetic and
geometry; and with his own hands made
a clock, a  globe,  and an  astrolabe.   A
number  of his letters, on various subjects,
were printed at Paris in 1611; but the
most complete collection has been given
by Du Chesne.  He died in 1003.
   Sylvius, ./Eneas.   (See Piccolomini.)
   Symbol (in Greek avi>fio\ov; Latin, sym-
bolum ; from ovpfiaWtiv, to suspect, divine,
and compare); a word of various  mean-
ing  even with the ancients, who used it
to denote a sign, a mark, watchword, sig-
nal, token, seal-ring, &c.  Its meaning is
still more various in modern times.  Sym-
bol is generally used as synonymous with
emblem.   It is not confined, however, to
visible figures, but embraces every repre-
sentation of an idea by an image, whether
the latter is presented immediately to the
senses,  or  merely brought before the
mind by words.  Men, in the  infancy of
society,   were  incapable  of  abstract
thought, and could convey truths only by
means of sensible images.  In fact, man
at all times has a strong propensity  to
clothe thoughts and feelings in images, to
make them more striking and living; and,
in the early periods  of  our race, when
man lived  in intimate communion with
nature, he  readily found, in natural ob-
jects, forms and images for the expression
of moral truths; and even his conceptions
of the Deity were derived directly from
natural objects.   Every thing  in nature
was an  image  and  sign of the  Deity;
every natural phenomenon was regarded
as divine.  The priests, who had advanced
in intelligence beyond the great body of
the people, when they attempted to com-
municate such ideas  of the Deity as the
people did not find directly in nature, or
to explain the laws of nature, were oblig-
ed to use images to make themselves un-
derstood.   These  images were in part
verbal, in part addressed immediately to
the senses.   But,  however strikingly a
symbol may embody an idea, it is always
attended  with some uncertainty and lia-
bility to various interpretations.  The at-
tribute (q. v.) differs from the symbol in
this circumstance, that the former is only
a peculiar sign, added to an image for the
sake of more perfect representation ; the
latter  is independent and intelligible of
itself:  all attributes are symbols, but all
symbols are not attributes.  Though at-
tributes are used to express not only moral
conceptions, but also actions and histori-
cal facts, they still remain a kind of sym-
bols, expressive of the  spirit and  essen-
tial character of the action or fact.   Alle-
gory (q. v.) always has an artificial, labor-
ed character:  the  symbol ought to be a
natural expression  of an idea.  It is not
necessary  that the symbol should comply
with the rules of art, and be beautiful in
itself;  the chief thing required is, that
it should  actually  designate ideas in a
lively  manner.  Thus the forms in Indian
and other mythologies, often strange, and
sometimes even disgusting, are not less
genuine symbols, than the harmonious
and beautiful forms of the Greeks.   In a
narrower sense, however, the images and
conceptions of Greek mythology and art
have been called, in modern times, sym-
bolical, and contradistinguished  to the al-
legorical.   In this case, symbolical  means
chiefly the perfect  embodying of the
spiritual in a form entirely appropriate to
the idea.  The symbol relates particularly
to the highest ideas—those of a religious
character.  The idea may be more or less
perfectly  apprehended,  so that  the  same
symbol may convey very different notions
to different persons. Thus we find the
same  symbols which were presented to
the people in the rude forms of ancient
heathenism, and which  the people but
imperfectly underetood, preserved also in
the most  elevated  systems of philosophi-
cal religion, with their meaning fully un-
veiled.  The initiated fully understood the
symbol; the  people, who had perhaps
lost its original  signification, required to
have it explained to them.  The more a
religion is confined within the  limits of 
108
SYMBOLS, CHRISTIAN.
the visible world, the more immediately its
doctrines are derived from tiie phenomena
of nature; the richer is it in symbols; whilst
a revealed religion, whose  doctrines are
addressed more directly to the intellect,
and contain ideas beyond the circle of
the phenomena of nature, will  become
necessarily poorer in symbols, and richer
in distinct notions.  Paganism, therefore,
abounds so much more in symbols than
Judaism and Christianity.  Symbols are
also the signs through which the Deity
is believed  to reveal his will, or unveil
futurity, or  manifest his power.   Such
signs may be particular displays of the
powers of  nature, or  voices, prophetic
words,  and oracles.    The word symbol
further received a particular application
in the Greek  mysteries, which clothed
their mysterious doctrines in symbols and
maxims, not only in order to veil them
from the uninitiated, but also  to present
them to the initiated in the most expres-
sive images.  And, as the initiated recog-
nised each  other by  signs and  words,
which were peculiar to  the mysteries, and
presupposed the knowledge of their mean-
ing, such signs were  called also symbols.
But as the use of  such  signs recalled also
the sacred obligation entered into at the
time of initiation, particularly that of si-
lence, and  of Uving in a manner corre-
sponding to the doctrines of the mysteries,
therefore a sacred obligation, a vow, made
to God, a fellow man,  or a society, was
called au/i/SoXov, which term is also applied
to the oath of soldiers,  and to the  watch-
word or sign by which  those on the same
side recognised each other, or communi-
cated something to one another in a way
unintelligible  to  the  enemy.   Symbol
also signified a token,  by which those
who had  given and  received  hospitable
entertainment recognised each  other at a
future time, or which was given as a pledge
of any contract or obligation.
  Christian Symbols.  The various mean-
ings of the word symbol, all originating
from one root, existed already, as we have
seen, before the Christian era, and natu-
rally found their application in the Chris-
tian church. There was already a sacred
meaning connected with the word; and
opposed to paganism as the first  Chris-
tians were,  and averse  to  receive any
thing of it into their church, yet a word
of this  character  would  not appear ob-
jectionable to them.  Besides, the anxious
fear of every thing which savored of pa-
ganism, had already considerably dimin-
ished when the  word symbol became
general among  Christians.   Christian
teachers may even  have felt themselves
called upon to show that they also  had
their symbols, when the persons initiated
into the heathen mysteries  often boldly
opposed their doctrines  to  those of the
Christians, and pointed to their mysteri-
ous symbols as means of distinction  and
sanctification.   The Christians also treat-
ed their symbolic doctrines  and rites as
sanctifying rites, constituting signs of rec-
ognition and  means  of union  among
the membere  of their  community,  and
separating them from the whole of pagan-
ism and Judaism.   They therefore called
the sacraments symbols, as  visible signs
of an invisible  salvation; and not  only
signs, but, properly  speaking, pledges of
this salvation, and of the divine promises
and  grace.  In this sense,  baptism  and
the Lord's supper,  as the proper sacra-
ments, are called symbols, yet always with
a sanctifying epithet; so also  are the water
of the fount,  and the bread and wine.
Symbols,  further, are  all Christian rites,
all exercises of worship, as  far as  they
are considered  necessary expressions of
the ideas designated by them. The sacra-
ments and rites are also symbols in the
sense of  signs  of  distinction;  because
every one who  partakes  in  them, shows
thereby  that he belongs to the  Christian
community ;  and even the mere sight of
the sacraments  was originally prohibited
to the unbaptized.   These symbols must
be distinguished from the types,  so called,
viz. the persons, rites, &c., of the  Old
Testament, which prefigured what is told
in the New.  Certain  signs of tiie Chris-
tian  church are symbols  in the proper
sense of  the word; as  the sign of the
cross, and the  Virgin with the Child.
Besides these, there are the symbolic attri-
butes, by which artists distinguish the va-
rious evangelists, saints, apostles, &c, in
their representations; e. g. to Matthew is
always added the man, to Mark the lion,
to Luke the ox, to  John the eagle—the
four creatures  which  appeared  in  the
vision of  Ezekiel.  The name  of sym-
bols is also given, in  the Christian church,
to those doctrines, expressed  in short for-
mulae, which are acknowledged by all
Christians ; therefore   to   the confes-
sions, so called, which contain the essen-
tial points of the  belief of the various
sects. The Holy Scriptures remain the
true foundation of faith  and  the rale of
the faithful; but the symbolic confessions
are intended to give a short sketch of the
opinions of all  the members of each re-
ligious sect respecting the truths to be ac-
knowledged as the essential doctrines of the 
SYMBOLS, CHRISTIAN—SYMPHONY.
IC9
Bible, and to prevent arbitrary interpreta-
tions of it  Symbols,  in this sense, are
not put  upon an equal footing  with the
Bible; but because, according to the opin-
ions of the sect, they contain the sense of
the Bible, every one must profess his be-
lief in  them, who wishes to be acknowl-
edged as a member of the particular de-
nomination.  (For the symbolic  books,
see Creeds.)
  Symbolical Books.  (See Creeds.)
  Symbolics ; the science which  treats
of the  symbols of the  various  religions,
particularly of the ancient religions, found-
ed on the  manifestations of the Deity in
the phenomena of nature, or whose doc-
trines are given in symbols taken from
natural objects.  (See the articles Symbol,
and Creutzer, George Frederic.)
  Sympathetic   Cures ;   pretended or
real cures, not by means  of physic, but
of the secret powers of bodies, which do
not necessarily come into  direct contact
with the patient, but have  a mysterious
influence on his condition.  The operation
is attributed to a  certain sympathy of the
sufferer with other individuals, or with spir-
its, stars, animals, plants, stones, &.c.  Full
belief in the  power of such means of
cure has a very great effect in such dis-
eases as are chiefly seated in the soul, or
in the  nervous system, e. g. diseases of
the mind, epilepsies, &c.
  Sympathetic  Inks.  (See Ink.)
  Sympathy (from aw, together, and nadu,
I  suffer), in  physiology,  is  that  qual-
ity of the animal organization, by which,
through the increased or diminished ac-
tivity of one organ, that of others is also
increased or diminished.  The idea of an
organized system—the  union of many
parts in one whole,  in which  all  these
parts correspond to each other—includes
the idea of a mutual operation, of which
sympathy is a part.   The medium  be-
tween the organ from which the action
proceeds and  that to which  it extends,
has been sometimes supposed to be  the
nervous system, sometimes the vascular
or the cellular 6ystem, or the juices; and
it cannot  be denied, that, hi some  sym-
pathetic phenomena, the nerves and the
vessels appear to be the media; but there
are objections  to considering them as the
cause of sympathy in general, for experi-
ence teaches, that sympathy takes  place
also between such organs as have no dis-
coverable  connexion by nerves or ves-
sels.  The phenomenon of sympathy ap-
pears even in  the  healthy body; e. g. a
strong light, thrown upon the eye, some-
times produces sneezing (q. v.); tickling
  VOL. XII.        10
causes laughing;  and some physiologists
have even called  the change  of voice at
the age of puberty, and the increased se-
cretions of the liver, the  salivary glands,
the pancreas, and the coats of the stom-
ach at the time of digestion, a sympa-
thetic action. But the effect of sympathy
is much more often observed in diseases.
There is hardly one in which some phe-
nomena are  not to be explained by sym-
pathy.  Sympathy is  further used  to  ex-
press the influence of the state of one in-
dividual upon another,  e.  g. the tickling
in the throat, caused by the cough of  an-
other person; or  the yawning produced
by  seeing  another   yawn;  or the sor-
row produced by witnessing  his  grief!
The effects  of animal  magnetism (q. v.)
are also ascribed to sympathy, and those
which the sight of some animals is  said
to have upon some men.
  Symphony (from the  Greek  trvp<pu>via;
in Italian, sinfonia). The word symphony,
in the ancient music, signifies the union of
sounds which forms a concert.  When
the whole concert was in unison, it was
called  a  symphony; but when one half
of the performers were in the octave, or
double octave, of the other half, it was
called  antiphony.  At present the word
symphony  is often applied by the French
and English to overtures, and other  in-
strumental compositions,  consisting of a
variety of movements, and designed  for
a full band.   The introductory, intermedi-
ary, and concluding instrumental pas-
sages in vocal compositions are also called
symphonies.   But  the Germans  use sym-
phony as  contradistinguished to  overture,
which, according to its true meaning,
ought to be dependent upon the piece to
which it  forms  the introduction.    It
should contain the  chief ideas of  the
piece, or at least indicate the fundamental
disposition of the  whole, on account of
which, most composers write  their over-
tures after they have  finished the  pieces
for which they are intended.  The sym-
phony, on the other hand, is an  indepen-
dent piece, and is therefore capable of a
fuller  developement of  musical  ideas.
Formerly the overture was used for  the
symphony.  Sulzer, in his General The-
ory of the Fine Arts, says, " The diffi-
culty of executing an overture well, and
the still greater difficulty of composing a
good  one, has given rise to  the  easier
form of the  symphony, which consisted
originally  of one  or  more fugue pieces,
alternating with dancing  music of vari-
ous kinds, and was generally called par-
tie.    The overture,  indeed, maintained 
110
■   SYMPHONY—SYNCHRONISM.
itself still at the beginning of great pieces
of church music  and of operas, and the
parties were used only in chamber music;
but people became tired of dancing  mu-
sic, unaccompanied by dancing, and were
at last  satisfied with two  allegros, alter-
nating with a slow passage.  This  spe-
cies of composition was called symphony,
and  used  both in chamber  music  and
before operas and pieces of church  mu-
sic.   The  instruments necessary to  a
symphony  are  the  violin, tenor  violin,
and bass instruments—a number of each:
flutes,  horns, hautboys, may  be  added.
Among the old composers of symphonies,
Benda,  Bocherini,   Dittersdorf,   Pleyl,
&c, were famous, but are now  mostly
forgotten.   The greatest  modern mas-
ters  in this  kind  of composition  are
Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven.
  SYMPLEGADES (Tvun'XriyaSes,  from  avu-
•fXr/rro),  to dash together); small  rocky
islands at the  mouth of the Thracian Bos-
phorus, which were fabled to strike to-
gether, and destroy ships, as they passed.
Juno conducted  the Argonauts  safely
through them,  and  Orpheus  rendered
them immovable by his lyre.  They were
also called Cyanean (<._uvtof. azure) islands
or rocks, from their blue appearance.
  Symposia;  the feasts of the  ancient
Greeks.  (See Feasts of the Ancients.)
  Symposiarch ;  he  who provided all
things  necessary  for a ovumaiov.   (See
Feasts of the Ancients.)
  Symptoms, in medicine; the phenome-
na of diseases, from  which we infer the
existence and the nature of the disease.
Symptoms  have their seat in the func-
tions which are affected by the disease so
as to be raised above their usual activity,
or depressed  below it, or even to become
changed in  the nature" of then*  action.
The organs themselves are often changed
in then* appearance,  structure, size, &c.
Symptoms may be perceptible by the pa-
tient alone (e. g. pain, and  all  change of
sensations), or by the physician also (e. g.
all diseased movements).  The  more a
function or an organic system is extended
through the body, the more  frequently
will it be the seat of morbid phenomena:
the nervous,  the vascular  and  the cuta-
neous  systems, for  instance, are affected
in most diseases; hence also irritability,
the power  of nutrition, &c, which ex-
tend through the whole organization, are
so easily affected by diseases, and  thus
afford symptoms.   If the latter are in the
organs originally affected, they are called
idiopathic;  but if they are caused by
sympathy  (q. v.)  in other and  distant
parts, they are called consensual or sym-
pathetic.   The  temperament, age, sex,
mode of living, &c,  of the patient, pro-
duce a considerable variety in the  symp-
toms of every disease. They are sometimes
further divided into symptoms of disease,
symptoms of  causes, and symptoms of
symptoms.   The first are the essential in-
dications of the disease: they may be
idiopathic or  consensual.  The  symp-
toms of the  cause  are such as are acci-
dentally produced by the cause  of  the
disease; e. g. when a cold, which pro-
duces an inflammation of the  lungs, pro-
duces at the same time rheumatic pains,
coughs, &c, the latter, being  of second-
ary  importance,  are  considered  mere
symptoms of the cause, which has pro-
duced  the chief disease—the inflamma-
tion.   Symptoms  of symptoms may be
illustrated by the case of vomiting, which,
being occasioned by a disordered state of
the stomach,  may itself produce great
pain, spitting  blood,  &c, which  would
then be symptoms of a symptom.   That
symptom which contributes  chiefly to
indicate a disease,  is called the pathog-
nomic symptom.
  Synagogue  (from  the  Greek awayutyn,
an assembly);  the place  in  which  the
Jews assemble on the Sabbath (Saturday)
to offer prayers,  and  listen to the reading
of the Old Testament and to religious in-
struction.   They were firet  introduced
after the Babylonish  captivity, and were
originally applied to purposes of instruc-
tion ; but after the destruction of the tem-
ple by the  Romans, religious  services
were  performed in  them.  Each syna-
gogue  has  a rabbi or president, several
elders, a reader, door-keeper, and a receiv-
er of alms.  The liturgy of the modern
Jews, of which there are copies  in He-
brew and the  modern  languages,  is  not
very different from the Christian liturgies,
which  were  formed  in  imitation of it.
It comprises prayers  for the Sabbath, and
for the fast and festival days. The date of
its composition is uncertain.   The nine-
teen daily prayers are recited every day,
either  in public at  the  synagogue, or
wherever the person may happen to  be.
In  the time  of our Savior,  any  person
could conduct the  services; but tins duty
is now usually discharged by a rabbi.
The prayers  are repeated aloud by  the
whole assembly.
  Synchronism (from aw, with, together,
and xpovof, time) is the placing together
the accounts of contemporaneous persons
or events.  To this method is opposed the
ethnographic (q. v.), which connects  all 
SYNCHRONISM—SYNDIC.
Ill
belonging to the same nation.   Synchro-
nistic tables are very useful.
  Syncope, in physiology and medicine;
fainting;  a considerable  diminution  or
complete  interruption of  the motion  of
the heart and of the function of respira-
tion, accompanied by a suspension of ac-
tion in the brain, and  consequent tempo-
rary  loss of sensation,  volition, and the
other faculties,  of which the brain is the
organ.  It takes place from a variety of
causes, some of an exciting,  others of a
depressing nature.  It is familiar to hyp-
ochondriac and  hysteric persons, and
may be brought on in all those  who have
much mobility  of nerves  by  any sudden
or violent emotion, or even strong sensa-
tion.   It is a very usual consequence  of
violent pain, such as that which accom-
panies a surgical operation.  Women are
more prone to  fainting than men, in con-
sequence of greater susceptibility to im-
pressions made on the nervous system.
But we find, even  among men, frequent
peculiarities of constitution, which, not-
withstanding general strength  of frame,
dispose them to faint, from causes  which
appear slight, such as certain odors, the
sight of blood,  a wound or sore, the pres-
ence of a cat, mouse  or spider,  or other
objects for which a person has conceived
an  unaccountable  aversion.  Sometimes
the cause is to  be found in disturbed di-
gestion, worms, and other irritations act-
ing upon  the nerves  of the  stomach or
intestines.' Other causes act more  direct-
ly on the circulation, as the sudden deple-
tion of the blood-vessels by haemorrhage,
or by large evacuations of any kind, such
as purging, vomiting, or  even  sweating.
The removal of fluids which  have col-
lected in any part of the body, such as
the hydropic water in ascites, or the mat-
ter of a large  abscess, is  often  followed
by  fainting.    Causes  which  suddenly
diminish the supply of blood to the head,
tend peculiarly to produce it in those who
are disposed to it   This sometimes hap-
pens from rising suddenly from the hori-
zontal position, and  stretching out the
arms towards an object  placed  above the
head, as in reaching a book from a high
shelf in  a Ubrary. Fainting sometimes
marks the invasion of acute diseases, and
is sometimes  a symptom of some me-
chanical obstruction  to   the circulation
from  organic affections of the heart or
of the large vessels in its vicinity.  The
recovery of the patient from the  actual
fit, is, in general, easily effected, by mere-
ly placing him  in  a horizontal  position,
dashing  cold   water  on  the  face and
hands, or chafing the temples with stim-
ulant  ammoniacal liquids; which may
also be  held to  the nostrils when the
breathing is not entirely suspended.  If
the fit is of long continuance, it is proper
to employ the same  means as are used
for the  recovery of  drowned  persons.
Frequent fainting, especially if it be found
to observe certain periods, or to occur
more  particularly  upon  waking in the
morning, is a mode  in  which epilepsy
very often commences ;  and when this is
suspected, no time should be lost in ap-
plying the proper remedies.
  Syncretism ; the attempt to reconcile
discordant  views, particularly  religious
views.  There  are various derivations of
the word.  Plutarch  (De Fraterno Amore)
derives it from the name of the island of
Crete; the tribes  of which, he says, en-
deavored to protect  themselves by com-
pacts  among themselves  against  internal
feuds  and  attacks from without.   The
Protestant parties were early called upon
to unite, like the Cretans, against  the Ro-
man see ; for instance, by professor Dav.
Parous,  of Heidelberg, towards the end
of the sixteenth and the  beginning of the
seventeenth century.   At a later period,      „, yt-5\
the word received another meaning, and        . ,.,.-4
was derived—probably more correctly—
from the Greek nv and Mpawvut (to mix). In
the sixteenth century, when the study of.  tf ■   . ...
ancient  literature was revived  in  Italy, **■' "   ' ' v
and Plato came in repute, in addition td ■«•■
the general favorite Aristotle, some schol-
ars, as Joh. Francis Pico (see Mirandola),
Bessarion and others, who honored Plato
much, but were unwilling to give up Ar-
istotle entirely,  were called  syncretists.
In the same way the  term syncretism was
applied to the union  of the academicians
and  peripatetics.   It was  particularly
used  of the  Alexandrian school.  This
word  came  into  general use  in Ger-
many after  the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, when  George  Calixtus
(q.v.), professor 6f theology at Helmstadt,
having acquired  liberal  opinions far  in
advance of his age, attempted a union of
the various religious  parties.   Syncretist
then became a word of great odium.—Se<-
Walch's Introduction  to the Controversies
of the Lutheran Church (in German).
  Syndic, in government and commerce;
an officer, in various  countries, intrusted
with the  affairs of a  city, or other  com-
munity,  company of art or  trade, &c,
who calls meetings, makes representations
and solicitations to the magistracy, &c.—
Syndic is also a  person appointed  to act in
some particular affair, in which he has a 
112
SYNDIC-SYNTAX.
common interest with his constituents, as
when he is one among several creditors
of the same debtor.
  Synecdoche,  in rhetoric; a figure in
which  the whole of a  thing is put for a
part of it only, or  a part for a whole.
This figure is of very considerable  lati-
tude, and is used, 1. when the genus is
put for the species;  2. when the species
is put for the genus; 3. when the essen-
tial whole is put for one of its parts ; 4.
when the  matter  or form is put for  tiie
whole being; 5. the  whole for a part; or,
lastly, the  part for the whole.
  Synedrium.  (See Sanhedrin.)
  Synocha, and Synochus. (See Fever.)
  Synod ; an ecclesiastical assembly con-
vened to consult on church affairs.  (See
Council.)  A synod may be composed of
a bishop and the clergy of his  diocese
(synodus di&cesalis,  diocesan synod), or
of an archbishop and the bishops of his
province (synodus provincialis), or of the
whole clergy of a state under a papal le-
gate (synodus universalis, or nationalis).
Synods, in the  Presbyterian church,  are
composed of several adjacent presbyte-
ries.  (See Presbyterians,  and Reformed
Church.)  The convocations of the Eng-
lish clergy are provincial synods; but they
have virtually expired.  (See Convoca-
tion, and England, Church of)  The holy
synod at Petersburg  is the supreme eccle-
siastical council of the Greek church in
Russia.  (See Greek Church, and Russia.)
The superintendents and inspectors, with
their parochial clergy, also form synods
In Lutheran countries, but rather  for pur-
poses of advice  and mutual encourage-
ment, than of exercising any controlling
authority.
  Svnonymes, or words having the same
signification, strictly speaking, do not ex-
ist in any language.   Different dialects of
the same language may indeed have dif-
ferent words  of the same  meaning; but
as soon as these pass from the dialect into
the literary or generally adopted language,
they either take  the place  of some other
word of the same signification, or receive
themselves a new shade of meaning, and
are then  added to  the others.  It is true
that the similarity in the meaning of words
is often so great that much discrimination
is required to ascertain the different shade
of each word;  and  an abundance of such
synonymes proves  great acuteness  in a
nation.  The  languages of the  East, so
rich in  metaphors and imagery,  manifest
 the vivid  imagination of its inhabitants,
 while most of  the languages of  Western
 Europe, by  their numerous synonymes,
demonstrate the acuteness  of those who
speak  them.  The  Arabian  language,
equally distinguished for the copiousness
of its  imagery and the number  of its
synonymes,  strikingly exhibits  the  wit,
imagination  and  discrimination  of this
people. The more  a nation advances in
civilization,  the more it classifies ideas,
unites the various species under the genus,
and  the  more synonymes  are required,
as they are words which,  with a general
resemblance, have  characteristic  differ-
ences, as cruelty and atrocity, riches and
treasures.  Synonymes form an important
subject of  philological study, and one
which  requires much knowledge  of the
etymology and  history of the language
investigated.  The want of works in this
branch of study was early felt.   Towards
the end of the second century, Jul. Pollux
wrote his Onomasticon—a work of some
merit,  on Greek synonymes.  Vaugelas,
Girard, Beauzee and Roubaud have writ-
ten on French synonymes ; Blair, Dav.
Booth  and  Crabb on English ;  Stosch,
Heynatz, Eberhard  (continued by Maass
and  Gruber), on  German; and  doctor
Ramshom  (Altenburg, 1828) has lately
republished the Latin synonymes of Du-
mesnil (Ernesti's edition).
  Syntax (awra^tt, construction); that part
of grammar which  treats of the manner
of connecting words into regular  sen-
tences.  A word expresses a single notion,
but by itself is little  more than an articu-
late sound, which, like the cry of animals,
intimates a wish or a feeling.  A succession
of such sounds,  properly  arranged and
connected,  becomes language.   The art
of constnicting sentences  is, therefore,
not less  important  than  the power of
speech; it is, indeed, the  intellectual part
of language, and  a  characteristic  of rea-
son. One class of words—the particles, or
the accessoiy parts  of speech, as they are
sometimes called—serve merely to indicate
the  relations  iu which the principal or
necessary parts (noun and verb) stand to-
wards each other, or rather, like the sinews
of the  human body, to bind together what
would otherwise be a heap of disconnect-
ed and useless limbs.  In every language,
there  is  some   fundamental  principle,
which  pervades and regulates its whole
constmction, although it may occasionally
admit of particular variations.  Passion,
or the excited imagination, for instance,
will often  violate,  as the grammarians
 call it, the general  laws  of construction.
 In some languages, the principle of jux-
 taposition prevails,  and  little diversity of
 arrangement  is possible.  The  relations 
SYNTAX—SYPHILIS.
113
of the subject, the  action and the object
are indicated by their respective positions.
In the transpositive languages, these rela-
tions are indicated by the changes in the
forms of the words; and the modes of
arrangement are various.  Still,  in  the
structure  and  disposition  of sentences
and parts of sentences, the logical rela-
tions of the thoughts must regulate  the
construction, even where it  appears to
be most arbitrary.  (See Language, and
Philology.)
  Synthesis (Uterally, connexion, union) is
a temi  used  generally  as  contradistin-
guished to analysis.  Combining and sep-
arating are the chief operations by which
we acquire knowledge:  the former, how-
ever, is  firet in  time.  When an object is
presented to our vision, we  form the idea
of a whole  out of its parts ; but the in-
tellect, in fonning general notions, sepa-
rates the given subject (analysis), and then
unites   (synthesis)  what  is common  to
several  things, excluding what is peculiar
to  each.   A synthetic  or progressive
proof or demonstration is one which pro-
ceeds from  the  reasons to the  conse-
quences, or from the  general to the spe-
cial : an analytical or regressive one  as-
cends from  the consequences to the rea-
sons.  This also explains tiie  meaning
of the expression  synthetic and analytic
method:  the former is that process in
science, which begins with the principles,
and from them deduces  a particular con-
clusion, as is strictly done in mathemat-
ics ; yet mathematicians themselves give
the name of synthesis  to  that part of
their  science which  contains the proofs
of the theorems already laid down; anal-
ysis  (q. v.)  they  call  that  part  which
seeks to form theorems.
  Synusia.ns.  (See Apollinarians.)
  Syphax, king of the Massaesv Hans in
Africa,  allied himself with the Romans
in the  second Punic war, but, being re-
peatedly defeated  by Masinissa (q.  v.),
was prevented  from joining  Scipio  in
Spain.  But this state of things was soon
changed.   Masinissa  was  deprived  of
his crown by a usurper;  and Syphax was
thus enabled not only to return into  his
dominions,  but,  deserting the  alliance
with the Romans, and joining the Cartha-
ginians, to  conquer the kingdom of his
rival.   Syphax, to whom Hasdrubal had
given hi marriage his daughter Sopho-
nisba (q. v.), who had been previously be-
trothed  to Masinissa, declared in favor of
Carthage, on  the  appearance of Scipio
and Masinissa  with  an army in Africa,
and raised a large body of troops in  her
cause, but was defeated and made prison-
er.  Livy says that death spared him  the
disgrace  of being carried into Rome in
triumph  by Scipio; but  Polybius,  the
friend of Scipio, states that he fomied a
part of the triumphal procession  of  the
conqueror.
  Syphilis (from the Greek o-i#Xo?, feeble):
the name now most frequently used  for
the venereal disease, which is thus called
in a very fine poem, written in Latin hex-
ameters,  by the Italian Fracastorio (first
printed in Venice,  1530, 4to.).  The his-
tory of this disease is  one of the most
difficult parts of the history of medicine.
It is uncertain whether that violent and
truly epidemic disorder of the skin, which
appeared in the last ten years of the fif-
teenth  century, was really what we now
call syphilis, or not rather a variety of the
leprosy, which  soon after  entirely disap-
peared.  Towards  the end of the fifteenth,
and at the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury, a disease appeared in Europe, till
then unknown, and which,  by its  rapid
extension, its horrible consequences, its
great contagiousness, the inefficacy of all
the remedies employed against it, per-
plexed the physicians, and excited a gen-
eral horror.  Respecting its origin, noth-
ing certain is known.  The physicians of
that time were, generally speaking,  too
ignorant to investigate the origin ofa dis-
ease which they were but rarely able to
cure.  Until lately, it was pretty generally
believed that this malady was carried by
the vessels of Columbus from America to
Europe;  but the most accurate examina-
tion of this  opinion shows its incorrect-
ness.   The first  author  who expresses
this opinion was a  physician of Nurem-
berg (Germany), of the name of Leonhard
Schmauss, in 1518: he founded his opin-
ion upon the  feet that the Guaja wood,
which had been introduced from America
in the mean time, had become known as a
good remedy for the disease; for, said he,
nature always provides an antidote in the
vicinity ofa poison. The principal support
which his opinion received was from the
testimony of the son of Columbus, and his
successor Oviedo; but the firet speaks only
of a disease like scald  head, said to pre-
dominate in St. Domingo; and the oth-
er, a tyrant, like  most of the Spaniards
in America at that period, delights in rep-
resenting his nation as the favorite people
of God, and the Americans as cursed.  A
careful inquiry shows only that the crew
of Columbus brought a contagious disease
with them, which destroyed the greater
part of their number, and  communicated 
114
SYPHILIS—SYRACUSE.
itself to those who had intercourse  with
them.  This  is easily  explained  by the
imperfect care taken of the health of such
a crew, and the uncommon hardships of
such  a voyage in those  times.  At  all
events, their complaint was not the vene-
real disease, as this broke out almost at
the same moment, in the summer of 1493,
in the south of France, in Lombardy, and
in the north of Germany.  Now, the ves-
sels of Columbus did not arrive till April
at Seville; and the disease could not pos-
sibly have spread  so  far from this place
within two months.  Others have sought
for the origin of this disease in the expul-
sion of the Marranos (secret Jews)  from
Spain, between  14?5 and 1493. Many
thousands of these unhappy persons died
of the plague on their passage by sea to
Italy,  Greece, &c.  Thousands  of others
sufir-red  by   the  leprosy;  and,  without
doubt, they carried misery and  sickness
with them wherever they went.   But that
this particular form  of  disease  existed
among them  cannot be  proved;  and,
moreover, though Germany was not vis-
ited  by  these emigrants,  the  syphilis
showed itself simultaneously, in 1493, in
Halle, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, &c. As
to the opinion that the venereal disease
had always existed in some form, it only
amounts to a play upon words, as a mere
diseased state of the  genitals  is far  from
amounting to syphilis, especially if we
consider  the  horrid  consequences which
that disease produced at the time referred
to.  The most  probable  conclusion is,
that  the  venereal disease  was  produced
by an epidemic tendency existing at that
time,  which gave this new  form to the
leprosy then  so widely spread.   The an-
cient  writers, for  many years,  described
syphilis more as a terrible disease of the
skin and  bones in general than as a  mere
nfftvtion of particular parts; more as a
plague than  as a disorder  of particular
individuals.  A new form of disease could
be developed the more readily, as the po-
litical relations of that time  brought the
nntions very  much  into connexion  with
each other:  Spaniards, French, Germans,
traversed  Italy,  and  all  these,  together
with the Italians, spread through Germa-
ny.  The disease brought by the sailors
from  America, akin  to scurvy,  may also
have  contributed its part.  It  is certain
that the  disease was then far more terri-
ble than now.  It made  the patient an
object of horror to his friends, and almost
inevitably reduced him to despair, as no
physician was able to aid him, and the
remedies used were almost  as  shocking
as the  disease.  Since contagion, at that
period, took place much  easier than now,
and houses of ill fame, which contributed
greatly to spread the disease, were found
every where,  the disorder  had  by  no
means  the same  character  of disgrace
connected with it  as at present.  On the
contrary, Ulrichvon Hutten, who suffered
from it for years, and at length recovered
his health  by the use of guaiacum, and
the strength  of his constitution,  always
enjoyed public esteem, and even dedicated
his work on the disease to the first spirit-
ual prince  of Gennany, without indeco-
rum or offence.  Like other diseases, it
gradually diminished in virulence, partic-
ularly after Paracelsus had found in mer-
cury, and Swediauer in acids, the most
effective remedies against it; and great
suffering does not arise from it at  present
except  in consequence of neglect. Yet it is
still a  formidable disease, as it  injures
more or less the general health, and lays
the foundation for other diseases of a very
obstinate  character—gout,  rheumatism,
complaints in the bladder, &c.   -l
  Syphon.  (See Siphon.)      **k
  Syracuse (now Siragosa, with a popu-
lation of 13,800 souls), anciently the chief
city of Sicily, and one of the most mag-
nificent cities in the world, with 300,000
inhabitants, is now greatly reduced, but
still has an excellent harbor, capable of
receiving vessels  of the greatest burden,
and of containing a numerous fleet.  The
ancient city  was of a  triangular fonn,
twenty-two miles in circuit, and consisted
of four parts, surrounded by distinct walls,
namely, Ortygia,  between the  two bar-
bore ; Acradina, extending along the sea-
side ; Tyche, so called from its containing
a temple of fortune (Tu^), an inland  di-
vision ; and Neapolis, forming the western
part.   At present, the only part inhabited
is the  south-east corner,  containing Or-
tygia  and a  part of Acradina.   Siragosa
is insulated, walled, and entered by draw-
bridges.   The streets  are  regular, but
narrow, and the houses tolerably built  It
contains an  hospital, and a number  of
churches and convents.   The cathedral is
the ancient temple of Minerva.  The pa-
pyrus (q. v.) is found in the neighborhood.
Syracuse  was  founded  by a colony  of
Corinthians,  B. C.  736.   It became  the
largest  and most wealthy city in Sicily,
and, according to Thucydides, possess-
ed a  greater  population than  Athens,
or any other  Grecian  city.  It  was  at
one time governed as a republic, at anoth-
er by  Gelon, Hiero, Dionysius (see these
articles, and  Timoleon), and other rulers. 
SYRACUSE
—SYRIAN CHRISTIANS.
115
It was besieged, B. C. 414, by the Atheni-
ans ; and  again, B.  C. 215, by the Ro-
mans, under Marcellus and Appius.  It
was defended near  three  years by the
genius and  enterprise  of Archimedes
(q. v.), but at last fell into the hands of the
Romans (B. C. 212), and continued in their
possession till the  downfall of their em-
pire.  Here are remains  of the ancient
amphitheatre, of an oval form, 300 feet in
length  and  200 in  breadth: the arena,
seats, and passages  of  communication,
were cut out of the rock.  The catacombs
(q. v.) still  exist, and form  a remarkable
feature of Syracuse.  They are only seven
or eight feet high;  but their extent is such
that they form a  kind  of subterranean
city, with  a number of  narrow streets,
some of which are said to be a mile long,
and contain tombs and sepulchral cham-
bers.  The speaking  grotto, or, as it was
called by the ancients, the Ear of Dionys-
ius, is a cave 170 feet long, 60 high, and
from  20  to 35  wide, with  so strong an
echo, that the slightest noise is overheard
in the small chamber near  the  entrance,
in which Dionysius is said to have listened
to the conversation of his prisoViere.   The
fountain of Arethusa  (q. v.), still a striking
object, from its discharge of waters, now
serves  merely as a resort for washerwo-
men.  Theocritus  and Archimedes were
natives of Syracuse; and  the  Romans
found here an immense number of works
of art, which they carried oft' to  Italy.
(See Sicily.)
  Syrens.  (See Sirens.)
  Syria ;  a country of  Western  Asia,
bordering on the  Mediterranean sea, and
forming  a part of the Ottoman empire.
(q. v.)  It is called by the Arabs Al-Scham,
or Bar cl Cham; by  the Turks and Per-
sians, Sur, or Suristan ; and in the Scrip-
tures, Aram.  It has Asia -Minor, or Nato-
lia,  to the  north, the Euphrates and the
great Arabian desert  on the east, Arabia
Petnea to the south, and the Mediterra-
nean on the west.  It is divided into four
pachalics, Aleppo,  Tripoli, Damascus and
Acre.  Square miles, about 50,000; pop-
ulation, 2,400,000.  The chief towns are
Aleppo, Damascus, Hamah, Hems, Jeru-
salem, Antioch ;   the seaports,  Alexan-
dretta, Tripoli, Bairout,  Saida  (Sidon),
Sur (Tyre), Acre and Jaffa.  The leading
features  in  the physical  aspect of Syria
consist of the great mountainous chains of
Lebanon, or  Libanus, and  Anti-Libanus,
extending  from north to  south, and the
great desert lying  on the south-east and
east.  The valleys are of great fertility,
and yield abundance  of  gram,  vines,
mulberries,  tobacco,   olives,   excellent
fruits,  as  oranges,  figs,  pistachios, &c.
The climate, in the inhabited parts, is ex-
ceedingly fine.  The commerce has never
been so great in modern as in ancient
times,  and has of late diminished.  An
extensive  land  communication  was for-
merly earned on from Syria with Arabia,
Persia, and  the interior of Asia;  but it
has been  interrupted  by  the disturbed
state of the countries.   Syria is inhabited
by  various descriptions of  people, but
Turks and Greeks form the basis of the
population in the cities. The only tribes
that can be considered as peculiar to Syr-
ia are the tenants of the heights of Leba-
non.  The most remarkable of these  are
the Druses and Maronites.  (See the arti-
cles.)   The general language is  Arabic:
the soldiers  and officers  of government
speak  Turkish.  Of the  old Syriac no
traces exist.   No country was more cele-
brated  in  antiquity than  Syria.  In  the
south-west was the  land of promise,  the
country of the  Israelites, and the cradle
of Christianity.  (See Palestine.)   Phoe-
nicia (q. v.), particularly its cities of Tyre
and Sidon, were famous  for  commerce.
Damascus was long the capital of a pow-
erful kingdom, and  Antioch  was once a
royal residence, and accounted the third
city in  the world in wealth and  popula-
tion.  Balbec and  Palmyra  still exhibit
splendid ruins of their ancient greatness.
(See the articles.)  Here have the Assyr-
ians, Jews, Greeks, Parthians,  Romans,
Saracens,  the  crusaders,  and the Turks,
struggled  at  different periods  for pos-
session.   Ninus, Semiramis,  Sesostris,
Alexander, Pompey, Antony, Csesar,  Ti-
tus, Aurelian,  &c.  ;  at a later period,
Godfrey of Bouillon,  Richard Cceur de
Lion, Saladin,  &c.  (see Crusades); and,
still more recently, Napoleon and Moham-
med Ali, have in turn  acted a part on the
plains  of Syria. Ignorance, superstition
and barbarism  now cover the land, and
no traces of its civilization remain but ru-
ins.  (See Turkey.)
  Syrian Language.   (See Semitic Lan-
guages.)
  Syrian or Chald.ean Christians is
the name which the  Nestorians give  to
themselves, because they use the ancient
Syrian in their religious  service: they
also possess  the New Testament in this
language.  This Christian sect was formed
in the  fifth century, by the union of the
adherents of Nestorius (see Heretic), who
had been excommunicated, in 431, by the
synod of Ephesus, on account of refusing
to call Mary the mother of God, and to 
116
SYRIAN  CHRISTIANS—SYSTEM.
give up the doctrine of the existence of
two natures in Christ.  Though this doc-
trine of two natures  in Christ was soon
after received into the creed of the ortho-
dox church,  and monophysitism  (see
Monophysites) was declared heretical, yet
the Nestorians, who  would only call  the
virgin  Mary  the mother of  Christ,  re-
mained excommunicated, and, towards
the end of the fifth  century, established
their ecclesiastical constitution under the
protection of the king of Persia, to whom
they had fled.  The other Christians in
Persia joined them in  499,  and they
gained many adherents in Eastern Asia,
where the Christians  of St. Thomas (q. v.)
also joined them.  In the eleventh cen-
tury,  they converted the  Tartar  tribe,
whose Christian ruler is known in history
under the name of Prester John.  His peo-
ple remained attached to Christianity and
the Nestorian faith, after having been re-
duced, in 1202, by Gengis Khan, under
the dominion of the  Mongols.   Until the
wars of Timour, in  the fourteenth cen-
tury, there existed, also, in Central and
North-eastern  Asia, Nestorian communi-
ties.  The Nestorians are believed to have
carried Christianity even to China, as has
been concluded from a Christian docu-
ment  of the year 781,  found in China;
and the connexion  of  Lamaism with
Christianity has also  been explained by
the influence of Nestorian missions. The
chiefs  of the  Syrian Christians are he-
reditary patriarchs.   The principal one
among them resided, in the fifth century,
in Babylon; at present, he resides at El-
kesh, near Mosul, in Mesopotamia, and has
the title Catholicos.   Under him are five
bishoprics.   He, and another  Nestorian
patriarch at Diarbekir, in Syria, acknowl.
edge,  at present, the supremacy of the
pope, and are, with  their flocks, united
Nestorians, who, like the united Greeks,
have retained their old rites.   They have
only been obliged to renounce the mar-
riage  of the priests, and to adopt the
seven  sacraments.   The  doctrine  and
worship of the Nestorians agree perfectly
with those of the orthodox Greek church,
except that they are hostile to pictures in
the churches, where they allow no image
but that of the cross to  be seen.  The
Syrian patriarch at  Giulamork, in the
high mountains of Acaria, and the bish-
ops and dioceses under him, do not be-
long to the united Nestorians. The Syrian
language is a Semitic dialect, and impor-
tant for the study of Hebrew.  The study
of it was first scientifically pursued by
Michaelis, the father, then by his son,  in
1748, afterwards  by the Swede Agrell,
and, since  that time, particularly by A.
Theoph. Hoffmann at Jena (Grammatica
Syriaca, Halle, 1827, 4to.).
  Syrinx ; a Naiad, daughter of the river
Ladon, in Arcadia.  Flying from the pur-
suit  of  Pan,  she was  arrested in  her
course by the waters of the Ladon, and,
calling  upon  her sisters  for aid,  was
changed by them  into a reed.   The wind
sighing through it produced sweet sounds,
which charmed the god, who  made him-
self  a pipe from  the reed, and called it
syrinx.  The  syrinx  was  composed of
seven pieces of reed, of unequal length,
joined together with wax, and was  the
favorite instrument  of the  Greek and
Latin shepherds.
  Syrtes ; two large sand banks in  the
Mediterranean, on the coast of Africa, one
of which was near Leptis, aud the other
near  Carthage.   The  Syrtis Minor, or
Lesser Syrtis, is in the south-east part of
Tunis; and the Syrtis Major (now Sidra)
in the eastern part of Tripoli.
  Syrups are viscous liquids,  in the com-
position of which are commonly put two
parts of sugar to one of some liquid.  Gen-
erally, water, charged with the remedial
principles of plants, is used in the prep-
aration of symps.  The process,  varied
according  to  the  nature of the remedies
employed, may be conducted with or with-
out heat.  These  preparations are like-
wise simple or compound.
  System (Greek, avarnpa, a  putting to-
gether); an assemblage of facts, or of
principles  and conclusions scientifically
arranged, or disposed according to  cer-
tain  mutual relations,  so  as  to form a
complete whole.  The object of science
is to collect the fragmentary  knowledge
which we possess, on any subject, into a
system,  classifying  natural objects  into
orders, genera and species, according to
their peculiar properties, or distributing
them according to their powers and re-
ciprocal relations,  and arranging maxims,
rules, facts and theories  into  an organic,
living body.  (See Method.)   System is,
therefore, sometimes nearly synonymous
with classification, and  sometimes with
hypothesis, or  theory.  Thus   we speak
of a mythological  system, or a chronologi-
cal  system,  in  the  historical  sciences,
of a botanical system, or a mineralogical
system, in natural science, &c.  So in
astronomy the solar  or planetary system
signifies that collection of heavenly bodies
which revolve around the sun as a com-
mon centre, and  the Copernican,  Ptole-
maic or Tychonic  system, the  hypothesis 
SYSTEM—SZIGETH.
117
by which each of those  philosophers re-
s-tectively explained their position and
motions.  The purpose of a system is to
classify the individual  subjects of our
knowledge  hi such a way as to enable us
readily to retain and employ them, and
at the same  time to illustrate each  by
showing its connexion  with all; and al-
though it may apjiear that a mere ar-
rangement of facts already possessed, im-
plies no  addition to our former knowl-
edge, yet  it is, nevertheless, true that a
simple and judicious classification may
suggest new views  and point  out new
relations of things.  The constituent parts
of a system are a fundamental principle,
which serves as a basis for the whole, and
a large collection of facts, from which the
various laws are to be deduced, which
themselves all flow together into the com-
mon principle.
  System, hi music.  (See Tone.)
  System  of the Universe ; a certain
anangement  of the several  parts of the
universe, fixed stare,  planets and comets,
by which their appearances and motions
are explained.   We know  little of the
universe by actual inspection: its infinity
escapes the grasp  of our  limited vision ;
but reasoning leads us to conclusions be-
yond the  reach of sense.  (See Astronomy.)
We first become acquainted with our own
globe, and with the other planets revolving
with it round the sun, by observation; and
from this little corner of the universe we
draw our inferences as  to the  rest   In
our own system, we  see the sun forming
a fixed centre, about which the earth and
the other planets, with their moons, regu-
larly revolve.  Our earth we know to be
the residence of organized,  sensitive and
thinking  beings: observation teaches  us
that the other planets of the solar system
resemble the earth in many respects; and
we therefore conclude that they are the
residences of sensitive and rational beings.
Further  observation makes  it probable
that the  fixed stars  are bodies like  our
sun, since they shine by their own light,
and never change their relative positions.
From this  we are  led to  conjecture that
each of them has its train of planets like
our earth,  and that there are as  many
solar systems as fixed stare.  Then, as ob-
servation proves to us, that all the bodies
of our system  are  mutually related to
each other, we  may conjecture that the
different  solar systems  are  not  entirely
disconnected  with each other.  Wherever
we turn our eyes,  we see  connexion, or-
der and stability; and we suppose these
laws to embrace  the   whole  universe,
which thus fonns a harmoniously framed
whole.  New  observations confirm our
reasonings on  this point:  they teach us
that the fixed stare, which were formerly
considered  absolutely stationary, have a
common  motion, which becomes percep-
tible only in long periods; and we are led
to the hypothesis that the whole host of
stars, with  all their planetary trams, re-
volve around  some  common  centre, a
central sun, which some astronomers sup-
pose to be Sirius.  The system of the uni-
verse is therefore the same, on a great
scale, as the solar system is in miniature.
This vast thought seems beyond our com-
prehension ; and the innumerable motions
of these millions of worlds in infinite space
elude our conception.  Here  are  per-
petual  motion  and perpetual order, pro-
duced by the common principle of attrac-
tion  which  binds the universe together.
All things  appear to be balanced against
each other;  but  the  Unsearchable  holds
the scales in his almighty hand.—There
are three systems of the world, or expla-
nations of the solar system, which have
acquired  most celebrity:   1. That of the
Greek  astronomer Ptolemy (q.  v.), who
conceived the  earth to lie  immovable in
the centre  of the universe,  while  the
heavenly bodies revolved about it in solid
circles: this is called the Ptolemaic system.
2. The Tychonic  system,  proposed by
Tycho de Brahe (see Tycho), was an at-
tempt to improve the former. It supposed
the earth stationary in the centre of the
universe, with  the sun and moon revolv-
ing around  it, while the other planets re-
volved round the sun.  3. The Copemican
system  is that which is now received, and
is demonstrated mathematically to be cor-
rect.   (See Copernicus,   Solar  System,
Fixed Stars, Planets,  anil Astronomy.)
  Syzygy ; the conjunction or opposition of
any two oftheheavenly bodies. (SeeMoon.)
  Sze.nt; Hungarian for saint; found in
many geographical names, as Szent Ianos
(St John).
  Szigeth,  var (properly Nagyszigeth, or
Frontier-Szigeth, to  distinguish it from
two places of the same name in Hungary),
is of historical importance on account of
its  heroic   defence  by count  Nicholas
Zrinyi.   (q. v.) Szigeth  js, at present, a
market town, on a low island, formed by
the Almas, and belongs to the county of
Schumeg.   It is fortified.  It  contains
one  Greek  and  two  Roman  Catholic
churches (of which one was erected for a
mosque), one Franciscan monastery, and
the castle of count von Festetics.  The in-
habitants are partly Magyars, partly Ger- 
118
SZIGETH—T.
mans and Rascian?.  The place has some
commerce.   As early as in 1556,  Szigeth
was  twice besieged without success by
the Turks.   In 1566,  the noble  defence
of it by Zrinyi took  place. When Zrinyi
at  last  preferred death to a dishonorable
captivity, not one of its defenders surviv-
ed. (See Zrinyi.)  The Turks themselves
admitted a loss  of  7000 janizaries and
20,000 men at  the siege of Szigeth.   In
1689, the margrave of Baden took it again.
Lon. 17° 56' E.; lat. 46° 8' N.
T.
T; the  twentieth letter  in  the Eng-
lish alphabet, representing the sound pro-
duced  by a quick and strong emission of
the breath after the end of the tongue has
been placed against the roof of the mouth
near the roots of the upper teeth.  The
strength with which the breath is emitted
in pronouncing t is all  that  distinguishes
this sound from that of d.  T is, there-
fore, a  lingual; it  is also a mute.   As d
and t are  so  nearly related, it is  natural
that they should often  take  each  other's
places, as is the case also with t and s, on
account of the similarity of their pronun-
ciation.  (See the article S.)  One of the
main differences between Lower and Up-
per German (see Low  German)  is that
the Lower German,  almost invariably,
puts a d where the Upper  German has a
t.   On account of the hardness  of this
letter,  it is used to separate liquids  or
vowels, as in the  German words kennt-
niss, offentlich, and the French fcra-t-U,
y-a-t-il. The English th, which, though a
compound character, represents but a sin-
gle sound, has two pronunciations, as in this
and thing: the former is a  sound between
d and t, and the latter between t and s; so
that foreigners  whose native  language
does not contain these sounds, often  say
dis and sing for this and thing, or nossing
for nothing.  The  Greeks had  a  proper
character to designate  the  consonant  be-
tween i and r, viz. e or &, which, howev-
er,  was accompanied by  a lisp.  The
Latins, who had no such character, used
the th instead, particularly in such words
as were directly derived from the  Greek.
The most ancient northern tribes  of Eu-
rope had also the sound of th; and their
runes (q. v.) had a proper character for it,
which, however, Adelung thinks  can be
proved  to be  derived from the Greek 0.
The language of the Anglo-Saxons also
contained a consonant sound between d
and t, pronounced with a lisp, like the
Greek 0, and designated by a character re-
sembling our p, for which their descend-
ants, when they exchanged the Anglo-Sax-
on  alphabet for the Latin, substituted th.
The ancient Germans  had no alphabet
which can be called properly their own,
but adopted the  Latin characters after
their conversion to Christianity.  It is not
known whether there existed a 9 in their
ancient dialects, pronounced with a lisp,
like onr  th; but it seems, nevertheless,
that they were sensible of a  sound be-
tween t and d, and made various attempts
to express it. The unknown translator of
a piece of  Isidorus, considered the most
ancient  German  writer, uses erdha for
erde, earth; dhuo for da, there; dhanne
for  dann, then; dher  for der,  the mascu-
line article; dhiz  for dies, this. Yet he
does not add an  h to eveiy d, and  writes
aOgrunidiu, mittungardes,  herduuom, &c.
The th appears more  rarely in  his works;
yet he writes anthlutte for antlitz, face.
The next writer  in  the order of  time,
Kero, uses  neither dh nor th, and  writes
teil  for thcil, part; tuan for thun,  to do;
tat  for that, deed.   Yet  Otfried, who
seems to have  reflected more deeply on
his  language, revived the th.    However
this may be, it is certain that the ancient
pronunciation of the  German  th is lost;
and there exists, at present, in that  idiom,
no middle sound between t and d, though
the Germans use the th in writing.  Theil,
thau and ruthe do  not differ at all in  sound
from teil, tau and  rute.   T is  used as an
abbreviation on ancient  monuments, &c,
for  Titus, Titius,  Tullius.  As a numeral,
it signified  160, according to the verse :—

    T quoque centenos et sexaginta tenebit.

T, with a  dash  over it, thus, 7p,  signi-
fied 160,000.  Among the  Greeks,  r de- 
T—TABLES, TWELVE.
119
 noted 300, and T, 300,000.   The a of the
 Hebrews signified 9; and with two points
 placed horizontally over it, thus, e, it denot-
 ed 9000. Sometimes the acute accent over
 this or  any one  of the firet nine letters
 multiplied its value a thousand times.  T,
 on  French  coins, denotes  the  mint of
 Nantes.  When the Roman tribunes ap-
 proved  of senatorial decrees, they sub-
 scribed  a T.   In music, T signifies tenor,
 also tace, to indicate silence ; and in con-
 certs it  is likewise the sign of tutti, a di-
 rection  to  the whole band to play after a
 solo. It also stands for trillo,  a shake.
 The word T is used also to denote things
 of this  form, as a T bandage, in surgery,
 one consisting of two bands which cross
 each other;  or the T palace  in Mantua.
 (q.  v.)—For the use of T in modern ab-
 breviations, see Abbreviations.
  Ta (great); a  Chinese word, used in
 many geographical  names, as  Ta-chan
 (great mountain).
  Taaut.  (See Hermes Trismegistus.)
  Tabard (now  corrupted  into Talbot);
 an inn in the borough of Southwark( Lon-
 don), from which Chaucerand his compan-
 ions set out on their pilgrimage to Canter-
 bury. Over the entrance is this inscription :
 " This is the inn where Geoffrey Chaucer,
 knight,  and nine  and  twenty pilgrims,
 lodged, in then* journey to Canterbury, in
 1383."   In the yard  is a picture  repre-
 senting  their  entrance into  Canterbury.
 The original house was, however, burnt
 down in 1676, when the present building
 was erected on its site.
  Tabby, in  commerce ; a  kind  of rich
silk  which has undergone the operation
of tabbying,  or being passed through a
calender, the rolls of which are made  of
iron or copper, variously engraven, which,
bearing  unequally on  the stuff*, renders
the  surface unequal, so as  to reflect the
rays of light differently, making the rep-
resentation of waves thereon.
  Tabernacle (Latin, tabernaculum, a
tent) is  used in the Hebrew writings for
the tent, or sanctuary, in which the sacred
 utensils  were kept during the wanderings
of the Israelites  in  the  desert.  It was
always placed in the middle  of the camp,
and  borne by Levites.  It was fixed at
Shiloh.  After the temple (q. v.) was erect-
ed,  the  holy  instruments were removed
thither.   The feast  of tabernacles  was a
Jewish  festival, designed to commemo-
rate  the nomadic period of the  national
history,  when the people dwelt in tents.
The feast continued  eight days,  during
which booths were erected and occupied
by those engaged in celebrating the cere-
 monies.—Tabernacle is also used to signi-
 fy the box in which  the host is kept on
 the altar in Roman churches, and for the
 niche or cabinet in which the sacred rel-
 ics,  images,  &c, are  preserved.    The
 Methodists often call their meeting-houses
 tabernacles.
   Tablature ;  a word formerly applied
 to the collection of signs used in a mu-
 sical composition ; so that to understand
 the notes, clefs, and other marks, hi such
 a way as to be able to sing at sight, was to
 be skilled in the  tablature.  The  chief
 signs were letters, ciphers, and, at a later
 period,  the lines indicating the  octave in
 which a note was to be performed.   Let-
 ters were used until the eleventh century,
 when the proper notes were introduced.
 (See Note.)  As the latter are an Italian
 invention, they  were called the Italian
 tablature; which  name, however, soon
 went out of use ;  and the old signs alone
 are now understood by tablature.
   Table, in perspective, denotes a plane
 surface,  supposed to be transparent, and
 perpendicular to  the  horizon.   It is al-
 ways imagined to be placed at a certain
 distance  between the eye and the objects,
 for the objects to be represented thereon,
 by means of the visual rays passing from
 every point thereof through the table to
 the eye; whence  it  is called perspective
plane.—Table, among the jewellers.  A
 table-diamond, or other precious stone, is
 that whose upper surface  is quite  flat,
 and the  sides cut in angles;  in which
 sense, a diamond cut tablewise is used in
 opposition to a rose-diamond.—Table, hi
 mathematics; systems of numbers, used
 for expediting astronomical,  geometrical,
 and other operations ;  thus we say tables of
 the stars ; tables  of sines, tangents,  and
 secants;  tables of logarithms,  rhumbs,
 &c.; sexagenary tables.
  Table Mountain, in Pendleton  dis-
 trict, South  Carolina, is about 4000  feet
 above the sea, and  3138 above the valley
 at its base.  It presents, on one side, a
 tremendous precipice of solid rock, about
 300 feet nearly perpendicular. Some have
 estimated its height to be even three times
 as great; and we have no measurement of
 it that can be relied on.  At the bottom
 of the precipice, a dismal valley is sank
 far below the surrounding country.  The
precipice, viewed from this valley, appears
like a mighty wall raised to the  heavens.
 The summit of the mountain is often en-
 veloped in the clouds.
  Table, Rodnd.  (See Round Table.)
  Tables, Twelve.   'See  Twelve  To*
hies.) 
120
TABLEAUX VIVANTS—TACITUS.
    Tableaux  Vivants.   (See Pictures,
  Living.)
    Taboo.   This word, significant of a
  peculiar custom  prevalent  among  the
  South sea islanders, is used, in general, to
  denote  something  consecrated,  sacred,
  forbidden to be touched,  or set aside for
  particular uses or persons.  It is applied
  both  to persons and things, and  both to
  the object prohibited and  to the pereons
  against whom the prohibition  extends.
  Thus a consecrated piece of ground is
  taboo; the act of consecrating it is called
  taboo, and the pereons who are excluded
  from entering are also said to  be tabooed.
  A particular article of food is  sometimes
  tabooed at a  certain season, in order to
  preserve it against a  season  of scarcity,
  &c.  The object of the institution seems
  to have been the imposition  of certain
  restraints upon a rude and lawless people,
  like the establishment of the  cities of
  refuge,  sanctuaries, &c, in the rude ages
  of European society.
    Tabor, the mount of transfiguration,
  is situated in Galilee,  about fifty miles
  from Jerusalem. (See Galilee, and Trans-
  figuration.)
   Taborites.  (See Hussites.)
   Tabular Spar, or Table Spar (Schaal-
  stein  of Werner); a massive  mineral,
  whose  primary  form  is  regarded  as  a
  doubly-oblique prism.  The cleavage in
  the direction  of two faces, intersecting
  each  other at angles of 95° 25', is easily
  obtained,  though in one  direction it is
  more easily effected than in  the other.
  The remaining cleavages  are  with diffi-
  culty distinguished; lustre vitreous, in-
  clining  to pearly,  particularly  upon the
  perfect  faces  of  cleavage; color white,
  inclining to gray, yellow, red and brown ;
  streak white;  semi-transparent to trans-
  lucent ; rather brittle; hardness about that
  of apatite; specific gravity 2.8  ; composi-
  tion  lamellar,  generally  longish,  and
  strongly coherent.   It is composed of
    Silex,................51.60
I    Lime,................46.41
    Mechanical admixtures,.....  1.11
                                  99J2
  Before the blow-pipe, it melts on the edges
  into a semi-transparent colorless enamel.
  By fusing lime and silex  in the requisite
  proportions, cleavable masses of the pres-
  ent species have  been  obtained.  It  was
  first found at Cziklowa, near Prawitza, in
  the Bannat of Temeswar, in several cop-
  per mines.  In Finland, it occurs in lime-
  stone,  at Edinburgh  in  greenstone at
  Castle hUl, and in Ceylon  along with gar-
net.   In the  U. States, at Willsborougb,
New York, upon lake Champlain, a vein
of it,  mixed with garnet, several  feet in
width, appears to cross  a mountain of
gneiss.   It  has  been found  abundantly
near Grenville, in Canada, and at Easton,
in Pennsylvania.   A variety of the pres-
ent species,  from Capo  di  Bove,  near
Rome,  was   first  called  Woollastonite,
but is now known to belong to  tabular
spar.
  TACHYGRAPHY,OrTACHEOGRAPHT. (See
Stenography.)
  Tacitus,  Caius Cornelius,  was  de-
scended  from a plebeian branch of the
celebrated  Cornelian  family,  and   was
probably born at the close of the reign of
Claudius, or  in the beginning of that of
Nero.  Of his education and early life we
know little.   He seems to have  been  first
appointed to public office  in the reign of
Vespasian, when,  according  to a state-
ment  of the  elder Pliny, he was  named
procurator of Belgic Gaul. On his return
to Rome, he was treated with distinguish-
ed favor by Titus, and was created ques-
tor or edile.   He himself alludes  to  this
circumstance, but in very general terms,
in his works.  In  the reign of Domitian,
he became pretor  (A. D. 88), and one of
the quindecemviral college, whose duty
it was to superintend the sacrifices.  Dis-
gusted with  the  tyranny of  Domitian,
Tacitus left Rome on the death  of his
father-in-law Julius Agricola, but again
returned, after the murder  of that mon-
ster, to live under the  mild government
of Nerva.  The  latter  rewarded his  ser-
vices with the consulship, A. D. 97.  He
lived  in the closest intimacy  with  the
younger Pliny, and had a very extensive
practice in the profession of law, acquir-
ing a high reputation as an orator.   His
domestic circumstances were  no less fa-
vorable : his wife, the daughter of Julius
Agricola,  was distinguished  among  the
Roman ladies of the time for her virtues ;
and it seems probable that the emperor
Tacitus was  a descendant of the great
historian.  The time of his death is  un-
certain ; but it probably took place during
the reign of Adrian.   We have four his-
torical works from his pen.   His  Annals
contain an account of the principal events
from  the  death  of Augustus to that of
Nero, a period of fifty-four years.  Books
6th to 10th  inclusive  are lost: the first
five books were discovered only 300 years
ago, by the  treasurer  of Leo X,  in  the
monastery of Corvey.   His History  (of
which only four books, and a part of the
fifth, are extant) begins with the year 69 
TACITUS—TADPOLE
121
A. D., when Galba wore the purple, and
ends with the accession of Vespasian (71).
His Germany (De Situ, Moribus et Popu-
lis Germanice), and his life of Agricola, are
his only other historical works.  "The Di-
alogue on the Decline of Eloquence is by
some  attributed to him.  (See QuintUian.)
The works of this writer have  been pro-
nounced, by the unanimous voice of his
contemporaries and of posterity, the mas-
terpieces of a great mind.  Racine de-
clares him to be the greatest  painter of
antiquity ;  and, according to Gibbon, he
was the  first historian who applied the
science  of philosophy to the  study  of
facts.   Independently of the value of his
matter,  which  is of the highest  impor-
tance, from the facts and profound views
of Roman history, during the  first half
century  of the  Christian era,  which  it
affords, his writings are incomparable,
considered as works of art.  In the choice
and disposition of his materials, we recog-
nise the comprehensive genius ofa schol-
ar, and the forming hand of  an artist,
bringing out order and unity in the midst
of confusion' and grouping the compli-
cated  details of life and manners in artful
and expressive pictures.   In drawing the
character of men and events, he displays
a  wonderful acuteness  and  strength;
while, amidst the corruption of  a  degen-
erate  and vicious age, he maintains the
elevation of a virtuous  mind.  His ex-
treme conciseness has no appearance of
affectation, but seems to be dictated by
the peculiarity of his temper and feelings.
His style is forcible, but there is nothing
labored in his expressions, nothing super-
fluous in his delineation : the  colors are
used  sparingly, but the  light and shade
are disposed with masterly skill.  Among
the best editions of his works are those of
Gronovius (Amsterdam. 1685, and Utrecht,
1729), of Brotier (Paris, 1771,  4to., and
1776,12mo.), of Ernesti (Oberlin's, Leip-
sic, 1801), and pf Pahckoucke (Paris, 1827,
folio).  The whole of Tacitus  has  been
translated into  English  by Murphy and
by Gordon!
  Tacking, in navigation.  (See Ship.)
  Tackle ; a machine formed  by  the
communication of a rope with  an  assem-
blage  of blocks, and  known, in  mechan-
ics, by the name of pulley.  Tackles are
used in a ship to raise, remove, or secure
weighty bodies, to support  the  masts, or
to extend the sails and  rigging.  They
are movable, as  communicating  with  a
runner, or fixed, as  being hooked in an
immovable situation; and they are more
or less complicated  in proportion to tho
  VOL. XII.          11
effects which they are intended to pro-
duce.  The application of the  tackle to
mechanical purposes is called hoisting, or
bowsing.—Ground tackle  implies the an-
chors, cables, &c.
  Tacksmen.  (See  Clan.)
  Taconic, or Taghkannuc ; a mountain
range on the borders of Massachusetts
and New York.  The two most elevated
peaks are west of Sheffield, the highest
about 2800 feet above the ocean.
  Tactics proper is the branch of mih-
tary science which relates to the conduct
of troops in  battle.   Elementary tactics
teaches the preparation of them lor it by
instruction in military exercises: hence
every species of troops, as cavalry, artille-
ry, Ught and  heavy infantry, &c,  has  its
peculiar  tactics.  Since the French, or,
we may say, since the American, revolu-
tion, tactics have undergone an essential
change.   In recent times, a difference has
been made between  strategy and tactics.
(See the articles  Military  Sciences, and
Strategy.)  The word is derived from
raxriKa, which comes  from tokt6s (ordered,
placed, commanded).
  Tactics, Naval.   (See Navigation, Na-
vy, and Ship.)
  Tadmor.   (See Palmyra.)
  Tadpole ;  the young  produced from
the eggs of the frog,  which is extremely
unlike the animal in  its  perfect state,
seaming  to consist only  of a head and
tail.   The head is large, black and round-
ish, the tail slender, and margined with a
broad, transparent fin.  Its motions  are
very lively.  Its food  consists  of small
water plants  and  different  aniinalcuke.
The mouth has very  minute teeth. About
five or six weeks after  it  is hatched, the
first change takes  place.  The hind legs
first appear, and, gradually increasing  in
length and size, are  succeeded, in  about
two weeks, by the fore legs, which are
formed at an earlier period beneath the
skin.  The tail now decreases, so that, in
a day or two,  it is quite obliterated.  After
this change, the animal leaves the water,
and covers the shores  in myriads.   The
sudden appearance of such multitudes of
young frogs  has  probably induced, the
popular but grouridless belief of their h'av-
}*ng fallen from the clouds in showers.  It
las now become a  perfect frog."  (See
Rana.)   Tadpoles, just  after they arc
hatched, are perfectly transparent;  and,
when placed before  the  double micro-
scope, the pulsation of the heart may be
easily seen,  and  the  blood protruded
thence may be observed in its passage
through the whole body. 
122
TJENARUS—TALC.
  T.enarus.   (Sec Tenants.)
  Tafferel;  the uppermost part of a
ship's stem, being a curved piece of wood,
and  usually ornamented  with  some de-
vice  in sculpture.
  Taffia, or Tafia, in the French West
India islands; that spirituous liquor which
is called by the English rum, made of fer-
mented molasses.  Taffia is  inferior  to
rum  in taste and smell.
  Taganroc, or Taganroka ; a town  in
the Russian government of Ekaterinoslav,
on the sea of Azoph, next to Odessa the
most flourishing commercial place in the
south of Russia; lat  47° 13' N.; Ion. 38°
39' E.  Its population, in 1823, was 14,000,
mostly  Greeks, and rapidly  increasing.
Only ships of moderate burthen can come
up to the town; and these must discharge
part  of their  cargoes at Feodosia (see
Caffa) or  Kertsch.   (q. v.)  These three
towns have each its peculiar government.
The  climate is mild and healthy, and the
country around is fertile, producing fruit,
corn, grapes, mulberries, &c.   Taganroc
was  founded by Peter I, in 1699.  Alex-
ander died here in 1825.
  Tagliacozzi.  (See Rhinoplastic.)
  Tagliame.^to ; a small river of Austri-
an Italy, emptying into the Adriatic, over
which Napoleon forced a passage, March
16, 1797, in the face of the  archduke
Charles, at the  head of tiie Austrian forces.
  Tagus  (Spanish,  Tajo ; Portuguese,
Tejo), the largest river of Spain, issues
from the mountains of Albaracim, a little
more than 100 miles from the  Mediterra-
nean.  Pursuing a south-westerly course,
it passes by Aranjuez, Toledo,  Talavera
and Alcantara, enters Portugal, and passes
by Abrantes, Santarem and  Lisbon, and,
about seven miles below Lisbon, flows
into  the Atlantic.  Length 450 miles.   It
receives the tide at a considerable distance
above Lisbon, but is navigable only as far
as Abrantes.  It absorbs  the waters col-
lected between two parallel  ranges  of
mountains. It  flows through a mountain-
ous  country, and  its current   is  much
broken by rocks and cataracts.
  Tahiti.  (See Society Islands.)
  Tai ; Chinese for fortress, in many ge-
ographical names.  (See Tchai.)
  Tail.  (For estates in  tail, or entailed
estates, see Entail.)
  Takrour.   (See Nigritia.)
  Talapoins ; priests of Fo.  (q. v.)
  Talavera ; a town in Spain,  lying on
the Tagus, thirty five miles west of Tole-
do.  A severe battle was fought  here July
28 and 29,1809, between the French, un-
der  Soult, and the English, under Wel-
lington, in which the former were defeat-
ed.  (See Spain.)
  Talbot, John, first earl of Shrewsbury,
a famous commander, born in 1373, was
the son of sir Richard Talbot  In 1414,
he was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ire-
land, in which post he  continued seven
years,  and  performed great services for
the crown, by keeping the native Irish in
subjection.   In 1420, he attended Henry
V to France, served under the regent, the
duke  of Bedford,  and,  by his  exploits,
rendered his name terrible  to the enemy.
He commanded the  troops  sent to  the
province of Maine,  and made  himself
master of Alencon.  He afterwards j oined
the earl of Salisbury at  the siege of  Or-
leans.  (See Joan  of Arc.)  Talbot was
soon after made prisoner.  After a captiv-
ity of three years, he was exchanged ; on
which  he repaired to England to raise
fresh troops, and, recrossing the sea, took
several strong places  in succession, and,
for his eminent services, was made mar-
shal of France, and, in 1442,  earl of
Shrewsbury. The following year, he was
appointed one of the ambassadors to treat
of peace with Charles VII; after which he
was sent once more to ireland, and the
earldom of  Wexford  and Waterford, in
that kingdom, was added to his honors.
The English affairs in France continuing
to decline, he was made  lieutenant-gener-
al of Aquitaine, in which capacity he took
Bordeaux, and received  the  allegiance of
several other towns.  Receiving intelli-
gence  that  the French were besieging
Chatillon, he marched  to its relief, and
made an attack upon-the enemy; but he
was left dead on the field of battle, 1453,
at the  age of eighty; and, the  English
being wholly routed, their expulsion from
France soon followed.
  Talc ; a well known and  widely dif-
fused  species of  mineral.   It  is rarely
seen under  a distinctly  crystalline form.
Its primary form is believed to be a right
rhombic  prism of 120° and  60°.  It is
sometimes seen in minute hexagonal plates,
and in  a figure resembling  the  frusta of
two cones, applied  base  to base.   Cleav-
age highly perfect; fracture not observa-
ble ; lustre pearly upon  the  faces of crys-
tallization and of cleavage ;  color various
shades of green, as blackish-green, leek-
green,  celandine-green, and apple-green;
streak  similar to  the color;  semi-trans-
parent  to translucent.  It exhibits differ-
ent colore,  sometimes in different direc-
tions;  sectile in  a high degree:  thin
lamina? are easily flexible.   It is one of
the softest  of all  solid  minerals.  The 
TALC.
123
 massive kinds present  a great variety of
 structure.  The composition varies from
 imperfect columnar to granular and im-
 palpable.  The individuals are sometimes
 strongly coherent with each other, or flat,
 so as to give  rise to an  imperfect  slaty
 structure.   The species talc  has  been
 subdivided into a great number of varie-
 ties  or  sub-species, the most  of which
 depend upon colors, composition and for-
 eign admixtures.  The varieties of dark-
 green  (leek-green  and  celandine-green)
 colors, inclining to brown, constitute the
 chlorite, which has been subdivided into
 common, slaty, and  earthy chlorite.  The
 first of these  contains  the  granular or
 crystalline varieties ; the second embraces
 those in which the individuals can scarce-
 ly be traced,  and  which exhibit a slaty
 texture; the earthy chlorite consists of
 such as are but loosely coherent, or al-
 ready in a state of loose, scaly particles.
 Immediately with those varieties of chlo-
 rite whose composition is impalpable, the
green earth  is  connected.   The species
talc  comprehends the varieties of pale-


                Silex,        62.00
                Magnesia,     27.00
                Oxide of iron,  3.50
                Alumine,      1.50
                Water,        6.00
                Potash,        0.00
                Lime,         0.00


 These   analyses, as  well as those  of
 several other varieties of the species, show
 that our information respecting its chemi-
 cal constitution is still very defective. Be-
 fore the blow-pipe, some of them lose their
 color, and are fused with difficulty ; others
are changed into a black scoria; still oth-
ers are infusible.   Common talc, indu-
rated  talc,  steatite, potstone,  and slaty
chlorite, constitute beds of themselves in
primitive  mountains.   The  latter often
contains imbedded  crystals of  magnetic
iron.  Common chlorite is found in beds
in rocks consisting chiefly of ores of iron
and calcareous spar with augite.  Other
varieties,  and,  among them,  the small
scaly crystals of chlorite and earthy chlo-
rite, occur in  veins of various descrip-
tions, and in the crystal caves of the Alps.
Green earth occurs in amygdaloidal rocks,
lining  vesicular cavities.  Tyrol, Salz-
burg,  Switzerland,  Sweden,  Norway,
Scotland and  New  England abound in
those varieties which by themselves form
mountain  masses.   The  soapstone  of
Cornwall is impalpable in its composition,
green, particularly apple-green, gray, and
white varieties, and is divided, in  popu-
lar language, into common, earthy, and tn-
durated talc.  Simple varieties are com-
mon talc; also such  compound ones in
which cleavage  is transformed into slaty
structure, or such as consist of columnar
particles of composition : earthy talc, or
nacrite, consists of loose particles, or such
as  are but slightly cohering; and indu-
rated talc refers to imperfect and  coarse
slaty varieties, in which this kind of struc-
ture is more the  effect of composition
than of imperfect cleavage.  If this struc-
ture be sufficiently  imperfect to become
coarse and indistinctly granular, potstone,
soapstone, lapis ollaris, or steatite, is form-
ed, which, possessing the united proper-
ties of softness  and tenacity,  may be
easily turned, and  wrought into vessels.
Four  varieties of the present species,
foliated  talc,  analyzed  by  Vauquelin,
slaty  chlorite,  analyzed  by  Gruner,
green  earth,  analyzed  also  by  Vau-
quelin, and  steatite  by  Klaproth, have
yielded
29.50	52.00	59.50
21.39	6.00	30.50
23.39	23.00	2.50
15.62	7.00	0.00
7.38	4.00	5.50
0.00	7.50	0.00
1.50	0.00	0.00
nearly white, or sometimes mottled with
green and purple : when firet raised, it is
so soft as to allow of being kneaded like
dough ; but, by exposure, loses a part of
its  moisture, and is then translucent on
the edges, yields to the nail, and possesses
an  unctuous feel.  A similar variety  is
met with in Wales.   It is included  in
serpentine, and sometimes embraces veins
of  amianthus.   The white varieties of
steatite, or those that become  so by cal-
cination, are employed in the manufacto-
ry of the finest porcelain ; other varieties
are said to be used in fulling. The Arabs,
according to Shaw, use  steatite in their
baths instead of soap; and it is confident-
ly asserted  that the inhabitants of New
Caledonia either eat  it alone, or mingle
it with their food.   Humboldt  says,  that
the Itomaques, a savage race, inhabiting
the banks of the Orinoco, are almost en-
tirely supported, during  three months of
the year, by eating  this variety  of talc,
which they firet slightly bake,  and then
moisten  with  water.    The   varieties
known  under the name of potstone have 
224
TALC—TALES.
been in use for the construction of a va-
riety of utensils from time immemorial.
It is particularly valuable as a fire-stone in
furnaces, and is worked into plates in the
fabrication of stoves.  Numerous localities
of it exist in the north-western part of Mas-
sachusetts, and, in 'Vermont, green earth
is used, both raw, as a green color, and
burnt, as a reddish-brown color, for paint-
ing houses, &c.  Its most important de-
posits are the Monte  Baldo, near Verona,
Iceland, and the Tyrol.   The Venetian
talc, a variety of common talc, ofa green-
ish-white color, formerly used as a medi-
cine, seems to be no longer in  use, except
for  the purpose of removing oil-spots from
woollen clothes.  The localities of com-
mon talc are too numerous to be men-
tioned ; a few, however, which are some-
what remarkable, may be  indicated.  At
Cumberland, in Rhode Island, it occurs
of a delicate green color, in large  colum-
nar pieces, which are contained in a rock
of steatite.   At Smithfield, in the same
region,  a beautiful  white scaly  talc is
found, in irregularly  shaped masses, dis-
seminated through white  limestone.   A
delicate apple-green variety of columnar
talc comes  from  Bridgewater, in Ver-
mont, where it  occurs in veins in a stea-
titic rock.
  Tale ; a nominal or imaginary money
in China, estimated by Americans as bear-
ing the proportion of 133 dollars to 100 tales.
  Talent.  (See Drachm.)
  Tales.  This term, though  used some-
what  indefinitely, may, perhaps, be cor-
rectly defined as signifying those  simple
fictitious narratives, in prose  or in verse,
which hardly extend beyond a single ad-
venture,  or  group of incidents,  without
the variety of plot and character which
characterizes the novel and the romance.
Thus it answers to the French contc, the
German marchen, and the  Italian  novelle.
(See Novel, and Romance.)  " A work of
great interest," says sir W. Scott (preface
to Lady of  the Lake), "might  be com-
piled upon the  origin of popular  fiction,
and the  transmission  of  similar tales
from  age to age, and from  country to
country.  The  mythology of  one period
would then  appear  to pass into  the  ro-
mance of the next century, and that into
the nursery tele of the subsequent ages.
Such  an  investigation, while  it went
greatly to diminish our ideas of the rich-
ness of  human  invention, would  also
show, that  these fictions, however wild
and childish, possess such  charms for the
populace as enable them to penetrate
faito countries unconnected by  manners
and language, and having no apparent in-
tercourse to afford  the  means  of trans-
mission."  While, in some countries, the
people have found  amusement in fictions
founded on  their remote history, or in
listening to  mythological narratives, the
natives of the' East  have long been cele-
brated for their tales or stories, founded
on familiar  incidents  and comic scenes,
or on wild  legends of good and bad spir-
its. The Hitopadessa (see Pilpay) of India,
and  the Thousand  and one  Days, Thou-
sand and one Nights,'the Tootinameh, or
Tales of a Parrot, &c., of Arabia and Per-
sia, are specimens  of the wealth of the
Eastern story-tellers in  these  narratives.
(See Arabian Nights.)  From their East-
ern neighbors, the Asiatic Greeks borrow-
ed something of their love for this amuse-
ment, as appears from what  we know re-
specting the Milesian Tales,  which, how-
ever, have all perished. The Gesta Romano-
rum,composed towards the close of the thir-
teenth century,  and consisting of classical
stories, Arabian apologues, and monkish
legends, was the great source from which
the Italian novelle, the French  contes and
fabliaux, and the English tales, were de-
rived.  The earliest collection of Italian
novelle was  the  Cento  Novelle  Antiche,
made not long after the date  of the Gesta
Romanorum, and composed of anecdotes
and stories from the romances of chivalry,
the fabliaux of the French trouveurs, and
chronicles, together with incidents and
jests, gathered from tradition, or of con-
temporaneous origin.   Then came  Boc-
caccio (q. v.), who  gave  a more dramatic
form, and more grace of style to his De-
cameron.  He was followed by Sacchetti,
Ser Giovanni, Bandello, Massuccio, &c.
They were imitated  in France in the
Cent  nouvelles  Nouvelles,  tales full  of
imagination and gayety, supposed to be
related  at the  Burgundian  court.   The
Cent  Nouvelles of Margaret of Valois
(q. v.) were of a similar character.  The
tales of the  trouveurs (q. v.), which  were
recited  at  festal  meetings  among the
Northern  French, are of still earlier ori-
gin than the Italian novelle.  Le Grand
has published a collection of them under
the title of Fabliaux ou  Contes du XII et
Xnt Sitcle (Paris,  1779, 5 vols.),  from
which a selection has been translated into
English by Way (Tales  of the XII and
XIII Centuries, second edition, with notes,
by Ellis).   A more recent  collection of*
these fabliaux was published at Paris, in
1823, in 2 vols.  (Nouveau Recueil de Fa-
bliaux et Contes, du XIIIet XIV Siecle,by
Mcon).   In  England, the first important 
TALES—TALLAHASSEE.
125
  work which marks the complete transi-
  tion from  Anglo-Norman to English lite-
  rature, is that  of Chaucer (q. v.), whose
  Canterbury Tales were borrowed from the
  same sources as the naiTatives of the Italian
  novellistsand the French/aWters,orimme-
  diately from these latter productions them-
  selves. (On the sources of Chaucer,seeRit-
  son's edition of Warton's History of Eng-
  lish Poetry.)—Of a different character from
  the foregoing, are the fairy tales and popu-
  lar stories of the nursery.   Of the  for-
  mer, we have given an  account in the ar-
  ticle Fairies.  Our common nursery tales
  are found to exist in the popular traditions
  of all the Teutonic nations, and  seem to
  be of  much  higher antiquity than  ro-
  mances and poems of much  greater pre-
  tensions.    "Jack the  Giant-Killer  and
  Tom Thumb," observes an  English wri-
  ter, "landed in  England with  Hengist
  and Horsa;" and the brothers Grimm (q.v.),
  who have recently thrown much light on
  nursery literature  in  their  Kinder-und
  Haus-Marchen (second edition,  3 vols.,
  1820), do not hesitate to refer the origin
  of these stories to the Scandinavian sagas.
  See, on this subject,  the article Antiqui-
  ties of Nursery Literature, in the Quar-
  terly Review, volume twenty-first.
    Talesmen.  (See Jury.)
    Taliacotius,  or Tagliacozzi.  (See
  Rhinoplastic.)
    Taliesin ; the most celebrated of the
  ancient British poets, and therefore term-
  ed Pen Beirdd, or the chief of the bards.
  He flourished between 520 and 570; and
  many of his compositions are extant, and
  have been printed in the Welsh  Archae-
  ology.   He was ranked with  the two
  Merlins, under  the  appellation  of the
  three  principal Christian bards.    Tra-
  dition represents him as an orphan ex-
  posed by the side of a river, where  he
  was found by Elfin, the son of Gwyddno,
  by whom  he was educated and  patron-
  ised.    He  studied in  the school  of the
  famous Cadog at  Llanveithin, in Glamor-
  ganshire, and, in the mature part of his
'  life, was  the  bard of Urien Rheged, a
  Welsh prince, as appears by many of his
  poems addressed  to that chieftain.  (See
  Bard.)
    Talisman (Arabic, figure) is a figure
  cast or cut  in metal or stone, and made,
  with certain superstitious ceremonies, at
  some particular moment of time, as when
  a certain star is  at its culminating point,
  or when  certain  planets are  in conjunc-
  tion.   The talisman thus prepared is sup-
  posed to exercise extraordinary influences
  over  the  bearer,  particularly in averting
disease.  In a more extensive sense, the
word is used to denote any object of na-
ture or art, the presence of which checks
the power  of spirits or  demons, and de-
fends the wearer from their malice.  The
amulet (q. v.) is much the same as the
talisman, though, according to some, it is
more limited in its virtues.  As they were
both used most frequently, and, perhaps,
originally, to avert disease, we find them
playing a conspicuous part in the history
of medicine, among all nations, from the
earliest to the most recent periods.   The
nature of the talisman has been very differ-
ent among different nations.  The Egyp-
tians made use of images of their gods and
of sacred animals, such as the ibis and the
scarabaeus ; the Greeks used little tablets,
inscribed with the Ephesian words, &c.;
the Romans employed various idols, which
they suspended upon the body by chains;
the Arabians and Turks make use of sen-
tences from the Koran ; and we also  find,
in the East, medals  of particular metals,
struck under a particular  constellation,
and  marked with magical  signs; in the
middle ages, reUcs,  consecrated candles,
and  rods, rosaries, images of saints,  &cn
were employed, and  still are, in some
parts of Christendom ; among some sav-
age nations, the fetich (q. v.), and, among
the American Indians (see  Indians), the
medicine, are of a similar character.  In
the middle ages, astrology, and the knowl-
edge of the virtues of talismans and amu-
lets, formed  an  important part of medi-
cal  science; and the  quacks of  modem
times sometimes have recourse to similar
means.  (See Magic.)
  Tallahassee, the seat of government
of Florida  Territory, is situated  in Mid-
dle  Florida, about twenty-five miles north
of Apalachee bay (lat.  30° 28'N.; Ion.
84° 36' W.), and is 870 miles from Wash-
ington.  The position of this town  was
fixed upon as the seat of government in
1824. It was divided into lots in 1825,
and  immediately incorporated as a  city.
In  two  years after the erection of  the
first building, its population was 800.  In
1830, it  contained about 1200 ; and  the
county of Lean, in which it is situated,
contained 6493.   The situation of Talla-
hassee is  remarkably  pleasant,  and is
supposed to be healthy.   The ground is
considerably elevated, and  the  country
around is high  and  rolling.  St Marks,
situated near the head of the bay, is the
nearest seaport.   An elevated chain of
rolling bills bounds the shores of the Mexi-
can gulf; and Tallahassee is three miles
north of this ridge.  The country around 
126
TALLAHASSEE—TALLEYRAND.
it is generally fertile, and is suited to the
cultivation  of sugar.   At present,  it  is
mostly covered  with  oak, hickory,  pine,
wild cheny, gum, ash, dogwood, mahoga-
ny, and  magnolia.   The  mahogany  is
nearly equal  to  that  from  Honduras.
fish abound in the neighboring lakes, and
game is abundant  in the forests.
  Tallart, Camille  d'Hostun, duke de,
marshal of France, descended  of an an-
cient  family  of Dauphiny, was born in
1652, entered young into the army, and,
after serving  under  the great  Conde hi
Holland, and  under  Turenne  in Alsace,
was  engaged hi the  brilliant campaigns
of 1674  and 1675.    He  distinguished
himself subsequently on various occa-
sions, and, in 1693, was made a lieuten-
ant-general.   In 1697,  he  was  sent am-
bassador  to England, to negotiate  con-
cerning the succession  to the crown of
Spain  on the death of  Charles II.  In
1702, Tallart was appointed to  the  com-
mand of the French troops on the Rhine,
and,  soon after, was honored with a mar-
shal's staff,   lie  subsequently  defeated
the imperialists  before Landau, and,  hav-
ing taken that place after  a short siege,
anuounced  his success  to  Louis XIV in
the following terms : " I have taken more
standards than your majesty has lost sol-
diers."  In 1704, he was opposed to Marl-
borough ;  and,  being taken prisoner at
the battle of Blenheim, was  carried to
England, where he remained seven years.
On his return to France, in 1712, he was
created a duke; and, in 1726, was ap-
pointed secretary of state.    His death
took  place in  1728.
  Talleyrand, Charles Maurice de Pe-
rigord, prince de, a distinguished French
statesman, and  one of the founders of
French liberty, is descended from an an-
cient family, to which, in the middle ages,
belonged the sovereign counts of Peri-
gord.   The  celebrated   princess  des
Ursins, who played so conspicuous a part
at the court of Philip V of Spain, during
the war  of the Spanish succession, was
his maternal grandmother.  Previously
to the fall of Napoleon, he  was known as
the prince of Beneventum, but since that
event, has been styled prince Talleyrand.
He was born at Paris, in 1754, and, being
designed for  the  church, was placed  at
the  seminary of Saint Sulpice.   The
young abbe de Perigord was distinguish-
ed for his wit,  his insinuating  manners,
his talent for business, and  his insight
into  character, and, in 1780, was appoint-
ed agent-general  of the clergy.  At the
breaking out of the revolution, he was
bishop of Autun, and had already dis-
played so much acuteness and dexterity
in seizing the hidden clew of affairs, that
Mirabeau, in his secret  correspondence
with Berlin, pronounced  him one of the
most  ingenious and powerful minds of
the age.  This judgment has proved pro-
phetical.  Elected  deputy of the clergy
of his diocese  to  the states-general, in
1789, he early foresaw, or rather  contrib-
uted to guide and hasten, the  change of
public opinion, and, on the 19rJi of June,
voted in favor of the union of the clergy
with the deputies of the third estate,  lb-
was soon  after named one of the com-
mittee on the constitution, and proposed
the abolition of tithes.   In the second
committee  on the constitution, he  like-
wise brought forward a plan for apply-
ing the church domains to the public use.
In the beginning of 1790, the bishop of
Autun was chosen president of the as-
sembly ; and the proposition for establish-
ing a  uniform  system of  weights and
measures  emanated from him.   At the
celebration of the anniversary of the 14th
of July, he officiated at  the altar of the
country; and he was one of the first to
take the constitutional oath imposed on
the clergy.  With the bishops of Lydda
and Babylon, the bishop of Autun conse-
crated the firet constitutional bishops, and
was excommunicated  by  the  pope, Pius
VI.   Talleyrand immediately resigned
his bishopric, and was chosen member of
the directory  of the department of Paris.
In 1792, he was sent on a secret mission
to England;  and, while the Jacobins at
home were denouncing him as the agent
of the court, the emigrants in England
accused him of being the  emissary of the
Jacobins; and the English minister order-
ed him to quit the country within twenty-
four hours.   M. de Talleyrand therefore
retired to  the U. States, where he occu-
pied himself in commercial business.   In
1795, the convention repealed the decree
against  him,  and,  in  1797, we find him
among the founders of the constitutional
society established at the Hotel de Salm,
where he read a memoir on  the advan-
tages of colonizing the coasts of Barbary,
and  another on the commerce of the U.
States.  His  influence soon began to ap-
pear in public affaire; and, in July of that
year, he was  appointed minister of foreign
affaire to  the directory.   It was at  this
time  that the commissioners of the U.
States (Gerry, Marshall and Pinckney) to
France were treated  with so much in-
dignity, and made the subject of a singu-
lar intrigue,  in which the name  of Tal- 
TALLEYRAND.
127
leyrand was  compromised.*   The influ-
ence of Mad. de Stael, which had been
employed in restoring him to France, had
also been the principal instrument in pro-
curing his nomination to  the ministry;
but the new minister, assailed on all sides
by denunciations, threats and complaints,
resigned his portfolio  in  July, 1799, after
having published a defence of his conduct,
entitled Eclaircissements  donnis par  le
Citoycn  Talleyrand  a  ses Concitoyens.
Lucien  Bonaparte was one of his most
bitter assailants at this time; and a mutual
hatred has ever  since  prevailed  between
them.   The return of general  Bonaparte
from Egypt again restored  the ex-minis-
ter to activity.   He was one of the chief
agents in the revolution of the 18th of
Brumaire (q. v.), and was, immediately
after, recalled to the ministry of foreign
affairs.  Here begins the most important
period  of his distinguished political ca-
reer, a second period of which is fonned
by  the  events  of  1814—15, and a third
dates from the  last French revolution, in
1830. The negotiations of Luneville (q. v.)
and Amiens (q. v.) were conducted under
his direction.  From this period dates his
great  fortune, which has,  however, suf-
fered repeated shocks.  Availing himself
of his official information on secrets of
state, he speculated largely in  the funds.
Having procured a brief from the pope, re-
leasing him from his clerical vows, he im-
mediately married Mrs.  Grant, his mis-
tress.  The refusal  of the  firet consul to
admit her to court had nearly produced a
rupture between Bonaparte and  Talley-
rand, which was avoided only by the for-
mer yielding to the wishes of the latter
on that pointf  When Napoleon assumed
the imperial title, M. de Talleyrand was
appointed grand chamberlain  of the em-
pire, and, June 5, 1805, was raised to the
dignity of sovereign prince of Beneven-
tum.  His credit with the emperor began,
however, to suffer;  and, in 1807, he was
removed from the ministry of foreign af-
fairs, but, at the same time, was promoted
to the post of vice-grand-elector, which

  * See, on the subject of this singular affair,
Lyman's Diplomacy of the United States, vol. i,
ch. 8 (2d edition, Boston, 1828).
  t  The following- story is told of this lady :—M.
de Talleyrand, having  one day invited M. De-
non, the celebrated traveller, to dine with him,
told his wife to read the work of their guest, in-
dicating  its place in his library.   Madame de
Talleyrand unluckily gc hold, by mistake, of the
Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, which she ran
over in  great  haste, and, at dinner, began to
question Denon about his shipwreck, his island,
&c, and finally about his man Friday.
gave him a seat in the public councils.
His opposition  to  the  invasion of Spain
completed his disgrace, and a war of epi-
grams and raillery was carried on in the
saloons between the conqueror of Europe
and his  disgraced minister.  The latter
was threatened with arrest; and, in 1814,
when Napoleon left Paris  to defend the
French soil, he  made an attempt to con-
ciliate the prince, by pretending  a  confi-
dence in  him which he did not feel, and
appointed him  one of the council of re-
gency.  The republican and imperial ex-
minister  was placed at the head of the
provisional government, April 1st, 1814,
and governed France until  the arrival of
the comte d'Artois.  (See France.)  The
influence of the prince of Beneventum
with the  foreign powers is known to have
been very great; but the secret history of
his connexion with the  Bourbons remains
yet to be explained.   The emperor Al-
exander  lodged at his hotel;  and, on the
12th of May, Talleyrand was once more
named minister of foreign  affairs, and in
June was raised to the  peerage under the
title of prince de  Talleyrand.  Towards
the close of the  year, he was  sent  as
plenipotentiary of France to the congress
of Vienna.   Napoleon made  some un-
successful attempts to attach  him to his
cause in  the hundred days.  The prince,
too sagacious to trust to promises dictated
by necessity, or faithful to  the new cause
which he had  espoused, was one of the
most  zealous promoters of the  declara-
tions of March 13 and 25 against the em-
peror, and, joining Louis XVIII at Ghent,
he returned to Paris with the king.  Louis
again conferred on him the portfolio  of
foreign affairs, with the title of presidenl
of the council (prime minister);  but Tal-
leyrand refused to sign the treaty so hu-
miliating to France, and resigned his post
in three  months  from his appointment.
Pursued  by  the hatred of the  imigris,
stigmatized as a traitor  by the liberal par-
ty, and accused of being the cause of the
death of  the  prince d'Enghien (q. v.), he
now lost all influence in  pubUc affairs,
though he still retained the post of grand
chamberlain  to the king.   In  1818,  he
once more appeared upon the scene of
politics, but in the new character of leader
of the opposition in the chamber of peers.
Here  he  distinguished himself in defence
of the constitution against the  gradual en-
croachments of the  royal power.    In
1827, he  was assaulted  by the marquis de
Maubreuil, who struck him  a  blow  on
the face,  which knocked him down. The
reason assigned  by Maubreuil  for this 
128
TALLEYRAND—TALLIEN.
attack was that he had been employed by
the prince to assassinate Napoleon, and
had not been rewarded for his labor in
making the attempt. (See Maubreuil.)  In
.1828, his fortune suffered considerably by
the failure of a great Paris house.   After
the revolution of 1830, the prince de Tal-
leyrand was sent ambassador to London,
where he has been the representative of
France  in the conferences between  the
five powers, for settling the affaire of Eu-
rope.  (See  the  sequel  of the article
France, in the Appendix to this work.)
Since the death  of  Casimir Perier, in
1832, he has returned (June) to France,
and, it has been rumored, would be called
to take the presidency of the council.  As
a statesman and minister, prince Talley-
rand can be neither compared with Sully,
nor Richelieu, nor Mazarin, nor Colbert;
he seems to be peculiar in his power and
his address.   While Napoleon  possessed
the genius of victory, Talleyrand possesses
the genius of politics ; and both together
were able to bridle  and annihilate  the
revolution.  Engaging without danger in
all the catastrophes which have occurred,
hovering unseen over the agitations which
he has himself assisted to produce, varia-
ble as fortune herself, he seems to be the
master of ceremonies to the revolutions
which have followed each other in France
with  such rapidity during the  last  forty
years.  His character and real agency are
perhaps  not  yet  well underetood, and
must be drawn by his own hand.*
  Tallien, John Lambert,  a French re-
publican statesman, born at Paris in  1769,
was the son of the porter to the marquis
de Bercy, to whom he was indebted  for
his education.  He commenced his po-
litical career as secretary to the deputy
Broustaret, and then  published a  daily
journal, called Ami du Citoyen, which
was affixed to the walls of the metropolis.
  * In answer to some remarks which fell from
lord  Londonderry concerning prince Talley-
rand, in the British house of fords (Oct.,  1831),
lord Wellington observed, that none of the great
measures which had been resolved upon at Vi-
enna and Paris, had been concerted or carried on
without the intervention of that illustrious person.
" In all the transactions in which I have been en-
gaged with prince Talleyrand,  no man  could
have conducted himself with more firmness  and
ability in regard to  his  own country, or with
more uprightness and honor in all his communi-
cations with the ministers of other countries, than
prince Talleyrand.  No man's public and private
character has ever been so much belied as those of
that illustrious individual."  Lord Holland added,
that no man's private character had  been more
shamefully traduced,andno man's public character
more mistaken and misrepresented, than the pri-
vate and public character of prince Talleyrand.
The Jacobins furnished the expenses of
printing this paper, the object of which
was to excite the indignation of the  pop-
ulace against Louis XVI and his minis-
ters.  Tallien soon became one  of the
most popular men of the  revolutionary
party,  and was  deeply concerned in the
terrible commotions of the 10th of Au-
gust, at which time he was secretary of
the commune which had installed itself at
the  Hotel de Ville, and which continued
its sittings in spite of the assembly, be-
coming the centre and origin of the in-
trigues and massacres of that disastrous
period.  Being nominated a deputy to the
convention, from the department of Seine
and  Oise, he often mounted the tribune,
and  was the constant advocate of violent
measures.  In the session  of December
15,1792, he strongly urged the immediate
trial of Louis XVI, objected to allowing
him counsel, and added new charges to
the  accusation  against  him.  He  after-
wards voted for his death, and against an
appeal to the people; and on the day of
execution, January 21, 1793, he was pres-
ident of the convention. He  took part
in most of the  sanguinary proceedings
which occurred  during the ascendency of
Robespierre ; and, after defending Marat,
assisting in the destruction of the Girond-
ists, and becoming the advocate of the in-
famous Rossignol, he was sent on a mis-
sion  to Bordeaux, where he  showed him-
self the worthy associate of Carrier, Lebon
and  Collot d'Herbois.   He  was checked
in this sanguinary career by  the influence
of madame de  Fontenay, a woman re-
markable  for her personal  beauty, who,
having been imprisoned at  Bordeaux, as
she was going to join her family in Spain,
owed her life to the compassion of Tal-
lien. (See Chimay.) He  took  her  with
him  to Paris, whither he went to defend
himself before the convention against the
charge  of moderantism.  After the fall
of Danton and  his party,  Tallien  per-
ceived that he should become one of the
next victims of Robespierre, if he did not
strike the first blow.  Accordingly, at the
sitting of the convention of the ninth of
Thermidor, 1794, he ascended the tribune,
and,  after  an animated picture of the
atrocities  which had  taken place, and
which   he ascribed to  Robespierre, he
turned to the bust of Brutus, and, invok-
ing the genius of that patriot, drew a dag-
ger from  his  girdle, and swore that he
would plunge it into the heart of Robes-
pierre, if the  representativesof the people
had not courage to order *%s immediate
arrest.   On the  morrow, Tallien had the 
TALLIEN—TALMA.
129
satisfaction to announce to his colleagues
that their enemies had perished on the
scaffold. (See Robespierre.) Being elected
a member of the committee  of public
safety, the Jacobins replaced his name on
their list  At this period he married his
protigie, madame de Fontenay.   He took
a part in all the proceedings of the assem-
bly, and used his power and influence to
promote the interests  of justice and hu-
manity. - This was the most  honorable
period  of his life; but the recrimination
and  opposition  which he  experienced
 frevented him from enjoying tranquillity.
 n July, 1795, he was sent, with extensive
powers, to the army on the coasts of Brit-
tany; but after the victory of the.repub-
licans at Quiberon, he returned to  Paris.
He subsequently became a member of the
council of five hundred, under the con-
stitution of the year HI; but his  influ-
ence gradually declined, and he was at
length  reduced to such a state of political
insignificance, that he thought  proper to
retire to private life. Domestic uneasiness
induced him to wish to leave France ; and
he followed Bonaparte to Egypt, as One of
the savans attached to the expedition. He
became a member of the Egyptian  insti-
tute, and editor of the Dicade Egyptienne,
printed at Cairo ;  besides being adminis-
trator  of  the  national domains.   After
Bonaparte left Egypt,  general  Menou
treated Tallien harshly, and obliged him
to return to France. The vessel in which
he  sailed  was captured by the English,
and he was taken to  London, where he
received much attention from the leaders
of the whig party.  The duchess of Dev-
onshire having sent Tallien  her portrait,
enriched with diamonds, he kept the por-
trait, but returned the  diamonds.  On re-
visiting his native country, he discovered
that he had lost  his wife, as well  as the
favor of Bonaparte, who was then  rising
to sovereign power.  He appears to have
been reduced to distress, but at  length ob-
tained, through Fouche and Talleyrand,
the office of French  consul at  Alicant
He died at Paris in 1820.  Madame Tal-
lien, having been  divorced from her hus-
band (by whom she had a daughter named
Thermidor), was married, in 1805, to Jo-
seph de Caraman, prince de Chi may.
  Tallow ; animal fat melted  and sep-
arated from the fibrous matter mixed with
it (See Fat.)  Its quality depends  partly
on  the animal from which it has  been
prepared,  and  partly on the care taken in
its purification. It is firm, brittle, and has
a peculiar heavy odor.  When pure, it is
white and nearly insipid;  but the tallow
of commerce has  usually a  yellowish
tinge, and is divided, according to the de-
gree of its purity and consistence, into
candle and soap tallow.  It is manufac-
tured into candles and soap, and is exten-
sively used in the dressing of leather, and
in various processes of the arts.  There
were exported  from  Russia, in 1831,
4,091,544  poods (63 to a ton) of tallow.
Large quantities are also exported from
South America.
  Tallow-Tree    (stiUingia   sebifera).
This interesting tree is a native of China.
It belongs to  the natural  family euphor-
biaceee.  The branches are long and flexi-
ble ;  the foliage so much resembles that
of the Lombardy poplar, that it might
readily be mistaken, were the leaves ser-
rated.   The flowers are  inconspicuous,
and disposed  in straight, terminal spikes.
The capsules are hard, smooth and brown,
divided  internally into three  cells, each
containing a  nearly hemispherical seed,
which is  covered with a sebaceous and
very white substance.  At the close of the
season, the leaves turn bright red, and as
the capsules  fall  off, leaving the pure
white seeds suspended to filaments, the
tree presents a very beautiful appearance.
From a remote period, this tree has fur-
nished the Chinese with the material out
of which  they make their candles.  The
capsules and seeds are crushed together,
and boiled; the fatty matter is skimmed
as it rises, and condenses on cooling.
The candles  made of this substance are
very white; and red ones are also manu-
factured by the addition  of  vermiUon.
Sometimes, three pounds of linseed  oil
and a little wax are mixed with ten of this
substance, to give consistence.  The tal-
low-tree is cultivated in  the  vicinity of
Charleston and Savannah, and, indeed, is
almost naturalized in the maritime parts
of Carolina.
  Talma, Francois Joseph, the greatest
tragic actor of France in  our day, was
bom  at Paris in 1763, but  passed his
youth in England, where his father prac-
tised  as a dentist.   He was sent to Paris
to complete his studies; and his taste for
the theatre was awakened by the dra-
matic masterpieces' and the performances
of distinguished actors which he here wit-
nessed.  The susceptibility of his tempera-
ment showed itself early. While at school,
he and some of his companions performed
a tragedy, in which he had to describe the
last  moments of a' friend condemned to
death by his father:  the situation affected
him so powerfully  that he buret into a
flood of tears, which  continued to flow 
130
TALMA—TALMUD.
  for some hours after the conclusion of the
  piece.   After his return to London, Talma
  associated himself with some other young
  men, for the  purpose of representing
  French plays, and displayed  such bril-
  liant powers as  to attract  the notice of
  distinguished individuals, who  urged him
  to appear on the London boards.   But
  circumstances led him to Paris, where he
  entered the royal  school for declamation,
  and soon after (1787) made his  debut at
  the Theatre Francois in the character of
  Seide in Voltaire's Mahomet.  He was
  received with applause, and  from  this
  moment devoted  himself with zeal  and
  perseverance to the study of his art.  He
  sought the society of distinguished literati
  and artists, studied history for the  purpose
  of becoming acquainted with  the man-
  ners and customs of nations, and the char-
 acters of remarkable individuals, and made
 himself master of the attitudes,  costumes,
 expression and drapery of the  ancient
 statues.  Talma rendered  an  important
 service to the French stage  by introduc-
 ing a reform  in the costume, (q. v.)   The
 revolution, which  now  broke out under
 his eyes, with all its scenes of violence
 and passion, its displays of exalted virtue,
 and its excesses of cruelty, contributed to
 develope his  pecuUar talent.  Chenier's
 tragedy of Charles IX, or St.  Bartholo-
 mew's, was brought forward at this time,
 and  Talma  studied the  character  of
 Charles in history, and his person in med-
 als and portraits, and exhibited them with
 such truth and life, that his  reputation as
 the first French tragedian was estabUshed
 beyond  dispute.   The  principal parts
 which he created,  or carried to  the high-
 est perfection, were Seide, Othello, Ham-
 let (those of Ducis),  Sylla (or rather Na-
 poleon,  of Jouy),  Regulus, the  grand
 master  of the  templars,  Charles  IX,
 Charles VI (of Delaville),  Manlius,  and
 Orestes.  He died  at Paris in 1826.—See
 Moreau's  Mimoires  sur  Talma (3d  ed.,
 1827).  Talma was the author of  Riflex-
 ions sur  Lekain  et sur VArt thidtral
 (1825).  « Talma," says madame de Stael,
 " may be cited as a model of power, and
 of discretion.in the use of it, of simplicity
 and true grandeur.  He  possesses  all  the
 secrets of the various arts:  his  attitudes
 recall to mind the fine statues of antiquity,
and the expression of his face, and every
look,  ought to be  the study of our best
painters.  There is in the voice of this
man a magic which I cannot describe;
which, from  the moment when its first
accent is  heard, awakens all  the sympa-
thies of the heart;  all the charms of mu-
  sic, of painting, of sculpture, and of poe-
  try ; but, above all, the  language  of the
  soul: these are the  means which he uses
  to excite in him who listens, all the effect
  of the generous or the terrible passions.
  What a knowledge of the human mind
  he displays in the manner of conceiving
  his parts!  He is the author himself, come
  again to realize, by his look, his accents,
  and his manner, the person he means to
  present to your imagination."  His per-
  son is described as  regular, but not strik-
  ing, his voice full  and  agreeable, his
  countenance approaching the antique, and
  full of expression.  These physical advan-
  tages were combined with a penetrating
  mind, a warm  imagination, deep feeling,
  and great sensibility.  It is well known
  that he was a great favorite of the  empe-
  ror Napoleon, who treated him with much
  distinction, and loved  to  converse with
  him.  Talma  was buried, according  to
 his own dhections, without any religious
 ceremonies; and  he likewise left orders
 that his children  should  be educated  in
 the Protestant faith; unwilling that they
 should belong  to a  church which con-
 demned his profession.  His wife, previ-
 ously known  as Mile.  Vanhove, was a
 distinguished actress.  She retired from
 the stage in 1810.
   Talmud  (from  the  Hebrew lamad,
 he  has  learned);  doctrine.   It signi-
 fies, among the modern Jews, an  enor-
 mous collection of traditions, illustrative
 of their  laws and usages,  forming twelve
 foho volumes.   It consists of two parts,
 the Mishna and the Gemara.  The Mish-
 na is  a  collection   of rabbinical  mles
 and precepts, made in the  second century
 of the  Christian  era.  The whole  civil
 constitution and mode of thinking, as
 well as language of the Jews, had gradu-
 ally undergone a complete revolution, and
 were entirely different, in the time of our
 Savior, from what they had been in the
 early periods  of the Hebrew common-
 wealth.  (See Hebrews,  and Jews.)   The
 Mosaic books contained rules no longer
 adapted  to the  situation  of the  nation;
 and its new political relations, connected
 with the change which  had taken  place-
 in the religious views of the people, led
 to many difficult questions, for which no
 satisfactory  solution  could  be  found in
 their law.   The  rabbins undertook to
 supply this defect, partly  by commenta-
 ries  on  the  Mosaic precepts, and partly
 by the composition of new rules, which
were looked upon as almost equally bind-
ing with the former.  These comments and
additions were  called  the oral traditions, 
TALMUD—TAMBOURINE.
131
in contradistinction to the old law or writ-
ten code.  The rabbi Juda, sumamed the
holy, was  particularly active in making
this collection (150 B. C), which received
the name of Mishna (q. v.) or second law.
The later rabbis busied themselves  in a
sunilar manner in the composition of com-
mentaries and explanations of the Mishna.
Among these  works, that  of  the  rabbi
Jochanan (composed about 230  A. D.) ac-
quired the most celebrity, under the name
of  Gemara  (Chaldaic  for  completion or
doctrine).  This Mishna and Gemara to-
gether formed the Jerusalem Talmud, re-
lating chiefly to the Jews  of  Palestine.
But after the  Jews had mostly removed
to Babylon, and the synagogues of Pales-
tine had almost entirely disappeared, the
Babylonian  rabbis  gradually  composed
new commentaries on the Mishna, which,
about  500 A. D., were completed, and
thus formed the Babylonian Talmud.
  Talus, in mythology; a  brazen image
which Vulcan gave to  Minos,  or Jupiter
to Europa.  It was endowed  with life,
and had a  single blood-vessel running
from the neck to the heel, and closed with
a brazen nail.  Talus was  the protector
of  Crete, and  went three  times  daily
around the island, to defend it against at-
tacks.  The fable says that he  prevented
the enemies of Crete from landing, by
heating his  body in  fire, and  then em-
bracing them with his glowing arms.
Other stories are also told of him, which
seem to indicate that Talus  was probably
a  brazen statue, serving  as  a beacon,
placed by the Phoenicians on a promon-
tory of Crete.   Medea, by her arts, event-
ually destroyed Talus, when she landed
with the Argonauts, (q. v.)—Another Ta-
lus is  mentioned; a son of the sister of
Daedalus, who invented the saw,  com-
passes, and other mechanical instruments.
His uncle became jealous of his growing
feme, and  murdered him privately; or,
according  to  some, threw him down
from the citadel of Athens. Talus was
changed into  a partridge   by  the  gods.
He is  also called Calus, Acalus, Perdix,
and Taliris.
  Tamahama.  (See Tammeamea.)
  Tamarind-Tree  (tamarindus Indica);
a large and beautiful tree of the East In-
dies, belonging to the natural  family le-
guminosa*.   The leaves are pinnate, com-
posed of sixteen or eighteen pairs of ses-
sile leaflets, which are  half an inch only
in length, and one sixth in breadth.   The
flowers are disposed, five or six together,
in loose clusters: the petals are  yellowish,
and beautifully variegated with red veins.
The pods are thick, compressed, and of a
dull brown color when ripe.  The seeds
are flat, angular, hard and shining, and
are lodged  in a dark, soft, adhesive pulp.
The tamarind-tree exists also in Arabia,
Egypt, and other parts of Africa; but that
of the West Indies is perhaps a different
species, distinguished by the shortness of
the pods, which contain two, three or four
seeds only.   In the West Indies, the pods
are gathered in  June, July and August,
when fully ripe;  and the fruit, being freed
from the shelly fragments, is placed in
layers in a cask, and boiling syrup poured
over it till the cask is filled: the  syrup
pervades every part quite down to  the
bottom; and when cool the cask is head-
ed  for  sale.  The East India tamarinds
are darker  colored  and  drier,  are more
esteemed, and are said  to be preserved
without sugar.  This fruit has an agreea-
ble acid and sweetish taste, is refrigerant
and gently laxative.  A simple infusion in
warm water forms a very grateful bever-
age, which  is  advantageously used  in
febrile  diseases.   The Turks and Arabs
carry the pods, prepared with sugar or
honey,  either green or ripe, in their jour-
neys across the deserts; and they are found
to constitute an agreeable and wholesome
article of food.
  Tambour;  a  species of embroidery.
The tambour frame is an instrument of a
spherical form, upon which  is stretched,
by means of a string and buckle, or other
appropriate means,  a piece of silk, mus-
lin, linen, &c, which is  wrought with a
needle of a particular form, and, by means
of  silver or  gold, cotton  or  silk, into
leaves, flowers, or other figures.
   Tambour, in fortification ;  a piece  of
work formed  of palisades planted close
together and driven into the ground, for
the purpose of enclosing an  open work.
Tambours are sometimes erected before
the gates of a city, or fortified post.
   Tambourine, or Tambour  he Basque ;
one of the  most ancient musical instru-
ments.  Wherever we find Hebrew music
mentioned, the tambourine or timbrel also
appears.  The triumphal song of Miriam,
after the passage of the Israelites through
the Red sea, shows  how early vocal mu-
sic was accompanied by such  instruments
and by dancing.  The invention of the
tambourine, or drum beaten by the hand,
would  seem naturally to have taken place
very early, as it is very simple; and many
domestic instruments would  easily sug-
gest it.  How  many objects  do children
turn into  a drum!  And, in  fact, such
instniments are  generally  found, even 
132                  TAMBOURINE—TAMMEAMEA.
among the rudest tribes.   The use of the
tambourine, on sacred or solemn occa-
sions, has descended  to  modem times,
from  the  Egyptian feasts of  Bacchus.
In the Bacchanalian songs of the Maen-
ades,  on the  Thracian  mountains, we
find continual mention of the drums (ket-
tle drums and tambourines). In the orgies,
only the lyre and the flute were originally
permitted  to accompany  the song; but
when, according to the  fable, Bacchus
himself", attended  by  Satyrs, Fauns and
Bacchanals, appeared at the festivals, they
brought with  them drums, sistrums, and
horns. Those musical instruments which
are played on  by beating, and hence in-
dicate the rhythm most distinctly, have
always  been  very popular  at festivals.
Luther translated the Hebrew word toph
by Pauke (drum); In English, it is timbrel.
The Greeks call it rvunavov; the Romans,
tympanum; the Arabians, deff (tambour, in
the East, is the name of the  guitar); the
Spaniards, adufe (a word of Arabic origin,
and probably  carried,  with  the instru-
ment itself, by the Moore, to Spain). In
the East,  it was always played on by
maidens at the feast and dance, and there-
fore cannot  be  compared to our drum.
In the middle ages, we find this instrument
mentioned among the  many used by the
Troubadours  and  minstrels.   In those
times, it was called tambour and cloquette,
and appeared in every  concert.  The
present tambourine consists of a wooden
or brazen hoop,  over which a skin is ex-
tended, and which is hung with bells.
Sometimes the thumb of the right hand
is drawn in a circle over the skin; some-
times the fingers are struck against it.
Generally, the hoop has a hole,  to give
admission to the thumb of the left hand;
on this the instrument is supported during
the performance, which  may  be made
very  graceful  by various  movements of
the body, on account of which the tam-
bourine is  generally  an attribute of the
muse of dancing.  The larger tambourine
is called tambour de Basque, because it is
used  in  Biscay to accompany  all the
national songs and dances.  Steibelt (a
German) has recently composed pleasing
and brilliant  pieces  for  the pianoforte
with the accompaniment of the tambour-
ine.
  Tambrom, Joseph, an Italian poet and
historian, bom at Bologna, in 1773.  He
studied in the university, there;  and, in
1794, was  elected palaeographer, or in-
spector of the  archives of his native city.
When the French  invaded Lombardy,
he attached himself to Marescalchi, whom
he accompanied to the congress  of Ra-
stadt and to Vienna, as secretary of the
Cisalpine legation.  On the return of the
Austrians to Italy, Tambroni found an
asylum in the mountains of Savoy; but
he returned after  the  battle of Marengo
and the foundation  of the Cisalpine re-
public.  He was  then attached to the
Italian legation at Paris, under his friend
count Marescalchi; and, in 1809, he be-
came consul at Leghorn, and two yean-
after at Rome.  On  the fall of the impe-
rial government, in 1814,  he retired from
public life, and engaged in conducting
the Giornale Jlrcadicq.  Tambroni  died
at Rome, in 1824.  Among his works are
Compendio delle Storie di Polonia (2 vols.),
Intorno alia Vita di Canova, besides many
letters and poems.
  Tambroni, Clotilda, sister of the pre-
ceding, distinguished  for her acquaint-
ance with Greek literature, was born in
1758, and, from her early years, displayed
an invincible  attachment  for study, in
consequence of which her parents afford-
ed her the means of instruction.   She
was admitted into  the Arcadian academy
at Rome, the Etniscan academy at Cor-
tona,  and the Clementine at Bologna;
and,  in 1794, the professorship  of the
Greek language  was  bestowed on  her,
which she  retained  till 1798, when she
was  displaced  because she. refused to
take the oath of hatred to royalty, required
by the laws of the  Cispadane republic.
She was afterwards restored by Bona-
parte ; but the Greek professorship being
at length suppressed,  she retired to the
bosom of her family.  Her  death hap-
pened June 4, 1817.   Her works consist
chiefly of poems written in Greek, among
which is an elegy in honor of Bodoni, the
celebrated printer.
  Tamerlane. (See Timour.)
  Tammeamea, or Tamahama, king of
the Sandwich isles, in the Pacific ocean,
was  one of those individuals who are
destined to produce  a  great effect on the
state of society around them.  He be-
longed to the race of the native chiefs; and
at the death of captain Cook, in 1780, he
had arrived at manhood ; but he had no
concern in that event.   Tirrioboo, the
king  of  Hawaii,  the   largest  of the
Sandwich  islands,. having offended his
principal officers, he  was put to death,
and Tammeamea was  chosen to succeed
him.   He  soon  showed  extraordinary
talents for his situation; and it was a part
of his policy to encourage the settlement
of European mariners and others in his
dominions.  When  captain  Vancouver 
TAMMEAMEA—TANCRED.
133
visited Hawaii, Tammeamea  put him-
self under the protection of that officer,
as the representative of the king of Great
Britain ; and, as the price of" his submis-
sion, he was assisted in building a fine
vessel,  which afforded a model for the
construction of several more.   Tammea-
mea  thus formed a fleet, with which he
conquered  the  adjoining  islands,  and
traded  to China.   He subsequently erect-
ed a  fort on the  island of Oahoo, and ob-
tained from the  Russians some artillery;
while, by encouraging the trading of his
subjects with navigators, he added to his
own  wealth  and  importance as well as
that  of his  people.   This  enterprising
monarch died in  March,  1819.   Rhio
Rhio, the son and successor of Tammea-
mea, having made a visit to England,
together with his  queen, in  1824, both
their majesties died  in  London, after a
few  months' residence, in  consequence
of a  disease arising from change  of cli-
mate and habits of life.
  Tan, Tana, Tania ; an  ending com-
mon to a  great  many names  in the
Oriental languages, as well as those of
Europe, signifying country or place pos-
sessed  by;  Mauritania  (country  of the
Moore).
  Tanais.   (See Don.)
  Tancred,  with Godfrey of Bouillon,
the soul of the first crusade, was born in
1078.  History  gives  us no information
concerning his father, a Sicilian or Italian
marquis; but his  mother was the sister
of the celebrated  Norman,  Robert Guis-
card, whose  eldest son, Bohemond, was
the friend and brother in arms of Tancred.
(See Guiscard.)  In 1096, the two heroes
embarked for Epirus, and thence march-
ed to Macedonia.  Tancred was present
in the  van or the  rear, wherever  danger
was  to be found, and  more  than once
saved  the army  from destruction in the
shares of the Greeks.  On the plains of
Chalcedon he united his forces with those
of Godfrey; and here they formed that
compact which Tasso has  celebrated  in
his  Jerusalem Delivered.  At the siege
of  Nice  (1097),  Tancred  firet appears
among the  heroes  who  directed the
course of events,  and in  the battle of
Dorylaeum, in which his younger brother
fell,  he saved the  army of  the crusaders,
when  surrounded by 200,000 Seljooks.
Godfrey's brother Baldwin and Tancred
now advanced over  the Taurus towards
Jerusalem,  a distance of  nearly  1000
miles,  through an unknown and desolate
region, for the  purpose of exploring the
route.  Tancred first penetrated through
  VOL. XII.           12
the passes of the mountains, and obtained
possession  of  Tarsus by capitulation.
Baldwin followed him, and was faithless
enough to take possession of the  town
ostensibly for his brother, but virtually for
himself.   Tancred, though exasperated
at this act of treachery, nobly exclaimed,
" Shall I stain my lance with the blood of
my brethren ?" and, advancing to Memis-
tra, took the place by storm.  Baldwin
attempted to repeat his  perfidious act,
and Tancred now suffered himself to be
so far carried away by his resentment, as
to turn his  arms against  him;  but  the
quarrel terminated  in the  reconciliation
of  the  chiefs.  Tancred  next marched
against Antioch,  the  capture of which
was delayed seven months,  by  the dis-
eases,  want  of provision, and insubordi-
nation, which  prevailed in  the Christian
army.   The garrison left by the Crusaders
in the city, was surrounded by a Persian ar-
my, which was defeated by Tancred. After
Easter, in 1099, the crusaders set forward
for the conquest of Jerusalem.  Tancred
took Bethlehem, and pressed forward to
be  the  first  to  see  the walls  of the holy
city.   Immediately  after  his  arrival  be-
fore Jerusalem, he captured an advanced
work,  which  is  still  called Tancred's
tower.   During the  scenes  of horror
which attended the  capture of Jerusalem
(July  19, 1099),  he  conducted  himself
with  humanity, and  saved the  lives of
thousands of the  enemy,  at the  peril of
his own.  For this he was accused of being
an enemy to the priests and to religion !
The sultan of Egypt was now advancing
to attempt the recovery of Jerusalem, but
was totally  defeated  by  Tancred, with
the loss of  his  camp, before  Ascalon
(August 12).  Tancred captured Tiberias,
besieged  Jaffa, and,  after the death of
Godfrey, endeavored to effect the election
, of Bohemond as king of  Jerusalem;  but
the unworthy Baldwin   obtained  the
throne, and Tancred,  while  engaged in
the field against  the  emir of Damascus,
was summoned to appear before the new
king,  on  a charge of rebellion.   But,
secure in the attachment  of his vassals,
Tancred, now prince  of Galilee, despised
the base arts of Baldwin, and hastened to
Antioch, whose prince, Bohemond, had
been captured  by the  Turks. The city
was equally threatened by the Turks and
the false Greeks; but Tancred alternate-
 ly made  head against both,  restored his
 friend to  liberty, and, with  the utmost
 disinterestedness, gave him' back his  ter-
 ritories.  When Bohemond  returned to
 Europe to obtain recntits, Tancred was 
134                       TANCRED—TANGIER.
left to protect Antioch, which was men-
aced  at  once from Aleppo and by the
Greek armies.   He was even obUged to
encounter the attacks of Baldwin, count
of  Edessa,  and Josselin  de  Courtenay.
Bohemond died at Salerno, and his sol-
diers either dispersed or entered  the  ser-
vice of the Greek emperor: still Tancred
succeeded in forcing the Turkish sultan
to retreat over the Euphrates.  This was
his  last exploit He died soon after, in
1112, in his thirty-fifth year.  Tancred
was the  flower and pattern of cliivalry.
Tasso  has immortalized  him.—An  ac-
count  of his Ufe  may be found in Raoul
de Caen's Gcsles de Tancrede, and in Dela-
barre's Histoire de  Tancrede (Paris, 1822).
  Tangent,  in  general;  every  straight
line which has one single point in com-
mon with, and lies entirely outside of, a
curve  (at least of every such curve  as
can  be cut  by  a  straight line  in  two
points only).  This is the geometrical tan-
gent   In trigonometry, the name is ap-
plied particularly to that part of the tan-
gent to the circle  which stands  perpen-
dicular at the end of one of the radii, in-
cluding a particular arc, and is cut by the
prolonged radius passing through the oth-
er end of  the arc  (the secant).   Trigo-
nometrical  tangents, used with the  sine
and cosine, &c, for the solution of tri-
angles  (see Trigonometry), have been cal-
culated according to their relative value
(i. e. with reference to a radius of a cer-
tain magnitude) for every arc ; and these
relative values, or  their logarithms,  are
generally to be found in the trigonomet-
rical tables, with the sines and cosines of
the  same arcs.  How this calculation of
trigonometrical tangents, in reference to
sines,  cosines  and radii, is  performed,
may be easily underetood by a mere com-
parison of the two similar triangles which
originate when we draw these lines and
the  corresponding arc.   The differential
calculus  gives a very  simple method for
calculating the tangents by means of the
subtangents, under the name of the direct
method of the tangents.  To  this direct
method the higher analysis adds an in-
verted method, called the inverse method
of tangents.
  Tangential Force.   In order to have
a clear idea how the planets are  made to
revolve in consequence of the attraction
which the sun, situated in one focus of
their elliptical orbits, exercises upon them,
we may imagine that they originally re-
ceived an  impulse urging them forward
in a straight line.  With this impulse the
attraction of the sun (centripetal force;
 see Central Forces) being united, the plan-
 et was thus made to describe the  diago-
 nal of a parallelogram, whose sides rep-
 resent the directions of these forces.  As
 there is nothing to diminish the impulse
 which we have supposed originally given
 to the planet, it would continue its path
 in the direction of the diagonal; but the
 centripetal  force, operating continually
 upon the direction which  the planet has
 obtained, makes  it change its direction
 incessantly.  In this way originates (as a
 diagram, drawn  according to  what we
 have said, clearly shows) a motion around
 the centre of forces.   (See Circular Mo-
 tion, and Central Forces.)  The planet has
 at each point of its path a certain ten-
 dency (the consequence  of its previous
 motion ; hence, properly speaking, the ef-
 fect  of its  inertness) to continue its last
 received diagonal direction, and thus to
 recede  from the  centre  of forces.   To
 this  tendency, the  centripetal force, di-
 rected towards this point, is opposed.  The
 centripetal  force  may  again be divided
 into  two forces,  the first of which (the
normal force) operates perpendicularly to
the orbit, and only contributes  to  retain
the planet  in the same, in order  to pre-
vent the curved motion from degenerating
into a straight one: the latter,  however,
coincides with the direction of the  orbit
 Iself, and, therefore, only affects the velo-
 city.  This  latter force is  the tangential
force, so called because the element of the
 curve coincides  with the tangent.   The
 doctrine of central forces is so important,
 because our imagination, unaided by theo-
 ry, is almost incapable of conceiving a
 body which  turns around  another, exer-
 cising an attraction  upon it, yet without
 ever coming in contact with the attracting
 body.   But what has been said  shows
 that a correct proportion of the centripe-
 tal force to the original impulse renders
 the contact of the body with the sun im-
 possible.  Generally, the endeavor of the
 planet to recede from the centre of forces,
 is called the centrifugal force; but can
 we, properly, call that a force which is evi-
 dently the effect of inertness ?  The ori-
 ginal impulse may be compared  to the
 first  impulse which sets the pendulum in
 motion ; after which, if we omit other in-
 fluences, it would continue its oscillations
 for eternity, from the  mere influence of
 gravity.
   Tangier, or Tanjah  (anciently  Tin-
 gis); a town of Morocco,  situated at the
 west  entrance of the straits of Gibraltar,
 thirty-eight miles south-west of Gibral-
 tar ;  Ion. 5° 5XX W.; lat. 35° 48' N.   The 
TANGIER—TANNIN.
135
population is  about 7000.   Tangier was
possessed by  the English  from 1662  to
1784. It afterwards became a distinguish-
ed station for piracy; but the disuse of
this  practice in Morocco has diminished
the importance of the town.  It now sub-
sists  chiefly by supplying the British gar-
rison of Gibraltar with cattle and vegeta-
bles.  The bay of Tangier is not safe
when the wind is in the west, having
been  encumbered  by the ruins of the
mole and fortification ; the cables are lia-
ble to be torn, and the ships to be driven
on shore. Tangier, viewed from the sea,
presents  a  pretty  regular aspect; but
within it exhibits  the most disgusting
wretchedness.  It is the residence of the
European and American consuls.
   Tannin ; a peculiar vegetable princi-
ple, so named because it is the effective
agent in the conversion of skin into leath-
er.   The oak  and its products—gall-nuts,
&c.—contain two kindred matters, tannin
and gallic acid, which seem, by the  pow-
ers of vegetation, mutually  convertible.
The former is supposed to be character-
ized by its forming, with gelatine, a flexible
and  unputrefiable  compound;  and by
forming  with  oxide of iron a black  com-
bination, which, having a strong affinity
for cotton, linen, silk and  wool, is much
used by  the  dyer.  Hitherto, tannin has
been found only in perennial plants, and
chiefly in the more durable parts of these.
The barks of almost all trees and shrubs
contain it, principally  in the parts nearest
the wood, because in  the outer coats it is
changed by the air.  It has never been
met  with in the poisonous plants, nor  in
such as contain elastic, resinous and milky
juices.   Decoction  of nutgalls contains
tannin with a Uttle  gallic acid,  some tan-
nates and gallates  of potash and  lime,
tannin altered into the matter commonly
called  extractive, and  lastly a compound
(insoluble in cold water) of tannin with
perhaps some pectic acid, which is found
especially in the extract of oak bark.  The
purification of tannin, or  its separation
from the principles with which it occurs,
may be effected as follows:—Mix a filter-
ed infusion of nutgalls with a concentrat-
ed  solution  of carbonate of potash, as
long as a white precipitate  falls, but no
longer,  because the  precipitate is redis-
solved by an excess of alkali.  The pre-
cipitate must be washed on a filter with
ice-cold water,  and afterwards be dissolv-
ed in dilute acetic acid, which removes a
brown matter from it.  This matter is ex-
tractive, formed,  during the washings,
by the action of the  air.   After filtering
the solution, the tannin is to be precipi-
tated by acetate of lead ;  and the precipi-
tate is to be well washed, although in this
operation its color passes from white to
yellow, and it  is to be then  decomposed
by sulphureted hydrogen.   The  filtered
liquor  is colorless, and leaves, by evapo-
ration  in vacuo over potash, tannin in
hard,  Ught-yellowish, and   transparent
scales, which, when  exposed to the air,
and particularly to the sunbeam, assume
a deeper yellow color.  It  is  not deli-
quescent;  dissolves  in water with the
greatest faciUty, and may be readily re-
duced   to powder.   Exactly  saturated
compounds of  tannin with acids have no
sour teste, but a purely astringent one. In
the pure state, they are usually very solu-
ble in  water, and cannot  be precipitated
from it  except by a great excess of acid.
Tannin forms,  with the  salifiable  bases,
very remarkable compounds: that  with
potash or ammonia in the neutral state is
but sUghtly soluble in cold water, and may
be precipitated in the form of a white
earth:  it dissolves in  boiling water, and
separates from it, on cooling, in the shape
of a powder, which, when drained on a
filter, pressed and dried, has quite the as-
pect of an inorganic earthy salt, and is
pennanent in  the air.   The compound
with soda has the  same appearance ; but
it is much more soluble.  It is  known
that  tannin precipitates solution of tartar
emetic.  This  precipitate is remarkable
from a portion of the tannin taking, in
the salt, the  place of the oxide of anti-
mony.
Proportion of Tannin in different vegetable  Products.
                  Substances.

White inner bark of old oak,.....
  u     «     u    young oak, ....
  «     "     "    Spanish chestnut,
  "     "     "    Leicester willow,
Middle bark of oak,..........
   «    "      Spanish chestnut, .  .
   «    "      Leicester willow, .  .
In 430 parts.
72
77
63
79
19
14
16
In about 8 oz. | In 100 parts.
30
21 
136
TANNIN—TANNING
                   Substances.

   Entire bark of oak,...........
     "     "      Spanish chestnut, .  . .
     "     "      Leicester willow, ... .
     "     "      elm,...........
     "     "      common willow, ....
   Sicilian sumach,.............
   Malaga sumach,.............
   Souchong tea,..............
   Green tea,.................
   Bombay catechu,............
   Bengal    do..............
   Nutgalls,.................
   Bark of oak cut in winter,.......
     "     beech,  ..............
     "     elder,..............
     "     plum-tree,............
   Bark of the trunk of willow,......
     "           "     sycamore, ....
   Bark of birch,..............
     "     cherry-tree,...........
     "     poplar,..............
     "     hazel,  . .  . '...........
     "     ash,  ...............
   Oak cut in spring,............
   Bark of alder,...............
     "    weeping willow,........
     "    Virginian sumach,.......
     "    green oak,............
     "    rose chestnut of America,. . .
     "    sumach of Carolina,......


The most important property of tannin,
among those above mentioned, is that dis-
played  in its  relation to animal gelatine.
They combine  with much facility, form-
ing,  from a state of solution, a soft, floc-
culent  precipitate,  which, on drying, be-
comes  hard and  brittle: this has been
called tanno-gelatine.  The  combination
is not always established in the same pro-
portions, but varies according to the con-
centration ofthe solutions and the relative
quantities of the  substances; nor is the
compound in all cases insoluble in water.
When   the gelatine  is  only slightly  in
excess,  it consists of  54  gelatine and
46 tannin: when  there is a large ex-
cess  of gelatine, the  compound is redis-
solved.   On the formation of this combi-
nation, the art of tanning depends.  The
skin  of an  animal, when freed from the
hair, epidermis  and cellular  fibre (which
is done principally by the action of Ume),
consists chiefly of indurated gelatine.  By
immersion  in the tan liquor, which is  an
infusion of bark, the combination of the
tannin with the organized gelatine, which
forms the animal fibre, is slowly establish-
ed ; and the compound of tannin and gel-
atine not being  soluble in water, and not
In 480 parts.	In about 8 oz.	In 100 parts.
29	__	—
21	_	—
33	109	—
13	28	—
11	__	—
78	158	—
79	_	—
48	__	—
41	__	—
261	__	—
231	__	—
127	__	46
—	30	—
—	31	—
—	41	—
—	58	—
—	52	—
—	53	—
—	54	—
—	59	—
—	76	—
—	79	—
—	82	—
—	108	—
—	—	36
—	_	16
—	__	10
—	—	10 8
__	__.	6
liable to putrefaction, the skin is rendered
dense and  impermeable,  and not subject
to the spontaneous change which it would
otherwise soon undergo.  To  render it
equal throughout the whole substance of
the skin, the action of the tan liquor must
be gradual; and hence the tanning is per-
formed  by  successive immersions of the
skin  in liquors of different strength.  Sir
H. Davy observes, that  leather, slowly
tanned in weak infusions of bark, appears
to be better in quality, being both softer
and stronger  than when tanned by dense
infusions ; and he ascribes this to the ex-
tractive matter which they imbibe.  This
principle, therefore, affects the quality  of"
the material  employed in  tanning; and
galls, which contain  a great deal of tan-
nin,  make  a hard leather, and liable to
crack, from their deficiency of extractive
matter.  Hides increase in weight during
the process of tanning from one fifth to
one third.
  Tanning is a mechanical art, by which
the hides and skins  of various animals,
particularly those  of  neat cattle, are con-
verted into sole  leather,  upper leather,
harness, &c, by being cleansed of the
hair  and flesh, and saturated  with the 
TANNING—TAPESTRY.
137
tannin contained in the bark of the oak,
hemlock, and some other kinds of forest
trees.  It  is  a  simple process to make
leather of hides  and bark, but probably
one of the most critical of manufacturing
operations to make the most and the best
leather that can be  made from a given
quantity of hide.  The  process is long
and  laborious.   Time  and   labor  are
both materially reduced, and  the  quan-
tity and weight of the leather increas-
ed,  by  vanous  improvements,  which
commenced in  the year 1803,  in Hamp-
shire county, in  Massachusetts.   The
improvements above alluded to are the
substitution  of water  power  for  man-
ual labor, in many of the most laborious
parts of the  process; viz. to soften and
cleanse the hide preparatory to the bark
being applied to it; to grind the bark ; to
move  pumps for transferring the decoc-
tion of the bark  from one vat  to another
(much of  which is necessary  to be done
daily in an extensive tannery), and to roll
the leather preparatory to its being sent to
market; also the least possible quantity
of lime is now used to facilitate getting
off the hair: this has been found greatly
to add to the weight and quality of the
leather.  The application of heat to bark
in leaches is found to be very  important,
and  more particularly the application of
the decoction (usuaUy termed  liquor)  to
the hide, rather than the bark, which had
been commonly  employed.    In  1829,
36,360 sides of sole leather were tanned
in one establishment in the town of Hun-
ter,  Greene county,  New York.   They
weighed 637,413 pounds, and  were man-
ufactured with  the labor  of  forty-nine
hands, and with 3200 cords of bark. The
tannery has seven powerful water-wheels
adapted to its various machinery. Slaugh-
ter hides  averaged fifty-six and a half
pounds of sole leather  from one hun-
dred of  hide:  best  South  American
dry  hides gained  sixty-one per cent, in
weight, and ordinary ones in proportion.—
Tanning is a chemical process ; and un-
doubtedly the art will go on  improving
with the progress of chemical science and
the diffusion of chemical knowledge.
  Tansy (tanacetum vulgare).  This plant
is now naturalized, and pretty common in
many parts of the U. States.  It grows in
beds by road sides, and in  waste places.
The stems are  upright,  branching, and
about  two feet high ; the leaves doubly
pinnate, and incisely serrate,  and  of an
agreeable aspect.  It belongs to the com-
posite.  The flowers are yellow buttons,
disposed in a large, upright corymb. The
whole plant has a strong and penetrating
odor, agreeable to some persons, and an
extremely  bitter  taste.   It contains an
acrid volatile oil, is 6timulant and canni-
native, and the decoction and seeds are
recommended as  anthelmintic and sudo-
rific.  The  young leaves are  shredded
down, and employed  to  give color  and
flavor to puddings; they are also used in
omelets and cakes, and those of the curled
variety for garnishing.
  Tantalite.  (See Columbite.)
  Tantalum.  (See Columbium.)
  Tantalus, son of Jupiter, and king of
Sipylus,in Phrygia, was a favorite of the
gods, who often visited him, until he for-
feited their favor by his arrogance.   Tra-
dition does not agree as to his crime.  Ac-
cording to one account, he offended Jupi-
ter by his perfidy; according to another,
he stole  away the nectar and ambrosia
from  heaven; and a third story is,  that
he murdered  his own son Pelops,  and
served him up  for some of the gods.
The same diversity prevails in  regard to
his  punishment   He  is sometimes  de-
scribed as having a large stone suspended
over his head, which constantly threatens
to fall and crush him, and from which he
cannot flee.  But the more common ac-
count represents  him  as standing up to
his throat in water, with the  most deli-
cious fruits hanging over his head, which,
when he attempts to quench his burning
thirst or to appease his  raging hunger,
elude his grasp.   From this fable comes
the English expression to tantalize.
  Tapestrt ;  a kind of woven hangings
of wool and silk, frequently raised and en-
riched with gold and silver, representing
figures of men, animals,  landscapes, his-
torical subjects, &c.  This species of cur-
tain-covering for walls was known among
the inhabitants of Eastern countries at an
extremely  remote era.  The  most  gro-
tesque compositions and fantastic combi-
nations were commonly selected for the
display of the talents of workmen in  this
department  of Oriental art, which  was
afterwards imported into Greece.  From
these compositions the  elegant Greeks are
supposed, by Bottiger, to have taken their
ideas of griffins, centaurs, &c.   At length
the refined  taste of Athens became visi-
ble  in the  structure of tapestries.  The
old grotesque combinations no  longer, as
formerly,  covered  their  surfaces,  but
were  confined to the  borders only;  and
the  centre  received more regular  and
systematic  representations.  In  modem
times, this description of embroidery  has
been  executed with very great  success, 
138
TAPESTRY—TAR.
and has often employed the talents of the
greatest masters in the art  of painting.
In Flanders, particularly at Arras (whence
the term arras, signifying tapestry), dur-
ing the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries,
the art  was  practised with uncommon
skill;  and tapestries were executed there
after the masterly  designs of Raffaelle
in his cartoons, (a. v.)  This  art  was
introduced  into England  by  William
Sheldon, near the  end of Henry VIII's
reign.   In  1619,  a  manufacture  was
established  at Mortlake,  in Surrey, by
sir Fras. Crane,  who received £2000
from James I,  to encourage the design.
The first manufacture of tapestry at Paris
was set up  under Henry  IV,  in 1606 or
1607,  by several artists whom that mon-
arch invited  from  Flanders.   But the
most celebrated  of all the European tapes-
try manufactures was that  of the Gobelins
(q.v.), instituted under Louis XIV, which
sent forth very beautiful cloths, remarka-
ble for  strength, for elegance of design,
and happy  choice of colors.  The finest
paintings were copied, and eminent paint-
ers employed in making designs.  For a
long while GobeUn tapestry was the most
costly and favorite method of hanging the
walls of chambers.   The texture of tapes-
try is in many respects similar to that of
the finer carpetings; but the minuteness
of the constituent parts causes the  sight
of the  texture to be lost  in the general
effect  of the  piece.  (See Carpets,  and
Hautelisse.)
  Tapeworm, one of the most stubborn
worms which infest  the bowels' of beasts,
and also  of man, has its name from the
broad,  flat,  ribbon-like   appearance  of
each articulation and of the whole body,
which is composed of these articulations.
Bremser makes two species—tania and
bothryocephalus—both of which were for-
merly united  in one species, under the
name  of tcenia.   One kind of both spe-
cies appears in the human body; namely,
1. tcenia solium,  the  single  or  long-
limbed chainworm,  in which  the organs
of generation are found  on one side of
every articulation;  it is  the  kind most
commonly met with in Germany, France
and England;  2. bothryocephalus latus,
the proper or broad tapeworm, in which
the sexual  organs  are found  on the flat
side of the  articulations.  It is met with
only in  Russia, Poland, Switzerland, and
some  parts  of France, and causes little
pain.  Both kinds often reach the length
of twenty or  thirty  feet, and usually only
detached parts  pass from the body, but
not that which  has  the head; before this
has passed away, the worm  reproduces
itself, and, moreover, what  was formerly
doubted, several tapeworms are often met
with in one intestinal canal.  The symp-
toms of the tapeworm are a peculiar, sud-
den sensation of pricking in the stomach,
oppression, and undulatory motions in  the
abdomen, anxiety, cramps, swoons, &c.;
but all these symptoms are uncertain, and
only the  actual passing  of pieces of  the
worm  from  the body is a  certain proof
of its  existence.  The cure is difficult,
and requires an experienced physician.
  Tapioca.   (See Manioc.)
  Tapir. The American tapir, when  full
grown, is six feet  in total length, and
about three and a  half in height.  In gen-
eral form it resembles the  hog; but  the
legs are rather longer in proportion, and
the nose is prolonged into a small mova-
ble proboscis.  The fore feet have four
toes, and the hind ones three only.  The
eyes are small  and lateral, and the ears
long and pointed ;  the skin thick, and
covered with scattering, short,silky hairs;
the tail short,  and  slightly hairy.  The
teeth resemble those of the horse.  It is
the largest animal  of South America, and
is  found in  all parts  of that  continent,
though most abundant in Guiana, Brazil
and Paraguay.  It shuns the  habitations
of men, and  leads  a  solitary life in  the
interior of the forests, in moist  situations,
but selects for its abode a place somewhat
elevated  and dry.   By travelling always
the same rounds, it forms beaten paths,
which  are  very conspicuous.  It comes
out only  in the  night, or  during rainy
weather, and resorts to the marshes.  Its
ordinaiy pace is  a  sort of trot; but it
sometimes gallops, though awkwardly, and
with the head down, and, besides, swims
with facility.   In the wild state, it lives on
fruits  and  young branches of trees,  but
when  domesticated, eats every  kind of
food. Though possessed of great strength,
it makes use of it only for defence; and its
disposition is mild and timid.  The flesh
is  dry and disagreeably tasted; but  the
skin is very tough, and might be applied
to useful purposes.  The Indian tapir has
only been discovered within a  few years.
It inhabits Sumatra, Malacca, and some of
the surrounding countries.  The colors
are remarkable.  The head, neck, feet
and  tail are  black ; the  rest of the body
and tip of the ears white.
  Taprobana (with the ancients);  the
name of Ceylon.
  Tar ; a well known substance obtained
chiefly from the pine by burning in a close,
smothering heat.  Some of the unctuous 
TAR—TARLETON.
139
species of bitumen are also called mineral
tar.   (See Bitumen.)   The tar  of the
north of Europe is superior to that of the
U. States, on  account of the latter being
prepared from dead wood, while  the
former is procured  from trees  recently
felled.  The  mode practised in the Scan-
dinavian peninsula is precisely  that de-
scribed by Theophrastus and D'ioscorides,
as in use in  ancient Greece.  A conical
cavity is made in the ground, with a cast-
iron pan at  bottom, from which leads a
funnel.  The billets  of wood are thrown
into this cavity, and, being covered with
turf, are slowly burnt without flame. The
tar which  exudes during combustion  is
conducted  off through the funnel above-
mentioned into banels, which are imme-
diately bunged, and fit for exportation.
   Tar River.   (See Pamlico.)
   Tarantula.  (See Appendix.)
   Tare  is an allowance for the outside
package, that contains such goods as can-
not be unpacked without detriment; or
for the papers, threads,  bands, &c, that
enclose or bind any goods imported loose,
or  which,  though  imported  in casks,
chests, &c, yet cannot be unpacked, and
weighed net.
   Tarentum (Tapas); an old Greek colo-
ny hi Lower Italy, founded by Lacedae-
monian Parthenii, 700 B. C.  It was one
of the most flourishing  and powerful
cities of Magna Graecia, and for a long
time defended its freedom against the at-
tacks of  the  Romans.  It was  also dis-
tinguished   for  luxury and  splendor.
Pythagoras found  many disciples here,
and the fine  arts were encouraged.  Ar-
chytas, a mathematician,  was a Taren-
tine.   The city was taken by the  Romans
B. C. 272.  The harbor of the  modern
Taranto  is choked up with sand; but the
place has some trade, and a population of
14,000 souls.  Marshal Macdonald re-
ceived his title of  duke  of Tarentum
from this place.
   Tarentum, Dcke of.  (SeeMacdonald.)
   Targum (interpretation, translation); a
Chaldee  version of the Old Testament.
After the Babylonish captivity,  the an-
cient Hebrew had  gradually become un-
intelligible  to the  common  people (see
Hebrew Language, and Jews); and it there-
fore became necessary to read or explain
the Scriptures in the synagogues in the
vulgar language of*  the country.   The
oldest Targum is that of Onkelos, which
comprises only the pentateuch ; the sec-
ond, or that of Jonathan, is  a version of
the prophets.  These are  supposed  to
have been written about the time of our
Savior.  The  third targum is also a ver-
sion,  or rather a paraphrase of the  law,
accompanied with many glosses and fa-
bles.   The fourth, likewise of the law, is
called the " Jemsalem targum," because it
is in the  Syro-rChaldaic language, which
was spoken at Jerusalem.  The fifth is a
paraphrase of the megilloth (Ruth, Esther,
Ecclesiastes, Solomon's Song, Lamenta-
tions) ; the sixth, of Esther ; the seventh,
of Job, the Psalms and  Proverbs; and
the eighth, of the Chronicles.  These six
are of later origin and less value than the
two first  mentioned. Several of the tar-
gums are contained in the polyglot Bibles.
(See Polyglot.)
  Tariff, or Tarif ; firet a list of certain
merchandises; then  a  list of duties on
imports and exports.  This word,  like
many others used in commerce, is derived
from  the Italian, in which it  is tariffa;
this again  comes, like  several other ex-
pressions relating to commerce or naviga-
tion, from the East.  In  Persian, it is tarif.
In Arabian, the verb arf signifies to know,
which in the second form becomes tarif,
signifying to make known.  The substan-
tive derived from the verb therefore signi-
fies notification.
  Tarleton,  general,  is the  son  of a
merchant of Liverpool, into whose count-
ing-house he was introduced ; but a regi-
ment being raised in that town, Mr. Tarle-
ton quitted the pen for the sword, and  took
a commission in that regiment, in which
he soon rose to the rank of captain.  In
America,  he very  much  distinguished
himself by his courage, and was allowed
to raise a corps of horse  and foot, called
a legion.  He then obtained the rank of
lieutenant-colonel.  In  this  capacity he
distinguished himself for  his intrepidity
as a partisan; but a defeat which he met
with  from the American general Sum-
ter, did not speak  much in favor of his
talents as a general.  On his return, he
published a History  of the  Campaign in
the Southern  Provinces  of America, in
which he endeavored to justify his  con-
duct.   At the peace, he  went on half-pay.
He  had, however, the good fortune to be
introduced to, and favored with the con-
fidence of, the heir-apparent,  of whom
he was, for some time, a constant com-
panion.  He also, by the interest of his
family, obtained a seat in parliament, for
his  native place, Liverpool,  and while in
the  house, he warmly  entered into  the
opposition, with whom the prince then
acted.  While  a member, he published a
Speech intended to have been spoken ;
and, in 1810,  a Speech, which  he  did 
140
TARLETON—TARQUINIUS.
speak.   He  has risen  regularly in the
army to the  rank of general, and to the
command of the eighth regiment of dra-
goons, and  to  be  governor of Berwick.
General Tarleton  married a lady of the
Bertie family, which  has connected him
with the houses  of  Cholmondeley and
Salisbury.
  Tarn; a department  of France.  (See
Department.)
  Tarn et Garonne ;  a department  of
France.  (See Department.)
  Taroc ; a game at cards, perhaps the •
most interesting, but  also the most  diffi-
cult  It  is  played  with seventy-eight
cards, and  derives its  name from the
twenty-two  trumps or tarocs in it, the
most important of which is the excuse.
If cards, as is  said, are an invention  of
the Arabians,  and earned by them  to
Spain,  or by the crusaders to Italy, &c,
the French  and German  cards, and the
games founded on them, must be explain-
ed from national customs ; but the  taroc
would  seem to have remained in a great
degree faithful to its Oriental origin.  The
difference between the taroc-cards and
the common  French consists in  those
twenty-two  tarocs  and  four others, be-
tween the queen and knave, called cavals.
  Tarpawling; a broad piece  of  can-
vass, well daubed  with tar, and  used to
cover the hatchways  of a ship at sea, to
prevent the penetration  of  the rain  or
sea-water which may at times rush over
the decks.
  Tarpeia, the daughter of Tarpeius, the
governor of the citadel of Rome, prom-
ised to  open the gates of the city to the
Sabines, provided  they gave her  their
gold bracelets, or, jis  she expressed it,
what  they  carried on  their left hands.
The Sabines consented, and, as  they en-
tered the gates, threw not only their brace-
lets, but their shields, upon Tarpeia, who
was crushed under the weight.   She was
buried in the capitol,  which, from her,
was called the Tarpeian rock; and  there
Roman  malefactors   were  afterwards
thrown down a  deep  precipice.
  Tarquinius, Lucius, sumamed Priscus,
or the Elder, fifth king of Rome, was the
son of a merchant of Corinth, who settled
at Tarquinii, in Etmria.  His wife, Tan-
aquil, urged him to repair to Rome, where
he ingratiated himself both with the king
Ancus Martius and the people; and the
former conferred on him the guardianship
of his two sons.  These he superseded on
their father's death, and procured the suf-
frages of the people for  himself.  His first
step was to admit two hundred plebeians
into the senate; after which he engaged in
a war with the Latins, and, having finaUy
defeated a confederacy between them and
the Sabines  and Etrurians, obliged them
to sue for peace.  For  this success, he
was honored with a triumph; and he em-
ployed the spoils of war in erecting the
Circus Maximus.  (See Circus.)  A con-
federacy of all the Etrurian tribes against
the Romans  followed, which, after a  war
of nine years'duration, terminated in  the
Etrurians  acknowledging him for their
sovereign.   Tarquin  enclosed the  city
with walls,  and constructed those cele-
brated sewers, which, even at the summit
of the Roman splendor, were viewed with
admiration.  (See Cloaca.)  A new  war
breaking out with the Sabines, he obliged
them  to purchase peace  by the surrender
of all their fortresses.  Tarquin, who had
vowed a temple to Jupiter, Juno and Mi-
nerva, now commenced it on the Tarpeian
rock, and thus founded the principal seat of
the Roman religion. (See Capitol.) He had
reached his eightieth year, when the sons
of Ancus procured his assassination (B. C.
576).  Tanaquil kept his death a secret
until the succession was secured  to her
son-in-law.—Servius Tullius Tarquinius,
named Superbus, or the Proud, is suppos-
ed to  have been grandson to Tarquinius
Priscus.  Servius Tullius married his two
daughters to  the brothers Aruns and Tar-
quin ;  the  latter of whom was violent and
ambitious, while his brother was mild and
unaspiring.  Then* characters  were  re-
versed in  their respective wives.  The
tragical deaths of Aruns and the wife of
Tarquin, and a criminal union between
the latter and his sister-in-law Tullia, fol-
lowed, and, finally, the murder of Servi-
us, and the  accession of Tarquin to  the
sovereignty,  B. C. 534.  He supported his
usurpation by a band of foreign mercena-
ries ; many of the senators went into ban-
ishment, and the plebeians found the yoke
press  as hardly on themselves.  He  un-
dertook  a war against the  Volscians, as
also against the Sabines,  and was victori-
ous in both instances. Returning to Rome,
he twice  triumphed, and  employed  the
idle populace in finishing the great circus
and sewers  commenced by his grandfa-
ther.  It was in the reign of this Tarquin
that the Sibylline books were brought to
Rome, where they were for many years
resorted to  for the  purposes of supersti-
tion or state policy.  Brutus  (q. v.),  ta-
king advantage of the anger of the people
by the unhappy fate of Lucretia (q. v.),
procured a decree for the banishment of
Tarquin and his sons; and the king, at 
TARQUINIUS—TARTARIC ACID.
141
the age  of seventy-six (B. C. 509),  was
obliged to abandon  his capital, and  take
refuge in Etniria. The Tarquins interest-
ed some of the neighboring states in their
favor, and Poreenna, king of the  Clusini,
an Etrurian tribe, invested  Rome in their
behalf, but, discovering treachery in their
conduct, renounced  their cause.   The
Latins also took arms in their favor; but
the new republic  finally triumphed  over
all its  enemies.  Tarquin at length, hav-
ing seen all his sons  perish in the field,
retired to Cumae, where he died in the
ninetieth  year of his age, and the four-
teenth of his exile.   (For a critical exam-
ination of the history of the Tarquins, as
here given,  see  Niebuhr's  History of
Rome.)
  Tarragona (anciently Tarraco); a town
in Spain, in Catalonia; Ion.  1°  15' E.;
lat. 41° 9' N.; population, 7500.  It is sit-
uated on the coast  of the Meditenanean,
sunounded with walls and turcets, and
has a magnificent Gothic cathedral.  Un-
der the Romans, it was the capital of the
province Tarraconensis, and was, at one
time, one of the chief cities of Spain.  In
516, a council was  held here.   It was be-
sieged  and sacked, in 1811, by the French,
under marshal Suchet.
  Tarras.  (See Cements.)
  Tarsus, an ancient city of Asia Minor,
the capital of Cilicia, is said by Strabo to
have been founded by Sardanapalus.  It
was adorned by a number of magnificent
temples, as well as with a gymnasium and
theatre. Its inhabitants enjoyed the privi-
leges of Roman citizens, and the city  rose
to such distinction as to rival Athens, An-
tioch   and  Alexandria  in  wealth  and
grandeur, as well as in the arts and sci-
ences.   It is venerable as the birth-place
of St. Paul.  It is now a poor village.
  Tarsus of Birds.  (See Ornithology.)
  Tartaglia ; a mask in the Neapolitan
comedy.
  Tartar,  Cream  of.  (See Cream of
Tartar.)
  Tartaric Acm.   This acid, as it ex-
ists in vegetables, is usually combined with
potash, forming a salt with an excess of
acid—the super-tartrate or bi-tartrate of
potash.  This salt is deposited in consid-
erable  quantity from  the  juice of the
grape during its conversion into wine, or
rather  from the wine during the slow fer-
mentation which it  suffers in the cask.
It does not appear to be a product of the
fennentative process,  but  exists  before
this in  the juice of the grape, and is mere-
ly separated. It also exists in other fruits,
jiarticularly in the  tamarind, of which it
forms a considerable part.  As deposited
from wine, it is impure, having  mingled
with it coloring matter and tartrate  of
lime.   In this  state, it  forms the crude
tartar of commerce, named  white or red
tartar, according to  its color.  It is purifi-
ed by boiling it  in water, with the addition
ofa small quantity of fine clay, which at-
tracts the coloring  matter.  By evapora-
tion, it  is obtained  crystallized,  forming
the purified tartar,  crystals, or cream of
tartar of the shops. From this salt the
tartaric, acid is obtained, by adding to a
solution of the super-tartrate of potash in
boiling water, carbonate of lime in pow-
der, as long as any effervescence is excit-
ed : the tartrate of  lime which is formed
and precipitated, being well washed, is
decomposed by adding  sulphuric  acid
equal in weight to the chalk that had been
employed, previously diluted with half its
weight  of water, digesting them  with a
moderate  heat: the sulphuric acid com-
bines with  the  lime, and forms the sul-
phate, which, being of sparing solubility,
is separated, while the tartaric acid is dis-
solved by the water, and, by evaporation,
is obtained in a crystallized form.  The
crystals are tables or prisms, white, and
nearly  transparent  Their taste  is sour,
and they deeply redden vegetable blues.
They are very soluble in water, and form
a solution so concentrated as to have an
oily appearance.  By the  action of very
strong nitric acid, tartaric acid is convert-
ed  into oxalic  acid.   The crystals are
composed of acid 66 and water  9 in  75
parts.   The acid appears to be composed
of
  Hydrogen,.............4.48
  Carbon,...............35,82
  Oxygen,.............. 59.70
                                100.00
Tartaric acid   is decomposed  by  heat,
affording, among other products, a white
sublimate, which is  a peculiar acid, nam-
ed, from  its   origin, pyro-tartaric  acid,
which  has  been regarded  by  some  as
acetic acid disguised by the addition of a
little oily matter.  Tartaric acid combines
with the alkalies and earths, forming salts
named  tartrates.   The acid appears to
have a peculiar tendency to enter into
combination with more than one base, and
to form ternary salts.  It has also a ten-
dency to form salts with an excess of acid,
in uniting with  those bases, with which it
forms  soluble  compounds.  Tartrate of
potash is  usually formed by neutralizing
the excess of acid in the bi-tartrate, by the
addition of carbonate of potash.   From 
142
TARTARIC ACID—TARTARY.
its  affinity to water, it is not easily crys-
talhzed, but, by a slow evaporation, affords
four-sided prisms.  It is deliquescent in a
humid atmosphere, and  very soluble in
water, whence its  name, also, of soluble
tartar.  Tartrate of soda is soluble  and
crystallizable.  A triple salt, the tartrate
of potash and soda, formerly named  Ro-
chelle salt, is  formed by neutralizing the
excess of acid in the super-tartrate of pot-
ash, by  adding  carbonate  of soda.   It
crystallizes in rhomboidal prisms, soluble
in five parts of water. Tartaric acid acts on
some of the metals, and  it  may be com-
bined with the oxides of all of them by
double affinity.  By employing the bi-
tartrate of potash to act  on these oxides,
ternary  compounds are  obtained.   The
most important of these is that formed
with  the oxide of  antimony.   It  has
long been known, in medical practice, un-
der the name of tartar emetic, as one of
the mildest and most manageable of the
antimonial  preparations.   It is prepared
by boiling three parts of the brown  oxide
(obtained by deflagrating sulphuret of an-
timony with nitre) with four parts of bi-
tartrate of potash in 32 parts of water for
half an hour: the solution, when strained,
is set aside to crystallize.
  Tartarus,  in the earliest mythology
of the Greeks; the kingdom of the dead,
the infernal regions  in general, or  the
realm of the subterranean Jupiter—Pluto.
(See Cemetery.)  At a later period, it was
limited to that part of the  infernal regions
in which the Titans and  the  damned
were confined.  It was represented as a
dark and gloomy region, surrounded by
a triple wall, and encircled by the fiery
river Phlegethon, Cocytus, the stream of
lamentation, apd Acheron. We find a de-
scription of Tartarus in Hesiod, one  of the
earliest Greek poets; and Virgil  (AZn. vi,
577) paints the horrors of the place. Here
lay the monstrous Tityos  (who attempted
to violate Latona), stretching  over nine
acres,  while  two vultures  incessantly
gnawed his liver; here Sisyphus  rolled a
ponderous stone; Ixion  revolved on  his
wheel ;  Tantalus  was tormented  with
inextinguishable hunger  and thirst, and
the Danaids  toiled in vain to fill their
sieves from the waters  of the  Lethe.
(See, also, the article Hieroglyphics, divis-
ion Egyptian Mythology.)
  Tartary, Tartars.  The old geogra-
phers divided the country of the Tartars
into European or Little Tartary, and Asi-
atic or Great Tartary*.   The former com-
prised those countries round  the  Black
sea which were inhabited by the Nogay
 Tartars,  and the  Budshiac  Tartars, or
 Bessarabians, and  a part of the country
 between the Dnieper and  the  Dniester.
 But since  these districts have  been an-
 nexed to Russia (1784), the  name has
 gone out of use; and they constitute the
 governments of Taurida (q. v.), Cherson
 (q. v.)  and Ekaterinoslav, which contain
 several commercial  cities,  and, besides
 Tartars, have many Russian, Greek, Ger-
 man and Jewish colonists among  their
 population.  Asiatic Tartary, called, from
 its extent, Great Tartary, borders on the
 Asiatic provinces of Russia, on .Persia,
 Thibet and the Chinese empire.  The
 northern part (Dschagatai, or Zagatai, or
 Independent Tartary) contains  extensive
 steppes, and is partly occupied by no-
 madic  tribes, which are governed by sep-
 arate khans (princes), and differ consider-
 ably in their character and manners: some
 of these  khans are under the protection
 of Russia.   The southern part is called
 Great Bucharia, in which,  among other
 commercial cities, is Samarcand, once the
residence of Timour.  Little Bucharia is
subject to China.  (See Bucharia.)   The
whole  of Central Asia, to  the west of
Dschagatai,  is  often  improperly styled
 Chinese Tartary.  This error arises from
the confusion of the Mongol and Man-
tchoo tribes, who roam over these regions,
with the Tartars, with whom they have
no affinity.  (See Mongols, Calmucs, and
Mandshures.)  The proper Tartars, or,
more correctly, Tatars,  are divided into
numerous branches, and, under different
names, occupy a large extent of territory
in Europe and Asia.   Their tme name is
 Turks, or Turcomanns, that of Tatar be-
 ing,  according to some, a Chinese  term
for all the nomadic tribes of Central Asia,
and, according to others, the name  of a
Mongol tribe.   Once  the terror of their
neighbors,  and not without civilization,
some traces and  monuments of which
still exist, they are now, for the most part,
subject to foreign masters.   Some tribes
continue to preserve  their independence,
occupying regions too banen to offer any
temptation  to  conquerors, or too remote
to be easily accessible; but these circum-
stances, which have protected them from
the arms of foreign conquerors, have also
prevented them from being much visited
by travellers; and little is known of them
and of their country.   The Tartar popu-
lation in  Russia amounts to about three
 million souls, residing chiefly in the south-
 ern provinces,  in stationary habitations,
 and  occupied with agriculture: they are
 peaceful and industrious in their habits. 
TARTARY—TARTUFFE.
143
Some  Tartar  colonics  are  distributed
among the Russian villages in thegovern-
ments  of Orenburg, Kasan and Tobolsk,
and several hordes are independent allies
of Russia.  The Russian Tartars consist
of several branches; the  Tartars proper,
the Nogays, the Bashkirs, the Kirghises,
Yakoutes, and  Teleutes.   The  Tartars
proper are descendants of the two  great
hordes which the successors of Gengis
Khan established in  Siberia  and on the
Volga. They comprise the tribes of Kasan,
Astrachan and Taurida.  They still pre-
serve the peculiar national physiognomy.
The true Tartar is well formed, of middle
size, slender, with small,  but lively and
expressive eyes, and of decent and even
dignified demeanor:  he  is  frank,  kind,
hospitable, peaceful, courageous, fond of
instruction and of the arts, agriculture and
mechanical occupation.  The females are
not  without  grace and beauty.  About
one fifth of these Tartars- have embraced
the Christian religion ; the rest are Mo-
hammedans.  Some of them still live in
tents, and lead a wandering life.   The
Siberian Tartars  have intermixed   with
other races,  and lost much  of their na-
tional peculiarity: some of them are sta-
tionary, and cultivate the ground; but the
most of them are nomads: they are either
heathens or Mohammedans.   The Nogay
Tartars, who dwell on the  Cuban and
the Volga, and in some other districts, are
Mohammedans, and chiefly lead a wan-
dering life: they are much inferior to the
Tartars proper in civilization and personal
appearance.   The Bashkirs are in  a still
lower condition: they wander in summer,
and  dwell in villages and wooden huts in
winter. (See Bashkirs.)  The Kirghises,
who inhabit the great steppe of Orenburg,
breed cattle, live in tents, are Mohamme-
dans, and resemble the true Tartars more
nearly than  the last mentioned  tribes.
(See Kirghises.)  The Yakoutes and Te-
leutes are few in number, lead a wander-
ing  life, worehip idols, and are altogether
in a low state of civilization.  The Bu-
chanans, who are found in Russia, live in
cities and villages, and  are  industrious
workmen.  (See  Turcomania,  and  Us-
becks.)
   Tartini, Giuseppe, an ItaUan musician
and  composer, a native of Pirano, in the
province of Istria,was bom in 1692.   His
father  gave  him an expensive education,
with the view of qualifying him to follow
the law as his profession, and  had him
also instructed in all the accomplishments
of a gentleman.  Among them music was
not forgotten; but it was not till a secret
marriage alienated from him the affections
of his friends, that he thought of making
it conducive to his support.  An ecclesi-
astic, connected with the family, procured
him a situation in the orchestra  of his
convent,  where an  accident discovering
his retreat, matters were at length accom-
modated, and  he was  enabled  to settle
with his wife at Venice.  Here the exam-
ple of the celebrated Veracini excited in
him the  strongest emulation; and he is
said to have retired to Ancona for the
sole purpose of being able to practise on
the violin in greater tranquUlity than cir-
cumstances allowed him to enjoy at Ven-
ice.  While thus occupied, he discovered,
in 1714,  the  phenomenon of "the third
sound," i. e. the resonance of a third note
when the two upper notes of a chord are
sounded; and, after seven years' practice,
obtained the situation of leader of the or-
chestra in the cathedral of St. Anthony at
Padua.  In this capacity he continued to
act till death, with increasing reputation,
and declining, from devotion to his  patron
saint, many advantageous offers both from
Paris and London.  A singular story is
told respecting one of his most celebrated
compositions.  One night he dreamed that
he  had made a compact with the  devil,
and bound him to his service.  To ascer-
tain the musical abilities of his associate,
he gave him his  violin, and desired him
to play him a solo, which  Satan executed
in so masterly a  manner,  that Tartini,
awaking in the ecstasy which it produced,
and seizing his instrument, endeavored to
recall the delicious  sounds.  His  efforts
were so  far effectual as to produce the
piece generally admired under the name
of the  Devil's Sonata: still the produc-
tion was, in his own estimation, so infe-
rior to that which he had  heard  in his
sleep, as to cause him to  declare that,
could he have procured a subsistence in
any other line of life, he  should have
broken his violin in despair, and renounced
music for ever.  Besides his musical com-
positions, Tartini was the author of sev-
eral treatises on  the science.  His death
took place at Padua in 1770.
  Tartsche ; a  round shield,  formerly
much in use with the Turks.  Perhaps the
word is of Slavonic origin,  as it still has
this signification in Russian  and Polish.
  Tartuffe ; the chief character in Mo-
liere's best comedy, first played, in 1664,
before  Louis XIV.  Tartuffe is  a  hypo-
crite ; and the word is at present used to
designate such, not  only in  French, but
also in other languages.  Some say that
the character of Tartuffe depicts the con- 
144                        TARTUFFE—TASSO.

fessor of Louis XIV, father Lachaise,  his master, whose estates had been seized
whom  Moliere once saw eating truffles  by  Charles V, on account of his opposi-
(in  French,  tartuffes)  with great relish,  tion to the  introduction of tiie inquisition
Others say that  the  poet,  being at  the  into Naples, involved  Tasso in the great-
house of the nuncio, saw two monks  est embarrassments.   He was compelled
praying, apparently veiy devoutly, when a  to seek another place of refuge, and was
Savoyard entering with truffles to sell, the  finally invited by the  duke of Urbino to
two monks exclaimed with great enthusi-  take  up his residence at  Pesaro.  The
asm, O signore, tartuffi! tartuffi!  The lat-  leisure which he  now enjoyed  was em-
ter version does not seem probable.  Mo-  ployed in finishing his Armida, which  he
here had already many enemies among the  pubUshed  at Venice  in 1560.  In 1503,
clergy, lawyers and  physicians; and all  the duke of Mantua engaged him in his
the fools and bigots were against the pub-  service, and appointed him governor of
lie performance of Tartuffe.  Two years  Ostiglia, where he died in 1569.  His re-
Moliere applied  in vain for permission to  mains were interred  at Mantua under a
the court, the papal legate, the prelates,  handsome monument erected by the duke,
&c. At length permission was obtained;  with  the inscription Ossa Bernardi Tassi;
but just as the curtahi was about to rise, it  but his son Torquato  afterwards removed
was prohibited again,  of which Moliere  them to  Fenara.   His chief work, Armi-
pointedly informed the public  himself  da, a romantic epic,  displays much tal-
with these words, referring to the  presi-  ent and art:  in the expression of the
dent of the parliament: Monsieur le presi-  tender passions, in his descriptions of na-
dent ne veut pas qu'on le joue.'  At length,  ture,  in  vivid delineations of adventures
in 1669, Moliere succeeded in bringing  and battles, all the ornaments  of poetry
the play on the stage; and for three months  are happily introduced.  His lyrical and
Tartuffe was performed uninterruptedly—  other poems, in five books, are among the
a sufficient proof of the justice of its satire,  most  charming productions of the Italian
  Tasch ; Turkish for stone, in many ge-  muse.  We have also a Discourse on Po-
ographical names.                      etry,  and three books  of Letters, from his
  Tasso, Bernardo, a  distinguished epic  pen.
and lyric poet, whose fame has, however,     Tasso, Torquato.   This poet, celebrat-
been eclipsed by that of his son Torquato,  ed for his immortal works, as well as his
was born at  Bergamo, in 1493, and was of  unhappy fate, the son of the above-men-
an ancient and noble family.  His educa-  tioned Bernardo  Tasso, was born in the
tion was conducted with great care; and he  year  1544,  at Sorrento.  His talents  early
not only cultivated  the lighter literature,  aud rapidly developed themselves. While
but devoted himself to the study of poli-  yet a little  child, he was always grave and
tics.  He had already become known as  sedate.  From his seventh to  his  tenth
a poet throughout Italy, when Guido Ran-  year, he attended the schools of the Jes-
gone, general of the  pope,  and a patron   uits in Naples, and learned the Latin and
of  learning, took him into his service, and   Greek  languages  thoroughly.  He then
employed him in managing the most dif-   accompanied his  father to Rome, where,
ficult negotiations with Clement VII at  under his  superintendence, he  continued
Rome,  and Francis I in France.  Ber-   his studies with equal success for two
nardo subsequently entered into the ser-   years.  He then went to Bergamo, and,
vice of Renata, duchess of Ferrara, but  six months  after, to Pesaro,  where  his
soon left her  court, and went first to Pa-   father had met with a favorable reception
dua and then to Venice.  Here he pub-   from the duke of Urbino.   Here he shar-
lished a collection  of his poems,  which   ed the instruction of the duke's son.  His
gave him a place among the first of living  favorite studies were  philosophy and  po-
poets.   Ferrante Sanseverino,  prince of  etry; but he also devoted himself to math-
 Salerno, engaged him in his  service, in  ematics and chivalrous exercises.  When
 1531, as secretary, on honorable and ad-  his father resided at Venice, he remained
 vantageous  terms.  When the prince fol-  there with him for a  year, and then went,
 lowed  Charles V to Tunis,  in a galley  at the age of thirteen years,  to Padua,
 equipped at  his own  cost, Tasso accom-  with the mtention of studying  law.  But
 panied  him,  and, after  his  return,  was  his genius drew him  irresistibly to poetry,
 sent on public business  to  Spain.   In  and,  at the age of  seventeen  years, he
 1539, he married the rich and  beautiful  came out  with an epic poem,  in twelve
 Porzia   de'  Rossi, and retired, with the  cantos (Rinaldo), which he dedicated to the
 consent of  the prince, to Sorrento, where  cardinal Ludovico of Este. Italy received
 he lived till 1547.  But the misfortunes of  this  work with universal  applause; and 
TASSO.
145
his father consented, after a long opposi-
tion, that he should relinquish the study
of the law.   Torquato now devoted him-
self with redoubled zeal to  literary and
philosophical studies, and, with this view,
accepted an invitation to Bologna.  Here
he commenced the execution ofa plan of
an epic  poem,  which  he had  already
formed in Padua—the conquest of Jem-
salem under the command of Godfrey of
Bouillon.   But, in the midst of these oc-
cupations, he was unexpectedly disturbed.
He was falsely accused as the author of a
satirical  poem in circulation, and was
subjected to a judicial examination.   This
induced him to leave Bologna.  He went
to Modena, and then accepted the invita-
tion  of the  friend of his youth, the young
Scipio Gonzaga, who had  founded an
academy in Padua,  and wished  to see
Tasso at the head of it.  He studied with
great assiduity the philosophy of Aristotle,
but still more'that of Plato, towards whom
he felt  himself drawn by the  cords of
sympathy.   Meanwhile, he  did not lose
sight of his epic poem.  How intently the
theory of this species of poem  occupied
him may be seen by the three dialogues
which he then composed on the subject.
The cardinal Ludovico of Este appointed
him a' gentleman of his court, and wished
that he should be present in Ferrara at the
nuptials of his brother Alphonso with an
archduchess of  Austria.  Tasso went, in
October, 1565, and attended the splendid
 fetes with  which those nuptials were cel-
 ebrated. The sisters of the duke, Lucre-
 tia and Leonora, both indeed no  longer
young, but beautiful  and lovely, gave the
 poet their  friendship;  in particular the
 latter, who presented him to Alphonso.,
 This prince, who knew that Tasso wished
 to celebrate the conquest of Jerusalem  in
 an  epic poem,  received him in  a most
 flattering manner, and warmly encour-
 aged his undertaking, so that the poet re-
 turned to his labor, which had been inter-
 rupted during two years, and determined
 to dedicate his work to the duke Alphon-
 so, and to raise in it  a monument  to the
 fame of the ducal house, from which he
 then enjoyed such  distinguished favor.
 For a short time only he left Ferrara  to
 visit Padua,  Milan,  Pavia, and  Mantua,
 where  he  saw  his father.   He returned
 with increased  celebrity.  The heart of
 Tasso was much affected by the unex-
 pected  death  of his  father; but  neither
 this misfortune, nor other  distractions,
 prevented  him from laboring every day on
 his poem,  of which he had finished eight
 cantos, when  he travelled in the suite of
   vol. xn.        13
the cardinal of Este to France, in .1571.
Here he was received with distinction by
Charles IX,  as  well  as  by  the  whole
court.  The poet Ronsard was his friend;
and  they  communicated  to each other
their poetical labore.   In the mean time,
Tasso  may have expressed himself too
freely and unguardedly concerning some
subjects which then occupied the  minds
of all: he lost the favor of the  cardinal,
and, in consequence, appears to have been
involved in some embarrassments,  aud
finally departed for Italy.  He returned to
Rome, and soon entered, according to his
wishes, into the  service of  the duke Al-
phonso, by the mediation  of the princess
of  Urbino,  Lucretia  of  Este,  and  the
princess Leonora.  The conditions were
favorable and honorable, and left him  in
possession of entire freedom.  But hardly
had he applied himself again to the work,
which  the world  expected with  impa-
tience, when the  death of the duchess
again interrupted  his labors.  Alphonso
soon after made a journey to Rome, and
Tasso took advantage of the leisure  thus
afforded him to compose his Aminta, the
plan of which had been for a long time in
his mind.   The representation of an idyl
in dialogue, written by Agostino degl'Ar-
genti,  at  which  he  had  been present
six years before, in Ferrara, had delighted
him, and suggested to him  the idea  of a
similar work, which he now completed in
two months, and which far surpassed  all
that Italy  then  possessed  of this kind.
From this dramatic performance the ope-
ra may be considered  to have  taken  its
rise.  The duke was most agreeably sur-
prised, on his return, by this performance,
and ordered the representation of if to be
made with the greatest splendor. Tasso's
consideration  and favor  with the duke
increased; but his good fortune  excited
t,he envy of many, who continually medi-
tated his ruin.  The princess of Urbino
wishing to become acquainted with the
poem, which was the subject of general
admiration, Tasso paid her a visit at Pe-
saro, where the old prince Guidobaldo,as
well as his son and daughter-in-law, re-
ceived him in a very flattering manner.
For several months,  he  lived  in  the
charming castle Durante, in the most in-
timate friendship with Lucretia, who will-
ingly listened to the verses in which he
immortalized  her.   With  rich presents
he returned to Ferrara, and occupied  him-
self again  with his epic poem, which he
 once  more reluctantly discontinued, to
accompany the duke to Venice, whither
the latter went to meet  king Henry III, 
146
TASSO.
who had just exchanged the throne  of
Poland for that of France, and who was
now invited to visit  Ferrara.  This jour-
ney took place in the hottest season of the
year, and  brought on  the poet  a fever,
which  continued  a  long time, and inter-
rupted all his labore.  During his conva-
lescence, he finished, in the early part  of
the year 1575, his Goffredo—the fruit of
bo much exertion, and the source of such
great misfortunes to him.  But he wish-
ed, before  publishing  it,  to  obtain  the
judgment  of his  friends;  and their dis-
cordant opinions  perplexed and  agitated
him to such a degree as to occasion  an-
other burning fever, from which, however,
he soon recovered.   He immediately ex-
amined his work anew, in order to re-
touch or alter it in particular places.  The
duke treated  him with redoubled atten-
tion and distinction.   Tasso accompanied
him on his journeys of pleasure to Belri-
guardo, and Lucretia, who had separated
from her  husband,  and had  returned to
her  brother,  wished to  have the  poet
always with her.  It was with  difficulty
that he obtained, under  these  circum-
stances, in November, 1575, permission to
go to Rome, in order to subject his poem
to a new and  thorough  examination.
Here he was well received, in particular
by  his friend Scipio di Gonzaga.   By
him he was presented to the cardinal Fer-
dinand de' Medici (brother, and afterwards
successor, of the grand-duke of Tuscany),
who, knowing that the poet was no longer
pleased with Ferrara, proposed to him the
service of the grand-duke. Tasso, how-
ever, declined, from a feeling of gratitude
towards the house of Este.  He therefore
soon returned to Ferrara, where, not long
after, arrived  the young and  beautiful
countess Leonora Sanvitali, wife of the
count of Scaridiano, a  lady whom Tasso
ardently admired, and whom he has cele-
brated  in  his  poems.  She, also, on  her
part, was not insensible to his friendship;
and the duke about this time conferred
upon him  the vacant office of historiogra-
pher to the house of Este: thus, to his
misfortune, he found himself bound more
closely to Ferrara; and the hatred of his
rivals and  enemies was increased.  He
was greatly troubled by  the  information
that his poem had been printed in a city
of Italy, as it did  not appear to him suffi-
ciently finished for  the press, and as  he
saw himself, also, by this means, deprived
of the advantages which  he had hoped
for  from  the labor of so many  years.
This and other troubles, partly real, partly
imaginary, increased his melancholy:  he
believed himself persecuted  by his ene-
mies, calumniated, accused.   In this stato
of mind, one evening, in the apartment of
the duchess of Urbino,  he  drew his
sword against one of her servants.   Tliis
induced the  duke  to  arrest  him, and
confine  him in  a house near the pal-
ace ; but, upon his entreaty, he restored
him to liberty, and merely desired that he
would put himself under the care of a
physician.   A cure appeared to be effect-
ed, and the duke took him on  a journey
of pleasure  to Belriguardo,  in order to
console and divert  him, after he had
caused the  grand  inquisitor  to  satisfy
some  scruples of conscience which had
arisen in  Tasso's mind,  on account  of
doubts upon religious  subjects.  But  all
this care was not sufficient to restore the
poet's peace, and  the  duke at last saw
himself under the necessity of letting him
return, according  to his desire,  to the
Franciscans in Ferrara.   His situation
became continually worse: he imagined
himself surrounded by perils, gave  him-
self the most painful reproaches, and, at
last, in this state of  mental disorder, took
advantage of a moment when he was not
watched, and, destitute of every  thing,
without even his manuscripts, made his
escape on the 20th of July, 1577. He has-
tened  to his sister Cornelia, who lived in
a state of widowhood at Sorrento, in Na-
ples, and who received  him most tender-
ly.   By  her care,  he at last began to
grow composed.  He repented of his pre-
cipitate flight, and presented  to the duke
and princesses a petition that he might be
restored to his place, but particularly to
their  favor.   He, indeed, went back to
Ferrara; but his old malady soon return-
ed, and  he escaped a  second time.  In
vain did he seek shelter in Mantua, Padua
and Venice: at the court of Urbino  he
first met with a  worthy reception.   But,
notwithstanding  all the  friendship and
care with which he  was treated, his mel-
ancholy, acquired   new  strength :   he
thought himself not secure; and,  while
he fled from imaginary dangers, he rush-
ed upon  real ones.   He went, at last, to
Turin.  Here a friend recognised him,
extricated him from his embarrassments,
and presented him to the marquis Fi-
lippo d'Este, who received him in a very
friendly and liberal manner.   The arch-
bishop of Turin, an old friend of Bernardo
Tasso, introduced him  to duke Charles
Emanuel, who  received  him under the
same  conditions as those on which he had
lived in Ferrara.  Once more the unhap-
py Tasso took courage, and bright sparks 
TASSO.
147
shone through the gloomy mist which
had veiled his mind, and which but too
soon resumed the ascendency. He longed
to be once more in Ferrara, and thought
that the nuptials of the duke with Marga-
reta Gonzaga would be the most suitable
time for his appearance there.  He went,
but was bitterly disappointed.   He was
received on every side with indifference,
even  with mockery and contempt: nei-
ther the duke nor the princesses admitted
him  to their presence;  and  he poured
forth  loud invectives  against Alphonso
and the whole court.  The duke, instead
of bestowing pity upon  the unfortunate
poet, commanded that he should be placed
in St. Anne's hospital, and confined there
as a madman (March, 1579).  In order to
explain this cruel command of the prince,
other causes have been assigned, in par-
ticular the love of Tasso for the princess
Leonora.   But though his passion cannot
be denied, yet it can in no way be proved
that Tasso overstepped the limits of re-
spect and modesty.   It may, indeed, have
contributed to aggravate the frenzy which
sometimes visited him, and which may,
perhaps, have been owing to physical as
well as to moral causes.   That Tasso, by
such  measures as were taken with him,
could  not have been cured, is evident.
The very  thought that he was in a mad-
house must have been revolting to him;
and not less painfully must he have felt
the severity with which he was treated;
the indifference with which all his entrea-
ties and representations were received by
the  duke and  the  princess.   And yet,
amidst his despondency, this  rare genius
enjoyed  calm  and  lucid  moments, in
which he poured forth the most glorious
poetical and philosophical  effusions.  A
new affliction to him was the information
that his poem  had appeared in print at
Venice in a very  mutilated  condition.
This firet edition was quickly followed in
different places by others, of which every
successive one surpassed the preceding in
correctness and completeness.  Thus, in
six months, six editions of the Jerusalem
Delivered were printed.   The printers
and publishers enriched themselves, while
the unhappy poet languished in close im-
prisonment, sick  and forgotten.  It was
not till two years after that he  was allow-
ed by the duke, in consequence of his re-
peated entreaties, several apartments, in-
stead  of his prison-like abode.  Here he
enjoyed greater  freedom, received visits
from friends and strangers, and was per-
mitted, from  time to time, accompanied
only by one person, to walk out, and to
visit some society or place of amusement
The duke  even once sent for Tasso at a
time when some French and  Italian no-
blemen were with him:  he received him
with kindness, and promised him a speedy
release.  Notwithstanding this,  he saw
himself, even before the end of the year,
deprived  of his late  accommodations.
Amidst these melancholy circumstances,
a new storm burst over him. Among other
writings to which the Jemsalem Delivered
had given rise, was a  dialogue by Camillo
Pellegrino  on epic poetry  (II Carrafa,
ovvero della Poesia epica, 1584), in which
Tasso  was  placed far   above  Ariosto.
This gave occasion to violent contentions.
The numerous adherents of the Divino,
and among these the two academicians
of Crusca, Lionardo Salviati and Sebas-
tiano de' Rossi, stepped forth in opposition,
in the name of the academy, and assailed
the Jerusalem  Delivered, and  its author,
in order to defend the Orlando, or at least
under  this pretext.  With  dignity and
moderation, Tasso replied to the  charges
of his opponents, which,  in his situation,
embittered  by mental and  bodily pains,
must certainly be considered as a double
merit.  At the same time, he was occupi-
ed about the means of obtaining his Uber-
ty.  He had called upon  the most power-
ful persons to be his intercessors.  Greg-
ory XIII, the cardinal Albano, the grand-
duke of Tuscany, the duke  and duchess
of Urbino, the duchess of Mantua, several
princes of the house of Gonzaga, had in
vain employed their good offices for him.
The  city  of Bergamo,  Tasso's  native
place, had, for  the same purpose, sent a
special ambassador to the duke. The lat-
ter made promises which he never fulfil-
led.   Tasso's  condition  continually be-
came worse: he was broken down in
body and mind, and suffered periodically
from  actual madness.   At  length the
hard-hearted Alphonso was softened, and,
at the most urgent entreaties, yielded up
the person of the poet, after an imprison-
ment  of more than seven years, to his
brother-in-law Vincenzo  Gonzaga, prince
of Mantua, who promised to keep such a
watch over him, that Alphonso should
have  nothing  to fear from  him (July,
1586).  In  Mantua, Tasso met with the
most  friendly and honorable  reception;
but his malady had taken too  deep root
to leave him entirely. He,  nevertheless,
resumed his literary  labore:  he  com-
pleted, among other  things, Floridante,
which had been commenced  by his father,
and published it with a dedication to the
duke of Mantua and  Bologna.  He also 
148
TASSO.
recomposed his tragedy Tonismondo.  In
the next year,  he enjoyed the  happiness
of visiting Bergamo, where his appearance
was celebrated by the whole city.   The
death of the duke of Mantua recalled him
to that city.  His son and successor man-
ifested towards the poet the same  kind-
ness,  but not the same friendship and
confidence.  Tasso  began to be discon-
tented with his residence in Mantua.  He
received  an honorable  invitation to be
professor in the  academy at Genoa, but
was prevented by his sickness from ac-
cepting it  He then formed the resolu-
tion of going to Rome.  Here he was so
well received, not only  by Scipio Gonza-
ga, but also by several  cardinals, that he
again entertained new hopes; but nothing
was effected, and he repaired, in 1588, to
Naples, for the purpose of recovering the
confiscated fortune of his parents. Here he
occupied himself with a recomposition of
his Jerusalem Delivered, in order to purge
it from the faults which he perceived in it,
as well as from the praises bestowed in it
upon the house of Este.  From Naples he
returned  to Rome; and, finding there also
occasion for discontent, he accepted the in-
vitation of the grand-duke of Florence. He
had reason to be  satisfied in every respect
with his reception, both from the grand-
duke and from the people, but soon sighed
again for Naples, and, with every mark of
esteem, and with rich present?, departed in
the autumn for Rome, where he arrived
sick.  Before he had recovered his health,
he repaired, in consequence of urgent en-
treaties,to Mantua,to visit the duke Vincen-
zo Gonzaga; and it would have been well
for him to have remained here, if his con-
tinually declining health had not  made
him  desirous to go to Naples.  At the
invitation of his  friends, he went thither
in January, 1592, and took  up  his abode
with his patron, the prince  Conca.   The
completion of Jerusalem Conquered (the
recomposition  of Jerusalem  Delivered)
was his first employment, and was almost
concluded, when he became suspicious
that the prince wished to take possession
of his manuscripts.  He communicated
this  apprehension to his  friend Manso,
who, with the consent of the duke, and
without  any  violation  of gratitude or
friendship,  received him into his house,
which was most  charmingly situated on
the sea-coast.  This had a very favorable
influence upon Tasso, who gave the last
finish to his  Jerusalem Conquered, and
immediately commenced, at the desire of
the mother of  the  marquis,  his  poem
Of the seven Days of the  Creation.  In
the mean time,  Hippolitus Aldobrandini
had ascended the papal chair as Clement
VIII.  Tasso had congratulated  his for-
mer patron  upon this event, as  he had
before done Urban  VII, in an excellent
canzone, and was at last obliged to com-
ply with the repeated invitation of the
pope  to  come to Rome.  The  pope, as
well as both his nephews, in particular
the cardinal Cintio Aldobrandini, paid him
the most delicate and friendly attentions.
Tasso, from  gratitude, dedicated to tho
latter his Jerusalem Conquered;  and the
return of his malady alone induced him
to leave  Rome,  and again to return to
Naples.  Here  he  passed four  months
very happily in the  circle  of his friends.
Meanwhile,  Cintio, in order to draw him
back  to  Rome,  had  procured  for him
from the pope the honor ofa solemn cor-
onation in  the  capitol.   At this  news,
Tasso set oft* for  Rome, where he arrived
in November, 1594, and  was  received
with great distinction.  The pope over-
whelmed him with praises, and said to
him, " I give to you the laurel, that it may
receive as much  honor from you as it lias
conferred upon  those who have had it
before you." The  solemnity was, how-
ever, delayed till the spring, in  order to
give it the greater splendor.  During tho
winter, Tasso's health  failed more and
more: he felt his end approaching, and
ordered himself to be carried  into the
monastery of St. Onofrio, where  he died,
April 25, 1595, the  very day which had
been  appointed  for his coronation.   A
raging fever terminated his life, at the
commencement  of his  fifty-second year.
The cardinal Cintio caused  him  to  be
buried honorably hi the little church  of
the monastery ; and, eight years after, the
cardinal  Bcvilacqua ordered the monu-
ment to  be  erected which is still to  be
seen there.   The Italians  Manso, Serassi
and Zuccala (1819)  have written  his life.
Serassi has also published  a collection  of
more than  250  letters by Tasso.   Tho
physician Giacomazzi, in his  Dialoghi
sojpra gli Amori, la Prigionia ed il Genio
di Torquato  Tasso, etc. (Brescia,  1827),
has expressed the opinion  that not Leo-
nora, but Lucretia, afterwards the wife of
the duke of  Urbino, was the object of the
Platonic  love of the unfortunate  poet.
Frederic Schlegel,  in his Geschichte der
alten  und neuen Literatur  (History  of
Ancient and Modern Literature), compar-
ing Ariosto,  Camoens and  Tasso, says of
the latter, " Not only a poetical, but also a
patriotic, inspiration  for  the pause  of
Christendom animated this poet, in whom 
TASSO—TASSONI.
149
love of glory and pious  feeling  were
equally predominant.   Yet he has by no
means reached the grandeur of his sub-
ject; and  so little has he exhausted its
treasures,  that he may be said only to
have skimmed over its surface.  He was
in some degree confined by the Virgilian
form, from which he has borrowed, with
no  great success,  a few pieces  of what
is commonly  called  the epic machinery.
Tasso  belongs, upon the whole, rather to
the class of poets who represent  them-
selves  and their own  exquisite  feelings,
than of those who  reflect a world in their
own minds, and are able to lose and for-
get themselves in it.   The finest passages
of his poem are such as would be beauti-
ful either by themselves or as episodes in
any other  epic, but  have no necessary
connexion with the subject. The charms
of Armida, the beauty of Clorinda, and the
love of Emiinia—these and similar pas-
sages are the ones which delight in Tasso.
In his lyrical poems (Rime), there is a glow
of passion, and an inspiration ofunfortunate
love, compared with which the coldness of
the artificial Petrarch  appears repulsive.
Tasso is altogether a poet of feeling;  and
as Ariosto is, throughout, a painter, so over
the language and  versification of Tasso,
there is poured forth the whole charm of
music—a circumstance which has, without
doubt, greatly contributed to render him the
favorite poet of the Italians.  His popularity
exceeds even that of Ariosto.  Individual
parts and  episodes of his  poem are fre-
quently sung; and the Italians, having no
romantic ballads, like those of the  Span-
iards, have split their epic poem, in order
to adapt it to song, into what may be call-
ed  ballads, the most  melodious, graceful,
noble and poetical ever possessed by any
people.  Perhaps  this mode of treating
their great poem was the best for the en-
joyment of it; for, by giving up the con-
nexion, little seems to  be lost  How far
Tasso's notions on epic art were from be-
ing satisfactory to himself, is evident from
his many alterations and unsuccessful at-
tempts.  His first attempt was a romance
of  chivalry.  Afterwards,  in the decline
of  his powers,  he entirely recast  the
whole  of  his  Jerusalem  Delivered, to
which  he owes his greatest fame, sacri-
ficing  to the  moral  severity or anxiety
which  he had adopted the most delightful
and glowing passages in  the poem, and
introducing, throughout, a cold allegory,
little calculated to compensate  for  what
he  had taken away.   He also attempted
a Christian epic on the subject of the cre-
ation.  But, even to the most gifted poet,
                  13*
how difficult must it be to unfold a few
mysterious sentences of Moses into  as
many cantos!  In this poem, Tasso laid
aside the use of rhyme, although his  po-
ems derive a great part of their charms
from it, and although no poet ever pos-
sessed so entire  a command of rhyme.
He has often  been censured for bis plays
of thought, or concetti, as they are called.
Many of these, however, are not only foil
of meaning,  but  beautiful as images.  A
poet of feeling and of love may especially
be pardoned such  trifling errors.  If we
regard Tasso merely as a musical poet of
feeling, it forms, in truth, no proper sub-
ject  of reproach,  that he is, in  a certain
sense,  uniform, and, throughout,  senti-
mental.  Uniformity of this sort seems to
be inseparable from that poetry which is
in its nature lyrical;  and it seems to me a
beauty in Tasso, that he  has spread this
soft breath of elegy even over the repre-
sentation of the charms of sense. But an
epic poet must  be richer in every thing;
he must be multiform; he must embrace
a whole world of objects, the spirit of the
present time and of past ages, of his na-
tion  and of nature;  he must have com-
mand not only over one chord, but over
the  whole  complicated  instrument  of
feeling."—An account of  the  different
original editions of Tasso's works is to  be
found in  Tassos Leben und Characteristik
nach Guingueni,  dargestellt von  F.  A.
Ebert—Tasso's Life and poetical Char-
acter, by Ebert (Leipsic, 1819). The Eng-
lish language possesses three translations
of Tasso's Jemsalem Delivered, by Fair-
fax, Hoole and Wiffen.
  Tassoni, Alexander, one of the cele-
brated Italian poets, was born at Modena,
in 1565.  His  childhood  was  rendered
unhappy by the early loss of his parents,
by sickness, enemies, and various misfor-
tunes.  All this, however, did not interrupt
him in his studies at Bologna and Ferrara.
In 1597, he went  to Rome, and became
secretary  to  cardinal Ascanio  Colonna,
who  took him to Spain  hi 1600, and
twice despatched  him upon business into
Italy (1602 and 1603).  Upon one of these
journeys he wrote his celebrated Consi-
derazioni sopra il Petrarca.  At Rome,
he was admitted into the academy of the
Umoristi.   One fruit of  his intercourse
with the societies of Rome was the  ten
books of his Pensieri diversi, a specimen
of which, under the title Quesiti, he pub-
lished  in 1608, enlarged  m 1612.  This
work,  full of  ingenious  paradoxes  (in
which the author was not probably al-
ways serious),  directed against the sci- 
150                         TASSONI—TASTE.
cnces, was  also seasoned with much wit
and elegance, and made a powerful im-
pression.  Still more was this the case
with the above-mentioned Considerazioni,
which first  appeared in 1609.  Consider-
ing the veneration in which Petrarch was
held by some  to be  extravagant,  he en-
deavored, in an unreasonable manner, to
diminish the fame of this great poet, and
hence became involved in a series  of con-
troversies.  Tassoni had been without of-
fice since the death of cardinal Colonna.
Being destitute of the means of an  inde-
pendent  livelihood, he entered, in  1613,
the service  of the duke of Savoy, Charles
Emmanuel, and of the cardinal, his son.
Here he was alternately in favor and dis-
grace.   This might  have  been, in part,
owing  to his  uniform hatred against the
Spaniards,  with whom  the duke was
sometimes  at  war,  sometimes at peace.
Tassoni  has been  accused,  not without
reason,  of  writing some philippics (JUip-
piche) against the Spaniards,  and likewise
a  treatise entitled  Le Esequie della Mo-
norchia di Spagna,  although he positively
denied the  authorship of them.  In  1623,
he left  the service of the duke, and de-
voted himself for  three years  to study
and  the cultivation of flowers, of which
he was very fond.  At that time, he prob-
ably completed a work  previously  com-
menced (II Compendia del Baronio), which
he began in Latin, but  afterwards exe-
cuted in Italian.   In 1626,  his condition
was improved.   Cardinal Ludovisio,  a
nephew of Gregory XV, received him
into his service upon advantageous terms.
After the death of the cardinal, in 1632,
Tassoni entered,with the title of counsellor,
into the service of his native prince, duke
Francis I.   He received an honorable al-
lowance, and resided at court, but en-
joyed  this  good fortune for three  years
only, when he died,  in 1635.  The fame
of Tassoni  is owing, not to  the works
already enumerated, but to  a comic-epic
poem,  under  the title La Secchia rapita,
which first appeared in 1622, and was
published by him,  probably for particular
reasons, as the production of his youth,
although the careful finish of the versifi-
cation  bears  the stamp of  mature age.
The subject of the poem is the war  of the
Modonese  and Bolognese, in the middle
of the thirteenth century.   In this war,
the  bucket of a well was removed from
the  city by the Modonese, who had pene-
trated  into Bologna, and  conveyed as a
trophy to Modena, where  it is  preserved
as a memorial to the present day.  This
event, and  the fruitless efforts of  the Bo-
lognese to recover the lost bucket, Tas-
soni relates in twelve burlesque epic can-
tos, characterized by the spirit and grace
of Ariosto,  and breathing in some places
an epic grandeur.  The language  has the
genuine Tuscan character, and the versi-
fication  is  easy and agreeable.   If this
poem has met the  fate of Hudibras, the
reason, in both cases, is the same; namely,
that the interest of the circumstances has
passed away with the time in which the
poem was written, so that many allusions,
which constitute the very spirit  of the
poem, and at the time of its publication
were easily underetood, can now be made
intelligible  only  by means  of  copious
notes.
  Taste, in physiology; one of the five
senses, by  which are  perceived  certain
impressions made by particles of bodies
dissolved by the  saliva on the tongue or
the other contiguous parts of the  body
endowed with  this  sense.  As has been
already  observed in the article  Senses,
taste does not  appear  to be confined to
the tongue, that member being wanting in
many animals which do  not seem desti-
tute of the sense, and, in  many which
have  a  tongue,  this  member, from its
structure, is not  adapted to receive im-
pressions from objects of taste.  Again,
it is not the whole surface of the  human
tongue,  according to some late  experi-
ments, which is capable of those impres-
sions  that we ascribe to taste.  By cover-
ing the  tongue with parchment, some-
times in whole, and sometimes in different
parts, two  experimenters in Paris (MM.
Guyot and Admyraula)  found, that the
end and sides of the tongue, and  a small
space at the root of it,  together  with a
small surface at ths anterior and superior
part of the roof of the palate, are the
only portions of surface in the cavity of
the mouth and throat that can distinguish
taste  or sapidity from mere  touch.  A
portion  of extract of aloes, placed at any
other part, gives no sensation but  that of
touch, until the  saliva carries a solution
of the sapid matters to those parts of the
cavity.*  (See Tongue.)  The little glands
of the tongue  dissolve the salts contained
in  articles  of food, which,  when dis-
solved,  penetrate into the  three nerves
on each side of the tongue, that are con-
  ♦Blumenbach,  in his Comp.  Anatomy, Engl.
by Coulson (London, 1827, en. xviii), says:  " I
have seen an adult, and, in other respects, well
formed man, who was born without a tongue.
He could distinguish, nevertheless, very easily,
the tastes of solutions of salt, sugar and  aloes,
rubbed on his palate, and would express the taste
of each by writing." 
TASTE
I—TATTOOING.
151
nected with tho brain and spinal marrow.
Thus we receive those  sensations which
we call sweet, sour, bitter, sharp, insipid,
astringent, and numberless othere, which,
though we  have no names for  them, yet
are very distinct, as they enable  us to rec-
ognise particular objects.  The impres-
sions thus received we ascribe to the ob-
jects that excite them, though  acidity is,
properly speaking, not more a quality of
vinegar than pain is of the whip or spur.
The word taste thus comes to be applied
to the things which excite it; and we say,
sugar tastes sweet with the same  propri-
ety or  impropriety that we say, a flower
smells sweet, a  bird looks black.  This
confusion of cause and effect, in common
language, is very natural, in fact unavoid-
able, considering the way in  which lan-
guage is  formed.  We  possess very few
words to designate the endless variety of
tastes, of which we are very sensible.  In
this respect  taste is similar  to hearing.
Though we all know how to distinguish
a tune on the piano from the same on the
guitar, it is impossible to explain  distinctly
why or how.  Our capability  of express-
ing tastes is, however, much greater than
of expressing smells.  Taste  and smell
are very closely connected, the loss of one
being accompanied with the  loss of the
other. (See Smell.)  Many words, desig-
nating impressions on the one sense, are
used also for those  received from  the
other, and fiavor is daily applied to both.
A sweet smell is a very common phrase;
and in Thuringia the common people say
the nosegay tastes sweet.  In respect to
aesthetics, teste  signifies that faculty by
which we  judge of the beautiful and
proper, and  distinguish them  from the
ugly and unsuitable.  The name  results
from  the similarity of this faculty  with
the physical taste.  The office of both is
to discriminate between the agreeable and
disagreeable; but the comparison has of-
ten been canied too far; thus,  because the
beautiful is also agreeable, the  beautiful
and agreeable have often been  taken for
one and  the same ; and  because matters
of physical taste are  not proper subjects
of dispute  (since the same flavor, for in-
stance, may be pleasant to one person and
veiy disagreeable to  others),  it has  been
sometimes  supposed that taste, hi {esthet-
ics, can have reference  only to  the  acci-
dental impression of a work of art on the
individual.   But  aesthetics teaches  that,
though an  individual may not like a pic-
ture of Raphael, and find less satisfaction
in a drama of Shakspeare than  in the
coarse productions of a very inferior mind,
there is yet beauty in them; that is to say,
they answer the demands of certain rules
which have an objective (q. v.) and gen-
eral  character,  so that the beauty of a
work of art may be a proper subject  of
discussion.  Taste is the faculty of judg-
ment operating in a certain sphere.   It
must be  formed by practice,  whereby it
differs essentially from  the sense of  the
beautiful.   This is natural, whilst taste is
tiie fruit of observation and reflection.
  Tate,  Nahum, an  EngUsh poet, was
born in Dublin about the year 1652, and,
after receiving  a classical education at
Trinity college, went to London, where
he obtained the patronage of the earl of
Dorset On the death of Shadwell,  the
interest of his friends procured him  the
situation of poet laureate to William III.
This post  he held through that and  the
succeeding reign ; and he even Uved long
enough to write the first birth-day ode on
George I.   He died in the mint, whither
he had retired from his creditors, in 1715.
He was the author of Brutus; of Alba, a
tragedy; Duke and no Duke, a farce; and
some other dramatic pieces: but it is  by
his metrical version of the Psalms of Da-
vid, executed in conjunction with doctor
Nicholas Brady, and commonly affixed to
the liturgy of the church of England, that
his name is now principally known. Sev-
eral elegies  and other occasional pieces
also proceeded from his pen.
  Tatianists.  (See  Gnostics.)
  Tatius, Achilles, a Christian bishop of
the third century, was born at Alexandria
in Egypt   Prior to his becoming a pros-
elyte from paganism, he was the author of
one of the earliest Greek romances now
extant, entitled the Amours of  Clitophon
and Leucippe, of  which there  is a trans-
lation by Cruceius.  Part of a commen-
tary  on the De Sphctra of Aratus,  as-
cribed to him, has come down to posteri-
ty, and has been translated by Petavius.—
Tatius is  also the name of an  ancient
king of the Sabines, who made peace with
the Romans, and  shared  his  kingdom
with Romulus,  but was assassinated  six
years afterwards, at tiie instigation of  his
colleague.
  Tattooing;  a name borrowed from
the South sea islands, where it denotes
the practice of staining the skin by punc-
turing it with a sharp instrument covered
with coloring matter, or inserting the color
in incisions  made  in the skin, and thus
forming a  variety of figures.   We find
similar practices among other barbarous
tribes,  and,  to a  certain extent, among
soldiers, sailors, &c.  Degrees of rank 
152
TATTOOING—TAURIDA.
among savages are  often designated by
the greater  or less surface  of tattooed
skin: sometimes the whole body, the face
not excepted, are found tattooed.  This
is  the case  among  the people of New
Zealand.
  Tacchnitz, Charles Christopher Trau-
gott, a printer and bookseller in Leipsic,
born in  1761, has had an important influ-
ence upon German typography.  In 1808,
he began the publication of the classical
authors, and, in 1816, he set up his stere-
otype foundery on  the Stanhope  plan,
which  had previously been unknown in
Germany.  Tauchnitz was the first to ap-
ply the process of stereotyping to music.
Besides publishing cheap editions  of the
classics, he has also printed some splendid
editions both of Greek and Latin authors.
  Tauenzien von Wittenberg, Fred-
eric Bogislav Emanuel, count of, Prus-
sian general of infantry, a distinguished
soldier,  was born  in  1760.   His  father
was the celebrated defender of Breslau.
Tauenzien took part in the  unfortunate
campaign of 1806.  In 1813, he coope-
rated  in the victories at  Gross-Beeren
(q. v.) and Dennewitz. (q. v.)  December
26, he took the fortress of Torgau; Janu-
ary 13, 1814, Wittenberg  (on account of
which he was called Tauenzien von  Wit-
tenberg); and, May 24,1814,  Magdeburg.
He died, in  1824, in Berlin.
  Taught ;  the state  of being extended
or stretched out, usually applied in oppo-
sition to slack.
  Tauler, John, a celebrated German di-
vine, bora in 1294, or later, at Strasburg or
Cologne, entered, when very young, the or-
der of the Dominicans.  His life was pure.
His sermons, written in Latin and deliv-
ered in German, produced a great effect.
He did much to improve the German di-
dactic style.   The earliest editions of his
sermons are of 1498 and 1580.  His early
sermons are more metaphysical; the later
ones simple and  popular.  Versions of
them have often been published in mod-
ern German.  He died in 1361.  Arndt
wrote his life in 1689.
  Taunt ; a marine epithet, signifying&tgft
or tall.  It is  particularly applied to the
masts, when they are of an extraordinary
length, as square isapplied to long yards.
  Taunton, the ^hire-town of Bristol
county, Massachusetts, is situated at the
junction of  Canoe,  Rumford and Taun-
ton rivers, thirty-two miles south of Bos-
ton, and twenty-one east of Providence;
population in 1830, 6045.  It  is a hand-
some and flourishing town, and contains
the county buildings, an academy, a bank,
and seven meeting houses.  It has excel-
lent water power, and there are several
factories for cotton, paper, nails, and vari-
ous kinds of iron work. The Indian name
of Taunton was Cohannet.
  Taunton ; a town of England, in Som-
ersetshire, 140 miles  west  of London;
Ion. 3° W W.; lat  50° 5^ N.; popula-
tion in 1821, 8339.   It consists of four
principal streets, which are wide and well
built,  and contains two parish churches.
The woollen manufacture has flourished
in this town almost ever since its first in-
troduction into England by the emigrants
from Flanders, the first manufacture be-
ing established here  about the year 1336.
Of late years it has decayed.  A silk
manufacture was introduced here in 1780,
and now employs a great part of the in-
habitants.  Taunton is an ancient borough
by prescription, and has  returned mem-
bere to parliament from the year 1294.
  Tauria.  (See Taurida.)
  Taurida ;  a government of  Russia,
comprising the Crimean peninsula (Cher-
sonesus  Taurica), the island of Taman,
and the districts and steppes inhabited by
the Nogay and  Budshiak Tartars.  The
province of the Cossacks of the Black sea
is  also connected with it in matters of
government; population,346,000.  These
countries were  anciently inhabited  by
Scythians and Greek colonists, and, since
the time  of Herodotus (B. C. 450), have
been  conquered and devastated  by more
than seventy different nations.  Towards
the end of the fifteenth century, they were
conquered by the Turks, who drove out
the Venetians and the Genoese colonies
there.  The  Crimea had its own khan,
who was, however, dependent on the sul-
tan, and was obliged  to be confirmed by
him in his dignity.   In 1774, the  Turks
were forced by Russia to acknowledge its
independence,  and,  in 1783, it  was an-
nexed to Russia.   The imperial title was
graced with the addition of czar of the
Taurian Chersonese, and  Potemkin, who
had been active in effecting the  subjuga-
tion of the Tartars, received the title of
the Taurian.   The  principal  towns in
Taurida are Simpheropol, or Akmetchat,
the capital, Kinburn, at the mouth of the
Dnieper, Perekop, or Orcapi, a fortress on
the isthmus which cpnnects the Crimea
with the continent; Feodosia (see  Caffa),
Sebastopol and Eupatoria are important
for the commerce of the Black sea.   Most
of the inhabitants are Tartars, who profess
the Mohammedan religion, and are en-
gaged in trade, manufactures, agriculture,
and the raising of cattle.   There are also 
TAURIDA—TAXES.
153
many Russian, Greek,  Armenian,  Ger-
man,  &c. colonists, who are encouraged
by the government to settle here.  The
part of Taurida between the isthmus and
the Dnieper consists of great plains, some
of which  are  infertile and uncultivated.
The northern part of the Crimea is desti-
tute of water and wood, and has a poor
and saline soil.  The  southern  part is
mountainous, but one of the most fertile
and delightful countries in the world.  All
sorts of fruits and grain, wine, silk, wax
and tobacco are among the productions.
—See Clarke's Travels in Russia, Tartary
and Turkey,  and Castelnau's Essai sur
VHistoirc ancienne et moderne de la Nou-
velle Rnssie (Paris,  1820).
  Tauris ;  capital of  the  province of
Aderbidjan, in Western Persia, situated
in an extensive plain without trees, on the
small river Spintsha;  lat. 38° 20' N.; Ion.
46° 31' E.  It contains 300 caravansaries,
250 dshamis  and mosques,  and 150,000
inhabitants.   It is celebrated throughout
Asia as a  commercial place, and also has
important manufactures. The  shagreen
is made here, with which almost all Per-
sia is supplied, every one except the peas-
ants wearing boots and shoes of it  Tau-
ris  contains some magnificent ruins.  It
has suffered repeatedly from earthquakes,
and from hostile violence.  It was the
residence  of Abbas Mirza,  crown-prince
of" Persia, until 1828, when it was occu-
pied by the Russians.  (See Persia.)
  Taurus, in astronomy.  (See Constel-
lation, and Ecliptic.)
  Taurus ; a celebrated chain of moun-
tains in the eastern part of Asiatic Turkey,
whose greatest height is in the vicinity of
the sources of the Euphrates, whence it ex-
tends in several ridges over the greatest
part of Western Asia.   One ridge, the
Ala Dag,  runs through Natolia, and ter-
minates in the Chelidonian promontory
over  against Rhodes.  Another  branch
extends into Syria, and  there forms the
Libanus and Anti-Libanus.  To the north,
the Taurus, which is  connected with the
system of mountains in  Central Asia by
its  branches,  approaches the Caucasus,
and to the  east unites  with the  snowy
Kiare and mount Zagros.
  Tautology (from the Greek ravro, the
same, and Aoyo?, speech); the  repetition
of the same  sense  in different words or
phrases.  (See Pleonasm.)
  Tavernier, Jean Baptiste, baron d'Au-
bonne (a title derived from  an estate near
Geneva, which his  success in mercantile
pursuits enabled  him to purchase'), was
the son of a Dutch merchant  settled at
Paris,  who  traded   largely  in  charts
and maps, the perusal of which first in-
spired his son with a propensity for trav-
elling.   He was born at Paris about 1605,
and, before his twenty-first year, had al-
ready visited a  considerable  portion of
Europe.    He   subsequently   travelled
through Turkey, Persia, and other Eastern
countries, six times  by different  routes,
trading  as  a diamond merchant, at the
same time that he indulged his  thirst for
making himself acquainted with the man-
ners and customs of remote nations.  Of
these his journeys he gave an  account,
with the assistance of a literary  friend,
whose services the defects of his own ed-
ucation  made  necessary  to anange the
mass of bis observations.   In 1668,  hav-
ing realized a large fortune, and obtained
a patent of nobility from the French king,
he retired to his  estate  in the Genevese
territories, with the view of. passing the
remainder of his life in tranquillity.  The
misconduct of a  nephew, by injuring his
pecuniary resources,   altered  his deter-
mination, and induced him once more to
set out for Russia for the purpose of re-
cruiting his shattered  finances.   He  suc-
ceeded in reaching Moscow, the ancient
capital of that vast empire, but died there
soon after his arrival,  in  the summer of
1689.   His Travels, of which there is an
English translation,  have  gone through
several editions in the  original French.
  Taxes, Taxation,  denotes  that  por-
tion of their property which the govern-
ment of a state exacts, for the supply of
the public  necessities, from  its subjects,
or other  persons residing in the country,
and partaking of its advantages.   Hence
they form a part of the  state  revenues.
Another part is formed by the revenues
from the domains,  and  from the royal
prerogatives, so far as the last afford only
official  gains, and are not used  at the
same time as means to exact or to  raise
taxes.  (See Domains, and Royalties.) In
most states, particularly in those of an-
cient times, the public expenditures were
supplied from the revenues of domains
and royalties, which were  considered,
the former as the property, the latter as
privileges, of the sovereigns*  As the ex-
penses of the state continually increased,
or the  rulers, from  bad economy, found
the above-mentioned  sources of revenue
insufficient, they began to demand  con-
tributions from the members of the com-
munity, and imposed upon them taxes or
imposts.   They usually,  however,  met
with great difficulties, since the  nobles
would not suffer  themselves to be taxed, 
154                               TAXES.
under pretext of forming a state within
themselves,  and maintained, that such
contributions could be raised only with
their consent.  What  could  be  obtained
from them  voluntarily, was  very little.
They, however, acknowledged the neces-
sity of  increasing  the revenue of  the
state; but the sovereigns were  afraid to
constrain them to contribute, and inclined
to grant them exemption from taxes, if
they would  only consent that the rest of
the nation, which did  not belong to their
privileged order, should  be subjected to
imposts.  The nobles, fearing that if no
other source of revenue were left open to
the sovereign, the burden of taxes would
finally fall on themselves, willingly allow-
ed him the right of taxing the rest of the
nation, which, from want of union and
power, was  obliged to yield.  Thus the
taxes, for  a long time, were laid almost
every where on the commons  only, the
higher  and  more  powerful  orders,  the
clergy and nobility, being exempt  En-
lightened  governments,  however,  early
perceived that, in order to render taxes a
permanent  source of revenue,  means
must be left to the subjects, of gaining, every
year, so much as to be able to subsist, and
to have a sufficient sum remaining to pay
the taxes.   Hence  they were induced to
refrain  from exhausting their  property.
But a  long time elapsed before the prin-
ciples of equitable taxation  were  well
understood.  It was not till a late period,
since government  has become  an object
of profound  reflection, and a more per-
fect system of political economy  has
arisen, that a theory of taxation has been
formed, which can be used as a solid basis
of revenue.  According to this  theory,
taxes are the portions  of the property of
individuals, which each has to contribute
to the public treasury, to defray the public
expenses.  From this definition it follows,
I. that no one should  be exempted from
taxes, who possesses property or income,
and is protected in his person and estate,
and that,  in consequence, absolute free-
dom from taxes in any individual, so situ-
ated, is unjust towards those members of
the community who are charged with
them; 2. that the  taxes ought to be as-
sessed according to the net  income  of
each individual; 3. that the taxes must
never be suffered to injure the sources of
income ; 4. that the ratio of taxes to in-
come ought to be as small as possible, in
order that the revenue of the  nation, as
well as of the individual, may be allowed
to  increase.   The greatest difficulty in
effecting a just distribution  of taxes, is to
find the clear income of every individual.
In the mode of taxation formerly prac-
tised, this difficulty was but little consid-
ered.    Financiers  were satisfied with
laying taxes where they observed proper-
ty or  income,  without  caring  much
whether they were taken from the gross
or net income, from the capital, or from
the interest  and  profits.   The  rudest
mode was to assess the taxes according to
the number of heads.  On the supposi-
tion  that every  one receives enough to
pay something, they demanded from ev-
ery head such a sum as, it was presumed,
even the poorest could afford: the rich
and the poor paid the same amount; and,
therefore, the greatest inequality prevail-
ed.  Real property was early taken as a
standard in distributing the taxes, as cul-
tivated  land, in civilized  countries,  ap-
peared to be the safest and most substan-
tial property.  As this afforded to  its pro-
prietors or cultivators  a certain income,
the annual produce of the  lands of those
who were  declared subject  to taxation
was  estimated, and, after  this ratio,  the
tax was distributed on  real property.
Thus arose the land tax, in which, how-
ever, the gross and net produce of the
lands were seldom accurately distinguish-
ed ; and where it was done, little  depen-
dence was  to be put upon the estimate
itself, and still less on the maintenance of
this principle through the changes of in-
come.   As  the land tax was insufficient
to furnish the necessary revenue, other
means were sought for, and  the  closest
attention was paid, particularly as the  cir-
culation of money increased in civil soci-
ety, to  all  those quarters  where  money
appeared.   Wherever  money changed
hands, as in sales, exchanges, inheritances,
taxes were  laid.  Whoever desired to ob-
tain  any favor from the public officers,
was obliged to purchase it with  money.
When property was acquired, something
must  be relinquished.   Hence  the  long
series of taxes on  acquisition and indus-
try.   As the income of the members of
the community did not yield so much as
the state required, the  attention  of gov-
ernments was directed to  expenditures;
and people were made to  pay, wherever
their expenses could be estimated. Thus
taxes on consumption of every descrip-
tion were established.   When taxes be-
gan  to  be  treated scientifically, which
was not till a long time after the differ-
ent kinds had been invented and intro-
duced, attempts were made to bring the
whole mass of the existing taxes  under a
general system.—All taxes may be ar- 
TAXES.
155
ranged under the following classes: taxes
on  the possession, on  the acquisition, or
on the enjoyment of property.  In order to
judge whether they are rightly disttibuted,
it must first be considered, whether they
can  be  paid  regularly and  continually
from the net income or not.   There may
be a possession which brings no gain at
all, as a library, a collection  of pictures,
&c. If an annual  tax  is laid upon such
property,  it would, sooner or later, con-
sume the  property, if it  were to be paid
from it, and, consequently, would contra-
dict the principles  above laid down, that
property should be taxed only so far as it
affords a regular income.   In like  way,
acquisitions can be taxed, according to
the principles  of political economy, only
when they are a permanent source  of*
gain.  If,  therefore, any one acquires  an
estate or a capital by purchase, exchange,
&c, and taxes are laid upon  such an ac-
quisition, the tax is taken from the capi-
tal, that  is, from the means  destined to
produce profit.  As far as this happens,
or is in danger of happening, the system
of taxation is defective.   If, in fine, a tax
is laid on enjoyment, or the value of things
enjoyed, this can be justified only so far
as he who purchases or enjoys such things
can  afford the expense, from an income
which furnishes more than enough for
his subsistence, and the source of which
is not necessarily diminished by the tax.
If we seek, therefore, for the principle of
the distribution of taxes, which  ought to
serve, at the same time, as a rule for judg-
ing of the propriety  of the distribution,
this can be no other than  the net income
of the persons, or the net produce of the
property.   Net income or net profit
is that part of income or profit which  re-
mains after the portion necessary for the
maintenance of the person, or the con-
tinuance of the property  which produced
the  income or the  profit, has been sub-
tracted.   An  income and profit are pro-
duced either, 1. from  land ; 2. from capi-
tal ; 3. from labor.  All taxes will be just
and useful only so far as they are a part
of the net produce from these sources,
and are  imposed and  distributed  after
this principle.   But as it  is difficult, and,
in  many cases, impossible, in practice, to
ascertain  the  net revenue of every one,
the politician  must take different ways to
find the just proportion.   The  first way
is direct—to determine, from tiie statement
of the parties concerned, or from official
estimation, the net income of the persons,
or the net  produce of the land, and to  as-
sess the  taxes  according to  the result
This kind of taxes is Called direct.  But
as this mode leaves a large portion of net
incomes doubtful, their amount is sought
for in an indirect way.  It is supposed,
that  he  who  receives  more  than the
amount at which he has rated his income,
will  consume  and enjoy more than this
sum  will warrant, and, in particular, that
he will  enjoy  certain  articles, which the
man  of smaller income  consumes not at
all, or not in equal quantity.  If, now, the
expense  for articles of  consumption  is
taxed, an additional sum can be generally
drawn from all those who pay already a
direct tax on income, not sufficient, how-
ever, to cover  the expenses of the state.
This sum they can pay from their net
income, if their affairs  are properly ar-
ranged.   In this way, something more  is
obtained  from the net  income  of those
who  have  concealed  a  part, than they
would have contributed  if they had been
taxed merely according to their own
statement.  These taxes are termed indi-
rect, as they are calculated, like the othere,
on the net income, but only  in an indi-
rect way.   The art of reaching this net
income by taxes on consumption, or other
indirect  taxes, still remains very  imper-
fect.   Its  perfection is,  however, neces-
sary, if the system  of taxation  is to be
established according  to just principles.
Another signification is  usually attached
to the division of taxes into direct and in-
direct.   The mode in  which they are
raised is made the principle  of denomi-
nation.  By direct taxes are understood
such as are laid immediately on the con-
sumers ; by indirect taxes, such as are as-
sessed on others in advance, who are left
to remunerate themselves  from the rest
of the community.   But  this principle
does not afford a logically correct division ;
for the  same  tax can  be  raised  at one
time directly, at another indirectly.  Thus
all taxes of consumption may be raised
as well from those who consume the arti-
cles, as from the tradesmen who  deal  in
them.  In like manner,  many articles of
luxury are taxed directly.  Nevertheless,
the taxes remain indirect, because the net
income  only is taxed according  to the
extravagance of individuals.   Taxes im-
posed on goods at the time of their im-
portation, are denominated customs, duties,
or imposts.  Adam Smith  mentions one
objection to this mode of raising revenue,
as the imjiorting merchant  must enhance
the price of his goods,  not only by the
amount of the duty advanced by him,
but also for interest, profit,  and guarantee
of that  amount,  so  that the consumer 
156
TAXES.
must, in fact, pay  more  than the tax.
This objection is avoided  by an excise
tax, which is levied on the goods in the
hands of the person who uses them, or at
the time of their coming into his hands.
An annual  excise  is sometimes levied
upon articles of a durable nature, such as
carriages, watches, &c.; and the principle
on which this is apportioned, is to gradu-
ate it according  to  the supposed  expen-
diture  of the persons  paying the tax,
assuming that this will, as a general rule,
be in some near proportion  to their in-
come.  In  respect  to imported  articles,
the excise  is either a substitute  for cus-
toms, or an addition to them.   Consider-
ed as a substitute, the  excise avoids the
objection pointed out by  Adam  Smith;
but then it is an  expensive tax to collect,
and it necessarily gives rise to an irksome
inquiry  into  the private  concerns and
habits of people, so  that, as far as import-
ed goods are  the  subject of taxation, the
customs are the most convenient, and, on
the whole, the most productive tax; and
this mode of taxing is almost universally
adopted.   It cannot be made a question,
among a free people, to whom  the  right
of taxation  belongs.   In  England, the
principle has  long  been acknowledged,
that taxes are a  voluntary donation  from
the people to the government (See Chat-
ham's speeches on the complaints of the
American colonies.)  On the European
continent, where, in the course of time,
nearly all national representation has been
lost, the physical power of the government
is the sufficient argument, as in so many
other instances,  by which all discussion
on the right of taxation is made useless.
The theory of taxes has been but very late-
ly illustrated and perfected.  Adam Smith
laid  the  firet foundation of a  complete
theory.   Before  him prevailed the physi-
ocratical  system (see the article), which,
however, has no  solid  foundations.—See
the works  of Adam Smith, and Say, On
Political Economy; also sir Wm. Mere-
dith's Historical  Remarks on the Taxation
of Free States (London, 1788,  4to.); An-
drew Hamilton's  Inquiry into the Princi-
ples  of  Taxation  (Edinburgh,  second
edition, 1793, 4to.); Casaux's Considera-
tions of the Effect of Impost in the  vari-
ous Modes of Taxation (Paris, 1794, 8vo.);
Trend's  Principles of  Taxation  (1799,
8vo.); Monthion's Influence of the Different
Species of  Taxation on tlve Morality, the
Activity and the Industrt/ of Nations (Paris,
1808, 8vo.); Mirabeau's Theorie de Vim-
pot;  Ricardo's   Principles  of  Political
Economy and Taxation (1819, 8vo.).
  Exemption from Taxes.  [Though the
following observations  are more particu-
larly applicable to the continent of Eu-
rope, it was thought that the views which
they present of a state of things different
from what we have been accustomed to,
might  render them  acceptable to  our
readers.]  The privilege of exemption
from taxes is granted to  some orders of
society, to  individuals, or  to particular
kinds of property.   The reasons for which
it is usually allowed are, 1. the identity
of the  person exempted with the  state;
2.  to  reward services  rendered  to the
state; 3. as a means of paying debts due
from the state ; 4.  the  incompatibility of
the public   burdens  with  the  office or
character of  the  individual exempted;
5.  because an equivalent is  received in
some other way;  6.  poverty; 7. ancient
privileges.   As to  the  first reason, it  is
applicable only to the person  of the sove-
reign ;  for it would be absurd to load the
sovereign with taxes, whilst the taxes are
only established in order to afford the sove-
reign the means of promoting the  public
welfare. It follows, then, that the revenues
of the state  must be free from taxes, or
that the state itself, considered  as  a per-
son, must be free from  every tax.  Bur
whether the  individual, likewise, who is
invested with the sovereignty, should be
entirely exempt from  taxes,  is a very
different question ; for  in  the  revenue
of such an  individual, there are always
two things  to be  distinguished, namely,
a.  that which is employed by him in the
exercise of his public functions, and, 6. that
which  serves to  defray  his  private ex-
penses ;  for it cannot be contended that
all  which tiie sovereign expends  is de-
voted to the  accomplishment of public ob-
jects.   In addition to hie public capacity,
he  stands in  the  condition of a private
person, who has his individual wishes and
wants to gratify.  Now, if the revenue of
the ruler  is  so  large  as  not  only to
supply  that  expenditure which  is re-
quired for maintaining the dignity  of the
reigning family, but also to suffice  for the
private gratification of the ruler, the latter
part is undoubtedly to  be considered like
the net income of a private  person.  In
this point of view, there is  no sufficient
reason  why the  income of the  prince
should  be free from taxes.  It appears
rather,  for  several reasons, advisable to
subject it to  taxation, like other private
property; 1.  because, in this  way, the
prince  feels,  proportionally,  the burden
of  the  tax, in his private capacity, being
obliged, like every other man, to restrict 
TAXES.
157
his personal expenditure; 2. because the
participation of the prince in the public
burdens, affords an encouraging example
to his subjects, and serves to check the
claim of exemption in any other class of
society.   In those  states where the sove-
reignty  is  vested  in a numerous  body,
the distinction between that  which  be-
longs to the members  of the sovereign
body, in their public and hi their private
capacity,  is  yet   more  evident.   The
members of a council who share in the
sovereignty, or of the sovereign senate
itself, can be as little entitled to exemp-
tion  from  taxes  as the  membere  of  a
sovereign  assembly of the  nation  in  a
democracy ; and  the right of a prince to
freedom from taxes on that portion of his
income which  is  devoted to his private
gratification, is no  better  founded. If
the state would reward an individual for
public services by exempting him from
taxes, this can reasonably  be done only
by a personal exemption for his  lifetime.
To declare his estates free from taxes, is
to make him a donation of a sum equal
to the  tax from  which  his  estates are
exempted.   But to make this exemption
perpetual, would be to make a grant of an
indefinite value, and must be regarded as
au instance of blind extravagance.  In
general, this species of reward is  ne of
the most objectionable;  for the reward
of public services should be drawn from
the public  revenue, to which all classes
contribute  in equal proportion.  But the
remission ofa certain kind of taxes usual-
ly imposes new burdens on some particu-
lar class of subjects.  Another objection
to this  kind of reward is,  that it makes
exemption from  taxes appear an honor,
when it is for the interest of the state that
a citizen  should consider  himself the
more important the more he contributes
to the  support of the public,  burdens.
Nearly the same reasons, in particular the
last, may be urged against the use of this
exemption as a means of paying the salaries
of public officers.   The privilege too often
operates unequally in the case of different
officers, one deriving from  it  a  much
greater advantage than another.  Taxes
paid in money are incompatible with no
rank in society and no kind of occupation.
Other  public  burdens,  personal service,
maintenance of  soldiers, &c, may, in-
deed, be  inconsistent  with one or the
other.   On that account, it  would he
better that such burdens should be bome
by individuals who are paid at a  fixed
rate  for  undertaking  them.   That the
poor pay no taxes, is the natural conse-
   vol. xii.                H
quence  of a good  sysiem of taxation,
which charges only the net income.  It
follows,  from what "has been said, that a
personal right to exemption from taxes
cannot be properly granted, and should
be abolished where it exists; sufficient
indemnification being  provided for tiiose
who suffer by the measure.  These ex-
emptions had then*  origin in a time of
limited  views.   As  to  the  exemption
from taxes of particular kinds of property,
the most  remarkable   is that which  is
granted  to  certain landed estates.  This
privilege is usually justified by the follow-
ing reasons: 1. that one estate has under-
taken to pay the  tax of another.  In this
way the nobility have  often endeavored
to defend the exemption  of their estates,
by pretending that their ancestors  had
ceded part of their lands to the peasants,
on condition that the latter, in addition to
some labor on  the  lord's estate, should
pay  the taxes of the same, from  the
produce of their fanns.   Such a contract
might have been legally made, and might
stand good, if it had been concluded for a
fixed proportion  of taxes, and the agree-
ment could be  clearly proved; but no
compact can be acknowledged as binding,
by which one side undertakes to reUeve
the other from the burden of all future
taxes, since no one can know what their
amount may become,  and whether the
land granted would be a proper equiva-
lent ; for, in every contract, the nature of
the obligation should  be definite.  But
in addition to the fact,  that such contracts
are mere fictions, the  state should allow
them no validity, because they give  to
taxes the  appearance  of an ignominious
burden—an idea which no government
should   favor.   2. Governments  have
sometimes allowed individuals, and even
whole nations, to redeem themselves from
a certain tax, for a gross sum  ; as, for in-
stance,  in  England, in the case  of the
land tax.  Such contracts must be kept;
but no individual, still less a whole class,
or nation, can purchase an entire exemp-
tion from taxes, because the  amount of
future taxes cannot be  estimated, and,
consequently,  their value cannot be set-
tled.  This would  be to sell the very
means of the state's existence.  To sell
an improper tax, in order to  establish a
better, as was done with the  land tax in
England,  may be advisable, and certain
objects  may thus, for a time, be exempted
from taxes; but this is no reason for re-
leasing the income which they afford, for
all future  times, from taxes.  3. Finally,
the privilege of exemption never can be 
158
TAXES—TAYLOR.
considered  as absolutely irrevocable, but
is Bubject to be judged on the general
 {irinciple of utility, like all other positive
 aws and institutions; and if found inap-
plicable, injurious, and oppressive to other
classes of citizens, such laws  must be
amended or abolished.  And as the state
ought never to persist in old errors at the
expense  of its  citizens, so, on the other
hand, those who are to lose the privilege of
exemption from taxes should be indemni-
fied for it according to equitable principles.
  Tay, a river of Scotland, which rises
in the west  part of  Perthshire, passes
through  Loch  Tay,  and  runs  into the
German  sea, forming a large bay at its
mouth,  called the Frith of Tay.  It  is
navigable for vessels of five hundred tons
to Newburgh, in Fife,  and for vessels of
considerable size as far as Perth.  The
salmon fishery  on the  Tay is extensive.
  Taylor, John, usually called the water
poet, from  his  being  a waterman, was
horn in Gloucester, about 1580.   He was
taken young to  London, and apprenticed
to a waterman.   He was at the taking of
Cadiz,  under the earl of Essex, in 1596,
and afterwards visited Germany and Scot-
land.   At home he was many years col-
lector for the lieutenant of the Tower of
London, of his  fees of the wines from all
the ships which brought them  up the
Thames.  When the civil wars broke out,
he  retired  to  Oxford,  where he kept a
common victualling  house, and  wrote
pasquinades upon the Roundheads. He
afterwards  kept a public house at West-
minster.  He died in 1654, aged seventy-
four.   His works are published under the
title of " All the Works of  John Taylor,
the Water Poet, being Sixty and  Three in
Number, collected  into  One Volume by
the Author, with sundry new Additions,
corrected, revised, and  newly imprinted"
(1630, folio).  These pieces are not desti-
tute of natural humor, and of the jingling
wit which prevailed so much during the
reign of James I.
  Taylor, Jeremy, an eminent divine and
prelate of the Irish  church, was  born in
the year 1613,  at Cambridge, where his
father was a barber.  He was educated at
Perse's free school in his native place,
and entered, in 1626, a sizar in Caius col-
lege, where he continued until he had
graduated master of arts.   Entering into
orders,  he  occasionally  lectured for a
friend  at St  Paul's cathedral,  where he
attracted the attention of archbishop Laud,
who procured  him  a fellowship of All
Souls  college,  Oxford, and, in  1640, ob-
tained for him the rectory of Uppingham.
In 1642, he was created doctor of divinity
at Oxford, at which time he  was chap-
lain in ordinary to Charles I, whom he
attended in some  of his campaigns, and
aided by  several writings in defence of
the church of England.  After the par-
liament proved victorious, his living being
sequestrated, he retired into Wales, where
he  was kindly received by the earl of
Carbery, under whose protection he  was
allowed to exercise his ministry, and keep
a school.   In this obscure situation he
wrote  those  copious  and  fervent  dis-
courses, whose fertility of composition,
eloquence of expression, and comprehen-
siveness of thought, have  rendered  him
one of the first writers in  the English
language.   The death of three sons with-
in a short period, rendered a change of
place necessary for the  restoration of his
tranquillity,  and he removed to London,
and officiated, not without  dangerj to pri-
vate congregations of royalists. At length
he accepted an invitation from lord Con-
way to reside at his seat in  Ireland, where
he remained until the  restoration, when
he was elevated to the Irish see of Down
and Connor, with the  administration of
that  of Dromore.  He was  also made  a
privy counsellor for Ireland, and chosen
vice-chancellor of the university of Dub-
lin.  He  conducted himself,  on his ad-
vancement, with all the  attention  to his
duties, public and  private, which had ever
distinguished him in humble situations.
Piety, humility and charity were his lead-
ing characteristics; and, on his death, at
Lisbume, Aug. 13, 1667, he left but very
moderate fortunes to his three daughters.
Taylor possessed  the  advantages of  a
comely person and a  melodious voice,
which were  further set off by the most
urbane manners and agreeable conversa-
tion.   His  works  have  been printed in
four, and also in six volumes folio,  a great
part of which consists  in  sermons and
devotional  pieces.  There are likewise
several treatises, one of the most remark-
able of which is entitled, A Discourse of
the Liberty  of Prophesying (Preaching),
(4to., 1647), which pleads eloquently and
strenuously for liberty of conscience.  Of
the other writings of  this prelate,  the
most generally known  are  his  Golden
Grove, or Manual of daily Pray ere ; his
treatises on Holy Living and Dying ; and
his Doctor Dubitantium,  or Rule of Con-
science.  Of these the two  former are pe-
culiarly admired for fervor of* devotional
feeling, beauty of imagery, and illustra-
tive and  copious  impressiveness of elo-
quence.   A  new edition  of his  works, 
TAYLOR.
159
with a life, by the  late bishop Heber, was
published in 1822  (15 volumes).
  Taylor, John, LL. D., a distinguished
scholar and critic, the son of a barber of
Shrewsbury, received the  rudiments of
education at the  grammar-school of his
native town, and was entered of St John's
college, Cambridge, of which he became
a fellow in  1730.   In 1732, he was ap-
pointed librarian of the university, which
office he soon  after quitted for that of
registrar.  He  published an  edition of
Lysias in 1739, and in 1742 became a
member  of doctors' commons.   Two
years afterwards he was made chancellor
of Lincoln ; and  in 1751, entering into
orders, was presented to the living of Law-
ford, in  Essex.   He published,  in 1755,
Elements of Civil Law (4to., reprinted in
1769).   He died in  1766, after having just
completed an edition of Demosthenes, in
two vols., 8vo.   Besides the works already
mentioned, he  was author of  an  Ex-
planation of the   Marmor  Sandvicense,
and an edition of Two  Orations of De-
mosthenes and Lycurgus.
  Taylor, Thomas, well known by the
title of the Platonist, was born in London,
of obscure  parents, in 1758, and, at the
age of nine years,  was placed at St. Paul's
school, it being intended to educate him
as a dissenting minister.  Disgusted, how-
ever, with the manner in which the dead
languages are taught, he prevailed on his
father to relinquish this plan.   He was
then only twelve years old; yet he became
deeply enamored  of a Miss Morton, who
afterwards  gave him her hand.  While at
home, Ward's  Young  Mathematician's
Guide inspired  him with a love of mathe-
matics, and, though his father was adverse
to the study, the youth soon contrived to
become  a  proficient in his favorite sci-
ence.  This he accomplished  by  sacri-
ficing to it a part of the  hours of rest;
and that he might procure a light without
being discovered, he concealed a tinder-
box under his pillow.  When he was fif-
teen, he was placed under -in  uncle, at
Sheemess, who  was an  officer of the
dock-yard—a situation irksome in its na-
ture, and rendered more so by the tyran-
ny of his uncle.   After enduring  it for
three years, he became pupil to a dissent-
ing preacher, with the  view  of entering
into  the church.   At this period he also
renewed his acquaintance with Miss Mor-
ton,  to  whom  he was  secretly married.
Their secret was, however, betrayed, and
they were  thrown  upon the world, with
scarcely  sufficient  resources to prevent
tbem from  starving.  At length  Mr. Tay-
lor  obtained employment  as  usher to a
school at Paddington, which, as it kept
him absent from his wife, he exchanged
for  that of a clerk in a banking-house, in
the  city.  Still his pecuniary means were
so limited, that in the course  of the day
he could not obtain a proper quantity of"
food,  and he often fell senseless on  the
floor  when  he reached his  home.  At
length, his circumstances were somewhat
amended.  His  studies were still con-
tinued with unabated ardor, and, as  the
banking-house absorbed the whole of hi1.
days,  he was obliged to devote  to them
several hours of the night   Having made
himself master of the works of Aristotle,
he passed on to  those of Plato,  and  the
commentators  on  Plato's   philosophical
writings.  After  he had been nearly  six
years  in the banking-house, the failure of
his  health, and the  nature of his occupa-
tion, determined him to procure  some
more  eligible mode of living. An attempt
to construct  a  perpetual lamp made him
advantageously known to several  eminent
persons, who enabled him to emancipate
himself from the drudgery of the banking-
house.  The munificence of a private in-
dividual, Mr. William Meredith, now put
it in his power to publish a translation of
the  works of Plato, and the Platonic com-
mentators.  Mr. Taylor  also labored  for
the  booksellers ;  but the  remuneration
which he received from them  was inade-
quate  to  his toil.  For his  translation of
Pausanias he was paid only sixty pounds!
If we contemplate the numerous obsta-
cles which have opposed his  progress, it
is impossible not  to admire  the steady
perseverance with which he has pursued
his  course ; and it is little to the credit of
England, that a man of such  powers of
mind, and such extensive learning, should
so long have been left to struggle through
the world with no other patronage than
that ofa few private individuals.  Among
his  translations from the Greek are Ploti-
nus on the Beautiful (12mo.); Proclus on
Euclid, and Elements of Theology ; Five
Books   of  Plotinus ;  Pausanias's  De-
scription of Greece, with Notes  (3 vols.,
8vo.,   1794) ;  Aristotle's   Metaphysics,
with  Notes; the Dissertations  of Max-
imus   Tyrius   (2   vols.,   12mo.) ;   the
Works of Plato  (5 vols., 4to., 1804) ;  tiie
Works of  Aristotle, with Elucidations
from   the best Greek  Commentators (9
vols., 4to.h the Six Books  of Proclus on
the Theology of Plato, to which a Sev-
enth  Book  is added  by the translator ;
Jamblichus's Life of Pythagoras,  or Pyth-
agoric Life, accompanied  by Fragments 
160
TAYLOR—TEA.
of the Ethical Writings of certain Pythag-
oreans, and a new Collection  of Pytha-
goric  Sentences ; the Commentaries of
Proclus on the Timaeus; Jamblichus on
the Mysteries, &c.  (8vo.).  Among his
original works are a Dissertation on the
Eleusinian and  Bacchic  Mysteries;  a
Complete  Collection of all the  existing
Chaldaean Oracles ; the Elements of the
true Arithmetic of Infinites ; Miscellanies
in Prose and Verse,with a great number of
treatises accompanying  his translations,
:md of articles in the Classical Journal.
  Taylor, Jane; an  amiable and accom-
plished female writer, bom Sept 23,1783,
iu London.  Her father was a highly re-
spectable artist.  While quite  young, she
gave evident indications  of poetic talent
Mr. Taylor became, in  1792, pastor of a
dissenting  congregation at Colchester,
whither he  carried  his daughters, and
taught them  his own art  of engraving.
In the  intervals  between these pursuits,
Miss  Taylor  committed  the effusions
of  her genius  to  writing,   and   con-
tributed to the Minor's Pocket Book, a
small publication, in which her first  work,
the Beggar Boy, appeared in 1804.  From
this period until 1813,she continued to pub-
lish occasionally miscellaneous pieces in
verse, of which the principal are Original
Poems for Infant Minds (in two volumes);
Rhymes  for  the  Nursery (in  one); and
some verses in the  Associate  Minstrels.
A prose composition of higher pretension,
which appeared in 1815, under the name
of Display, met with much success. Her
last and principal work consists of Essays
in Rhyme on Morals and Manners, didac-
tic poems, written with much elegance
and  feeling.  This amiable and  intellec-
tual  female died of a pulmonary  com-
plaint, in April, 1823.
   Tchad  ; a lake in the interior of Africa,
in the western part of Nigritia  (q. v.), dis-
covered by major Denham, in 1822. (See
Clapperton.)   It Ues  between the  kuig-
doms of  Bomou  aud Kanem, in lat. 12°
N., Ion. 17° E.  As  it has  not been en-
tirely explored, its  north-eastern  limits
are unknown, and its extent is uncertain.
It receives  two  large rivers,  the  Yeou
and the Shary, from the south-west
   Tchai  (in Turkish and Persian,  river);
found in  many geographical  names.  In
 Chinese  geographical names, Tchai sig-
nifies fortified place.  Tai, Pao, Ooei, and
 other words, signify the same.
   Tchang (Chinese for middle); in many
 geographical  names,  as  Tcltang-Kone
 (Central Kingdom),  the name which the
 Chinese give to their empire.
  Tcherny ; a Sclavonic word, signifying
black, and sometimes tributary.  Tcherny
appears in many geographical names, as
Tchernikov, Tchernovitz.
  Tching; Chinese for town and wall,
as Sin-Tching (New Town).
  Tchudsko Lake.  (See Peipus.)
  Tea (tliea).  The tea plant so strongly
resembles the camellia in its  botanical
characters, that it has lately been referred
to that genus.  The flowers and leaves
are, however, much smaller.   The shrub
attains the height of five or six feet, and
is branching and evergreen.  The leaves
are alternate, oval-oblong, serrated, about
an inch and a half in length, of a dark,
glossy-green color, and firm texture. The
flowers are solitary or in pairs, disposed
in the axils  of the leaves; the corolla
white, and composed of six petals.  It is
a native  of China  and Japan, and has
been  cultivated,  and in common use  in
those countries, from the most remote an-
tiquity.  Tea  was  hardly known in Eu-
rope before the middle of the seventeenth
century, but now  has become an article
of such commercial importance  in that
portion of the globe, as  to employ more
that fifty thousand tons of shipping in the
transportation  of it from Canton.  Still
so vast is the home consumption, that it
is alleged, that were Europeans to aban-
don  the commerce altogether, the price
would not be much diminished in China
It appears to be cultivated  in all parts of
China, even  in  the vicinity of  Pekih,
which is in the same latitude as Philadel-
phia, and has a very similar climate.   It
succeeds best in south  exposures and  in
the neighborhood of running water.  As
the seeds are very apt to spoil, and scarcely
one  in five will germinate, it is usual to
plant several  in  the  same  hole, at  the
depth of four or five inches.  The plants
require little further care than that of re-
moving the weeds, till the third year,
when the leaves may be gathered.   In
seven years, the plants have attained the
height of six feet; but, as they bear few
leaves, they  are trimmed down, which
produces a great number of new leaves.
The  leaves arc plucked off, one by one,
with many precautions; and only from
four  to fifteen pounds are collected in a
day.  In  a district in Japan, where the
tea plant is cultivated with peculiar care,
Hie  firet gathering takes place at the end
of the winter, when the leaves are young
and tender, and are only a few days old:
these, on account of their  scarcity and
dearness, are reserved for the wealthy, and
called imperial tea.  The second  gather- 
TEA.
161
 ing is at the  beginning of spring, when
 some leaves have attained their full size,
 and  othere  are only  expanding: all  are
 gathered  promiscuously, and afterwards
 sorted: the  youngest especially  are sep-
 arated with  great care, and often sold for
 the imperial.  The third and last gather-
 ing takes place towards the  middle of
 summer: the leaves are now fully  ex-
 panded,  of  inferior quality, and are  re-
 served for the common people.  In China
 the leaves are probably collected in  the
 same manner. There are two  varieties
 of the tea plant—T. viridis, with  broader
 leaves,  and  T.  bohea—by some writers
 considered distinct species.  Formerly, it
 was thought that  green tea was gathered
 exclusively from  T. viridis; but this is
 now doubtful; though it is  certain there
 is what  is called the green  tea  district,
 and the black  tea district; and the varie-
 ties of the one differ from  those of  the
 other district.  Doctor Abel  was told, by
 competent persons, that either of the two
 plants will afford the black or green  tea
 of the shops, but that the  T. viridis is
 preferred for making green  tea.  The
 names given, in commerce, to the differ-
 ent sorts of tea, are unknown to the Chi-
 nese, the imperial excepted, and are sup-
 posed to have been applied  by the mer-
 chants at Canton.  The tea leaves, being
 gathered, .are cured in houses which con-
 tain  from five to ten or  twenty small
 furnaces, about three feet high, each hav-
 ing at the top a large, flat, iron pan. There
 is also a long, low table, covered with mats,
 on which the leaves are laid, and rolled
 by workmen, who sit round it.  The iron
 pan being heated to a certain degree by a
 little fire made in the furnace underneath,
 a few pounds of the fresh gathered leaves
 are put upon the pan: the fresh and juicy
 leaves crack when they touch the pan ;
 and it is  the business of the operator to
 shift them as quickly as possible with his
 bare hands, till they become too hot to be
 easily endured.  At this instant, he takes
 off the leaves with a kind of shovel re-
 sembling  a fan, and pours them on the
 mats: other operators, now taking small
 quantities at a time, roll them in the palm
 of their hands in one direction, while a
 third set are fanning them, that they may
 cool  the more speedily, and retain their
 curl the longer.  This process is repeated
 two or three times, or oftener, before the
tea is  put into the stores, in order that all
the moisture may be thoroughly dissipated,
and their curl more completely preserved.
On every repetition, the pan is less heated,
and the operation performed more closely
              14*
 and cautiously.   The  tea is then sepa-
 rated into the different  kinds, and depos-
 ited in the store  for domestic use or ex-
 portation.  The different sorts of black
 and green arise not merely from  soil, sit-
 uation, or the age of the  leaf; but after
 winnowing the tea, the leaves are taken
 up in succession as they fall; those near-
 est the machine,  being the heaviest, are
 the gunpowder tea; the lightest the worst,
 is chiefly used by the lower  classes.  That
 which is  brought down to Canton then
 undergoes a second roasting, winnowing,
 packing, &c.; and many hundred women
 are employed for these purposes.  As a
 more select sort of tea, the flowers of the
 camellia sasanqua appear to be collected.
 The leaves, indeed, of this plant are often
 used, and sometimes those of the other
 species of camellia, though that practice
 is rather to be considered in  the  light of
 adulteration.   Several other plants appear
 to be used as substitutes for tea, as a spe-
 cies of moss, different sorts of ferns, &c.;
 and in  Japan the  leaves of the olea fra-
grans are used to give  it  a  high flavor.
 The seeds of the  tea plant, as well as of
 the camellias, and especially of the C.
 oleifera, are crushed for their oil, which Is
 in veiy general use in the domestic econ-
 omy of China. The black teas,  usually
 imported by Europeans and  Americans,
 are, beginning with the  lowest qualities,
 bohea, congo, campo, souchong, pouchong,
pekoe; the green  teas are twankay, hyson
skin,youngKyson,hyson, imperial, and gun-
powder.  The  effects of tea  on the human
system are those of a very mild narcotic,
and, like those of any other narcotic taken
in small quantities,  exhilarating.  The
green varieties of the plant possess this
quality in a much higher degree than the
black, and a strong infusion of the former
will, in most constitutions,  produce con-
siderable  excitement  and  wakefulness.
Of all  narcotics, however, tea is the least
pernicious, if indeed it  be  so in any de-
gree.   It acts,  likewise, as a diuretic and
a diaphoretic,  and powerfully assists di-
gestion.  Most of the attempts to cultivate
the tea  plant  in  foreign countries have
met with little success.  Within the last
few years, however, considerable efforts
have been made, by the Dutch govern-
ment  of Java, to produce tea in that
island, with the  assistance of Chinese
cultivators, with some prospect of success;
and  the experiment has been made  to
propagate the  tea shrub in Brazil, also
with the aid of Chinese laborers. Tea, as
we have said, was unknown in Europe un-
til the middle  of the 17th century, when 
162
TEA—TEAR.
a small quantity was first imported by the
Dutch.  In 1664, the English East India
company imported  two pounds and  two
ounces of tea, as a present to the king.
In 1800, the annual consumption in Eng-
land was somewhat above twenty  mil-
lion pounds, since which time  it has been
gradually declining, owing in  part to the
increase of duty in  1806 and 1819, and in
part to the monopoly of the East India
company. The present consumption is
estimated  at  about twenty-five  million
pounds, which, for a population of sixteen
and a half millions,  gives but one pound
nine ounces per head, while in 1800 it
was one pound thirteen and a half ounces.
This monopoly renders the prices of tea
higher, the qualities inferior, and the va-
rieties fewer, in England,  than  on the
continent, or in the U.  States;  so that,
while about  a  dozen kinds  of tea are
quoted in the Hamburg and  New York
markets,  not  more than six or seven are
to be met with in England.  Imperial
is unknown  there, and pekoe and gun-
powder are found only in small quantities.
Russia and Holland are the only countries,
on the continent of Europe, in which the
consumption  of tea is considerable.   In
1830, the imports into Russia amounted
to 5,563,444 pounds, almost entirely of the
black sorts.   It is carried over land from
Kiachta to Tomsk, and thence, partly by
land and partly by the rivers,  to Nov-
gorod.   The consumption in  Holland
amounts to about 2,700,000 pounds a year.
In France, tea is not generally used,  and
the consumption is estimated not to ex-
ceed 230,000  pounds.  The importations
into  Hamburg vary from  1,500,000 to
2,000,000  pounds,  the greater  part of
which is forwarded to the interior of Ger-
many.   The imports into Venice and Tri-
este do not exceed seven hundred weight.
The consumption of the U. States  fluctu-
ates from about 6,000,000 to 8,000,000
pounds.   The amount  imported  in the
year ending  September  30,  1830,  was
8,609,415  pounds;  exported  1,736,324
pounds.  The duties, by the tariff* of 1832,
cease entirely on the 3d of March, 1833.
The consumption of this country has re-
mained nearly stationary for some years,
while that of coffee has increased with
great rapidity.  The prices of the differ-
ent sorts of tea quoted  in the Boston price-
current for July 30, 1832,  are, bohea, 24
to 28 cents per pound; souchong, 35 to
37;  hyson skin  and tonkay,  50 to  55;
young hyson, 70 to 77 ; Hyson, 80 to 85;
imperial, 1.08 to 1.12; gunpowder,  1.10
to 1.15.  Pouchong and  pekoe are not
quoted: the former is somewhat higher
than souchong; the latter is higher than
gunpowder.
  Teak-Wood (tectona grandis); one of
the largest trees known, and one of the
most interesting, from the properties of the
wood.   It is referred to the natural fam-
ily verbenacece.  The young branches are
quadrangular and  joiuted; the leaves op-
posite, obovate and downy beneath, some-
what declining, on young trees from one
to two feet  long, and eight to  sixteen
inches in breadth.  The flowers are small,
white  and fragrant,  disposed in widely
spreading terminal panicles. The calyx
is tomentose, and  the  corolla hardly
longer than  the  calyx.   The  fruit  is a
one-celled drupe.   This tree abounds in
the extensive forests of Java, Ceylon,
Malabar, Coromandel, &c, but especially
in the empires of  Birmah and Pegu, from
which countries  Calcutta and  Madras
draw all their supplies  of ship timber.
The wood is light and easily worked, and,
at the same time, strong and  durable. It
is considered superior to all others for
ship building, and is, besides, extensively
used in the East in the  construction of
houses and temples.  This tree has been
introduced into the British possessions in
India, and is now  planted, with a view to
timber, in the mountainous parts of Ben-
gal.  Its cultivation has also been recom-
mended in the West Indies; and some
circumstances seem to  encourage the
idea that it will succeed beyond the trop-
ics.  The leaves  furnish  a  purple  dye,
which  is employed for coloring cottons
and silks.
  Teal.  This name is  given  to some
small species of duck, resembling, in their
habits and anatomical characters, the do-
mestic species.  Teal frequent  the fresh
waters of the interior,  living on aquatic
plants and seeds, and rarely visit the sea-
shore.   The flesh is dry and difficult of
digestion,  but, notwithstanding,  is in
great request We  have two species in
the U.  States.    The green-winged teal
(anas crecca) is distinguished by a large
spot of brilliant green upon the  wing. It
is found in all the northern parte of the
globe.   In Europe, it breeds so far south
as France, but is  not known to breed in
the U.  States.—The blue-winged teal (A.
discors) is peculiar to America.  It is the
first of our  ducks to return  from the
north on the approach of winter, usually
making its  appearance in the  Delaware
early in September, and  proceeding far-
ther south with the first frosts.
  Tear, and  Lachrymal Organs. . The 
TEAR—TECHNOLOGY.
163
 limpid  fluid secreted by the lachrymal
 glands, and flowing on the surface of the
 eyes, is a little heavier  than water, and
 contains much pure  soda, also muriate,
 carbonate  and phosphate of soda, and
 phosphate of lime.   The organs  which
 secrete  this liquid  are  the lachrymal
 glands,  one of which is situated in the
 external angle of each  orbit, and emita
 six or seven excretory ducts, which open
 on the  internal surface of the upper eye-
 lid, and pour forth the tears.  The tears
 have  mixed with them an arterious, ros-
 cid vapor,  which exhales from the  in-
 ternal surface of the eyelids, and external
 of the  tunica  conjunctiva, into  the eye.
 Perhaps the aqueous humor also U'ans-
 udes  through  the pores of the cornea
 on the surface of  the eye.   A  cer-
 tain  part  of this  aqueous fluid  is dis-
 sipated in the air; but the greatest part,
 after  having performed  its office^ is pro-
 pelled by the orbicular muscle, which so
 closely  compresses the eyelid to the ball
 of the eye as to leave no space  between,
 except  at  the  internal angle, where the
 tears  are collected.  From this collection
 the tears are propelled through the lach-
 rymal canals into the lachrymal sac, and
 flow into the cavity of the nostrils, where
 they  are partly thrown out, partly swal-
 lowed.   If the passage of the tears from
 the eyes to the nose is disturbed, or pre-
 vented (e. g. by a stoppage of the lachry-
 mal duct), they flow down the cheeks, and
 also  collect  in the  lachrymal sac, ex-
 tend  it, are here changed in  their  quali-
 ty, and cause an inflammation, which gen-
 erally brings on ulceration, and, if not  at-
 tended to, even affects the bones. This is
 the disease known by the name of lachry-
 mal fistula.  To cure it,  an  operation is
 required, by which a new duct is formed
 for the tears to enter the nose.  The tears
 have  no smell, but a saltish taste, as peo-
 ple who weep perceive.   They are of a
 transparent color, and aqueous consist-
 once.  The quantity,  in its natural state,
 is just sufficient to moisten the surface of
 the eye and eyelids ;  but from sorrow, or
 any kind of stimulus applied to the sur-
 face of the eye, so great is the quantity
 of tears  secreted, that the puncta lachry-
 malia are  unable to absorb them.  Thus
 the greatest part  runs down from the in-
 ternal angle of the eyelids, in the form of
 great  and copious drops, upon the cheeks.
 A great quantity also descends through
the lachrymal  passage into  the nostrils  ;
hence those who cry have an increased
discharge  from the  nose.—The use  of
the tears is to prevent the pellucid cornea
 from drying and becoming opaque, or the
 eye from  concreting  with  the  eyelids.
 They prevent that pain which would oth-
 erwise arise from the friction of the eye-
 lids against the bulb of the eye, from con-
 tinually winking.   They wash and clean
 away the dust of the atmosphere, or any
 thing acrid that  has fallen  into the eye.
 Weeping relieves the head of congestions.
   Teasel  (dipsacus).   This plant bears
 a  general resemblance to the thistle, and
 might very readily be mistaken for a com-
 pound flower; but each floret is provided
 with its calyx, and the four stamens are
 not united.  The corolla is tubular, and
 divided into  four lobes at the summit;
 the florets are disposed in large,  ovaL
 conic receptacles, and are separated by
 long, projecting scales or chaffs.—The
 cultivated  teasel  (D.  fullonum)  has  a
 herbaceous, upright, prickly stem; the
 leaves  are  connate, oval-lanceolate, and
 likewise prickly beneath, on the principal
 nervures.   The florets are blue, and ex-
 pand successively by zones.  It has been
 considered  a  variety of the wild teasel
 (D. sylvestris), a common plant in many
 parts of Europe; but it differs in having
 the scales or chaffs more rigid, recurved,
and forming a little hook at the extremity.
 This conformation  is peculiarly suitable
 for raising  the nap upon woollen  cloths;
and for this purpose the heads are fixed
round  the circumference  of a  large,
 broad wheel, which is made to turn round,
and the cloth is held against them, or they
are set into flat boards like cards.   This
 plant is,  in consequence, cultivated for
manufacturing purposes, both in Europe
 and now in the U. States, and has become
 an  article  of considerable  importance.
 The seeds are sown in March, on well
 prepared,  strong, rich  land, broad-cast,
 and  at the rate of one peck to the acre.
 They are hoed, like turnips, to a foot dis-
 tance ;  and the second year, in August,
 the heads are fit to cut.  They are sold
 by the bundle of twenty-five in each, and
 the ordinary produce is 160 of 6uch bun-
 dles to the acre.   We have  no native
 species of this genus in  the U. States; but
 the wild teasel  is  naturalized  in some
 districts.
  Technical  (from rtx^n, art) signifies,
 in general,  that which belongs  peculiarly
 to art, or to any branch  of it in particular.
 A technical term is an expression peculiar
 to an art or profession.  In the  fine arte-,
 the technical is contradistinguished to the
 asthitical, comprising every thing relating
 to the material execution of works of art
  Technology (from r.^»,, art, and X»y»., 
164
TECHNOLOGY—TEETH.
word, science) is the science which treats
of the arts, particularly  the mechanical.
Technology  may be  divided  into  two
kinds, a higher and lower, of which the
latter treats of the various arts themselves,
and their principles, their origin, history,
improvement, &c;  the  former, of the
connexion of the arts and trades with the
political condition of  a  nation, and the
important influence which they have ex-
ercised ever  since the mechanical occu-
pations have come to honor; i. e. since the
growth of free cities in the middle ages.
  Tecumseh, a celebrated Indian chief,
was born on the banks of the Scioto  riv-
er, near ChiUcothe, Ohio.  His father was
a Shawanee warrior  of  distinction, who
was killed at the battle of Kenawa, while
Tecumseh was still a child.  His mother
is  variously stated to have been a Shaw-
anee, a Creek  and a Cherokee.  In his
youth, Tecumseh was  remarkable for
temperance and integrity; but he did not
at first display the valor which afterwards
distinguished him.  He firet fought in an
engagement  with the  Kentucky troops,
on the banks of the Mud river, in the
heat  of which he fled  from  the field.
But he soon retrieved his reputation, and,
at  the age of twenty-five, was regarded
as  one of the boldest of  the Indian war-
riors.  His enmity against the whites was
constant and bitter.   In all the terrible in-
cursions of the savages, by which the firet
settlers  of Kentucky were  harassed, he
was  conspicuous; but he  rarely appro-
priated to his own use any of the booty
thus  obtained ; the  love of  glory,  and
the desire  of sating his vengeance on the
whites, being his predominant passions.
At length, in conjunction with his broth-
er, the  famous  prophet Elskatawa, he
succeeded in effecting, to a considerable
extent, a union of the savages, and pro-
ducing so strong a fermentation among
them as to render it necessary  for the
government of the U. States to take deci-
sive measures. Accordingly, general Har-
rison, the governor of Ohio, commenced
offensive operations, and, Nov. 7,1811, de-
feated the forces under the command of the
prophet, in the well-known battle of Tip-
pecanoe.  At the time of the  action, Te-
cumseh was absent in the south, whither
he had gone  for the purpose of prose-
cuting his plans of union.  Soon after his
return, in 1812, he joined the British, then
at war with the U. States, and received
the rank of brigadier-general in the royal
army.  He was extremely useful to his
allies in raising and retaining  the  Indian
forces.  Daring the first months of the
war, he was principally occupied in re-
cruiting ; but he was also present at the
two sieges  of fort Meigs, and, May 5,
1812,  commanded  the  cooperating sav-
age force on the  south-east  side of the
river.   His  career, however, was soon cut
short.  In the decisive battle of the Mo-
ravian towns, he  led the right wing of
the allied army; and whilst all were flying
around him, he continued to press on with
a chosen band of followers, until he fell;
by whose hand has never been satisfac-
torily  ascertained.  Colonel Richard M.
Johnson, who commanded the mounted
infantry, against which he was rushing
at the time, has been  commonly desig-
nated as the author of his death, but with-
out adequate  proof.—Tecumseh was a
remarkable man, fitted forattaining great-
ness both in peace and war.   His  elo-
quence was vivid and powerful.  He was
sagacious in contriving  and accomplish-
ing his objects, and,  by his address, ob-
tained an unlimited influence over his
savage  brethren.   Throughout  life he
was exemplary in  his  habits of temper-
ance,  and adherence to truth.   He  was
disinterested, generous, hospitable  and
humane.  He married  at a mature age,
in consequence of the persuasions of his
friends, and left one child.  In person, he
was about five feet ten inches  high, with
handsome  features, a  symmetrical  and
powerful frame, and an air of dignity and
defiance.
  Te  Deum LAUDAMus,or, still more ab-
breviated, Te  Deum  (Thee,  God, we
praise), is the beginning of the hymn or
song of thanksgiving usually  ascribed to
St.  Augustine and St.  Ambrose.  It is
sung  on particular occasions,  as on the
news  of victories  and on high festival
days,  in Catholic and also in  many Prot-
estant churches.   Among  the  modem
composers of this hymn are Hasse, Nau-
mann, Haydn, Danzi and Schicht
  Teeth (dens, a tooth; quasi edens, from
edo, to eat); small bones fixed  in the al-
veoli  of the upper and under jaw.   In
early  infancy, nature designs  us for the
softest aliment, so that the gums alone are
then sufficient for the purpose of mandu-
cation;  but, as we advance in life,  and
require a different  food, she provides us
with  teeth.   These are the hardest and
whitest of our bones, and, at  full maturi-
ty,  we  usually find  thirty-two in both
jaws,  viz. sixteen above, and as many be-
low.  Their  number varies,  indeed, in
different subjects; but it is seldom seen to
exceed  thirty-two, and  it will very rarely
be found to  be less  than twenty-eight 
TEETH.
165
Each tooth may be divided into two parts,
viz.  its  body, or that part which  appears
above the  gums, and  its fang,  or  root,
which  is  fixed into the  socket.   The
boundary between these two, close to the
edge of the gum, where there is usually
a small  circular depression, is called the
neck of  the tooth.  Every tooth  is com-
posed of its cortex, or enamel, and its in-
ternal bony substances.  The enamel, or,
as it is sometimes  called, the vitreous part
of the tooth, is a very hard and compact
substance, of a  white color, and  peculiar
to the teeth.  It is found only upon the
body of the tooth,  covering the outside
of the bony or internal substance. When
broken, it appears fibrous or striated, and
all the stria are directed from the circum-
ference to the centre of the tooth.  The
bony part of a  tooth  resembles  other
bones in its structure, but is much harder
than the  most  compact part of  bones
in general.  It  composes the inner part
of the body, and the whole of the root of
the tooth.   Each  tooth has an inner cav-
ity,  supplied  with  blood-vessels  and
nerves,  which pass through the small hole
in the  root.  In old  people this  hole
sometimes closes, and the tooth becomes
then insensible.   The teeth are invested
with periosteum from their fangS to a lit-
tle beyond their bony sockets, where it is
attached to the gums.   This membrane
seems to be common to the tooth  which it
encloses, and to the sockets which it lines.
The three classes into  which the teeth
are  commonly  divided,  are   incisors,
canine, and molars, or grinders.  The
incisors are the four teeth in the fore part
of each jaw;  they derive  their name
from their use in dividing and cutting the
food in the manner of a wedge, and have
each of them two surfaces, which meet in
a sharp edge.  The canine or cuspidati
(eye-teeth) are the longest of all the teeth,
deriving  their  name from  their resem-
blance to a dog's  tusk.  There is one of
these teeth on  each side of the  incisors,
so that  there are two in each jaw.  Mr.
Hunter remarks, that  we  may  trace in
them a similarity in shape, situation and
use, from the most  imperfect carnivorous
animal—which we believe to be the hu-
man species—to the lion, which  is the
most perfectly carnivorous.  The molars,
or  grinders, of which  there are ten in
each jaw, are  so  called, because, from
their size and figure, they are calculated
for  grinding the food.   The canine and
incisors havo only one fang; but the three
last grinders in the under jaw have con-
stantly  two fangs, and the same teeth in
the upper jaw, three fangs.   Sometimes
these  fangs are divided into  two points
near their base.  The  grinders likewise
differ  from each  other in appearance.
The  last grinder  is shorter and smaller
than the rest, and from its coming through
the gums later than the rest,  and some-
times  not appearing till  late in  life, is
called wisdom-tooth.    The variation in
the number of teeth usually depends on
these  wisdom-teeth.    The  danger  to
which children are  exposed  during the
time of dentition, arises from the pressure
of the teeth in the gum, so as to irritate it,
and excite pain and inflammation.  The
effect of this  irritation is, that the  gum
wastes, and becomes  gradually thinner at
this part, till, at  length,  the  tooth  pro-
trudes.  In  such  cases,  therefore,  we
may,  with great propriety, assist  nature
by cutting the gum.  These teeth are
twenty in number, and are called  tempo-
rary or  milk teeth, because they  are all
shed between the  age of seven and four-
teen,  and are supplied by othere  of a
firmer texture, with  large fangs,  which
remain  till they become affected by dis-
ease, or fall out in old age, and are there-
fore called the permanent, or  adult teeth.
Besides these  twenty teeth, which  suc-
ceed the temporary ones, there are  twelve
othere to be added to make up  the number
thirty-two.  These twelve are three grind-
ers on each side in both jaws; and in order
to make room for this addition, we find
the jaws grow as the teeth  grow,  so that
they  appear  as completely  filled  with
twenty teeth,  as they are afterwards  with
thirty-two. Hence, in children, the face
is flatter  and  rounder than in  adults.
The  denies  sapiential,  or  wisdom-teeth,
do not pass  through  the  gum till be-
tween  the age of  twenty  and  thirty.
They have, in some instances,  been cut
at the age of forty, fifty, sixty,  and  even
eighty years;  and sometimes do  not ap-
pear at all.  Sometimes, likewise,  a  third
set of teeth appears, about the age of sixty
or seventy.  The teeth are subject to a
variety of accidents.   Sometimes the
gums become so affected as to occasion
them to fall out; and the teeth themselves
are frequently rendered carious  by cause*
which have not hitherto been satisfactori-
ly explained.  The disease usually begins
on that side of the tooth which  is  not ex-
posed to pressure, and gradually advances
till an opening is made into  the  cavity:
as soon as the cavity is exposed, the  tooth
becomes liable to considerable pain,  from
the air coming into contact with the nerve.
The enamel of the teeth, as we have al- 
166
TEETH.
ready said, is very hard, but liable to  be
cracked by the pressure of very hard sub-
stances, or by exposure  to  great heat or
cold,  and, more  peculiarly,. by sudden
changes  from one  to the  other.  The
bony  substance  below,  being  thus  ex-
posed, begins to  decay; the nerve and
blood-vessels are  at length  laid  bare, and
tooth-ache ensues.   Rheumatism, gout,
and venereal disorders, exert a very preju-
dicial influence on the teeth.   To preserve
the teeth, we must guard against too hot
or too cold drinks; violent changes of tem-
perature ; biting of very  hard substances,
as in cracking nuts, also biting off threads,
and untying knots with  the teeth, as the
former  injures  the enamel, the  latter
tends to loosen the teeth in their sockets.
Acids, of all sorts, particularly the stronger
ones, injure  the enamel.  Therefore,  all
tooth-washes which contain them  are
eventually prejudicial to the teeth, al-
though the immediate effect is to clean
and  whiten  them.  Rough-pointed  sub-
stances also injure the enamel, so that we
should avoid the use of metallic tooth-
picks, and tooth-powder made of pumice
stone, coral, cream of tartar, &c.  People
who eat  much meat and little  bread,  or
have a bad digestion, or smoke tobacco,
find that a deposit of earthy particles col-
lects around the teeth,  and forms tartar,
particularly about  the parts which are least
exposed  to the action of the food—the
lower and inner  parts,  near the gums.
The gums gradually separate from the
teeth ; the. consequence is,  that  these
decay, and the breath  is  rendered of-
fensive.   To  avoid these effects, the
teeth should be daily cleaned with tepid
water and a hard  brush.  A proper pow-
der should also  be occasionally applied
to them.   Where  tartar has been formed,
it should be  removed by the dentist, and
its return carefully guarded  against.  De-
cay can often be checked by the removal
of the parts which have turned black, and
filling the cavity  with gold, so that the
teeth may be preserved for many years
or for life.  Every one should  have his
teeth  examined   at intervals of a few
months, to detect  incipient  decay.  Arti-
ficial teeth are often inserted to remedy,
as far as  possible, the loss of the natural
ones.   These were  formerly  taken from
the corpses of healthy men (though this
point of healthiness was often far too little
attended to):  they are now,  more general-
ly, prepared from the teeth of the walrus or
sea-cow, from ivory, from porcelain, &c.
Artificial  teeth are either secured in the
utumps  of natural ones, by means  of a
gold or silver support,  or,  where  such
stumps do not exist, they are fastened to
neighboring teeth by gold or silk thread.
The porcelain  teeth have an advantage
over the other kinds, which  lose  their
color, and acquire a disagreeable smell, in
the  course  of time.   Their  hardness
may, perhaps, however,  make them inju-
rious to  the contiguous  natural  teeth.
Besides the accidental means by which
the teeth are affected, old age seldom fails
to bring with it sure and natural causes
for their removal.  The alveoli fill up,
and the  teeth,  consequently,  fall  out
The gums then no longer  meet in the
fore part of the mouth, the chin projects
forwards,  and,  the face being  rendered
much  shorter,  the whole physiognomy
appears considerably altered.  The  great
variety in the  structure of  the human
teeth,  fits us for  a variety of food, and,
when compared with the teeth  given to
other animals,  may, in  some  measure,
enable us to explain  the nature of tiie
aliment for  which ,man   is  intended
by  nature.   Thus, in  ruminating ani-
mals,  we  find  incisors only in the
lower jaw, for cutting the grass, and mo-
lars  for grinding  it;  in  graminivorous
animals, we see  molars alone; and in
carnivorous  animals,  canine  teeth for
catching  at  their prey, and incisors and
molars for cutting  and dividing it   But
as man is not designed  to catch and kill
his prey with his  teeth,  we observe that
our canine are shaped differently f.-. >m the
fangs of beasts of prey, in whom we find
them either longer than the rest of the
teeth, or curved.   The incisors, likewise,
are sharper  in those  animals  than in
man.  Nor are the molars in the human
subject similar to the  molars of  carnivo-
rous animals:  they are flatter in  man
than in these animals; and in the  latter,
we likewise find  them sharper at the
edges,  more calculated  to cut and tear
the food, and, by their  greater strength,
capable of breaking the bones of animals.
From these circumstances, therefore, wo
may consider man as partaking of the
nature of these different classes; as ap-
proaching more to the  carnivorous than
to the herbivorous tribe of animals; but,
upon the whole, formed for a mixed ali-
ment,  and fitted  equally to live  upon
flesh and  upon vegetables.   Those phi-
losophers, therefore, who would confine
a man wholly to vegetable food, do not
seem  to have  studied  nature.  As the
molars are the last teeth that are formed,
so they are usually the first  that fall out
This would seem to prove that we require 
TEETH—TEIGNMOUTH.
167
 the same kind of aliment in old age as in
 infancy.  Besides the use of the teeth in
 "mastication, they likewise serve a secon-
 dary purpose, by assisting in the articula-
 tion of the voice.  Albin, Hunter, Blake,
 Fox,  and many others, have written  on
 the teeth.—See, also, A. Sen*es, E.isai sur
 VAnatomic et la Physiologie des Dents, ou
 Nouvelle Thiorie de la Dentition (Paris,
 1817).   For   Zoologists,  Cuvier's Des
 Dents des Mammiferes (Paris, 1825) is of
 much interest.
  Teflis, or  Tiflis ; a city in  Asia,
 capital  of Georgia; lat. 41° 43' N.; Ion.
 62° 40'  E.; population, about 15,000.  It
 was founded in 1063, and is situated  on
 the banks of the Kur, at the extremity of
 a defile formed by two  ranges of moun-
 tains.   The streets are narrow, filthy and
 dusty.  Since the conquest of Georgia by
 the Russians, in 1801, Teflis has been the
 residence of their governor and  com-
 mander-in-chief.   The city contains a
 large caravansary, an hospital, an arsenal,
 and a Catholic church,  a number of Ar-
 menian and Greek churches, several  of
 them  fine  buildings.   The  houses are
 built of brick, mingled  with stones and
 mud, with doors and windows exceeding-
 ly small.  Many of the dwellings are
 mere  mud huts.  Teflis has been  long
 celebrated for its baths, which  are  situ-
 ated at one extremity  of  the  bazar.
 They are ten  in number,  and are the
 daily resort  of  both sexes, as places of
 luxury and amusement.
  Tegernsee ;   a village,   castle  and
 royal  lordship  (63 square  miles,  with
 3200 inhabitants), 33 miles distant  from
 Munich, on  tiie lake of Tegern.  It is a
 very romantic spot, sunounded by high
 mountains, and  often visited by the royal
 family.   A remarkable illumination took
 place on the mountains, in the reign of
 Maximilian I, when the names of some
 of his princely  guests were presented by
 night, in characters of fire, on the sides of
 the heights.  The fires were  kept up by
 immense piles  of  wood,  arranged by
 geometrical calculation, and were so large
 that half an hour was  required to walk
 from the bottom to the top  of a single
 letter.   Near Tegemsee, fine  marble is
 found.   Naphtha is also collected here.
  Tegner, Isaiah, bishop of Wexioe, in
 Smaeland, knight  of the order of the
North Star, one of the most celebrated
living poets of Sweden, was born in the
province of Wermeland, in 1782.   In
1812,  he  was  appointed  professor of
Greek   literature  at the  university  of
 Lund, and, in 182-1, was created bishop
 of Wexioe.  Among his poems, most of
 which  have appeared in the  Iduna,  a
 periodical edited  by Tegner, in conjunc-
 tion with his  friend Geijer, professor at
 Upsal, are the  Sage (Den Vise), a didactic
 lyrical poem ;  Svea (Sweden),  a patriotic
 poem ;Nattwardsbarnen, an idyl; Frithiofs-
 Saga, which is drawn from old northern
 ballads (the two  latter have been  trans-
 lated into German); and Axel, a narrative
 poem, abounding in beautiful  passages.
 A lively, though not deep sensibility, a
 rich vein of wit, and an active and  fertile
 imagination, which is sometimes so pro-
 fuse of imagery as  to dazzle rather than
 illustrate, are  the characteristics of his
 muse.
   Teheran, or Tehraun ; a city of Per-
 sia, in Irak Agemi; lat 35° 40' N.; Ion.
 50° 52' E.; population,  in  the winter,
 about 60,000.  During the two last reigns,
 it has been  the residence of the sovereign.
 Its situation is low and unhealthy.  On
 the south are  the ruins of the  immense
 and ancient city of Rai, and on the  north
 and  east, the lofty  mountain  ranges of
 Elburz and Demavend.  It is four  miles
in circuit, surrounded by a strong wall,
built of bricks baked in the sun, flanked
by numerous towers, with a  broad dry
ditch, with a glacis between  it and  the
wall.  It has six gates, seven mosques,
three colleges, and  numerous  baths and
caravansaries.  The houses are built of
unburnt brick, and  the city has a  mud-
like  appearance.   It contains no edifice
of importance except the ark, which  com-
bines the character of a  citadel with a
 royal palace, and has considerable strength.
 During the summer months,  it is  very
 unhealthy ;  and in  that season the king
 pitches his tents in the plains of Sultania,
 or Unjan, and  most of tho inhabitants
 follow the royal camp; so that  Teheran
 cannot  then contain  more than 10,000
pereons.
  Tehuantepec ;  a seaport of Mexico,
 in the state of Oaxaca, on  the Pacific
 ocean, at the mouth of the Chimalapa ;
 lat. 16° 16' N.; Ion. 94° 58' W.   It is situ-
ated on a large gulf.   The port is impeded
by a dangerous shoal.  The isthmus of
 Tehuantepec, which separates the Pacific
 ocean from the gulf of Mexico, is 125
 miles across.   Examinations   made  in
 1830, for the purpose of ascertaining the
 practicability of cutting a navigable  canal
 across the isthmus,  gave unfavorable re-
sults.
  Teignmouth, John Shore, lord, a na-
tive of Teignmouth, in Devonshire, bom
in 1751, was sent early to India,  a3 a 
168
TEIGNMOUTH—TELEGRAPH.
writer in the service of the East India
company, where he rose to the chair, in
Bengal.   He was intimate with Mr. Hast-
ings, and, under  his government, filled
several important  offices.   In  1793, he
succeeded to be governor of Bengal, but
only remained  in  that situation till his
successor  arrived  from England.   On
the death of his friend  sir W. Jones, he
was elected president of the Asiatic socie-
ty, in which  capacity he  delivered a
eulogy on  his  predecessor,  which  was
printed in the Transactions of the society,
as are several othere of Mr. Shore's papers.
In 1793, he was  made a baronet,  and,
some time  after his return,  in  1797, he
was created a peer of Ireland, by the title
of baron Teignmouth.  He has given to
the world Memoirs of the Life, Writings
and Correspondence of Sir W. Jones(4to.,
1801), and the  Works  of Sir W. Jones
(1807, 5 vols., 4to.,  and afterwards in 10
vols., 8vo.).  Lord Teignmouth instituted
the British and foreign  Bible society, of
which he is president   He has published,
on that subject, a Letter to the Reverend
Cliristopher  Wordsworth (8vo.,  1810).
His attention has also been much engaged
on the subject of the following publica-
tion :—Considerations on communicating
to the Inhabitants of India  the Knowl-
edge of Christianity (1811).  His lord-
ship is an active member of the African
institution.
  Tekeli, or Tokoly, Emmerich, count
of, a Hungarian noble,  celebrated for his
offorts to deliver his country from the do-
minion  of Austria, was the son of  Ste-
phen, count Tokoly, a noble Lutheran,
who, after the execution of several Hun-
garians for a conspiracy against Austria,
placed himself at  the   head of  the mal-
contents.   General  Heister was  sent
against  him, and  besieged  him in  his
castle.  The count died during the siege,
but had taken such steps  as enabled his
son, then fifteen yeare  of age, to escape.
Emmerich fled to Transylvania, where
his courage aud good conduct gained him
the favor of the prince,  who gave him the
command of a body of troops despatched to
aid the Hungarian malcontents. The Hun-
garians chose him, in  1678, commander-
in-chief, and Tokoly, determined to allow
himself no  rest until  he had  freed his
country from the  German, yoke, broke
into Upper Hungary, at the head of a con-
tinually increasing body of forces,  cap-
tured several fortresses and the mining
towns, devastated  Moravia, and, assisted
by France and the Porte, penetrated into
Upper Austria  The emperor consented
to redress several  grievances at the diet
of Edenburg (1681); but Tokoly persisted
in his opposition, and put himself under
the protection of the sultan  Mohammed
IV, by  whom he was declared king of
Hungary. A war between  the emperor
and the Porte was  the  consequence, in
which the Turks advanced (1683) as far
as Vienna, but were totally  defeated be-
fore that city.  The grand-vizier wished
to lay the whole blame of the defeat upon
Tokoly ; but the latter hastened to Adrian-
ople, and vindicated his conduct so com-
pletely to the sultan, that the grand-vizier
was strangled, and Tokoly  received as-
surances of support.  The count continu-
ed the war, but without success, lost sev-
eral decisive battles, and was  therefore ar-
rested by the Turks.  His army now dis-
persed ; and when Tokoly was set at lib-
erty, as  innocent of the  charges brought
against him,  he found himself destitute of
followers, and unable to effect any thing
of importance.   Fortune, however, onco
more smiled  upon him, and he was desig-
nated  by the Porte to be prince of Tran-
sylvania He penetrated into that country,
routed the imperial general Heusler, and
was elected prince by the Transylvanians;
but Louis, margrave of Baden, compelled
him to retire.  Thus alternately exposed
to the caprices  of fortune  and of the
Porte, he was once more earned in chains
to Adrianople,  and  soon after named
prince of Widdin.  He returned to Tur-
key after the peace of Carlowitz (1699),
and ended his unquiet life near Nicome-
dia, in Asia Minor, in 1705.   Tokoly was
a man of lofty courage, of great sagacity
and foresight, and  of an  imperturbable
presence of mind.
   Telamon.  (See Argonauts.)
   Telegraph (from  r»;Ac, at a distance,
and yp kP<j>, to write); the name given to
a piece of mechanism for the rapid com-
munication  of  intelligence  by signa's.
(See  Signals, and  Chappe.)  The most
simple contrivance of this sort consists of
an upright post of moderate height, with
two  movable arms fixed  on a common
pivot, each of which may be exhibited in
various positions, each position indicating
a word or sentence.  The universal tele-
graph, invented by colonel Pasley in 1822,
has two arms, each of which can exhibit
seven positions, with  an   indicator  or
mark on one side of the post, for the pur-
pose of distinguishing the positions more
accurately.  This machine is capable of
indicating  only  twenty-eight  different
combinations, which are, however, found
to be sufficient for telegraphic communica- 
TELEGRAPH—TELESCOPE.
169
tion, whether "by the alphabetical method,
or in reference to a telegraphic dictionary
of words and  sentences.  Several tele-
graphic dictionaries have been composed.
A series of telegraphs are placed at inter-
vals, and  information is thus communi-
cated with great rapidity.   Twenty-seven
telegraphs convey information from Paris
to Calais  in three minutes; twenty-two
from Paris to Lisle in two minutes; forty-
six /rom  Strasburg to Paris in six and a
half minutes,  and eighty from Paris to
Brest in ten minutes.  At the  time of the
French expedition to Algiers, nocturnal
telegraphs were erected, with lanterns of
powerful  magnifying glasses, and strong
reflectors,  and lighted  with  gas.—See
Parker's  Telegraph Vocabulary (Boston,
1832).  A portable telegraph,  which may
be used by night and by day, has recently
been invented in France, and has receiv-
ed the name of Aerographe.
  Telemachus ; a son of Ulysses and Pe-
nelope.  He was still in the cradle when
his father went, with the rest of the Greeks,
to the  Trojan war.  At the end of this
celebrated war, Telemachus,  anxious to
see his father, went to seek him ;  and, as
the place of his residence, and the cause
of his long absence, were then unknown,
he visited  the court of Menelaus and Nes-
tor to obtain information.   He afterwards
returned  to Ithaca, where the suitors of
his  mother  Penelope had conspired  to
murder him ; but he avoided their snares,
and, by means of Minerva, he discovered
his father, who had arrived in the island
two days before him, and  was then in  the
house  of Eumaeus.  With this  faithful
servant and Ulysses, Telemachus concert-
ed how to deliver his mother from  the
importunities of her suitors ;  and it was
effected with  great  success.   After  the
death  of his father, Telemachus went to
the island of vEaea, where he  married
Circe,  or, according to some, Cassiphone,
the daughter of Circe, by whom he had
a son called Latinus.   He some time after
had the misfortune to kill his mother-in-
law  Circe, and fled to Italy, where he
founded Clusium.  Telemachus was  ac-
companied in his visit to Nestor and Men-
elaus by the goddess of  wisdom, under
the form of Mentor.  It is said that when
a child, Telemachus fell into the sea, and
that a dolphin  brought him safe to shore,
after he had remained some time under
water.  From this circumstance  Ulysses
had the figure of a dolphin engraved on
the seal which he wore on his ring. (See
Mnilon.)
  Telemann,  Gio. Philip; one of  tiie
  VOL. XII.                     1«*
greatest and  most  voluminous musical
composers, who flourished in Germany
during the former portion of the last cen-
tury.   He was bora at Hildesheim, in
1681. In 1740, his overtures, on the mod-
el of those of LuUi, amounted to six hun-
dred.  The  list of his printed  works,
which appeared in  Walther's Musical
Lexicon in 1732,extended to twenty-nine;
and fifteen more are specified  in Gerber's
Continuation of Walther;  but double the
number of those printed were long circu-
lated in manuscript from the music shops
of Leipsic and Hamburg. His later com-
positions are said to be pleasing, graceful
and refined.  Telemann, who  lived to a
great age, drew up a well-written account
of his own life, in the earlier part of which
he was the  fellow-student and intimate
acquaintance  of Handel.   He died in
1767, at Hamburg.
  Teleology (from tcXos,  the end, aim,
and \oyoi, science); the doctrine of final
causes.  It treats of the wise and benevo-
lent  ends shown in the structure of indi-
vidual  creatures, and in their  connexion,
and in the connexion and consequences
of events, from which it deduces the ex-
istence and  character  of the Creator.
Delightful as it is to trace  the proofs of
wisdom and benevolence  in the creation
around  us, we should be  careful not to
nanow the purposes of God to our own
notions, not to be illiberal  towards those
who differ from us, nor to conceive  that
the earth was made solely for the use of
man—a very  confined,  but too common
opinion.
  Telescope (from rijX_, at a distance, and
uKontu, to see); an optical instrument, em-
ployed for viewing distant object?, by in-
creasing the apparent angle under which
they are seen without its assistance,whence
the effect on the mind of an  increase in
size, or, as commonly termed,  amagnified
representation.   (See  Optics.)   The tele-
scope is perhaps one of the most  impor-
tant inventions of science,  as it unfolds to
our view the wonders of the heavens, and
enables us to obtain the data for astro-
nomical and  nautical  purposes. As the
use of the instrument depends upon the
proportionate  distance of the glasses, and
this distance  requires to be changed to
suit  the  nearness or remoteness of the
object, and the vision of the observer, the
tube of the telescope is so contrived as to
admit of being lengthened and shortened,
according to circumstances.  The inven-
tion of the telescope is ascribed to differ-
ent persons, among whom are  John Bap-
tista  Porta, Jansen of Middleburg, and 
170
TELESCOPE.
Galilei.  The time of its first  construc-
tion is  considered  to  have been about
1590;  but, in  1608 and  1609,  we  find
these insumments for sale at  very high
 !>rices  by Dutch opticians; and in the
 atter year, Galilei constructed one with-
out having seen  those of the Dutch, by
fitting  a plano-convex  and a plano-con-
cave lens in  a tube of lead.  The sim-
plest construction of the telescope consists
merely  of two convex lenses,  so com-
bined as to increase the  apparent angle
under  which  the object  is seen.  The
lenses are so  placed that the distance be-
tween them may be equal to the sum of
their focal distances.   The  lens nearest
the eye is called the eye-glass, and that at
the other extremity of the tube the object-
glass.   Objects seen  through this  tele-
scope are inverted, and on that account
it is inapplicable to  land observation ; but
at sea it is occasionally  used  at night  and
in hazy weather, when there is little light,
and is, therefore, sometimes called  the
night telescope.   The  astronomical tele-
scope is  constructed in this manner, as
the inversion  of the object is immaterial
in celestial observations.  The common
day telescope, or spy-glass, is an instrument
of the same sort, with the addition of two,
or even three or four other glasses, for the
purpose  of presenting the object in an
erect position, increasing the field of vis-
ion, and  diminishing  the   aberration
caused  by the dissipation of  the rays.
But the aberration and chromatic error
of telescopes  were  not  completely obvi-
ated until the invention of the reflecting
and achromatic telescopes, which, when
accurately constructed, present the object
to the vision  free from  all  distortion or
chromatic dispersion.  The reflecting tele-
scopt was invented by father Mersenne, a
Frenchman, in the middle of the seven-
teenth  century.  Concave mirrors have
the property  of uniting the  rays of light
which  proceed from any object, so as to
form an image of that  object at a certain
point before  the mirror.  (See  Mirrors.)
If the distance of the object is so great,
that the rays proceeding from  it strike
upon the mirror parallel to each other
(which is the case with the heavenly bod-
ies), the distance of the image is equal to
half the radius of the  sphere,  of which
the mirror is an arc, and the point where
it is formed is called the focus of the mir-
ror. (See Burning  Mirror.)   This prop-
erty of the concave minor has caused  it
to be used in the observation of the heav-
enly bodies;  and  the  instrument  con-
structed with such a mirror,  is called a
reflecting telescope.   The simplest con-
-structioiis  of this  kind were those in
which the image, formed in the focus
of  the mirror, was used directly, and a
convex eye-glass was employed  to mag-
nify the angle under which it was seen;
and this, in fact, still  continues to  be
the  principle on which reflecting tele-
scopes are constructed.  But as this con-
struction is attended with some difficulties
in practice, Newton, and, since him, Cas-
segrain, Gregory, Hadley, Short,  aud the
Herschels, have introduced some modifi-
cations in  it.  Newton, by  means  of a
second reflection from a plane mirror, in-
clined at a certain angle, threw the image
of the object into such a position in the
tube of the  telescope,  that it could  bo
easily examined from the side of the tube,
through a plano-convex eye-glass, in whose
focus it was situated.  In the Gregorian
telescope  there  is a  large mirror with a
small hole  in its  centre; opposite to this
is  placed a  second  small mirror in the
axis of the  larger one, and at a  distance
from it a little more than the sum of their
focal distances.   By means of this con-
struction the image formed by this double
reflection is viewed through one or more
eye-glasses,  fixed in the direction of the
opening,  and, therefore, the observer is
stationed in a line with the object; while,
in  the Newtonian telescope, he is  at right
angles to it.   The Cassegrainian is con-
structed  in  the same way as the Grego-
rian, with the exception of having a small
convex instead of a concave speculum.
Herechel gave the mirror such a position
that its focus should fall directly under
the edge of the upper  aperture, so  that
the observer, in viewing the image, should
not intercept the light: this he  called a
front-view telescope.  It is plain  that tho
size of the minor, and, consequently, its
focal distance, have an effect upon the
magnitude  of the  image;  and  modem
astronomers  have, therefore, employed
some instruments of this kind  of great
bulk. Herechel's gigantic telescope, erect-
ed  at Slough, near  Windsor, was com-
pleted August 28, 1789; and on the same
day the sixth satellite of Saturn was dis-
covered.   The diameter of the  polished
surface of  the speculum was forty-eight
inches, and  its focal distance forty feet
It weighed 2118 pounds, and was placed
in one end  of an  iron tube  four feet ten
inches in diameter.  The other end was
elevated  towards the object,  and  had at-
tached to it an eye-glass, in the  focus of
the speculum, as above  mentioned.  The
observer was mounted in a gallery, mov- 
TELESCOPE—TELL.
171
able with the instrument, and having his
back  to the object  The  light obtained
from so large a surface was truly surpris-
ing, and enabled objects, otherwise invisi-
ble, to become extremely interesting.  (A
full description of this instrument, illus-
trated with eighteen plates, may be found
in the Transactions of the Royal Society
for 1795.)   The frame of this instrument
having become much decayed, it has been
taken down, and another,  of twenty feet
focus and  eighteen  inches  diameter,
erected  in its place (1822), by the distin-
guished J. F. W. Herschel, son of sir
William.   The  largest front-view  tele-
scope, at present in England, is that erect-
ed at the  royal observatoiy at Green-
wich, by  Mr. Ramage, in'1820.   The
diameter of the reflector  is fifteen  feet,
and its  focus is twenty-five feet.  Schro-
terhad an excellent telescope of this kind
at Lilienthal, of twenty-five feet focus, by
which the Milky Way was separated into
innumerable  small stare.   Schrader,  at
Kiel, had  a similar instrument of twenty-
five  feet  focus, at the  close of the last
century.  Another improvement has been
recently introduced in the reflecting tele-
scope, by making  the  speculum of plat-
ina, so  that it will not suffer from rust.
Having noticed some of the most valua-
ble  modifications of the reflecting tele-
scopes, we now  return to the  refracting
one.  The most important improvement
in this instrument consists in the forma-
tion of the object-glasses  free from  the
cnors of chromatic and spherical aberra-
tion, whence they have been denominated
achromatic (a,  without;  x<>u>i>"', color) tele-
scopes,  or, more properly, aplanatic  («,
without;  nXavot, enor) telescopes.  These
are now  made in such perfection, that
they have, in some degree, superseded the
reflecting telescopes; and the optical insti-
tute at  Benedictbeuern (q. v.) provides
observatories with such excellent dioptri-
cal  instruments, that the catoptric are lit-
tle used.  Dollond (q. v.) first made achro-
matic telescopes;  Ramsden (q.v.),Reich-
enbach  (q. v.), &c, have made the best.
They are  formed by employing a double
object-glass, composed  of two lenses  of
different refractive powers, which  will
mutually  correct  each other,  and thus
give a pencil of white light entirely color-
less.  Triple object-glasses are also used:
one of the largest ever constructed was
erected at the observatory of Dorpat, in
1824, and was made by Fraunhofer. (q. v.)
The diameter of the  object-glass  has a
clear  aperture of nine and  six tenths
inches, and a focal distance of fifteen feet;
but he  afterwards  constructed another,
with a  diameter of twelve Paris inches,
and a focus of eighteen feet.  Mr. Tully
has also made one in England, of which
the aperture of the object-glass is six
eight-tenth  inches,  and the focal length
twelve feet.  It is now in possession of
doctor Pearson. (See Astronomical Trans-
actions, vol. ii.)
  Telescope Carp. (See Gold-Fish.)
  Tell, William, a peasant of Biirgeln,
near Altorf,  celebrated  for his resistance
to the tyranny of the Austrian governor
Gessler  or Gassier.  Switzerland consist-
ed of a great number of secular and  ec-
clesiastical  districts, belonging partly to
the hereditary dominions of the house of
Hapsburg, and partly to the German em-
pire.  Albert I, emperor of Germany, a
grasping prince, eager to make territorial
acquisitions, wished to unite  the Forest
Towns  with his hereditary estates, and
proposed to  them to renounce their con-
nexion  with the empire, and to submit
themselves to him  as  duke  of Austria.
They rejected his offers, and were in con-
sequence so ill treated  and oppressed by
the imperial governors,  that, in 1307, Uri,
Schweitz  and  Underwalden  formed  a
league, under the influence of three brave
men,  Walter Fiirst  (Tell's father-in-law),
Arnold of Melchthal, and Werner Stauf-
facher.  Tell was also one of this league.
Gessler  now pushed his insolence so far
as to require the Swiss to uncover their
heads before his hat (as an emblem of the
Austrian  sovereignty),  and  condemned
Tell, who  refused  to  comply with this
mandate, to shoot an apple from the head
of his own son.  Tell  was successful in
his attempt, but confessed that a second
arrow, which  he  bore  about his person,
was  intended, in case  he had failed, for
the punishment of the tyrant, and was
therefore retained  prisoner.   While he
was crossing the lake of the Four Cantons,
or lake of Lucerne, in the same boat with
Gessler, a  violent storm  threatened the
destruction of the skiff.  Tell, as the most
vigorous and skilful helmsman, Avas set
free ;  and he conducted the boat success-
fully to  the  shore, but  seized the oppor-
tunity to spring upon a rock, pushing off
the barque.  He had fortunately taken his
bow with him; and when the governor
finally escaped the storm, and reached the
shore, Tell shot him dead, on the road to
Kiissnacht The death of Gessler was a sig-
nal for a general rising, and a most obsti-
nate war between the Swiss and Austria,
which was  not brought to a  close  until
1499.  (See Switzerland.)  Tell was pres- 
172                        TELL—TELLURIUM.
ent at the battle of Morgarten (q. v.), and
is  supposed to have lost his life in an in-
undation in 1350.  Such is the story of
William Tell, which, attested by chapels,
by the designation of the rock on which
he leaped, by paintings and other circum-
stances, has been called in doubt by ma-
ny, but is sanctioned by John von Muller.
Saxo Grammaticus relates a similar story
of a Danish king, Harold, and a certain
Tholko;  but the tradition might  have
been  transmitted from  Germany to the
north by means of the Hanse towns.—
See Hagen's Northern Heroic Romances,
in German (Breslau, 1814).  There is one
circumstance which  may be considered
sufficient to attest the  truth of the main
points of Tell's history.  After the  ex-
pulsion of the governors, and the demoli-
tion of their castles, it  became customary
among the  Swiss to make pilgrimages to
the place where Tell had leaped ashore;
and in 1388, thirty  years after his death,
the canton of Uri erected a chapel (called
TelVs chapel) on the rock upon which he
had  sprung,  and caused a eulogy to be
pronounced every year in memory of
liim.  In the same year the spot was vis-
ited by 114 pereons,  who had been  ac-
quainted with Tell.  All the  old chroni-
cles agree on this point; and Schiller, in
his tragedy of William Tell, has accu-
rately  copied  the accounts  of Tschudi
and Muller.—See Balthasarand Haller's
Defence of  William Tell (1772,  new ed.,
1824), and Hisely's  Dissertatio de  Gul.
Tellio  (Groningen, 1824).
   Tellier, Francois Michel 1c.   (See
Louvois.)
   Tellier, Michael le, a distinguished
Jesuit, was born in  1643, near  Pere, in
Lower Normandy.  He studied in the
Jesuits' coUege at Caen, and entered the
society at the age of eighteen.  In 1709,
he was chosen confessor to Louis XIV.
He was a bitter enemy of the Jansenists;
and his first act was the  demolition of the
celebrated house of the Port Royal.  He
then forced upon the nation the bull Uni-
genitus.  (q, v.)  His  violence  was  the
cause of much of the odium which the
Jesuits soon alter experienced, and paved
the way for the abolition of their society.
On the death of Louis, he was exiled, firet
to Amiens, and afterwards to La Fleche,
where he died, in 1719.
   Tellurism.  (See Magnetism, Animal.)
   Tellurium ; the name of a metal dis-
covered in  1782, and named  by Klaproth
from the earth in 1798.   We shall firet de-
scribe its ores.  There are four :—1. Na-
tive tellurium.  It is of a tin-white color,
passing into  lead-gray, with  a shining,
metallic lustre.  It occurs in minute hex-
agonal  crystals,  possessed of  regular
cleavages;  but  their direction, owing to
the minuteness of the crystals,  has not
been detected.  It occurs also in crystal-
line grains, either aggregated, solitary, or
disseminated.  It yields to the  knife, and
is brittle; specific gravity 5.7—6.1.  Ex-
posed to the blow-pipe, it melts before ig-
nition, and, on increasing the heat, it burns
with a  greenish flame, and is almost en-
tirely volatilized in  a dense white vapor,
with a pungent, acrid odor, like  that of
horse-radish.   It consists of tellurium
92.55, iron 7.2, gold 0.25.   It has  been
found chiefly in Faccbay, in Transylva-
nia.—2.  Graphic tellurium, or  graphic
gold.  It is ofa steel-gray color, generally
splendent, but sometimes slightly tarnish-
ed externally.   It occurs  crystallized in
the form ofa right rhombic prism of 107°
44'.  The crystals are commonly  so ar-
ranged  as to give to the whole  row the
appearance of aUne of Persepolitan char-
acters ;  specific gravity 5.7.   Before tho
blow-pipe,  on  charcoal,  it fuses into  a
dark-gray metallic globule, which finally
is brilliant and malleable.   It consists  of
tellurium 60, gold 30, and  silver 10.  It
has been found only at  Offenbanya, in
Transylvania, in veins in porphyry.—3.
Yellow tellurium.  It is of a silver-white,
passing into yeUow and gray of different
shades.  It occurs in very small but well
defined  crystals,  of which the  primary
form is a right rhombic prism of 105° 30'.
It possesses a bright metallic  lustre.  It
is soft,  and somewhat sectile ;  specific
gravity  10.6.   It consists of tellurium
44.75, gold 26.75, lead 19.5, silver 8.5, sul-
phur 0.5.  It has been found only at Nag-
yag, in Transylvania.—4.  Black telluri-
um.  It is of a color between iron-black
and dark lead-gray.  It is found crystal-
Uzed in small tabular crystals, of which
the primary form appeare  to  be  a right
square prism.   It yields to the knife with
ease,  and  in  thin lamina? is  flexible;
specific gravity 8.9.  It consists of
  Tellurium,.............32.2
  Lead,.................54
  Gold,................. 9
  Silver,................  0.5
  Copper,...............  1.3
  Sulphur,............... 3.
It has been found only at Nagyag, in Tran-
sylvania  The  pure metal has the fol-
lowing properties:—It has a silver-white
color, and a good degree of brilliancy.
Its texture  is  laminated like  antimony;
specific gravity 6.115.  It is very brittle,
and  may be easily  reduced to  powder. 
TELLURIUM—TEMPELHOFF.
173
 It melts when raised  to a temperature
 higher than the fusing point of lead.  If
 the heat be increased a little, it boils and
 evaporates, and attaches itself in  brilliant
 drops to the  upper part  of the  retort in
 which the  experiment is made.   It is,
 therefore, next to  mercury and  arsenic,
 the most volatile of aU the metals. When
 cooled slowly, it crystallizes.   Tellurium
 combines with  only  one  proportion of
 oxygen, and forms a compound possessing
 acid properties.  But, as it also possesses
 alkaline properties, it is called oxide of tel-
 lurium.  It is formed  when tellurium is
 burnt  in a crucible, or before the blow-
 pipe :  the  white smoke evolved is the
 substance hi question.  It is also obtained
 by dissolving the metal in  nitro-muriatic
 acid, and  diluting the solution  with  a
 great quantity of water.   A white pow-
 der  falls, which is the oxide.  It is ea-
 sily  melted by heat into  a straw-color-
 ed  mass of  a radiated  texture.  It is
 composed of metal 100, and  of oxygen
 24.8.   Tellurium  burns  spontaneously
 when brought into  contact with chlorine
 gas.  The  chloride  of tellurium is  white
 and  semi-transparent.  When heated, it
 rises  in  vapor, and crystallizes.   Iodine
 combines very  readily with  tellurium,
 when the two substances are brought into
 contact  Tellurium has the property of
 combining with hydrogen, and of forming
 a gaseous substance, to which the name
 of tellureted  hydrogen  is  applied.   It is
 formed by  mixing together oxide of tel-
 lurium, potash, aud charcoal, and expos-
 ing  the  mixture to the action of a red
 heat  It is transparent and colorless, and
 possesses a strong  smell, resembling sul-
 phureted hydrogen.  It burns with a blu-
 ish flame,  and  oxide of tellurium is de-
 posited.  It is soluble in water, and gives
 that liquid a claret color.  Tellurium ap-
 peare to enter into combination with car-
 bon.  The  compound is a black  powder.
 It may bo combined  with sulphur  by
 fusion.
  Temeswar ;  formerly  capital  of the
 Bannat of Temeswar, which now forms a
 part of the kingdom of Hungary, now
 capital of the county of the same name
 in the circle beyond the Theiss, in Upper
 Hungary.  It is situated on the river Be-
 ga, in a marshy and unhealthy district, is
 a royal free city, the residence of the im-
 perial commander of the Bannat  military
district, and  the see of a Greek bishop.
Since 1718, when the Turks  ceded the
whole  of the Bannat  by  the peace  of
Passarowitz (q. v.), the town has  been
much improved in appearance,  and cx-
                15*
tended; and the fortifications have also
been strengthened, so that it is now one
of the most important fortresses of the
Austrian empire.   It contains 11,000 in-
habitants,  chiefly Gennans and Servians,
or Rascians (q. v.), who  are engaged in
manufactures, and carry on a brisk trade.
  Tempe, Vale  of ; a  beautiful and cel-
ebrated valley of Thessaly, on the Peneus,
not far from  its mouth, having mount
Olympus on the north, and mount Ossa
on the south.  It is about five miles long,
and of unequal  breadth.  It was much
celebrated by the ancient poets; but mod-
ern travellers were long perplexed to find
in so rugged and terrific a spot as the de-
file of Tempe, where it is crossed by the
great road, the object of their unqualified
panegyric.   The fact is, that  the  vale of
Tempe is distinct from the gorge or defile,
being situated a little to  the south-west.
"The  scenery of this  beautiful  valley,"
says a traveller,  " fully gratified our ex-
pectations.   In some places  it is sylvan,
calm and harmonious, and the sound of
the water of the Peneus accords with the
grace of the surrounding landscape; in
othere, it is savage, terrific and  abrupt;
and the river roars with violence, darken-
ed by  the  frowns of stupendous preci-
pices."  The woods which once appear
to have adorned this celebrated region,
have been much  diminished in the ser-
vice of the neighboring cotton works;  but
the mountains on each side are truly sub-
lime.   In the centre of  this romantic se-
clusion stands Ambelakia, a town inhab-
ited by Greeks, with some Germans, who
have established considerable cotton man-
ufactures.
  Tempelhoff,  George  Frederic von;
a German officer, and writer on military
tactics, born in 1737.  After having stud-
ied at Frankfort on the Oder, and at Halle,
he entered  into  a Prussian regiment of
infantry as a corporal, and, in that capaci-
ty, served in Bohemia, in  1757. He after-
wards  entered into the artillery, and dis-
tinguished himself at the battles of'Hoch-
kirchen, Kunnersdorf, Torgau, &c, and
at the sieges of Breslau, Olmiitz, Dresden,
and Schweidnitz.   At the close  of  the
second campaign, he was  made a lieuten-
ant ; and, after the peace of 1763, he con-
tinued his studies at Berlin, and published
some  mathematical works, and  also  the
Prussian  Bombardier  (1781,  8vo.),  in
which he reduced the doctrine of projec-
tiles to scientific  principles.  He after-
wards published the Elements of Military
Tactics, developing the manoeuvres and
warlike operations of Frederic II.   In 
174
TEMPELHOFF—TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES.
1790, he  was promoted to a colonelcy;
and, in the beginning of the wolutionary
war with France, he had the  command
of all the Prussian artillery, and,  in 1795,
liecame chief of the  third regiment of
that corps.  He died at  Berlin,  July 13,
1807.   Tempelhoff published  some im-
portant works  besides those  mentioned
above, of which the best known is his
History of the Seven Years' War in Ger-
many, between the King of Prussia and
the Empress Queen, &c.  (1782—1801, 6
vols., 4to.), of which an English  translation
was made by general Lloyd.
  Temperaments ; those individual  pe-
culiarities of organization, by which  the
manner of acting,  feeling and  thinking
of each  person is permanently  affected.
The differences of sex, race, nation, family,
and individual organization, operate upon
the character of every individual from the
moment of his birth ; and the last men-
tioned is by no means the least important.
The ancients distinguished four tempera-
ments—the choleric or bilious, the phleg-
matic, the melancholic, and the sanguine-
ous, which derived their names from the
supposed excess of one  or other of the
principal fluids of the human body—bile
(xoX,*)> phlegm, black bile  (utkaw, black,
and x°^"")> ana< hlood (sanguis).  Modern
writers have added the athletic tempera-
ment  and  the  nervous  temperament.
The  bilious  or choleric  temperament is
accompanied with great  susceptibility of
feeling, quickness  of perception, and vig-
or  of action, and  therefore indicates  an
elevated state of the organization: rapidity
and strength, a Uvely imagination, violent
passions, quickness of decision, combined
with perseverance and inflexibility of pur-
pose, with a tendency to ambition, pride,
and anger, but also to magnanimity and
generosity of sentiment, characterize the
bilious man.  These moral characteristics
are combined with aform more remarkable
for firmness than grace, a dark or sallow
complexion, sparkling eyes,  and great
muscular force.  " These men," says an
ingenious writer (Am. Quarterly Rev. for
March, 1829), " are urged by a constant
restlessness to action; a habitual sentiment
of disquietude allows them no peace but in
the tumult of business; the hours  of
crowded life are the only ones they value ;
they are to  be found wherever hardiness
of resolution, prompt decision,  and per-
 manence of enterprise, are  required."
 The phlegmatic, lymphatic or  cold-blood-
 ed temperament is the reverse of that last
 described: with little propensity to action,
 and  little  sensibihty;  no great  bodily
strength or dexterity; rather a heavy look;
the feelings calm; the understanding clear
in a certain range, but never soaring into
new regions, or penetrating deeply  be-
neath the mysteries of the universe ; and
a disposition to repose  or  to moderate
exertion,—the phlegmatic man is free from
excesses, and his virtues and vices  are
stamped with mediocrity.  The sanguin-
eous temperament indicates a lively sus-
ceptibility, with little  proneness to action ;
promptness,without perseverance; a ready
fancy; little  depth of feeling, o/ thought;
changeable,  but not  violent feelings and
passions; and a tendency to voluptuous-
ness,  levity,  fickleness  of purpose, and
fondness of admiration.  The sanguineous
are distinguished for beauty and grace, and
the whole organization is characterized by
the vigor and facility of its functions: they
are the witty, the elegant, the  gay, the or-
naments of society. The melancholic tem-
perament is  characterized by little suscep-
tibility, but great energy of action, reserve,
firmness of purpose, perseverance, deep re-
flection, constancy of feeling,  and an in-
clination to  gloominess, to  ascetic prac-
tices, and to  misanthropy.  The  athletie
temperament possesses, in some degree,
the qualities of  the sanguineous;  but it is
distinguished by superior strength  and
size of body, indicating the excess of the
muscular force  over the sensitive.  The
athletic man has less playfulness of mind,
less  activity of spirit, little  elevation of
purpose or fixedness of character ; he is
good natured,  but if excited, ferocious.
The nervous temperament admits of the
most various modifications ; it is charac-
terized by the predominance of the sensi-
tive part of the system, and the powerful
action of the nerves.  The mind is active
and volatile, though not from fickleness,
but  from the rapidity of its  associations,
the quickness of its resolutions, and  the
readiness of its combinations. The tem-
peraments are  rarely found  unmixed, as
we have described them; but one  or  the
other is usually predominant. Each  has
its advantages and  pleasures, attended
with some corresponding drawback.  (See
Kant's Anthropology, or Schulze's Anthro-
pology, both in German.)
   Temperance Societies.  The remark-
able success of these institutions in coun-
teracting  a  vice  of  great  seductiveness,
and of the most ruinous tendency, de-
 mands for their history and present con-
 dition a somewhat extended notice.  The
 mental excitement  produced by the re-
 ception of  certain  vegetable substances
 into  the  system is, in  its first stage, so 
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES.
175
 agreeable, that we cannot be surprised at
 finding some of them in use  as far back,
 and as extensively, as our accounts of pri-
 vate  manners reach.   The  fermented
 juice of fruits, as of the apple and grape,
 the intoxicating property of which latter is
 mentioned by Moses (Gen. ix, 21),  proba-
 bly was the most ancient, and is now the
 most common vehicle  of tiie stimulating
 principle.  The later Asiatics have found
 it in preparations from the poppy and the
 wild hemp, and the  North American In-
 dians in tobacco.   The ancient Germans,
 according to  Tacitus's account (De Mor.
 Germ.,  xxiii), obtained  an  intoxicating
 drink from wheat and barley; but the art
 of brewing, as at present  practised, ap-
 pears not to have been known in England
 before  the end  of the fifteenth  century.
 Distillation, which furnishes far the most
 powerful agents of this  kind, was invented
 by the  alchemists in the course of their
 experiments in search of the elixir of life.
 The  first known  distinct mention  of  it
 (Encyclopidie  Me.thodique, articles Arts et
 Mitiers, Distillateur,  Liquoriste, as quoted
 in Sullivan's Address, Boston, 1832) occurs
 in the  thirteenth  century.  Arnaud de
 Villeneuve, a chemist and physician, who
 died about the year 1300, writes:  " Who
 would believe that one can  draw from
 wine, by chemical process, that which has
 not the color of wine, nor the ordinary
 effects of  wine ?  This water of wine is
 called by  some the  water of life (eau de
 vie, brandy);  and it well  deserves  the
 name, since it is truly a water of immor-
 taUty.   Already its virtues begin  to be
 known.   It  prolongs one's  life;  it dissi-
 pates superfluous and vicious humors; it
 revives  the heart, and perpetuates youth."
 Towards the end of tiie sixteenth century,
 the use  of distilled spirits was introduced
 into England.  Camden mentions them as
 having been adopted, in 1581, into the diet
 of the English soldiers in their campaigns
 in the Netherlands.  A very heavy excise
 tax and duty on importations has not pre-
 vented the increase of  their consumption
 in Great  Britain till it has reached  the
 amount of 40,000,000 of gallons annuaUy.
 There is  no evidence of their extensive
 use in  North America during the first
 century after the  settlement of the colo-
 nies.  The exposures of the French war,
 and much more the hardships and  disor-
 ders  of the revolution, naturally  tended
 to diffuse it.  The men now* upon  the
 stage remember, from their childhood till
 within the last ten  yeare,  to have seen
 distilled spirits, in some form, a universal
provision for tiie table at the principal re-
past, throughout this country.  The richer
sort drank  French and  Spanish brandy ;
the poorer, West India, and the poorest,
New England rum.   In the  Southern
States, whiskey was the favorite liquor;
and the  somewhat less  common articles
of  foreign  and  domestic   gin,  apple
brandy and peach brandy, made a variety
which recommended itself to the variety
of individual tastes.   Commonly at meals,
and at other times by laborers, particular-
ly in the middle of the forenoon and after-
noon, these substances were taken simply
diluted with more or less water.   On oth-
er occasions, they made a part of more or
less artificial  compounds, in  which  fruit
of various  kinds, eggs, spices, herbs and
sugar were leading ingredients.  A fash-
ion at the south was to take a draught  of
whiskey  flavored with  mint soon after
waking;  and so conducive to  health was
this nostrum esteemed,  that neither sex,
and scarcely any age, was exempt from its
application.  At  eleven o'clock, while
mixtures, under various peculiar names,—
sling, toddy, flip, &c,—solicited the appe-
tite at the  bar of the common  tippling
shop, the office of professional men, and
the counting room, dismissed their occu-
pants for a  half hour to regale  themselves
at a neighbor's, or a coffee-house, with
punch, hot  or iced, according to the  sea-
son ;  and  females  and  valetudinarians
courted an  appetite with medicated mm
disguised under the chaste name of Hux-
ham's tincture, or Stoughton's elixir. The
dinner hour arrived, according to the dif-
ferent customs of different districts of the
country,  whiskey and  water, curiously
flavored with apples, or brandy and water,
introduced  the feast;  whiskey, or brandy,
with water, helped it through, and whis-
key or brandy, without  water, often  se-
cured its safe digestion, not again to be
used in any more fonnal manner than for
the relief of occasional thirst, or for the
entertainment of a friend, until  the last
appeal should be made to them to secure
a sound  night's sleep.   Rum seasoned
with cherries protected against the cold ;
rum made  astringent with  peach-nuts
concluded the repast at the confectioner's;
rum made  nutritious with milk prepared
for  the maternal office;  and,  under the
Greek  name  of paregoric, rum doubly
poisoned with opium quieted the infant's
cries.   No  doubt there   were numbers
who did not use ardent spirits; but it was
not because they were not perpetually in
their way.   They  were  an  established
article of diet, almost as  much  as bread,
and, with very many, they were  in much 
176
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES.
more  frequent use.  The friend who did
not testify his welcome with  them, and
the master who did not provide bounti-
fully of them for his servants, were held
niggardly; and there was no social  meet-
ing, not even of the most formal or sa-
cred kind, where it was considered indec-
orous,  scarcely any where  it  was  not
thought necessary, to produce them. The
consequence  was, that what  the  great
majority used  without scruple,  large
numbers indulged in without  restraint.
Sots were common, of both sexes, various
ages, and all conditions.   And though no
statistics of the vice were yet embodied, it
was  quite plain  that it  was constantly
making  large  numbers  bankrupt  in
property, character, and prospects, and
inflicting upon  the  community a vast
amount of physical and mental ill in their
worst forms.   The evil was too obvious
and  dreadful  not  to be the subject of
much anxious observation; but endeavore
to restrain it had hitherto taken  no  more
effective shape than that of  individual
influence  applied to  individual  cases.
The idea of concentrating  public  senti-
ment  upon it, in some  form to produce
more  important results, seems to   have
been first developed, if  not conceived, by
tome  members of an ecclesiastical  body,
called the General Association of Massa-
chusetts Proper.  At a meeting of this
association, in 1811, a committee, of which
reverend doctor Worcester, of Salem, was
(ihairman, was appointed to  draught the
constitution  of a  society whose  object
should be " To check the progress  of in-
temperance, viewed by  the association as
an alarming and growing evil."  Such a
society  was  formed, consisting of  about
120 members, in different  parts of the
state.   It held its  firet meeting in 1813,
and elected  that eminent statesman, the
late honorable Samuel Dexter, for  its
president. The first attempt of the soci-
ety was naturally to collect facts towards
a precise exhibition of the nature and
magnitude of the existing evil, with the
view of drawing public  attention to it, and
of dhecting endeavors  for  its removal.
The reports presented, from year to year,
embraced statements  and   calculations
which were found to make out a case  of
the most appalling nature, such  as  to
amaze  even  those  whose solicitude on
the subject  had been  greatest. In the
year  1810, the federal returns showed
25,499,382 gallons of spirits of different
kinds  to have been distilled  in the  U.
States, which  quantity, to  ascertain the
consumption (no account, of course, being
made of what may have  escaped  the
knowledge of  the custom-house and  the
marshals), was to be increased by 8,000,000
of gallons imported, and diminished by
133,823 exported.  The  amount thus as-
certained,  namely, 33,365,559   gallons,
was  distributed among  a population of
7,239,903 (white and black), returned in
the census of the same year.  This gives
an average of more than  four gallons and
a half for the year to every  man, woman
and child in the U. States.   The society
continued to  collect and present, from
year to year, statistical statements  of this
kind ; and the curiosity and  alarm excited
by them led  to similar observations in
different quarters, the most considerable
of which we shall presently  mention.
Some further particulars of the deplorable
state of things, as successively brought to
light, or made probable, we will here
set down, premising that, so far  from  the
earliest rough statements and calculations
appearing,  on  further  investigation, to
have been   exaggerated, it was  rather
found  that  the  authors of  these   had
shrunk with incredulity from the conclu-
sions which their reasonings seemed to
authorize, and the facts continually grew
more alarming as they were more exactly
ascertained.  In 1814, it was suggested,
in a circular of the  Massachusetts society,
that not less than 6000 citizens of the U.
States might die annually victims of in-
temperance.  In 1830, from much more
full data, the  number was estimated at
above 37,000. Facts were thought to j usti-
fy the inference, in this latter year, that
72,000,000 of  gallons of distilled spirits
were  consumed in the  country (not far
from  six gallons,  on an  average, or  a
half a gill a day to each individual),  and
that the number of confirmed drunkards
(apart from those in some stage of prog-
ress towards the fixed habit) fell not much
short of 400,000.  From  computations
founded on  facts collected in particular
districts, there  appeared  reason to believe
that  intemperance was  responsible  for
three quarters  or four fifths  of the crimes
committed  in  the  country, for at least
three quartere  of the pauperism existing,
and for fully one third of the mental  de-
rangement.  According  to  a calculation
of less satisfactory character, but not des-
titute of probability, the annual waste for
distilled spirits, reckoning the cost to  the
consumer (at  two  thirds of a dollar  the
gallon), the loss of the labor of drunkards
and prisoners,  and the direct cost of their
crimes  and pauperism, amounted to  a
sum  whiclL, vested  in  an annuity  for 
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES.
177
 twenty years, at six  per cent, simple in-
 terest, would  purchase  all  the  lands,
 houses and slaves in the U. States.   The
 Massachusetts society persevered to invite
 the public attention to the subject of in-
 temperance in reports, and, with one or
 two exceptions, in addresses from distin-
 guished individuals of its number at the
 annual meeting, continuing, till  the  year
 1826,  the  most  conspicuous  agent in
 the enterprise of reformation,  while, a
 year  after its  formation, a similar state
 institution, with numerous branches, was
 organized in  Connecticut,  measures of
 like character were  set on foot in  Ver-
 mont, and an indirect influence from itself
 was also exerted within its own proposed
 limits by auxiliary societies, which, ac-
 cording to the report of 1818, had multi-
 plied at that time to  the number of more
 than forty.  At the same time, as was to
 be expected,  individuals,  by writing  and
 by personal influence, were doing an im-
 portant part in the same work.  Early in
 the year 1826, a new impulse was given
 to the movement by the formation, in
 Boston, on a more extensive plan, of the
 American Society for the Promotion of
 Temperance.   The Massachusetts society
 had now accompUshed, perhaps, the most
 useful part of  all to which it was compe-
 tent   It had succeeded in fixing attention
 to its  object in a part of the country
 where effective combination for further
 operations  might be the  most easily or-
 ganized.   By the facts which, with much
 labor, it had  collected and  promulgated,
 both in its own documents and in publica-
 tions  of the  most  material  importance,
 which it had called out from  private
 hands, it had both furnished guidance to
 further efforts of  the same kind, and de-
 monstrated their necessity; and, by the
 controlling influence of the names* which
 stood for vouchers of the  wisdom of its
 design, it had  abashed the derision,  and
 shaken the incredulity with which its  first
 annunciation had been met.  The Massa-
 chusetts  society had been in great   part
 conducted  by individuals  belonging to a
 class of religionists, the Unitarians, whose
 influence, as such, was not great beyond
 a  limited circle  in  New  England,  and
 who did not  sufficiently command  the
 sympathy of other denominations to be
 able to produce a combination of Christian

  * Its presidents, during' this period, were Sam-
 oel Dexler, formerly secretary of the treasury of
 the U.  States ; Nathan Dane, author of the ordi-
 nance of 1787, which saved the territory north-
 west of the Ohio from the curse of slavery; and
Isaac Parker, chief-justice of the commouwealih.
action. At the time above mentioned,the en-
terprise was energetically taken up by oth-
er hands, in all respects highly competent
to advance it, and, in that to which allusion
has just been  made, possessing altogeth-
er superior  advantages.   Perceiving the
power which, in the use of means within
their control, might be  brought, under ex-
isting circumstances, to act upon the pub-
lic mind, some judicious and philanthrop-
ic individuals,  of the different denomina-
tions accustomed to exert a joint influence
for general  objects, held  a meeting, at
which they passed resolutions expressing
their sense of  the expediency of making,
on the part of  the Christian public, more
systematic and vigorous efforts to suppress
intemperance, and appointed a committee
to devise means  to that end.  At  an ad-
journed meeting, the  constitution of  a
new  society was  adopted, and  fifteen
individuals elected  to  compose it,  with
such  associates  as  might  be thencefor-
ward  chosen  by themselves.  The first
annual  report  announced  the  formation
of 30, and the second of 220, auxiUary as-
sociations, five of which latter were state
institutions.  The number of auxiUary as-
sociations was  increased, in 1829, to more
than 1000, no state in the Union now be-
ing without one, and 11 of them  bearing
the names  of their states respectively.
The report of this year  also announces it
to have come to the knowledge of the so-
ciety,  that more than 700 habitual  drunk-
ards had been  reformed by its  influence,
and that 50 distilleries had been  closed.
A decline in the  sales of distilled spirits is
represented to have generally taken place,
varying, in different parts reported, from
one quarter  to nine tenths of the whole
amount; and 400 dealers  in them were
known to have renounced  the  traffic for
reasons of conscience.  The time for the
annual meeting  having been altered, the
next report was  presented in the  month
of May, 1831.   More than 2200 societies,
embracing 170,000 members, were  now
in correspondence with the parent society,
and, from less  certain data, it was inferred
that the whole number  of societies exist-
ing was not  less than 3000, and that of
their members 300,000.  More  than 1000
distilleries had  been  stopped—a tenth
part, as was believed, of all which had been
in operation.   Since the last meeting, 150
vessels had sailed from one port, that of
Boston, without  any provision  of spirits.
The  number of membere  of the  parent
society now amounted  to  200, dispersed
through thirteen states.  The report  pre-
sented in May, 1832,  has not been made 
178
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES.
public at the time of printing this notice.
From extracts contained in the Journal
of Humanity, a newspaper published un-
der the society's  direction  since 1829, it
appears that, from the sources of informa-
tion  accessible  to its government,  they
gather that there are now 4000 auxiliary
associations in the U. States, numbering
600,000 members  ; "that more  than 4000
merchants have ceased to traffic in ardent
spirits;  and that more  than 4000 drunk-
ards  have ceased  to  use  intoxicating
drinks.  There is  also reason to believe,"
the report proceeds, "that  more  than
20,000 persons are now sober, who, had it
not been for the temperance reformation,
would, before now, have  been sots; and
that 20,000 families are  now in ease and
comfort, without a drunkard in them, or
one  who  is becoming  a drunkard, who
would otherwise have been  in poverty, or
cursed with a drunken inmate; and that
50,000  children  are released  from the
blasting  influence of drunken parents ;
and 100,000 more from that parental in-
fluence  which tended  to   make  them
drunkards." " More than 1,000,000 of per-
sons in the U. States," says another publi-
cation of the  society of this year, " now
abstain  from  the  use of ardent spirits."
The means by which the  society has pro-
duced these results, apart from the contem-
poraneous labore, in writing, and by more
personal endeavore, of a great number of
individuals, connected and not connected
with it,  have been the calling of attention
to the subject, and the diffusing of infor-
mation upon it, by the circulation of tracts
and the addresses  of travelling agents, and
then collecting such as have been influ-
enced by the  representations made, into
auxiliary associations, embracing a larger
or more limited neighborhood, thus making
such individuals distinctly responsible for
personal,  and,  as   opportunity  should
permit,  more  public cooperation  with
its objects.  Such associations have in-
cluded  females  and  children, it  being
thought of the highest importance thus to
secure the influence of the  former class,
and the forming habits of the latter.  The
basis  on which these associations  have
been formed, at least from an early peri-
od, has  been  that  of an  engagement, on
the part of each member, to abstain from
the use  of distilled spirits, except for me-
dicinal  purposes,  and to  forbear to pro-
vide them for the entertainment of friends
or the supply of dependants.  The  prin-
ciple of the necessity of abstinence  from
the use  of distilled spirits, in order to the
prevention extensively of their fatal abuse
—a principle to which the researches on
the subject from the first had more and
more directly tended, and which had, for
instance, been  distinctly argued in  the
address before the Massachusetts Society
for the  Suppression of Intemperance, at
their meeting in the spring of 1826—was
first, as  far as appears, made the matter
of an article of mutual agreement by an
association formedatAndover in Septem-
ber of that year.  At the second annual
meeting of the American temperance so-
ciety in 1829, a resolution was  adopted,
declaring  it to be the duty of every pro-
fessor of  religion to exert his influence
towards abolishing the use of ardent spir-
its; and  the form ofa constitution for aux-
iliary societies, appended to the report of
that year,  includes provision for a mutual
pledge similar to that of* the Andover as-
sociation.  The efforts of the society have
of late been strenuously directed towards
a change in the current opinions respect-
ing the moral lawfulness of trafficking in
them as an article of luxury  or diet.  At
the annual meeting, in  New York, in
1829, and again at Boston, in 1831, reso-
lutions  were  passed,  condemning  the
trade as inconsistent with the character
ofa Christian; and this argument is  un-
derstood to be largely  maintained in  the
last report, hitherto unpublished.  In dif-
ferent places churches have also assumed
this ground, and accordingly refuse to ad-
mit persons engaged in the trade to a par-
ticipation  in  the ordinances of religion.
The reformation, of which the example
was thus set,  found its way, in good time,
to Europe.  In the latter part of 1829 or
1830, the firet temperance society in the
old world  was  formed at New Ross, in
Ireland, and, before the close of this latter
year, there were societies in Ireland  and
Scotland,  numbering  more  than  14,000
membere.   Applications were also  made
from Switzerland and  Sweden for the so-
ciety's  publications, with a view to make
them  the  basis of similar movements in
those countries.  In June, 1831, a general
society was formed in London under the
name of the British and Foreign Temper-
ance Society.   Details of the success of
these undertakings have not yet been fur-
nished.  The following  is  a statement
from  the  custom-house  returns of the
amount of ardent spirits imported into the
U. States in the respective years named.
There are now no  returns to government
of the amount manufactured.

   In 1824,.......5,285,047 gallons.
     1825,.......4,114,046    « 
TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES—TEMPERATURE.          179
  In 1826,.......3,322,380  gallons.
     1827,.......3,465,302
     1828,.......4,445,692
     1829,.......2,462,308
     1830, .  .'.....1,095,400

  Temperature;  a definite degree of
sensible heat, as measured by the ther-
mometer.  Thus we say a high tempera-
ture, and a  low temperature,  to denote a
manifest intensity  of heat or cold.  Ac-
cording to Biot, temperatures are the dif-
ferent energies of caloric in different cir-
cumstances.  Different parts of the earth's
Burface are  exposed, as is well known, to
different degrees cf heat, depending upon
the latitude and local circumstances.  In
Egypt it never freezes, and in some parts
of Siberia it never thaws.  In the former
country, the average  state of the ther-
mometer is  about  72°.  The following
table  exhibits a general view of the vari-
ation of heat resulting from difference of
latitude:—
  Latitude.          Places.       M. Temp.
  86°30/ . . . Wadso, Lapland  . . 36°
  59 56 ... St. Petersburg.... 40
  48 51  ... Paris.........54
  41 54  . . . Rome.........61
  30 03  ... Cairo.........73
  20 00  ... Ocean........79
  00 00  ... Ocean........81

The annual variation of heat is inconsid-
erable between the tropics, and becomes
greater and greater  as we approach the
poles.  This arises from the combination
of two causes, namely, the greater or less
directness of the sun's rays, and the du-
ration of their  action, or  the length of
time from sunrise to sunset.   These two
causes act  together in  the same place;
that is,  the  rays of the sun are most di-
rect always when the days are longest, or
at the solstice.  But while (the season
being the same) the rays become more
and more oblique, and consequently more
feeble as we increase  our latitude, the
days become longer, and the latter very
nearly makes up for the deficiency of the
former,  so that the greatest heat in all lat-
itudes is nearly the same.  On the other
hand, the two  causes  of cold conspire.
At the same time that the rays of the sun
fall more obliquely, as  we  increase our
latitude,  the days  become  shorter and
shorter  at the  cold season; and accord-
ingly the different parallels are exposed
to very unequal degrees of cold: while
tropical  regions exhibit a variation of only
a few degrees,  tiie  highest habitable lati-
tudes undergo  a change  amounting  to
140°.   Both heat and cold continue to in-
crease long after the causes producing
them  have passed their maximum state.
Thus the greatest cold is ordinarily about
the last of January, and the greatest heat
about the last of July.  The sun is gen-
erally considered the only original source
of heat.  Its rays are sent to the earth
just as  the  rays  of  a common fire  are
thrown upon a body placed before  it;
and, after being heated to a certain point,
the quantity lost  by radiation equals  the
quantity received, and the mean tempera-
ture remains the same, subject  only to
certain fluctuations depending upon  the
season and  other temporary  and local
causes.  According to  this view  of  the
subject, the heat that belongs to the inte-
rior of the earth has found its way there
from the surface,  and is derived from  the
same  general source, the sun;  and  in
support of this position is urged the weU-
known  fact, that, below eighty or one
hundred  feet, the constant temperature,
with only a few exceptions, is found to be
the mean of that at the surface in all parts
of the earth.  But how are we to explain
tiie remarkable cases in  which the heat
has been  found  to  increase, instead of
decreasing, as  we descend ?   We  are
told that  in  the  instance  of mines, so
often  quoted to  prove  an independent
central fire,  the extraordinary heat,  ap-
parently increasing as we descend, may
be satisfactorily accounted for in a simpler
way:—1. It may be partly received from the
persons employed in working the mines.
2. The  lights that are required in these
dark  regions afford  another source  of
heat   3. But the chief cause is suppos-
ed  to be the  condensation of the  air,
which is well known to produce  a high
degree of heat.  The condensation, more-
over,  becoming greater  and greater  ac-
cording to the depth, the heat ought,  on
this account, to increase as we descend;
and as a constant  supply of fresh air from
above  is required to  maintain the lights,
as well as for the purposes of respiration,
at the rate of about a gallon a minute for
each  common-sized  light  and for each
workman, it is not  surprising that  the
temperature of deep mines  should  be
found to exceed that  of the surface in  the
same  latitude.   This explanation of  the
phenomenon seems to derive confirmation
from the circumstance that the high tem-
perature observed is said to belong only
to those mines that are actually worked,
and that it ceases when  they are aban-
doned.*  If we except these cases, and
  * See Edinburgh Review, No. ciii, p. 60, &c. 
180
TEMPERATURE.
that  of volcanoes and  hot springs, the
temperature of the interior of the  earth
seems to be the mean of that at the sur-
face ; and hence it is inferred that it is de-
rived from the same  source.  The diur-
nal variation  of heat, so considerable at
the surface, is not to be perceived at the
depth of a few feet, although here  there
is a gradual change that becomes sensible
at intervals of a month.  At the depth of
thirty or forty feet, the fluctuation is still
less,  and takes place more slowly.  Yet
at this distance from  the  surface there is
a small annual variation; and the time of
midsummer, or greatest heat, is ordinarily
about the  last of  October,  and  that of
midwinter, or greatest cold, is about the
last of  April.   These times, however, are
liable to vary a month or more,  accord-
ing as the power of the earth to conduct
heat is increased by unusual moisture  or
diminished by dryness.  But at the depth
of eighty or a hundred feet, the most sen-
sible thermometer will hardly exhibit any
change throughout the year.  So, on the
other hand, if we ascend above the earth's
surface, we approach more and more to a
region  of uniform temperature, but of a
temperature  much  below  the  former.
The tops  of very high mountains are
well known to be covered with perpetual
snow, even in the tropical climates.  The
same, or rather a still greater degree of
cold, is found to prevail  at  the  same
height,  when we  make the ascent by
means of a balloon.  The tops  of high
mountains are  cold, therefore,  because
they are in a  cold region, and  constantly
swept by currents of cold air.  But what
makes the air cold at this height ?   It is
comparatively cold,  partly because it is
removed far from the surface of the earth,
where  the heat is developed, but princi-
pally because it is rarefied, and the heat it
contains is diffused over a larger space.
Take a portion of air near the surface of
the  earth,  and at the temperature of 79°
of Fahrenheit, for instance, and remove it
to the height of about two and a half miles,
and  it will expand, on account of the di-
minished pressure, to double the bulk, and
the  temperature will be reduced  about
50°.   It  will accordingly be  below the
freezing point of water.   This height va-
ries  in different latitudes and at different
seasons.   It  increases as we approach
the  equator,  and diminishes as  we  go
towards the poles.   It is higher also, at
any  given place, in summer than in win-
ter.   It is, moreover, higher when the
surface of the  ground below is elevated
like  the table land of Mexico. At a mean
the cold increases at the rate of about 1°
for every 300 feet of elevation.  In addi-
tion to the above, it ought to be mention-
ed that  the tops of mountains part with
the heat they receive from the  sun more
readily on account of the radiation taking
place more freely in a rarer medium, and
where there are few objects to send tho
rays back again. The question has been
much discussed, whether the winters in
the temperate  latitudes  have   become
milder or not.   There is abundant  evi-
dence,  it seems  to us, in favor of the al-
leged  change.   Rivers which used to be
frozen over so  as to support armies, and
which were expected to be covered in
the winter season with a natural bridge
of ice, as  a common  occurrence,  now
very rarely afford such facilities to travel-
lers.   The directions for making hay and
stabling cattle, left us by the Roman wri-
ters on  husbandry, are of Uttle use in
modern  Italy,  where, for the most  part,
there is no suspension of vegetation, and
where the  cattle graze in  the fields all
winter.  The associations  with the  fire-
side, annually  referred to as familiar to
every one, can be little underetood now in
a country where there is ordinarily no
provision for warming the houses, and no
occasion for artificial heat as a means of
comfort.  The  ancient custom  of  sus-
pending  warlike operations during tho
season of winter, even in the more south-
ern parts of Europe, has been little known
in campaigns of recent date ; not because
the soldier of our times is inured to great-
er hardships, but because there is little or
no suffering from this  cause.   In  the
northern parts of our own country,  also,
the lapse of two centuries has produced
a sensible melioration.  When New Eng-
land was first settled,  the  winter set in
regularly at a particular time, continued
about three months without interruption,
and broke up regularly, in the manner  it
now does  in some parts of Canada and
Russia.   The quantity of  snow is evi-
dently diminished, the cold season is more
fluctuating, and the transition from au-
tumn to winter, and from winter to spring,
less sudden and complete.  The period
of sleighing is so much  reduced and so
precarious as to be of little importance
compared with what it was.  The  Hud-
son is now open about a month later than
it used to be.   We are not, however, to
conclude that so great a melioration has
taken place as might at first be  inferred
from this fact   The change, whatever  it
be, seems to belong to the autumn and
early part of winter.  The spring, we are 
TEMPERATURE.
181
inclined to believe, is even more cold and
backward than it used to be.  The sup-
posed  mitigation  of winter has usually
been ascribed to the extirpation of forests,
and  the  consequent exposure  of  the
ground to the more direct and full influ-
ence of the solar rays; and there can  be
little doubt that a  country does  actually
become wanner  by being  cleared and
cultivated. The favorable  change expe-
rienced in the New England and the Mid-
dle States may, it is thought, be  referred
to this circumstance.   But  the  alter-
ation that  is  observed  in  the  similar
latitudes  of  Europe can hardly be ac-
counted for  in  this way.   It is doubt-
ful  whether  Italy is   more clear  of
woods, or better cultivated, now than it
was  in the Augustan age.   No part of the
world, it is believed, has  been cultivated
longer or better than some parts of Chi-
na ;  and yet that country is exposed to a
degree of cold much greater than is ex-
perienced in the corresponding latitudes
of Europe.  The  science of astronomy
makes us acquainted  with phenomena
that  have a  bearing upon this  subject
The figure of the earth's orbit round the
sun is such that we are sometimes nearer
to this great source  of heat by 3,000,000
of miles, or one thirtieth of the whole dis-
tance, than at othere.  Now it so happens
that we have been drawing nearer and
nearer to the sun, every  winter, for sev-
eral  thousand yeare.  We  now  actually
reach the  point of nearest approach about
the first of January, and depart farthest
from the sun about the firet  of July.
Whatever benefit,  therefore, is  derived
from a diminution of the sun's distance,
goes  to diminish the severity of winter ;
and  this  cause has been operating for a
long period, and with a power gradually
but  slowly increasing.  It has, at length,
arrived at its maximum, and is beginning
to decline.  In  a  little  more than ten
thousand yeare, this state of things will be
reversed,  and the earth  will be at the
greatest distance from the sun in the mid-
dle of winter, and at the least distance in
the middle of summer.  We are speak-
ing, it will be observed, with reference  to
the  northern hemisphere of the  earth.
The condition alluded to,  to take place
after the  lapse of ten thousand yeare, is
already fulfilled with regard to the south-
ern portions of our globe, since their winter
happens at the time of our summer. How
far the excessive cold which is known to
tirevail about cape Horn and other high
southern latitudes may be imputed to this,
we are not able to say.  There is no doubt
   iol. xii.         16
that the ice has accumulated to a much
greater degree and extended much farther
about the south pole than about the north.
Commodore Byron, who was on the coast
of Patagonia Dec. 15,  answering to the
middle  of June with  us, compares the
climate  to that of the middle of winter in
England.  Sir Joseph  Banks  landed at
Terra del Fuego, in lat. 50°, Jan. 17, about
the middle of summer in that hemisphere;
and he  relates that two of his attendants
died in one night  from the cold, and the
whole party was in great danger of per-
ishing.   This was in a  lower latitude by
nearly 2° than that of London.   Captain
Cook, in his voyage towards the south
pole, expressed his surprise that an island
of no greater extent than seventy leagues
in  circumference, between the latitudes
of  54°  and 55°,  and  situated  like the
northern parts of Ireland, should, in the
very height of summer, be covered many
fathoms deep  with frozen snow.   The
study of the stars has made us acquainted
with another fact connected with the va-
riable temperature of  winter.   The ob-
lique position of the earth's axis with re-
spect to  the path round the sun, or what is
technically called the obliquity of the eclip-
tic,  is the well known  cause of the sea-
sous.    Now  this very obliquity, which
makes the difference as  to temperature be-
tween summer and winter, has been grow-
ing less and less for the last 2000 years, and
has actually diminished about one eightieth
part, and must have been attended with a
corresponding reduction of the  extremes
of heat  and cold.  It still remains for us
to inquire  how  it happens that the ex-
tremes  of heat and cold in the  U. States
are so much more intense than  they are
in Europe under the same parallels.  The
thennometer,  in New  England, falls to
zero about as often as it falls to the freez-
ing point in the same latitude on the other
side of  the Atlantic.  The extreme  heat
of summer also is greater by 8° or 10°.
This  remarkable difference in  the  two
countries, as to  climate,  evidently arises
from their being situated on different sides
of the  ocean, taken in connexion  with
the prevalence of westerly winds. With
us, a west wind is a land wind, and conse-
quently  a cold wind in winter and a warm
wind in  summer.  The reverse happens
on the  opposite shore of the  Atlantic.
There,  the same westerly current of air,
coming  from the water, is a mild wind in
winter, and a  cool, refreshing breeze in
summer.  The ocean is not subject to so
great  extremes of heat and cold as the
same  extent of continent.  When  the 
I
182                   TEMPERATURI

sun's rays fall upon the solid land, they
penetrate to only a small  depth, and  the
heat is much more accumulated at  the
surface.  So, also, during our long, cold
nights, this thin stratum of heated earth
is more rapid ly cooled down than the im-
mense mass of the ocean through  which
the heat is diffused to a far greater depth.
At  a sufficient distance from land,  the
temperature of the sea, in the temperate
latitudes, is seldom below 45° or above 70°;
that is, the  ocean is exposed to an annual
change of only 25° or 30°, while the con-
tinent, in the same latitude, is subject  to a
variation of 100°  or more.  We are con-
firmed in the cause here assigned for  the
excessive severity of ourcUmate,by find-
ing that the parts of* China, situated  like
the Atlantic states, have a similar climate;
and that the western coast of this conti-
nent, without the benefit of much cultiva-
tion, enjoys the same mild  temperature
that belongs to places similarly situated in
the western parts of Europe.  The prin-
cipal causes of the unfavorable character
of our climate seem, therefore, to be of a
[jermanent nature; and,  although it is
somewhat  meliorated, and may, in time
to come, be  still more so,  yet  we  are
probably never destined to enjoy, in New
England,  the fine seasons and delicious
fruits of the  corresponding  latitudes of
Europe.—For more information on  the
natural history of the weather,  see  the
American  Almanac  for 1832, from which
this article is taken.
   Tempesta, or Cavalier  Tempesta,
the surname of Peter Molyn (called  also
Petrus Mulier or de Mulieribus), a cele-
brated Dutch painter of marine pieces, was
bom at Harlem, in 1637, and acquired great
celebrity at Rome.  His delineations of
storms at  sea are forcible and true,  and
have been much more admired than his
landscapes.  Little  is known  of the cir-
cumstances of his life.  He died in prison
at Milan, in 1701, where he was confined
on suspicion of having  murdered  his
wife.  He  must  not be confounded with
Antonio Tempesta,  a Florentine  painter
and engraver, born 1556, and died 1630,
whose best productions are  battle-pieces
and hunts.
   Templars ;   a celebrated  order  of
knights, which, like the order of St. John
and the Teutonic order, had its origin in
the crusades.  Hugh de Pajens, Godfrey
de St. Uldemar, and seven other knights,
 established it in 1119, for the protection
 of the pilgrims on  the roads in  Pal-
 estine.  Subsequently, its object became
 the defence of the Christian faith, and of
1—TEMPLARS.

the holy sepulchre against the Saracens.
The knights took  the vows of chastity, of
obedience, and of poverty,  like regular
canons, and lived  at firet on the charity
of the Christian lords in Palestine.  King
Baldwin II of Jerusalem  gave them an
abode  in  this city, on the east  of the site
of the Jewish temple ; hence they receiv-
ed the name  of Templars.  Pope Hono-
rius II confirmed the order, in 1127, at
the  council of Troyes, and  imposed on
them rules drawn from those of the Bene-
dictine monks, to which were added the
precepts of  St.  Bernard  de  Clairvaux,
who warmly recommended  this order.
The fame   of their exploits  procured
them not only numerous membere, but
also rich  donations in houses, lands and
money.   The  different  classes of  this
order were,  knights,  squires,  and servi-
tors, to which were added, in  1172, some
spiritual   members,  who  officiated  as
priests, chaplains, and clerks.  All wore
a  badge of the order—a  girdle of linen
thread, to denote their vows of chastity ;
the clerical members  had white, the ser-
vitors gray or black gowns;  the knights
wore, besides their armor, simple  white
cloaks, adorned  with  octangular blood-
red  crosses,  to signify that they were to
shed then* blood  in  the  service of the
church.   From the class of the knights,
who were required to be of approved no-
bility, and who were the actual  lords of
the possessions of the order, the officers
were chosen by the  assembled chapters,
viz. marshals and bannerets, as leaders in
war; drapiere, as inspectors  over  their
wardrobe ; priors, as superiors of single
preceptories  or  priories; abbots,  com-
manders, and grand priors, as  rulers over
provinces (similar to the provincials of
the  monastic  order);  and   the  grand
master, as chief of the whole order.   The
latter had the rank of a  prince, and con-
sidered himself equal to the  sovereigns
of  Europe;  since  the order,  like the
Jesuits in later  times, by virtue  of the
papal  charters, acknowledged the  pope
alone as its protector, being independent
of any other ecclesiastical or secular ju-
risdiction, and free even from the effects
of interdicts, governing itself, and admin-
 istering  its estates  according to its own
pleasure, the occupants  and vassals of
 which had to  pay  them  tithes.   Uniting
the privileges  of a  religious  order with
great  military power, and always  pre-
 pared for service by sea and land, it could
 use its possessions to more advantage than
 other  corporations, and  also  make con-
 quests on its own account; in addition to 
TEMPLARS.
183
which it received rich  donations and be-
quests  from the superstition of the age.
The principal part of the possessions  of
the order were in France:  most of the
knights were also French, and the grand
master was usually  of that nation.   In
1244, the order possessed 9000 considera-
ble bailiwicks,  commanderies,  priories
and preceptories, independent of the ju-
risdiction  of the  sovereigns  of the coun-
tries in which  they  were situated.   Its
membere were devoted to the  order with
body and soul, and their entrance into it
severed all their other ties.   No one had
any private property. The order support-
ed all.   The anogance objected to them
by bishops and princes is easily account-
ed  for by  their power and wealth, as is
also the luxury in which they eventually
indulged.   The  crusaders   complained
that the order allowed its worldly inter-
ests to prevent it from  affording a cordial
support to the holy ware ; and the empe-
ror Frederic II accused them of treason,
of favoring the Saracens, and of friendly
connexions with these enemies of Chris-
tianity.  Though  accounts  differ on this
point, it is certain that, during the gradu-
al decline  of the  Christian  kingdom  of
Jerusalem, the  Templars endeavored  to
secure their own possessions in that coun-
try by  means of treaties with the Sara-
cens.   Nevertheless, they were  obliged,
in 1291, with the  last  defenders  of that
kingdom, to leave the Holy Land entire-
ly ; and they transfened their chief seat,
which  had been  in  Jerusalem, to the
island of Cyprus.  There the grand mas-
ter resided, with a select body of  officers,
knights  and  brethren,  who  exercised
themselves in  warfare by sea against the
Saracens.   James Bernard Molay,  of
 Burgundy, the last successor of the  first
grand master, Hugh, endeavored in vain
to  reform the  degenerate  spirit of  the
order.  Most of the  knights cared  more
for their worldly possessions than for the
holy  sepulchre.   The aspirations  of
many of them for political influence, par-
ticularly in France; the mystery which
hung over the internal administration of
the order, and  which linked together the
initiated;  but  especially its  power and
wealth,—drew upon it the suspicions and
the jealousy of  princes.  Rumors were
spread respecting ambitious plans for the
overthrow of all the thrones of  Europe,
and for the establishment  of a  republic
of the nobility; also respecting opinions
at variance with the Catholic faith being
fostered in the bosom  of the order.   In
the quarrels between Philip the Fair and
pope  Boniface VIII, the order took part
against the king.  !:; consequence of this,
Clement V, PhiiipV Iriend, under the pre-
text of consultations for  a  new crusade,
and for a union of the knights Templars
with the knights of St John, summoned,
in 1306, the  grand master  Molay,  with
sixty knights, to  France.  After their ar-
rival,  these and all  tiie other  knights
present  were suddenly anested,  Oct. 13,
1307, by the king's soldiers.  Philip seized
upon  the estates of  the  order, removed
his court into the  temple (the residence
of the grand master in Paris), and order-
ed the  trial of  the  knights to be  com-
menced without delay, by his confessor,
William of Paris,  inquisitor,  and arch-
bishop of Sens.  He endeavored to justi-
fy this arbitrary procedure by the horri-
ble crimes and heresies of Which the
order had been accused.  Historical  rec-
ords represent the accusers as some ex-
pelled Templars, who calumniated the or-
der at the instigation of its enemies.  The
charge  of apostasy from  the Catholic
faith  could not  be substantiated.   The
other allegations, such as that they wor-
shipped the devil, practised sorcery, adored
an idol  called Baphomet, contemned the
sacrament, neglected confession, and prac-
tised unnatural  vices, were, according to
the general opinion of historians down to
the present day, malicious misrepresenta-
tions  or absurd  calumnies.  A gold box
of relics, which the Templars used to kiss,
according to the custom of Catholics, was
what gave origin to the story of the Bapho-
met ; and because, in an  age previous
to the general  reception of the  doctrine
of transubstantiation, they practised the an-
cient  manner  of celebrating the  mass
(viz. without the elevation of the host), this
was called contempt of the sacrament:
their confessing exclusively to their own
clerical members was the  ground of the
charge, that they received absolution from
their temporal superiors; and  the friend-
ship  by which they were united, gave
rise to the imputation of unnatural  prac-
tices.   In those times of general  persecu-
tion against  heretics, every one,  whose
ruin  was  resolved upon, and who  could
not  be attacked in  any other way, was
accused of heresy.   Accordingly, Philip
being determined, before any inquisition
had taken place, to destroy the order, for
whose  wealth he thirsted, the inquisitors
employed, who  were entirely devoted to
him, and, for  the  greater part, Domini-
cans, enemies   of  the  order, used this
means  to excite the public opinion against
them.  By means of the most horrid tor- 
184
TEMPLARS—TEM PLE.
tures, confessions of crimes which  had
never  been committed  were  extorted
from the prisoners.  Overcome  by  long
captivity and  torment,  many Templars
confessed whatever their inquisitors wish-
ed, since  a persevering  denial  of the
crimes  with which  they  were charged
was punished with death.  Clement  V at
first opposed this arbitrary treatment of
an order which was amenable only to the
church; but  Philip  soon  prevailed on
him to join in its suppression.  Two car-
dinals were sent to take part in the exam-
inations at Paris, and  other clergymen
were united to the courts of inquisition in
the provinces,  in order  to  impart a more
legal   appearance   to   the  procedure.
Though little was, in fact, proved against
the Templars, the archbishop of Sens
dared,  in. 1310, to burn alive fifty-four
knights, who had denied every crime of
which  they were accused.   In other dio-
ceses of France, these victims of tyranny
and avarice were treated in a similar way.
The other princes  of Europe were  also
exhorted by the pope  to  persecute the
Templars.  Charles  of Sicily and Pro-
vence imitated the example of Philip, and
shared the booty with the pope.  In Eng-
land, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Germany,
the Templars  were arrested, but almost
universally acquitted.  The inquisitions
at Salamanca and at Mentz (1310) also re-
sulted  in the  justification of the order.
Nevertheless, the pope, at the council of
Vienne, in Dauphiny, solemnly abolished
the order by a bull of March 2, 1312, not
in the  legal way, but  by papal authority
(per provisionis potius,  quam condemna-
twnis viam).  The members of the order,
according to this buU, were to be  punish-
ed  with mildness, when they confessed
the crimes imputed to  them; but those
who persevered in denying them  were to
be  condemned to  death.    Among the
latter were the grand master  Molay, and
Guido,  the grand prior of Normandy,
who were burnt alive at Paris, March 13,
1314,  after they had cited, according to
tradition, Philip and  Clement to appear
before  the judgment-seat of God within
a year.  The pope, in fact, died April 19
in the same year, and the  king Novem-
ber 29.  The  estates of the order were
conferred, by the council of Vienne, upon
the knights of St. John, and its treasures
in money and  precious stones were as-
signed for a new cmsade. But in France,
the greatest part fell to the crown, and
the pope kept considerable sums for him-
self.  In Spain and Portugal, some new
military orders were founded, and en-
dowed with the estates of the Templars.
In  other  countries, the  knights  of St.
John acquired the rich  inheritance of
their rivals.  The  Templars maintained
themselves longest in  Germany,  where
they were treated with justice* and mild-
ness.  At Storlitz, some  were  found as
late  as  1319.  The members who were
discharged from their vows, entered the
order of St.  John.  The original' docu-
ments of the process against the Templars
in France, published in 1792 by Molden-
hawer, prove the infamous and  arbitrary
conduct  of" the  French  courts in  this
case.  Von Hammer, in the  Fundgruben
des Orients, Myslerium Baphometi revela-
tum, has lately revived the accusation of
apostasy,  idolatry,  and unnatural vices,
against  the  knights Templars, represent-
ing them as  Gnostics and Ophites ; but
Raynouard (Journal des Savans, March,
1819) has shown how unfounded is this
accusation, and has proved that by Baph-
omet (q. v.) nothing but Mohammed is
to be understood.   Compare also Ray-
nouard's Monum. histor. relatifs ii la Con-
demnation  des  Chevaliers   du   Temple
(Paris,  1813).   Silvestre de Sacy  has
proved likewise (Magaz.  encyclop., 1806,
volume vi.), that Baphomet signifies noth-
ing but Mohammed.  According to Willi.
Ferd. Wilcke's  Gcschichte des  Tempel-
herrnordens aus den QueUen—History of
the Order of the Templars, drawn from
the Sources (Leipsic, 1826, seq., 2 vols.)—
the spirit  of the  order had  degenerated
into  a Mohammedan Gnosticism,  which
led to its ruin. Wilcke asserts the guilt
of the order.  It continued  in  Portugal
under the name of the order of  Christ.
In  Paris  arose the  society  of the New
Templars.  Bishop Miinter has published
the statutes of the order  from  a  manu-
script in old French.
  Temple (Latin,  templum), in  architec-
ture ; an edifice destined for the perform-
ance  of  public worship.  Various  ety-
mologies  have been  suggested  for the
Latin word  templum.  Some  derive  it
from  the  Greek  T£/__.o?, the  meaning of
which was a sacred enclosure or  temple
(from rtfivu,, I cut off, or separate), a temple
being a place abstracted and set apart from
other uses; others from  the old Latin
verb tcmplari (to  contemplate).   The an-
cient augurs  undoubtedly  applied  the
name templa to those parts of the heavens
which were marked out  for observation
of the flights  of birds.   Temples were,
originally, all  open; and hence, indeed,
most likely, came  their  name.   These
structures are among  the most ancient 
TEMPLE.
185
monuments. They were the first built, and
the most noticeable of public edifices.  As
soon as a nation had acquired any degree
of civilization, they consecrated particular
spots to the worship of their deities.   In
the earliest instances, they contented them-
selves  with erecting altars of earth  or
ashes in the open air, and sometimes re-
sorted, for the purposes of worship, to the
depths of solitary woods.   At length they
acquired the practice of building cells or
chapels, within the enclosure of which
they placed the images of their divinities,
and assembled tc offer up their supplica-
tions, thanksgivings and sacrifices.  These
were chiefly formed like their own dwell-
ings.   The Troglodites adored their gods
in grottoes; the people who lived in cab-
ins erected temples like cabins in shape.
Clemens Alexandrinus  and Eusebius re-
fer the origin  of temples  to sepulchres;
and  this notion  has been latterly illus-
trated  and confirmed, from a variety of
testimonies, by Mr. Farmer, in his Treatise
on the Worship of Human Spirits, p. 373,
&c.   Herodotus and Strabo contend that
the Egyptians  were the first who erected
temples to the gods; and the one first
erected in Greece is attributed, by Apol-
lonius, to Deucalion.  (Argonaut,  lib. hi.)
The temple of Castor was built upon the
tomb  of that hero.   At the time when
the Greeks surpassed all other people  in
the arts  introduced  among them from
Phoenicia, Syria and Egypt, they devoted
much time, care and expense to the build-
ing of temples.  No country has sur-
passed, or perhaps equalled them, in this
respect:  the Romans alone successfully
rivalled them, and they took the Greek
structures for  models.   In every city of
Greece, as well as in its environs, and in
the open  country, was a considerable
number of sacred temples.  The  ruins of
this description, now existing, tjreatly ex-
ceed those of any other kind of building,
owing to the fact that the  best materials
and the  utmost attention were uniformly
employed upon  the Grecian and Roman
temples.  The  particular  divinity  who
was  held to  preside in chief over each
several town, had always the most elegant
and costly temple therein especially dedi-
cated to him or  her.  The temples con-
structed  in the  provinces  chiefly apper-
tained to the  gods of the country, or to
those common to the several communi-
ties.   In the  immediate vicinity of" these
edifices, the people held, at fixed  seasons,
assemblies for the purpose of sacrificing
to the gods;  they  also celebrated  their
festivals on the same spot, and deliberated
                   16*
respecting the affairs of the entire nation.
The most ancient Grecian temples were
not of great extent; some of them were
very small.  The cella was barely large
enough to contain the statue of the pre-
siding deity of the temple, and, occasion-
ally, an altar in  addition.  Even hi suc-
ceeding ages, this observation  holds good
in a great degree.  Their object, hi fact
did not render extent necessary; since the
priests alone entered  the  cella, and  the
people  assembled  without  the  walls.
Exceptions,  indeed, were made, in  the
examples of those dedicated to the tute-
lary divinities of towns, of those of th< ■
supreme gods, and of those appropriated
to the common use of various communi-
ties.  This increased  extent was chiefly
displayed in  the porticoes sunounding the
cella.  According to Vittuvius, the  situa-
tions of the temples were regulated chiefly
by  the nature and characteristics of the
various divinities.  Thus the temples of
Jupiter, Juno  and Minerva,  who  were
considered, by the inhabitants  of  many
cities, as  their  protecting  deities,  were
erected on spots sufficiently elevated to
enable them to overlook the whole  town,
or, at least, the principal part of it.  Mi-
nerva,  the tutelary deity of Athens, had
her  seat  on  the  Acropolis, (q.  v.)   The
temples of Mercury were,  ordinarily, in
the forum.  Those  of Apollo and Bac-
chus were beside the theatres.  The tem-
ple of Hercules  was commonly near the
gymnasium, the  amphitheatre, or circus.
Those of Mars, of Venus and of Vulcan
were generally without the walls of the
city, but near the gates.  The temples of
Esculapius were uniformly in the neigh-
borhood of the towns, on  some elevated
and desirable spot, where the  pure air
might  be inhaled  by the  invalids who
came to invoke  the aid of the god of
health.   In the  cities, the houses of the
inhabitants clustered round the temples.
The form most  generally  given  to tem-
ples was that of a long square; some-
times,  however, they  were  circular.
Those of the former shape  commonly
had a  depth or  length  double  their
breadth, and their cella had ordinarily, at
the  exterior, porticoes which sometimes
adorned  only the facade of the anterior,
sometimes that also of the  posterior, and
was occasionally carried round  all four
sides.  Over the entablature of the col-
umns, at both the fronts, was a pediment.
The principal facades of the temples were
always ornamented with an even number
of columns, while the sides had gener-
ally an uneven  number.  The  circular 
186
TEMPLE.
form was by no means common.  Those
temples were  generally  covered  with
a  cupola,  the  height  of which  about
equalled the semi-diameter, of the  entire
edifice.  The most celebrated instance of
the circular temple is  the pantheon of
Rome.  It has  some  peculiarities not
common to  its class.  (See Pantheon.)
Several of the  very ancient  Etruscan
temples have an oblong shape, or one ap-
proaching to a perfect square.  In several
of the ancient buildings of this character
were stair-cases, by means of which peo-
ple mounted to the roof.   These were
constructed within the walls, by the side
of the entrance fronting the cella, and,
that they might occupy less  space,  were
made winding.  The  Egyptian  temples
had a species of openings or windows.
The statue of the divinity to whom the
structure was  dedicated was, as may be
supposed,  the most venerated object of
the temple, and the most prominent orna-
ment of the cella.   It was, in almost ev-
ery instance, executed by a distinguished
artist, even when destined only for a small
building.  In the earliest instances, these
statues were of terra cotta, and were com-
monly painted red; others were of wood.
In succeeding times, as the  fine arts ad-
vanced, iron  and  bronze were occasion-
ally substituted, but still more frequently
marble. (See Sculpture, and Statue.)  The
primitive bronze statues were not cast in
one single jet, but  in separate pieces, af-
terwards joined together.   Besides the
statue of the  presiding deity, there were
generaUy others, either in the cellaorpro-
naos, or both, some of which had a spe-
cial relation to the  principal figure, whilst
othere served merely for ornament.  The
altar, on which the sacrifices were offered,
was  placed before the statue of the di-
vinity, a little less  elevated  than it, and
turned  towards the  east  (See Altar.)
Sometimes single  cells contained altars
raised to sundry deities.   To the sacred
architecture of the Greeks,  as  exhibited
in their various temples, we  are indebted
for the purest and best  canons of archi-
tecture  that the  world has ever  seen.
The Egyptian  temples  were remarkable
for the number and  disposition of the
columns, contained in several enclosures
within the  walls.  The  little  cella ap-
peared like a kind of stable, or lodging,
for the sacred animal to whom, as it may
be, the building was consecrated.   This
was never entered but  by  the  priests.
The porticoes were magnificent in size,
proportions, and often in style.  Obelisks
and colossal statues were ordinarily placed
before the entrance.  These were some-
times preceded by aUeys of sphinxes, or
of lions, of immense size.   Near the gates
two  masses of a pyramidal form  were
erected: these were  often covered with
hieroglyphic  bassi-rilievi.   A  corbel,
scooped out in the shajie of a gorge, was
the only substitute  for the  entablature,
whether to the  gate  itself, or to the two
lofty masses adjoining.  No  pediment or
shape of roof interfered  v/ith  the  hori-
zontal line  of the  platform  above, with
which the temple's were covered, and ou
which it is probable that the priests passed
the nights in  making astronomical obser-
vations.  (See Architecture, vol.  i, p. 339;
also Denderah, Hieroglyphics, Elephantine,
and  Thebes.)   The  Indian  temples, or
pagodas, arc sometimes of immense size.
(See  Pagoda, Elora, and Salsette; also
the article  Architecture.   For  Christian
temples and  churches, see  Architecture,
Cathedral, and Masonry.)  The first He
brew temple  was  built by Solomon on
mount Moriah,  in Jerusalem,   with  the
help of a Phoenician architect It was
an oblong stone building, sixty  cubits in
length, twenty in width,  and   thirty in
height.  On three sides were corridors,
rising above each other to the  height of
three stories, and  containing rooms, in
which were preserved the holy utensils
and  treasures.  The  fourth  or front side
was  open, and  was  ornamented with a
portico, ten cubits in  width, supported by
two  brazen pillars, Jachin and Boaz (sta-
bility and strength).  The interior was
divided  into the most holy place, or ora-
cle, twenty cubits long, which contained
the ark of the  covenant  and was sepa-
rated, by a curtain or veil, from  the sanc-
tuary, or holy place, in which  were the
golden candlesticks, the table of the show-
bread, and the altar of incense.  The walls
of both  apartments, and the roof and ceil-
ing of the most holy place, were overlaid
with wood work, skilfully  carved.  None
but the high priest was permitted to enter
the  latter, and  only  the priests, devoted
to the temple service, the former.  The
temple  was  sunounded by   an  inner
court, which contained the altar  of burnt-
offering, the  brazen  sea and lavers,  and
such instruments  and utensils as were
used in the sacrifices, which, as well as
the prayers, were  offered here. Colon-
nades, with brazen gates, separated  this
court of the  priests from the outer court,
which was likewise surrounded  by a wall.
See   Hirt's   Tempel  Solomonis (Berlin,
1809).  This temple was destroyed by the
Assyrians, and,  after the return from the 
TEMPLE.
187
 Babylonish captivity  (see  Hebrews),  a
 second temple, of the same form, but
 much inferior  in splendor,  was erected.
 Herod tho Great rebuut it ofa larger size,
 surrounding it  with four  courts,  rising
 above each other  like ten*aces.   The
 lower court was 500  cubits square,  on
 three sides surrounded by a double, and
 on the fourth by a triple row of columns,
 and  was called  the court of the Gentiles,
 because  individuals of all nations  were
 admitted into it indiscriminately.  A high
 wall separated the court  of the women,
 135  cubits square,  in which the  Jewish
 females assembled to perforin their devo-
 tions,  from the court  of  the Gentiles.
 From the  court of  the women fifteen
 steps led to the court of the temple, which
 was enclosed by a colonnade, and divided
 by  trellis-work i.ito  the  court  of the
 Jewish men and the court of the priests.
 In the middle of this enclosure stood the
 temple of white marble, richly gilt, 100
 cubits long and wide, and 60 cubits  high,
 with a porch 100 cubits wide, and  three
 galleries,  like  the  first temple, which  it
 resembled in the interior, except that the
 most holy was empty, and the  height of
 Herod's temple was double the height of
 Solomon's.  Rooms, appropriated for dif-
 ferent purposes, filled  the  upper  story
 above the roof of the inner temple.  The
 feme of this magnificent temple, which
 was  destroyed by the Romans, and  its
 religious  significance  with  Jews  and
 Christians, still render it more interesting
 to us than any other building of antiquity.
 To the Jew, it  is even now a subject  of
 sorrow and regret;  to the architect,  a key
 to the history of the old Oriental architec-
 ture;  to  the  free-mason, the  most im-
 portant symbol of his ritual.
   Temple, sir William,   an   eminent
 statesman, the  son  of sir  John Temple,
 was  born in London,  in  1628.  At the
 ;ige  of seventeen,  he  was  entered  of
 Emanuel  college, Cambridge, under the
 tuition of Cudworth, and, in his twenty-
 fifth   year, commenced his  travels, and
 passed six  yeare  in  France,  Holland,
 Flanders, and  Germany.  He returned
 in 1654, and, not choosing  to accept any
 office under Cromwell, occupied himself
 in the study of history and  philosophy.
 On  the restoration, he was chosen  a
 member of the Irish convention, when he
acted with great independence; and,  in
 1661  he was returned representative for
the  county of Carlow.  The  following
year, he was nominated one of the  com-
missioners from the Irish parliament to
the king, and removed to London.  De-
clining all employment out of the line of
diplomacy, he was disregarded until the
breaking out of the Dutch war, when he
was employed in a secret mission to the
bishop of Munsfer.  This he executed so
much to the satisfaction of the ministers,
that, in the following year,  he  was ap-
pointed resident at Brussels, and received
the patent  of a baronetcy.   In conjunc-
tion with De Witt, he concluded the treaty
between England, Holland, and Sweden
(February, 1668), with a view to  oblige
France to  restore her conquests  in the
Netherlands.  He also attended, as am-
bassador  extraordinary,  and  mediator,
when  peace  was  concluded  between
France and  Spain, at  Aix-la-Chapelle,
and, subsequently residing at the Hague
as  ambassador, cultivated a close inti-
macy with De Witt, and became familiar
with  the  prince  of Orange, afterwards
William III, then only in his eighteenth
year.   A change of politics  at home led
to the  recall of Temple, in  1669,  who,
refusing to assist in the intended breach
with Holland, retired  from  public  busi-
ness to Sheen, and employee! himself in
writing his Observations on the United
Provinces,  and  part of his  Miscellanies.
In 1074, sn* William Temple was again
ambassador to the states-general, in order
to negotiate a general  pacification.  Pre-
viously to its termination in the treaty of
Nimeguen (in 1678), he was instrumental
in promoting  the  marriage of the prince
of Orange with Mary, eldest  daughter of
the duke of York, which took  place in
1677.   In 1679, he was recalled from the
Hague, and offered the post of secretary
of state, which he declined.   As a states-
man, he was opposed to the exclusion of
the duke of York.  Disgusted by Charles's
dissolution of the parliament in  1681,
without the advice of his council, he de-
clined the offer  of being again returned
for the university, and retired from pub-
lic life altogether.  In the reign of James
II, he  estranged himself entirely from
politics;  but  when the  revolution was
concluded, he waited on the new mon-
arch, to introduce his son, and was again
requested to accept the office of secretary
of state, which  he once  more declined.
His son was afterwards appointed secretary
at war, but, in a fit of melancholy, threw
himself into  the  Thames,   which only
extorted  from his father a maxim of the
Stoic   philosophy, that  " a  wise  man
might dispose of himself, and render life
as short as he pleased."  About this time,
sir WiUiani took Swift (q. v.) to live with
him :  he was likewise occasionally visited 
188
TEMPLE—TENARUS.
by king William.   He died at Moor park,
Suney, in January, 1700, in his seventy-
second year.  Sir William Temple merits
a high  rank both as a statesman and a
patriot.   His Memoirs are important as re-
gards the history of the times, as are like-
wise his Letters, published by Swift, after
his death.   All his  works,  which  have
been published collectively (in 2 vols., 4to.,
and  4 vols., 8vo., 1814),  display a great
acquaintance both with men and books,
conveyed in a style negligent  and incor-
rect, but agreeable, and much resembling
that of easy and polite conversation.
  Temple, Lord.  (See  Junius.)
  Temple.  (See Inns of Court.)
  Temple-Bar, between Fleet street and
the  Strand,  London.   This  handsome
gate is the only one of the city bounda-
ries  now remaining.   It was  built after
the great fire,  by sir  C. Wren,  and is
composed of  Portland stone,  of rustic
work below, and of the Corinthian order.
Over the gateway, on  the east side, are
statues of queen Elizabeth and  James I;
and on the west side, of Charles I and  II.
The heads of persons executed for high
treason  were formerly  exhibited on this
gate.  Here, also, on particular occasions,
the corporation of London receives the
royal family, the  herald's proclamations,
or any distinguished visitors.  When the
king comes in state, the lord mayor here
delivers to him the sword of state, which
is returned, and then rues, bareheaded,
immediately before him.
  Temple, Palace  of  the (palais  du
temple); an edifice in Paris, built in 1222,
for a residence of the Templars, whence its
name.  On the suppression of the order
(in 1312), it was given  to the knights of
Malta; and, after the destruction  of the
Bastile,  the  tower was converted into a
prison of state.  (See Templars.)   Louis
XVI (q. v.) was confined here, with his
family, previous to his execution.  The
palace of the grand prior  is now convert-
ed into a Benedictine convent, instituted by
the princess of Bourbon-Conde, in 1816.
  Tempo (Italian  for time)  signifies,  in
music,  the  degree  of quickness  with
which a musical piece  is to be executed.
This  depends,  of course, chiefly upon
the character of  the  piece.  Generally
speaking, there are five principal degrees,
designated by the following terms: largo,
adagio, andante, allegro and presto; and
the intermediate degrees are described by
additions.  But it may be better to divide
the tempo into three  chief movements—
slow, moderate, and quick—which again
have  several gradations,  designated  by
 the  following Italian  words:  1. in the
 slow  movements—largo,  lento, grave,
 adagio,  larghetto;  2.  in the  moderate
 movement—andante, andantino, moderato,
 tempo  giusto, allegretto,  &c.; 3. in the
 quick   movement—allegro  (sometimes,
 also, allabreve), vivace, presto, prestissimo.
 If the degrees thus designated  are to be
 modified still more, the  following words
 are added to increase the rapidity—assai,
 molto, or di molto piit ,* and to lessen it, the
 words poco,  or  un poco, non tanto, non
 troppo meno, &c.; for instance, largo, or
 adagio assai, or di molto, signifies very
 slow,  as  slow  as possible ; allegro, or
 vivace  assai, or  molto, is quicker than the
 mere allegro or  vivace ;  presto  assai,
 very quick;  further, adagio  non  trop-
po, or poco adagio, is  somewhat slower ;
 un poco allegro,  somewhat less quick; vi-
 vace non tanto, not too lively, &c.  Often,
 the  predominating time is interrupted, in
 some passages slackening (rallentando, ri-
 tardando),  or  quickening  (accelerando,
 stringenao, piii stretto),  or it  is left to the
 performer's pleasure (a piacere), in which
 case, those who  accompany often have to
 guide themselves by the leading perform-
 er, which is called colla parte.   If a more
 distinct time or  the former  time is to be
 resumed, the phrase  a tempo,  or  tempo
primo,  is used.  Several machines  have
 been invented, by which the time of a
piece or a passage can be accurately deter-
mined.  (See Time.)  The best measures
 of time, however, are taste, correct feeling,
 experience and judgment.
   Tempo  Rubato  (Italian,  robbed time),
 delayed time, signifies  a species of ex-
 pressive   performance,   particularly  of
 slow pieces, in which  something is taken
 from the duration of some  notes of the
 principal voice, and the time, therefore, is
 not strictly observed;  but in the general
 performance, and in the lower voices, the
 time is accurately observed.  The tempo
 rubato  accelerates  some passages and re-
 tards othere; but the  unity  of the whole
 does not suffer.   The tempo rubato  re-
 quires  much practice and fine taste, and
 should not occur too frequently.
   Ten Jurisdictions,  League of the.
 (See Grisons.)
  Tenaille. (See Outworks.)
   Tenarus ; a  town  of the Peloponne-
 sus, on the promontory of Taenarum (see
 Matapan),  near which  was  a  cavern
 which was considered as the entrance to
 the  habitation of Pluto.  Through  this
 cavern  Hercules  dragged up  Cerberus
 from the infernal regions, and Orpheus
 led  his wife Eurydice  back  to  earth. 
TENARUS-TENIERS.
189
This fable gave rise to the practice  of
evoking spirits from the world of shades,
and of restoring spectres to their resting
places, by the performance of certain
mystic ceremonies  at the mouth of the
cave.   Hence  the  infernal regions are
sometimes called Tenarus.   There was a
temple of Neptune on the promontory,
which  had the character of an asylum.
The green  marble  of  Tenarus   (verd
antique ; see Marble) was much prized by
the ancients; and the purple snail, which
yielded  the Lacedaemonian purple, the
best produced in Europe, was found here.
  Tench  (cyprinus tinea);  a  European
fresh  water fish,  belonging to  the  carp
family.  It is distinguished  by the dimin-
utive  size  of the  scales.   The  body is
short  and thick, the head large, and the
lips thick ; the length is  generally  less
than a foot, but individuals are sometimes
taken weighing five or six pounds.  It is
fond of still  and  muddy waters, and is
taken both with net and line.  The  flesh
is white,  soft,  insipid, and difficult  of
digestion.
  Tendon.   (See Muscle.)
  Tenedos ; a small island  near the coast
of Asia, not  far from  the Dardanelles;
lqn. 26° E.; lat. 39° 53' N.; population,
7000,  about  two thirds Turks, and one
third  Greeks;  square miles,  35.   The
Creeks, when  they feigned to  abandon
the siege  of Troy, lay concealed behind
this island.  Tenedos is rocky, but fertile,
and produces the finest wine hi the Archi-
pelago.  Its  position near the mouth of
the Hellespont has always made it impor-
tant.  Vessels  bound  to Constantinople
find shelter in its ports, or safe anchorage
in the road,  during contrary winds, and
in foul weather.  The principal town is
of the same  name, and has a population
of about 5000,  with a harbor and citadel.
The harbor has been  enclosed in a mole,
of  which  no  part now appeare above
water; but loose stones are piled on the
foundations to break the waves.
  Teneriffe; one of the Canary islands.
(q.  v.)  The chief town is Santa Cruz.
As a natural  object, it is chiefly remarka-
ble for  its summit, called the Peak of
Teneriffe,  of the sloping  sides of which
the island consists.   Its commercial im-
portance depends chiefly on its wine, of
which from  10,000 to 15,000  pipes  are
annually  exported: though inferior to
Madeira, yet it  is in considerable demand.
Teneriffe  also exports orchilla weed, rose
wood, &c.   The climate, on the coast, is
hot; but  at the elevation of 2000 feet, it
is cool and  agreeable.   The  cultivated
parts  arc  fertile, and produce  orange,
myrtle, cypress, date, and chestnut trees,
vines, wheat,  cocoa, coffee, sugar-cane,
&c.   The elevation of the Peak is about
12,250 feet.  In ascending  it,  the  first
eminence is called Monte Verde: beyond
this  is  the Mountain of Pines ;  after
passing  which, the  traveller reaches a
plain  called, by the natives, Mouton de
Trigo, on which the Peak stands.   It is
a mountainous platform, rising more than
7000  feet above the level of the plain.
The Piton  or sugar-loaf summit is very
steep, and can be ascended  only on the
east aud south-east sides.  At the eleva-
tion of 9786 feet is a platform of pumice
stones, bordered by two currents of lava:
beyond  it the  accUvity is very steep, the
currents  of lava being covered  with
masses of scoria?.  Towards the summit,
nothing but pumice stone is to  be seen.
The crater  is of an elliptical form, about
1200  feet in circuit, but has long since
ceased to emit flames; and  the  summit
may  be  considered as an  extinguished
volcano.  From the sides of the moun-
tain, several violent  eruptions have taken
place  within the present century.  The
view  from  the top of the Peak is pecu-
liarly  beautiful.   With  the  steep  and
naked declivities of the mountain is con-
trasted the  smiling aspect of the country
beneath, with the towns and villages, the
sails  of vessels in the  harbors,  and be-
yond a vast extent of ocean, studded with
the archipelago of the Canary islands.
  Teniers, David;  the name of two of
the most celebrated artists of the Flemish
school of painting,  father and son, both
natives of Antwerp, in which city the el-
der was born  in 1582.  Having studied
under Rubens, he went to Rome, and re-
mained there  six yeare.  On his return
to his native country, he occupied himself
principally  in the  delineation  of fairs,
shops, rustic sports and  drinking parties,
which he exhibited with such truth, hu-
mor and originality, that he may be  con-
sidered the founder  ofa style of painting,
which his son  afterwards brought to  per-
fection.  His pictures are mostly small.
The elder Teniers died in 1649.—His son,
born  in  1610, imitated the style and ex-
pression of his father,  whom he much
excelled in conectness and  finish.   He
confined himself principally  to  the same
subjects of low humor in  his original
pieces.   The  wonderful exactness  with
which he copied the productions of othere
deceived even the best judges of the age,
and  acquired  him the appellation of the
ape of painting.  Leopold,  archduke of 
190
TENIERS—TENNESSEE.
Austria, made him one of the gentlemen
of his bed-chamber.  He died in 1694.—
Another son, named Abraham, was also a
good painter.
  Tennessee, one of the United States of
America, is bounded  on the north  by
Kentucky and Virginia; on the east by
North Carolina;  on the south by Georgia,
Alabama and Mississippi;   and on  the
west by Mississippi river ;  lat. 35° to 36°
3«f N.; Ion. 81° 26> to 90° 16' W.  It was
originally included in North Carolina, from
which it was separated, and  admitted into
the Union in 1796.  Population  in 1830,
684,822 (142,382  slaves); square miles,
40,000- The state is divided into two dis-
tinct sections by the Cumberland moun-
tains, called East Tennessee and West Ten-
nessee.  Mountains and hills occupy a great
proportion of the state.  In East Tennessee,
the Allcghanies branch out into  the Lau-
rel and Cumberland ridges, and many of
their peaks are  high.  The valleys  and
the alluvions of the large and numerous
rivers are very rich, and even  the sum-
mits of some of the mountains  have ex-
tensive plateaux, which are  traversed by
roads, are inhabited, and made to yield in
abundance the productions of the North-
ern States.  " There can be nothing," says
Mr.  Flint,  "of  grand  and  imposing in
scenery, nothing striking and picturesque
in cascades and precipitous sides of moun-
tains covered with woods, nothing romantic
and  delightful in deep and sheltered  val-
leys, through which wind still and clear
streams, which is not found  in this state."
There is  more land in  Tennessee that is
unfit for cultivation than in some of the
neighboring states; but as great a propor-
tion  of what is cultivated  is of the firet
quality.  In East Tennessee, the soil con-
tains an uncommon quantity of  dissolved
lime and nitrate of lime, which renders
it very fertile.  The descending strata, in
West  Tennessee, are   ananged in  the
following  order:—firet, loamy  soil, or a
mixture of clay and  sand;   second,  yel-
low clay; third, a mixture of  red sand
and red clay ; fourth, white  sand. White,
red and gray  marble, inexhaustible quar-
ries  of gypsum, burr  millstones, rock
crystals, lead, iron ore in abundance,  are
the minerals and fossils that are known.
Salt  springs  are common,  and nitrous
earth is found in caves, sufficient to sup-
ply  the whole  country.   These caves
themselves are among the most remark-
able curiosities in America.   One of them
was  descended, not long since, 400  feet
below  the surface, and on the smooth
limestone at  the bottom  was  found a
stream of pure water, sufficient to turn  a
mill.  A cave on the Cumberland  moun-
tain has a perpendicular descent, the bot-
tom of which has not yet  been sounded.
Some of these cavp. have been explored
for ten or twelve miles. They have vault-
ed roofs of limestone, are frequently divid-
ed into spacious apartments, and abound
with nitrous earth. They are so common
that little attention is paid to them.  Caves,
in comparison with which the one so cel-
ebrated at Antiparos is but a slight exca-
vation, are too common, in Tennessee, to
be noticed.   Tne climate  of this  state is
generally delightful.  In West Tennessee,
great  quantities  of cotton  are produced.
In East  Tennessee, the climate  is  well
adapted to grazing, and produces all kinds
of grain and fruit which grow in the more
northern states.    The outlets of com-
merce are the noble rivers Cumberland and
Tennessee;  and along these the boats
carry  cotton, indigo, corn, whiskey, hogs,
horses, cattle, flour, gunpowder, saltpetre,
poultry, bacon, lard, butter, apples, pork,
coarse linen, tobacco,  and many other
articles, which are principally designed for
the market of New Orleans.  The south-
ern parts of the state, adjoining Alabama,
will  doubtless be  connected  by  canals
with  the rivers of Alabama, and  thus
save a great extent of transportation.  The
principal rivers, the Cumberland and Ten-
nessee, are described in separate  articles.
There are numerous othere, which  flow
into these or into the Mississippi.  Nash-
ville and Knoxville are separately noticed.
There are numerous villages  which con-
tain from 600 to 1800 inhabitants.  A good
description of the curiosities of Tennessee
would make a very interesting and use-
ful volume. " On some spurs of the Cum-
berland mountains," says Mr. Flint, " are
marked, in solid limestone, the footsteps of
men, horses and other animals, as fresh
as if  recently made, and  as distinct  as
if impressed upon clay mortar." Sim-
ilar tracks  were  found  in a block  of
solid  limestone,  quarried  on the  margin
of the  Mississippi.  Near the southern
boundary of the state are  three trees en-
tirely petrified.  One is a cypress, four
feet in  diameter; one a sycamore ; and
the third a  hickory.  Prodigious claws,
teeth  and  bones  of animals are  found
near the salines.  Some  of these bones
are perfect, and indicate an animal twen-
ty feet high.  A nest of eggs of the  wild
turkey have been dug up in a  state of
petrifaction.  Walls of faced stone, and
even  walled wells,  have  been found  in
many places, which are undoubtedly the 
TENNESSEE-TENNIS.
191
work of a remote  generation.  In this
Btate, as well  as in Missouri, are ancient
burying  grounds,  where  the  skeletons
seem all to have been pigmies.   Even the
graves in which the bodies are deposited
are seldom more than two, or two and a
half feet long; and the teeth show that
these are skeletons of adults. Jugs, vases,
idols" of clay,  logs  and  coal, are dug
from  great depths.   Beautiful  cascades,
felling from 200 to 400 feet, are seen in
many places.   On some high and appar-
ently inaccessible  rocks   are  numerous
paintings, the work of remote ages.  They
consist of figures of the sun,  moon, and
various animals.  Some of the delinea-
tions are good, and the colors are as fresh
as if recently  applied.   The  naviga-
ble streams pass, for many miles, through
chasms of limestone, with perpendicular
sides 300 or  400 feet  high.  There  are
three institutions in Tennessee that  are
called colleges—at Nashville,  Marysville
and Knoxville.   Only the first is flourish-
ing, and of great importance to the state.
Academies and common schools are  in-
creasing, but education is not yet in an
advanced state.   The first permanent set-
tlements  of whites  were  made in East
Tennessee, in 1768 and 1769. The settlers
came from Virginia and North Carolina.
Most of the territory was then occupied
by  Cherokees,  Choctaws, Chickasaws
and  Shawnees; and for many years  the
settlers were  greatly annoyed by  them.
The first permanent settlements in West
Tennessee were made in 1779.   Here
also the Indians made a formidable resist-
ance to the encroachments of the whites,
and  continued  to annoy them for many
yeare.   Very few, except of the Chicka-
saws, remain in Tennessee; and their num-
bers have so diminished  that they have
ceased to be formidable.   The people of
Tennessee are a hardy, intelligent and en-
terprising race, considering the unsettled
state  in  which their civil interests were
kept until the last fifteen years. Though a
few scattering settlements preceded that
period,  the building of fort  Loudon,  in
East Tennessee (1757), commenced  the
real colonization of the country—a colo-
nization  made in blood. A war with  the
Cherokees broke out in 1759,  and,  in  the
ensuing year, fort Loudon  was taken, and
the garrison  and inhabitants  massacred.
In 1761, colonel Grant forced the Indians
to a peace, and settlers gradually entered
Upper Tennessee.   No real peace could
be maintained with the savages ; nor were
the frontiers of Tennessee really safe un-
til the  close of the revolutionary war.
West Tennessee began to be settled about
the same period with East Tennessee;
and the same causes of suffering and re-
tardation  operated on both settlements.
The battle of King's mountain, Oct. 7,
1780, gained, in great  part,  by the hardy
riflemen of  Tennessee and  Kentucky,
was  the expiring struggle of the British,
and gave them security against the sav-
ages.   Intestine  violence, however, dis-
tracted the country for several years. Be-
tween 1784 and 1789, attempts were made
to form East Tennessee into a separate
state  by the name of  Frankland.   In
1790, North  Carolina ceded  the whole of
what  is now Tennessee to the U. States ;
and the same year, in May, it was made
the territory south-west of the Ohio.  The
territorial government  continued  until
June, 1795, when, the  inhabitants of both
Tennessees  being  found to amount  to
77,262, a convention was called, which met
at Knoxville, Jan. 11, 1796, and, on Feb.
9, reported a constitution for  the new state,
which, on June 1 of the same year, was
formally received into the confederacy as
an independent member.
  Tennessee River  rises  in  the  Alle-
ghany mountains, traverses  East Tennes-
see, crosses  nearly  the whole  northern
part of Alabama, then turns to the north-
ward, and crosses Tennessee and  Ken-
tucky, ..nd unites with the Ohio, thirteen
miles below the mouth of  the Cumber-
land, and fifty-seven above the mouth of
the Ohio.   Its length by its meanders is
about 1200 miles, which is  considerably
greater  than that of the  Ohio from Pitts-
burg to the Mississippi, and  about as great
as that of the Ohio including either of its
head branches.   Many suppose  that the
Tennessee contributes as much  water  as
the Ohio.  The Tennessee is susceptible
of navigation for at least 1000 miles, and
has no  considerable  obstructions.   Its
head  branches are Holston, Nolachucky,
French  Broad,  Tellico,  Richland  and
Clinch.   In  its whole course, it is contin-
ually receiving rivers that have courses in
the mountains.  The  principal  of these
are Powell's, Sequalchee, Elk and Duck.
The  country through which it flows is
remarkable  for  its fertility, and a  great
part of it is healthy.
  Tennis ;  a pastime, or game at ball,
which seems to have been introduced into
England in  the  beginning  of  the  thir-
teenth century, by pereons  of rank, who
erected  courts, or oblong edifices, for the
performance of  it   The origin of the
name is uncertain.—The celebrated oath
of the tennis court (jeu de  paume)  was 
192
TENNIS—TENURES.
taken by the members of the national as-
sembly  in a tennis  court  at  Versailles,
May 20,1789 (when the doors  of the hall
had been shut against them by the royal
command), binding themselves never to
separate until they had given  a constitu-
tion to France.
  Tenochtitlan. (See Mexico, vol. viii,
p. 454.)
  Tenor (in Italian, tenore) is  one of the
four chief descriptions  of the human
voice.  It is the more delicate  of the two
voices which belong to the riper age of
the male singer, and its compass generally
extends from d, in the small  octave, to
the single-marked f or g.  For a solo
tenor, a greater depth and height is requi-
site (from  c, in the small octave, to a and
b,in the descant octave); and the voice, at
this height, is generally in falsetto, (q. v.)
The qualities of the tenor render it suita-
ble to the expression  of tender and  deli-
cate sentiments.  In the common song of
four voices,  the tenor  forms the second
mid "e voice, as it is deeper than the alto,
but its compass must,  notwithstanding,
extend above the melody of the base ; but
in the song of four male voices, the tenor,
as the first voice, leads the chief melody,
and, as  the second,  the higher middle
voice.  The clef (q. v.) of this voice is the
C clef.  The tenor is more rare in  Ger-
many than the base,  on which account it
is particularly valued.  The French call
it taUle, and esteem it particularly.
  Tenter; a railing  used in the cloth
manufacture, to stretch out the pieces of
cloth, stuff, &c,  or  only to make them
even, and set them square.  It is usually
about four feet and a  half high, and in
length exceeds the longest piece of cloth.
It consists of several long pieces of wood,
placed so  that the lower cross  piece may
be raised or lowered,  as is found requisite,
to be fixed at any height by means  of
pins.  Along the  cross pieces, both the
upper and under  one, are  hooked nails,
called tenter-hooks, from space to space.  In
England, it is made felony, without ben-
efit of clergy, to steal cloth on  the tenters
in the night time, by 22 Car. II, c. 5; and
having in possession any cloth stolen from
the tenters, and not giving a good account
of the manner of  becoming possessed, is
subjected to transportation by 15 Geo. II,
c. 27.
  Tentyra,  or Tenttris.   (See  Den-
derah.)
  Tenures.   As  the system  of tenures,
under the feudal system, is of much in-
terest, we  shall give a considerable part
of Blackstone's chapter on the ancient
English  tenures.  Almost all  the real
property of England is, by the laws, sup-
posed to be granted by, dependent upon,
and holden of, some superior lord, by and
in consideration of certain services to be
rendered  to the lord, by the tenant  or
possessor of this  property.   The thing
holden is therefore styled a tenement, the
possessors thereof tenants, and the man-
ner of their possession  a tenure.  Thus
all the land in  the kingdom is supposed to
be holden, mediately or immediately,  of
the king, who is  styled the lord para-
mount, or above all.   Such tenants  as
held under the king immediately, when
they granted out portions of their lands
to inferior persons, became also lords
with respect to those inferior persons, as
they were still tenants with respect to the
king, and, thus partaking of a middle
nature,  were  called  mesne, or  middle,
lords.  In this manner  are aU the lands
of the kingdom holden, which are in the
hands of subjects.  AU tenures being thus
derived, or supposed to  be derived, from
the king, those that held immediately un-
der him,  in  right of his crown and dig-
nity, were called his tenants in capite, or
in chief.   There seem  to  have  sub-
sisted four principal species of lay ten-
ures, to which  all othere may be reduced;
the grand criteria of which were the na-
tures of the several services or  renders,
that were due to the lords from their ten-
ants.  The services, in  respect of their
quality, were either free or base services;
in respect of their quantity, and the time
of exacting them,  were either certain or
uncertain.  Free services were  such  as
were not unbecoming the character of a
soldier or a freeman to perform; as to
serve under his lord in the ware, to pay a
sum of money, and  the like. Base ser-
vices were such as were fit only for peas-
ants, or  persons of a servile rank; as to
plough the lord's land, to make his hedg-
es, to carry out his dung, or other mean
employments.    The  certain  services,
whether free or base, were such  as were
stinted in quantity, and could not be ex-
ceeded  on any pretence;  as to pay  a
stated annual  rent, or to  plough such a
field for three days.  The uncertain de-
pended upon unknown contingencies; as
to do military service in  person, or pay an
assessment in lieu of it, when called upon,
or to wind a  hom whenever the Scots
invaded  the realm,  which are free ser-
vices ; or to do whatever the lord should
command, which is a base or villein ser-
vice. From the various combinations of
these services  have arisen the four kinds 
TENURES.
193
of lay tenure, which subsisted in Eng-
land  till the middle of* the last century,
and  three  of which subsist  to this day.
Where the service was free, but uncer-
tain,  as  military service   with homage,
that tenure was called  the tenure in chiv-
alry, per servitium militare, or by knight-
service.  Secondly, where the service was
not only free, but also certain, as by fealty
only,  by rent and fealty, &c, that tenure
was called liberum socagium, or free soc-
age.    These were the only free  hold-
ings or tenements;  the others were ville-
nous  or servile:  as,  thirdly, where  the
service was base  in its nature, and uncer-
tain  as to time and quantity, the tenure
was  purum villenagium (absolute or pure
villenage).  Lastly, where the service was
base  in its nature,  but reduced to a cer-
tainty, this was still villenage, but distin-
guished  from the other by the name of
privileged villenage (villenagium privilegi-
atum); or  it might be still called socage,
from  tiie certainty of its services, but  de-
graded by their baseness into the inferior
title of" villanum socagium (villein-socage).
The  first, most  universal, and e-teemed
the most honorable species  of* tenure,
was  that by knight-service.  To make a
tenure by  knight-service,  a  determinate
quantity  of land was necessary,  which
was  called  a knight's fee (feodum mili-
tare) ;  the measure of which, in 3 Edw.
I, was estimated  at twelve ploughlands;
and  its value, though it  varied with  the
times, in  the reigns  of Edward  I  and
Edward II, was  stated at twenty pounds
per annum.  And he who held this pro-
portion of land, or a whole fee, by knight-
service, was bound  to  attend his lord to
the wars for forty days in  every year, if
called upon.  If he  held  only  half a
knight's fee, he was only bound to attend
twenty days ; and so in proportion.  And
there  is reason  to apprehend, that this
service was the whole that the landholders
meant to subject themselves to; the other
fruits and consequences of this tenure  be-
ing fraudulently superinduced, as the reg-
ular,  though unforeseen,  appendages of
the feudal system.  These fruits and con-
sequences were aids, relief, primer seisin,
wardship,  marriage, fines for alienation,
and escheat. 1. Aids were originally mere
benevolences granted by the  tenant to his
lord,  in times of difficulty and distress;
but in process of time they grew to be
considered as a matter of right, and  not
of discretion.  These aids were princi-
pally three:—first,  to  ransom the lord's
person, if taken prisoner—a  necessary
consequence of the feudal  attachment and
  vol. xn.       17
fidelity; insomuch  that the  neglect of
doing  it, whenever it was in the vassal's
power, was, by the strict rigor of the feu-
dal law, an absolute forfeiture of his es-
tate.   Secondly, to make the lord's eldest
son a knight—a matter that was formerly
attended with great ceremony, pomp and
expense.  This aid could not be demand-
ed till the heir was  fifteen yeare old,  or
capable of bearing arms ; the intention of
it  being to breed up the eldest son and
heir apparent of the seigniory to deeds of
arms and chivalry, for the  better defence
of the  nation.   Thirdly, to  marry  the
lord's  eldest daughter, by  giving her a
suitable portion.   In this particular,  the
lord  and vassal of the feudal  law bore a
great resemblance to the patron and client
of the Roman  republic,  between whom,
also, there subsisted  a mutual fealty, or
engagement of  defence  and protection;
and there were three aids, which were
usually raised by the client; viz.  to man*y
the patron's daughter, to pay his  debts,
and to redeem his person from captivity.
But, besides these ancient feudal aids, the
tyranny of lords, by degrees, exacted more
and more;  as aids to pay the lord's  debts
(probably in  imitation of the Romans),
and aids to enable him to pay aids or re-
liefs to his superior lord.  In the 25 Edw.
I,  the  statute called confirmatio charta-
rum was  enacted,  which ordained that
none but the ancient aids should be taken.
But though the species of aids was thus
restrained, yet the quantity of each aid  re-
mained arbitrary and uncertain.  They
were  never completely ascertained and
adjusted till  the statute Westm. 1. 3
Edw. I, c. 36, which fixed the  aids of  in-
ferior lords at twenty shillings,  or the sup-
posed twentieth part of the  annual value
of every knight's fee, for making the eld-
est son a knight, or marrying the eldest
daughter; and  the same was  done with
regard to the  king's tenants in capite, by
statute 25 Edw.  Ill, c.  11.  The other
aid, for ransom of the lord's person, be-
ing not, in its nature, capable of  any cer-
tainty,  was, therefore, never ascertained
2.  Relief (relevium) was incident  to every
feudal  tenure, by way of fine  or compo-
sition with  the lord for taking up the es-
tate, which was lapsed or fallen in by the
death of the last tenant.  But, though re-
liefs had their original whUe feuds were
only life-estates,  yet they continued after
feuds became hereditary, and were, there-
fore, looked  upon, very justly, as one of
the greatest grievances of tenure;  espe-
cially when, at the first, they were merely
arbitrary, and at the wUl of the lord;  so 
194
TENURES.
that, if he pleased to demand an exorbi-
tant relief, it was, in effect, to disinherit the
heir.  William the Conqueror ascertained
the relief, by directing, in imitation of the
Danish heriots, that a certain quantity of
arms, and habiliments of war, should be
paid by the earls, barons and vavasours
respectively;  and if  the latter  had  no
arms, they should pay a hundred shil-
lings.  Afterwards,  the composition was
universally accepted of one hundred shil-
lings  for every knight's fee; as  we  find
it  ever  after established.  But  it  must
be remembered, that this relief was only
then payable,  if the heir, at the death of
his ancestor, had attained  his full age of
one and  twenty years.  3. Primer seisin
was a feudal  burden, only incident to the
king's tenants in capite, and  not to those
who held of inferior or mesne lords.  It
was  a right which the king had, when
any of his  tenants in  capite died, seized
of a knight's fee, to receive of the heir,
provided he were of full  age, one  whole
year's profits of the lands, if they were in
immediate  possession, and half  a  year's
profits, if the lands were  in reversion ex-
pectant on an estate for life.   This seems
to be little more than an additional relief,
but grounded  upon this  feudal reason;
that, by the ancient law of feuds, imme-
diately upon the death of a vassal, the
superior  was entitled   to enter and take
seisin, or possession of the land, by way
of protection  against  intruders, till the
heir appeared to claim it, and receive in-
vestiture ; during which interval the lord
was entitled to take the profits;  and, un-
less  the  heir  claimed within a year and
day, it was, by the strict law, a forfeiture.
This practice, however, seems not to have
long obtained  in England, if ever, with
regard to tenure under inferior lords; but,
as to the king's tenures in capite, the pri-
ma seisina was expressly declared, under
Henry III  and Edward II,  to belong to
the king by prerogative, in contradistinc-
tion to other lords.  The king was enti-
tled to enter and receive the whole profits
of the land, till  livery was sued; which
suit  being commonly  made within a year
and day next after the death of the ten-
ant, in pursuance of the strict feudal rule,
therefore the king used to  take, as an
average, the first fruits, that is to say, one
year's profits of the land.   And this after-
wards gave a handle to the popes, who
claimed  to be  feudal lords of the church,
to claim, in like manner, from every cler-
gyman in England, the first year's profits
of his benefice,  by way of primilia, or
first fruits. 4. These payments were only
due if the heir was of full age;  but if he
was under the age of twenty-one being a
male, or fourteen being a female, the lord
was entitled to the wardship of the  heir,
and was called tiie  guardian in chivalry.
This  wardship consisted in having the
custody of the body and lands of  such
heir, without any account of the profits,
till the age of twenty-one in males, and
sixteen  in females.   For  the  law  sup-
posed the  heir male  unable to pcrfonn
knight-service till twenty-one;  but as for
the female,  she was supposed capable at
fourteen to marry, and then her husband
might  perform  the service.   The  lord,
therefore, had  no  wardship,  if,  at the
death of the ancestor,  the heir  male was
of the full age of twenty-one, or the heir
female of fourteen ; yet, if she was then
under fourteen, and the lord  once had
her in ward, tie might keep her so till
sixteen, by virtue of the statute of We6tm.
1. 3 Edw. I, c. 22, the two  additional
yeare being  given  by the legislature for
no other reason but merely to benefit the
lord.  The wardship of the body was a
consequence of the wardship of the land;
for he who enjoyed the infant's estate was
the most proper person to  educate and
maintain him in his infancy; and also, in a
political view, the lord was most concerned
to give his tenant a suitable education, in
order to qualify him the better to perform
those services, which, in his maturity, he
was  bound  to render.  When  the  male
heir arrived  to the age of twenty-one, or
the heir  female  to  that of sixteen,  they
might sue out their livery or ousterlemain;
that  is, the delivery of their lands out of
their guardian's hands.  For this they were
obliged to pay a fine, namely, half a year's
profits of the land; though this  seems ex-
pressly contrary to Magna Charta.  How-
ever,  in consideration of their lands hav-
ing been so long in ward, they were ex-
cused all  reliefs, and the king's tenants
also  all  primer seisins.  When the heir
thus came of full age, provided  he held a
knight's fee in capite under the crown, he
was to receive the  order of knighthood,
and was compellable to take it upon him,
or else pay  a fine to the king.  For, in
those times,  no  person was qualified for
deeds of arms and chivalry who had not
received this order, which was  conferred
with  much  preparation and solemnity.
This prerogative, of compelling  the king's
vassals to be knighted, or  to pay a  fine,
was exerted  as an  expedient for raising
money by many English princes, particu-
larly  by Edward VI and  queen Eliza-
beth.  It was  abolished  by statute  16 
TENURES.
195
Car. I, c. 20.  5. But, before they came
of age, there was still another piece of
authority, which the guardian was at lib-
erty to exercise over his infant  wards;
the right of marriage (maritagium, as
contradistinguished  from  matnmonium),
which, in its feudal  sense, signifies the
power which the lord or  guardian in
chivalry  had of  disposing of his infant
ward  in  matrimony.   For, while the in-
fant was  in ward, the guardian had the
power of tendering him or her a suitable
match, without disparagement, or  ine-
quality;  which  if the infants refused,
they forfeited the value of the maniage
(valorem  maritagii)  to  their  guardian;
that is, so much as  a jury would assess,
or any one  would bona fide give to the
guardian  for such  an alliance;  and, if*
the infants  married  themselves without
the  guardian's  consent,  they  forfeited
double the value (duplicem valorem mari-
tagii).  This seems to have been one of
the greatest  hardships of the ancient ten-
ures.   6. Another  attendant  or conse-
quence of tenure by knight-service  was
that of fines due to  the  lord  for every
alienation, whenever the  tenant had oc-
casion to make over his land to another.
This  depended on the nature of the feu-
dal connexion ; it not beinsr refl2Gr.i-U.e nor
allowed,  as  we have before seen, that a
feudatory should transfer his lord's gift to
another,  and substitute a new tenant to
do the service  in his own steud, without
the consent of the lord; and, as the feu-
dal obligation was considered as recipro-
cal, the  lord also could  not alienate his
seigniory without the consent of his ten-
ant, which consent of his was called an
attornment.   This restraint upon the lords
soon  wore away; that upon the tenants
continued  longer.   In  England,  these
fines seem only to have been exacted from
the king's tenants  in capite, who  were
never able to  alienate without a license.
The statute  1  Edw.  Ill, c. 12, ordained
that one  third of  the yearly value should
be  paid  for a license of alienation;  but,
if the tenant presumed to alienate without
a license, a  full  year's value  should be
paid.   7. The last consequence of tenure
in chivalry was escheat; which is the de-
termination  of the  tenure, or dissolution
of the mutual bond between the lord and
tenant, from the extinction of  the blood
of the latter by  either natural or  civil
means;  if he died  without heirs of his
blood, or if his blood was corrupted and
stained by commission of treason or fel-
ony, whereby  every inheritable  quality
was entirely blotted out and abolished.
  These were  the  principal  qualities,
fruits and consequences of the tenure by
knight-service.   The  description   here
given is that of knight-service proper;
which was, to attend the king in nis ware.
There  were, also, some other species of
knight-service.   Such was the tenure by
grand serjeanty  per magnum servitium,
whereby the tenant was bound, instead
of serving the king generally  in his ware,
to do some special  honorary service to
the king in person ; as to cany his ban-
ner, his sword,  or the  like;  or to be his
butler, champion, or other officer, at his
coronation.  These services, both of chiv-
alry and grand serjeanty, were all person-
al, and  uncertain as to their quantity or
duration.   But, the  personal attendance
in knight-service  growing  troublesome
and  inconvenient in many respects, the
tenants  found means of compounding for
it, by first sending  othere in their stead,
and, in process of time,  making a pecu-
niary satisfaction to the lords in lieu of it.
This pecuniary satisfaction at last came
to be levied by assessments,  at so  much
for every knight's  fee;  and, therefore,
this kind of tenure  was called scutagium
in Latin, or servitium scuti; scutum being
then  a  well known  denomination for
money;  and, in like  manner, it was
called,  in  Norman  French,  escuage;
being indeed a pecuniary,  instead of a
military, service.  The firet time this ap-
peare to have been taken  was in the 5
Hen. II, on account of his expedition to
Toulouse;  but  it soon  came  to  be  so
universal, that personal  attendance feU
quite into disuse.  From this period, when
the kings went to  war,  they levied scu-
tages on their tenants,  that is, on all the
landholders of the  kingdom, to defray
their expenses,  and to hire  troops; and
these assessments,  in  the time of Henry
II, seem  to have been made arbitrarily
and  at  the king's pleasure ; which pre-
rogative being greatly abused by his suc-
cessors,  it  became  matter  of national
clamor; and king  John was obliged to
consent, by his Magna Charta, that  no
scutage should  be imposed without con-
sent of parliament  But this clause was
omitted in  his son Henry Ill's charter;
where we only find, that scutages or escu-
ages should be taken as they were used to
be taken in  the time of Henry II; that is,
in a reasonable  and moderate manner.
Yet  afterwards, by statute 25 Edw. I, c.
5 and 6, and many subsequent statutes, it
was again provided, that the  king should
take no aids or tasks, but by the common
assent  of the realm:  hence  it  was held 
196
TENURE—TERENCE.
that esciiage or scutage could not be levied
but by consent of parliament, such  scu-
tages  being, indeed, the  ground-work of
all succeeding subsidies, and the land-tax
of later times.  By the  degenerating of
knight-service, or personal military duty,
into escuage, or pecuniary assessments,
aU the  advantages (either promised or
real) of the feudal constitution were de-
stroyed, and nothing but the hardships re-
mained.  Instead of forming a national
mUitia, composed of barons, knights and
gentlemen, bound  by their interest, their
honor  and their  oaths,  to defend their
king and country, the whole of this sys-
tem of tenures now  tended  to nothing
else but  a wretched means  of raising
money to pay an army of occasional mer-
cenaries.  In the mean time, the families
of all the nobility and gentry groaned under
the intolerable burdens which (in conse-
quence  of  the  fiction adopted after the
conquest) were  introduced and laid  upon
them  by the subtlety  and finesse of the
Norman lawyers.  A slavery so compli-
cated  and so extensive called aloud  for a
remedy.  Palliatives  were from time to
time applied by successive acts of parlia-
ment, which assuaged some temporary
grievances.  King James I consented, in
consideration «f a proper equivalent, to
abolish them all, though the plan proceed-
ed not to  effect.  At length the military
tenures, with all their heavy appendages
(having, during the commonwealth, been
discontinued), were destroyed at one blow
by the statute 12 Car. II,  c. 24, which
enacts " that all sorts of tenures, held of
the king or othere, be turned into free and
common socage,  save  only  tenures in
frankalmoign, copyholds, and  the honor-
ary services (without the slavish part) of
grand serjeanty."—For  further informa-
tion,   see  Socage, Fee,   Entails,   Ville-
nage ;  also Feudal System.)  In the U.
States, the  property of lands  is  allodial;
that is, the owner holds of no superior,
with the exception of some small remains
of socage tenure in New York.
  Teocallis ;  ancient   monuments of
Mexico.  (See Mexico, Antiquities of, and
Pyramids.)
  Teos, or Teios; a  maritime town on
the coast of Ionia, in Asia Minor, oppo-
site Samos.  It was one of  the twelve
cities of the Ionian confederacy, and gave
birth  to Anacreon  (q. v.) and Hecataeus,
who is by some deemed  a native of Mile-
tus.  According to  PUny, Teos was an
island.
  Teplitz ; a celebrated watering place,
situated in a pleasant and fruitful plain in
Bohemia, With  a population of 2500;  40
miles north-west of Prague; lat. 50° 37'
N.;  Ion. 13° 51'  E.  It  belongs to the
prince of Clan-, who has a beautiful cas-
tle here, with a fine garden attached to it,
which is open to the public.  The waters
are warm and sulphureous, and are  much
resorted to.  The public baths are twenty-
three in number.  On the day of the de-
struction of Lisbon  by an earthquake
(Nov. 1, 1755), the waters ceased  to flow
for several minutes, and  then rushed out
with  great  violence.  The village of
Schonau, and several castles, monasteries
and mountains in the vicinity, render the
environs delightful.—See Reuss's  Guide
for  Visitors of the  Baths (in German,
1823).
  Teqlendama,  Cataract  of.    (See
Cataracts.)
  Tercera,  or Terceira; one of the
Azores  islands, supposed  to have derived
its name from  its standing the third  in
this cluster of islands, in point of situation,
though the first  in dignity.  It is 25 miles
long,  and 15 broad; population, 28,900.
Its figure is almost circular, the coasts
high,  and  so surrounded with  craggy
rocks, that it is deemed impregnable, ev-
ery accessible part on the coast being de-
fended by strong forts, heavy cannon, and
a numerous and regular garrison.   The
only tolerable port in the whole island  is
the harbor of Angra (15,000  inhabitants).
The island is fertile, pleasant and healthy:
the very rocks produce vines.  The land
yields large crops of com, and a great va-
riety of fruits.  Besides Angra, there are
several  other towns  and large  villages
in Tercera, with a  number  of forts and
garrisons. Lon. 27° 13' W.; lat. 38°  38' N.
  Terence, or  Terentius.  Publius Te-
rentius Afer, the celebrated Roman com-
ic writer, was born in Africa (whence his
surname Afer),  about B. C.  194, and,
while  a child,  was bought by  Publius
Terentius Lucanus, a  Roman  senator,
who took him to Rome, and  gave him a
good  education.   His   master  having
emancipated him, the young African now
assumed the name of his benefactor, and
soon acquired reputation and friends  by
the  talents  which  he displayed  in his
comedies.  Laelius and  Scipio Africanus
(the destroyer of Carthage and Numantia)
admitted him into  their intimacy; ana
some accounts aver that they assisted him
in the composition  of his plays.   About
the year 161, he went to  Greece, probably
with the purpose of collecting new  mate-
rials for the  theatre.  While on his return
to Italy, he suffered shipwreck, and  either 
TERENCE—TERMINUS.
197
perished in the waves, or died not long
after.  Of his dramatic works, six come-
dies alone are extant: the Adrian (acted
at Rome, B. C.  167; the Eunuch (per-
formed 161); Heautontimoroumenos,  or
the Self-Tormentor (163); the Adelphi,
his last piece, brought out in Rome  the
year before his death; Phormio, or  the
Parasite; and Hecyra, or the Step-Moth-
er.   The comedies  of  Terence  were
much admired by the cultivated Romans,
and were likewise esteemed for their pru-
dential maxims and moral sentences.   If
we compare him with his contempora-
ries, he will be found to have been much
in advance of them in point of style.  His
language is pure; but, in originality of
imagination, he is inferior to the Greeks,
and his predecessor Plautus.  Most of his
plays are little more  than  translations
from the Greek; but he is valuable to us
on this very account, as giving us an idea
of his model Menander.   His characters
have much truth of nature; but they are
often  superficial.   His plots are usually
simple: greedy courtesans, trickish slaves,
miserly fathers, and prodigal sons, are the
chief persons of his drama, and a marriage
his ordinary denouement.   The  best edi-
tions of his works  are those of Linden-
brog (Paris, 1602; Frankfort, 1623) and
Westerhof (Hague, 1726): that of Bentley
(London, 1726;  Amsterdam,  1727,  and
Leipsic, 1791) is particularly valuable  in
regard to the metre, but is disfigured by
rash conjectures.   Other  useful editions
are those of Zeune (Leipsic, 1787,2 vols.),
Lenz  (Jena, 1785), Schmieder (Halle,
1794), Bothe (Berlin, 1806), Bmns (Halle,
1811), and  Perlet  (Leipsic, 1820).   We
have an  English translation by  the elder
Colman.
  Tereus.  (See Philomela.)
  Termagaunt, or Turmagaunt.   The
origin of this name is altogether uncer-
tain.   Various etymologies  have  been
proposed, but none of them is at all satis-
factory.  The old  English  writers fre-
quently speak of  Termagaunt  and Ma-
houn  (Mohammed), and  the   Norman-
French writere couple Tervagan (of which
the English  form  is  a corruption) with
Mahum and Apollin (Apollyon).   Ariosto
and Tasso also speak of Macone e Trivi-
gante  (Mohammed  and  Termagaunt).
Both of these personages  were  dramatic
characters in the old mysteries, at a time
when legends of the  Saracens were the
most  popular subjects of poetry and the
drama in Europe.  (See Ritson'sMetrical
Romances,  notes, vol. in,  p. 251 seq.,  or
                  17*
Todd's Spencer, note to C. vii, st. 47.)
The  modern  signification  of the word,
shrew, virago, is evidently  derived from
the turbulent and violent character of the
old dramatic personage.
  Terminalia.  (See Terminus.)
  Terminism, in  German  philosophy,
or  Determinism; the doctrine  that all
things happen through a necessary con-
nexion of causes and effects extending
through all  nature.   In  theology, ter-
minism is the doctrine that  God has as-
signed to every one a term of repentance,
during  which  his  salvation  must  be
worked out.
  Terminology ofa science or art ;  that
branch which teaches the meaning of its
technical terms;  also the  aggregate of
these technical terms.  In some sciences,
it is of particular importance, as in botany,
in which not even a leaf can be described
without an agreement on  certain tech-
nical terms.   The terminology is gener-
ly derived in a great measure from the
nation which has done most for a partic-
ular art or science, as the military termi-
nology from France, the naval from Hol-
land and England.
  Terminus ; a divinity at  Rome, who
was supposed to preside over bounds and
limits, and to punish all unlawful usurpa-
tion of land.   His worship was first intro-
duced at Rome by Numa, who persuaded
his subjects that the limits of their lands
and estates were under the immediate in-
spection of heaven.  His alter was on the
Tarpeian rock.  He was represented with
a human head, without feet or arms, to
intimate that he never moved, wherever
he was placed.  (See Hermes.) The peo-
ple  of the country assembled once a year
with  their families,  and  crowned with
garlands and flowers the  stones which
separated their different possessions, and
offered, at first, cakes and fruits, at a later
period, lambs  and pigs, to the god who
presided over their boundaries.  It is said
that, when Tarquin the Proud wished to
build a temple on the Tarpeian rock to
Jupiter, the god Terminus refused to give
way, though the other gods resigned their
seats  with  cheerfulness;  and  his  altar
therefore remained in the temple of Jupi-
ter.   But, as Terminus could be worship-
ped only in the open sky, a hole was left
in the roof of the temple directly over the
altar.   The resistance of the god was
considered an omen that the boundaries
of Rome should never be encroached up-
on.  The Terminalia were annual festivals
at Rome, observed in honor of the god 
198                      TERMINUS—TERNAUX.
Terminus, in the month of February.  It
was then usual for peasants to assemble
near the principal land-marks which sep-
arated  their fields, and,  after they had
crowned them with garlands and flowers,
to make  libations  of milk  and wine, to
sacrifice a  lamb or a  young  pig  upon
altars of turf, and to sing songs in honor
of the  god.  Besides these private festi-
vals, there  were public Terminalia cele-
brated  on  the  Roman frontiers in  the
earlier  periods of the  republic.   These
public festivities, however, went into disuse
after the territories of Rome were extend-
ed by conquest The Terminalia had also
an allusion to the close of the year, as the
Roman year was considered  to end on
the 23d February, when the)* were sol-
emnized, the remaining days being con-
sidered as intercalary.
  Termites ;  sometimes  called   white
ants, from their mode  of life.   They be-
long, however, to a different order of in-
sects—the ncuroptera of Linnaeus.  They
live in societies, often  prodigiously nu-
merous, and composed of three sorts of
individuals,  as  with  the bee  and  ant.
The most  numerous are the workers,
which  have a rounded head, and the abdo-
men sessile and club-shaped.  Among these
may be discovered, occasionally, individ-
uals  of the second sort, called soldiers,
which  are  easily  distinguished by  the
larger  size of the  head and jaws.  Each
colony contains but a single perfect male
and female.  At a certain season, the ter-
mites   acquire  four large equal  wings:
the form  of the body is  then somewhat
changed, and the color becomes darker.
They now fill  the air in  countless num-
bers, and serve as  food for various  ani-
mals, and even for man in some parts of
the globe.  The few pairs which escape,
if discovered by some wandering workers
of their own  species,  are  protected by
them,  and  found  new  colonies.    The
termites are the greatest  pest  of tropical
climates: they destroy all articles of fur-
niture  made of wood,  cloths, &c.;  they
enter the foundations  of houses, and eat
out the whole  interior of the timbers, so
that they may appear perfectly sound ex-
ternally, while  they will crumble under
the slightest blow.  An African species is
celebrated for the edifices it rears, in the
form of a sugar-loaf, ten or twelve feet in
height, and so  solid that the  wild cattle
mount upon   them  without  breaking
through.  Internally they are divided into
numerous  apartments,  and have subter-
ranean galleries connected with   them,
from the extremities of which the  insects
issue to commit depredations: when these
structures are broken open, the soldiere
fight with great fury, and bite every thing
they meet with.  Another species  of the
same countiy builds its nest among the
branches of trees, sometimes at the  height
of sixty or  eighty feet from the ground.
We  have  one  species in the  U.  States,
which lives in small communities, chiefly
in decayed  trunks of trees.
  Terms are those spaces of time where-
in the courts  of justice are open  for all
that complain of wrongs or injuries, and
seek their rights  by course of law or ac-
tion, in order to their redress. During
the English terms, the courts  in  West-
minster hall sit and give judgments, &c.;
but the high court  of parliament, the
chancery, and inferior courts, do not ob-
serve the terms ; only the court of king's
bench,  common pleas, and exchequer,
the highest courts  at  common law. Of
these terms there are  four  in every year :
viz. Hilary  term, which begins the 23d
of January, and ends the 12th of Februa-
ry, unless on Sundays, and the day after;
Easter  term, which begins the Wednes-
day fortnight after Easter-day, and ends
the Monday  next  after Ascension-day;
Trinity term, which begins on the Friday
after  Trinity Sunday,  and  ends  the
Wednesday fortnight after; and Michael-
mas term, which  begins the 6th and ends
the 28th of  November.
  Ternate.  (See  Moluccas.)
  Ternaux,  William Louis,  a woollen
manufacturer at Paris, was born at  Sedan,
Oct. 8, 1763, and has acquired, by the ver-
satility  of his talents, and  his public-spir-
ited activity, a high place among the most
distinguished patriots  and  philanthropists
of his  country.  At the age of fourteen,
he became  a partner in his father's house,
during whose absence he  was for two
yeare head of  the establishment  He
justified the confidence which had been
reposed in him on this occasion; and per-
haps no single individual in Europe has
established  so many and various manufac-
tures.  He  has himself invented  several
valuable  machines, and  introduced im-
portant improvements in  the  processes.
He was the first to set up spinning ma-
chines in France.  He has improved the
breed of sheep, and constmcted corn mag-
azines, &c.  From 1789 to 1792, he was
one of the membere of the common coun-
cil of Sedan, almost all of whom perished
on the scaffold in 1793, for  having arrest-
ed the conventional commissioners, who,
after the 10th of  August, were  sent  to
suspend  general Lafayette.  It was by a 
TERNAUX—TERPSICHORE.
199
 kind  of miracle that  Temaux escaped.
 By his conduct on this occasion, and by
 his conscientious discharge of his munici-
 pal duties, he acquired the warm esteem
 of his  fellow-citizens.    His  extensive
 woollen manufactories are remarkable for
 the excellence of their products ; and, at
 the yearly exhibitions of national indus-
 try, he has constantly obtahied the prizes.
 To show the extensive commerce which
 he carries on, it wiU be sufficient to  state
 that he had, at one period, manufactories
 at Sedan, Rheims, Aix-la-Chapelle, Liege,
 Ensival, Louviers and Elheuf, and agents
 and warehouses at Paris, Bourdeaux, Ge-
 noa, Leghorn, Naples,  and many other
 places, in which he employed about  6000
 workmen, and from 120 to 150 clerks.  Not-
 withstanding all this weight of business,
 he was an active  member of the legisla-
 ture, gratuitous vice-president of the  gen-
 eral council  of manufacturers, a member
 of the general councU of the department
 of the Seine, and of the commercial cham-
 ber of Paris.  During the hundred  days
 (1815), he adhered to  the Bourbons, and,
 in  1819, was  created  baron  by Louis
 XVIII.  In the chamber of deputies he
 defended liberal principles with firmness;
 and his speeches on financial, commer-
 cial and manufacturing subjects were dis-
 tinguished for extent of information aud
judicious views.  Europe  is indebted to
 him for the introduction  of the Cashmere
 goat. (q. v.)   Ternaux makes the noblest
 use of his large fortune, and enjoys the
 respect and  esteem of his countrymen.
   Terni, a town in the States of the
 Church, delegation of Spoleto, in the fer-
 tile valley of the Nera, the birth-place of
 Tacitus, and of the emperors Tacitus and
 Florian, contains  some interesting ruins
 of the  old  Latin colony of Interamna
 (lying between two arms of the Nera).
 Four miles  east from Terni is the  cele-
 brated caduta del marmore, or fall of the
 Velino or Evelino, 300 feet in height, well
 known  to the  readers of Byron by his
 glowing description  in Childe  Harold
 (iv. 69—72). In the notes to this passage
 (37 and 38), he says, "It is worth all the
 cascades and tonents of Switzerland put
 together; which are rills in comparison.
 It is singular enough that two of the finest
 cascades in  Europe should be artificial—
 this of the Velino and the one at Tivoli."
 (See  Cataract.)   This  "matchless  cata-
 ract" is, in fact, the work of M. Curius
 Dentatus  (B.  C.  270),  who caused the
 rock to be cut through for the purpose of
 draining the marshes, and making an out-
 let of the Velino.  Clement VIII caused
the old canal of Dentatus to be reopened
and enlarged.  In the garden of the epis-
copal palace are the  ruins of an amphi-
theatre, and in the church of St. Salvador
(St. Savior) the remnants of a  temple of
the sun.  The town  has  about 7000 in-
habitants ; and much oil and wine are pro-
duced in the neighborhood.  Near Terni
the NeapoUtans were  defeated  by the
French in 1798.  Forty-five  miles north
of Rome.
  Terpander, a  distinguished  Greek
poet and musician, flourished about B. C.
650, was born  at  Methymna or Antissa,
on  the island  of Lesbos.  When Lace-
daemon was distracted by internal troubles,
and the oracle was consulted respecting
the means of quieting them, it command-
ed the Spartans to send for tiie Lesbian
singer.  He came, and restored peace and
quiet, by the sweeuiess of his songs, which
he accompanied on his lyre.  His melo-
dies were afterwards known as the Les-
bian melodies ;  and, for a long time, they
served as  universal  models.   He  did
much to improve the  art of music, and is
said to have added  three  new strings to
the lyre.    Other accounts ascribe  this
improvement to Orpheus, Amphion, or
even to Apollo.  Terpander was probably
the first to introduce the seven-stringed
lyre into Sparta.   The invention  of the
musical notation has also been attributed
to him, and with some degree of  proba-
bility, although some accounts refer it to
Pythagoras,  who  lived a  century later.
The Lacedaemonians sang his songs at
their festivals; and hence he has also been
called the inventor of the scolia, or drink-
ing songs, sung at the feasts of the ancient
Greeks.—See Scolia, h. e. Carmina  con-
vivalia Gracorum, by Ilgen (Jena, 1798).
  Terpodion ; cue  of the  finest  mu-
sical keyed instruments invented in mod-
ern times.  The interior mechanism con-
sists of wooden staves, which vibrate by
the friction of a wooden cylinder, set in
motion by a wheel, and thus produce the
sweetest  tones, susceptible of the finest
swell  and fall.  The higher tones much
resemble those of a flute, the lower those
of the organ.   It is particularly fine as an
accompaniment of vocal  music,  but is
less fit for compositions of a Uvely char-
acter.  John David Buschmann of Fried-
richsrode, near Gotha, is the inventor,
and has exhibited his instruments  in the
large cities of Germany and England.
  Terpsichore (she who  loves  dancing);
one of the Muses,  the inventress  and
patroness of the  art of dancing and  lyr-
ical poetry.  She  is generally represent- 
200
TERPSICHORE—TERRA  DEL FUEGO.
ed  with  the  temliourine  (tympanum),
crowned with flowers, and hi a mirthful
attitude.
  Terra, the Earth, was a cosmological
divinity of the ancients.  After the chaos,
says Hesiod, the extended earth was the
abiding place of all the immortals, who in-
habit the tops of snowy Olympus. By her
own power  she brought forth  the starry
heaven  (Uranos), the  lofty mountains,
and  the  sea (Pontus).  By  Uranos  she
became the mother of the  Titans  (q. v.),
Thea, Rhea, Mnemosyne,  Themis, Phce-
be,Tethys, the Cyclops, and the hundred-
handed giants (Centimani).  Uranos  im-
prisoned these children, immediately af-
ter their birth, in a dungeon. Terra, medi-
tating revenge, prepared a sickle of ada-
mant, and persuaded her sons to  castrate
their  father.   Saturn  perpetrated  the
deed.  Tena received the  drops of blood
which issued from the  wound, by which
being impregnated, she brought forth the
Furies, Giants, and die  Melian nymphs.
By her  son  Pomus, she afterwards  had
Nereus,  Thaumas,  Phorcys,  Ceto  and
Eurybia.  Dissatisfied also with  Saturn,
she promised her daughter Rhea to bring
up the new-born Jupiter, and canied him
to Crete.  When  he had grown  up, she
aided him in obtaining the throne, advis-
ing him to free the imprisoned Centiinans
and Cyclops.
  Terra Cotta (Italian) is the common
name for a very large class of remains of
antiquity,  which  have  not, till  recent
times, been  treated  with  the attention
which they  deserve.  The mythical his-
tory of the Greek art celebrated  Dibuta-
des,  Rhoecus,  Theodos, as masters in
works of clay, without,  however, stating
whether   these  works were  baked, or
merely dried in  the sun.   The  Greeks
may, at a later period, have given up the
use of clay  for large works, after  they
had  become accustomed to marble  and
bronze; but clay was still  used  for fine
pottery, and for lamps, of which so  ad-
mirable specimens  have come down to
us.   In Tuscany and Rome,  however,
works of sculpture,  both  entire figures
and reliefs, in terra cotta, have been found
in abundance.  These are not generally
of large size, though whole friezes and
images on pediments were made of terra
cotta in antiquity (fastigia templorum fic-
tilia), but manifest  the great skiU of the
offictna figulina, which were common in
Rome and Italy.  The works of Damoph-
ilus, Arcesilaus  and  Pasiteles  may have
come down to us in copies, among the
remains which, since  the time of count
Cay his, have  been   more  assiduously
brought together in museums of antiqui-
ties.  A collection, made on the spot, by
Mr.Charles Townley, belongs at present to
the treasures of the British museum (De-
scription of the Collection  of ancient
Ten-acottas in the British Museum, with
thirty-nine  engravings,  London,  1810,
small folio); another, collected by Seroux
d'Agincourt, was left by him  to the mu-
seum  of the Vatican (Recueil de Frag-
mens de Sculpture antique en  Terre cuite,
par M. Seroux  d'Agincourt, Paris, 1814,
4to.).   Earlier than the  appearance of
these works, some relievi found at Velleni
were described in the work  Bassirilievi
Volschi in Terra cotta (Rome, 1785, fol.).
Accurate examination, particularly of the
vessels, has shown a variety in the appli-
cation of this material, which may lead to
results of much advantage to modern  art.
The sorts  of works distinguished  are
those dried in the air; those simply baked;
tiiose  baked and colored, but  not with
fixed colors ; those varnished, and having
colore burnt in ; a mixed species, in which
the colors are in part fixed, in part merely
painted on  the substance; and finally, the
most costly of all, works with rich gilding.
These different  productions,  as regards
the material, are of the most various fine-
ness.   Much of what has come  down to
us may have  been merely models and
casts (typi, protypa, ectypa).  The investi-
gations of professor  Busching into  the
history of this branch of the fine arts are
important.  He has traced it in the mid-
dle ages, and shown, by the monument of
duke Henry IV (the  Minnesinger) in  the
church of the cross at Breslau, that this
art was successfully practised in  Silesia
in the thirteenth century (about 1290).
Busching has illustrated this subject in  a
magnificent work.
   Terra, or Tierra del Fuego ; a group
of islands lying to the south of the con-
tinent of South America,  from  which it
is separated  by   the straits of Magellan
(see  Magalhaens), and  extending from
lat. 56° to  53' 2& S.   The southern  ex-
tremity is cape Horn.  (q.  v.)  It received
its name, signifying Land of Fire, from the
fires seen along its shores  by the discov-
erer Magalhaens, who supposed them to
be volcanic.  The existence of volcanoes
here has been doubted ; but captain Hall
saw one in activity  in 1820, and captain
Weddell found  lava on the coast  The
interior of these  islands  has never been
explored.  So far as they are known to us,
they are rugged and unprolific.  The cli-
mate is severe,  and there are  summits 
TERRA DEL FUEGO—TERRITORY.
201
visible to mariners which appear  to be
covered with perpetual snow.   Captain
King states the mean temperature during
the three winter months at 34.°5, the max-
imum being 49.°5, and the minimum 12.°6.
The inhabitants,  at  least those on  the
coasts, are in a very rude state ;  but they
are friendly and peaceable:  they live by
fishing.   The seals are numerous on  the
coasts, and dogs, otters  and guanacoes
are also found here.   The three principal
islands of the  group are King  Charles's
Southland, to  the east,  Santa  Ines,  or
South Desolation, on the west, and Clar-
ence  island, lying between  them.   The
latest information concerning this region
is contained  in  Weddell's  Voyage  to-
wards the  South Pole (London,  1825),
and the Journal of the Royal Geographi-
cal Society for  1831, art. xi, containing
the  results of  the examination of  the
coasts by captain King.
  Terra Firma (that \s,firmland); main-
land or continent, in opposition to insular
territories.   In Italy, the name  of  Terra
firma, or il dominio Veneto, is given  to the
continental provinces of Venice, in con-
tradistinction  to the insular portions.  By
it  is therefore  signified the  duchy of
Venice  (q. v.), Venetian  Lombardy,  the
marquisate of Tarvis, the duchy of Fri-
uli   and  Istria.—Under this name was
formerly comprehended a vast  extent of
country in South America, forming a gov-
ernment under the authority of the crown
of  Spain,  including  several  extensive
provinces,  and three  audiences, which
were fixed  at Panama, Quito, and  Santa
Fe de Bogota. The large provinces were
Terra Firma Proper, or Darien,  Popayan,
Quito and  New Grenada,  all of which
were again subdivided into several smaller
provinces or jurisdictions.   These prov-
inces afterwards formed the viceroyalty
of  New Grenada,  and  now constitute
the republic of Colombia or New Grena-
da.  (See Colombia, and Venezuela.)
  Terra   Magellanica.   (See  Pata-
gonia.)
  Terra Sigillata (that is, sealed earth);
called also Lemnian earth; a sort of bole
(q. v.) found in the island of Lemnos, which
was formerly  much used  in medicine,
as a styptic, &c.  It derives its name from
the circumstance of its being impressed
with  the seal  of the grand  seignior, or
the governor of the island.   It is, how-
ever, found in other-places in the East, as
Armenia and Malta, and in  Italy, France,
&c.  The Lemnian bole is detersive, like
fuller's earth.  (See Clay.)
  Terracina ; a town in the Campagna
di Roma, 47 miles south-east of Rome ;
population, 9000.   It  is situated at the
southern extremity of the Pontine marshes,
in a picturesque situation, but rendered
unhealthy by the sunounding marshes.
It was anciently the capital of the Volsci,
and named Anxur.  The Greeks called it
Trachyna, corrupted into Terracina.  It
had  once  a  harbor; but  that  is  now
choked up. Near Teiracina are consid-
erable fragments of the Via Appia, made
from Rome to Capua.
  Terrain ; a French word, used in mih-
tary  language  for  the  natural condition
of the ground on which any military  ope-
ration takes place ; and the expression em-
braces, therefore, all objects  on  the  sur-
face  of the earth, which can affect the
disposition to  be  made of  troops.   In
English, the  word ground is generally
used.  The Germans divide the doctrine
of terrain into the general, which is much
the  same as that which othere call mili-
tary  geography (q. v.), and special, which
is the accurate knowledge of a particular
theatre  of war.   General  conclusions
may be drawn from experience, in which
geology is often an assistant; but particular
observation of the ground  is  always in-
dispensable.
  Terras.  (See Cements.)
  Terray, Joseph Marie,  a  notorious
French  minister of finance, bom in 1715,
entered  the  church, became an abbe,
member of the spiritual bench of the  par-
liament  of Paris, insinuated himself into
favor at court, and, during the last days
of the reign of Louis XV, was minister
of finance.   Finding a great deficit  in
the treasury, he employed  the most dis-
graceful  means to cover it, and publicly
declared that  he held his  office  only  to
rob, and because he excelled in that  ope-
ration.   He contrived new  impositions,
abolished  the pensions which had been
previously granted,  and thus  reduced
many individuals to  destitution.  In ad-
dition to this, he treated with derision the
unfortunate victims  of his  policy,  who
applied to him for relief.  Louis XVl re-
moved this monster (1775); and  a horri-
ble  disease, the consequence of his ex-
cesses, put an end to his life in 1778.  He
was  the subject  of general execration ;
and even  his senices in restoring order
into the finances were overlooked, since he
did not  prevent the most shameless dissi-
pation of the pubUc money by the courtiers.
  Terre  Nkcve;  the  French for New-
foundland, (q. v.)
  Territory, in the U. States, a division
of the country  not included  within the 
202                TERRITORY—TERROR, REIGN OF.
limits of either of the states of the con-
federacy, and which has not been  admit-
ted into the  Union on  the  footing of an
independent state.   The history of the
policy of this republic in  regard to the
ptlblic domain, and the manner in which
that domain  was acquired, has been given
in our article Public  Lands.   The basis
of the political organization of these  ter-
ritories was  laid by the ordinance  for the
government of the  ten*itory  of  the U.
States north-west of the river Ohio, July
13th, 1787.  This ordinance provides for
the appointment  of  a governor by con-
gress, and for a representative assembly,
chosen by the people of the territory, for
conducting the government of the same,
making laws, appointing magistrates,  &c.
The  legislature is authorized to  elect a
delegate, to  represent the territory in the
congress of  the U. States, who enjoys a
6eat and the right of debating, but has no
vote.  It was likewise  provided  by  this
ordinance, that there should be  neither
slavery nor  involuntary servitude in  this
territory.  After the adoption of the pres-
ent constitution (1789), this ordinance  was
so  far modified as to give the president,
by and with the consent of the senate, the
appointment of the teiritorial officers, and
some other powers which had been origin-
ally conferred on the congress (1789, ch. 8).
As the population in the region above  des-
ignated gradually increased, new  territo-
ries were successively created, and  ad-
mitted  into the  Union as  independent
states.   Thus Ohio becamo a state in
1802. Indiana received a separate terri-
torial government in 1800, and was ad-
mitted into  the  Union in 1816.  Illinois
became a distinct territory in 1809, and a
state in 1818.   Michigan  tenitory  was
constituted in 1805.  The tenitory south
of the river Ohio was,  by act of  con-
gress (1790, ch. 41), declared to be sub-
ject to the provisions of the ordinance of
1787.  This  territory was received into the
Union, as the state of Tennessee, in 1796.
In a similar manner, the territory of Lou-
isiana has been divided into Orleans and
Louisiana territory,  Missouri state  and
territory, and Arkansas  territory.  (See
Louisiana   Territory.)    Alabama teni-
tory  was constituted in 1817, and  be-
came a state in  1820; and Mississippi,
which  received  a  territorial  govern-
ment  in  1798,  was admitted into  the
Union  in   1817.   Florida, which  was
acquired  in 1821,  was formed into a
government under the name of the  ter-
ritory of Florida,  in 1822.  (See the  sep-
arate articles.)
  Territorial System.  (See  Church,
vol. iii, page 183, right hand column.)
  Terror,  Reign  or.   During   the
French revolution,  Marat  and  Robes-
pierre, in the beginning of March, 1793,
introduced the system of terror, so called,
under  the  pretext, that the condition of
France left no other means to save her. To
understand this phenomenon in the his-
tory of man, requires an accurate knowl-
edge and  a comprehensive view of the
state of France, at that time convulsed by
civil war,  fighting  single-handed against
the greater part of Europe,  and filled
with a population which the clergy had
done almost nothing to instruct, and the
court and nobility every thing to cornipt
History affords many instances of blood-
thirsty individuals; but here we find  a
large   portion of  a nation urging the
slaughter  of persons of all sexes, ages
and conditions, while  their mouths were
full of high-sounding phrases  of liberty*,
equality, virtue and justice, perverting a
thousand  innocent  acts to  crimes, and
even  inventing new crimes, e. g. nigo-
tiantism,  in Bordeaux, to  suit the occa-
sion.   The  reign of terror shows a  more
general frenzy  than  any  other  period
of  history.   One  of the  main  causes
of this gigantic madness must be sought.
for hi the  disorganization  of political so-
ciety in all its branches, which began with
Louis  XIV,  and   frightfully  increased
during the reigns of his successors.  The
ascribing of the mischief to the writings
of the philosophers, so called, shows an
ignorance of the nature of man and of so-
ciety.  Such madness could result only
from  deep-seated disease  and depravity,
to which many stimulants were added.
The revolutionary tribunal was the firet
great instrument of the terrorists.  This
was established March 11,1793, but did
not receive its name until the 8th of Bru-
maire (October, 1793), when the Moun-
tain party in  the  convention  triumphed
over  the  Girondists, (q. v.) The object
of the revolutionary tribunal was to pun-
ish all those who should oppose the prog-
ress of the  revolution, and incur the sus-
picion of  adhering to the royal family.  It
may easily be imagined what a field such a
tribunal would afford to malignity, hatred,
and the  spirit  of  persecution, as it was
bound by no rules, sentenced only to death,
never investigated  the points  of the ac-
cusation, and, at last, hardly the names of
the accused.  After the fall of the Girond-
ists in 1794, and the accession of Robes-
pierre and his accomphces to power, the
trial of individuals ceased.    Fouquier 
TERROR, REIGN OF.
203
Tinville and his comrades daily handed
in  lists of persons charged with  treason.
These were brought in crowds before the
tribunal, the accusation against them read,
and sentence of death immediately pro-
nounced, without even examination being
bad, to ascertain whether the subjects  of
the accusation were actually the pereons
before the court; and,  in fact, the con-
founding  of persons of the  same  name
often brought individuals to the guillotine,
who  had  never been  accused.  Similar
revolutionary tribunals  were  established
in the large towns in the  provinces, and
the same tragedy was  acted  in  Nantes,
Lyons, Arras, Strasburg, and many other
places.  As this mode  of exterminating
the pretended enemies of the republic was
too slow  to satisfy  the  party in power,
they  shot and  drowned the  accused  by
hundreds.  The intrigues of the royalists
must be admitted  to have contributed to
these excesses; and  the object of Robes-
pierre  was  to   give   energy  to the
government,  and secure  the  country
from  invasion.*  Many of  his associates,
however,  were  actuated by the love of
plunder.  The system of tenor at length
destroyed itself.  A  part of the terrorists
became victims to the very system which
they had established, and the overthrow
of  the  rest soon  foilowed.f    With the
revolution of Thermidor 9 (July 27,1794),
or  with the overthrow  of Robespierre,
terrorism ceased to be the professed sys-
tem of government ;  but its consequences
remained.*]:   Prudhomme, a  repubUcan,
not unfriendly to the revolution, and who
wrote during  the period  of excitement,
has left six volumes of details of this de-
plorable period.  Two of the six volumes
contain an alphabetical list of  all the per-
sons put to death by  the revolutionary tri-
bunal, with their professions, domicils,
the dates  of  their  condemnations, the
place aud day  of their execution, &c.

  * Louvet, in his memoirs, expresses his con-
viction that both Robespierre and Marat were in
the pay of the allies !
  t When Danton (q. v.) was thrown into the
same dungeon in  which Hebert had been con-
fined, he said, Cest A pareille epoque que fat fait
instituer le tribunal re'volutionnairc.  J'en demande
pardon a Dieu et aux hommes, metis ce n'etiit pas
pour qu'ilfut lefleau de Vhumanite. And when
he was sentenced  by that tribunal, he exclaimed,
J'entraine  Robespierre; Robespierre me suit.
(See Thier's History of the Revolution.)
   1. During the prevalence of this system, Charles
de la Bussiere, secretary of the committee of pub-
lic safety (q. v.), saved many persons, by de-
stroying'  the papers containing the accusations
against them.
We find among the 18,613 victims
Noblemen..............   1,278
Noblewomen............    750
Females of the  class of mechan-
    ics and peasants........   1,467
Nuns.................    350
Priests................   1,135
Men not noble, of various classes  13,633
                      Total . . .  18,613
Women who died in consequence
    of  premature delivery ....   3,400
Women pregnant and in child-bed    348
Women killed in the Vendee . . .  15,000
Children   "           "...  22,000
Whole  number who perished in
    the Vendee..........900,000
Victims  under  the  proconsulate
    of Carrier, at Nantes.....32,000
Including
      Children shot.....   500
          "     drowned . . 1,500
      Women shot.....  264
          "   drowned...  500
      Priests shot......  300
         "   drowned . . .  460
      Noblemen drowned . 1,400
      Mechanics drowned . 5,300
Victims in  Lyons..........31,000

These numbers do not comprehend the
victims  of the  massacres  at Versailles,
Cannes, I'Abbaye, Avignon, the fusillades
at Toulon and Marseilles, after the sieges
of those places, and the massacre  of the
entire population of the little town of Be-
doin,  in Provence.   More than  50,000
revolutionary committees  were  estab-
lished   in  France, to  enforce  the law
against  the  suspected (that of Sept 21,
1793).   Cambon, member of the conven-
tion, calculates that they cost the country
591,000,000 francs (in  assignats) a  year:
each member received  three francs  a day;
and  there were 150,000 who had the
right to designate  for death.  Paris alone
had sixty committees.   It will be seen
from the  above, that the nobles, priests,
nuns, and monks, form but a small part
of those who died by the guillotine. The
Girondist Riouffe, a  prisoner with  mad-
ame Roland and  others at the Concier-
gerie, gives the most  appalling details in
his Mimoires <Tun Detenu.  Among other
things, he says, Dtja  un aquiduc immense
qui devoit voituter du sang avoit ite  creusi
a  la  place Sainl-Antoine.   Disons-le,
quelque  horrible qu'il soit de le dire, tons les
jours le sang humain se puisoit par seaux,
d quatre hommes  itoient occupes, au mo-
ment de Vexicution a  ks vider dans cet 
S04
TERROR, REIGN OF-TESSIN.
aquiduc.    More  horrid details  may be
found in the preface of Chateaubriand's
Etudes ou Discours Historiqucs.  A list
of all the pereons who perished by the
guillotine  in that period, is given  in
the  above-mentioned  work   of Prud-
homme.
  Terrorism.  (See Terror, Reign of)
  Tertiarians. (See Orders, Religious.)
  Tertiary Formations.  (See Geolo-
gy-)
  Tertullian, Quintus Septimius Flo-
rens,  considered  the  most  early Latin
father extant, was born at Carthage, about
the middle of the  second century.  His
father was a centurion under the procon-
sul of Africa; and  Tertullian was at first
a pagan, although when or where he em-
braced the  Christian  religion does not
appear.   He received a liberal education,
and was well versed in Greek and Ro-
man Uterature, and learned in the Roman
law.  He flourished chiefly  under the
reigns of the emperors Severus and Cara-
calla; and Jerome  mentions a report that
he lived  to  a very advanced age.  He
employed himself vigorously in the cause
of Christianity, but,  towards the latter
part of his life, quitted the Catholic church
to join the Montanists, out of which he
formed a sect of his own, named Tertulli-
anists.  (See Montanus.)   The  ground
of his separation related rather to disci-
pline than  doctrine,  being favorable to
the austerities inculcated  by Montanus.
Of the personal history of Tertullian, little
is known.   Of his  writings,  the most
noted is his Apology  for the Christian
Religion, which contains much informa-
tion on the manners and conduct of the
early Christians, and asserts the falsehood
of the calumnies  by  which  they were
assailed, and the injustice of persecuting
them.  Connected with this work are his
two  books Ad Nationes,  in which, with
his characteristic  vehemence, he carries
his attack  into the quarters of his oppo-
nents.   He  also  wrote  against  various
heresies, and several tracts on baptism, on
idolatry, &c.  In one of these, upon Pub-
lic Spectacles, he dissuades Christians from
attending shows and festivals, as partaking
of idolauy; and he luxuriates in the an-
ticipation of the transport with which he
shall survey the torments of persecutors,
philosophers,  poets  and  tragedians in
another world. This father was a  man
of lively parts, but he displays little judg-
ment in his reasoning; and, while led by
his temper to violence and exaggeration,
he was at the same  time credulous and
austere.   His style is concise and figura-
 tive, but harsh, unpolished, and obscure.
 His works have been frequently  edited,
 both collectively and separately, particu-
 larly his Apology.   Of the entire works,
 the editions of Rigakius (Paris, 1641), and
 of Semler  (Halle,  6  vols.,  1770), are
 esteemed the  best.  The best edition of
 the Apology is that by Havercamp (Ley-
 den,  1718, 8vo.).  He is not to be con-
 founded with St. Tertullian, who suffered
 martyrdom in 360.
   Teschen ; a town of Austrian Silesia,
 which gives name to a circle;  30 miles
 east of Troppau; Ion. 18° 41' E.;  lat. 49°
 43' N.; population, 5379.  The inhab-
 itants carry on some commerce in leather,
 wood, and wine. Here is a manufacture
 of fire-arms, of a particular kind, called,
 from the town, teschine.   In  the year
 1779 (May 13), a  treaty  of peace  was
 concluded here  between the  emperor
 Joseph II (q. v.) and the king of Prussia,
 Frederic II (q. v.),  which  put an end to
 the  war  for  the  Bavarian  succession.
 (See Bavaria, Maria Theresa, and  Con-
federation of the Princes.)
   Tessellated Pavement (Lat. tessella,
 diminutive of tessera); a pavement of rich
 mosaic work,  made of curious  square
 marbles, bricks, or tiles,  in shape and dis-
 position resembling dice.  Various an-
 cient specimens of these have been  from
 time to time exhumed in Italy and other
 countries of Europe.
   Tessin, or  Ticino ; one of the Swiss
 cantons, bounded north by Uri, north-east
 by Grisons, south-east and south by Aus-
 trian  Italy, south-west by Sardinian Mi-
 lanese,  aud west by Valais.  (See Switz-
 erland.)   The inhabitants  are  mostly
 Italians and Catholics.   It is composed
 of what were  formerly called the Italian
 bailiwicks, which, though long subject to
 Switzerland, were not formed into a can-
 ton till 1815.  Bellinzona is  the  capital.
 It is extremely mountainous, the  ramifi-
 cations of the Alps dividing it into  more
 than  twenty distinct  valleys.  It has  a
 mild  climate;  is weU watered and fertile;
 and no country is  more remarkable for
 scenery, at one time rich and beautiful, at
 another awful and sublime.  The gov-
 ernment has heretofore been unfavorable,
 the inhabitants ignorant and indolent, and
 agriculture and manufactures in a back-
 ward state.  The firet demands of reform
 in the cantonal administrations  (in 1830)
 proceeded from Tessin, in which there
 had been many abuses in the government
   Tessin, Charles  Gustavus, count of,
 was  bom at  Stockholm,  in 1695, and
 traveUed,from 1714 to 1719, in Germany, 
TESSIN—TESTUDO.
205
 France, and Italy.   In the  political dis-
 cussions which arose in Sweden after the
 death of Charles XII, he declared for the
 party of the Hats, of which  his influence
 caused  the decided  triumph.   He  was
 nominated president of the assembly of
 nobility in the diet of 1738.  From 1730
 to  1742,  he resided  as  ambassador at
 Paris.  From 1747  to 1752,  the  count
 had the  direction of foreign affairs as
 president  of the chancery; and,  at the
 same time, he was  appointed governor
 of the prince royal,  afterwards Gustavus
 III.  He addressed to his pupil a series of
 letters relative to morals, politics, and ad-
 ministration, which  have been translated
 into English and other languages.   The
 English version  is entitled Letters  to a
 Young  Prince (London, 1755, 8vo.).  In
 1761, he  resigned all his  employments,
 and settled at his estate of Akeroe, in Su-
 dermania, where he died  in 1770.  He
 promoted the establishment of the acade-
 my  of sciences  at Stockholm;  and be-
 sides his Letters, he  wrote a number of
 discourses and essays.   A description of
 a cabinet  of  natural histor  which he
 had  formed, was published in 1753,  under
 the title of Museum Tessinianum.
  Test  Act.   (See   Corporation  and
 Test Acts.)
  Testacea.  (See  Conchology.)
  Testament, Old  and  New.   The
 practice of calling the Hebrew aud Chris-
 tian  sacred writings the books of the Old
 and  New Testament, arose from the lan-
 guage of the old Latin translation of these
 books (the versio  vulgata or  vulgate).
 The Latin word  testamentum (will)  was
 considered  to conespond to the; Greek
 (5ia9jjici7,  which often  occurs both in the
 Alexandrian version of the Hebrew Scrip-
 tures, and  in the sacred books of the
 Christian revelation, and which, properly,
 signifies a covenant,  a league.  As early
 as the patriarchal age,  the divine revela-
 tions and  instructions  with  which  the
 Hebrews  were blessed, were considered
 in the elevated light of a covenant between
 God and  the patriarchs, and afterwards
 between God and   the whole  Hebrew
 nation.   See the  fifteenth chapter of
 Genesis, in which God confirms to  Abra-
 ham the promise of the birth of Isaac and
 of the possession  of  Palestine by his de-
 scendants,  by a  solemn covenant   The
 law given  on mount Sinai, and the whole
Mosaic system of religious doctrines and
ceremonies, were closely connected with
these divine promises to  the  patriarchs
and  their  race, and,  in  fact, were  but a
further  developement,  or  the  perfect
  vol. xn.        18
completion of them.   The Mosaic dis-
pensation was, therefore, in conformity
to the divine wUl, represented as a league
or covenant between God and the He-
brew nation;  a league which  solemnly
engaged the Hebrews to worship  Jeho-
vah  alone as the only true  God,  and to
obey his commandments faithfully, while,
in return, they received the divine prom-
ise that  they  should  be regarded as  a
chosen   people,  while they  continued
faithful  and obedient.  (See Exodus, ch.
xxiv, and Jeremiah xxxi, 22.)  The inti-
mate connexion which exists between the
Hebrew revelation and the more perfect
dispensation announced  by  Christ,  for
which, in the course of divine Providence,
the former was but a  preparation, would
naturally lead  Jesus  and his apostles to
designate the new religion  as a new and
more perfect covenant, made, through the
mediation of Christ,  between God and
the whole human race, without distinc-
tion  or  exclusion.   The   sacred  and
elevated idea of such a covenant cone-
sponds  with the  whole spirit and char-
acter of Christianity,  considered  as  a
positive, revealed religion.   Whilst God
proclaims, through Christ, forgiveness of
sins and eternal happiness to all men who
evince a firm, living, active faith in Jesus,
men  are bound, through Christ, to com-
ply with these conditions of salvation.  In
this sense, the Christian Scriptures often
speak of an old and a new, the first and the
second  covenant  (see the Gospel  of  St.
Matthew, xxvi, 28; St. Mark,  xiv, 24;
Hebr., viii, 8, ix, 15;  Galatians, iv, 24);
and  the Hebrew Scriptures themselves
are called the old covenant (2 Cor. iii, 14).
The  language  of the Bible itself suffi-
ciently explains, therefore, why the early
Christiau church called its sacred writings
the " books of the new covenant" (xaivrj
oiaerjKij).   The Latin vulgate, then, having,
as we have before observed, used this ex-
pression testamentum (as in Gen. ix, 9, 12;
xiii, 15), it became common  to designate
the Scriptures as the books of the Old
and New Testament, in the sense  of  old
and  new covenant (sec, for instance, Ter-
tullian's  treatises against Marcion, b.  iv,
ch. 1, and against Praxeas), and not in
the common sense of the word, last will.
  Testament.  (See Will.)
  Testddo, in zoology.   (See Tortoise.)
  Testudo, in the military art of the an-
cients,  was a  kind  of cover or 6creen
which the soldiere (e. g., a whole compa-
ny) made themselves  of their bucklers,
by holding them up over their heads, and
standing cloise  to  each other.  Thjg ex- 
206
TESTUDO—TETZEL.
pedient served to shelter them from darts,
stones, &c, thrown upon them, especial-
ly those thrown from above, when they
went to the assault.—Testudo was also a
kind  of large  wooden   tower,  which
moved on several wheels, and was cover-
ed with bullocks' hides, serving to shelter
the sold ore when they approached the
walls to mine  them, or  to  batter them
with rams.
  Tetanus (from  rcivu,  I stretch);  a
spasmodic  rigidity of the  whole  body.
The body becomes stiff,  the  breathing
heavy, but  the  senses remain uninjured.
If the  lower jaw is drawn to the upper
with such force that they cannot be sepa-
rated, the disorder  is called locked jaw
(trismus).
  Tethys ; the greatest of the sea deities,
wife of Oceanus, and daughter of Uranus
and Terra.  She was mother of the chief
rivers of the universe, such as the Nile,
the Alpheus, the Maeander,  Simois, Pe-
neus, &c, and about 3000 daughters, call-
ed Oceanides.   Tethys is confounded, by
some  mycologists,  with   her  grand-
daughter Thetis, the wife of Peleus and
the mother of Achilles.  Her name sig-
nifies nurse,  and seems to contain an
allusion to the old notion, that water was
necessary for the generation and nourish-
ment of all things.  The word Tethys is
poetically used to express the sea.
  Tetrachord, with the ancient Greeks;
a scale of four  tones.  The  ancients di-
vided their musical  system into tetra-
chords,  as  we  divide ours  into octaves.
Therefore they only required,  in their
singing schools, four syllables for solmi-
zation, whilst, in modern times, six sylla-
bles  were  introduced by Aretino.   The
tetrachords were originally only diatonic ;
at a later period, also, chromatic  and en-
harmonic.
  Tetraedron, or  Tetrahedron,  in
geometry, is one of the five Platonic or
regular  bodies  or solids, comprehended
under four equilateral  and  equal trian-
gles ; or it is a triangular pyramid of four
equal and equilateral faces.
  Tetragon, in geometry ; a quadrangle,
or a figure with four angles.
  Tetralogy.  (See Trilogy.)
  Tetrandria ; the fourth class in  Lin-
naeus's sexual system.
  Tetrapla ;  a Bible disposed,  by Ori-
gen,  under four columns,  in  each of
which  was a   different Greek  version,
namely, that of Symmachus, of Aquila,
of the Seventy,  and of Theodotion.
  Tetuan ; a town of Morocco, on the
northern coast  of Africa,  thirty mUes
south-east of Tangiers; Ion.  5°  27' W *
lat. 35° 20* N.;  population, 14,000.   It is
about half a mile from the  Meditenane-
an, inhabited by Moors (chiefly Andalu-
sians) and Jews, who most of them speak
Spanish.  They are commercial, gentle
in manners,  and polite.  The environs of
this city  are planted with vineyards and
gardens, kept in good order, and the fruits
here are better and more carefully  nur-
tured than in the other parts of the em-
pire.  Tetuan was formerly the residence
of the European  consuls;  but in  1770,
an  Englishman having  killed a Moor,
the  reigning  emperor  declared  that
no  European  should  again  enter  the
town.
  Tetzel, John, a notorious vender of
indulgences,  was born at Leipsic, where
he studied theology, entered, in 1489, the
order of the Dominicans, and received per-
mission to go into the world  and preach.
In 1502,  he was appointed by the Roman
see a preacher  of indulgences, and car-
ried on, for fifteen  years, a very lucrative
trade in them, practising the most shame-
ful  delusions upon the people. His life
was so  corrupt that,  at Innspruck, he
was sentenced  to  be drowned in a sack
for  adultery.  In  consequence of  pow-
erful intercession, the  sentence was miti-
gated to perpetual imprisonment  But
being released also from this, he travelled
to Rome, was absolved by pope Leo X,
and even  appointed apostolic commissary;
and the  archbishop of Mentz made him
inquisitor.  He  now carried on the sale
of indulgences with still greater effronte-
ry,  and  travelled  through Saxony  in a
wagon, provided with two large  boxes,
one of which contained the letters of in-
dulgence, while the other was destined
for  the money  obtained for them.   The
latter had the following inscription:—

    Sobald das Geld im Kasten klingt,
    Sobald die Seel gen Himmel springt.
    When in the chest the money rings,
    The soul straight up to heaven springs.

He  is said to have had ninety gold guil-
ders a month, besides his expenses.  In
many towns  he was received with  the
ringing of bells, and every where levied
large contributions, as he offered absolu-
tion for  every  crime,  murder, perjury,
adultery, not excepted.  He carried on
this infamous trade unchecked, until Lu-
ther came out,  in 1517,  with  his theses
against the  crying abuse.  These  were
answered by Tetzel; and the students of
Wittenberg burned the answers in the
market-place.   Tetzel himself received a 
TETZEL—TEUTON IC.
207
 severe reprimand  from the papal cham-
 berlain, who was sent to settle the dispute.
 He died of the plague, in the Dominican
 convent at  Leipsic.  It is reported  that
 Tetzel went so far as to give absolutions
 for crimes yet to be committed. It is well
 known that a  great part of the money
 thus  received was used for the erection
 of St Peter's church at Rome.
   Teucer ; a king of Phrygia, son of the
 Scamander by Idsea  According to some
 authors, he  was the firet who  introduced
 among his  subjects the  worship of Cy-
 bele,  and the  dances of the Corybantes.
 The  country where he reigned was from
 him  called  Teucria,  and  his  subjects
 Teucri.   His  daughter Batea  married
 Dardanus, a Samothracian prince, who
 succeeded him in the government of Teu-
 cria.—2. A son of Telamon, king of  Sal-
 amis, by Hesione, the daughter of Laom-
 edon.   He was one of Helen's  suitors,
 and accordingly accompanied the Greeks
 to the Trojan  war, where he signalized
 himself by his  intrepidity.  It is said  that
 his father refused to receive him into his
 kingdom, because he had left the death of
 his brother Ajax unrevenged.  This se-
 verity of the lather did not dishearten the
 son:  he  left Salamis, and retired to  Cy-
 prus, where he built a town, which he
 caUed Salamis,  after his native country.
 He attempted, to no purpose, to recover
 the island of Salamis, after his father's
 death.  Some  suppose  that Teucer did
 not return to Cyprus, but went to settle in
 Spain, and thence into Galatia.
   Teutoburg Forest ;  the place where
 Arminius defeated the Roman general
 Quinctilius Varus, in the year 9 A. D. (For
 information respecting this important  bat-
 tle, see Arminius, and Varus.) Though the
 ancients give the name of the Teutoburg
 forest to,the battle-ground, and a wood in
 Lippe,  near Paderbom, is still so call-
 ed, it is  not certain where the battle  was
 actually  fought, as the Romans probably
 comprehended  under the name a more
 extensive tract  than is at present  under-
 stood by it  The most correct opinion is,
 perhaps, that which places it some leagues
 west  of  Pyrmont,  at  a  place  where re-
 mains of ancient walls,  &c, have been
 found.  The names of several spots,  too,
 in that vicinity, have reference to the bat-
 tle, as Hermannsberg (Arminius's moun-
 tain), Varen, or Varusbusch (Varus's grove),
 Kriegsbusch (War-grove),  &.c.   There
 are fosses and redoubts, and two rows of
 graves, in which ashes,  bones and arms
are found, the latter having the appear-
ance of German origin.  There are many
 works relating to this point, among which
 we may mention  that of W.  Muller---
 Vermuthungcn iiber die Gegend, wo Her-
 mann den  Varus schlug (Hanover, 1824,
 4to., with a map).
   Teutones ; a warlike tribe, who, with
 the Cimbri (q. v.), Ambrones and  Tugu-
 rini, migrated, 113 B. C,  towards Italy.
 Whence they came is uncertain; most
 probably they  were  of  the  Germanic
 stock.   After they and their  allies had
 several times defeated  the Romans, they
 were at length routed, 102 B. C, by Ma-
 rius, near the site of Aix, in France.—For
 more information, see J. C. Pfister's His-
 tory of the  Germans from original Sources
 (1st vol. Hamburg, 1829, in German). See
 the following article.
   Teutonic ; that which  belongs to the
 Teutones. (q. v.)  Thus we ^ay, " Teutonic
 tribes," and particularly "Teutonic stock of
 languages," by which all the languages of
 the Germanic family  are meant.  The
 name is not applied specially to the idiom
 of the Teutones, but is merely a scientific
 tenn, having reference to Teut (see Tuis-
 con) and   Teutschen,  or Deutschen (the
 name which the  Germans  give  them-
 selves), because German is now used more
 particularly of the  modern German, and
 Teutonic suggests a time when the many
 languages, belonging to the same famUy,
 had not yet assumed the shape of distinct
 idioms.   (See the article Germany, divis-
 ion German Language.) The  languages
 now classed under the  Germanic  or
 Teutonic family or stock, are the follow-
 ing:—1.  Northern languages,  to which
 belong, a. the Scandinavian (q v.), with its
 divisions—the Swedish (comprising two
 dialects,  those of  Dalecarlia and Goth-
 land), the Danish, and the dialects which
 are spoken  in Norway  and some of the
 Orkney islands (q. v.) ; and,  6. the Ice-
 landic : 2. German, which is divided into,
 a. the  Franconian dialect, from which
 originated  the Suabian (Alemannic)  of
 the middle  ages, the Upper German, and
 the (so called) Cimbrian ; b. the Saxon or
 Sassic (to which belong the Anglo-Saxon,
 with its daughter, the English,  q. v.), and
 the dialect spoken  in  Lower  Scotland,
similar,  in  many respects,  to  the parent
stock (see Scotland); also the Lower Sax-
on (q. v.), or Plattdeutsch,  and  the  Fris-
ian and Dutch : 3. the Mcesogothic,  in
which  the  most ancient monument of
the Germanic languages, the translation
of the  Bible  by  Ulphilas (q. v.), of the
fourth century, is written.  Othere  have
divided  the Germanic stock   thus:—1.
German  branch, properly so caUed, em- 
208
TEUTONIC—TEXAS.
bracing, a. Upper German; b. Lower Ger-
man (the latter of which includes  the
Frisian,  Netherlandish and Dutch, and
Lower Saxon,  or Plattdeutsch);  c. Cen-
tral German ; d. High German : 2. Scan-
dinavian branch, comprehending, a.  Da-
nish ;  6. Norwegian;  c.  Icelandic;   d.
Swedish : 3. English, under which  fall
the Anglo-Saxon and Scottish.—Respect-
ing the mixture of the Germanic stock in
most of the languages of Europe, see  the
part of the article Germany already refer-
red to.
  Teutonic Order.  This  religious or-
der of knights was  founded,  in 1190, by
Frederic, duke  of Suabia, during a cru-
sade in the Holy Land, at the time of  the
siege of Acre,  and  intended to be con-
fined to  Germans of noble rank ; hence
its  name.  The rule  of  the order was
similar to that  of the Templare.  The
original object of the association was to
defend the Christian religion against  the
infidels, and to take care of the sick in
the Holy Land.  As the order was dedi-
cated to the virgin Mary, the knights call-
ed themselves also  Brethren of the Ger-
man house of our Lady of Jerusalem. The
dress of the members was black, with a
white  cloak, upon  which was worn a
black cross  with a  silver  edging.  The
grand master lived at first  at Jerusalem,
but afterwards,  when the Holy Land fell
again under the power of the Turks, at
Venice,  and,  from  1297,  at  Marburg.
By degrees, the order made  several con-
quests, and  acquired great  riches.   At
the beginning of the fifteenth century, it
had reached the highest pitch of its pow-
er.  Its territory extended from the Oder
to the  gulf  of Finland,  and its annual
revenue was calculated at 800,000 marks.
But it  afterwards gradually  declined, in
consequence of its luxury and dissensions.
In the year 1229,  the Teutonic  knights
were called  in by the Poles  to aid them
against  the Prussians, who, also, after a
war of fifty-three years, were  forced to
acknowledge the supremacy of the order,
and  to  embrace the Christian religion.
They also reduced the Sclavonian coun-
tries along the Baltic, particularly after
their union (1237) with the  Brethren of
the  Sword  in  Livonia.   In 1309,  the
grand master fixed his seat at Marienburg,
in Prussia.   B.ut the government of  the
order became  so oppressive, that West
Pmssia submitted, in the fifteenth centu-
ry, to Poland; and the order was obliged
to hold East Prussia under the suprema-
cy of Poland.   The endeavor to acquire
independence brought on a war with Po-
land, the result of which was, that the or-
der lost also East Pmssia, which, in 1525,
was granted  to  tiie  grand master,  the
margrave  Albert of Brandenburg, as an
hereditary  duchy, under the sovereignty
of Poland.  Afterwards the head of the
order, from 1527, had his seat at Mergen-
theim, in  Suabia, at present part of the
kingdom of Wiirtemberg,  and became a
spiritual prince of the empire.'   The elev-
en  bailiwicks (provinces)  were divided
into commanderies,  comprising  togeth-
er 850  square  miles,  containing 88,000
inhabitants.  By the peace of Presburg,
1805, the emperor of Austria obtained the
dignity, rights and revenue of grand mas-
ter  of the  Teutonic order. In the war
with Austria, 1809, Napoleon abolished
this order, at Ratisbon, April 24. Its lands
fell  to the  princes in whose territory they
were situated.   The  archduke Anthony
calls himself,  at present, grand master of
the   Teutonic order  in the empire of
Austria.
  Teviot, a river of Scotland, which
rises in Mosspaul, on the borders of Dum-
friesshire,  passes by Hawick, and  joins
the  Tweed at Kelso.  The valley which
it waters,  comprising  the  most of  Rox-
burghshire, is called Teviotdale.
  Tewksbury;  a  town in England, in
Gloucestershire, 104 miles west of Lon-
don ; Ion. 2° & W.; lat. 52° 2' N.; popu-
lation in 1821, 4962.  It is situated at the
conflux  of the  Severn and  Avon,  in u
beautiful vale, and is  a handsome town
consisting mostly of three principal streets
The houses are chiefly built of brick.   Tho
church called Abbey church is a noble pile
of building, and one of the largest in Eng
land which is not collegiate or cathedral
It contains many interesting monuments,
and  is the only remains of  the celebrated
monastery of Tewksbury, founded by the
Saxons  in 715.  Tewksbury  has  been
long noted for  its  mustard; but it  is at
present chiefly distinguished for its manu-
facture of stockings.   It serds two mem-
bers to parliament.  Near  this town was
fought a bloody battle, between the parties
of York and Lancaster, which put a final
period to the power of the latter. The field
on which it was fought, about half a mile
from the  town, is called  bloody meadow.
(See the articles Edward IV, and Marga-
ret of Anjou.)
  Texas;  formerly a  province attached
to the viceroyalty of  Mexico, now, with
Cohahuila, forming a state in the Mexi-
can confedeircy.  Its contiguity to the U.
States, and its rapidly increasing popula-
tion, consisting chiefly of Anglo-Ameri- 
TEXAS—THALES.
209
 can emigrants, render it, although at pres-
 ent  thinly  peopled, and  possessing little
 wealth, of great  interest  The state of
 Cohahuila  and Texas is, indeed, likely, at
 some future period, to be the most opu-
 lent, powerful and civilized in the Feder-
 ation, from the  advantages of  a  soil of
 surprising  fertility, a great facUity of in-
 ternal communication  by means of nu-
 merous rivers intereecting it, and a geo-
 graphical position highly favoring its  in-
 tercourse both with the tT. States and the
 old world.  It has a seacoast 350 miles
 long, affording, by means of its numerous
 rivers, intercourse, at a great number of
 points, with the gulf of Mexico.  Although
 the mouths of these rivers seldom admit
 vessels  drawing  more than ten  feet of
 water, the Red river has depth sufficient
 for ships of 400 tons. (See Red River, and
 Mexico,  Gulf of.)  It  is separated from
 Louisiana  by the Sabine  river,  on the
 east, and from Arkansas, on the north, by
 Red river: the extent and population we
 cannot give with precision.   Most of the
 productions of tropical climates grow here
 in great perfection, and the cotton is equal
 to the finest produced within the U. States.
 The face of the country is generally level,
 and a great portion of it consists of im-
 mense prairies.  The principal rivers are
 the Trinity,  the  Brassos (600  miles in
 length), and the Colorado  (450  miles).
 The chief  towns  are Nacogdoches, with
 about 300 inhabitants, St. Antonio, on the
 Guadaloupe, with  1200 inhabitants, and
 Cohahuila.  An  attempt  was made,  in
 1827, to erect Texas  into an independent
 republic, by the name of Fredonia; but it
 was easily  put down by a small  Mexican
 force, and the Fredonians were driven out
 of the country.   As  slavery is abolished
 in Mexico, much difficulty has also arisen
 on this point, between the government
 and  the  Anglo-American  colonists, who
 wished to retain their slaves.
   Texel, or Tessel ;  an  island  of the
 province of North Holland,  about eleven
 miles in length, and  six  in its greatest
 breadth; Ion. 4° 40'  E.; lat. 53°  5' N.;
 population, 5000.  It is  situated  at  the
 entrance of the Zuyder Zee, and separated
 from North Holland by the narrow chan-
 nel of Mars-Diep.  The soil is well fitted
 for sheep  pasture, and it is noted for
 cheese.  It has a capacious and good har-
 bor, and a fort,  which commands the en-
trance.  Besides the petty town  of the
same name, it contains six villages.  The
land is fertile  in  pasture,  and the whole
well secured  with dikes  of prodigious
strength  and height.   Near this  island
 was the celebrated sea-fight between the
 fleet of Holland, under admiral Tromp,
 and that  of England,  under  admiral
 Blake, in 1653, in which Tromp was killed.
 In 1673, a battle was fought between the
 fleet of Holland and the united fleets of
 England and France.
   Th.  (See T.)
   Thaarup, Thomas,  one  of the  most
 esteemed lyrical and dramatic poets of
 Denmark,  was born at Copenhagen, in
 1749, and  died in 1821.   Several of his
 productions have  been  translated   into
 German.
   Thaddeus, or Jude.  (See Judas.)
   Thais, the mistress of Alexander the
 Great, was a native of Athens.  She is
 said to have instigated Alexander to set
 fire to Pereepolis, the residence of the
 Persian kings, in revenge for the injuries
 done to her native city by Xerxes, and to
 have prompted him, when inflamed with
 drinking, to throw the firet torch himself
 She was afterwards  the  mistress,   and
 finally became the wife, of Ptolemy, king
 of Egypt.
   Thal ; German for valley or dale; found
 in many geographical names, as Schbnthal
 (Fair valley).
   Thales,  a native of Miletus, in Ionia,
 or, according to some, of Phoenicia, the
 earliest philosopher of Greece,  and the
 founder of the  Ionian  school, was  born
 about 640  B. C, and at  first turned his
 attention  to politics,  but  subsequently
 devoted himself to philosophical studies.
 His political career could not have  been
 very distinguished, since Plato classes
 him among those sages  who had  little
 concern in public affaire.   In his mature
 years,  he is said to have made several
 visits to Egypt,  where  he calculated the
 heights of the pyramids, and received in-
 struction from the priests.   From them
 he probably acquired a knowledge of ge-
 ometry, in which, however, his researches
 seem to have carried  him  beyond his
 teachers.  After his return, his reputation
 for learning and wisdom became so great,
 that he was reckoned among the seven
 wise men, and his sayings were in the
 highest cs eem among the ancients.   To
 the Ionians he gave the wise counsel to
 form a general confederacy,  for the  pur-
 pose of resisting the Persian power, and
 to make Teos the seat of the union.  He
 also dissuaded the  Milesians from enter-
 ing into an alliance with Croesus against
 Cyrus.  These are the only accounts con-
cerning the political life of Thales, which
have been preserved to us.  According to
the most commonly received  opinion, he 
210                         THALES—THANE.
died about B. C. 548, while present at the
Olympic games, exhausted by heat and
the infirmities of age.   His philosophical
doctrines were taught orally, and preserved
only by oral tradition, until some of the
later Greek philosophers, particularly Ar-
istotle, committed them to writing several
hundred years after his death.  He con-
sidered water, or rather fluidity, the ele-
ment of all things, and that every natural
object  had its  peculiar fluid  principle,
which contributed  to  its  preservation.
He taught that all natural phenomena are
produced by the condensation  and rare-
faction of water, and  are resolvable into
this element   Earth is condensed water;
air is rarefied water; and fire rarefied air.
If water is the origin of all things, it must
not be considered as dead matter, but as
a life-giving  principle, which  he  also
called  the soul of the world, or the divine
principle.  When he taught that the uni-
verse was pervaded by demons, or spirits,
and assigned a soul to  inanimate  objects,
he meant that this creative, moving, forming
power, was necessarily diffused and at work
throughout the  universe, as an essential
property of the original principle.  This
notion also served to  connect his philo-
sophical system with the popular religion;
but he did not confound these demons,
or powers, with the natural objects which
they governed.   The  philosophical  doc-
trines of Thales are, however, but imper-
fectly understood, on account of the want
of written memorials.   Among his max-
ims, or prudential sayings, is  the  cele-
brated TvoiOl atavrov (Know thyself).   The
accounts of his physical and astronomical
knowledge are very contradictory.   He
is said to have first divided the year into
365 days.  The story that he foretold an
ecUpse of the sun, although he may only
have indicated the year of its occurrence,
implies a more correct knowledge of the
solar  system than he  and  his disciples
appear, from the statements of Plutarch
and  Diogenes  Laertius, to  have  pos-
sessed ; that is, supposing his prediction
to  have  been founded  on his own  ob-
servations and  calculation.  It is,  how-
ever, probable that he may have  become
acquainted with  the   approach of an
eclipse during his residence in Egypt, or
through his connexions with the Phoeni-
cians,  who were  skilful astronomers, or
may  have  learned   some  mechanical
method of calculating it At any rate, it
is  worthy of note, that  the Ionic school
first taught that the stars were  merely
material  bodies, and not, according to the
popular notion, divine  beings.
  Thalia ; one of the nine Muses.  She
was venerated, by the country people, as
the preserver of "growing plants, and the
inventress of agriculture and arboriculture.
She was also the Muse of comedy, which
had its  origin  in  rural  usages, and is
usually represented with the comic mask
(q. v.), and the  shepherd's crook (pedum)
in her hand. (See Muses.)  One  of the
Graces was  also  called  Thalia.   (Sec
Graces.)   The name signifies, in the origi-
nal Greek, flourishing, blooming.
  Thamas Kouli  Khan.  (See  Nadir
Shah.)
  Thames (anciently Tamesis); a river of
England, which takes its source in the
Cotswold hUls,  and forms a stream  near
Lechlade, navigable for barges. The chief
spring, or Thameshead, is about three
miles from Cheltenham, whence  it pro-
ceeds  to Oxford,  Dorchester,  Henley,
Windsor, Staines, Kingston, Richmond,
Brentford, Hammersmith, Battersea, West-
minster, London,  Greenwich, Woolwich,
Gravesend, Tilbury Fort, and at the Nore
joins  the Medway, and enters the  sea.
The tide runs as far up as  Richmond,
about seventy miles from the sea.  Large
ships of war can go up to Deptford; mer-
chant ships  of 700 or 800 tons, as for as
the port  at London.  The canal  naviga-
tion of the Thames, as well as the docks,
and other great  works connected with it,
are very complicated and extensive.   The
length is  230 miles.  (For an  account of
the docks, see Docks, and London, and
for  the Thames tunnel,  the article Lon-
don.)
  Thamyris, or Thamyras ; a celebrated
Thracian poet, who flourished anterior to
Homer.  He  obtained the prize for sing-
ing at the Pythian games, and he accom-
panied himself on  the  lyre.  Plato  sets
him by the side of Orpheus, Olympus and
Phemius, and asserts  that  no one  ever
equalled  him in singing or in  playing on
the flute and lyre,  and that, therefore,
after his  death,  his soul took up its resi-
dence  in the body  of the nightingale.
Strabo compares him to Musaeus.  There
is a well-known fable of his having chal-
lenged the Muses to a contest in singing.
The latter were victorious, and punished
his audacity by depriving him of his sight,
and of his musical talents, and  breaking
his lyre.   (Iliad, II,  595.)  He  is repre-
sented as the inventor of the Dorian mode.
None of his productions  have  come down
to us.
  Thane ; the name of an ancient rank
among  the   English  or Anglo-Saxons.
Skene makes the thane to have been equal 
THANE—THEATRE.
211
in dignity  to  an earl's  6on.   Camden
says, the thanes were  only dignified by
the offices which they bore.  Their origin
is referred  to  Canute.  (See Sword.)  A
freeman, not noble, was raised to the rank
of a  thane  by acquiring a certain portion
of land, by making three  voyages at sea,
or by receiving holy  orders. (See the ar-
ticle  Great  Britain, division Civil State.)
  Thanet, Isle  of  ; a district of Eng-
land, county of Kent, at the mouth of the
Thames, separated from the main land by
the river  Stour on  the  south, and the
Nethergong on  the  west.   It extends
about nine miles from east to west, and
eight  from north to  south.  The soil is
dry; the air  pure and bracing; and the
prospect extensive,  comprehending an
expanse of rich and  highly  cultivated
fields, and a delighiful view of the ocean,
varied with the shipping continually  pass-
ing and repassing.   The towns are  Mar-
gate, Ramsgate and  Broadstairs, all fre-
quented for sea bathing.
   Theano; wife of Metapontus, king of
Icaria.  She  was barren,  and,  her  hus-
band  being greatly  desirous of  having
heire, she presented  him some suppositi-
tious children as her offspring.  She after-
wards  actually became a mother; and
when her  own children  had grown up,
she pereuaded  them to attempt the  lives
of the others,  while engaged in the chase.
In the struggle, however, her own chil-
dren were  slain, and Theano died of de-
spair.
   Theatines ; a religious order of regu-
lar priests,  founded,  in 1524, by St. Caie-
tan of Thiene, and the bishop of Chieti
(anciently  Theate), who  was afterwards
pope Paul  IV.  They bound themselves,
besides the usual monastic vows (q. v.), to
preach against heretics, to take charge of
the cure of souls, to attend the sick and
criminals,  and to trust entirely to Provi-
dence, owning no property, and not even
collecting alms, but  expecting the volun-
tary gifts of the charitable. Some of their
churches and altars  are  sumptuous.  In
Italy, and  particularly  in  Naples, the or-
der is numerous and influential; and the
bishops are chiefly taken from their  num-
ber.  In Spain  and  Poland, it has also
flourished considerably; but it has not ex-
tended much in other countries. (See Or-
ders,  Religious.)
   Theatre (from the Greek) signified, ori-
ginally, that part of the play-house where
the spectators sat, but was often applied to
the whole building.   Among the Greeks
and Romans, play-houses were the  chief
public edifices next to the temples: they
were not then  used merely for the pur-
pose of amusement, but the exhibitions
which took place in them had,  in part, a
religious character.  Being  consecrated
to Bacchus (Dionysus), they were often
called Dionysian, or Lenaan theatres; the
pieces were termed Dionysiaca, and the
actors Dionysic artists.  Every considera-
ble Greek and Roman city had its thea-
tre ; but at first the dramas (q. v.), and the
places where they were exhibited, were
equally rude.   A hut, formed without art
from the boughs of trees (whence the
name scene), was the stage, where, at the
feasts of Bacchus, dithyrambics, in honor
of the  god, were sung to the assembled
multitude.   Thespis  (q.  v.)  wandered
about with a  wagon, and upon this per-
formed  his rude plays.   Susarion  (562
B. C.) exhibited his satirical  pieces upon
a stage of boards; and gradually  the ge-
nius of Greece  produced those  master-
pieces of architecture whose remains wc
still admire.  The Romans,  their imita-
tors, surpassed them in the magnificence
and size of their edifices.   The firet stone
theatres were built  in the Grecian colo-
nies, in Etruria and Lower Italy; and at
Adria,  an Etruscan colony,  the remains
of a theatre are found, which is the oldest
known.  There were, likewise, stone the-
atres in Sicily sooner than in  Greece ; yet,
in the  seventieth Olympiad (500 B. C),
the theatre at Athens was of wood; but,
as it fell down during the performance of
a piece of Pratinas, on account of the im-
mense multitude assembled, a building of
stone was begun in the time of Themis-
toclts, which  was the firet of the kind in
Greece, was  called the theatre of Bac-
chus, and afterwards served as a model
for all the othere.   The common form of
the theatre was a semicircle; that of the
amphitheatre an  ellipse.   The Romans,
likewise, for a long time, had only wooden
buildings for their scenic representations.
These,  after  the  conclusion of the per-
formance for which they were  erected,
were taken down: there was merely a
stage for the players; the spectators were
obliged to stand.  Marcus .Emilius Lepi-
dus (died 13 B. C.) first built a  theatre
with seats for the spectators.   Soon after,
the theatres of Scaurus and Curio were
erected, which  were  distinguished for
their size and splendor, but were of wood,
and, after the plays were over, were taken
down.  The  theatre of Marcus ./Emilius
Scaurus, a contemporary  of Cicero and
Caesar, was exceedingly magnificent, and
so large that  it would contain 80,000 per-
sons.  The  building was adorned with 
312
THEATRE.
360 columns, placed in three rows, one
over the other: the lower  row, 38 feet
high, was of  marble,  and ornamented
with 3000 statues; the second  row was
of glass; the third of wood,  gilt.  The
theatre  of Curio was movable,  and was
converted from two theatres into an am-
phitheatre.  Pompey  was the first who
erected a stone  theatre in  Rome, the
remains of which now compose the pal-
ace Ursini.  It was  built after the plan of
the theatre of Mitylene, and was finished
under Caligula.  It held 40,000  pereons.
After the erection of this, stone  theatres
were built, not merely in Rome, but also
in other cities of the Roman government
From this time, also, the stages were cov-
ered with marble, and surrounded with
marble columns. At Nero's command they
were covered with gold ; and as the whole
of the  theatre, and  all that was put upon
the  stage, was gilt, or adorned with gold,
the  day  in  which this  happened was
called the golden.   Behind  the  stage, in
the  Roman  theatres,  which, as is well
known, had no roof, a covered colonnade
was erected, for the shelter of spectatore
in bad weather.  This was also  the case
in the theatre  of Pompey, which enclosed
a place filled  with trees and ornamented
with fountains and  statues.  Some time
after the Punic war, Qnintus Catulus in-
troduced into Rome, from Campania, the
custom of covering the theatre  and the
orchestra with a cloth, to protect  the per-
sons present from  the  weather.   The
cloth used was commonly dyed with pur-
ple  and other rich colors.  In later times,
the  finest and most costly linen was em-
ployed ; and Nero even appropriated to
that purpose a carpet, adorned with gold,
in the  middle of which  his  image was
wrought, surrounded with stars,  guiding
the  chariot of the sun.   In order to lessen
the  heat caused by  such a mass  of spec-
tators in such covered  theatres, very ex-
pensive  means  were resorted to.  Pom-
pey caused the passages, and the steps
leading to the seats,  to be moistened with
water.   Afterwards, a mixture  of wine
and water was used, in which was steeped
the  best Cilician saffron, in  order to pro-
duce an agreeable  perfume. This was
conducted through  pipes, concealed  in
the  walls of the theatre,  and was  raised
by pressure to the highest seats.  There
the   pipes  had very  small  openings,
through which the liquid issued in a fine
rain, and diffused coolness  through the
whole theatre. There was likewise some-
times a balsam mixed with the wine; and
frequently the statues, with  which  the
 theatre was ornamented, were employed
 in sprinkling it, they being made hollow,
 and the wine  carried through  them in
 pipes.  The theatres were built, whenever
 it was possible, upon  the  declivity of a
 hill, in order to. be able,  conveniently, to
 place the seats for the spectatore, like steps,
 one above  another.   If the place was
 level, it was necessary, of course, to sup-
 port  the  raised seats  artificially.   This
 was  less  frequently done  in the Greek
 theatres than  in the Roman.  The  form
 of the building was a semicircle,  the ends
 of which  were somewhat prolonged, and
 were  connected by a straight part.  It
 had three  principal parts: 1st, the thea-
 tre, properly so  called, that is, the place
 for the spectators, in the semicircle; 2d,
 the scene, or the place  for the players, in
 the straight part; 3d,  the  orchestra, the
 place  extending  from  the stage to the
 seats of the spectators.   In these resjiects
 the Greek and Roman theatres were es-
 sentially alike.   But they differed consid-
 erably in other particulars.  (See Orches-
 tra, and Proscenium.)   To the machinery,
 especially the Greek, belongs, 1st, the ma-
 chine, particularly so called,  at  the left
 entrance over the stage, in order to repre-
sent, in tragedy, the gods and heroes hov-
 ering in the air;  2d, the theologeion,
over the stage, for representing the gods
in Olympus; 3d, the crane, which was
let down in order to raise a person quickly
from  the stage; 4th, the hanging cords,
to support the  gods  and heroes hovering
in the air.   Other machines were placed
 under  the stage; as, for instance, one  to
elevate it.  Besides the theatres already
named, the  principal ones of antiquity
 were those at Segestus, Syracuse and Agy-
rium.  The  beautiful theatres at Corinth
and Sparta (of which  there are  still re-
mains), and at  Epidaurus and Megalopo-
lis, upon the island of ^Egina, were prob-
ably the most magnificent in Greece. Of
that at Epidaurus, extensive ruins are still
to be seen.  Of the ancient theatres  in
the  Italian cities, we mention only those
discovered in modern  times at Hercula-
neum and  Pompeii,  and those at Iguvium
in Umbria, at  Antioch  and  Pola.   In
Rome, the most remarkable, besides the
theatre of Pompey, were the theatre of
 Cornelius  Balbus, and that  of Marcellus,
which could contain 22,000  men.   In the
interior, as well as the exterior, the theatres
of the present day differ  essentially from
the Greek and Roman.—The early theat-
rical representations in  Germany took
place  either in the open air, or in build-
ings not specially appropriated to this pur- 
THEATRE—THEBES.
213
 pose.   The finest of the present theatres
 in Germany are that at Munich, the new
 one at Berlin, the theatre on the Wien, in
 Vienna, those at Carlsruhe and Darmstadt;
 in France, the theatre Francois, and that at
 Bordeaux. (See Paris Theatres.) In Italy,
 the largest are that in Naples (San  Car-
 lo), in Milan (the Scala) and that of Turin.
 The term theatre is also given to buildings
 for the delivery of anatomical lectures, ac-
 companied  with dissections; slso to the
 bouy of pieces, in  any language, written
 for  representation;  thus  we   say,  the
 French theatre, the English theatre, &c.
   Thebaid, or Thebais. (See  Statins.)
   Thebks ; an ancient city, and capital
 of Egypt, in the Thebaid, or Upper Egypt,
 on both sides of the Nile, about 260 miles
 south  of Cairo.   Thebes is  famous as
 " the city of a hundred gates," the theme
 and admiration of ancient  poets and his-
 torians, the wonder of travellers—" that
 venerable city," in the language of doctor
 Pocock, " the date of whose destruction is
 older than the  foundation of other cities,
 and the extent of whose ruins, and the
 immensity of whose colossal fragments,
 still offer so many astonishing objects, that
 one is riveted to the spot, unable to decide
 whither to direct the step or fix the atten-
 tion."   These ruins extend about  eight
 miles along  the Nile, from each bank to
 the sides of the enclosing mountains, and
 describe a circuit of twenty-seven miles.
 The most remarkable objects on the east-
 ern side are the  temples of Camac and
 Luxor; and on the western side are the
 Memnonium, or palace of Memnon, two
 colossal statues,  the sepulchres of the
 kings,  and  the temple of  Medinet Abu.
 The glory of Thebes belongs to  a period
  Srior to the commencement of authentic
  istory.  It  is  recorded only in the dim
 lights  of poetry  and  tradition, which
 might be suspected of fable, did not such
 mighty witnesses  remain to their truth.
 At the time of the Persian invasion, Mem-
 phis had supplanted  Thebes;  and the
 Ptolemies afterwards removed the seat of
 empire  to Alexandria.  Strabo  and Di-
 odorus described Thebes under the name
 of Diospolis, and gave such  magnificent
 descriptions of its  monuments as caused
 the fidelity of those  writers  to be called in
 question, till the observations of modern
travellers  proved their accounts to  have
fallen short of the reality.   At present, its
site presents only a few scattered villages,
consisting of miserable cottages, built in
the courts of the temples.   The ancient
strucures, however, remain in a state of
wonderful preservation. Almost the whole
 extent of eight miles  along  the river is
 covered with magnificent portals, obelisks,
 decorated with the most  beautiful  sculp-
 ture, forests of columns, and long avenues
 of  colossal statues.   The largest of these
 temples, and of any  in Egypt, is  that  at
 Carnac, on the site of the ancient Diospo-
 lis.  Diodorus describes it as thirteen sta-
 dia (about one and a half mile) in circum-
 ference, which nearly  agrees  with the
 observation of Denon.   It  has  twelve
 principal entrances;  and the body  of the
 temple, which is preceded  by a large
 court, consists of a prodigious hall or por-
 tico, the roof of which is supported by one
 hundred thirty-four columns, some twen-
 ty-six, others thirty-four feet in circumfer-
 ence: four beautiful  obelisks then mark
 the entrance to the shrine, which consists
 of three apartments, built entirely of gran-
 ite.  About one and  a  fourth mile above
 Carnac is the village and  temple of Lux-
 or.   This  temple, though not of such
 vast dimensions as that of Carnac, is in a
 superior style of architecture, and in more
 complete preservation.   The  entrance is
 thought to surpass every thing  else that
 Egypt  presents.  In  front are  the two
 finest obelisks  in the world, formed  of
rose-colored granite, and rising, as Denon
supposes, after allowing  for the portion
buried in the ground, to the height of 100
feet.  But the object which most attracts
attention consists in the sculptures which
cover the east wing of the northern front.
They contain, on  a great scale,  a repre-
sentation of a victory, gained by one  of
the ancient kings of Egypt over their
 Asiatic enemies.  The number of human
figures introduced amounts to 1500, 500
 on foot and 1000 in chariots.  The Mem-
 nonium (see Memnon), and the temple  of
Medinet Abu, are objects of great interest
both for the grandeur of their architecture
and the richness and variety  of their
sculptures.  The  tomb of Osymandyas,
the temple of Isis, the labyrinth, and the
 catacombs, also lie on the western side of
the Nile.   In  the interior of the  moun-
tains which rise behind these monuments
are found  objects less magnificent and
imposing indeed,  but not less interesting
—the tombs of the kings of Thebes. Sev-
eral of these were opened by Belzoni,and
 were found in a state of great preservation,
 with mummies in the sarcophagi, as well
as dispersed through the chambers.   The
 colossal statues have excited great admira-
 tion.  The largest has been broken off at
 the waist, and the upper part laid pros-
 trate on the back. It measures six feet
 and ten inches over the front, and  sixty- 
214
THEBES.
two feet round the shoulders.  Two other
colossal statues, about fifty feet high,  are
seated on the plain.  Champollion (Pricis
du Systtme Hieroglyphique) has decipher-
ed many of the inscriptions on these ruins.
That  the  magnificent ruins of  Carnac,
Luxor and Medinet Abu are  the  remains
of the hundred-gated Thebes, the earliest
capital of the world, cannot  be doubted.
According to the measurement made by
the French, the distance of these ruins
from  the  sea on  the north  amounts to
680,000 metres  (850 miles), and from  El-
ephantine on the south to 180,000 metres
(225 miles), corresponding  exactly with
the 6800 and 1800 stadia of Herodotus
(ii, 9).  Without   including  the  Hippo-
drome and Medamud (an  Arab  village),
the circumference  of the ruins is about
15,000 metres, agreeing with the  140 sta-
dia (174 miles) mentioned  by Diodoms
(i, 45) as  the ci cumference of  Thebes.
The origin of the name of this celebrated
city, as well as the  date of the foundation,
is unknown.  Theba of the Greeks is,
perhaps, derived from the Egyptian Thba-
ki (the city); and the No-Ammon of  the
Hebrews, and Diospolis of the Greeks, are
mere translations of the Egyptian  Thbaki-
antepi-Amoun (city of the Most High).—
See Champollion,  Egypte  sous les Pha-
raons, i, 218; and  the great work of  the
French   government,   Description  de
VEgypte (12 vols., folio, 25, 8vo.).
  Thebes (OnPai); the capital of Bceotia,
and one of the most celebrated cities of
Greece, the birth-place of Pindar, Epam-
inondas and Pelopidas.  It was  situated
on an elevated level, on which were  the
sources of the Dirce and Ismenus.  Cad-
mus, leading thither a Phoenician colony,
is said to have founded the city by build-
ing the citadel called Cadmea (B.C. 1500).
Amphion  buUt the  city around it, and  en-
closed it with a wall, having seven gates,
which he called from the  names of his
seven daughters by Niobe.   The circuit
of the city is said to have  been almost
seventy stadia. The environs were adorn-
ed with meadows  and gardens.  To  the
east was the celebrated fountain  G3dipo-
dia, in which  GEdipus purified  himself
after the murder of his father.  The city,
once the first in Greece, contained many
splendid temples  and public  buildings,
with numerous  statues.  In  the  time of
Pausanias (vui, &3,  1), with the  exception
of the citadel and the few houses contain-
ed in it, it was merely a heap of ruins.
The  Theban government was  at  first
monarchical,  and  three dynasties suc-
cessively  occupied the throne:  1.  the
Cadmeans, the descendants  of Cadmus,
till  Antesion;  2.  the three  Sparti, Am-
phion and Zethus, during the minority of
Laius, and  Creon  between  Lai us and
CEdipus;  3. the Boeotians, or last kings.
The sons of CSdipus, Eteocles (q. v.) and
Polynices, fell  in  single combat, each by
the hand of the other, after the latter had
called  in  the  Argives to his assistance.
Laodamas, son of Eteocles, next ascended
the  throne,  during whose  minority  his
great uncle Creon acted as regent.  The
Argives,  who  still  continued the war,
were all  slain  except Adrastus, at whose
suit Theseus marched against Creon, slew
him, and compelled the Thebans to suffer
the burial of the Argives,  which they had
hitherto prevented.   The sons or grand-
sons (Epigoni)  of the slaughtered princes,
ten  years later, revenged the death of
their ancestors.   The war called  the
"expedition of the seven against Thebes,"
and the war of the Epigoni, are celebrated
in the  early Grecian annals.    Led  by
Alcmteon  and Thersander, the Epigoni
(q. v.)  conquered  and destroyed  Thebes
(about  1215  B. C), and put  to death, or
drove out, Laodamas.  When Xanthus,
the last king of the Thebans,  fell in single
combat with Melanthus, king of Athens,
a democratical form of government was
substituted for the monarchical in Thebes
(about  1126 B. C.)  Thebes now  aspired,
in rivalry with Athens and Sparta, to ob-
tain  the supremacy in Greece.   But the
inactivity of the Thebans, and their per-
fidious leagues with  the  Persians, ob-
structed the growth of their power. Their
Boeotian towns fell off, and an  alliance
with Sparta, concluded with the design of
recovering their fonner  ascendency in
Bceotia, proved ineffectual.  Athens took
the Boeotians under her  protection, and
Thebes lost her dominion over  Bceotia,
which  now  became subject to the Athe-
nians.  In  the  Peloponnesian war,  the
Thebans  rendered  the most  important
services to the Spartans; and they were
successful in  several subsequent  ware
against Athens and Sparta   But Phcebi-
das, the Spartan commander,  finally pos-
sessed  himself of the Cadmea,  and  the
aristocratical party in Thebes gained  the
upper hand.  All sorts of oppression and
injustice were committed, until Pelopidas
and  Epaminondas headed  a conspiracy
which  put an end to the tyranny by  the
death of the tyrants  (B. C. 378). Those
two  chiefs were therefore named  Bceo-
tarchs amid the acclamations of the people.
The Spartan Cleombrotus invaded Bceo-
tia for the purpose of punishing  the au- 
THEBES—THEMIS.
215
thore of this revolution ;  and  Athens,
ulthough it  had favored the  conspiracy,
abandoned the  Thebans; but Pelopidas,
to excite the Athenians against  Sparta,
instigated Sphodrias, who had been left
in command of the  Spartan forces  by
Cleombrotus, to attack the Athenian port
Piraeus.  He was  repulsed, and  Athens
immediately declared war against Sparta.
The allies now gained several victories;
but  Athens finally concluded  a  peace
with the Lacedaemonians, under  the me-
diation  of Persia.   Thebes, nevertheless,
continued the  war, to preserve  Bceotia,
and gained those brilliant victories under
Epaminondas and  Pelopidas, which sud-
denly raised her above all the  Grecian
states.   Nearly  all  of the Peloponnesians
took part against Sparta, and formed alli-
ances with  Thebes.  The  Persians and
Athenians now joined the  Lacedaemoni-
ans, but were unable to effect  much; and
the war continued with almost uninter-
rupted success on the side of the Thebans
till the battle of Mantinea (B. C. 363),  in
which   Epaminondas  fell.    A  general
peace was then  negotiated by the  media-
tion of Artaxerxes, in  which  each party
was left in possession of its own territory.
Thebes, although for some  time still for-
midable, now began to  decline.   In the
sacred war (so  called because it was un-
dertaken on account of the alleged en-
croachments of the Phocensians  on the
possessions of  the Delphic temple, and
during which they stormed and plundered
the temple), in which all the  Grecian
states finally became  involved,  Thebes
took part against Phocis (354  B. G), and
subsequently entered  into  an  alliance
with the Athenians, and other  Greeks,
against  Philip  of  Macedon.   After  the
battle of Cheronaea, it was obliged to re-
ceive a  Macedonian garrison, and recall
the exiles.  After Philip's death, an insur-
rection  broke out  in Thebes, and an at-
tempt was made to drive the Macedoni-
ans from the Cadmea.  But Alexander
hastened to their relief, captured and de-
stroyed  (B. C. 335) the city, and reduced
the inhabitants  to slavery.  Twenty yeare
afterwards, Cassander rebuilt Thebes; but
it never recovered  its former importance.
In the war of the Romans against Mithri-
dates, king of Pontus, it joined the latter
out qf gratitude to Athens, and  was se-
verely chastised by the Romans.   From
this  time, the  Thebans disappear more
and more from  history. In its most flour-
ishing period, Thebes  was a very pop-
ulous city.  The inhabitants, like those of
Athens, were divided into three classes—
citizens, strangers and slaves.  The city
was, in a certain degree, the head of Bce-
otia, and was the leading power in a con-
federacy composed of several Boeotian
cities.  Public affaire  were discussed by
the four councils of the four districts into
which Bceotia was divided, and which,
together, chose eleven  Boeotarchs, and de-
cided in a general council composed of
delegates from each town.   The latter as-
sembly convened at Thebes.  The city
had its own senate:  the  command, in
war, and  the administration  of justice,
were intrusted to the Boeotarchs and po-
lemarchs,  who were  chosen annually.
Merchants  and mechanics could become
citizens, but could not hold office.   Chil-
dren who could not be supported by their
parents were not, as in other Grecian cit-
ies, exposed, but sold to  some wealthy
citizen as  slaves.   The Boeotian  cities
often attempted to dissolve their connex-
ion with Thebes, and  render  themselves
independent, but rarely with success.
  Theft.   (See Larceny.)
  Theism.  (See Deism.)
  Thelluson, Peter ;  a native of Geneva,
descended  from an  ancient  family of
French Protestants, who settled as a mer-
chant in London,  and acquired  an im-
mense  fortune.  He died  at  his seat at
Plastow, in Kent,  July 21, 1797.   The
testamentary disposition which he made
of his property was not a little extraordi-
nary.  To his widow and children (three
sons and three daughters)  he bequeathed
about  £100,000,  and  the  remainder,
amounting to more than £600,000, he left
to trustees, to accumulate during the lives
of his  three sons, and the  lives of their
sons; then the estates  directed to be pur-
chased with the produce of the accumu-
lating  fund, to be conveyed to  the eldest
male descendant of his three  sons, with
benefit of survivorship.  This singular will,
being contested by  the heirs at law, was
finally  established  by  a decision of the
house of lords, June 25,1805. It, however,
occasioned the passing of the act of parlia-
ment of the 39th and 40th  of George III,
cap. 98, restraining the power of devising
property, for the purpose of accumulation,
to t .venty-one years after the death of the
testator.  In case there should  be no such
heir as the devisee described in the will,
the accumulated property  is to be  added
to the sinking fund.
  Theme, in music, is a  series of notes
which  is taken as the text of a new com-
position.
  Themis, goddess of order among the
Greeks, was the daughter of Coelus  and 
216
THEMIS—THEMISTOCLES.
Terra (Heaven and Earth); according to
some, of Helios, or the Sun.  Jupiter was
inflamed by her charms; and,  although
she for a long time avoided his embraces,
her footsteps finally betrayed her  near
Ichnae, in Macedonia, and she became the
wife of the god of gods.  She bore him
the Hours and the Fates (Parcae); and her
daughter Dice (see Hours), the goddess of
justice,  is  often confounded with  her.
According to Homer, she dwelt in Olym-
pus, and attended to the just distribution
of food at meals, and to every thing re-
lating to the preservation of order.  Or-
pheus  (Hymn lxxviii) sings of her: the
black-eyed goddess firet presided over the
Delphic oracle, aud delivered oracles to
the gods: she  taught  ApoUo  right and
justice : she instructed mortals in the holy
rites of Bacchus: from  her come all the
mysteries  and  divine  worship.   It was
Themis who warned Jupiter and Neptune
not to marry Thetis.  According to Ho-
mer, she sits by the side of Jupiter, and
converses with him.
  Themisto.  (See Athamas.)
  Themistocles, a Grecian commander,
was born at Athens (B. C. 514), and early
displayed  a remarkable energy of mind.
He paid Uttle regard to morals and to the
fine arts, which formed the chief objects
of attention in the education of the Athe-
nians,  but eagerly studied the  political
sciences.  Love of  glory was his ruling
passion.   After the  victory at Marathon,
he was observed to be peculiarly thought-
ful ; and, on being asked the reason,  he
replied, "The trophies  of Miltiades will
not let me sleep." His conduct was mark-
ed by many extravagances and  excesses:
and, in order to acquire notoriety, he ex-
hibited  public  spectacles, and  exceeded
his means in his expenditures. The Athe-
nians were at that time divided  into two
parties, the  aristocratical and the demo-
cratical.  Themistocles courted  the favor
of  the  latter, while Aristides (q. v.) was
connected with the former.  His supple-
ness, and his abiUty in the administration
of public  affairs, soon  gained him great
reputation;  but his fame was less  pure
than that of Aristides, and his patriotism
was weaker than his ambition.   Although
the Persians had been repulsed by their
defeat at Marathon,  Themistocles foresaw
that they would, nevertheless, renew the
war; and he prevailed upon the Atheni-
ans to  apply the product of their silver
mines, which had previously been distrib-
uted among the citizens, to the  augment-
ation of their navy.   During the exile  of
Aristides, Themistocles enjoyed  the great-
est  influence in Athens.  Three years
afterwards, Xerxes renewed the prepara-
tions for tiie subjugation of Greece,  and
summoned the Greeks to submit to him.
According to Plutarch, Themistocles in-
stigated the Athenians to put to death the
Grecian  interpreter who bore this mes-
sage ; but, according to  Herodotus, it was
at the time of the first  Pereian invasion,
that an act of this  kind was committed.
Themistocles exhorted the Greeks to  for-
get their domestic divisions, and  to unite
in opposition to  the  common enemy.
He prevailed upon Epicydes, whose nom-
ination to the post of commander-in-chief
had been procured  by intrigue, to resign
that place for a sum of money, and ob-
tained  his own appointment to the com-
mand.   His advice to occupy the pass of
Thermopylae (see Thermopyla, and Leon-
idas) was, however, neglected, and Bceo-
tia was soon entirely overrun by the  ene-
my, who immediately began to advance
upon Athens.   In  this  emergency, The-
mistocles, supported by the reply  of the
Delphic oracle, which had been consulted
at his suggestion, proposed that the Athe-
nians should convey their women and chil-
dren to places of security, abandon their
city to the Persians, and that all who were
capable of bearing arms should take to their
shipy.  This proposition was acceded to,
and all the exiles, among  whom  was
Aristides, were recalled.  The latter  now
gave his support to his former rival.  The
command of the allied  fleet, though  con-
sisting  chiefly of Athenian ships, was in-
trusted to Eurybiades,  a Spartan.  The
latter, rendered  insolent  by his elevation,
threatened to strike  Themistocles, in  con-
sequence of some  expression which fell
from him, while consulting  concerning
the plan of operations: " Strike, but hear,"
replied  Themistocles, calmly; and  Eu-
rybiades listened to his arguments, and
adopted  his  proposition.   The  conse-
quence of this measure was the battle of
Salamis (B. C. 480), in which the Persian
fleet was almost totally destroyed,  and
Greece was saved.   The chief glory of
this victory is due to Themistocles, who,
before  and during the battle, displayed
not less valor than  prudence  and  genius
for command.  He now advised the allies
to sail to the  Hellespont, and destroy the
bridge of boats which  Xerxes had  con-
structed there, in order to  intercept the
retreat of the Persians.  His advice was
not  followed, from fear of  the  conse-
quences of driving an enemy, still  formi-
dable .by his numbers,  to despair.  The-
mistocles, however, sent word to Xerxes 
THEMISTOCLES.
217
that the Greeks meditated the destruction
of the  bridge, and thus hastened his re-
treat out of Greece.  Artifice  and  cun-
ning,  which  now  too  often  displayed
themselves in acts of injustice, were lead-
ing traits in his character.  While he be-
sieged Andros, he extorted contributions
of money from the neighboring islands,
by threats of invasion, and applied  it to
his own purposes.  Another time, while
he lay with a fleet at Pegasa, in Magnesia,
he announced to the Athenians that he
had a  proposition to  make  to them, the
execution of which would be  highly ad-
vantageous to the state, but that he could
not deliver  it in public.  Aristides  was
therefore sent to receive it in private. He
declared to the citizens that the project
of Themistocles was in the highest degree
advantageous, but  was equally unjust;
and it was therefore' voted not to adopt it.
The plan of Themistocles was  to burn all
the ships of the  fleet except those of the
Athenians, and thus to give Athens the
dominion of  the  sea.  The victory  of
Salamis  had raised the fame of The-
mistocles  throughout all  Greece to the
highest pitch; and his services were ac-
knowledged and  rewarded,  not only  by
his native city,  but by the  other states.
After Athens was  rebuilt, Themistocles
proposed  that all the citizens  should be
admitted to participate in the government,
and that the archons should  be chosen
from the whole body of the  people with-
out distinction.   This  proposition   was
adopted ;  but his plan of fortifying Ath-
ens, so as to render it secure against  sur-
prise, although received with favor by the
Athenians, aroused the jealousy of the
Laceda-moiiians.   They accordingly op-
posed the design, under the pretext that,
if it should again fall into the hands of the
Persians, it would serve as a strong-hold
from  which  they would  be  able to  con-
quer all the other Grecian states.   The-
mistocles was sent to Sparta  to conduct
the negotiations on this matter.  By vari-
ous delays and artful evasions, he contriv-
ed to protract the final decision so  long,
that the Athenians were enabled, by great
exertions, to complete their  walls before
the Spartans were aware of it.  He  then
broke off the negotiations, and maintained
that whatever was advantageous to  one's
country was just. It was by  his influence,
also, that the Pirtpus, the principal  port
of Athens, was constmcted, and connect-
ed  with  the  city  by  the Long Walls.
While Themistocles was  thus acquiring
the gratitude of his country, he drew up-
on  himself the  hatred  of the Spartans,
   VOL. XII.         19
not only  on account of  the  deception
which he  had practised upon them, but
also  by his obstructing their project  to
place themselves at tiie head of the Gre-
cian states.  They had proposed that all
of those states which had not taken  part
in the  Persian  war should be excluded
from the  Amphictyonic council.  The-
mistocles perceived that this measure, by
excluding Thebes, Argos, and other pow-
erful cities, from the Grecian confederacy,
would give Sparta the ascendency.   He
succeeded in preventing its adoption; and
the  Lacedaemonians  therefore  leagued
themselves with his enemies in Athens, to
effect his overthrow.   His own manners
were by no means calculated to conciliate
his enemies, and  he  was banished from
Athens  (B. C. 471)  by the ostracism.
While  in exile at Argos, Pausanias, the
Spartan, communicated to him a  plot
against  the freedom  of Greece, in  the
hope that  Themistocles, under  existing
circumstances, would be induced to favor
it  But he rejected the proposition, with-
out,  however, betraying Pausanias, after
whose death  the  letters of Themistocles
were found, which proved that the subject
had been discussed between them.  The
Lacedaemonians accordingly accused him
to the Athenians of being an accomplice
in the conspiracy; and he was summoned
by the  latter to answer for his conduct in
presence of the Grecian states.   Fearing
the result of such an investigation, The-
mistocles retired to Corcyra, to the inhab-
itants of which he had  rendered impor-
tant  services.  Not feeling secure here,
he withdrew to Epirus, and afterwards
sought the protection of Admetus, kmg of
the Molossians, whom  he  had formerly
offended.  To  assure himself a friendly
reception,  he seized  an opportunity to
throw himself upon his knees before the
household gods of Admetus,  with  the
king's  son in  his arms.   But  the  ven-
geance of the Spartans pursued  him even
here.  They threatened to make war up-
on Admetus, if he should continue to pro-
tect the traitor, as they termed Themisto-
cles.  Admetus therefore supplied  him
with money, and sent him to  a port  on
the ^Egean sea, whence, after several ad-
ventures, he  reached Asia in safety, and
finally arrived  at the Persian  court  A
price of 200 talents had been set on his
head by the king Artaxerxes  Longima-
nus; but he procured access to Artaxerx-
es. and received  himself the 200 talents
which had been offered  for his head, with
the promise of greater rewards, in case he
would  give  information concerning the 
218
THEMISTOCLES—THEOCRITUS
state of Greece.  The discourse which
he is said to have addressed to the king
on this occasion, and the letter to Arta-
xerxes, which is attributed to him, are
undoubtedly spurious. He asked for time
to learn the Pereian language ;  ana, in the
space ofa year, he was able to appear at
the royal court like a native. His address
and  talents gained him the favor of Ar-
taxerxes, and  he was treated with the
greatest distinction.   The close of his life
is enveloped in obscurity.  Plutarch re-
lates that, an insurrection having been ex-
cited in  Egypt against the Pereian gov-
ernment, by the intrigues  of the Atheni-
ans, Artaxerxes prepared to send  an army
against Greece, and called upon Themis-
tocles to  fulfil his previous promises  of
assistance; and that, to  avoid  bearing
anns against his country, Themistocles,
after having sacrificed to the gods, and
bade his friends farewell, took poison at
Magnesia  (B. C.  449), in the sixty-fifth
year of his age.   Thucydides merely says
that  he died of  a disease.   Plutarch and
Cornelius  Nepos have each left us a life
of him.  The twenty-one letters which
are ascribed  to  him  (edited by  Schot-
ten,  1710, and  by Bremer,  1776)  are
proved by Bentley, in his Dissertation on
the Letters of Phalaris, to be spurious.
  Thenard, Louis Jacques, a  celebrated
chemist, was bom in  1777, at  Louptiere,
near Nogent sur Seine.  He early applied
himself sedulously to the  study of chem-
istry, and to making experiments, and, at
the age of twenty, was chemical teacher
in the principal  pubhc  laboratories  of
Paris, and at the polytechnic school.  He
also contributed to various scientific jour-
nals, and, by that means, widely extended
his reputation. When he was twenty-six,
he was made professor of chemistry in
the college of France, and, not long after,
was  received  into the  institute, in the
place of  Fourcroy.  He  is particularly
distinguished for his skill and ingenuity
in conducting experiments.   His  works
are Recherches physico-chimiques  (2 vols.,
1816), and Traiti flimentaire,  thiorique et
pratique (4 vols., 1818; 5th ed., 1827, 6
vols).  He is also author of numerous trea-
tises in the Annates de Chimie, and in the
Transactions of the  Society of Arcueil,
and  is likewise one of the editors of the
Journal de Physique.  At  the time of the
coronation of Charles X,  he was created
baron.
  Theobald, Louis, a miscellaneous wri-
ter, was the author of various works, crit-
ical, poetical and dramatic, but merits re-
membrance only as a  commentator  on
Shakspeare, being the first who properly
referred to the books and learning of that
great dramatist's time.   After publishing,
in 1726, a work entitled Shakspeare Re-
stored, he gave an edition of that author,
which immediately foUowed the publica-
tion of that of Pope, from whom, although
in correspondence with him, he conceal-
ed his design ; hence his place as the hero
of the Dunciad.   Besides twenty dramat-
ic pieces written by himself, he produced
on  the stage, in 1720,  a tragedy entitled
the  Double Falsehood, which he  attrib-
uted to  Shakspeare, but which, in the
opinion  of  doctor  Fanner, belongs to
Shirley.   He died in 1744.
  Theocracy (from Qtos, God, and Kparo.,
power) is that government of which the
chief is, or is believed to be, God himself,
and  the laws the  commandments of God.
The priests, in such a government, are the
promulgators and expounders  of the di-
vine commands, the representatives of the
invisible  Ruler, who, however, can also
call  other persons to this dignity.  (See
Hebrews, and Moses.)  In early periods, in
which belief predominates over the spirit
of investigation,  theocracy will often en-
joy more authority  than other forms of
government  The human and divine are
yet mixed, and the  law is considered as
sent from above.
  Theocritus, the chief of pastoral poets,
was  born at Syracuse,  and  flourished
about B.  C. 280.   Having gone to Egypt,
he was treated with much distinction by
Ptolemy  Lagus   and  Ptolemy Philadel-
phia, but afterwards returned to Syra-
cuse, where he is said to have been put to
death  by Hiero II, on  account of some
offensive  expressions.   We have  under
his name thirty idyls, or pastoral  poems,
of which, however, several are probably
by other authors.  Although he is one of
the oldest idyllic poets whose  works are
known to  us, he is not to be  considered
the firet who wrote in this manner, which
originated, and was carried to  perfection,
in Sicily.  Most of his  idyls have a dra-
matic form, and  consist of the alternate
responses of musical shepherds.  Writing
in the Doric dialect, which is peculiarly
adapted to the simplicity of rural  life, his
language is strong and harmonious. The
best  editions of his works (which are
usually joined with those of Moschus and
Bion) are Reiske's  (Leipsic, 1765), War-
ton's (Oxford, 1770, 2  vols., 4to.), Valke-
naer's (Leyden, 1773,1779,1781 or 1810),
Kiessling's   (Leipsic,  1819),  Scheefer's
(1809—1812).  "Elton's Specimens  of the
Classic Poets (3 vols., 8vo., 1814) contains 
THEOCRITUS—THEODORIC.
219
translations from Theocritus  in  English
verse.
  Theodicjea (from Ow, God, and iixalow,
I acknowledge as right,vindicate); a vin-
dication of the Deity in respect to the or-
ganization of the world, and the  freedom
of the human will.  The word is  not hap-
py, as God does not need a defence : a the-
odicaea  is rather a defence  of theism
against atheism, which Leibnitz firet  un-
dertook on a broad scale, by publishing,
in French, in 1710, his Essai de Thcodicee
(Essay towards a Theodicaea), respecting
the  Goodness of God,  the Liberty of Man,
and  the Origin  of the Bible.   In  this
work Leibnitz maintained the notion that
God had  chosen,  among all  possible
worlds, the most  perfect. This was called
optimism (q. v.),  and gave rise to much
discussion  until  the second  half of the
eighteenth century.   Voltaire  attacked it
with the weapons of wit in his  Candide.
Plato,  St. AugUstine, Thomas Aquinas,
and, among later  writers,   particularly
Campanella,  have attempted to reconcile
human  liberty and  evil with  the power
and holiness of God.  J. J. Wagner  has
published a  new Theodicaea (Bamberg,
1809).    Every theodicaea  must  lead to
teleology, (q. v.)
  Theodolite.   This instrument serves
to  measure  angles  between heavenly
bodies,  as we^ na n*Wo/»*- ~- *'■.....*'
           .. ... -«. v.twio uu ujk? Gan.it,
with great accuracy.   The theodolite con-
sists of two concentric horizontal circles,
the inner of which has, at the  ends of one
of its diameters, two perpendicular  col-
umns,  on which  rests  the horizontal axis
ofa small meridian telescope. The ver-
nier (q. v.) of the inner circle is made fast
to an arbitrary division line of the outer
one, and both circles  are moved  together
with the telescope, until the object sought
for appeare in its field.  The outer circle
is now fixed, and the  inner one is turned
round, until the  telescope strikes the sec-
ond object, whose angular distance from
the firet is to be measured.  The inner
circle  is now fastened to the  outer,  and,
by means of the micrometer screw,  the
thread of the telescope is brought exactly
upon the object.   The arc  which  the
vernier of the inner circle  has described
on the outer one, now measures the angle
which the two objects make  at the com-
mon centre of the two circles.   Of late,
several improvements have been  made in
this instrument.
  Theodora ; empress of the East,  the
wife of Justinian, famous for  her beauty,
intrigues, ambition,  and  talents.   Her
father  was the keeper of the beasts for
public  spectacles at Constantinople, and
she herself was a  dancer at the theatre,
and a  courtesan notorious for her con-
tempt of decency, before her elevation to
the throne.  Justinian  saw her  on the
stage, and made her his mistress during
the reign of his uncle Justin, whose con-
sent he at length  obtained for his mar-
riage with Theodora; and a Roman law,
which  prohibited  the  marriage  of the
great officers of the empire with actresses,
was repealed  in  her favor.   She was
crowned with  Justinian in 527 ; and the
death of Justin shortly after left  her in
possessionof sovereign authority, through
the blind partiality and weakness of her
imperial consort.   She made use of the
power  she had attained to raise from ob-
scurity  her friends  and favorites,  and
to avenge herself on her enemies.  Ac-
cording to Procopius,  she continued to
indulge herself in  the most degrading
sensuality after she became  empress;
and  if  the disgusting  detail which he
gives  of her  crimes is to  be believed,
seldom, indeed, has  a  brothel  been dis-
graced by scenes of more infamous prof-
ligacv than those  exhibited in the palace
of Theodora.   With  all her faults, how-
ever, this woman  displayed courage and
presence of mind in  circumstances of
difficulty and danger; for in the alari-."*-"
                           <•*    ----a
sedition  at Constantinople, ;n 532, her
counsels animated Justinian, and induced
him to forego his inglorious design of
fleeing before  the rebels, who were sub-
sequently reduced to subjection  by Beli-
sarius.  Theodora died of a  cancer, in
548, much  regretted  by  her husband.
(See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xl.)
   Theodore,  king  of Corsica    (See
Neuhof.)
   Theodoric, king  of the  Ostrogoths,
surnamed the  Great, descended  of the
royal Gothic race of the Amali, was born
near Vienna, in the year 455.   His father,
Theodomir, was one  of the three brothers
who jointly ruled the Ostrogoths  settled
in Pannonia; and he sent him, when only
eight yeare of  age, to Constantinople as a
hostage,  to secure  the conditions of a
treaty between the Goths and the empe-
ror Leo.  After residing two  years with
that emperor, he was restored to his father,
then sole monarch  of the  Ostrogoths,
under whom he gave various indications
of his warlike  spirit  and ability for com-
mand.   On the death  of Theodomir, in
475, he  succeeded  to the crown, and
commenced  a course which, after men-
acing the safety of the Greek empire, and
Constantinople itself, terminated  in an 
220
THEODORIC—THEODOSIUS.
expedition  against  Odoacer, who  had
assumed the title of king of Italy.  After
several  bloody engagements, the latter
was finally  induced to yield, on condition
that  he and Theodoric  should govern
Italy with equal  authority.  The murder
of Odoacer at a banquet soon  followed
this  agreement;  on  which  Theodoric
caused himself to be proclaimed king of
Italy—a title that the emperor Anastasius
was reluctantly obliged to sanction. How-
ever indefensibly he acquired dominion,
he  governed  with extraordinary vigor
and ability.  He attached his soldiers by
assigning them a third part of the lands
of Italy, on the tenure of military service;
while, among  his Italian subjects, he en-
couraged industry and the arts of peace.
He even improved the administration of
justice,  and, though  a Goth, was so far
from delighting in the destruction of pub-
Uc monuments, that  he issued edicts  to
protect them at Rome and elsewhere, and
assigned revenues for the repair of the pub-
lic edifices.  Able in peace, and victorious
in war,  he maintained the balance of the
West until  it was overthrown by the am-
bition of Clovis, who slew Alaric, the
Visigoth king,  the remains of  whose
family and property were saved by The-
odoric, who also checked the victorious
Franks  hi their further career.  Like his
ancestors, he was  ar. Arisr., but wse in-
different to controversy,  and never  vio-
lated the peace or privileges of the Catho-
lic church.  The particulars of the  gov-
ernment of this  memorable  prince,  who
shed  a  short-lived  lustre on the  Gothic
name, are  recorded in twelve books, by
his secretary, the senator Cassiodorus, a
man of learning, who induced his illite-
rate master to become a patron of letters.
Towards the close of his reign, an intole-
rant edict of the Byzantine court against
the  Arians in its  dominions,  induced
Theodoric, against his usual policy, to
meditate a retaliation against the Catho-
lics  of  Italy,  which, however,  was pre-
vented  from taking place  by his death.
It is to  be lamented that an act of tyranny
against  two exemplary characters,  Boe-
thius (q. v.), and Symmachus, his father-
in-law, closed his career.  These senators
were both  put to death, on the mere sus-
picion of an intrigue between a senatorial
party and the imperial court. This  cruel
act had no sooner been perpetrated, than
Theodoric was seized with remorse; and
a fever ensued,  which  tenninated his
life  in  three  days, in 526,  the seventy-
second year of his age, and fifty-second of
his reign.   The ordinary residence of this
king was  at Ravenna, above which city
his daughter Amalasuntha (left regent of
Italy until  the  majority of one  of her
nephews) erected a splendid monument
to his memory.  (See Gibbon's  Decline
and Fall, ch. xxxix, and the article Goilis.)
  Theodosius, surnamed the Great, a
Roman emperor, was the son of a distin-
guished general of the same name, who
was  executed for the alleged crime  of
treason, at  Carthage,  in  376.  He was
bom about  346, at Canca, in Galicia, or,
according  to some  accounts, at  Italica,
near Seville.  At a very early age,  he
obtained separate command ; but, on the
execution of his father, he sought retire-
ment, until  selected by the emperor Gra-
tian, in 379, for his partner in the  empire.
To his care were submitted Thrace and
the eastern  provinces, which he delivered
from an invasion  of the Goths.  This
emperor distinguished  himself  by  his
zeal for orthodoxy  and intolerance  of
Arianism, which he put down throughout
the whole  of  his  dominions.   In  the
space of fifteen yeare, he promulgated the
same number of edicts against heretics ;
and the office of inquisitors of the faith
was firet instituted in his  reign.  He  lib-
erated the provinces from the barbarians
with great  prudence and  diligence, and,
in the various warlike and other proceed-
ings of his reign, showed himself an able
and equitable monarch, except when un-
der  the influence of resentment  or re-
ligious zeal.  On the defeat and death of
Maximus, he became the sole head of the
empire, although he administered  the
affairs of the West in the  name of Valen-
tinian, the son of Gratian, then a minor.
He passed  three years  in  Italy, during
which  period  the Roman senate, which
still  chiefly adhered  to the old  religion,
begged permission to restore the  altar of
victory—a  request which he at first was
inclined to grant, until prevented by  St.
Ambrose, who also induced him to par-
don some  zealots for having burned a
Jewish  synagogue.   In  390, a  sedition
took place  in Thessalonica, the result of
which has  branded the name of Theodo-
sius with great odium.  The origin of the
catastrophe  was in  itself very trivial,
being  simply  the  imprisonment of a
favorite charioteer of the  circus.   This
provocation, added to some former  dis-
putes,  so  inflamed  the  populace,  that
they murdered their  governor and sev-
eral of his  officers,  and  dragged their
mangled bodies through the  mire.  The
resentment of Theodosius was natural
and merited ; but the manner in which he
displayed it was in the highest degree de-
testable and inhuman.  An invitation was 
THEODOSIUS—THEOPHILANTHROPISTS.
221
given, in the emperor's name, to the people
of Thessalonica, to an exhibition at  the
circus, and when a great concourse of
spectators had assembled, they were mas-
sacred by a body of barbarian soldiery, to
the number,  according  to the  lowest
computation, of 7000, and to the highest,
of 15,000.  For this atrocious proceeding,
Ambrose, with great courage  and pro-
priety, refused him communion for eight
months  ; and  the docile,  and, it is to be
hoped,  repentant Theodosius  humbly
submitted.  About this  time,  the pious
emperor crowned his merits, as a foe to
paganism, by demolishing the celebrated
temple  of Serapis,  and  all the other
heathen temples of Egypt; and he also
issued a final edict,  prohibiting the  an-
cient  worship  altogether.   On the mur-
der of  Valentinian by  Arbogastes, and
the advancement  of Eugenius  in  his
place, the  emperor  carried  on  a war
against the latter, which finally terminated
in his defeat and death.   Theodosius  did
not long survive this  success;  but after
investing his sons, Arcadius and Honori-
us, with the Eastern and Western empire,
he was carried off, at Milan, by  a dropsi-
cal disorder, in January, 395, in the fiftieth
year of his age, and sixteenth of his reign.
He died possessed of a distinguished repu-
tation, which was much confirmed by his
services to orthodoxy and his docility to-
wards the priesthood.  He was doubtless
a man of considerable abilities, and possess-
ed many public and private virtues, which,
however, will  scarcely excuse the fierce-
ness of his intolerance, or the barbarity of
his angerand revenge.  (See Gibbon's De-
cline and Fall, ch. xxvi, xxvii, and xxviii.)
   Theognis of Megara lived between  560
and 470 B. C, at a time when the popular
party had gained the ascendency in  his
native town.   He and many others of the
aristocratic party were in consequence
banished. During his banishment, which
he spent partly in Sparta, partly in Sicily,
partly in Thebes, or immediately after his
return to Megara,  he wrote his maxims
and   moral  precepts  in  elegiac  verse.
Their aristocratic tendency is explained
by the  circumstances of his life.  They
are among the most valuable remains of
the gnomic poetry of the Greeks, and
have  recently been  arranged  and illus-
trated in the edition of Welcker (1826), in
a new and ingenious way.
   Theogony is the doctrine of the gene-
ration and descent of the gods,  as drawn
from  the ancient mythuses.  The most
ancient Greek theogony  known to us is
that of Hesiod.
                 19*
  Theology.   (See Appendix, end  of
this volume.)
  Theology, Natural, is the knowledge
which we have of God from his  works
by the light of nature and reason.
  Theomancy (from etos. God, and uavma,
prophecy) was that species of prophecy
in which a god himself was believed to
reveal futurity.  Oracles were considered
as public institutions for prophesying at
distinct places and periods ;  but the com-
munications embraced under the head of
theomancy  were  extraordinary predic-
tions, not limited by any such restrictions.
There were three classes of persons who
considered themselves as  particularly the
subjects of such communications:  1. the
possessed, i. e.  such as  believed  them-
selves possessed by some  daemon (q. v.);
2. enthusiasts  (enthusiasta, theopneusta),
who pretended  to be seized by a certain
enthusiasm  with which  a  god had  in-
spired  them ; 3. ecstatics, i. e. such as
fell  into ecstasies.  They lay as  if in a
trance, and, when  they recovered their
consciousness, spoke of having witnessed
the  strangest things, which were consid-
ered as indicating that the  soul, during
the  trance,  had left the body, and gone
into another world, to visit the abodes of
the gods or the departed.  Such fanatics
or impostore have appeared,  not only
among the Greeks,  but among all  uncul-
tivated nations, of whatever  religion.
  Theophane ; a daughter of Bisaltus,
whom Neptune changed  into a sheep to
remove her  from her numerous suitors.
The god afterwards assumed the shape of
a ram, and  under this  form had by the
nymph  a ram  with a  golden  fleece,
which carried Phryxus to Colchis.
  Theophany (from  em, God, and </>aivo-
not, I appear); a festival at  Delphi, cele-
brated on the anniversary  of  the  day
when Apollo had revealed himself to the
Delphians.   At a later period, revelations
and  appearances of deities to  particular
individuals  were so  called,  and, finally,
the general manifestation  of revelation in
the world.  (See Epiphany.)
  TnEOPHILANTHROPISTS  (from  Ocos,
God,  4>cAix,  friend,  and  avBpwnos,  man);
friends of God and man; the title assumed
by a religious society  formed at Paris
during tiie French revolution.  The ob-
ject of its founders was to  revive  public
religious ceremonies,  which  had altogeth-
er ceased during the  reign of  terror,
without returning to the doctrines and
rites of Christianity,  which  were incom-
patible with  the deism professed by the
theopliilanthropists.   In 1796, five heads 
222          THEOPHILANTHROP1STS—THEOPHRASTUS.
of families—Chemin,  Mareau,  Janes,
HaUy (brother of the celebrated philoso-
pher),and Mandar—associated themselves,
and, December 16, held their first meet-
ing for  the  purposes of divine worship
and  moral  instruction, according  to the
dictates  of natural religion.  These as-
semblies were held  weekly:  the exer-
cises consisted of prayer, moral discourses,
and  singing, and  the numbers  of the
society rapidly increased.  The directory
granted  them  the use  of the ten parish
churches of Paris, in  which their services
were performed at firet on Decadi, and
afterwards  on  Sunday, at the hour of
noon.  The temples were  appropriately
fitted up, and adorned with religious and
moral inscriptions, an ancient altar, with
a basket containing flowers, as an offering
to the Supreme Being, a pulpit, and alle-
gorical  paintings, and banners, with in-
scriptions and emblematic devices.  The
theophilanthropists had no peculiar spirit-
ual order; but the officers of the  society
were an overseer, a president of the tem-
ple,  a reader, and an orator, who  wore a
long white robe over  a  blue dress, with a
sash or girdle of various colors, during the
performance of divine  worship, but who
enjoyed no privileges and received no
pay.  Their dogmas  consisted solely ofa
belief in the  existence of God,  and  in
the immortality of the soul;  their doctrine
was pure deism, derived chiefly from the
Scriptures,   and containing a  practical
morality, which differed  from that of
Christianity chiefly in its leaning to eu-
daemonism.  (q.  v.)   Their liturgy was
simple and touching: the pardon  of sins
was implored of God; but Jesus Christ
was considered only  as a man of extraor-
dinary wisdom, and not as a savior.  The
writings of the theophilanthropists, which
proceeded  chiefly from Chemin, dwelt
principally  upon the moral duties.  The
festivals of nature, of love  of country, of
conjugal fidelity, &c. (see Festivals), were
scrupulously observed.  Instead of bap-
tism, a  sort of consecration or initiation
by exhortations to the parents and god-
parents  was solemnized; for confirmation
was substituted a reception into the socie-
ty with vows, and in place of marriage,
a symbolical union by rings and bands,
wound  round the hands of the wedded
couple : these were the only ceremonies.
Distinct schools were established  for the
instruction of youth in theophilanthropism.
The expenses of public  worship  were
paid by means of  collections and the
contributions  of the members, and the
directory also granted  small sums.  The
example of the Paris theophilanthropistn
was  followed in  many of the provincial
cities of France, and some attempts were
made to  introduce their principles into
other countries,   but without  success.
The revival of the Catholic religion, and
particularly  the  concordate (q.  v.) with
Pius VII, hastened  the decline of the
society, which had already lost many of
its members, when  the consuls, in 1802,
prohibited them from holding their meet-
ings in the churches; and from this time,
they no  longer appear as a body.  (See
Revelliere-Lipaux, end of volume x.)
  Theophrastus, a  native of  Eresus,
in  the  island of Lesbos, was the son
of a fuller, and became famous as a natu-
ralist and philosopher.  He was born 371
B. C, and studied at Athens, in the school
of Plato, and afterwards under his rival
Aristotle, of whom he was the  favorite
pupil and successor.  His  original name
was Tyrtamus, which his  master, in ad-
miration of his genius and  eloquence, ex-
changed  for  that of Euphrastus, or the
fine speaker, and  afterwards for that of
Theophrastus, or the divine  orator, by
which he is familiarly known.  On the
departure of Aristotle from Athens, after
the judicial  murder of Socrates, he be-
came the head of the Peripatetic school
of philosophy, where two  thousand stu-
dents are said to have attended his lec-
tures.  His  fame extended  to foreign
countries ; kings and princes solicited his
friendship; and he was treated with par-
ticular attention  by Cassander, the sove-
reign of Macedon,  and  Ptolemy  Lagus,
king of Egypt.  Theophrastus composed
a  multitude of books—dialectic, moral,
metaphysical and physical—the  titles of
200 being specified by Diogenes Laertius.
About twenty of these have escaped the
ravages of time, among which are his Nat-
ural History of Stones, of  Plants, of the
Winds, &c.; and his Characters, or Eth-
ic Portraits, by far the most celebrated of
all his productions, and the model of nu-
merous  imitators, including  the  moral
satirist La Bruyere.  Some of his  moral
sentences are striking; e. g.  " Respect
yourself, and you wiU have no occasion
to blush  before others."   He died about
286 B. C, and, consequently,  if the pre-
ceding date of his birth be correct, he
must have  been but eighty-five  at the
time of his  decease, though  some state
him to have survived to the age of a hun-
dred and seven.   To his care we are in-
debted for the preservation of the writings
of Aristotle, who, when dying, intrusted
them to the  keeping of his favorite disci- 
THEOPHRASTUS—THERIACA.
223
pie.  The works  of  Theophrastus were
published  collectively by Dan. Heinsius
 Leyden, 1613, folio), and by  Schneider
 Leipsic, 1818—1821,5 vols., with a Latin
translation);  and among the  numerous
editions of his Characters may  be noticed
those of  Needham  (Cambridge,  1712,
8vo.), of Fischer (Coburg, 1763,8vo.), and
the recent English translation, with  notes,
and the Greek text, by Mr. F. Howell.
  Theophrastus Paracelsus.    (See
Paracelsus.)
  Theorbo (tiorba); an instrument, no
longer in use, similar to the lute (q. v.), at
least in regard to the body and the neck,
which is, however, longer.  It  has 14—16
strings, of which the eight large ones in
the base  are twice as long aud thick as
those of  the  lute.   It was  principally
used  for  accompaniment   The system
of the theorbo has five lines with proper
notes; that of" the lute has six  lines with
letters.
   Theory (from the Greek 0-wpia, con-
templation) originally signified the  inves-
tigation and  knowledge of  supernatural
subjects by means of contemplation. The
most  common significations of the  word
at present are, 1.  speculation;  a doctrine
which terminates in  speculation  or con-
templation without  a  view to practice.
Here it is taken in an unfavorable  sense,
as implying something  visionary.   2. An
exposition of the general  principles of
any  science,  as  the theory of  music.  3.
The science  distinguished  from the art ;
e. g. the theory of medicine as distinguish-
ed from the practice.  4. The philosophi-
cal  explanation  of phenomena,  either
physical or moral, as  Lavoisier's  theory
of combustion, Smith's theory of moral
sentiments.  Theory  is distinguished from
hypothesis thus :—A  theory is founded on
inferences drawn from principles  which
have been established on independent ev-
idence ; a hypothesis. is a proposition as-
sumed to account for certain phenomena,
and has no other evidence  of  truth than
that it  affords a  satisfactory explanation
of those phenomena.
   Theosophy  (from Bcos, God, and <-->-*«-,
wisdom); according to its etymology, the
science of divine tilings.   But the name
of theosophists has generally been applied
to persons who, in their inquiries respect-
ing God,  have  mn into mysticism, as Ja-
cob B6hme, Swedenborg, St. Martin, and
others.
   Theramenes ;  an Athenian  philoso-
pher and  general in the age of Alcibiades.
He was one of the  thirty tyrants at Ath-
ens, but had no share in the cruelties and
oppression  which disgraced their admin-
istration.   He was accused by Critias,
one of his colleagues, because he opposed
their views, and was condemned to drink
hemlock, though innocent, and defended
by Socrates.  He drank the poison with
great composure, and poured some of it on
the ground, with the sarcastical exclama-
tion of " This is to the health of Critias,"
about 403 B. C.
  Therapeut^e.   (See Essenes.)
  Therapeutics (from Otpancvw, to attend
to the sick) is that part of medicine which
teaches  the way  of curing diseases.   It
treats of the symptoms of disease, and the
conclusions to be drawn from them, of
the power of nature, and how far it may
be relied on, of the mode  of cure to be
adopted, and the different systems which
have acquired reputation.
   Theresa, Maria.   (See Maria The-
resa.)
  Theresa, St. ;  a  religious enthusiast,
born at  Avila, in Spain, in 1515.  At an
early age, the perusal of the Lives of the
Saints inspired her with the desire to be-
come a martyr;  and  she eloped from
home to seek death at  the hands of the
Moors.  Being brought hack, she erected
a  hermitage in her father's garden for
retirement and devotion.   She took  the
veil among the Carmelites, at Avila, at the
age of twenty-two.  Her rapturous piety
and religious zeal inspired general admi-
ration ;  and, being dissatisfied at the  rel-
axation  of discipline which she noticed in
the order to which she belonged, she  un-
dertook to restore  the original severity of
the institute.  She founded the  firet con-
vent of reformed Carmelite nuns at Avila,
in  1562, and  a monastery of  friars, in
1568, at Dorvello, where  originated  the
order  of Barefooted Carmelites.   (See
Carmel.)  She lived to wittiess the foun-
dation of thirty convents for her followers;
and membere of the order subsequently
obtained  settlements  in  most Catholic
countries.   She died at Alba, in October,
1582, and was canonized by pope Grego-
ry XV.   Her life, by herself, is curious.
  Theriaca ; a celebrated antidote against
poisons, in the form of an electuary,  for-
merly in great repute, the composition of
which  is  attributed  to Andromachus of
Crete,  physician  to the emperor  Nero.
(See  Poison.)   That physician has  de-
scribed its composition in a poem, which
has been preserved  by Galen (De Anti-
dotis I,  c. 6).  This theriaca is composed
of about  seventy ingredients,  some of
which  are altogether inoperative, and
some counteract each other's effects.  It, 
224
THERIACA—THERMOMETER.
however, preserved its reputation till mod-
em times; and it is  not  long since  the
apothecaries in Venice, France, and other
places, were obUged to compound it, with
great solemnity, in the presence of magis-
trates.
  Therm-e (from the Greek Ocpnat, signi-
fying  originally  warm  or hot springs);
properly  warm  baths,  but also  applied
generally to the  baths of the ancients.
(See Bath.)  During  the Roman empire,
the buildings for this purpose were con-
structed with great splendor, and adorned
with paintings, statuaiy, libraries, gymna-
sia, and public walks.  The baths of Ne-
ro,  Titus, Caracalla and Diocletian were
distinguished for the magnificence and
luxury displayed in their construction.
  Thermidor.  (See Calendar, vol. ii, p.
403.)
  Thermidor, 9th, year II  (July  27,
1794); celebrated, in the French  revolu-
tion, for the overthrow of Robespiene and
the Mountain party, which put an end to
the reign of terror.  Tallien (q. v.) was
the firet  to  denounce  Robespierre and
his adherents, St. Just, Couthon, Henrion,
who were anested by order of the con-
vention (9th  Thermidor), and executed
on  the following day.  (See France, di-
vision History.)
   Thermo-Electro-Magnetism ;   the
phenomena arising out ofa flow of elec-
tro-magnetism, occasioned by disturbing
merely the equilibrium of  temperature.
The apparatus for exciting it is composed
of three  bars of bismuth and three  of
antimony, soldered  alternately together,
so as to form  a hexagon, which includes
three   elements, or  three  pairs.   The
length of the bars is about 4.7  inches,
their  breadth  0.6 of an inch, and their
thickness 0.16  of an inch.   This  cir-
cuit is put upon two supports, and in a
horizontal position, observing to give to
one of the sides of the hexagon  the  di-
rection of the magnetic needle, which is
placed below  the side, and as near it as
possible.   On  heating one of the solder-
ings with the flame of a lamp,  a very
sensible effect on the needle is produced.
On heating  two solderings, not contigu-
ous, the  deviation becomes considerably
greater; and, on heating the three  alter-
nate ones, a still  greater effect  is pro-
duced.  By  resorting to an  inverse pro-
cess,  i. e. by reducing to 32° Fahr. by
melting ice, the temperature of one or
more  solderings of the circuit—the sol-
derings not cooled being  regarded   as
heated in reference to  others—and  by
combining the action of the ice with that
of the flame, viz. by  heating  three sol-
derings and cooling the other three, the
deviation of the needle amounts to 60°.
  Thermolampe ; the  name  given by
Lebon to his apparatus for illuminating
by  gas.   (See  Gas-Lighting,  page 388,
vol. v.)
  Thermometer ;  an  instrument   for
measuring heat, founded on the principle
that the expansions of matter are propor-
tional to the augmentations of tempera-
ture.  With regard to  aeriform bodies,
this principle is probably well founded;
and  hence  our common thermometers
may be rendered just by  reducing their
indications to those of an air  thermome-
ter.  Solids, and still more liquids, ex-
pand  unequally, by equal  increments of
heat,  or intervals of temperature.  With
regard to water,  alcohol and oils, this in-
equality is so considerable as to occasion
their rejection for purposes of exact ther-
mometry. But mercury approaches more
to solids than ordinary  Uquids in its rate
of expansion, and hence, as well as from
its remaining liquid through a long range
of temperature, is justly preferred to  the
above substances for thermometric pur-
poses. A common thermometer, therefore,
is merely a vessel in which very minute
expansions of mercury  may be rendered
perceptible,  and, by certain rules of grad-
uation,  be  compared  with  expansions
made  on the same liquid by other observ-
ers.   The first condition  is fulfilled by
connecting a narrow glass tube with a
bulb of considerable capacity  filled with
mercuiy.   As this fluid metal expands
one sixty-third  by being  heated in glass
vessels, from the melting point of ice to
the boiling  point of water, if ten inches
of the tube have a capacity equal to one
sixty-third of that of the  bulb, it is evident
that, should the liquid stand at the beginning
of the tube at 32°, it will rise up and occu-
py ten inches  of it at 212°.   Hence,  if
the tube be uniform in its calibre, and the
above space be divided intoequal parts by
an attached scale,  then  we shall have a
centigrade or Fahrenheit's thermometer,
according as the divisions are 100 or 180 in
number.   Such are the general principles
of the construction of thermometers.  The
tubes  drawn at glass-houses, for making
thermometers, are all more or less irreg-
ular in the bore.  Hence, if equal apparent
expansions of the included mercury be
taken  to  represent equal  thermometric
intervals, these  equal expansions will oc-
cupy unequal spaces in an irregular tube.
The attached scale should, therefore, cor-
respond exactly to these tubular inequati- 
THERMOMETER.
225
ties; or, if the scale be uniform in its di-
visions, we must be certain that the tube
is absolutely uniform in its calibre.  The
first step in the formation  of this instru-
ment, therefore, is to graduate  the tube
into spaces  of equal capacity.  A small
caoutchouc  bag,  with a  stop-cock and
nozzle,  capable of  admitting  the end
of the glass tube when  it is  wrapped
round  with  a few folds of tissue paper,
must  be provided, as also pure mercury,
and a sensible balance.  Having expelled
a little air from the bag, we  dip  the end
of the attached glass tube into the mer-
cury, and by the elastic expansion of the
caoutchouc, we cause a small portion of
the liquid to rise into the bore.  We then
shut the  stop-cock, place the tube in  a
horizontal direction, and remove it from
the bag.  The column of mercury should
not exceed  half an  inch in length.  By
gently inclining the tube, and tapping  it
with  the finger, we bring the mercury to
about  a  couple of inches from  the end
where we mean to make the bulb, and, with
a file or diamond, mark there the  initial
line of the scale. The slip of ivory, brass
or paper, destined to receive the  gradua-
tions, being  laid on  a table, we  apply
the tube to it so  that the bottom of the
column of  mercury  coincides  with its
lower edge.   With a fine point,  we then
mark on the scale the other  extremity of
the mercurial colu-mr..  IncHni-jg the tube
gently, and tapping it, we cause the liquid
to flow along till its lower end is placed
where the  upper previously stood. We
apply the tube to the scale, taking care to
make  its initial line  conespond to  the
edge  as before.  A new point for  meas-
uring  equal capacity  is  now  obtained.
We thus proceed till the  requisite  length
be graduated, and we then weigh the mer-
cury with minute precision.  The bulb  is
next formed at the enameller's blow-pipe,
in the usual way.  One of  a cylindrical
or conical shape is preferable to a sphere,
both for strength and sensibility.  We now
ascertain  and note down its weight.   A
tubular coil of paper is to be tied to the
mouth of the tube,  rising  in a funnel-
form  an inch or two above  it   Into this
we pour recently boiled mercury, and, ap-
plying the gentle  heat of a  lamp  to the
bulb, we  expel a portion of the air.  On
allowing the bulb to cool,  a portion of
the mercury will  descend into it, corre-
sponding to the quantity of air previously
expelled.  The bulb is now  to be  heated
over the  lamp  till the included  mercury
boil briskly  for some time.   On removing
it, the quicksilver  will descend from the
paper funnel,  and completely fill the
bulb and stem.   Should any portion of
air appear, the process of heating or boil-
ing must be repeated, with the precaution
of keeping a column of superincumbent
mercury in the paper funnel.  When the
temperature of the bulb has sunk to near-
ly that of boiling water,  it  may be im-
mersed in ice-water.  The funnel and its
mercury are then to be removed, and the
bulb is to  be plunged into boiling water.
About one sixty-third of the mercury will
now be expelled.   On cooling the instru-
ment again in melting  ice, the zero point
of the centigrade scale, corresponding to
32° of Fahrenheit, will be  indicated  by
the top of the mercurial  column.  This
point must be noted with a scratch on the
glass, or  else by a mark on the prepar-
ed scale.  We  then weigh the whole.
We  have now sufficient data for  com-
pleting the graduation of the instrument
from one fixed point; and, in hot climates,
and other situations, where ice, for exam-
ple,  cannot  be  conveniently  procured,
this facility of forming an exact thermom-
eter  is important  We know the weight
of the whole  included mercury, and that
of each gradus  of the  stem.   And, as
from 32° to 212° Fahr., or from 0° to 100°
cent, corresponds to a mercurial expan-
sion  in  glass of one sixty-third, we can
easily compute how many of our gradu-
ating spaces are contained in the range of
temperature between freezing  and boil-
ing water.  Thus supposing the mercu-
rial contents to be 378 grains, one sixty-
third of that quantity, or six grains, cor-
respond to 180  of Fahrenheit's degrees.
Now, if the initial  measuring column
were 0.6 of a grain,  then  ten of  these
spaces would  comprehend  the range be-
tween freezing and boUing water.  Hence,,
if we know the boiling point, we can set
off the  freezing  point;  or, from the tem-
perature of the living body, 98° Fahr., we
can set off both the freezing and boiling
points of water.   In the present case, we
must divide each space on  our prepared
scale into eighteen equal  parts,  which
would constitute degrees of Fahrenheit;
or into ten equal parts, which would con-
stitute centigrade degrees;  or into  eight,
which would form Reaumur's degrees.
When we have  ice and boiling water at
hand, however, we may dispense with
the weighing processes.  By plunging the
instrument into  melting ice, and then in-
to boiling water, we find how  many of
our  initial spaces on the stem  conespond
to that interval  of temperature, and wo
subdivide  them  accordingly.   If  the 
226                         THERMOMETER.
tube be very unequal, we must accommo-
date even our subdivisions to its irregular-
ities, for which purpose the eye is a suffi-
cient guide.  Thermometers are  used for
two different purposes, each of which
requires peculiar adaptation.  Those em-
ployed in meteorology,  or for indicating
atmosoherical  temperature,  are wholly
plunged in the fluid; and hence the stem
and the  bulb are equally affected by the
calorific  energy.   But when the chemist
wishes to  ascertain the temperature of
corrosive liquids, or bland liquids highly
heated, he can immerse merely the bulb
and the naked part of the stem under the
scale.   The  portion of the  tube corre-
sponding to the scale is not influenced by
the heat, as hi the former case ; and hence
one sixty-third part  of  the mercury,
which, at 32° Fahr., was acted on, has, at
212°, escaped from its influence.  Hence
a  meteorological  and a  chemical  ther-
mometer ought to be graduated under the
peculiar conditions in  which they are af-
terwards to be used.   The former should
have its stem sunounded with the steam
of boiling water, while its  bulb is im-
mersed an inch or two beneath  the sur-
face of that liquid, the barometer having
at the time an altitude  of thirty inches.
A thermometer for chemical experiment
should have  its boiling point determined
bv immersion  only of the bulb,  and  the
naked portion ot its stem Deiow the scale,
in boiling water.  The water, of course,
must be pure; and it ought to be contain-

                             Fahr.
       Boiling point,   .  .   . 212°  .  .
       Freezing point  ..."   32   .  .

So that the number of degrees of each,
included  between these  two points in
each, is  180°  Fahr.,  100°  centig., 80°
Reaum.,  150° De Lisle; and of course
9° Fahr.=5° centig.=4°  Reaum.=7jJ
De Lisle.   Fahrenheit's  is, therefore,  the
smallest  degree,   and  Reaumur's  the
largest.  The  0°  is called the zero:  all
degrees below this are called minus, and
are prefixed by a dash, thus -20°.   In the
Reaumur and centigrade scales,  the  de-
grees above  zero are also  called  plus,
and  marked thus, -4-20°, to  prevent one
kind being mistaken for another.—Rules
for  changing  the  degrees  of  any one
of  the scales  into   equivalent  degrees
of another:—Fahrenheit into Riaumur.
Each  degree of Fahrenheit is equal to
four ninths of one of  Reaumur.    As
Reaumur, however, reckons his  degrees
from the freezing point, and  Fahrenheit
ed in a metallic vessel.  Before sealing up
the end  of the tube, we should draw it
into a capillary point, and heat the bulb
till the mercury occupy the  whole of the
stem.  A touch of the blow-pipe flame
on the capillary glass will instantly close
it, and exclude the air from reentering
when the bulb becomes cool.  If this has
been skilfully executed, the column of
mercury will move rapidly from one end
of the  tube to the other when it is invert-
ed  with  a jerk.  An ivory  scale is  the
handsomest,  but  the  most expensive.
Those  used in Paris consist of  a narrow
slip  of paper enclosed in  a glass tube,
which  is attached in a parallel direction
to the  thermometer stem.  It is soldered
to it above by the lamp, and hooked to it
below by a ring of glass.
  Comparative  Scales  of Thermometers.
A fertile  cause of error in estimating and
comparing the statements of temperature,
is the  very different manner  in which
they are made by scientific men of dif-
ferent  nations.  Wherever the  English
language prevails, the graduation of Fahr-
enheit  is  generally preferred.   By  the
German   authors  Reaumur  is  used;
and the French have, within a few years,
decided to  adopt that of Celsius, a Swe-
dish philosopher, calling  it  thermomdrs
centigrade.  The Russians  still use  the
graduation of De Lisle.   The two  re-
markable temperatures of the boiling and
the  freezing  of water are thus expressed
by the several thermometers mentioned:

   Centig.       Reaum.        De Lisle.
.  100° .  .   .  80° .   .  .    0°
     0  .  .   .   0  ...  150

32° below this point, we  must,  when the
number o Fahrenheit's degrees to be re-
duced  indicates a   temperature  above
the  freezing point, firet deduct thirty-two,
and then multiply the remainder by four,
and divide the product  by nine.   The
quotient  is the corresponding number of
degrees on Reaumur's scale.   If the tem-
perature  indicated  was  less than  the
freezing point, we must also be careful to
take the actual number of degrees, reck-
oning from the freezing point Thus four
degrees above Fahrenheit's  zero is twen-
ty-eight below his  freezing  point; and
this is the number to be reduced to Reau-
mur's scale.—Riaumur  into  Fahrenheit.
Each degree  of Reaumur is.equal to 2£
of one  of Fahrenheit.  Multiply the giv-
en number of degrees of Reaumur by
nine, and divide the product by four.  If
the  degrees of Reaumur were minus, the 
THERMOMETER—THESEUS.
227
 quotient must be deducted from thirty-
 two, and the remainder will be the equiv-
 alent degrees of Fahrenheit  If the given
 degrees were not minus, the quotient must
 be added to thirty-two degrees, and the sum
 will be the equivalent sought—Fahrenheit
 into Centigrade. Each degree of Fahren-
 heit is  equal  to five ninths of one of the
 centigrade.   Proceed as  in  the  case of
 Fahrenheit  into Reaumur, multiplying,
 however, by five and dividing by nine.—
 Centigrade into Fahrenheit.  Proceed as
 in Reaumur into Fahrenheit, multiplying
 by nine and dividing by  five.—Reaumur
 into  Centigrade.  Each degree of Reau-
 mur is equal to  1| of  the  centigrade.
 Multiply the given number of degrees of
 Reaumur by five, and divide the product
 by four; the quotient will be the  equiva-
 lent number of degrees on the centigrade
 scale.—Centigrade into Reaumur.  Each
 degree of the centigrade  is equal to | of
 Reaumur.  Multiply the  given number
 of degrees of the centigrade by four, and
 divide  the product by five; the quotient
 will  be the equivalent number of degrees
 on Reaumur's scale.  Extensive tables of
 the correspondence of these thermomet-
 rical scales, and of  some  of the most re-
 markable temperatures,  may be  found
 in  the  Treatise  on  the  Thermometer
 and  Pyrometer, in the Library of Use-
 ful Knowledge.  (See our  article Py-
 rometer.)
  Thermopylje ;  a  narrow  defile  in
 Greece, leading from Thessaly into Lo-
 cris and Phocis ; between  mount JEta and
 the sea ; 40 miles north of Thebes.   It is
 five or six miles long, but was only fifty
 or sixty paces (in the nanowest part only
 twenty-feet) wide,  in  the time  of  the
 Greeks: it is now nearly double, from the
 retiring of the sea.  The  cliffs overhang-
 ing the pass are, in general, from  400 to
 600 feet high.   It is celebrated for a des-
 perate  resistance against the Pereian  ar-
 my, made by 300 Spartans, under Leoni-
 das.  (q. v.)  It  was called by the Greeks
 simply Pyla (gates), or Thermopyla, from
 the warm springs  (therma) hard by.  In
 Strabo's  time, the pass was still  adorned
 by the  monument erected in honor of
 Leonidas and  his  followers, on  which
 was  this simple inscription: " Stranger,
 tell the Lacedaemonians that we  lie here
 in obedience to their laws."  Thermopy-
 lae now forms a part of the north-eastern
frontier of Greece,  as determined by the
protocol of Feb. 3, 1830.
  Theroione de  Mericourt, called the
revolutionary Amazon, was  bom  near
Luxemburg, and previous to the  revolu-
tion of 1789,  had been  a prostitute in
Paris.  She was no less  remarkable for
her oratorical powers than for  her beau-
ty ; and she took an active part in some
of the  tumults of that period.  She is
said to have been at Versailles on the 5th
of October,  and to have  been  employed
in distributing money and haranguing the
mob.   In 1790, having accompanied the
secret agents who were sent to excite in-
surrections  in  Liege, she was taken pris-
oner by  the Austrians, and  carried to
Vienna, but soon after released.   In 1792,
we find her again at Paris, the  champion
of constitutional principles. She appeared
in public armed with a pike, or  sabre and
pistols, at the head of a troop of furious
Amazons.  It  was  she who caused Su-
leau and five others, who  had  been ar-
rested on suspicion, to be murdered, Aug.
10, 1792.   She soon after proved to be
insane, and was confined in a mad-house
until her death, in 1817.
  Thersites ; a Grecian at the siege of
Troy, who is described by Homer as the
most deformed of the Greeks, squinting,
lame, hunch-backed  and bald-headed.
He was noted for his malice, and was
continually provoking his  fellow-soldiers,
particularly  Agamemnon, Ulysses  and
Achilles  by his  taunts  and  sarcasms.
He is said to have been killed  by Achil-
les.
  Theseus ; king of Athens, and son of
iEgeus by ^Ethra, the daughter of Pitthe-
us; one of the  most celebrated of the he-
roes of antiquity.  He  was educated at
Troezene, at the house of Pittheus, and
passed for the son of Neptune.   When he
came to years of maturity, he was sent by
his mother to his father, and a sword was
given him, by which he might make him-
self known to  IEgeus, in  a private man-
ner. (See JEgeus?)  His journey to Ath-
ens was not  across the sea, as was usual
with travellers; for he determined to sig-
nalize himself in going by land, and en-
countering difficulties.  The road which
led from Troezene to Athens was infested
with robbers and wild beasts;  but these
obstacles were  removed by his courage.
He destroyed Corynetes,  Sinnis, Sciron,
Procrustes, Cercyon and Phaea.   At Ath-
ens, however, his reception was not cor-
dial. Medea lived there with iEgeus; and
as she knew that her influence would fall
to the ground if Theseus was received in
his father's  house, she attempted to de-
stroy him before  his  arrival was made
public.   iEgeus  was to give the cup of
poison to the stranger; but at the sight of
his sword  on  the side  of Theseus, he 
228
THESEUS.
knew him to be his son.  The Pallantides,
who expected to succeed their uncle JEge-
us on the throne, as he had no children, at-
tempted to assassinate Theseus; but they
failed in the attempt, and were all  put  to
death by the young prince.  The bull of
Marathon next engaged the attention of
Theseus. He  caught the animal alive, and,
after he had led it through the streets of
Athens, sacrificed it to Minerva or the god
of Delphi.  After  this, Theseus went to
Crete among  the  seven chosen  youths
whom the Athenians yearly sent to be
devoured by the Minotaur.  The wish to
deliver  his country from  so  dreadful a
tribute  engaged him to  undertake this
expedition.  He was successful, by means
of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, who
was enamored of him; and, after he had
escaped from the labyrinth with a clew of
thread, and killed the Minotaur (see Mino-
taurus), he sailed from Crete with the six
boys and seven maidens whom his victo-
ry  had redeemed from  death.   In the
island of Naxos, whither he was  driven
by  the  winds, he  had the  meanness  to
abandon Ariadne,  to  whom he was  in-
debted  for his safety.   The  rejoicings
which his return might have  occasioned
at Athens, were interrupted by the death
of iEgeus, who threw himself into the
sea, when he  saw his son's ship  return
with black sails, which was the signal of
ill  success.   He succeeded his  father.
The Athenians were governed with mild-
ness, and Theseus  made new regulations,
and enacted new laws.  The  number of
the inhabitants of Athens was increased;
a court was  instituted, which had the
care of all civil affairs; and Theseus made
the government democratical, while he
reserved for  himself only the command
of the armies.  {See Attica.)  The fame
which he had gained by his victories and
policy  made  his  alliance courted; but
Pirithous, king  of the  Lapithae,  alone
wished to gain his friendship, by meeting
him in the field of battle.   He invaded
the territories of Attica; and, when The-
seus marched out  to  meet him, the two
enemies, struck at  the sight of each other,
cordially embraced; and from that time be-
gan the most sincere friendship, which has
become proverbial. Theseus was present
at the nuptials of his friend ; and  he was
the most  courageous of the Lapithae, in
the defence of Hippodamia, and her female
attendants, against the attempts  of the
Centaurs.  When  Pirithous (q.  v.) had
lost Hippodamia, he agreed with Theseus,
whose wife was also dead, to carry away
some  of the  daughters  of  the  gods.
Their first attempt was upon Helen.  After
they had obtained the prize, they cast lots,
and she became the property of* Theseus;
but the resentment of Castor and Pollux
soon obliged him to restore  her into their
hands.  Theseus assisted  his  friend  in
procuring a  wife, and  they  descended
into  the infernal regions to carry  away
Proserpine.   Pluto, apprized of their in-
tentions, stopped them; and Pirithous was
placed on  his father's wheel, and Theseus
was  tied  to  a huge stone, on which he
had sat to  rest himself.   Virgil represents
him  in this state of punishment; but oth-
ers declare, that he was not long detained
in hell.  When Hercules came to steal the
dog Cerberus, he tore him away from the
stone,  but with such violence, that his
skin  was left behind.   During the captiv-
ity of Theseus in the kingdom of  Pluto
(see  Phadra), Mnestheus, one  of the de-
scendants of Erechtheus, ingratiated him-
self into the favor of the people of Ath-
ens,  and obtained the crown.  Theseus
attempted  to eject the usurper, but to no
purpose.  The Athenians had forgotten
his services; and he retired to the court of
Lycomedes, king of Scyros, who,  either
jealous  of his fame, or bribed by Mnes-
theus, threw him down a deep precipice.
Some suppose that Theseus inadvertently
fell down this precipice,  and that he was
crushed to death.  The children of The-
seus, after  the death of Mnestheus, recov-
ered the Athenian throne, brought his re-
mains from Scyros, and gave them a mag-
nificent burial.   They also  raised statues
and  a  temple; and festivals and games
were publicly instituted to commemorate
his actions.   These  festivals were still
celebrated  in  the  age of Pausanias and
Plutarch, about 1200 years after the death
of Theseus.  The  historians disagree
with the poets in their  accounts of this
hero; and they all suppose, that, instead of
attempting to carry away the wife of Plu-
to, the two friends wished to seduce  a
daughter of Aidoneus,  king of the Mo-
lossi.  This daughter, as they say, bore the
name of Proserpine;  and the dog which
kept the gates of  the palace was  called
Cerberus; and hence arises the fiction of
the poets.   Pirithous was  torn to  pieces
by the dog; but Theseus was confined in
prison, from whence he  made  his escape
some time after, by the assistance of Her-
cules.   Some authors place Theseus and
his friend in the  number  of  the  Argo-
nauts; but they were both detained, either
in the  infernal regions, or in the  country
of the Molossi, at the time of Jason's ex-
pedition to Colchis. 
THESIS—THETIS.
229
   Thesis  (Qcais,  position, formed  from
 nOi-pi, I put or lay down); in the schools, a
 general proposition which a person ad-
 vances and offers to maintain.  In logic,
 every proposition  may be divided into
 thesis and hypothesis.  Thesis contains
 the thing affirmed or denied, and hypoth-
 esis  the conditions of the affirmation or
 negation.   Thus, " if a triangle and par-
 allelogram have equal bases and altitudes
 (hypothesis), the first is half of the second"
 (thesis).   (For arsis   and  thesis,  see
 Rhythm.)
   Thesmophorus.   (See  Ceres.)
   Thespis, a  native  of  a  village near
 .\;iie.is, lived in the time of Solon, in the
 first half of the sixth century B.  C, and
 is considered the inventor of tragedy, as
 he added to the dithyrambic choruses of
 the feats of Bacchus a character, which,
 when the chorus  was silent, generally re-
 cited a mythical story,  lie  received for
 his  trouble a  he goat  (rpayo); and this
 gave occasion  to   the  name tragedy.
 Thespis used a wagon for his stage.  (See
 Drama.)
   Thessalonica.   (See Salonica.)
   Thessaly,  Thessalia ; tiie northern
 part of ancient Greece Proper, bounded
 on the east by the Thermaic gulf, sepa-
 rated from Boeotia on the south by mount
 GEta, from  Epirus on the west by mount
 Pindus, and from Macedonia on the north
 by mount Olympus.  It is a fruitful and
 picturesque country, in which beautiful
 and rich plains interchange with elevated
 districts,  and  watered  by   numerous
 streams, among which the  Peneus was
 the most celebrated, for its vale of Tempe.
 Its cornfields and vineyards were not less
 productive than its meadows, and it was
 famous  for its breed  of  horses.   The
 Thessalians were  considered the  best
 horsemen among the Greeks, and  the in-
 vention  of equitation has been attributed
 to them. The Haemoncs 'from whom the
 country was  also called Hamonia) were
 considered the original inhabitants.  The
 Pelasgians  and Hellenes, the latter under
 Deucalion, in  the sixteenth century B. C,
 afterwards settled in this region, in which
 dwelt also the Centaurs  and Lapitlije,
 mountaineers residing  on  Olympus and
 Ossa.  The eastern promontory, which
 stretched far out into the .Egcan sea, was
formed  by  mount  Pelion,  which the
giants piled upon Ossa in their attempt to
storm heaven.   Upon the summit of Pe-
lion (now Petra) is  a celebrated  cavern,
hi which the  Centaur Chiron, the tutor
of Achilles, was said to have lived.  In
Thessaly,  Achseus,  .Eolus, and  Dorus,
  VOL. XII.        20
 the  founders  of the tribes which bore
 their name, are firet discovered, and sev-
 eral 6mall  states successively  rose here.
 Among them  was Iolchos, the domi':i<:i
 of yEson, father of Jason,  the  lead r of
 the  Argonauts ;  Phthia, where Pc'cus,
 father of Achilles, ruled over the Myrmi-
 dons; and Pherae, which at a later rori-'d
 became  a  powerful  kingdom.   Hero
 reigned Admetus,  husband of Alcesto,
 and Alexander the tyrant.   At Anthda,
 near Thermopylae, were held the autum-
 nal sessions of the Amphictyons.  Philip
 of Macedon made  himself master of all
 Thessaly, and it  remained  under  the
 Macedonian dominion  until it  hecame a
 Roman province.   It now forms,  undo
 the name of Janiah, or  Janna, a part of
 European Turkey, the boundary line of
 Greece, as  fixed by the protocol of Feb.
 3, 1830, running to the south of it.   The
 old  geographere divide the country  into
 Thessaliotis,  Phthiotis,  Pelasgiotis  and
 HestiaBotis; or, instead  of  the  two last,
 into Magnesia  and Perrhaebia.  The mo6t
 remarkable  mountains  of  Thessaly  are
 the  Pinch;.-*, GEta, Ossa, Pelion, and par-
 ticularly the seat of the gods, Olympus,
 on the frontiers  of  Macedonia.  Among
 the rivers, besides the Peneus, are the Apid-
 anus, Achelous, Asopus, and Sperchius;
 among the  towns, besides  those already
 named, Hellas, Trachisor Heraclea, Phar-
 salus and Larissa, now the chief town in
 this part of the country.  Achilles, Jason,
 Philoctetes, Patroclus and Pirithous were
 Thessalians. Thessaly had also the reputa-
 tion of producing the most powerful sorcer-
 esses ; and the  Thessalian women were so
 famous for their skill in magical  arts, that
 Thcssalis was  sometimes U6ed to signify
 a sorceress or witch.
   Thetis ; a  daughter of Nereus and
 Doris, therefore one of live Nereids.   She
 aided Jupiter against the Titans,  who at-
 tempted to I.hid  him, and called in Bria-
 reus to his assistance.  Jupiter  and Nep-
 tune became enamored of" her, according
 to Pindar, and sought her  in marriege;
 but Themis or Prometheus forewarned
 thcin that she  would hear a son greater
 and more powerful than his father.   She
 was  therefore  destined, by the gods, to
 become  the bride of Peleus, king of the
 Myriuidous, in Thessaly.  She  changed
 herself into a  thousand forms to avoid
 his embraces;  but Peleus finally obtained
the same power of transformation, by the
 instructions of Proteus  or  Chiron,  and
she was at  length obliged to yield.  The
 nuptials were celebrated on mount Pelion,
and were honored by the presence of all 
230
THETIS—THIBAUDEAU.
the gods.  She bore to Peleus seven chil-
dren, all of whom she placed in the fire
while her husband slept, in order to con-
sume whatever was mortal in them.  But
they had too  little of the immortal na-
ture ; and all  perished except  Achilles,
whom  Peleus  snatched from the flames.
Irritated  at  this  act,  Thetis abandoned
her husband, and returned  to the Nereids,
her sisters.   She still,  however,  took an
interest in the  fete of h r son, dipped him
in the  Styx to render him invulnerable,
and  sent him, in a female dress, to the
court of Lycomedes, at Scyros, to prevent
him from taking part in the Trojan war.
After the death of Achilles (q. v.), Thetis
clothed his body  with celestial garments,
and caused the most magnificent funeral
games  to be performed in  honor of him.
Thetis was a symbol of water in the old
cosmogonies; and hence the fable of her
being able to transform herself into a va-
riety of shapes, since water, as the primi-
tive  element of all thing-,  assumed all
forms.   Thetis was likewise the  chief
divinity of  Phthiotis, the kingdom of Pe-
leus; and  the  numerous fables concern-
ing her were  probably invented in com-
pliment to him.
  Theurdank; a German poem, written
in the first part of the sixteenth century,
and  celebrating the exploits and adven-
tures of Maximilian I, emperor of Ger-
many (published at Nuremberg, 1517.)
  Theurgy; the name which the ancients
gave to that part of magic which we some-
times call white magic, or the  white art.
The word is formed from Ocx (God) and
tpyov (work), as denoting the art of doing
divine  things,  or things which God alone
can do.  It is  the power of working ex-
traordinary things by invoking the names
of God, the saints, angels, &c.  Accord-
ingly,  those who  have written  of magic
in general divide  it  into three parts: the-
urgy, which operates by divine  or  celes-
tial means; natural magic, performed by the
powers of nature;  and  necromancy, which
proceeds by invoking demons.   Theurgy
probably originated  with  the Chaldseans
(q.  v.), or  Persians, among whom the
magi chiefly occupied themselves with it.
The Egyptians also pretended to great
proficiency in  the art.  The former con-
sidered Zoroaster its  author;  the  latter
Hermes Trismegistus.  It is a branch of
magic, (q. v.)
  THEVE*voT,Melchizedec,adistinguished
traveller, was bom at Paris, in 1621,  and
had scarcely finished his studies, when he
determined to gratify his inclination to
visit foreign countries.  Having travelled
in different parts of Europe, he devoted
himself* entirely to study, and to the pro-
motion  of literature,  by collecting books
and  manuscripts, and by carrying on a
correspondence with the learned in vari-
ous  parts of the world.  The office of
royal librarian  (1684) facilitated his re-
searches, and he contributed much to the
improvement of the establishment under
his  care.   He died in  1692.  He pub-
lished Relations de divers Voyages curieux
qui n'ont point de publiis (Paris, 1663—/2,
4 parts, in 2 vols., fol.), and  Recueil de
Voyages (1681, 8vo.).
  'Phevenot, John de, born at Paris in
1633, was the nephew of the preceding,
with whom he has sometimes been con-
founded.  He received  his education at
the  college of  Navarre, and,  in  1652,
commenced a journey through England,
Holland, Germany and Italy ;  after which
he resolved to  visit  the East  In 1655,
he embarked at Civita Vecchia, and, after
touching at Sicily  and Malta, went to
Constantinople,  Natolia, Egypt,  Tunis
and  Carthage, and  returned  to France,
after an absence of  seven years.  In
1063, he again left Paris to commence a
second Oriental tour.  After visiting Syria
and  Persia, he  went to the East Indies,
and,  on his return through  Persia, died
near Tauris, in 1667.  An account of his
first expedition was published  by himself,
under the title of Voyage de Levant (1664,
4to.); which  was followed by Suite du
m me Voyage (4to.), and  Voyage contcnant
la Relation de I'Indostan (1684,4to.).  This
traveller is  said to have introduced into
France the use of coffee.
  Thibaudeau, Antoine Claire,  count,
previously to the French revolution, was
an advocate in Poitiers, and, in 1792, was
chosen  member of the convention.  On
the trial of the king,  he voted for death,
against  the appeal  to  the people, and
against  the delay of the execution.  He
was sent on several missions into the de-
partments,  in which  he conducted with
what, in that time, was considered mod-
eration, but on  all occasions evinced the
most determined devotion to republican
principles.   After the 18th  Brumaire, he
attached himself to  Napoleon, was  ap-
pointed pref ct of Bordeaux, counsellor
of state, received the title of count, and
became one of the most zealous and able
adherents of the emperor.   On the  re-
turn  of Napoleon from Elba, Thibaudeau
was chosen member of the representative
chamber,  in which  he declared himself
warmly to the last, even when  Paris was
surrounded by  the  allies, against  the 
THIBAUDEAU—THIBET.
231
recognition of the Bourbons.  Banished
from  France by the  ordonnance  of July
24, 1815 (see France), he settled  himself
at Prague, and  has recently published a
number of works, highly  important  for
the history of the time.  'These  are Mi-
moires sur la Convention d le Directoire
(2d ed., Paris,  1627); Memoircs  sur  le
Consulat  (1827);  Vie de Napolion (1628,
BeqJ
  Thibaut, count of Champagne, and
king of Navarre, distinguished among the
early French poets,  was the son of the
count  of Champagne, by  a daughter of
Sancho, king of Navarre.  After having
been educated at the court of Philip Au-
gustus, king of France, he was enabled,
through the influence of that monarch, to
obtain the counties  of  Champagne and
Brie, in 1221.  On the death of his mater-
nal uncle, in 1234,  he  became  king of
Navarre;  and, in 123!),  he embarked for
the East, to  engage in a crusade against
the infidels.  After  an  absence  of two
years, he  returned to his own dominions,
and  died  at Pampelona,  July 10, 1253.
Thibaut was deeply engaged in the in-
trigues and  civil dissensions which took
place in France during the minority of
St Louis.  His poetical talents procured
him the title  of the song-maker.  Love was
the theme of his muse.  M. Levesque de
la Ravaliere published, with a  glossary
and dissertations, the songs of the king of
Navarre (Paris, 1742, 2 vols., 12mo.).
   Thibaut,  Anthony Frederic  Justus,
one  of the  most distinguished  German
jurists, particularly in the  department of
the Roman law, at present first professor
of law at  Heidelberg, was bom  in 1774,
at Hameln, in Hanover, studied at Gotting-
en, Konigsberg and  Kiel,  and graduated,
in 1796,  at  Kiel.  In 1799, he  was  ap-
pointed professor ordinarius at Kiel; in
1802,  professor at Jena; and, in  1805, at
Heidelberg.   He is the author of" various
treatises on law subjects: Essavs (1798, 2
vols.;  2d  ed.,  1806); Theory of logical
Interpretation  (1799;  2d  ed.,  1806);
On Possession  and  Prescription (1802);
Criticism  on  Feuerbach's Revision  of
the  Fundamental  Principles of  Penal
Law  (I80T); and  many reviews in  the
Jena General Literary Gazette, and in the
Heidelberg  Jahrbucher;  but  his  chief
work is his System des Pandektenrechts,
which first  appeared in 1803, in 2 vols.
(7th  ed., 1827, 3 vols.).  After the over-
throw  of Napoleon, he wrote On the Ne-
cessity of  a  General System of Civil Law
for Germany (1814), against  which Sa-
vigny  (q.  v.) published  his  treatise,  On
the Aptitude of the present Age for Le-
gislation and Jurisprudence, translated by
a Barrister of Lincoln's Inn, oppo ing
Thibaut on much  the  same grounds as
Schlosser, in his Letters on Legislation
(properly codification),  in 1799, adduced
against the new Prussian code, the ad-
vantages of which  are acknowledged by
every one acquainted with the subject.
Thibaut is, besides, a great connoisseur in
music, and wrote On the Purity of Music
(2d  ed., 1826).
  Thibet, or Tibet ; a country of Asia,
forming a part of  Independent Tartary,
lying between  Ion.  74° and 100° east, and
lat.  2(i° and  35° north, and extending
from the sources of the Indus to the lion-
tieis of China, and from Hindoostan to the
desert of Colli, comprising a superficial
area of about 400,000 square miles.  The
natives call the land Pue, or Puekachim,
signifying the Northern Land of Snow—a
d< situation plainly alluding to the sever-
ity  of the climate, the inclemency of
which is owing  to the elevated situation
of the surface,  Thibet being the most lofty
part of the continent.   Here  rises the
great Himalaya range, the highest in the
world, the summits of which are  visible
for more than 2(0 miles.  (See Himalaya
Mountains.)   The  Dhawala-giri  (White
mountain) is 28,015 feet high, and there-
fore more  lofty  than  Chimborazo, for-
merly considered the highest  mountain
on the face of the earth.  Hence issue all
those mountainous chains which extend
into Tartary, to China,  &c.;  and here
rise the largest rivers of Asia, the Ganges,
the  Burrampooter, the Irrawaddy, the Me-
con,  the  Yang-Tse-Kianir,   &c.   To
travellers  who enter the country for the
first time, it seems a land forgotten by
Heaven.  Immense rocks and mountains,
without any appearance of vegetation, al-
ternate with dry and infertile plains.  The
wheat, peas, harley, which grow on the
latter, in many  parts,  never  ripen, and
serve only as fodder for cattle, when grass
fails.  At  regular  intervals rain occurs,
and a short grass springs up, which stops
growing as soop as the rain ceases, and is
immediately so parched by  the dryness
of the atmosphere, as to become entirely
white, and can be reduced to powder by
rubbing it between the fingers.  Yet it af-
fords pasture to large herds of cattle, and
is superior, in its nutritious properties, to
the best grass.   On the approach of win-
ter, the Thibetans water the lower mead-
ows, by means of  large masses of ice, to
prevent the  dry  soil from being carried
away by the wind.  The temperature and
alternation of the seasons are remarkably
regular in Thibet  From March to May, 
232
THIBET.
rain, thunder and storms prevail.   From
June to September, there is a succession
of violent rains; all the  streams are full,
and threaten to inundate Bengal.   From
October  to lMarch, the air is almost  al-
ways clear and pure,  and the sky  is sel-
dom overcast.  During three months, the
cold is more  severe than in  any part of
Europe, jiarticularly in the southern por-
tion of the country, along the mountain-
ous ridgs' which separates Thibet from
Assam, Bootan  and Nepaul, and  which
lies between lat. 26° and 27° north.  The
inhabitants during that  period  retire to
the lower valleys, or into the  caves  of
the rocks.  From Phari to Nanee, a dis-
tance of  nearly fifty  miles, the  whole
country is then  a  mere wilderness; and
the cold  is so great that meat keeps fresh
till  March.  But notwithstanding the  in-
clemency of the climate, there is  here a
great abundance of wild and tame beasts.
A peculiar race of cattle, called the Yak
of Tartan/, with a hunch upon the  shoul-
ders, is •found  in  great  numbers.  The
body is covered with a  long, thick and
soft hair, and the tail, which is likewise
formed of long, glossy hairs, thickly set,
is much used in the  East to drive away
flies.   Tiiis animal is very wild, and lives
in  the  coldest parts  of the country, in
summer upon the mountains, and in win-
ter in  the valleys.   It  constitutes  the
wealth  of the  wandering  Tartars, who
procure from  it food anel clothing, and
make us:; of it as a beast of burden, for
which  purposes it  is more suitable than
for agricultural  labore.   On  the highest
mountains the musk deer is  found: it is
about  as large as  a  middling-sized hog;
the musk is contained  in a small bag,  ly-
ing near the navel, and is found only in
the male.  The Cashmere goat (q. v.);
wild horses,  which are  too  swift to  be
taken  alive;  the  sheep, with broad  fat
tails; and another smaller species, with
black head and legs, often used to carry
burdens,—are also among the animals of
Thibet.  Notwithstanding the poverty of
the soil, all the  wants of the inhabitants
are richly supplied  by  the animal and
mineral  wealth  of the  country.   Native
gold is found, in abundance, in the sands
of  the  rivers-, cinnabar, leatf and  copper
abound in mines; the iron mines arc  lit-
tle  worked, on account of the deficiency
of  fuel, for which  dung is much used;
tincal,  from which borax is prepared, and
rock-salt, are  found in  great quantities.
Trade  is almost entirely a monopoly  of
the ruler: that with China is carried  on
chiefly  through  Silling, or Sinning, a
town on the eastern  frontier.  The reli-
gion, according to Tinner's conjecture, is
a corrupt form of Braininism, which firet
sprang  up in the southern  part  of  the
country, on the borders of India, where
was, accordingly,  the original seat of the
dalai-lama.  See  Huffman's  Critical En-
quiry into the Religion  of the Lama (in
German, Berlin,  1796).   The  principles
of the religion of the Hindoos, though
with many deviations,, are found to pre-
vail through Lamaism.  The places which
the Hindoos esteem holy (Allahabad,  Be-
nares, Darjodeen, Juggernaut, (Java and
Saugor) are also  visited as  such by tho
Thibetans, in  their  pilgrimages.  But
there are many-  ceremonies peculiar to
the Thibetans.  The  people assemble in
large  chapels, and sing to the sound of tho
noisier  species of instruments of great
size, like tiiose which are found in india
and  China,  as  trumpets, drums, fifes,
conchs  and  cymbals.   There  are   no
traces of the  division into castes, and the
inhabitants eat with  foreigners  without
reserve  or distinction.   The dalai-lama
(see  Lama) is the temporal  as  well as
spiritual head of the  country : he is con-
sidered as the vicegerent of God, invested
with the power of lispensing the divine
blessings to whom he will,  not only di-
rectly, but mediately, through the numer-
ous under lamas,  monks, &c.  But  our
accounts of the state of the religion, as
well as of the country in general, are ex-
ceedingly imperfect and uncertain. The
maimers and  mode of life are  rude:  the
houses of the peasants  are  merely piles
of stone, with holes to let in air and light.
Among the diseases prevalent here is the
goitre, or swelled throat, common in other
mountainous  regions.  A rude mode of
printing, with immovable letters, has been
introduced from  China: the  characters
used  are derived  from the  Sanscrit.
There  are twelve colleges  in   Thibet,
which are frequented  not  only by tho
Thibetans, but by the Tartars of the  sur-
rounding  country: philosophy,  astrono-
my,  medicine and theology are taught in
these seminaries; and Turner observed,
when he was here in 1783, that the satel-
lites of Jupiter, and  the ring  of  Saturn,
were  not unknown  to  the  learned,  and
that the physicians were acquainted with
the use  of mercury in syphilitic diseases.
There are also schools of magic, in which
the  art  of  exorcising,  &c,  is  taught.
Thibet is subject to China: some internal
troubles having  occurred in  1720,  the
Chinese seized the opjiortunity to  obtain
an ascendency in the country.  In 1793,
it was  invaded by the  Nepaulese, who
were, however, repulsed by  the Chinese; 
THIBET—THIRTY  YEARS' WAR.
233
and the power of the latter has, since that
time, been on the increase.  A  Chinese
functionary is always stationed at the res-
idence of the  dalai-lama, who transmits
information  to and  receives  instructions
from Pekin.  Whether the statement, that
there is another lama, called  the Bogdo
lama, who reigns in Bootan, be  correct
or not, our  imperfect knowledge of the
country does not enable us to decide.  A
Chinese description  of Thibet has  been
translated  into  Russian,  by  the  Russian
archimandrite  Hyacinth, and  a  German
version  of the Russian translation  has
been published at St. Petersburg (1^-8).
  Thiersch, Frederic William,  a distin-
guished German philologist, was horn in
1784, in  Thuringia.  His father was a
farmer.   He was educated at Schulpfortc,
in Saxony, and studied theology  at Leip-
sic ;  but Hermann's  (q. v.) Lectures de-
cided him to devote himself" to philology.
He  passed  a  theological  examination,
however,  in Dresden, and then  went to
Gottingen, where he enjoyed the instruc-
tion  of Heyne.   In  1809,  he published
his firet attempt at a  paradigm, in which
he aimed to resolve the forms of the
Greek verb  into their original elements.
In his Greek Grammar (1812), he devel-
oped his plan still further. In 1826, a third
edition of it appeared.   In 1809, he was
made professor of the newly erected gym-
nasium at Munich.  Here his work  on
the supposed  difference between North
and South Germany  (1810) excited much
hostility against him.  He was appointed
teacher, in history and  literature, to the
royal princesses, and founded a seminary
for the instruction of teachers, which, in
1812, the government  united with the
academy.   A  periodical was connected
with this  seminary, entitled Acta Philog.
Monacens.  He began also his  transla-
tion  of Pindar, which appeared  in  1820
with the original  text, and  with  illustra-
tions.  In 1813  and in 1814, he visited
Paris and  London, where  he  devoted
much attention to works of ancient sculp-
ture.  In 1822 and 23, he travelled in Italy,
chiefly with a view of studying  the fine
arts and arehieology.  In 1826,  he  pub-
lished  an account  of his  journey, and
wrote on various archaeological subjects in
the Transactions of the  academy of Mu-
nich, chiefly on the  epochs  of  the fine
arts among the Greeks.  He took a warm
interest in the intellectual regeneration of
the Greeks, through the Hetaireia (q. v.),
originally  a purely literary society ; and at
a later period, when the "Greek insurrec-
tion  broke out, he endeavored to aid it,
                20*
but was prevented by  the  government.
He undertook  a journey to Greece in
1831, after prince Otho, the son of Lis
king, had been  elected as sovereign of
that country.   In 1826—27, he published
his work  On  Learned  Schools (2 vols.,
Stuttgard).
  Third Estate.  (See Tiers Ktat.)
  Thirst; the sensation  which attends
the desire to drink.   During the opera-
tions  of the animal  functions,  a great
quantity of moisture is consumed,  the
loss of which must be supplied.  Thirst,
and the feeling of languor by which  it is
accompanied,  are  the  voice of nature,
calling  upon  the animal  to  supply  the
place of the  lost moisture by drinking.
The sensation  of  thirst  is not always
equally strong; but it depends partly upon
the food and the  prevailing temperature.
In summer, when the process of perspi-
ration  is active, and the consumption of
moisture consequently great,  all  animals
drink more than in winter. Cold-blooded
and inactive animals bear thirst much long-
er than warm-blooded and lively animals.
Madness,  and the  consequent  lassitude
and  exhaustion, are  produced by  long
and  excessive  thirst  no  less  than by
hunger.  Plants also  suffer  from thirst,
and wither under its influence.  An out-
ward  application of  moisture is found
to  diminish thirst;   and  sailors  have
preserved  theii* lives  by bathing in  the
sea.   The vicious habit of frequently
drinking,  and  the desire of tasting some
liquids, such as brandy, wine, &c, cause
the developement of a morbid  feeling,
which is mistaken for thirst, to which it
has a great analogy.
  Thirty-nine  Articles.   (See Eng-
land,  Church of.)
  Thirty  Tyrants.   (See  Attica,   and
Peloponnesian War.)
  Thirty  Years'  War  (from  1618 to
1648).   The remote causes  of this war
are to be found in the reformation of the
sixteenth century and in  the  "religious
peace" of  Augsburg, 1555.  The Catho-
lics and Protestants in Germany had  long
viewed each  other with equal jealousy :
nothing but mutual fear had  prevented
them from breaking out  into open hostili-
ties.   By  the union  of the Protestant
princes, formed  in 1608, in opposition to
which  the  Catholics  established  their
league in  1609, the fire already kindled,
and  smouldering beneath  the ashes,  re-
ceived fresh strength,  till it  at last buret
into a flame in Bohemia.  Here the Prot-
estant  doctrines,  which had  gradually
spread even through the hereditarv states 
334
THIRTY YEARS' WAR.
of Austria, had obtained greater freedom
and privileges by the Majestatsbrief, an
edict extorted  from  Rodolph II in 1609.
By virtue of this edict, the towns and the
nobles had the right  of building churches
and schools.  In the little town of Klos-
tergrab, therefore, and in Braunau,  the
Protestant vassals, contrary to the wishes
of their feudal lords, built churches in the
reign  of Matthias, at whose command the
church  in Klostergrab was  demolished,
and that in  Braunau was shut up.  The
Protestants remonstrated with the emperor,
but were answered  with threats. A re-
port was  spread that this answer  was,
composed in Prague, and that the empe-
ror knew nothing of it.   May 23, when
the imperial  council were assembled at
the castle in Prague, deputies from  the
Prostestant estates crowded into the hall,
armed, and demanded whether any of the
counsellors had a part in the composition
of the imperial ordinance.  Two of the
counsellors,  already  odious to the Prot-
estants (Von Martinitz and Slawata, with
the secretary Fabricius), giving sharp
answers to the deputies, were thrown into
the dry moat  of the castle, but  escaped
nearly unhurt The Protestants then took
possession of the castle, drove away the
Jesuits, who were accused, by the Bohe-
mians, as the authors of the oppressions
complained of, and took up arms under the
ambitious count of  Thurn.  The Union
sent an auxiliary corps into Bohemia, un-
der the command  of the brave  Ernest,
count of  Mansfeld.   The emperor gave
orders for his army to invade Bohemia.
In the midst  of these troubles Matthias
died (March 10, 1619).   He was succeed-
ed by Ferdinand II, who was chosen em-
peror, August 28,1619.   The Bohemians,
knowing his  hostility  to Protestantism,
had already  (August 17) declared his title
to the Bohemian crown void, and con-
ferred it upon the palatine,  Frederic V,
who,  after some hesitation, finally accept-
ed it, chiefly through the urgent persua-
sion of his ambitious wife, the daughter
of James  I, of England.  But the  very
next year, the great victory of the troops
of the League, on the Weissenberg,  near
Prague  (November  3, 1620),  which was
followed by the flight of the new king,
put an  end to the  Bohemian rebellion,
and crushed the Protestant cause  in that
quarter.   Ferdinand now declared Fred-
eric V under the ban of the empire; and
the ruin of that prince became inevitable,
when, in consequence  of the treaty of
Ulm  (July 3, 1620), the  Union was"dis-
solved.   The  Palatinate  was conquered
by the  Spanish  and Bavarian troops, al-
though count Ernest  of Mansfeld,  and
duke Christian of Brunswick, hastened to
its assistance with their troops, who sup-
ported  themselves by  plunder.  But the
bestowing of the dignity of elector pala-
tine  on Maximilian of  Bavaria (1623),
a partisan of the emperor, by which the
Catholics  gained the  ascendency  in the
electoral college, and the advance  of the
Bavarian general Tilly to the frontiers of
the circle of Lower Saxony (where he
still kept his army, though, in 1624, there
was no enemy in the  field, deprived the
Protestants of their churches, drove away
the Lutherans, and committed other acts
of violence), at last awakened the Prot-
estant  princes of this circle  from their
slumber.   They entered into a confeder-
acy with the king of Denmark, and Chris-
tian IV, duke of Holstein.  On the other
hand, the imperial forces were considera-
bly augmented  by the army of Wallen-
stein,   afterwards  duke  of  Friedland,
raised at  his own cost, which  marked its
course  with the most frightful devastation.
The  king of Denmark was entirely de-
feated  by Tilly, at Lutter, on the Baren-
berg, in  1626,  and, at  the disgraceful
peace of Liibeck, 1629, compelled to prom-
ise that he would never again interfere in
the affaire of the German empire. The
emperor  was now more powerful than
ever, and the Protestant cause was in ex-
treme jeopardy.  A proof of this was the
edict of restitution of  1629, by which the
Protestants were to give up all the church
estates, which they had confiscated since
the religious peace of 1555.  At this crisis
appeared  Gustavus Adolphus,  king of
Sweden, to whom Stralsund had applied
for protection, in 1628, when besieged by
an army of 100,000 men under Wallen-
stein, and from whom  the alarmed Prot-
estants now sought assistance.  Full of
zeal for his religion, exasperated by vari-
ous injuries received  from the  emperor,
this prince landed in Pomerania, June 24,
1630, with an army of 30,000 men.   He
drove  the imperial  troops before  him
wherever he appeared.  He  was unable,
indeed, to prevent the  capture and  de-
struction of Magdeburg, by Tilly, in 1631;
but, having increased  his strength by an
alliance with France and several German
princes, some of whom were compelled
to accede to it, as the princes of Branden-
burg and Saxony, and having destroyed
Tilly's army in the battle at Leipsic (Sep-
tember 7, 1631), he  reduced the emperor
and his allies to great  straits, by his rapid
movements, aided by  the victories of his 
THIRTY YEARS'  WAR—THISTLE.
235
generab and confederates in Westphalia
and Lower Saxony, and  by the invasion
of Bohemia by the Saxons.  Gustavus
delivered  the  Protestants in Franconia
from  the  imperial  army,  conquered
Mentz, made himself master of the Palat-
inate, and pushed into Bavaria.  At the
same time, the  elector of Saxony had cap-
tured Prague.   The emperor feared that
Vienna  itself would be besieged.  Tilly
had died in Bavaria.  Such was the situ-
ation of the Protestant affairs in Germa-
ny.  But when Wallenstein (who, at the
urgent instance of the  diet assembled at
Ratisbon, had  been dismissed for his acts
of extortion and plunder) again appeared
on the stage, with a formidable army and
high  military  renown, Gustavus found
himself*under  the necessity of'evacuating
Bavaria.  The two armies met at  Nu-
remberg; but  Wallenstein, not finding it
expedient to risk a battle, remained in his
intrenchments, on which an ineffectual
assault was made hy Gustavus.  They at
last came to a  bloody battle at Lutzcn, in
Saxony (November 6, 1632), in which the
king gained the victory at the expense of
his life.   His death would have been at-
tended with the most  disastrous conse-
quences to the Protestants, had not his
high-chancellor, Oxenstiern, by his skilful
negotiations, effected the alliance of Heil-
bronn among the  German princes, while
the brave duke Bernard of Weimar and
Gustavus Horn made the Swedish arms
triumphant through almost all Germany—
a result not a little promoted by the  am-
biguous behavior  of  Wallenstein,  who,
having retired to Bohemia in 1634, was
charged with treason and put to death by
emissaries of the emperor.  But the as-
pect of  things  suddenly changed again at
the bloody battle of Nordlingcn, in  1<>'54.
The elector of Saxony united himself, at
the peace  of Prague,  in  1635, with the
emperor against Sweden  (on which occa-
sion  Saxony was  indemnified with  the
possession of Lusatia).  Several states of
the empire concurred  in this peace, so
that  the Swedes were obliged to   seek
protection in a closer union with  France.
By the successes of Bernard of Weimar
on the Upper Rhine, and of Bauer, who,
in 1638,  had   invaded  Bohemia,   they
again became  formidable.   Torstenson,
with astonishing rapidity, marched  from
one end of Germany to the other, made
Austria  tremble,  humbled the king of
Denmark, and  filled up  the measure of
Swedish glory, which Wrangel continued
to maintain till the end  of the war.  It
was  not till after the death  of Bernard,
duke of Weimar (1639), that France took
a serious part in this war; and, though at
first her armies had done but  little, and
met with a severe defeat at Duttlingen, in
1643, they afterwards gained brilliant vic-
tories, under Conde and Turenne, over the
imperial and Bavarian troops.   At length,
the conquest of Prague,  by  the  Swe-
dish general Konigsmark (July 25, 1648),
compelled  Ferdinand  III (Ferdinand II
had before  died, in 1637) to conclude the
peace, which, after seven yeare' negotia-
tion, at Munster and Osnabriick, in West-
phalia, was signed October 24,1648. (See
Westphalia, Peace  of,  and   Germany.)
Eor more information, see Schiller's His-
tory of the Thirty Years'  War:  Wolt-
manns History of the Peace of Westphalia
(2 vols.) serves as a continuation of Schil-
ler.  A good history of this war is yet a
desideratum.  It spread from one end of
Germany to the other;  and, after its con-
clusion, this country, wasted by fire, sword
and plague, was a scene of desolation
and disorder. A bad currency and a  de-
ficiency  of laborers  brought  on  great
scarcity.  The art of war  was the only
thing that had gained  any  thing, princi-
pally by  the  genius of Gustavus  Adol-
phus, who  made an era in military tac-
tics, and was the first who had  a train of
artillery in his army.
  Thisbe; a beautiful Babylonian maiden,
whose memory has been preserved by her
unhappy passion for Pyramus.  The par-
ents of the  lovers opposed  their mutual
wishes; and they were able to keep up a
communication with each  other only by
conversing  through a  hole  in  the  wall,
which separated the contiguous houses of
their  parents.   Once,  however,  they
agreed to meet  at  the tomb  of Ninus,
without the city.  Thisbe  arrived firet,
but was tenified  at  the unexpected sight
of a lioness, and  hid herself in a neigh-
boring cave.  In  her haste, she dropped
her mantle, which was  rent by the lioness,
Pyramus now reached the spot, and, con-
vinced,  by the  appearance  of the torn
garment, that Thisbe had fallen a prey to
the monster, he  threw himself in despair
upon his sword.   Thisbe, on returning,
and finding her lover weltering in his
blood,  stabbed herself with  the  same
sword.  Both were interred in  the same
grave, at the foot  of a mulberry  tree,
whose  white berries became red.—This
Thisbe must not be confounded with the
nymph  Thisbe, from whom  the  town of
the same name, in Bceotia, was called.
  Thistle (cnicus). These rough, spiny
plants are conspicuous objects  in north- 
336
THISTLE—THOMAS A KEMPIS.
era climates.   The stem is thick and her-
baceous;  the  leaves  more or less pin-
nated, and toothed, and beset with spines.
It belongs to the composita; and the flow-
ers are disposed in large, dense heads, sur-
rounded  with  a close, scaly, and usually
spiny involucre, and are ofa purple color.
with a few exceptions.  The species are
not  so   numerous  in the  U. States  as
in Europe; but we have two, that  have
been introduced from that continent, very
abundant in  certain districts.  One of
these, C. lanccolatus, is very common by
road sides, and in waste places, but has
not hitherto attracted much attention as a
noxious  weed.  The other, C. arvensis,
improperly called  Canada thistle,  is the
most troublesome weed of northern cli-
mates.   It has overrun large tracts in the
Northern, and is now getting a footing in
the Middle States.   It is  never found,
however, in very sandy, gravelly or peaty
soils, but generally in such as are loamy
and dry.   It is nearly impossible to eradi-
cate it,   on  account of the  distance to
which the roots p"netrate: an instance is
given of the descending  roots  having
been dug out ofa quarry, nineteen feet in
length ;  and it has  been found to shoot
out horizontal roots or stolons in every di-
rection,  some  eight feet in length,  in  a
single season.   At the same time, its nu-
merous downy seeds, if suffered to ripen,
are dispersed by the wind  in every direc-
tion.  Laying land down to grass, ke< p-
ing  it in that state seven  or eight yeare,
and, during the whole  time, pulling up
every shoot as soon as it appears, is the
most effectual mode  hitherto devised of
keeping it tinder.  Formerly, it was pulled
when beginning to come into flower, and
given as  food to horses and cows.   The
ashes yield a very pure vegetable alkali.
It is readily distinguished by the small
size of the flowers.
  Thistle, Knights of, or Knights of
St. Andrew ; according to some writers,
instituted  by Achaius, king of  Scots,
in  memory  of an appearance  in  the
heavens  ofa bright cross, resembling that
whereon St.  Andrew  suffered  martyr-
dom, seen by Achaius, the night before
he gained a victory over Athelstan, king
of  England.   This order, after  having
much declined, was revived by James II
of  England, in 1687, and again by queen
Anne, in 1703.  The  motto is "Nemo me
impune lacessit."
   Thistlewood, Arthur,  memorable for
his concern in the political commotions
which disturbed England  after the resto-
ration of regal government in  France.
was the son of a farmer in Lincolnshire,
and was born in 1772.   He obtained a
lieutenant's  commission in the  supple-
mentary militia in  1797, and, soon  after,
manied a young lady with a  considera-
ble fortune.  He then  resided at Bavvtry,
in Yorkshire ; but, his wife dying in about
eighteen  months, he  went to  Lincoln,
where he abandoned  himself to dissipa-
tion, and, having squandered his property
at the gaming table,  was  obliged,  at
length, to take refuge in London.  There
he remained some  time, making,  how-
ever, occasional voyages to America and
France.  In the- latter country he con-
nected himself with the  partisans of an-
archy and revolution, and probably con-
tracted that spirit of discontent which in-
fluenced  his future conduct.   After tho
peace of Amiens, he returned to England,
and  improved his circumstances by a
second marriage.   But he had now be-
come a gambler by profession ; and, hav-
ing associated himself with other pereons
of desperate character,  he  engaged  in
schemes  which drew on him  the notice
of government  When the riots in Spa
fields took place,  he  was arrested, with
Watson and  othere; and the proceedings
against him  on that occasion only served
to irritate his  passions, and prompt him
to such  outrageous  behavior   towards
lord Sidnmuth, then secretary of state,  as
occasioned his  subsequent  detention  in
prison for a  considerable time.  On his
liberation, he gave way to the suggestions of
rage and despair, and  became the princi-
pal agent in the memorable Cato'street
conspiracy, the object of which was  to
murder several members of the adminis-
tration at a cabinet dinner, and excite  an
insurrection  in the city of London.  This
absurd scheme was betrayed by a man
employed as a spy by the ministry, and
the insane projectors  were arrested, just
as they were about to proceed to the exe-
cution of their purpose.   Being tried and
condemned  as a   traitor,  Thistlewood,
with his coadjutors, suffered the sentence
of the law, May 1, 1820.
   Thomas Aquinas.  (See Aquinas.)
   Thom.eans.   (See Christians of  St.
Thomas.)
   Thomas a Kempis ; that is, Thomas  of
Kempen,  or  Kampen,  a   small  town  in
the archbishopric of  Cologne, where  he
was born  in 1388, though, according  to
some accounts,  Kampen in  Overyssel
was  his  birthplace.   His family  name
was Hamerken or  Hammerlein (Malleo-
lus, or Hammer).  His parents, who were
poor, designed him, from an  early age, 
THOMAS A KEMPIS—THOMAS, ST.
237
 for the church; and he  received instruc-
 tion and assistance from Florentius, prior
 of a monastery of regular canons, at  De-
 venter, in Overyssel.  With such an ex-
 ample  and such  lessons, the youth was
 led to devote himself to the  rigorous ob-
 servance of monastic practices; and, at
 tiie age  of twenty, he retired, with  a
 strong inclination for the monastic life, to
 the Augustine  convent on mount St. Ag-
 nes, near Zwoll, where, after five yeare
 of probation,  he took the vows.   Here,
 distinguished for the apostolical simplicity
 of his  character, and Christian purity cf
 his life, he died in  1471, superior of the
 convent.  His works,  some  of which
 have not yet been printed, were firet pub-
 lished  in  1494 (folio).   The best edition
 is that  of the Jesuit Sommel (1600, 4to.),
 which  is  not, however, complete.   His
 printed works  are all  in Latin, and con-
 sist of sermons,  discourses, exhortations,
 and other ascetic treatises, hymns, prayers,
 and some  lives.   His  Soliloquia Anima,
 his Hortulus Rosarum, and his sermons,
 have  always  held  an  honorable  rank
 among the  mystical writers.   His  De
 Imitatione Christi Libri IV, the most cele-
 brated of his works, has been  translated
 into all modern languages, and has been
 republished more than a thousand times.
 It penetrates so deeply into the genuine
 spirit of Christianity, that it has been re-
 ceived with equal favor by the most op-
 posite sects.
   Thomas, Antoine Leonard, an  inge-
 nious  French writer, born at Clermont,
 in Auvergne, in 1732,  was placed, in his
 tenth year, at the college  of Duplessis in
 Paris, where he  soon distinguished him-
 self, and, at the age  of fifteen, obtained a
 prize.   Although designed for the law,
 his inclinations led him to the cultivation
 of polite  literature, and he became pro-
 fessor at the college of Beauvais.   In
 1776, he  was  employed as secretary to
 the duke of Praslin, minister of foreign
 affairs, afterwards held  the same post in
 the service of the duke  of Orleans, and
 died  at Chateau  d'Oullins, in   1785.
 Thomas was a  man  of generous and ele-
 vated  feelings, and  an  excellent writer.
 The best  known of his works  are  his
 Eloges,  or  Eulogies  of  Distinguished
 Men, several of which obtained the  prize
 of the  academy.    They are  in general
 characterized by vigorous eloquence, bold-
ness of thought, and a warm  zeal for the
interests of humanity, virtue and  knowl-
edge ; but they arc not always free  from
exaggeration of style and expression, and
loo great an effort after effect.   The best
 of his eulogies  are  those on  Descartes,
 Sully, marshal  Saxe, and  the dauphin.
 His Essai sur les Eloges (2 vols., 1773)
 acquired  him  much reputaticn,  on ac-
 count of its brilliant imagery, strong and
 just thought, and interesting views of an-
 cient and modern orators. His Essai sur
 les Femmes is less esteemed.   Among his
 poems, the best are his Epdre au  PcupleT
 Ode sur le Temps,  and Poime  de  Jumon-
 ville.
   Thomas,  Christians of St.    (See
 Christians of St. Thomas.)
   Thomas, St., also called  Didymus (the
 former being the Hebrew,  the latter the
 Greek word, signifying twin),  one of the
 twelve disciples, was bom in Galilee, ofa
 family of fishermen.  He followed Jesus
 with the  most devoted attachment, dur-
 ing the  three  last  yeare  of  his ministry;
 and the scene with his master, after the
 resurrection, is well known.  He is said
 to have preached the gospel among tho
 Parthians ; but the particulars of his life
 are unknown.   Tradition relates  that he
 suffered martyrdom  at Calamine, which
 Tillemont conjectures to be Calamone, in
 Arabia.   There are some writings attrib-
 uted to him, but they are spurious.
  Thomas,  St. ;  the  principal   of the
 Virgin isles, in the West Indies, belonging
 to Denmark;  Ion. 64° 55'W.;  lat 18°
 22' N. It is eleven  miles long, and two
 broad ; population  in 1815, 5050;  whites,
 550 ; free blacks, 15C0 ; slaves, 30C0.  It
 abounds  with   potatoes,  millet, manioc,
 fruits, sugar and tobacco.  It has  a safe
 and commodious harbor. The town con-
 sists chiefly of one long street, at the end
 of which is the Danish  factory.  Most of
 the houses are of brick,  being built and
 tiled in the Dutch  fashion, yet  but of one
 story.  The trade  of this  small  island,
 particularly in  time of peace, js very con-
siderable.
  Thomas, St.; an island in the Atlantic,
near the coast  of Guinea, situated  on the
equinoctial line, about forty miles long,
and  thirty broad;  Ion. 6° 55' E.  The
climate is hot,  moist, and unwholesome
to Europeans.   The soil is fertile, and
produces the fruits of the climate in great:
abundance.  The  island  is well watered.
In the centre is a high mountain, covered
with wood and fruit trees, and wrapped
in almost perpetual  elouds,  fivm  which
descend  a  number of  rivulets,  which
water the sugar-cane plantations  in the
valleys at the bottom.  The ecclesiastical
government is  in the hands of the  bishop,
a suffragan to  the archbishop of Lisbon.
Chief town, Povoacon, with 700 houses. 
238
THOMASIUS—THOMSON.
  Thomasius, or Thomasen, Christian, a
distinguished German philosopher and
critic, was born at Leipsic, in 1655, studied
at Frankfort on  the Oder, and, returning
to Leipsic in 1679, delivered  philosophi-
cal and law lectures there.   But his inno-
vations ou established usages (to the gen-
eral astonishment, he wrote the program
of his lectures in  1688 in the vernacular
tongue),  and his  freedom of  thinking,
raised him many  enemies, and  he was
finally obliged to leave the country.   In
1690, he  went to Halle, where he took an
active part in establishing the university,
in which he became professor  of law,
and, afterwards,  head of the university,
and remained there till his death, in 1728.
Thomasius was the first to use the Ger-
man language in university lectures ; and
he exerted  his influence  to procure the
abolition  of torture,  of trials for witch-
craft, and of restraints upon freedom of
thought  He contributed  to introduce a
more rational and philosophical criticism ;
and his services, in shaking the doctrines
of the Aristotelian scholastics, were of
the   highest  importance.   Among  his
works, the principal are, Free Thoughts,
or Monthly  Dialogues; History of Wis-
dom and Folly;  and  Rational and Chris-
tian  Thoughts on Various Subjects of
Philosophy and Jurisprudence, which in-
volved him in numerous  controversies
with men of narrow and bigoted minds.
Luden has written a  life of Thomasius
(Berlin, 1805).
  Thomaston; a  post-town of Lincoln
county, Maine,  on the east side of the
river St. George, and on the west side of
Penobscot  bay,  seven  miles south of
Warren,  thirty-seven  east of Wiscasset;
population  in 1830, 4221.   It has more
than doubled in population  within  the
last ten yeare.  The principal business of
the town  consists of the lime trade. Very
large   quantities  are  burned  here, and
shipped to all parts of the country.
  Thomists.  (See Aquinas, and  Scho-
lastics.)
  Thompson,  Benjamin.   (See  Rum-
ford.)
  Thompson,  Charles, secretary of the
American  revolutionary  congress,  was
born in Ireland, in November, 1729, and
was about eleven yeare of age  when he
anived in America   He  left his native
country with  his father and three elder
brothers: the former died on  the pas-
sage, and the youths were  turned ashore
by the captain, at New Castle, with but
very  slender  means of  providing for
themselves  in a  strange land.  Charles,
however,  was furnished by one  of his
brothers with money enough to enter the
school of doctor Allison, at Thunder hill,
in Maryland.   In those times, books were
very rare, so that a  single lexicon  served
the whole school.  It is  related, that one
of the boys having  brought  from  Phila-
delphia a volume of the  Spectator, it was
read by  Thompson with such delight,
that, upon his school-fellow's telling him
that a whole  set of the  work was to be
sold at a bookstore in  that  place, he set
off the next  day, without asking leave,
walked to  Philadelphia, and, having pos-
sessed himself of the treasure, returned
to school without further delay.   At this
seminary,  he  obtained  a knowledge of
the Greek  and Latin  languages,  mathe-
matics,  and  other branches  of study,
which enabled him, whilst a very young
man,  to keep the  Friends'  academy in
Philadelphia.   He afterwards married,
and went into business in that city.   His
principles were early of a most republi-
can cast; and  it is even asserted, that he
began the opposition to  the  stamp act in
Pennsylvania.  Immediately  after  the
first congress had assembled in Philadel-
phia, he was chosen their secretary.  The
duties of this office  he  continued to dis-
charge with great reputation to himself
and advantage to the cause, until the close
of the war.  His well-known  integrity
procured implicit credit for every thing
published with his name. After the adop-
tion of the new constitution, he assisted
at the organization  of the new govern-
ment, and was the person deputed to in-
form  Washington  of  his nomination to
the presidency.   Washington  wished
much to retain him in its service, but, in
his own words, "the suitable hour for his
retirement was now come."   During that
retirement, he published a translation of
the Bible,  and a  synopsis  of the  New
Testament.  His death occuned in 1824.
His disposition was remarkably good and
cheerful.  He possessed a great share of
natural sagacity.  He  was a zealous re-
publican  of the old school, and  strictly
moral and religious.  The Indians, into one
of whose tribes he was adopted, gave him
a name signifying " the man of truth."
  Thomson, James, a distinguished Brit-
ish poet, was born in 1700, at  Ednam, near
Kelso, in Scotland, being one of the nine
children  of the minister of that  place.
He was sent  to the school  of Jedburgh,
where he  early discovered  a  propensity
to poetry,  which drew  the  attention of
the neighboring gentry.  He was removed
to the  university of Edinburgh, and in- 
THOMSON—THOMSONITE.
239
duced, by the wishes of  his friends, to
study divinity; but he soon gave up the-
ological studies, and paid an exclusive at-
tention  to literature.  After acting some
time as a private tutor to lord Binning, he
quitted the university, and went to Lou-
don, where his Winter was purchased by
Millar for a  very trifling consideration,
and published in 1726, with a dedication
to sir Spencer Compton.  Its merits, how-
ever, were not  discovered  until it acci-
dentally caught the eye  of Mr. Whately,
who brought it into general notice.  It led
to the author's introduction to  Pope.   In
1727, he published his Summer, which
he  addressed  to Bubb  Doddington, his
Poem to the  Memory of Sir Isaac New-
ton, his Britannia, and, in 1728, his Spring,
and, in  1730, his Autumn.  He had previ-
ously brought on the stage his tragedy of
Sophonisba; and not long after, he  was
selected as the travelling associate of Mr.
Talbot, with whom he  visited  the conti-
nent  On his  return, he was  rewarded
with the post of secretary of briefs by the
lord chancellor Talbot, which was nearly
a sinecure.  About thistime, he  published
his  poem of Liberty, with the cool recep-
tion of which he was much disappointed.
Soon after the death of lord chancellor
Talbot  vacated  Thomson's office,   and
lord Hard wick, who succeeded to  the
seals, gave it to another.  An introduction
to  Frederic, prince of  Wales,  produced
him a pension from that prince of £100
per annum.  In 1738, he produced a second
tragedy, entitled Agamemnon, which was
coldly received,  and a third, entitled Ed-
ward and Eleanora.  In  l740, he com-
posed the masque of Alfred, in conjunc-
tion with Mallet; but which of them wrote
the song, since become  national, of Rule
Britannia, has not been ascertained.  In
1745, his most successful tragedy, entitled
Tancred  and Sigismunda, was brought
out and warmly applauded.  The follow-
ing  year produced his Castle  of Indo-
lence.  He  now obtained the  place of
surveyor-general of the  Leeward islands,
but soon after (1748) died ofa cold caught
on  the  Thames, in the  forty-eighth year
of his ag".  He was buried at Richmond,
and a monument was erected  to him in
Westminster abbey in 1762, with the prof-
its of an edition of his works.  He  left a
tragedy  entitled  Coriolanus, which  was
acted  for the   benefit  of  his  family.
Thomson was large and ungainly in  per-
son, end somewhat heavy in deportment,
except among intimate friends,  by whom
he was  much beloved for the kindness of
his  heart.  He was remarkably indolent,
and too much disposed to indulge in the
grosser pleasures of sense.  His Seasons
abounds in sensibility and beauty of nat-
ural  description.   His diction, although
occasionally cumbrous  and labored,  is
always energetic  and  expressive.   His
Castle of Indolence is the  most  spirited
and  beautiful of  all the  imitations of
Spenser, both for moral, poetical  and de-
scriptive  power.   His  tragedies  possess
little dramatic interest   (See  Johnson's
Lives of the Pods.)
  Thomson, doctor Thomas, an eminent
British chemist, is a native of Edinburgh.
His first  separate published work, which
came out in  1800, was a  translation, in
three volumes, of Fourcroy's Chemistry,
with Notes.  This  was succeeded by  a
System of Chemistry (4 vols., 8vo., 1802),
which  has passed through many editions,
and is become one  of the standard works
on chemical science.  In 1810, he pub-
lished the Elements of Chemistry (8vo.);
in 1812, the History of the  Royal Society
of London \4to.);  in  1813, Travels  in
Sweden;  and  in  1830,  Outlines of  the
Science of Heat and Electricity. Hiscom-
munications to the Philosophical Transac-
tions, Nicholson's  Journal, and other sci-
entific  periodicals, are  numerous  and
highly  valuable.  A still  greater  number
of his papers may be found  in the Annals
of  Philosophy,  a  monthly publication,
which  he established in 1812.  He con-
ducted the Annals  till 1818, when, on his
being appointed Regius professor of chem-
istry at Glasgow (which compelled him
to prepare and deliver a laborious course
of lectures), he  confided the task of edi-
torship to his friends, doctor Bostock and
Mr. Arthur Aikin.   In 1819, he resumed
his office of editor, but finally relinquish-
ed it, in 1826, to Mr. Richard  Phillips, a
scientific  member of  the society of
Friends.   Doctor Thomson is  a member
of the  London and  Edinburgh  Royal
Societies, of the Linnsean, Wernerian,and
geological societies, and of the imperial
academy of Petersburg.
  Thomsonite ; a mineral which, until
lately,  was regarded as a variety of meso-
type, from which, however, it differs es-
sentially  in respect  to cleavage, the form
of its crystals, and its chemical composi-
tion.   It occurs, generally, in masses of a
radiating  structure, in   the cavities of
which, crystals are occasionally observed,
whose form  is  that  of a right  square
prism.  It is colorless, and translucent in
the mass : but small fragments are trans-
parent.  It possesses considerable lustre,
approaching  to  pearly,  is brittle, and 
240
THOMSONITE—THORLACIUS.
scratches fluor.  Its crystals do not cleave  To  obtain  thorina from this  mineral, it
parallel to the terminating planes of the  was  reduced to  powder, and digested in
prism.  It consists of                    muriatic  acid.   The  muriatic  solution,
  Silex,................36.80  after the separation of the silex, was  pre-
  Alumine,..............31.36  cipitated  by caustic  ammonia,  which
  Lime,................15.40  threw down the thorina,  still  contami-
  Magnesia,.............  0.20  nated by  various impurities.  By a variety
  Peroxide of iron,.........  0.60  of operations, it was separated from these,
  Water,...............13.00  with the exception ofa small quantity of ox-
Before the blow-pipe, it swells, curls, and  |de oimanganese which it was impossible
becomes snow-white  and  opaque  but  to get nd of.  When mixed with charcoal
does not  melt.  When exposed to a red  f™?™'and I|eated t0redne,sVn a Porfe'
heat, it becomes opaque, very  white, and  !am tU,be' wh,,e a curVfm, f d^ «Jilonne
shining like enamel: the edges are round-  1S made ° Pass, ov!i" "' ch ,orideI f furl-
ed, but it does not altogether lose its shape,  j"vs,   T  \  ™    th,t?.c'll0"de ,a
but loses 13 per centf It occurs at Kil-  *eat*;d w,t'  Pota"™- * *"&*■ detona-
patrick, near Dumbarton, Scotland, also  ^n takes pace, and a dark-gray matter ,s
in Nova Scotia, in trap.                   obtamed.  When washed  with water, a
  Thor, or Tie; the Jupiter of the Ger-  ]l« « . tydrogen   gas  is g,ven  out  the
mans; the god  of thunder.   He was rep-  tc|hlomle of V0**?™™  dissolves, and the
resented as an old man with a long beard,  *,10rn,iri  1S ,left '" a P0,^1*' hav,nf .f"
a crown with diverging rays, dressed in a  »;oil-?ray c? or and metallic lustre   Like
long garment holding!,,  his right hand a  alum''nm''« anpeaw to be malleable.  It
sceptre with  a lily, and having mound his  ,s "0/ ,oxld,zfd "& water' ev'en when as-
heud  a  circle of stars.   Sacrifices were  f.,Sted I>y  heat.  When  gently heated  in
offered to him under oaks;  hence  the  the open an*, >t takes fire, and burns  with
Gennan  name  thunder-oak!   Boniface  very  feTcat splendor, being converted into
(q. v.) felled the Thor-oak near Geismar.  tho""a"   The f"h thus formed issnow-
Thursday (day of Thor) has  its name  white and exhibits no traces of fusion,
from him                                notwithstanding the very high  tempera-
  Thora'.  (See Tora.)                   t!.,re durillS the combustion    When tho-
  Thorium.  In the year 1815, Berzelius  r'um ,s Pl,t  into  dilute sulphuric acid, a
supposed that he  had discovered a new  strong effervescence, with the disengage-
earth among the ingredients of the Gado-  !n'f/. of hydrogen gas, takes place at first;
Unite, to which he gave the name thorina;  h"\ tluf s,00n*0PS* ev.e» though th*T !lSuld
but he  afterwards? ascertained  that this  **.%?*?$',  Nitric acid acts upon thorium
substance was a phosphate of yttria.   In  £lth  stlH  !^s energy than sulphuric  acid.
1828, he received from professor Esrnark  Bu*  In.ur,at,c ac.,d dissolves ,t rapidly,
of Christiania, in Norwav, a black mineral,  ^Jth  . the  evolution  of  hydrogen  gas.
like obsidian, and having a specific grav-  T">niim  is  not  acted  on  by the caustic
ity  of 4.63.   To  this mineral Berzelius  alka!,es"  The  only compound  which
gave  the name of  thorite.   It was dis-  thorium .seems capable of forming  with
covered in sienite, in the  isle of Lor-cin,  °Wn. » thorma. /o obtain  this  sub-
near  Brevig, in Norway,  and  is very  st^ce in  the  state  of a hydrate, we  have
scarce.  The mineral hi the following  only to add caustic potash to the solution
composition:-                          ?f t,,onna m an acid"  Hydrate of thorina
    "~  .                          _7 _   is gelatinous, and  contracts while drying.
  Thorina,..............57.Jl  vVhen moist, it dissolves readily in acids ;
  Lime, . . .............. ^.58  but  *t js  mucn \ess  soluble  when  dry.
  Peroxide of iron,......... 3.40  The  sa*ts which it forms  have a styptic
  Deutoxide of manganese,  ....  2.39  taste<  This hydrate is insoluble in the
  Magnesia,  .  . ...........  0.36  caustic alkalies;  but it  dissolves  in the
  Peroxide of uranium,......  1.61  carbonates.   It  is more soluble in cold
  Protoxide  of lead,........0.80  than  in hot carbonate of ammonia.  Tho-
  Oxide of tin,...........  0.01  rina is distinguished from the other earths
  k"Jex'................  n«.n  ^ t'ie w"owmo property : its sulphate is
  p  ate""'...............  J*5U  precipitated from its solution by raising it
  Potash,...............  0.14  to a  boiling  temperature,  and  dissolves
  ~oda,................  0.10  again, though slowly, in cold water.  The
  Alumine, . .............  0.06  g^ 0f thorina are not of sufficient im-
  Undecomposed matter.......  1./0  portance to require description.
                                 99.54  *  Thorlacius (Thorlaksen), Skule and 
THORL AC 11 S—THOR W A LDSEN.
241
Borge;  father and son.  Skvle  Thordsen,
the former, was born in Iceland, in 1741,
and died at Copenhagen, in 1815, where he
was rector of the Latin school.  Besides
his participation in the Hiimskringla, his
preface to the first part of the Sa-inundic
Edda, and some short Essay6 upon Thor,
two Runic stones, Sec, he was the author
ofa valuable  work entitled Antiquitatum
Borcalium  Observationes  (Copenhagen,
1778—99), and of commentaries upon the
Hukonar-Quida, the Grotta-Savngr,  the
Havstlavng, &c.   The son, born  at  Col-
burg,  in 1775, professor of theology at
Copenhagen, has also thrown much light
"i northern antiquities and literature, by
  veral works : he likewise furnished the
mcius for completing  the publication of
'he Hiimskringla, and of the Siemundic
Edda, which had been delayed for thirty
years.
   Thorn;  a town  in  the Prussian  gov-
ernment of Marienwcrdcr,  province of
West Prussia, on  the Vistula, about 90
miles from  its mouth; 100 miles  north-
west of Warsaw ; Ion. 23° 48' K.;  lat. 53°
I'.W ; population, 9000.  It consists of
the old  and new towns, separated from
f&ch other by a wall and ditch ; both sur-
rounded  by a mound  and moat.   Thorn
was formerly considered a place of great
strength.  It  contains one Lutheran and
three Catholic churches, two convents, a
Catholic gymnasium, and a military acad-
emy,  and some manufactures;  but its
commerce is less than  formerly, tiie Vis-
tula having become more shallow, so that
vessels of burden can no longer come up
to the town.  (See  Vistula.)  It was for-
merly  distinguished  among the  llanse
towns.  Copernicus (q. v.) was born here
in 1472.
   Thorn Apple.   (See Stramonium.)
   Thornton, Bonnell, a miscellaneous
writer of genuine humor, the  son of an
apothecary, was bom in London, in 1724,
and studied at Oxford. In 1750,  he studied
physic, but soon after united with the elder
Colman in the establishment of the amus-
ing periodical paper  entitled  the  Con-
noisseur.  Assuming literature  as  a  pro-
fession,  he was also a profuse contributor
to magazines, newspapere, and  all  the
periodicals of the day, chiefly in the light
and humorous way.   He projected a lu-
dicrous exhibition of sign paintings, which
satirized temporary objects, events  and
persons,  and amused for  a season, and
wrote a burlesque  Ode for St. Cecilia's
Day.  In 1766, in conjunction with War-
ner and Colman, he  published two  vol-
umes  of a translation  of Plautus, after-
  VOL. XII.         21
wards completed in five.   He died in his
forty-seventh year.
  Thorough  Bass.  Thorough bass is
the art by which harmony is superadded
to an* proposed bass, and includes  the
fundamental rules of composition.  This
branch of the musical science is twofold,
theoretical and  practical.   Theoretical
thorough  bass comprehends the knowl-
edge of the connexion and disposition of
all  the  several chords, harmonious and
dissonant, and includes all the establish-
ed  laws by which they are formed and
regulated.   Practical  thorough  bass is
conversant with the manner of taking the
several chords on an instrument, as  pre-
scribed by the figures placed over or un-
der the bass  part of a composition, and
supposes a familiar acquaintance with the
powers of those figures, a facility in taking
the chords they indicate, and judgment in
the various  applications  and effects of
those  chords in accompaniment
  Thoroughwort.  (See Boneset.)
  Tiiorwaldsen,  Albert,  since  1826,
president of the academy  of St. Luke at
Rome, the most distinguished of living
sculptors, who has shed a new lustre upon
the fine arts, and whose works would be
considered as  masterpieces  in  any  age,
was born about 1772, at Copenhagen, but
has lived for about thirty-three yeare past
in Rome.  His  father, a  native of  Ice-
land, was a poor stone-cutter and carver.
lie  observed  the talents of his  son,  and
placed him at the school of design in  the
academy of fine  arts at  Copenhagen,
where he gained  the  firet prize of  the
academy,  with which is  connected a
small  pension, to enable  the successful
competitor to  study  for  four years in
Rome.  Thorwaldsen, being without any
pecuniary means  of  his  own,  went to
Rome in  a Danish  frigate, by way of
Gibraltar, Algiers, Malta and Naples.   He
studied zealously; but, as the expenses of
a sculptor in Rome are considerable, he
could  not, in  the  beginning, show  his
talent  in great works.  After the cessation
of his pension, he was  in  very straitened
circumstances.  But  Zoe'ga (q. v.)  be-
came  his friend and adviser ; and, con-
scious of his powers, he took courage,  and
made  the model of  a Jason, at the mo-
ment  when he has  just  succeeded in
gaining the golden fleece.   The hero is
represented in an attitude of calm gran-
deur, resting on his right  foot, his head
inclined  towards  the left  side ;  the
fleece  hangs  negligently   over  Ids  left
arm, whilst the spear rests in  his uplifted
right: the figure is naked,  excepting  the 
242
THORWALDSEN.
parts  covered by the helmet, shoulder-
b It and sandals.  This model met with
universal applause,  and was  one of the
objects shown to every stranger.   Hope,
of Amsterdam,  commissioned the artist
to execute the colossal figure in marble.
This  was the beginning of his reputa-
tion ;  and  he now proceeded to  other
works of the  highest merit.  His  basso-
relievo,  Achilles,  sitting  with  averted
face and suppressed ire, while the heralds
of Agamemnon  are carrying  away the
reluctant Briseis, delivered  to  them  by
Patroclus, may be put by the side of the
finest  bassi-relievi  of the  ancients.  His
colossal Mare, in a  standing posture, rest-
ing on his  reversed  lance, and seizing
with his right  hand the olive-branch, ex-
cels even the Jason, and is considered the
finest  modern work in this  style.   This
Mars,  and  the Adonis, commanded  by
Canova as a masterpiece, were finished in
1808.   His statues, previously made  some-
what  under the natural  size,  such as Ve-
nus,   Apollo,  Bacchus,  Cupid,  Psyche,
Hebe, Ganymede, Mercury killiug Argus,
&c, are well known, as he has often re-
peated them in marble.  They have few
equals,  and, as well as his other works,
have  been  engraved,  by Riepenhausen
and  Mori,  in  outlines,  of which  thirty
appeared at Rome in 1811.  His four re-
lievi  for the sides  of a  baptismal  fount,
are distinguished for invention and group-
ing.   They are  a  baptism  of Christ, a
Madonna with the  infant Jesus  and the
child  John, a Christ blessing  the little
children, and a group of angels.   These,
and  his four medallions  for the  public
hall in Copenhagen, are models ofa com-
plete  cycle  in sculpture.  For the front
of the new cathedral in Copenhagen he
has made  a  St. John preaching  in the
desert, in basso-relievo; for the niches of
the vestibules, the great prophets; for the
frieze, Christ  carrying the cross; for the
interior  of the church, the twelve apos-
tles;  for the  high altar, the  Savior him-
self.  Part of these are already executed
in marble.   The greater part are still in
model.  Thorwaldsen in these works has
strikingly accomplished the difficult task
of representing Christian  subjects  in
sculpture—a task much more difficult than
that which Michael Angelo undertook in
his Moses,  because the power and vigor,
predominant in the character of the He-
brew prophet, are much better adapted to
the  plastic  art than the deep feeling of
Christ, filled with the idea of revealing a
future  world, which is more proper  for
painting.  Among the most beautiful pro-
ductions  of Thorwaldsen  are the three
Graces,  models of calm, poetic beauty,
with nothing of the modern and piquant,
from  which even Canova's Graces  are
not quite free;  his lovely allegorical fig-
ures,  Day and  Night, and  the  frieze in
one of the rooms  of the papal palace on
Monte Cavallo, in basso-relievo.  It has
been  copied in terra cotta (q.  v.);  also
his truly  poetical figure  Hope.   After
dies *, he made two not less beautiful Cary-
atides, of the size  of life, and bassi-relievi
for tlu tomb of the young Bethmann of
Frankfort on the Maine, who died in Flor-
ence.  Among his other bassi-relievi are
a Bacchus  letting Cupid drink out of his
cup;  Minerva placing a butterfly on the
head of the human  figure made by Pro-
metheus; Cupid holding up to Venus hia
little hand, stung by a bee ; Hygeia giving
drink to the serpent of iEsculapius  from
her cup ; Cupid  endeavoring to restore
consciousness with the touch of his arrow
to the fainting Psyche; the Muses dancing,
to the sound of Apollo's lyre, around the
Graces.   Young  male  beauty was never
conceived or  executed more  perfectly
than in his Shepherd.   The king of Den-
mark conferred on Thorwaldsen the order
of the Danebrog, aud king Joachim of Na-
ples (Murat) the order of the Two Sicilies.
Among  his  recent works  is Alexander's
triumphal entry into  Babylon,  in basso-
relievo,  ordered by Napoleon,  and  exe-
cuted in a  very short time.  It may be
called an epic poem in marble.  This,
with four  other  fine  bassi-relievi, was
bought  for  the castle of" Christiansburg.
He has  also made a Mercury in the act
of killing Argus asleep.  The restoration
of the ^Eginetic  statues (see  JEginetan
Style), excavated  in 1811, in JEgma, and
bought by the king of Bavaria, has been
confided to him.  He has ceased to make
portrait  busts,  though very high prices
have  been  offered  for  them.   He  has
lately made two candelabras,  from the
description  which  Pausanias  gives  of
those in the temple of Jupiter, in Athens.
For the  city of Warsaw  he made the
model of the colossal  bronze  statue of
Copernicus, which was first exhibited to
the public  May  11,  1&31—one  of the
noblest  statues   in  existence—and  an
equestrian  figure  of Poniatowski at the
moment  of his leaping into the Elster,
after the battle of  Leipsic.  He also made
the monument of Pius VII, in St. Peter's,
which is distinguished by simplicity, ami
the bust of cardinal Consalvi. (q. v.)   His
works are  often engraved  in Rome, and
cut in gems.  A medal with  his head— 
THORWALDSEN—THOU.
243
 an  uncommonly fine  one—has  been
 struck  in  Rome.  In  1819,  he visited
 Denmark, and  returned  through Dres-
 den, Warsaw and  Vienna  to  Rome,  in
 1820.   Many monarchs have confided to
 his taste the selection of des'gns for mon-
 uments.   While the  works of  Canova
 (q. v.) are distinguished for loveliness and
 grace,   those of  Thorwaldsen  exhibit a
 calm  conception of true  beauty, a sim-
 plicity and 'ruth, which seem caught from
 the ideals on which the works  of nature
 are formed,  and which  belong only  to
 genius of the highest order.  A sculptor
 like Thorwaldsen can dispense with the
 minor attractions to which inferior talent
 resorts  to win the favor of the multitude;
 for the power of such striking g nius  is
 felt  even  by  the   most  inexperienced
 judges.
   Thoth.  (See Egyptian Mythology,  in
 the article  Hieroglyphics;  also  Hermes
 Trismegistus.)
   Thou, James  Augustus de  (in Latin,
 Thuanus), an eminent magistrate and his-
 torian, born at Paris in 1553, was the third
 son of a president of the parliament  of
 Paris.   At ten yeare of age, he was placed
 in the college of Burgundy, and designed
 for the  church, but was  afterwards sent
 to Orleans, for the study of the civil law,
 which  he further cultivated under Cuja-
 cius  at Valence.  In 1573, he travelled
 into Italy; and, in 1576, his high character
 for prudence  and  ability induced  the
 court  to employ him  to  negotiate with
 marshal Montmorency for the purpose of
 preventing a civil war.  On the death of
 his elder brother, in 1579, he  dedicated
 himself to the law,  in  1584 was made a
 master  of requests, and, in 1587, having
 resigned all  his  previous ecclesiastical
 engagements, he married.  On  the revolt
 of Paris, produced by the violences of the
 league,  he adhered  to Henry  III, and,
 after the assassination of the  duke  of
 Guise,   was principally  instrumental   in
 reconciling Henry with the king of Na-
 varre.   On the death  of Henry  III,  he
 hastened from Venice to support his law-
 ful successor, Henry IV, who  employed
 him in several important negotiations, and
 nominated him principal librarian to  the
 king, on the death of Amyot   In 1594,
 he succeeded  his uncle  as prisident-a-
 mortier, and  was afterwards one of the
 Catholic commissioners at the  celebrated
theological conference at  Fontainebleaii,
 between Du Perron and Du Plessis Mor-
nai.  In the regency of Mary de' Medici,
he was  appointed one of the   directors-
general  of finance,  and otherwise em-
 ployed  in nice and  difficult  matters, in
 which he rendered  himself equally con-
 spicuous by integrity and ability.  These
 various occupations did not prevent him
 from an assiduous cultivation  of litera-
 ture ; and being fond  of composition in
 Latin verse, in 1584  he gave the world a
 descriptive poem on the suhject of hawk-
 ing, entitled De Re  accipitraria (On Fal-
 conry).   He  afterwards  published other
 pieces of Latin joetry; but his greatest
 literary  labor was the competition, ill the
 same language, of a  voluminous History
 of his own Times (Hisloria sui Temporis),
 of which the firet part was made public
 in 1604.  To the great  discredit of Henry
 IV,  this work  was condemned, in  sub-
 mission to the  influence of the Catholic
 leaders, who  were nettled at the freedom
 with which  the historian did  justice  to
 the Huguenots, and censured the popes,
 the clergy, and the house of Guise.  The
 history, when finished, consisted  of one
 hundred and thirty-eight  books, compris-
 ing the events from 1545  to  1607 ; and as
 few  writers  have undertaken a work of
 this  extent with better  qualifications for
 the task, it was accomplished in a manner
 which has  secured   the  approbation of
 posterity.   Accurately  acquainted  with
the  politics,  revolutions  and geography
of modern  Europe, the narrative of De
Thou is at once copious and exact, while
 his native candor and  love of truth have
 ensured all the  necessary  freedom and
 impartiality.  To this work he subjoined
 Commentaries,  or Memoirs  of his  own
 Life, composed in the same spirit.  In
 1601, he lost his  first  wife, by whom he
 had  no  children,  and  married a second,
 who brought him three sons  and three
 daughters.   The  loss  of  this lady  in
 1616, together with  the calamities which
 befell the country after the assassination
 of Henry IV, is thought to have hastened
 his own death, which took place in 1617,
 at tho age of  sixty-four.  The most com-
 plete edition of the History of De Thou
 is that published  in  London, in 1733, by
 Buckley, in  seven volumes, folio.—See
 Cl.aslcs's Discours sur  De  Thou  (1824),
 which divided  the prize of the French
 academy.—His eldest  son, Francis Au-
gustus, bom in 1607, inherited the virtues
 and  intellig nee of his father,  and was
 made  master  of requests and  grand
 master of the  royal library.   Cardinal
 Richelieu bavins* discovered that he  kept
 up a correspondence with the duchess de
 Chevreuse, studiously kept him out of all
 confidential employment, which, unhap-
 pily for himself, threw  him into the party 
244
THOU—THREE  KINt'S.
 of Cinqmars.    When  that  imprudent
 person therefore was detected in a secret
 correspondence  with  Spain, De Thou
 was apprehended on  the charge of not
 revealing it, and, notwithstanding an able
 and eloquent defence, was condemned,
 and sentenced to lose his head.   Resolved
 upon  a  signal sacrifice, the  unrelenting
 minister  resisted  all  entreaties  in his
 favor, and his execution was irrevocably
 determined upon.  Cinqmars,  who  was
 the cause of his ruin, humbled himself
 before him drowned  in tears;  but De
 Thou raised and embraced  him, saying,
 " There  is now nothing to be thought of
 but how to di>- well."  He was beheaded
 at Lyons in 1642, at the age of thirty-five,
 universally lamented.
   Thousand  and  one  Nights.   (See
 Arabian  Nights.)
   Thousand Legs.  (See Ccntiped.)
   Thoyras.   (See Rapm de Thoyras.)
   Thrace.  At a remote period of histo-
 ry, Thrace, among the Greeks, signified
 all the northern  region beyond Macedo-
 nia, whose boundaries were not distinctly
 known, and which was usually conceived
 of as being a wild, mountainous land. In
 a narrower sense, Thrace signified  the
 tract  of  country lying north of Macedo-
 nia, bounded east by the Black sea, south
 by the JEgean and the Propontis, and ex-
 tending  northwards  to Mcesia  and the
 Htcmus.   The land was originally, before
 it was cultivated, in part wild, and inhab-
 ited by a fierce and warlike people, among
 whom were the Getae: it was, therefore
 represented as the residence of Boreas.
 and  considered  sacred to  Mare.   The
 Greeks early settled colonies there,  and
 the country  was  not  destitute  of rich
 meadows and corn-lands : it abounded in
 mines, and the Thracian horses and riders
 rivalled those of Thessaly.   The  princi-
 pal mountains of Thrace were  the Ha>
 mus  (Balkan),  Rhodope  and  Pangams.
 Among" the rivers, the largest and most
 celebrated was the Hebrus(uow Maritza).
 The remarkable places were  Abdera, no-
 torious for the stupidity of its inhabitants,
 which, however, gave birth to Democri-
 tus and Protagoras ; Sestos, on the Helles-
 pont, celebrated in the  story of Hero and
 Leander; and Byzantium, on the peninsu-
 la on  which Constantinople now stands.
 The  whole country is now  included in
 the Turkish ejalet, or province, Rumelia,
 or Romania, (q. v.) It was formerly gov-
 erned by several princes, then subject to
Macedonia, and  finally formed a Roman
province.  The tradition of the old Thra-
cian  bard, Orpheus (q. v.),  shows that
 music early flourished in Thrace ;  and, if,
 as some writers suppose, the Greeks bor-
 rowed many of their religious ceremonies
 and notions from the Thracians, we must
 conclude that the early inhabitants of the
 country were not altogether so rude as
 the ancients often represent them.
   Thrale.  (See Piozzi.)
   Thrasimene,  or  Trasimenus (now
 Perugia); a lake of Italy, near Perusium,
 celebrated for a  battle  fought  there  be-
 tween Hannibal  and the Romans under
 Flaminius,  in which the latter were  de-
 feated with great loss, B. C. 217. (See
 Hannibal.) " Sue!) was the mutual animos-
 ity of the combatants," says Livy(xxii,  12),
 '•that the  earthquake, which overthrew
 many cities of Italy, turned the course of
 rapid  rivers, and tore down mountains,
 was  not heeded  by them."   (See an in-
 teresting note (35) on the site of the bat-
 tle, in Childe Harold, c. iv. st. 63.)
   Thrasybulus ; a noble Athenian, who
 rendered great service to his country, not
 only  as a general in the  Peloponnesian
 war, during which he repeatedly defeated
 the Spartans,  but more  particularly by
 delivering  it from the  dominion of the
 thirty tyrants, who, after the  close of the
 war, had been imposed upon the city (B.
 C. 404) by  the victorious Spartans. (See
 Attica.)  Thrasybulus, with  thirty of his
 fellow citizens, who, like him, were lov-
 ers of liberty, left the city, but did  not
 remain an inactive spectator  of the mis-
 fortunes of his country.  Determined to
 seize  the first opportunity to  deliver Ath-
 ens from the yoke, he occupied a strong
 place on the borders  of Attica, and  as-
 sembled  a small  body of  forces, with
 which he  bade defiance to the attacks of
 the tyrants, and even succeeded  in cap-
 turing the Pirceus.   Encouraged  by this
 success, the Athenians  finally  rose, after
 eight months of slavery, and chased their
 oppressors  from  the city.   Thrasybulus
 then restored the old democratical  consti-
 tution, and with it tranquillity. After hav-
 ing reduced Lesbos,  and recovered By-
 zantium and Chalcis, he lost his life on
 an expedition against Rhodes, during an
 insurrection of the inhabitants of  Aspen-
 dus.   He was distinguished above all  his
 countrymen by his ardent love of  liberty,
 his pure patriotism,  and his noble disin-
 terestedness.
  Three.  (S :e Triad.)
   Three  Kings, The, or The  Three
 Wise Men of the East. The magi spok-
en of in the New Testament, as guided b\
the star of Jesus to Bethlehem, and offering
him gold, frankincense and mynh,are call- 
THREE KINGS—THUCYDIDES.
245
 ed by the Catholic church kings; and the
 festival of Epiphany (q.  v.) is  called the
 feast of the three holy kings.  Bede even
 gives their names—Gaspar,  Melchior and
 Balthasar.   Cologne boasts  of possessing
 their bodies in the cathedral of St. Pe-
 ter's, where  their monument is shown in
 a chapel built by the elector Maximilian,
 whence they are called the three kings of
 Cologne.  The  legend  relates that they
 were baptized after their return to then-
 own country ; that, 300 years afterwards,
 their bodies were transferred to Constan-
 tinople  by the empress Helena, thence by
 Eustathius to Milan, and at last to Cologne
 by Rei.atus.
   Three Rivers.  (See Trois Rivieres.)
   Threnodv (from ty-r-w, grief, and i>cr,.
 song); a song of lamentation, which, un-
 like  the narrative,  and  therefore calmer
 elegy (q. v.), may be the lyrical  expres-
 sion of the  most violent  grief or despair,
 without any soothing mixture.
   Thrush.   The birds of this genus are
 hardly  distinguishable from the warblers,
 except by their superior size.  They are,
 however, more frugivorous, living 011 ber-
 ries,  insects and worms. The bill is strong,
 compressed  at the  sides, and the upper
 mandible  is  slightly  notched  near the
 point.   Their colore,  in  general, are not
 brilliant, and  many of them have  spots
 on the breast.   Several are  distinguished
 for their powers of  song, or  for the deli-
 cacy of their flesh.  We have seven spe-
 cies  in the U.  States—the mocking-bird,
 cat-bird, American robin, and the brown,
 wood, hermit, and tawny thrushes.
   Thuanus.  (See  Thou, De.)
   Thucydides, the greatest  of all the
 Greek historians,  was  born at Athens,
 B. C. 470.   His father's  name was Olo-
 rus ; his mother'-  Hegesipyle.   By the
 father's side  he was connected with Mil-
 tiades, and by h;.^ mother's was descend-
 ed from the  stock of the kings of" Thrace.
 He  received  his  education at a  time
 when Athens, having conquered her ene-
 mies, and acquired  distinguished power,
 was  occupied with zeal on the  highest
 objects  of* human  effort.  The  philoso-
 pher Anaxagoras, and  the  orator Anti-
 phon, early  imparted to his  mind that
 manly tone which gives so high a value to
 his historical works.  He was excited to
 devote himself to historical studies by the
applause which the  Greek people bestow-
 ed upon Herodotus, when he read his de-
lightful narratives at Olympia. When the
Peloponnesian  war  broke  out, he was
commissioned to raise soldiere for the ser-
vice  of his  country.  He lived,  at that
                   21 *
 time, upon his estate on  the  borders of
 Thrace, and had the superintendence of
 the  gold mines in the island  of Thi.sos.
 The flame of war reached these lands,
 and the Spartan  commander, Brasidas,
 besieged the  city of Amphipolis,  which
 was under the protection of the Atheni-
 ans.   When  the  Athenian  commander
 saw that he could not hold out without
 assistance, he  demanded aid of Thucydi-
 des, who, unfortunately, did not arrive till
 the night after the city was surrendered.
 The Athenians punished him  by banish-
 ment   Thus  the  active   mind of Thu-
 cydides  obtained  the  leisure  necessary
 for his historical masterpiece, which he
 wrote  at Scaptcsyla, in Thrace, the birth-
 place  of his  wife.  While in exile, he
 dared  to enter into connexion with the
 Spartans ;  not, however, to the injury of
 his country, but lor the advantage  of his
 historical work; for he  maintained  in
 their army certain pereons, who gave him
 full and  authentic information of all the
 events of the Peloponnesian war.  Thus
 he was placed  in a situation to compare
 reports, and, by a careful examination, to
 determine the truth.   He was  afterwards
 recalled to Athens, but returned again to
 Thrace, and died there, in his seventieth
 or eightieth  year.   According  to Pau-
 sanias,  he  was assassinated  in  Athens.
 This, at least,  seems to be certain, that a
 cenotaph was  erected  to him in Athens.
 The work which has made his name im-
 mortal bears the title Account of the War
 of the  Peloponnesians and Athenians. It
 consists of eight books,  of which  only
 seven  are finished:  the eighth is  to  be
 considered only  as a  rough  draught,
 which  wants  the  last touches.   These
 eight books, however, embrace only twen-
 ty-one yeare of this memorable war: the
 last  six are wanting.  This work is the
 production of a deep-searching, clear-
 sighted man,  fully acquainted  with  the
 nature  of history.  As  a  work of art, it
 stands  far higher than the  agreeable nar-
 ratives of Herodotus.  While Herodotus
 gives more interesting accounts, he nei-
 ther penetrates into the  character of the
 persons of the action, nor seeks out the
 causes of events springing from the re-
 lations  of the various states. Thucydides
 considers histoiy in  a higher point of
 view, treats the particular events as the
result of necessity  or choice, and by this
 means  makes history a teacher, not mere-
ly of what has been, but of what will be.
As  politics attracted him jiarticularly, his
histoiy has a  limited character, but, as
the  political history of a state, is a model, 
246          THUCYDIDES-THUNDER AND  LIGHTNING.
and, as he himself calls it, a treasure for
posterity.  He firet introduced dialogues
into historical naiTatives, with a view of
exhibiting the principles and motives of
the leading agents.   He made historical
writing an art, for he  not only skilfully
united the different threads of the action,
but investigated truth with a very critical
spirit.  Superior to  selfishness and  na-
tional prejudice, he dispenses praise  and
blame, reproves vices and praises virtue,
with  impartiality ;  and, as he spent  a
great part of his fortune in the  collection
of materials for his history, his accounts
have  great value on the score of credi-
bility.  As to  his style, it justly deserves
the praise  which has been bestowed on  it
by all intelligent judges. It has the great-
est  dignity ; every word has a meaning ;
and  it possesses  all the  qualities upon
which the perfection of writing depends.
His pictures attract as wcU by the variety
of the coloring as by the power and indi-
viduality of  the  figures.   However, at
times  he  is  obscure.  But  the  present
text of Thucydides is full of the faults oc-
casioned by ignorant transcribers.  Among
the editions, that of  Dukcr (Amsterdam,
1731, folio) is the most complete.  Next
to this is the Bipont  (17Hfci,  17*^9, in  6
vols.),  valuable on account of the Latin
version.  Thucydides has been translated
into English by Smith.
  Thuilleries.  (See Tuileries.)
  Thuiscon.  (See Tuiscon.)
  Thule.  This name the ancients gave
to the most northern  country with which
they were acquainted. Probably the word
did not always denote the same  country
or island : many,  in  fact, may not have
attached to  it the idea of  any  precise
country.  Hence the  many  contradictory
opinions of scholars respecting it.   Ac-
cording to Pythias,  it   is an island, six
days' journey to the north of Britannia.
Some have imagined it to be one of the
Scotch islands,  but  most  the  coast of
Norway.  Mannert and others believe  it
was Iceland.
  Thoimel, Maurice  Augustus  von,  a
distinguished  German  author, was born,
in 1738, near Leipsic, where he  studied.
He subsequently entered the service of
the duke of Saxe-Cobourg, whose privy
counsellor and  minister he  became in
1768.  From  1775 to  1777, he travelled
in France and Italy.  He  died  in 1817,
near  Cobourg. His  chief work is called
Travels  in  the Southern  Provinces of
France.   It is a novel, interspersed with
reminiscences of his travels.  Ten  vol-
umes  of  it appeared from 1791 to 1805,
which contain an abundance  of observa-
tions and descriptions, sometimes charac-
terized by  deej) and  grave  reflection,
sometimes by the most unbridled humor.
French ease and German  feeling  arc
beautifully united in this work.  He also
wrote  some poems.  A collection  of his
works appeared in 1821.
  Thunberg, Charles Peter, professor of
botany in the university  of Upsal, mem-
ber of more than sixty societies, was born.
Nov. 11,  1743,  at Jonkoping, the capital
of Smaland, and studied at Upsal.  Lin-
naeus,  his great countryman, was his in-
structer in natural history, and said of" him,
" Never has any botanist afforded me more
satisfaction and pleasure." In 1772, he went
as a physician in the service of the Dutch
East India company to the cape of Good
Hope,  where, during three years, he made
journeys into the interior.  In 1775, he
went to Batavia, and afterwards to Japan,
as physician  to the embassy  of the East
India company to the emperor of Japan.
Thunberg and Kampfer are the only per-
sons who have given us much authentic
information  respecting that country.  In
1777,  he visited  Ceylon,  and, in 177s,
went again to the cape of Good Hope, in
order to return to his own country.  H°
subsequently presented his rich collections
to the university of Upsal, having been
appointed professor of  botany in Upsal
immediately on his  return.  In 1784, af-
ter the death of the younger Linnaeus, he
was made professor ordinarius. The royal
academy chose him their president. At his
request, Gustavus III  gave the ancient
royal garden, as a botanical garden, to the
university.   The rich museum Thunbergi-
anum is preserved there—the  most costly
collection of natural history ever present-
ed to a European university.  The most
important works of this indefatigable in-
quirer are, 1. his Travels, in four vols, (it
has been translated into English, German,
Dutch, French, &c.); 2. Flora Japonica ;
3. Flora Capensis;  4.  Icones  Plantarum
Japonicarum ; 5. Description of Swedish
Mammalia;  6. Museum naturalium Acade-
mia Upsaliensis ; 7. Dissertationcs Aca-
demical ; and a numerous collection of trea-
tises, mostly in the  Transactions  of the
academies of sciences at Stockholm and
Petersburg, and those of the scientific so-
ciety at  Upsal.   Peculiarly valuable are
his Kampferus illustratus, and the notes
respecting Japanese coins and language.
He died, Aug. 8, 1828, near Upsal.
  Thunder and  Lightning.*   It  has
  * This article is from doctor Thomson's  Out-
lines of the Science of Heat and Electricity. 
THUNDER AND LIGHTNING.
247
 been demonstrated, by the sagacity of doc-
 tor Franklin, that thunder and lightning is
 merely a  case  of electrical discharges
 from one  portion of  the  atmosphere to
 another, or from  one  cloud to  another.
 Air, and all gases, are non-conductors;
 but vapor and clouds, which are composed
 of it, are conductore.   Clouds consist of
 small hollow bladders  of vapor,  charged
 each  with the same  kind  of electricity.
 It is this electric charge which prevents
 the vesicles from uniting together,  and
 falling down in the fonn of rain.  Even
 the vesicular form which the vapor as-
 sumes is probably owing to the particles
 being charged with electricity. The mu-
 tual repulsion of the electric particles may
 be considered as sufficient (since they are
 prevented from leaving the vesicle by the
 action  of the surrounding air, and of* the
 surrounding vesicles)  to give the vapor
 the vesicular fomi.  In what way these
 clouds come to be charged with electrici-
 ty, it is not easy to say.   But, as electrici-
 ty is evolved during the act of evapora-
 tion,* the probability  is, that  clouds  are
 always  charged  with electricity, and that
 they owe their existence, or at least their
 form, to that fluid.  It  is very probable
 that  when  two  currents of dry  air  are
 moving different ways, the friction of the
 two  surfaces may  evolve  electricity.
 Should  these currents be of different
 temperatures, a  portion  of  the  vapor
 which they always contain will be depos-
 ited ; the electricity evolved will be taken
 up by  that vapor, and will cause it to as-
 sume the  vesicular state constituting a
 cloud.   Thus we can see, in general, how
 clouds come to be formed,  and how they
 contain electricity.   This electricity may
 be either vitreous or resinous, according to
 circumstances.   And  it is conceivable,
 that by long-continued opposite currents
 of air, the charge accumulated in  a cloud
 may be considerable.  Now,  when  two
 clouds, charged, the one with vitreous and
 the other with resinous electricity, happen
 to approach within a certain distance, the
  * M. Pouillet has lately published a set of ex-
 periments which seem to overturn Volta's theory
 of the evolution of electricity by evaporation.
 He has  shown that no electricity is evolved by
 evaporation,  unless some chemical combination
 takes place at the same time.  But it follows
 from his experiments, that electricity is  evolved
 abundantly during combustion; the burning-body
giv'ngout resinous, and the oxygen vitreous elec-
tricity.  In like manner, the cabronie acid emit-
ted by vegetables is charged with resinous elec-
tricity, and the oxygen probably charged with vit-
reous electricity.  These two sources are suffi-
ciently abundant to account for the vast  quantity
of electricity so often accumulated in the clouds.
 thickness of the coating of electricity in-
 creases on the two sides of the clouds
 which are nearest each other.   This ac-
 cumulation of thickness soon becomes so
 great as to overcome the pressure of the
 atmosphere, and a discharge takes place,
 which occasions  the flash of lightning.
 The noise accompanying the  discharge
 constitutes the thunder-clap, the long con-
 tinuance  of which partly depends on the
 reverberations from neighboring objects.
 It is, therefore, loudest and largest, and most
 tremendous, in hilly  countries.   These
 electrical discharges obviously dissipate the
 electricity; the cloud condenses into water,
 and occasions the sudden and heavy rain
 which always terminates a thunder-storm
 The previous motions  of the  clcuds,
 which act like electrometers, indicate the
 electrical state of different parts of the at-
 mosphere.   Thunder,  then, only takes
 place when the different strata of  air are
 in different electrical states.  The  clouds
 interposed between these strata  are  also
 electrical,  and owe their vesicular  nature
 to that electricity.  They are also conduct-
 ors.  Hence  they interpose themselves
 between strata in different  states, and ar-
 range themselves in such a manner as to
 occasion  the  mutual discharge  of the
 strata in opposite states.   The equilibri-
 um  is restored; the clouds, deprived of
 their electricity, collapse into rain ;  and
 the  thunder  terminates.   In  thunder-
 storms, the discharges usually take place
 between two strata of air, very seldom
 between  the  air  and  the  earth.   But
 that  they  are sometimes  also  between
 clouds and the earth cannot be  doubted.
 These discharges  sometimes take place
 without any noise.  In that case,  the
 flashes are very bright; but they are sin-
 gle flashes, passing visibly from one cloud
 to  another,  and   confined  usually to  a
 single quarter  of the heavens.  When
 they are accompanied by the noise which
 we call thunder, a  number of simultane-
 ous flashes of different colors, and con-
 stituting  an intenupted  zigzag line, may
 generally be observed stretching to an ex-
 tent of several miles.  These seem to be
 occasioned by a number of successive, o.-
 almost simultaneous discharges from one
 cloud to another, these intermediate clouds
 serving as intermediate   conductore, or
 stepping-stones,  for the  electrical  fluid.
 It is these simultaneous discharges which
 occasion the rattling noise which we call
thunder.  Though  they are all made at
the same time, yet, as their  distances are
different, they only reach our ear  in suc-
cession, and thus occasion the lengthened 
248            THUNDER AND LIGHTNING—THURINGI A.
 rumbling noise, so different from the snap
 which  accompanies the discharge of a
 Leyden jar.  If the electricity were con-
 fined to the clouds, a single  discharge, or
 a single flash of lightning, would restore
 the equilibrium.   The cloud  would col-
 lapse, and  discharge itself in rain, and the
 serenity of the heavens would be restor-
 ed  ; but this is seldom  the  case.  I have
 witnessed  the  most vivid  discharges of
 lightning  from one cloud  to  another,
 which  enlightened  the  whole  horizon,
 continue for several hours, and amount-
 ing to  a very considerable number,  not
-fewer certainly than fifty, and terminat-
 ing at  last in a  violent thunder-storm.
 We see that these discharges, though  the
 quantity of electricity  must  have  been
 immense, did not restore the equilibrium.
 It is obvious  from this, that not only  the
 clouds, but the strata  of air themselves,
 must have been  strongly  charged with
 electricity.  The clouds, being  conduct-
 ors, served the purpose of  discharging
 the electricity with which they were load-
 ed,  when  they came within the striking
 distance.  But the electric stratum of air,
 with which the cloud was in contact, being
 a non-conductor, would not lose its elec-
 tricity by the discharge of the cloud.  It
 would immediately supply the cloud, with
 which  it was  in contact,  with a new
 charge. And this repeated charging and
 discharging process would continue to go
 on  till  the different strata of excited air
 were brought to their natural state. From
 the atmospherical electric journal, kept
 by  Mr. Reed, at Knightsbridge, during two
 whole yeare, from May 9, 1789, to May
 9,1791, it  appears that clouds, and rain,
 and hail, and  snow, are always charged
 with electricity ; sometimes with  negative,
 but more frequently with positive electri-
 city. When the sky is serene and cloudless,
 the strata of air are generally charged with
 positive electricity. In such cases,the thun-
 der rod is charged by induction; the highest
 end acquiring  the opposite state of elec-
 tricity from the air, and the lowest end  the
 same kind of electricity, while a portion
 of  the rod towards the middle is  neutral.
 During the firet year, there occuned only
 seven days in which no  electricity could
 be   perceived; and during  the second
 year, when the apparatus was much more
 complete, not a single day occurred which
 did not give  indications of electricity in
 the atmosphere.   During the first year,
 the elecn-icity was vitreous  or  positive
 241 times, and, during the  second  year,
 423 times.  This  difference was chiefly
 owing  to the apparatus.  During the firet
 year, there occuned seventy-three days
in which the signs of electricity were so
weak that the kind could not be determin-
ed. In the second year, it was found that on
days when the electricity is weak, it is al-
ways vitreous or positive.  During  the
firet year,  the electricity  was  observed
resinous or negative 156 times, and, dur-
ing the second year, 157 times.  During
the firet year, sparks could  be drawn from
the apparatus during ninety-eight days,
and, in the second year, during  one hun-
dred and six days.   From  these facts, the
probability  is,  that  the electrical state
of the atmosphere did not differ  much
during each  of the two   years,  during
which the observations were kept.   It
would tend greatly to promote the prog-
ress of meteorology, which is obviously
very much connected with electricity, if
a register were kept in the  torrid zone of
the state of the electricity   of the atmos-
phere during a whole year. The weather
in these countries  is so regular, and the
transition from dry weather to rain so
marked, that w-> have reason toexpect cor-
responding changes in the state of the elec-
tricity of the atmosphere.   The heaviness
of the rain, and the large size of the drops
in these countries, indicate that the clouds
from which the rain comes are situated at a
great height above the surface of the earth.
If the accumulation of electricity  should
be at a corresponding height,  this would
render a greater height necessary for  the
rod, by means of which the electrical in-
dications are determined.
  Thunderbolt; a shaft of lightning; a
brilliant stream of the electric fluid pass-
ing from one part of the heavens, and par-
ticularly from the clouds  to the  earth.
(See the preceding article.)
  Thundering  Legion.   (See  Legio
Fulminatrix.)
  Thurgau, or Thurgovia ;  a canton of
Switzerland, bounded north and north-east
by  lake Constance, south-east and south
by St. Gall, and south-west by Zurich  and
Schaffhausen.  The chief town is Frau-
enfeld.  It is divided into   eight districts,
and has a democratic constitution.  The
rivers are the Thur and Sitter.  It is partly
level, and partly  hilly;  but the elevations
do not exceed 2500 feet above lake Con-
stance.  It is fertile  and well cultivated,
producing wheat, barley,  oats, rye, flax,
hemp, and vines, and has  also good pas-
ture. Cotton  and silk are  manufactured,
but the staple article is linen. (See Switz-
erland.)
  Thuringia (in German, Thiiringen);
the former name of" an  extensive tract, in
the central part ot* Germany,  in Saxony,
having Franconia on the west, and Meis- 
THURINGIA—THYESTES.                     249
sen on the east.   In the latter part of the
fifth century,  it was inhabited by the
Thuringians, who are then first mention-
ed in history, and whom some consider as
a Visigothic tribe, while others maintain
that they are the same  as the Hermun-
duri.  The kingdom  of Thuringia was
conquered by the Frankish kings, in 530,
who governed it by dukes.  In the thir-
teenth century, it was annexed to Meissen,
or Misnia.  It was styled  a landgraviate,
and gave the  title  of landgrave to the
elector of Saxony ; but it was subdivided
among many petty princes.   The  circle
of  Thuringia  comprised  the  northern
part.  The name of  Thuringia became
gradually disused after the incorporation
of the  territory  with  other states.  It is
still, however,   preserved,  in  a limited
sense,  in the Thuringian forest.   The
greatest  part of the old Thuringia now
belongs  to Prussia.—See  Hersog's Ge-
schichte des Thiiringischen Volkes (Ham-
burg, 1827), or Galletti's  Gesihichte  Thii-
ringens (1781—1785, 6 vols.).
   Thuringia, Forest  of ;  a hilly and
woody tract, in the  interior of Germany,
comprising a part of the ancient Hercyni-
an  forest, and included  within  the terri-
tories of  Prussia, Gotha, Weimar, Mein-
ingen, Hildburghausen, and Coburg.   It
is about  seventy miles  long,  and  from
eight to sixteen broad ; population, about
188,000 ; square  miles, about 1200.   It is
covered with wood ; thinly peopled, con-
taining only small villages; but rich  in
mines, particularly of  iron.  The highest
summit,  Schneekopf (q.  v.), is about 3000
feet high.  Inselsberg, another summit, is
nearly as high.
   Thurlow, Edward,  baron  Thurlow,
lord high  chancellor of  Great Britain,
was the son of the  rector  of Ashfield, in
Suffolk, where he was born in 1732.   He
was educated at Caius college, Cambridge;
and after having been  a  student of the
Middle Temple,  he was, in 1758, called
to the bar.  He rose to eminence through
the display of his abilities  in the famous
Douglas  cause; and he soon after obtain-
ed a silk gown. In  1770, he was ap-
pointed solicitor-general, in the room of
Dunning (lord Ashburton), and the fol-
lowing year he succeeded  lord Walsing-
ham as attorney-general.  He was now
chosen member of parliament for the
borough  of Tamworth, and  became  a
warm and  powerful  supporter of the
ministry  in the house of commons.  He
retired from office  in  1783, but resumed
it again on the dissolution of the coalition
ministry, and continued to hold the seals
under  the  premiership of Mr.  Pitt till
1792.  His death took place  in Septem-
ber, 1806.  He was succeeded in the peer-
age by his nephew.  He was never mar-
ried, but left three illegitimate daughtere.
  Thurn and Taxis (De la Tour, or Delia
Torre); a family of princes and counts in
Germany,  which  originated  in  Milan.
The first of this family, it is said, received
the name Delia Torre from St. Ambrose,
bishop of Milan (from 374 to 397), on ac-
count of his defence  of the new gate
against the Arian rebels.   In  1313, Lam-
urald de la  Tour took the surname of
Taszis, now Taxis.  His great  grandson
Roger I, count of Thurn and Taxis and
Valsassina, went to Germany, where he
established the* firet posts (q. v.) in Tyrol.
The post establishment in the German
empire became, at a subsequent period, a
fief of the family, which, in Germany, as
well as in several other countries, enjoyed
great privileges, so that they became rich
and powerful.  Many important privileges
have been continued to this family since
the new  organization of the German
confederacy.  The present head  of the
family  has  an  income of about 800,000
guilders a year, and possesses about 260
square miles, in various Germa'i  coun-
tries, with  30,746 inhabitants.   Besides
the princely line, there are four lines of
counts.
  Thursday (in Latin, dies Jovis, whence
the French  Jeudi); the fifth day of the
week, so called from  the  old  Teutonic
god of thunder, Thor, the northern Ju-
piter.   (See  Thor.)  The  German name
for Thursday  is Donnerstag (Thunder-
day), thunder being the chief attribute of
Thor.   (See Maunday-Thursday.)  As-
cension day (q. v.) is also called Holy
Thursday.
  Thusnelda; wife of Arminius.  (q. v.)
  Thyades ; the same as Manades. (q. v.)
  Thyestes ;  son of Pelops and Hippo-
damia.  Having seduced the wife of his
brother Atreus (q. v.), the latter, in re-
venge, served  up to him the body of his
own son at a feast.  Thyestes, discovering
the fact, fled to Sicyon with his daughter
Pelopia, by whom he had a «on, iEgisthus.
An oracle had declared that  the son and
grandson of Thyestes should revenge the
crime of Atreus; and when iEgisthus was
grown up, he  accordingly murdered his
uncle,  at the  instigation of his father.
Thyestes then ascended the vacant throne,
but was afterwards expelled by Agamem-
non and Menelaus, the sons of Atreus,
and died in banishment on the island of
Cythera.  The tragedies of Sophocles 
350
THYESTES—TIBERIUS.
and Euripides, on this subject, are  lost;
that of Seneca is yet extant
  Thvme  (thymus vulgaris); a small la-
biate plant, a native of th~ south of Eu-
rope, and frequently cultivated in gardens.
The stems are branching, eight inches or
a foot in height; the  leaves simple and
opposite;  and the  flowers  disposed  in
whorls near the summits of the branches.
All parts of the plant  have a strong and
penetrating odor, as is usual in this  fam-
ily.  Its essential oil  is extremely acrid
and pungent,  and  is  used for culinary
purposes, but less so now than before the
Oriental spices were common.  Bees are
very fond of this, as well as of other labi-
ate plants, and the honey obtained is of
superior quality. The thyme of mount
Hymettus is  celebrated.   We have no
native species of thyme in America, but
T serpyllum is naturalized in  many  parts
of the U. States.  This plant has the same
sensible qualities as the garden thyme, but
the flavor is milder and rather more grate-
ful, and the essential oil less abundant and
not so powerful.
   Thyrsus (Greek Bvpoos);  one  of the
most ancient and common attributes of
Bacchus and his followers.  It consisted
of a lance, the iron part of which was
hidden iu a cone of pine, in memory of
the stratagem which   the  followers of
Bacchus employed against  the Indians,
when they went to  combat  them  with
pikes, the iron of which was  concealed
by ivy  leaves.  It was  used  at  all the
festivals  held in honor of the god  of
wine, and  often  enveloped with wreaths
of ivy or bay, or with  little fillets of other
kinds.   (See  Bacchus.)
   Tiara ; originally, and with Herodotus,
the cap of the Persian kings.  The tiara
of the  pope is a  high cap, surrounded by
three crowns risiug one  above the other.
These  crowns are covered with precious
stones, and ornamented with an orb,  on
which  stands a cross, and on two sides of
it a chain of precious stones.  Originally,
the popes wore a common bishop's mitre.
(See Infula.)  It has  been said, but not
proved, that Clovis, the Frankish king, in
the fifth centL y, or Constantine the Great,
in the beginning of  the third century,
presented  the pope with a  gold  crown,
which  the  latter nnited with the infula.
According to  Henke  (Ecclesiastical His-
tory, in German, vol. ii.), the popes first
wore the simple  crown in the ninth cen-
tury ;  Cicognara (Storia delta Scidtura,
&c), however,  is of opinion, that only
Alexander III, in the twelfth ceutury, sur-
rounded the mitre with a crown,  as a
sign of sovereignty.   Boniface VIII (who
died in  1303) is said to have added the
second,  as a sign of* power  over spiritual
and temporal things, and Urban V (who
died in 1370) the third, in order, as is be-
lieved, to indicate the power of the pope
in the church, suffering, militant and tri-
umphant (or in heaven, on earth  and in
hell.)   Perhaps the three crowns were to
indicate the three parts of the globe at
that time  known.  At the consecration
or coronation of the pope,  the  following
words are pronounced :  Accipe  liarmn
tribus coronis ornatam, et  scias  te  e.3Si
patrem,  principem   ac regem, redorem
orbis in terra, vicarium Salvatoris nostri
Jesu Christi.   As the mitre  is placed over
the coat of arms of bishops, and the car-
dinal's hat over that of the cardinals, so
the tiara,  with the two  keys,  is placed
over the family coat of arms of the pope.
On coins,  &c, the tiara and two keys are
often found alone.
  Tiber ; a river in Italy,  which  rises in
the Apeiinine  mountains, and,  in  its
course of about 160 miles, receives several
small  rivers, as the Teverone, the Chiana,
Puglia,  Nera,  &c,  runs through  Rome,
and empties, at.  Ostia,  into the Tuscan
sea.  It owes its feme to the Roman poets.
In  itself it  is  insignificant, and  always
muddy.   The fishes in it are not healthy,
and are bad tasted.  It is navigable only
for small craft.  Its  water  is yellow and
thick.  It  has  been long  believed  that
this river  contains  many antiquities—an
opinion  founded on  its frequent inunda-
tions  in former times; nay,  it has been
even said, that Gregory the Great, in his
religious zeal,  ordered the statues  and
monuments of heathen  antiquity to be
thrown  into the Tiber.  Fea, in his work
Novdle dd  TeVere (Rome, 1819), main-
tains, on the  contrary, that little would
be  gained  by exploring the mud of the
river; and the most recent undertaking of
this kind  (see Excavations) confirms  his
opinion.  That  part of Rome which is
situated to the west of the Tiber, or on
its  left  bank,  is called  Trastevere,  and
contains the Vatican, with several  other
important buildings.  The  inhabitants of
this quarter are distinguished by many
peculiarities from the other Romans, and
are called Trasteverini.  (See Rome.)—An
insignificant creek  in  Washington has
been  dignified with the name of Tiber.
   Tiberias.  (See Genesareth.)
   Tiberius,  Claudius Nero,  a  Roman
emperor, bom B. C. 42, was the son of a
father of the  same  name,  of the  ancient
Claudian  family, and  of Livia Drusilla, 
TIBERIUS.
251
the wife of Augustus.  Rapidly raised to
authority by the influence of his mother,
he  displayed much ability in an expedi-
tion against some revolted Alpine  tribes,
in consequence of which, he was  raised
to the consulate in his twenty-eighth year.
On the death of Agrippa, the gravity and
austerity of Tiberius having gained the
emperor's confidence,  he chose him to
supply the  place of that minister,  oblig-
ing him, at the same time, to divorce Vip-
sania, and wed  his daughter Julia  (q. v.),
whose flagitious conduct at length  so dis-
gusted him,  that he retired,  in a private
capacity, to  the  isle of Rhodes.  After
experiencing much discountenance from
Augustus, the deaths of  the two Caesars,
Cains and  Lucius, induced  the emperor
to take  him  again  into favor and  adopt
him. (See Augustus.)  During the remain-
der of the  life  of Augustus,  he behaved
with great prudence and ability, conclud-
ing a war with the  Germans in such a
manner as to merit a triumph.  After the
defeat of Varus and his  legions, he  was
also sent to  check the  progress  of the
victorious Germans, and acted in that war
with equal spirit and prudence.  On the
death of Augustus,  he succeeded  (A. D.
14), without opposition, to the sovereignty
of the empire,  which,  however, with his
characteristic dissimulation, he affected to
decline, until repeatedly solicited  by the
servile senate.  The  new reign was dis-
quieted by dangerous mutinies in  the ar-
mies posted in Pannoniaandonthe  Rhine,
which were, however,  suppressed  by the
exertions of the two princes, Germanicus
and Drusus.  The  conduct of Tiberius,
as a ruler, has formed a complete  riddle
for the student of history,  uniting with
an  extreme jealcusy of  his  own  power
the highest degree of affected respect for
the privileges of the senate, and for the
leading virtues  of the ancient republican
character.  He also  displayed great zeal
for the due administration of justice, and
was careful that, even in the provinces,
the people  should  not be oppressed with
imposts—a  virtue  which, according to
Tacitus, he retained  when  he renounced
every other.  Tacitus records the  events
of  this reign,  including the suspicious
death of Germanicus (q.  v.), the detesta-
ble administration of Sejanus (q. v.), the
poisoning of Drusus (q. v.),  with  all the
extraordinary  mixture of tyranny with
occasional wisdom and good sense,  which
distinguished the  conduct of Tiberius,
until his infamous  and  dissolute  retire-
ment (A. D. 26) to the isle of Caprese, in
the bay of Naples,  never to return to
Rome.  On the death  of  Livia, in the
year 29, the only restraint upon  his ac-
tions, and those of the detestable Sejanus,
was removed,  aud the destruction of the
widow  and family of  Germanicus fol-
lowed.  (See Agrirpina.)  At length, the
infamous favorite extending his views to
the empire itself, Tiberius, informed of his
machinations,  prepared  to encounter him
with  his favorite weapon,  dissimulation.
Although fully resolved  upon his destruc-
tion,  he accumulated honors upon  him,
declared him his partner in the consulate,
and, after long playing with his  credulity,
and that of the senate, who thought him
in greater favor than ever, he artfully pre-
pared for his arrest.  Sejanus fell deserv-
edly and unpitied; but many  innocent
pereons shared in his destruction,  in con-
sequence of the  suspicion and cruelty of
Tiberius, which now exceeded  all limits.
The remainder of the reign of this tyrant
is little  more  than a disgusting  narrative
of servility on  the one hand, and of des-
potic ferocity on the other.   That he him-
self endured as  much  misery  as he in-
flicted, is evident from the following  com-
mencement  of one of his  letters to the
senate:  "What 1 shall write to you,  con-
script fathers,  or what I shall  not write,
or why I should write at all, may the gods
and  goddesses plague me more  than I
feel  daily that they are doing, if I can
tell."    What  mental   torture,  observes
Tacitus, in reference to this passage, which
could extort such a confession!  In the
midst, however, of all this tyranny, he of-
ten exhibited gleams of  strong sense, and
of a judicious  attention to the public wel-
fare—a remark which holds good in ev-
ery part of his anomalous reign. Having
at length reached an advanced age, Cains
Caligula,  the  son  of  Germanicus, his
grandson by adoption, and Gemellus, the
son  of  Drusus, his grandson by  nature,
became objects of interest.  Caius,  how-
ever, who had reached the age of twenty-
five, and who  held the popular  favor as a
paternal inheritance, was at length de-
clared his successor.  Acting the hypo-
crite to the last, he disguised his increas-
ing debility as  much as he was able,  even
affecting to join in  the  sports and exer-
cises of the soldiere  of his  guard. At
length,  leaving  his  favorite  island, the
scene of the most disgusting debauche-
ries, he stopped  at a country house  near
the promontory  of Misenurn, where, on
the sixteenth of March,  37, he sunk into
a  lethargy, in  which he appeared dead;
and Caligula (q. v.) was  preparing, with a
uumerous escort, to take possession of the 
252
TIBERIUS—TICONDEROGA.
empire, when his sudden revival threw
them into consternation.  At this critical
instant, Macro,  the  pretorian  prefect,
caused him to be suffocated with pillows.
Thus expired the emperor Tiberius, in the
seventy-eighth year of his age and twenty-
third of his reign, universally execrated.
  Tibet. (See Thibet.)
  Tibia ; the ancient flute, the invention
of which is ascribed to Minerva.  It was
used among the Greeks and Romans  on
occasion  of  almost all festivals, and even
as a  means of curing certain diseases;  by
the Romans in their triumphs; by  the
Lacedaemonians, particularly in war;  in
celebrating the  praises  of  the gods; at
sacrifices and other religious celebrations;
at the  mysteries of Cybele; at weddings
and entertainments; to amuse guests after
dinner; also, and particularly, on occasions
of melancholy solemnity, as funerals.
  Tibullus, Albius; a Roman  poet  of
the golden age of Roman literature.   Of
his life nothing is  known but that he  be-
longed to the equestrian order.  The year
711 after the building of Rome- is gener-
ally taken as the year  if his birth.  Voss
places  it about  695  A. U. C.  1 le died,
without having  held any public office, in
735  or 736 A. U. C, in  the flower of his
age.   We possess, of his writings, a col-
lection of elegies, in four books, of which,
however, the fourth contains several pieces
of doubtful origin.  These poems are among
the most perfect of their kind which have
come down  to us from classical antiquity.
Their  moral tone, however, is that of a
reckless voluptuary.  The elegies of Ti-
bullus are superior to those of  Propertius
(with which, and the poems of Catullus,
they are  usually  printed) in  agreeable
simplicity and tender feeling, and are free
from the insipid prate into which Ovid
frequently falls; so that the  author  de-
serves  the first  place among the Roman
elegiac poets.  The best editions are those
of Brouckhusius (Amsterdam,  2  vols.,
4to.), Heyne (latest edition by Wunder-
lich, Leipsic, 1816], and Huschke (Leipsic,
1819).  J. H. Voss,  in  his German trans-
lation  (Heidelberg, 1810),  ascribes  the
third book to a certain  Lygdamus, which
opinion is confirmed by Eichstadt.  Dart
and  Grainger are  among the  English
translators of this  poet.   The  latter is
much the most successful.
   Tic Douloureux (French  tic, spasm;
douloureux, painful), a painful affection of
a facial nerve, is so called from its sudden
and  excruciating stroke.  It is a species
of neuralgia, which comprises similar af-
fections in other parts of the body.  It is
characterized by acute pain, attended with
convulsive twitchings of the muscles, and
continuing from a few minutes to several
hours.   The causes of this  affection  are
unknown, and it often baffles the skill of
the physician.
  Ticino.  (See Tessin.)
  Tick, in natural history; a little animal
of a livid color, with a blunt and round-
ish tail, elevated antenna?, a globose-ovate
form, and  full of blood, which  infests
cows, swine, goats, sheep and dogs.
  Tickell, Thomas, an ingenious writer
in prose and verse, and the intimate friend
of Addison, was born in 1686,  and re-
ceived his education at Oxford, where he
obtained a fellowship in  his twenty-fifth
year.   While at the university, an elegant
copy of verses, addressed by him to  Ad-
dison, on his opera of Rosamond, intro-
duced  him to the acquaintance of  that
accomplished scholar, who  induced  him
to lay aside his previous intention of  tak-
ing orders, appointed him his under  sec-
retary  of state,  and,  on  his death,  be-
queathed to him the publication of his
works.  In 1724, Mr. Tickell obtained the
situation of secretary to the lords justices
of Ireland.  As an authoi, he  takes  a
prominent rank among the minor English
poets;  his versification especially,  in its
ease and harmony, being inferior perhaps
to that of no  one, except  Dryden  and
Pope.  When the latter gave to the world
his translation of the Iliad, Tickell  print-
ed his own version of the first book, in
opposition to that of Pope.  The produc-
tion of this poem occasioned an interrup-
tion of the  good understanding between
Pope and Addison, the former  suspecting
Addison himself to be the author of the
work.  Tickell's other writings consist of
the Prospect of Peace, a poem (1713);
the Royal  Progress;  Kensington Gar-
dens ; a  Letter to Avignon; Imitation of
the Prophecy of Nereus;  with several
epistles,  odes,  and other miscellaneous
pieces, to be found in  the second volume
of the Minor Poets.  His death took place
at Bath, in 1740.
  Ticonderoga; a post-town of  Essex
county, New York, on the west side of
the south end of lake  Champlain, and at
the north end  of lake George; twelve
miles south of Crown Point, ninety-five
north  of Albany;  population in  1820,
1493.  There  is a valuable iron mine in
this township.—Ticonderoga fort, famous
in the history of the  American  wars, is
situated on an eminence,  on the west side
of lake Champlain, just north  of the en-
trance of the outlet from lake George  into 
TICONDEROGA—TIDES.
253
 lake Champlain,  fifteen  miles  south  of
 Crown Point, twenty-four north of White-
 hall ;  Ion. 73° 27' W.;  lat. 43° 30' N.  It
 is now  in ruins.   Considerable remains
 of the fortifications are still to be seen.
 The stone walls  of the  fort, which are
 now standing,  are, in some places, thirty
 feet high.  Mount Defiance lies about a
 mile south of the fort, and mount Inde-
 pendence is about half a mile distant,  on
, the opposite side  of the  lake,  in Orwell,
 Vermont.
   Tides.   The ebb and flow of the sea
 are evidently connected with the  moon's
 motions.  The level   of the   ocean  is
 slightly  disturbed by the attraction which
 is alternately  exerted  and withdrawn.
 The waters, for a large space  under the
 moon, being more attracted than the great
 body  of  the earth, are thus  rendered
 lighter  than those  parts of the ocean
 which are at the same  distance as  the
 earth's centre; and, being lighter, they are
 forced upwards a little by the  surround-
 ing mass,  which is heavier; just as water
 and oil will stand at different heights  in
 the two branches of a siphon tube;  or
 just as ice, which is lighter than water, is
 made  to rise a little higher, on that ac-
 count, when placed in  water.   If the
 earth rested immovably upon a fixed sup-
 port, there would be a tide, or  rising of
 the waters, only on the side towards the
 moon.   But the great  body of the earth
 is just as free to move as a single particle
 of the ocean, and, if suffered to yield to
 the  moon's attraction,  would be canied
 just as fast  Hence, for the same reason
 that a particle of water, on the side of the
 earth towards the moon, is drawn away
 from the centre, or has  its downward ten-
 dency diminished, so tiie solid earth itself
 is drawn  away from the mass of waters,
 on the side of the earth farthest from the
 moon.   It is the difference of attraction,
 in both  cases, between the surface and
 the centre, which causes the lightness of
 the waters, and the consequent elevation.
 It will be seen, therefore, that, taking the
 whole earth into view,  there are always
 two high  tides diametrically opposite  to
 each other, and two low tides also, mid-
 way between the  high ones.  The high
 tides are  two great waves, or swells,
 of small height, but extending each way
 through  half a right angle.  These waves
 follow the moon  in its monthly motion
 round the earth, while  the earth, turning
 on its axis, causes any given place to pass
 through  each of these  swells and the in-
 tervening  depressions  in a lunar day, or
 twenty-four hours fifty minutes.  What
   vol. xn.        22
 we  have said with respect to. the moon's
 influence in disturbing the level of the
 ocean, may be applied also to that of the
 sun; only, in  the case of the  sun,  al-
 though its absolute action is about double
 that of the moon, yet, on account of its
 very great distance, its relative action
 upon the surface of  the earth, compared
 with that at the  centre, is but about one
 third as great as that of the moon. At new
 and  full moon, when the sun's and moon's
 actions conspire, the tides are highest, and
 are called spring tides.  But at  the first
 and  last quarters of the moon, the action
 on one body tends to  counteract that  of
 the other; and the tides, both at  ebb and
 flow, are  smallest,  and are  called  neap
 tides.   We have  supposed the highest
 tides to happen  at new and full moon,
 and  the  lowest at the quartere.   But the
 waters do not yield instantly to the action
 exerted upon  them: the greatest effect
 takes place some time after the attractive
 influence has passed its point of greatest
 power.   Thus the spring and neap tides
 actually occur about a day and a half after
 the times above  indicated.   So,  also, for
 a similar reason, the real  time  of  high
 water,  in the daily tides, happens about
 three hours after the  moon has passed the
 meridian.  It will be perceived, from what
 has been said, that the sun's and moon's
 influence will vary with a change of dis-
 tance, being greatest when the attracting
 body is nearest, and vice versa.  The phe-
 nomena of the tides are modified, more-
 over, by the situation of the sun and moon
 with respect to the equator,  and  the par-
 ticular  latitude of the  observer.  When,
 for instance, the moon passes  near the
 zenith of the observer, supposed to be  in
 one of  the temperate zones, the opposite
 high tide  will be in  the same latitude on
 the other  6ide  of the equator;  conse-
 quently, under the above circumstances,
the high tide, when  the  moon  is above
 the horizon, exceeds  the  high tide when
 the moon is below the horizon; and at a
point in the direction of the nearest pole,
fifty  degrees from the place where the
moon is  vertical, there will  be only one
 tide in  twenty-four hours.  The different
heights to which  the same tide  rises, in
places but little distant from each other,
depend upon local circumstances; as the
particular form of the coast, the meeting
of currents, &c.  Where a  bay grows
narrower and nanower, like a tunnel, as
it runs  up from the ocean into the land,
the swell of water must rise higher as
the passage becomes more contracted in
breadth.  Thus,  in the bay of  Fundy, 
254
TIDES—TIECK.
which answers to this description, and is of
great extent, the tide sometimes rises to the
height of seventy feet. It is frequently ask-
ed, why thereare not tides in the inland seas
and larger lakes.  If we observe, upon an
artificial globe, the very  small space oc-
cupied by the largest bodies of water of
this description, we shall  readily perceive
that there can  be no appreciable differ-
ence in the action of the moon  upon so
small  a portion of  the  earth's  surface;
the whole of the  lake, or sea, therefore,
becomes lighter when the moon  is over
it, and  there is no  heavier mass of water
ninety degrees distant to force it above its
natural level.
  Tiebeam.  (See Architecture, vol. i, p.
337.)
  Tieck, Louis, was born in 1773.  His
critical writings on  poetry and  the arts
may be ranked, with  those of the Schle-
gels, among the most important works of
this description, for which  the literature
of modern Germany has been so  much
distinguished above that of other nations,
and the consequences of which have been
percep ible in all branches of aesthetics.
His literary course, however, will not  be
considered by all as free from errors.   In
breaking from the hamers of the formal
French taste, which  had taken  root  in
Germany, he has  not unfrequeiitly run
into  the opposite extreme  of indistinct-
ness.   At  the age of nineteen yeare, he
studied at  the  universities in  Halle and
Gottingen, and, with his  fnend Wacken-
roder, at Erlangen.   His  William Lovell
appeared in  1796, and has  some of the
crudem-ss of a youthful production. His
Peter Leberecht's Popular Tales (Berlin,
1797, 3 vols.) shows a more mature mind.
Not long after, he displayed his  peculiar
talent for keen  satire in  sportive poetry,
of  which  his  Bluebeard,  and  Puss in
Boots, are striking instances.   The Effu-
sions ofa Friar attached to the Arts (Ber-
lin, 1797),  a  work of Wackenroder, in
which  Tieck took  part,  is  of a  singular
character.  There is a kind of mystery in
it, which  appears  also in the Phantasies
on Art (Hamburg, 1799), also by Wack-
enroder, with additions by him.  In 1798,
he published  his  Francis  Stembald's
Wanderings, in which, as in the two pre-
ceding, a  warm love of the  fine arts is
manifested, very  much  opposed to the
heartless criticism then in vogue.  From
1799 to 1801, appeared his translation  of
Don Quixote (in 4 vols.)—a work, in some
respects, of peculiar merit. The Germans
have  several  other translations  of the
same.   In 1799 and 1800, appeared  his
Romantic Poems.  The second  number
of his Poetical Journal, published in Jena,
begins with letters ou  Shakspeare, which
too soon ceased.  He had etirly applied
himseifto the study of the great British
poet, as appears from  his publication of
the Tempest, with an Essay on Shak-
speare's Treatment  of the  Supernatural
(Berlin, 1796).   In 1801  and  1802, lie
lived in Dresden with his friend Frederic
Schlcgel,  and published, with  him  and
several other poets,  the  Musenalmanach
aufdas Jahr  1802.  In 1803, he  publish-
ed Minnelieder (Love Songs) of the Sua-
bian Period  in a modern German Dress
(Berlin, with a preface).  In  1804, ap-
peared the Emperor  Octavianus, an  imi-
tation of an old tale.  In 1805, he publish-
ed, in connexion with Schlegel, the works
of their friend Novalis (q. v.), in 2 vols., at
Berlin.  After this, he went to Italy, and
occupied  himself much  in  Rome  with
ancient German manuscripts in the libra-
ry of  the  Vatican.  Towards the end of
1806, he returned to Germany, and, while
at Munich, suffered the  first attack  of a
painful  rheumatism,  which, for a  long
period, prevented him from  giving the
public any thing new.  In 1814 and 1816,
appeared his Old English Theatre (in 2
vols.).  He has also  published  two  vol-
umes  of an  Old  German Theatre.   In
London, where he was received,  in 1818,
with much  attention, he materially in-
creased his collections of materials for his
larger work on Shakspeare, to which his
Shakspeare's Vorschule  (Leipsic,  1827)
may be considered as  an Introduction.
Since 1819, he has lived with his family
in Dresden, where he  published, in 1821,
a collection of his poems  (in 3 vols.), and
Henry von  Kleist's posthumous  works.
His tales have been published  in various
souvenirs, &c.  Some of them chastise
the errors and vices of the time in a tone
of decorous  humor.   In 1824,  appeared
the beginning of  his  Marchen und Zau-
bergeschichtcn (Breslau),  in his Pietro of
Apone. In Berlin appeared, in 1826,thefiret
half of his Insurrection in the Cevennes.
Tieck  has written much  in  periodicals,
and several of his articles have been col-
lected  in  his  Dramaturgische  Blatter
(Breslau, 1826, 2 vols.).  The completion
of Schlegel's Translation of Shakspeare is
expected from  him.  He will  probably
present the  public, at no distant period,
with a complete collection of his works.
   Tieck, Christian Frederic, professor of
sculpture, and  member of the  academy
of fine arts in  Berlin, brother of Louis
Tieck (q. v.), was born in 1776, at Berlin. 
TIECK—TIERS ETAT.
255
 At the expense  of the  government, he
 visited  Dresden, Vienna, and,  in  1798,
 Paris.  In 1801, he returned to Berlin,
 and soon Vent  to  Weimar,  where he
 found much employment as a  sculptor.
 He was appointed  professor  there, and
 went, in 1805, to Italy, in company with
 his brother  Louis.  In  Rome,  he  pro-
 duced several works, and went,  in  1809,
 to Munich.  In 1812, he returned to  Italy,
 where he lived for some time in Canara
 with  Rauch.  (q. v.)  They united  their
 efforts in several  works.  In Carrara, he
 made for the then crown-prince  of Bava-
 ria the  busts of Lessing, Erasmus, Hugo
 Grotius,  Herder,  Burger,  Wallenstein,
 Bernard of  Weimar, William  and  Mau-
 rice of Orange, marshal  Saxe, and many
 othere, for the Valhalla at  Munich; also
 a statue of Nccker,  and several others, for
 madame de Stae'l.  He returned  to Berlin
 in 1819.  The new theatre at Berlin, and
 many other places  in that city, are orna-
 mented with  his productions.   In  1820,
 he became a member of the senate of the
 academy of fine ans in the Prussian  capi-
 ta!, and is one of the most active members
 of the society for furnishing models for
 the different mechanic arts,  which has
 already had so great an effect in  improv-
 ing taste in workmanship in the north of
 Germany.
   Tiedge, Christopher Augustus, a dis-
 tinguished German lyric poet, was  bom
 in 1752, at Gardelegen, in  the Altmark,
 Prussia.   His most important poem is
 Urania, which first appeared in 1801, but
 was improved in subsequent editions.  It
 is ofa lyrical-didactic character.  In 1822,
 appeared  his  complete works, in seven
 small volumes.
   Tierney, George, son ofa merchant of
 London, born in 1761, was educated at
 Cambridge, and designed for the bar, to
 which he  was called.  His  father  had
 some connexion with the  East India com-
 pany ; and the first publication  of Mr.
 Tierney (1787) was the Real Situation of
 the East India Company.  Mr.  Tieruey
 now engaged in  political life, and was
 sent down by a noble duke as candidate
 for Colchester, when he stood a severe
 contest  at  a great  expense,  which  his
 patron refused to  pay.  The loss therefore
 fell heavily on Tierney.  In 1796, he was
nominated by the popular party to oppose
Mr. Thelluson, for the  borough of South-
wark; and, although defeated on  the poll,
yet, on a  petition to the  house  of com-
mons, he  removed  his opponent by the
treating act; and, on the  next  return, as
his competitor was legally disqualified,
 Mr. Tierney  was declared duly elected.
 As soon as he was in the house, he entered
 warmly into  the measures of the whigs.
 He soon proved himself an able speaker,
 and long ranked as one of the first in the
 house.  During a debate in the year 1798,
 some words spoken in the house were the
 occasion of a duel between him  and  Mr.
 Pitt, in which, however, neither party was
 wounded.  When Mr. Addington became
 minister, in  18G2, he  made  Mr. Tierney
 treasurer of the navy.   In 1806, under the
 Grenville administration, Mr. Tierney  was
 made president of the board of control,
 but went out of office early in the follow-
 ing year, on the resignation of the minis-
 try.   He then lost his scat for Southwark,
 but afterwards sat for different places  ; in
 18C0  for  Athlone, in  18C9  for  Bandon
 Bridge,  in  1813 for  Applebv, and in
 1818, 1820 and 1826,  he represented  the
 proprietor of Knarcsborough.   In  1827,
 Mr. Canning invited him  to the master-
 ship of* the mint, from which he retired,
 with  lord  Goderich, in  1828.  His death
 took place Jan. 25, 1830.
  Tiers Etat  (third estate).   There was
 a time in  France when  the nobility and
 clergy possessed the  property of almost
 the whole country.  The cities were  in-
siguificant, and  the former two, therefore,
 alone  appeared  at the  diets.  By degrees
 the cities rose in wealth and importance,
 became free  from the yoke of the feudal
 lords, and  of course were to be  summon-
 ed also, when taxes were to be granted.
 Even the peasantry, having acquired  the
 ownership of the ground which they cul-
 tivated, rose in importance; and LouisIX
 summoned the cities  and bailiwicks to
 send  deputies to the diets in 1252.   But
 this was done  particularly by  Philip IV
 (the Fair), in  13C3, when he was desirous
to make himself popular on account of his
 quarrel with pope Boniface VIII; hence
the name tiers itat.  This order, however,
 was  subjected  to  great  humiliations:
while the clergy were seated  to the  right
of the king,  and the nobility to the left,
the deputies  of the cities and bailiwicks
 were obliged  to stand outside of the  bar,
and to receive and answer the proposi-
tions of the king on their knees.   But  the
steady march of civilization made  the
third  estate  the nation, and  the  govern-
 ment, embarrassed or unsupported by  the
clergy and nobility, turned its eyes to this
important class in 1788; and Sieves, in  his
treatise Qu'est ce que le Tiers Etat ? (1789),
gave  utterance  to the feeling of the peo-
ple.   The tiers itat, at present, is the  na-
tion itself; so that the  term  became un- 
356
TIERS ETAT—TILGHMAN.
constitutional, even during the  restora-
tion.
  TirLis.  (See Teflis.)
  Tiger.   This animal  and the  lion are
the largest and most powerful of the cat
kind.   The tiger is  found only  in  the
East Indies, in Hindoostan, Siam, Cochin-
China, Malacca, and  the isles of Sunda.
Its  strength and  sanguinary disposition
are such that it is the terror of the inhab-
itants in those countries; and no animal,
except the elephant, is capable of resisting
it  It even comes into the midst of vil-
lages, in the night time, for the  purpose
of carrying off cattle.   The color is yel-
low, with  transverse  black stripes; and
the tail has alternate black and  yellow
rings.   The pupil of the eye is round. It
resembles the other  animals of the cat
tribe  in every respect, can be tamed as
easily as the lion, and becomes  familiar
with its keeper.  Its voice is very power-
ful, and resembles that of the lion.
   Tiger Flower (tigridia pavonia);  a
Mexican plant, frequently  cultivated in
gardens, on account of the magnificence
of its flowers.   It belongs to  the same
natural family as the iris.  The root is a
scaly bulb: the leaves are radical, sword-
shaped, and tapering towards the point of
insertion:  the  stem  is  about  a foot in
height, slightly zigzag, dividing into two
or three branches, and  bearing a few al-
ternate, distant leaves:  the flowers  are
solitary, terminal, very large, ofa singular
form,  and very evanescent  The three
exterior divisions of the  corolla are much
the largest, of a fine orange-red towards
the extremity; whitish  or yellowish, and
beautifuUy spotted, at the base.   It is tol-
erably hardy, and is increased by seed or
offsets.
   Tigranes ;  a celebrated king of  Ar-
menia  Major,  who  reigned in  the  last
century before Christ   He  was deliv-
ered, by his father, Artaxias, as a hostage
to  the Parthians, who, upon the death of
his father, restored him  to the throne, up-
on condition that he should cede to them
a portion of his dominions.  With Mith-
ridates, whose  daughter Cleopatra  he
mareied,  he entered   into  an  alliance
against the Romans; and, having con-
quered Cappadocia, his success induced
the Syrians, wearied out by the continual
family  discords of  their rulers of the
house of the Seleucidie, to invite him  to
take possession of their  country.  He did
so, and subdued a great part  of CiUcia
and Syria, but would  not  enter  into a
second alliance with  Mithridates against
the Romans.  He preferred attacking the
Parthians; recovered that part of his do-
minions which had surrendered to them,
and conquered Mesopotamia and Mygdo-
nia; then took from the Seleucidie the por-
tion of Syria yet possessed  by them, and
a great part of Phcenicia,  and  assumed
the arrogant title  of king of kings.  But
the Roman consul Lucullus soon required
him  to  deliver up Mithridates, who had
fled  to him for protection.  Upon his re-
fusal, a war ensued, in which  Tigranes
was  defeated.   He  now committed  to
Mithridates the conduct of the  war; but
tbey were  both conquered in a pitched
battle.   In  the following year,  however,
the two kings, taking advantage of the
dissensions which had broken out among
the Romans, subdued Armenia  and Cap-
padocia. But the son of Tigranes re-
belled  against his father, who  was thus
compelled to divide his army.   He, how-
ever, defeated his son, and obliged him to
fly into Parthia.  The Parthians  now took
part with the son, and made an  incursion
into Armenia, at the same time that Mith-
ridates was defeated by the  Romans, who
were eventually joined by the son of Ti-
granes.   Tigranes, relying upon the mag-
nanimity of Pompey, resolved to surrender
to him; whereupon Pompey gave him a
portion of Armenia, and likewise of Mes-
opotamia.  But the son of Tigranes  hav-
ing again engaged in a conspiracy against
his father, as well as against the Romans,
Pompey sent him in chains to Rome; but
his father, in consequence of the friendly
disposition  which he  manifested towards
the Romans, was allowed to retain the
title of their friend  and ally, and died as
such in the eighty-fifth year of bis age.
   Tigris ;  a river of  Asia, which rises in
the mountains of Armenia, about fifteen
miles east of the source of the Euphrates,
and, flowing along  towards the eastern
frontiers of Turkey, on the west side  of
Curdistan,  in a south-south-east  direction,
joins the Euphrates at Corna, sixty miles
north-west of Bassora. The country in-
cluded between the Tigris and Euphrates,
was anciently called Mesopotamia; in mod-
ern times, Diarbekir, and Al- Gezira.  This
river was particularly famed in antiquity ;
and on its banks were the cities of Nine-
veh, Ctesiphon and Seleucia.  In modern
times, it can boast the famous city of Bag-
dad, and the secondary ones of  Diarbekir
and  Mosul. Its course is generally rapid.
Between Coma and Bagdad, it is about
two hundred  yards wide, and  navigable
for boats of twenty or thirty tons. Small
boats descend from Diarbekir.
   Tilghjman,  WUliam,  LL. D.,  chief 
TILGHMAN—TILLOTSON.
257
 justice of the state of Pennsylvania, was
 born August 12, 1756, in Talbot countv,
 Maryland, to which province his paternal
 grandfather, had emigrated from England,
 in 1662.  In 1762, his family removed to
 Philadelphia, and, in the succeeding year,
 he was placed at the academy, where he
 remained until 1769, when he entered the
 college.  He was distinguished for his at-
 tainments in classical literature, aud, after
 receiving his bachelor's degree, continued
 for some time to study it under doctor
 Allison.  In February, 1772, he began the
 study  of the law in  Philadelphia,  and
 pursued  it until 1776, when his father re-
 moved again to  his estate in Maryland.
 From  that time until the summer of 1779,
 he lived  in  great retirement, prosecuting
 his favorite studies—jurisprudence, history
 and the belles-lettres.   At the close of the
 revolutionary war, in  1783,  he  was  ad-
 mitted to the bar, and soon acquired emi-
 nence.   In  the midst of a successful and
 lucrative practice, he was three times suc-
 cessively elected to  serve as a  member
 of the legislature of  Maryland, in  the
 years  1788—89—90.   In 1789, he  was
 also  one of  the  electors appointed  to
 choose the  firet  president under the fed-
 eral constitution.   In 1791, he was elect-
 ed a member of the state senate, in which
 station he remained until 1793, when he
 removed to Philadelphia.  March 3,1801,
 he was appointed chief judge of the cir-
 cuit court of the  U. States, for the Penn-
 sylvania  circuit.  In a year, however, the
 law  which  erected  this court  was  re-
 pealed, and Mr.  Tilghman  resumed  his
 duties  as an advocate.   In July, 1805, he
 was appointed president of the  court of
 common pleas, in the first district, and,
 in the  beginning of 1806, was made* chief
 justice of the supreme court of the state—
 an office which he retained  until his de-
 cease,  April 30,  1827.   Mr.  Tilghman's
 powers,  as  an advocate, were highly re-
 spectable ; but, in the capacity of" judge, he
 was  eminent, owing to his singular clear-
 ness and firmness of mind, his veneration
 for the law,  his untiring industry, and per-
 spicuous diction,  combined with his gen-
 eral attainments and fine moral qualities.
 Pennsylvania  owes him a great debt of
 gratitude, for the accomplishment of  the
 incorporation of  the principles of scien-
 tific equity  with  the law of* the state, or
rather  for the repeated  recognition from
the bench, that, with few exceptions, they
constitute an  inseparable portion  of"  the
law.
  Tillemont, Louis Sebastian le Nain
de, an eminent historian, born at Paris, in
                   22*
1637, was the son of a master of requests,
and  received his education at the Port
Royal.  He assumed  the name of Tille-
mont on entering the  priesthood, devoted
himself to study, and,by his extraordinary
industry and accuracy of research, gained
a high reputation as  a  historical writer.
His  death  took place in  169*.  He was
the  author of Memoires pour servir a
I'Histoire Ecclisiastique des six premiers
Siicles (16 vols.,  4to., 1693—1/12), and
Hisloire  des  Empereurs  et  des  autres
Princes qui ont regne  durant les six pre-
miers Siecles de  I'Eglise (6 vols., 4to.,
1690—1738).
  Tiller.  (See  Helm.)
  Tilloch, Alexander, LL. D., the son
of a tobacconist of  Glasgow, born  in
1759, was intended by bis father to follow
his own business, and taken into his ware-
house ;  but a strong bias towards me-
chanical  and  scientific pursuits soon  di-
verted his attention  from commercial
pursuits.   In  1736, a  jeweller of Edin-
burgh, named Ged, had devised the  art
of printing from plates, and produced  an
edition of Sallust so printed ; but  the  art
was  undervalued, and perished  with him.
Doctor Tilloch revived it, and  carried it
to the state of practical  utility which it
now  exhibits, having himself again made
the discovery without any previous ac-
quaintance  with Ged's attempts.  In this
new  process, Mr.  Foulis of Glasgow, a
printer, joined him; and a patent in their
names was taken out, both in England
and  Scotland.  Circumstances, however,
induced them to lay aside the business  for
a time; and it never was renewed by them
as a  speculation.  In 1787, doctor Tilloch
removed to London,  and purchased the
Star, an evening paper, which he contin-
ued  to edit till within four years of  his
death.  In  June, 1797, he projected and
established  the Philosophical  Magazine,
sixty-five volumes of which  are now be-
fore  the public ; and only fifteen days be-
fore  his death, he  had obtained a patent
for an improvement on the steam-engine.
The  last work which he was engaged to
superintend, was the  Mechanics' Oracle,
published in numbers at the Caxton press.
In his religious opinions, doctor Tilloch
was  a  dissenter from  the  established
church, and preached occasionaUy.  He
died  in 1825.
  Tillotson, John, an English prelate,
son of a clothier,  near Halifax, was bom
in 1630.  His father,  a  strict  Calvinist,
brought up his son in the same principles,
and  sent him a pensioner to Clare hall,
Cambridge, of which he  was  elected a 
256
TILLOTSON—TILLY.
fellow in 1651.  It is not known when he
entered  into orders; but his firet sermon
which  appeared in print is dated 1661, at
which time he was still among the Pres-
byterians.  When  the act of uniformity
passed, in the following year, he submit-
ted to it, and, becoming celebrated for his
pulpit oratory, was chosen preacher to the
society  of  Lincoln's inn.   In  1666, he
took the degree of D. D.,  and was made
king's chaplain, and presented  to a preb-
end  of  Canterbury.  When Charles II,
in 1672, issued a declaration for liberty of
conscience,  for the purpose of favoring
the Roman Catholics, he preached strong-
ly against it, but  was,  nevertheless,  ad-
vanced to the deanery of Canterbury, and
soon after  presented to a prebend in St.
Paul':-.  Poprry was so much the object
of his aversion, that, in a sermon preached
before the king, in 1080, he expressed sen-
timents  of intolerance which he himseif
acknowledged to his friends  could not be
defended.  He  warmly promoted the ex-
clusion bill  against the duke of York, and
refused  to sign the address of the London
clergy to the king, on his declaration that
he would not consent to it.  At the exe-
cution of lord William Russel, he attend-
ed with doctor Burnet; and, though after-
wards decided friends to  the revolution,
both these divines urged that nobleman to
acknowledge the  unlawfulness  of resist-
ance.   On  the accomplishment of  the
revolution,  he was taken  into  favor by
king William; aud, in Ki89, he was  ap-
pointed clerk of the closet to that sove-
reign, and subsequently permitted to  ex-
change  the deanery of Canterbury  for
that  of St. Paul's.  On  the refusal of
archbishop  Sancroft to  take the oaths to
the new government, he was appointed to
exercise  the archiepiscopal jurisdiction
during  the  suspension of that  prelate;
and, in 1691, after exhibiting the greatest
reluctance,  he was induced to accept  the
archbishopric itself.  He  had previously
formed  a scheme for the comprehension
of the  Presbyterians within the pale of
tiie church, which had been rejected by
the convocation.  He had also failed in
another design for forming a  new book
of homiUes;  and a sermon which he
preached before  the queen, against  the
absolute eternity  of hell  torments, still
further  involved him with the  advocates
of orthodoxy.   When, therefore,  he  ac-
cepted the primacy, a large party assailed
him  with great animosity;  and he was
reproached with the inconsistency of his
own conduct with  the doctrine he had
advanced to lord  William Russel.  He
bore these attacks in silence, and even
prevented some  prosecutions for  libel
against him, directed by the crown.  He
was also charged with  Sooinianism; in
answer to which be  republished four of
his sermons on the  Incarnation and  Di-
vinity of our Savior.  There appears to
have been no other ground for that impu-
tation, than that he defended Christianity
on  rational  grounds, and  corresponded
with such men as Limborch, Locke and
Le Clerc ; to which  reason doctor Jortin
adds, that he had broken an ancient and
fundamental rule of controversial theolo-
gy—"Allow not an adversary either to have
common sense or common honesty."  He
now exerted  himself' to advance  the  re-
spectability of  the  church, and, among
other things, wished to correct the evils
arising  from non-residence.  He  was,
however, counteracted in all his endeav-
ors,  by  the most  perverse opposition,
which  rendered his high  station  a scene
of much more  disgust than gratification,
and, soon after,  died of a paralytic stroke,
in 1694.   He left his widow nothing but
the copyright  of his sermons.   Doctor
Tillotson was  open, sincere, benevolent
and  forgiving;   and although,  in some
points,  too compliant, and  liable to  the
charge of  inconsistency,  his intentions
seem to  have been pure and disinterested.
His sermons maintain a place among the
most popular of that class of composi-
tions in the English  language, displaying
great copiousness of thought and expres-
sion, and abounding in passages which
strongly impress the  mind.   His sermons
are doubtless much less read than  for-
merly,  but can scarcely fail of remaining
a permanent part of the branch of Eng-
lish literature to which they  belong.
  Tilly, John Tzerklas, count of, one of
the most celebrated generals of the seven-
teenth century, was born in 1559, in Wal-
loon Brabant, at the castle of Tilly.   He
was, in  his youth, a Jesuit.   After being
educated strictly and fanatically, he en-
tered the Spanish, the Austrian, and at last
the Bavarian service.  I'nder Alva  and
other commanders, he formed his military
talents, and  became accustomed to silent
obedience, to a stern pursuit of his objects
without regarding the calls of mercy, and
to the destruction of heretics.  He rose,
by degrees, to the command of the army
of  the league,  in the thirty years' war.
(q.  v.)   He distinguished himself much
as a general; and when, in 1630, Wallen-
stein was obliged to give up the command,
Tilly was appointed generalissimo of the
imperial troops.  His most celebrated ex- 
TILLY—TILSIT.
259
ploit is the  bloody sack  of Magdeburg,
May 10 1631; and history has few pages
so black as those on which the atrocities
of" Isolani's  Croats  and Pappeuheim's
Walloons are recorded.  Some officers,
at length, implored Tilly to put a  stop to
tho horrible outrages.  He coldly replied,
"Come back within an hour, and I will
then see what is to be done.   The soldier
ought to have some reward  for his labore
and  dangers."  On the 14th, he entered
the burned and plundered city in triumph.
"Since the destruction of Troy and Jeru-
salem, no such victory has  taken  place,"
he wrote to his  master.   Gustavus Adol-
phus met him at Breitenfeld, September
7, and  Tilly, who had  been thirty-six
times victorious, was now entirely  beaten,
and  was himself wounded.  In a subse-
quent engagement with the Swedes, on the
Lech, a cannon ball shattered his thigh,
and he died  in a few days, April 30,1632.
His face was repulsive ; his manners al-
ways monastic, even amidst  the dissolute-
ness of a camp of that time.  He never
accepted money, and left but a small for-
tune.  He refused  the grant of the prin-
cipality of Kalemberg.   As  a soldier, he
was  prompt, cuj-jning and cruel.
  Tilsit ; a town of East Prussia, inGum-
binneu, a capital of a circle ,* fifty miles
north-east of Konigsberg,   fifty  south-
south-east of Memel; Ion. 21° 56' E.; lat.
55° 5' N.; population, 8248.   It is situated
on two rivers, the Niemen (here called the
Memel) and the small river  Tilse, which
separates the town from the castle.  It is
a commercial town, well built, and con-
tains an hospital, two Lutheran churches,
and  a provincial school.  The chief arti-
cles  of export are  corn, wax, salt, salted
provisions, hats and leather.  The circle
of Tilsit is a level  and fertile tract, lying
on the Curische-Haff.
  Peace of Tilsit.   The battle of Fried-
land (q. v.) on June 14, 1807, terminated
in the total rout of the Russian forces, and
the  annihilation of Prussia's last hope.
June 18, when the French  were already
on the Niemen, the  emperor Alexander
sent proposals  for an  armistice  to  the
grand  duke  of Berg,  which  Napoleon
readily accepted.   The battles of Eylau
and  Friedland, continual  skirmishes, and
the siege of Dantzic, had much weaken-
ed the French army ; aud Napoleon was
obliged to keep  an attentive eye upon
Austria,  which, in case of his  defeat,
would not have failed to attack him.  At
the same time, the Russian  cabinet com-
plained of inactivity on  the  part of the
English, so that the French  and Russian
monarchs were the more readily disposed
to come  to terms.  They met, June 25,
on a raft built for the purpose on the Nie-
men, in presence of the two armies.  Til-
sit was declared, by  Napoleon, neutral,
and the emperors and the king of Prussia
had their head-quarters there, from the
28th, in order to expedite the negotiations
for peace.  The queen of Prussia, at the
invitation of Napoleon,  also repaired to
Tilsit  July 7, peace was concluded be-
tween Napoleon  and Alexander, by Tal-
leyrand, Kurakin, and Labanoff Rostoff-
ski, Kalckreuth and Golz.  The question
was only respecting the territory of the
king of Prussia, who was obliged to cede
one half of his country in order to retain
the  other, under the  hardest conditions,
which it  was almost  impossible to fulfil.
By the terms of the peace, it was settled,
1. that the provinces torn from Poland by
Prussia, in 1793 and 1795, should form a
new duchy of Warsaw ;  2. that Dantzic,
with a territory  two  leagues in circuit,
should be made a free city, under the pro-
tection  of Prussia  and Saxony ; 3. that
the king of Saxony, made duke of War-
saw, should have a military road to his
new state,  through Silesia;  4.  that the
dukes of Mecklenburg, Oldenburg and
Coburg  should be reinstated,by the em-
peror of the French,  and, on  the other
hand, his brother Jerome should  be ac-
knowledged, by  Alexander, as king of
Westphalia, Joseph as king of Naples,
Louis as king of Holland; and, 5. that the
kingdom  of Westphalia should be formed
of the provinces ceded by Prussia, situ-
ated on the left bank of the Elbe, together
with Brunswick,  Ilessia, &c.  At the
same time, 6.  Alexander ceded the lord-
ship of Jever  to  Holland, and promised,
7. to withdraw his troops from Moldavia
and Walachia, and conclude peace with
the  Porte, under Napoleon's  mediation.
On the other hand, Russia received of the
Prussian  provinces,  that of Bialystock,
4360 square miles,  with  184,000 inhabit-
ants.  Moreover, the Russians evacuated
Cattaro  in  consequence of the peace of
Tilsit.  In a secret article, Russia  prom-
ised  to unite  with France  against Eng-
land, to secure the independence of neu-
tral flags, and to induce the courts  of
Stockholm,  Copenhagen and Lisbon to
concur in the  same anangement  The
terms of the peace between Napoleon and
Frederic William III of Prussia, were con-
tained, essentially, in that just described.
Prussia was to cede the above-mentioned
Polish  provinces, and aU the provinces
between the Elbe and Rhine, to Napoleon, 
260
TILSIT—TIMBER.
the circle of Cottbus  to Saxony, and  to
close  her ports  against England.  July
9, the peace with Prussia was signed, and
count Kalckreuth agreed, with the prince
of Neufchatel, that all  Prussia should
be evacuated  by Oct. 1, if tiie  heavy
contributions  should be paid up to that
time,  or  security satisfactory to the  in-
tendant-general should be given for the
payment.   These terms could not be ful-
filled, and  Prussia continued a prey  to
French commissioners until it compound-
ed for the impositions laid on it, after the
lapse  of a year, by  the payment  of
120,000,000 francs.   Yet it remained con-
tinually  exposed to attack  on the part of
the French, who occupied three fortress-
es on the  Oder (Glogau, Kustrin, and
Stottiu), and from their allied states (War-
saw, Saxony  and Westphalia),  until,  in
1813, its  situation was  changed.  In the
treaty with Russia, it  was  said,  "The
king of Prussia receives back half of his
states at the intercession of the  emperor
of Russia."  In  1822,  Lewis Goldsmith
published the secret articles of the peace
of Tilsit, or rather the secret agreements
made at  the same.  According  to these,
Russia was to have European Turkey ; a
prince of Napoleon's  family was to  re-
ceive  the crown  of Spain and Portugal;
the temporal  power of the pope was  to
cease; France to  occupy the African
States; Malta and Egypt to belong  again
to  France ;  France to be supported by
Russia in the conquest of Gibraltar; the
Mediterranean to be open only to French,
Russian, Spanish and Italian vessels ; and
Denmark to be indemnified by the Hanse
towns in  Northern Gennany, if she would
employ her fleet against England, &.c.
  Tilt-Hammer ; a large and heavy ham-
mer, put in motion by a water-wheel  or
steam-engine. Cogs being brought to bear
on the tail  of the hammer, its depression
causes the head to be elevated, which,
when liberated,  falls  with considerable
force  by its own specific  gravity.  Tilt-
mills work on the same principle.
  Tilting of Steel  is the process by
which blistered steel is rendered ductile.
This is done by placing it under the tilt-
hammer.
  Timjeus, of Locri, in Magna  Graecia;
a Pythagorean philosopher, and a teacher
of Plato, who has  called one of his dia-
logues by his name.  Timseus employed
himself chiefly in  the study of nature.
The genuineness of the work which goes
under his name (On Nature and the Soul
of the World) is  doubted by  Meiners,
though defended by Tiedemann.  It is
inserted in Stanley's History of Philoso-
phy.  M.-iners considers  it merely as an
abridgment of Plato's Timaus.
  Timar and Siamet are  military fiefs in
Turkey.   (See Zaim.)
  Timber.  A vast expense is every year
occasioned by the premature decay of
wood, employed in ships and other struc-
tures, which  are exposed to vicissitudes
of weather, and especially if they are sub-
jected to  the influence of warmth com-
bined with moisture.  Trees of different
species vary  greatly in the durability of
their wood; yet none of the species com-
monly employed  are capable of with-
standing,  for many years, the effect of
unfavorable   exposures   and  situations.
The decay of timber is sometimes super-
ficial  and sometimes internal.   In  the
former case, the outside of the wood firet
perishes,  and cmmbles away, and succes-
sive  strata are decomposed, before  the
internal parts become unsound.   In  the
other species, which  is distinguished by
the  name of the dry rot,  the  disease  be-
gins in the interior substance of the wood,
particularly of that which has not been
well seasoned, and  spreads  outwardly,
causing the whole  mass to swell, crack,
and exhale a musty odor.   Different fun-
gous vegetables sprout out of its substance;
the  wood loses  its strength, and crum-
bles, finally,  into a mass of dust.  This
disease prevails most in  a warm, moist,
and  confined atmosphere,  such  as  fre-
quently exists in the interior of ships, and
in the cellars and  foundations of houses.
Its  destructive effects  in ships  of war
have given rise, of late, to numerous pub-
lications.   Some writers consider that the
dry rot is not essentially different from the
more common kinds  of" decay; but there
seems to  be sufficient reason for  the  dis-
tinction which has usually been  drawn.
The prevention of the evil has been at-
tempted in various ways, and with some
degree of success.—Felling.   It is agreed
by most writers that the sap of vegetables
is the great cause  of their fermentation
and decay.  Hence it appears desirable,
if there is any season  in which the trunk
of a tree  is less charged with  sap than at
others, that this time  should be  selected
for felling it  The middle of summer  and
the middle of winter are, undoubtedly, the
 feriods when the wood contains least sap.
 n the months of spring and autumn, in
which the roots prepare sap, but no leaves
exist to  expend it,  the  trunk  is over-
charged with sap; and in many trees, as
the maple and birch, sap will flow out at
these seasons, if the trunk is wounded. 
TIMBER.
261
 In summer,  on the contrary, when  the
 leaves are out, the sap is rapidly expend-
 ed ; and in winter, when the roots are dor-
 mant, it is sparingly produced ; so that no
 surplus of this fluid  apparently  exists.
 From reasoning a priori, it would seem
 that no treatment would be so effectual in
 getting rid of the greatest quantity of  sap
 as to girdle  the tree,  by cutting  away a
 ring of alburnum, in the early part of
 summer, thus putting a stop to the further
 ascent of the sap, and then to suffer it to
 stand until  the leaves should have  ex-
 pended, by their growth, or transpiration,
 all the fluid which could be extracted by
 them, previously to the death of the tree.*
 The wood would thus, probably, be found
 in the  driest state, to which any treatment
 could reduce it in the living state.  Buf-
 lon has recommended stripping the trees
 of their bark in spring, and  felling them
 in the  subsequent autumn. This method
 is said to harden the alburnum; but  the
 cause is not very apparent, nor is the suc-
 cess at all certain.—Seasoning.  At what-
 ever period timber is feUed, it requires to
 be thoroughly seasoned before it is fit for
 the purposes  of carpentry.  The  object
 of seasoning  is partly to evaporate as
 much of the  sap as possible,  and  thus to
 prevent its influence in causing decom-
 position, and partly to reduce the dimen-
 sions of the wood, so that it may be used
 without inconvenience from its  further
 shrinking.   Timber seasons best when
 placed in dry situations, where the air  has
 a free circulation round it. Gradual dry-
 ing is considered  a better preservative of
 wood than a  sudden exposure to warmth,
 even of the sun; for warmth,  abruptly  ap-
 plied,  causes cracks and flaws, from  the
 sudden and unequal expansion produced
 in different parts.  Two  or  three years'
 seasoning is requisite to produce tightness
 and durability in the wood work of build-
 ings.   It must be observed that seasoning
 in  the common way only removes a por-
 tion of the aqueous and volatile  matter
 from the wood. The extractive, and other
 soluble portions, still remain, and are  lia-
 ble to  fennent, though in a  less  degree,
 whenever the  wood reabsorbs moisture.
 Such, indeed, is the force of  capillary at-
 traction, that  wood, exposed to the atmos-
 phere  in our climate,  never gives up all
 its  moisture.—Preservation  of  Timber.
 When wood  is to be kept in a dry situa-
tion, as in the interior of houses, no other
preparation is necessary than that of thor-
ough  seasoning.  But when it is  to be
   » See Mr William on  tho Dry Rot, pp.  151
 and 158.
exposed  to the  vicissitudes of weather,
and, still more, when it is to remain in a
warm and moist atmosphere, its preserva-
tion often  becomes extremely difficult.
Numerous experiments have been made,
and many  volumes  written, upon  the
preservation of timber, and the preven-
tion of the dry rot;  but the subject is not
yet brought to a satisfactory conclusion.
The methods  which have hitherto been
found most successful, consist in extract-
ing the sap, in  excluding moisture, and in
impregnating the vessels of the wood with
antiseptic substances.—For extracting the
sap, the process of water seasoning is rec-
ommended.    It  consists in immersing
the green timber  in clear water for about
two weeks,  after which it is  taken out,
and seasoned  in  the  usual  manner.  A
great part of the sap, together with  the
soluble and fermentable matter, is said to
be dissolved or removed by  this process.
Running water is more effectual than that
which is stagnant.  It  is necessary that
the timber should be sunk, so as to  be
completely under water, since nothing  is
more destructive to wood than partial im-
mersion.  Mr. Langtont  has proposed to
extract the sap by means of an air-pump,
the timber being enclosed in tight cases,
with a temperature somewhat elevated,
and the sap being discharged in vapor by
the operation  of  the  pump.   It appears
extremely probable, that if trees were
felled in  summer, and the buts immedi-
ately placed in water without removing
the branches,  a great part  of their sap
would be expended by the vegetative pro-
cess alone, and replaced by  water.  It is
well known that branches  of plants, if
inserted in water, continue, for some days,
to grow, to transpire, and to perform their
other functions.  This they probably  do
at the expense of the  sap, or assimilated
fluid, which was previously in them, while
they replace it by the water they consume.
This state of  things continues until  the
juices are too far diluted to be  capable
of any longer sustaining life.—The char-
ring of timber, by scorching or burning
its outside, is  commonly supposed to in-
crease its durability; but, on this  subject,
the  results of experiment do not agree.
Charcoal is one  of the  most durable  of
vegetable substances;  but the conversion
of the surface  of wood into charcoal does
not necessarily alter the  character of the
interior part.  As far, however, as it may
operate in excluding worms, and arrest-
ing the spreading of an infectious decay,
  t Repertory of Arts, 1826,  Franklin Journal,
ii. and vi. 
262
TIMBER.
like the  dry rot, it is useful.   Probably,
also, the pyroligueous acid, which is gen-
erated when wood is burnt,  may exert a
preservative influence.  The exclusion of
moisture, by covering the surface with a
coatiug of paint, varnish, tar,  &c, is a
well-known preservative of wood which is
exposed to the weather.  If care is taken
to renew the coat  of paint as often as it
decays, wood, on the outside of buildings,
is sometimes  made  to last for centuries.
But painting  is no  preservative against
the iuternal or dry rot.  On the contrary,
when this disease is begun, the effect of
paint, by choking the pores of the wood,
and preventing  the exhalation  of vapore
and gasses which are formed, tends rather
to expedite than prevent the progress  of
decay.  Paint itself is rendered more du-
rable by covering it with a coating of fine
sand.  Wood should never be  painted
which is not thoroughly seasoned.   The
impregnation of wood with tar, bitumen,
and other resinous substances, undoubt-
edly promotes its preservation.   It  is the
opinion of  some  writers,* that "woods
abounding in  resinous matter cannot  be
more durable than others;" but the reverse
of this is proved, every year,  in the  pine
forests of this country, where the  light-
wood, as  it is called, consisting of the
knots and other resinous parts of pine
trees, remains entire,  and is collected for
the purpose of affording tar, long after the
remaining wood of the tree has decayed.
A coating of tar or turpentine, externally
applied to seasoned  timber,  answers the
same purpose as paint in protecting the
wood, if it is renewed with sufficient fre-
quency.   Wood impregnated with  dry-
ing  oils,  such  as linseed oil, becomes
harder,  and  more  capable  of*  resisting
moisture.   It is frequently the custom,  in
this country, to bore a perpendicular hole
in the top of a mast, and fill it with oil.
This  fluid is  gradually absorbed by the
vessels of the wood, and penetrates the
mast to a great distance.  Animal oils,  in
general, are less proper for this purpose,
being more liable to decomposition.   The
preservative quality of common salt (mu-
riate of soda) is well  known.   An exam-
ple of its effect is  seen in the hay of salt
marshes, which  is frequently housed be-
fore it is dry, and which often becomes
damp afterwards, from the deliquescence
of its salt, yet remains unchanged for an
indefinite  length of  time.   In  the salt
mines of Poland aud  Hungary, the galle-
ries  are  supported  by wooden  pillars,
  * Tredgold's  Elementary Principles of Car-
pentry, page 166.
 which are found to last unimpaired for
 ages, in consequence  of lieing impreg-
 nated with the salt, while pillars of brick
 and stone,  used for the  same  purpose,
 crumble away,  in a short time,  by tin*
 decay  of their  mortar.   Wooden piles,
 driven  into  the mud of  salt flats and
 marshes,  last for an unlimited lime, and
 are used for the foundations of brick and
 stone edifices.  In canals, which  have
 been made in the salt marshes about Bos-
 ton, and other places, trunks of oak trees
 are frequently found, with the heart wood
 entire and fresh, at a depth of five or six
 feet below the surface.   At Medford, Mas-
 sachusetts, the stumps of trees are found
 standing in the gravelly bottom  of the
 salt  marsh, where the tide  rises in the
 canals four or five feet above them.  This
 bottom  must  originally have constituted
 the surface of the ground, and must have
 settled  long enough  ago  for the marsh
 mud to have accumulated, as it has done
 for miles round, apparently since that pe-
 riod.  The application of salt, in  minute
 quantities,  is  said rather  to  hasten than
 prevent the decay of vegetable and ani-
 mal bodies.   Yet the practice of docking
 timber, by immersing it, for some time, in
 sea water, after it  has been seasoned, is
 generally  admitted to promote its dura-
 bility.   There  are some  experiments
 which appear  to show, that, after the dry
 rot has commenced, immersion   in salt
 water effectually checks its progress, and
 preserves  the  remainder of the timber.*}
 In some of the public ships,  built in the
 U. States, the interstices between the tim-
 bers, in various parts of the hull, are filled
 with dry salt  When this salt deliquesces,
 it fills the  pores of the wood with a strong
 saline impregnation; but it has been said,
 in some cases, to render the inside of the
 vessel uncomfortably damp.  If timber is
 immersed in a brine made of pure muri-
 ate of soda, without the bitter deliques-
 cent salts which sea water contains, the
 evil of dampness  is avoided.  A  variety
 of other substances, besides common salt,
act as antiseptics in preventing  the dry
rot, and the growth of the fungus which
 attends  it   Nitre  and alum  have  been
 recommended for this purpose; and some

  t The  British  frigate Resistance, which went
down in Malta harbor, and the Eden, which was
sunk in Plymouth sound, were both affected with
dry rot.  These ships, after  remaining many
months  under water,  were raised, and  it was
found that the disease was wholly arrested. Ev-
ery vestige of fungus had  disappeared,  and the
ships remained in  service afterwards, perfectly
sound from  any further decay.  (Supplement to
the Encyclopedia Britannica, iii. 682.) 
TIMBER—TIME.
263
of the metallic salts are considered still
more effectual.  Of these, the sulphates
of iron, copper and zinc have  the effect
to harden and preserve the timber. Wood
hoiled in a solution of the former of these,
and afterwards kept some days in a warm
place to dry, is said to become impervious
to moisture.  Corrosive sublimate, which
is recommended by sir II. Davy, is a pow-
erful preservative of organized substances
from  decay,  and  proves destructive to
parasitic vegetables and animals; but its
safety, in regard to  the health of crews,
if used in large quantities about the wood
of a ship, may be considered as doubtful.
An opinion  has been supported, in this
country, that the decay of timber in ships,
by dry rot, is owing to the impure atmos-
phere generated by bilge water, and that
it is to be  remedied  by constructing ships
with  a view  to their free and  effectual
ventilation.   (Bigclow's Technology.)
  Timbrel.   (***ee Tambourine.)
  Timbuctoo, or Tombuctoo ;  a city of
Africa, for many centuries the great em-
porium of the interior  trade of that con-
tinent, situated eight miles to the north of
the Niger, (q. v.)  This city has excited
much interest, and has only recently been
visited  by any European traveller; and
the information  as yet possessed respect-
ing it is exceedingly vague.  Leo Africa-
nus gives a description of this city, which
he had visited twice.  According to him,
Timbuctoo was founded  in the year of
the Hegira 610 (1218, A. D.), and,'having
extended  its dominion over all the neigh-
boring  states, acquired that commercial
prosperity for which  it has  ever  since
been distinguished.   At the time when he
visited  it, it  contained  many pereons of
great opulence, particularly foreign mer-
chants.   The king held a splendid court,
and had an army consisting of 3000 cav-
alry, and a numerous infantry.  The royal
palace and principal mosque were built of
stone, but the houses of the ordinary inhab-
itants were constructed in the form of bells
—the walls composed of stakes or hurdles,
and the roofs of reeds. In 1811, Robert Ad-
ams, an illiterate American sailor, was, ac-
cording to his own account (see his Narra-
tive,  London, 1816, the misstatements of
which are pointed out in the North Ameri-
can Review, vol. 5 and 22), after being ship-
wrecked near cape  Blanco, carried as  a
slave to  Timbuctoo, and detained  there
six months.  A more recent account was
given by captain Riley, an American, who
suffered shipwreck on the coast of Saha-
ra, in 1815.  The  account was given to
Riley by  Sidi Hamet, an intelligent Arab
merchant, by whom he  was purchased
and carried to Mogadore.  (See Riley's
Nairative of his Shipwreck and Captivity,
New York, 1817.)  In 1826, major Laing
reached Timbuctoo, where he remained
for upwards of a month.   Several letters
were  received  from  him  while  there,
stating that, in point of extent, it did  not
exceed four miles in circuit, but that in
other  respects it answered his  expecta-
tions.   He was soon after obliged to leave
the city, and was murdered three days af-
ter quitting it:  his papers have  not been
recovered.  (See Laing.)  In 1828, Cail-
lie visited Timbuctoo (or Temboctoo, as
be calls it), and resided there above a fort-
night  According to  him, it consists of
ill-built  earthen  houses, situated  in  the
midst of deserts of moving sand, and con-
taining  seven  mosques.   He  estimates
the  population at only 10,000 or 12,000,
chiefly negroes, who are Mohammedans. It
is entirely supported by commerce, being
the depot of salt from theTaudeny mines,
and of European goods  brought  by the
caravans from  Morocco,  as well as those
from  Tunis and Tripoli, which go by the
way of Ghadamis.  These goods are em-
barked for Jenue (q. v.), to be exchanged
for the gold, slaves, and  provisions, with
which that city exclusively supplies Tim-
buctoo.   We may expect more full ac-
counts of this part of the countiy from
the  expedition now (1832) ready to  sail
from England, under the  direction of the
Landers, (q. v.)  Lon. of Timbuctoo, ac-
cording to Rennell, 2° 30' E.; lat.  16° 3C
N. ;  according to the map prepared  by
Jomard,  from  Caillie's notes, lat.  17° 507
N.: lon. 3° 34'W.  (See Caillie's Travels to
Timbuctoo, from the French, Lond., 1830.)
  Time is the general relation  in which
all things perceptible stand to each other,
in regard to their origin, continuance and
dissolution.  It is a form necessary  to ena-
ble the mind to unite successive existence.
It is  not an  external   object,  nor  a
mere  relation of individual things to each
other, but is infinite, like  the phenomena
which are submitted to this form in  our
perceptions.  (See Kant, volume  vii, p.
304.)   We speak  of a distinct peri-
od  of time (relative  time) only in refer-
ence to that which fills time. According-
ly, we also distinguish the past, present
and future as its component parts,  which
pass continually each into the succeeding.
In order to measure the succession and
duration of particular things and events,
the great motions of the heavenly bodies,
which always remain the same, particu-
larly  of those  bodies which  are most 
264
TIME.
closely connected with  the  earth, have
been taken as standards; hence the physi-
cal or astronomical time.   Such a meas-
ure of time is afforded, by nature herself,
in the apparent daily revolution of  the
heavenly  arch, i. e. the rotation of the
earth on its axis.  This gives rise to the
sidereal time, (q.v.)  But as the sidereal
time will  not serve for  the  purposes of*
common life, it was necessary to resort to
the solar time, (q.v.)  The latter, indeed,
is unequal, and neither agrees accurately
with the sidereal time, nor with that indi-
cated by a clock; but this evil is remedied
by the equation  of  time (q. v.), through
which the true solar time is changed into
mean time.
  Time, in music and rhythm ; the meas-
ure by which a series of tones or sounds
is uniformly divided;  next, the  vari-
ous modes of this division,  and the di-
vision itself (as when we  say, This singer
does not  keep time).  Time has nothing
to do with  the  height or depth  of the
tones, and can exist without these distinc-
tions, but  not without a variety of dura-
tion and accent, sin**«  without such vari-
ety we cannot conceive a connected se-
ries of tones or motions (for in dancing,
too, we speak of time) as constituting a
whole.  In order to  do this, it is necessa-
ry that the successive sounds or motions
should appear to us as portions of divis-
ions recurring periodically, because in this
uniform recurrence we perceive that uni-
formity in variety  which  is essential to
time.  Time, therefore,  in music, cone-
sponds to symmetry in  those  objects
which occupy  space.  But it is not only
necessary  to perceive that each division
of the series of tones or motions, which
is called in music a bar, is  of equal dura-
tion with the othere; all the bare must
also be perceived to correspond with each
other as  to the parts of which they are
composed.  Otherwise, the perception of
uniform progress would  be destroyed ; if,
            O           A
for instance, -f time  and _ should  con-
            4           4
tinually and regularly follow each other
in such a  way that each bar should occu-
py precisely the same time, the parts of
one  bar would be at variance with those
of the other; the accent would not be the
same; the feeling of symmetry and a well-
ordered whole would be destroyed.  As
symmetry delights  through  the eye, so
time does through the ear. (See Rhythm,
Music, Dancing.)   Time, again, varies
according to its component parts; hence
the different kinds of time.  It varies ac-
cording to the number of the parts which
compose it, and  the accent depending
thereupon.   First, there is even time (i. e.
time the parts  of which form an even
number), and  uneven.   The  former is
simple if it consists of two, the latter if it
consists of  three chief parts.   The sim-
               2    2
pie even time is — and 3 time ; the com-
        4
pound is - time (also marked thus, C), and
8       *     •>
1; time.  The  j  ti*me> according to  Mr.

Apel, a German,  who has written much

on rhythm, &c,  is only - on a  reduced

scale: still quicker and easier is the - time,

which is not much  used: on  the other

hand, 5 time, or  allabreve time, is per-
                                    2
formed more slowly  and  heavily than -

time, and  allows, therefore, no  smaller
notes  than  an  eighth.  The even time
cannot well have more than eight even
portions, because  a greater number could
not be perceived as forming a regular pe-
riod, so that the essence of time would be
lost.  The uneven time, which affords a

greater variety,* can  be reduced to the -

time.   A shorter  duration of  the  three

equal parts  gives rise to the —  time; a
                    3
longer duration to the ~ time.   By multi-

plying the  three,  we obtain the heavy -,
6             6 9 9        12
—, and the easy -, -, —, and the — time,
4             <**» 4 c*»         a
which form the rest  of the uneven kinds
of time. The  two  latter are not often
used.  Beyond twelve uneven parts, there
would, again, be  no  distinct perception;
therefore the time could not  be distin-
guished.   Other uneven  numbers,  as
5 and Tf, do not  form kinds of time,  be-
cause, according to Apel, they consist of
even  and uneven numbers.   Therefore
all uneven times were  formerly called
triple times; as only those  uneven times
which originate from three parts, are nat-
ural to the ear.  A time consisting of one
portion only would be impossible, as time
requires a  uniformity of the  various, a
periodically.  From  all  this it  appeare
that the kinds of time are not arbitrary in-
ventions, as Rousseau seems  to think.
Uneven time is considered liveUer than
even.  As to the parts of time, they de-
rive different values* from the accent. Ac-
cordingly  we distinguish good and bad 
TIME.
265
notes (notes  being the parts  of  divis-
ions of time, or bars, in music), nota buo-
na, and nota cattiva, thesis and arsis.  A
good or heavy note is that which has the
accent, and in vocal music requires a Jong
syllable;  a bad one  has a short syllable.
Good notes, in the  even species of time,
are the first (thesis), which has absolute-
ly the greatest  stress, because  it decides
the beginning of the bar.  If the  half

bars of - time are changed into quarters,

the firet and third quarters receive the ac-
cent, the  latter, however, a weaker one.
A still weaker accent is given to the third
and sixth eighth,  if the  quarters  are
changed   into eighths.  In the  uneven

time, the first -  has again the accent in

the — time, and in ^ the firet and fourth
1
-, have the greatest stress, the  second
4
and fifth  a proportionably weaker stress,
and so on.  That the various species of
time  are distinguished  by variety of
accent, even if the  notes are of  equal
value, we see,  e. g. by a comparison of

5 and j, also of $  and  g time ; because
                   ii     u

is accentuated thus,________itZCZZt
nt     n      \
£ggg
6
4
further,
3
4


6
8
 This the composer has to refer to the words
 which he intends to set to music.  Franco
 of Cologne is considered the inventor of
' modern time.   (See  Music,  History of)
i With the  Greeks, the time  was indicated
' at the beginning of the chorus, originany
 by wooden  shoes  (<-poim.f«a),  at a subse-
 quent period by iron ones; with  the Ro-
 mans by the scamillum, or scabillum.
   It is of the greatest importance, for the
 performance  of musical pieces, to ascer-
 tain the precise duration of the notes, i. e.
 the tempo, (q. v.)  ^The usual expressions,
 andante, adagio,  allegro,  &c,   are too
 vague.  Various attempts, therefore, have
   VOL. XII.         23
been made, at different times, in London
and  Paris, to invent a machine which
would enable the  composer to indicate,
with the greatest accuracy, the duratioa
of the unit of the bar.  Some of these
have  been commended by the academy
of arts and sciences at Paris.  These in-
ventions have not  met with much favor
in Germany  till  lately, when one of the
most successful has been made by Stockel,
at Burg, Germany, whose musical chro-
nometer is a machine  of the form of a
common-sized clock.   It  has a dial, with
numbers, to which the hand is turned, ac-
cording to the directions given  by the
composer  at  the beginning of the piece.
A pendulum, now put in motion, deter-
mines  exactly the  duration  of the unit
note.   Malzel of  Vienna has  brought
this  machine  to  great  perfection.   It
is used in orchestras; and  distinguish-
ed composers, as Beethoven, have deter-
mined the time of their compositions by
this instrument.  It can be bought in ev-
ery considerable music shop in  Leipsic
and Vienna.  But a very simple and effi-
cient way of determining the time accu-
rately is laid down,  by Gottf. Weber of
Mayence, in the Leipsic Musical Gazette.
He says, " The simplest and surest meas-
ure of time is a  simple pendulum, i. e. a
thread with a leaden bullet at one end.  It
is well known that a pendulum swings
quicker the shorter it is.  It is, therefore,
only necessary to write, at the beginning
of a  musical piece, the length of a pen-
dulum, the vibrations  of which  corre-
spond to the desired duration of the unit
                      2
note.   Thus,  allegro  8" -j would signify

that in this allegro the unit note  — is to

correspond to the vibration of a  pendu-
lum eight inches long, Rhenish measure.
This way of indicating the time has this
advantage,  that  it  can be easily under-
stood every where, and easily executed,
as the niceties observed in astronomical
calculations with the pendulum  are not
requisite here. It must only be remem-

bered that, with -,  -  and  — time, a vibra-
               4  4      4
tion of the pendulum indicates the dura-

tion  of -; with £•,  ^, 3, s time,  it indi-
     (  4      o  o  o 9
cates^.   When  miUtary  pedantry  in
     8
Germany had reached its acme, before the
French revolution, chronometers were
used in some regiments, which were held
by the drum-major, and  determined by
their beats the duration of each step, which 
266
TIME—TIMON
t
he indicated by signs to the drummers. We
have lately heard that they are again used
by some regiments in Russia and Austria.
  Times ; one of the  most respectable
English papers, distinguished for activity,
wide  circulation,  and size, and, at the
present  time, most in the  confidence of
the ministry, without, however, defending
all its measures, indiscriminately.   In
1831, not  less than 4,328,025 copies, or
about 13,827 a  day,  were  sold.   The
Evening Mail, which appears every other
day,  is the Times without the advertise-
ments.
  Timocract;  according  to  Aristotle,
that form of government whose laws re-
quire a certain property to enable a citi-
zen to be capable of the highest offices.
The  word is derived  from nut}, which
signifies  both honor  and  valuation of
property, and xparos, power.
  Timoleon; a native of Corinth, equally
distinguished as  a general and a law-
giver, a  lover of liberty and a patriot.
There is one act, however, of Timoleon,
which casts a shade over his character,—
the murder of his brother Timophanes,—
to which he was a witness and accessary,
if he did not actually assist in its execu-
tion.  Yet Timoleon's conduct may be in
some measure justified by the motives.
Timophanes had aimed at  the sovereign
power, and had already begun to play the
part of a tyrant.   The  remonstrances of
Timoleon had no effect upon his brother,
and  he, therefore, determined to purchase
the freedom  of  his fellow  citizens, even
at the price of his brother's death, should
that step  prove  necessary.   Going to his
brother,  at  the  head of several armed
men, and finding himself unable to pre-
vail  upon him to abandon  his ambitious
projects, he  stood  aside,  with his head
covered, while his followers put Timoph-
anes to death.   Joyful as  the intelU-
gence of the tyrant's death might be to
his feUow citizens, yet, to most minds,
there was something hateful  in the idea
of fratricide; and Timoleon bitterly re-
proached himself for the  act.  He then
went into voluntary exile.  Twenty years
afterwards, when the Syracusans demand-
 ed aid  from Corinth  against the  tyrant
 Dionysius the younger, Timoleon was re-
 called,  and placed at the head  of the
 troops sent to their relief.   He compelled
 Dionysius to leave Syracuse, and also
 forced  the  Carthaginians to  renounce
 their claims  to  Sicily (B. C. 340).   After
 having restore'd Uberty to SicUy, recalled
 the  exiles and fugitives, and erected pub-
 lic  buUdings in  place  of  the  fortresses
built by the tyrant, he gave the citizens a
new and more stable constitution, volun-
tarily laid down  his power,  which he
might have retained, and retired into pri-
vate life.   His reward was the general es-
teem of the  Sicilians, among whom he
spent the  rest of his life.  They called
him their benefactor and father, and took
no measures of importance without con-
sulting  him.   All Sicily mourned  his
death,  which occuned  at an  advanced
age ; and a yearly solemnity was celebrat-
ed  in  honor oi him.   Thus  lived and
died Timoleon, one of  the greatest and
noblest characters, not  only  of Greece,
but of all ages and countries.
  Timon of Athens; a celebrated misan-
thrope, who lived at the time of the Pelo-
ponnesian war—a period when a general
corruption of mannere was beginning to
supplant the ancient simplicity which had
characterized his countrymen.  Timon,
who united a strict integrity with much
wit, seems to have been exasperated, part-
ly by the  ingratitude of some  of his fel-
low citizens, and partly by the rapid prog-
ress of corruption;  and, in   his words
and actions, he displayed a gloomy state
of feelings.   Like Socrates and Dioge-
nes, he espoused the cause of  virtue, but
injured a good cause by  the bitterness of
his sarcasms and  the  malignity of his
irony.  His conduct gained him the epi-
thet of the   misanthrope; and  he  was
made a subject  of ridicule by the comic
poets.  Aristophanes says, he is surround-
ed with a hedge of thorns, and that every
one shuns him  as a scion of the Furies
Lucian has a witty dialogue,  Timon, of
which he is the subject; and Shakspearc's
Timon of Athens has rendered his name
and character  familiar  to the  English
reader.
   Timon  the Phliasian, a philosopher
and physician, the most celebrated disci-
ple  and friend  of Pyrrho, and, conse-
quently, a follower of the sceptic  phi-
losophy, was bom at Phlius, and flourish-
ed  in the time of  Antigonus,  kmg of
Macedonia, and  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,
during the last half of the  third century
B. C.  He attacked the dogmatists, and
maintained a suspension of judgment as
alone  productive  of tranquillity of mind.
Thirty comedies and sixty tragedies are
also ascribed to him; but of his numer-
ous works nothing remains, except a few
fragments of his silli,  the  loss of which
 is much to be regretted. They consisted
 of  three  books, the first of which was
 narrative, and the otlfers in the  form of
 dialogues.   They were written in ridi- 
TIMON—TIMOUR.
267
cule of the dogmatic philosophy.  The
fragments of  Timon are  contained  in
Langheinrich's  De  Timone Sillographo
(1720), and Paul's treatise De Sillis Gra-
corum (Berlin, 1821).  The ancients cele-
brate his  industry, learning,  and philo-
sophical indifference to objects which ex-
cite the wonder, anxiety, grief and terror
of the multitude.
  Timoroso (Italian for fearful); a term
applied to music, if the style of perform-
ance expresses awe and dread.
  Timotheus, one of the most celebrated
lyric poets  and musicians of antiquity,
who flourished at the court of Philip of
Macedon, and his son Alexander, about
the middle  of the fourth century before
the Christian era.   He was a native of
Miletus in Caria; and Pausanias attrib-
utes to him the completion of the lyre, by
the addition of four new strings.
  Timothy, a  disciple of St.  Paul, was
born in Lycaonia, Asia Minor, probably at
Lystra, of a pagan father and Christian
mother.  He was yet young when he be-
came associated (A. D. 51) with the great
apostle in his  ministry to the Gentiles;
and he accompanied Paul to Thessaloni-
ca, Philippi, and Beraea.  He was then left
in the latter city alone; and, after spending
some time there and at Thessalonica, dur-
ing a violent persecution, he again joined
his master at Corinth.  After preaching
the gospel  in  Macedonia,  Achaia,  and
other places, he  is supposed  to  have
shared the captivity of Paul at Rome, and
to have suffered martyrdom there during
the reign of Nerva (A. D. 97).   Two let-
ters addressed  to him by St. Paul form a
part of the New Testament.
  Timothy Grass (phleum pratense) is
readily recognised  by its long  cylindrical
spikes.  It forms very excellent fodder,
and  horses prefer it to the other grasses;
but it does not yield a veiy abundant crop.
The root becomes bulbous in very dry
grounds.   It is a native of Europe, but is
commonly cultivated, as well  as natural-
ized, in  the northern  parts  of the U.
States.
  Timour, called also Timour Lenk (that
is, the lame), and, by corruption, Tamer-
lane, one of the most celebrated  of the
Oriental  conquerors, was born in the vil-
lage of Sebzar, in the territory of Kesh,
about forty miles from Samarcand, in the
year 1335.   His ancestors were  chiefs of
the districts, and remotely  related to the
family  of Gengis.  At  the time of his
birth, great anarchy prevailed  in his na-
tive country, which suffered from an in-
vasion  of the  Getes, against  whom he
acted, at the head of a body of his coun-
trymen, and endured much diversity of
fortune, until at length, being joined by a
large body of volunteers, he was enabled
to expel the Getes from Transoxiana.  A
dispute with his confederate and brother-
in-law, Houssein, led to a brief civil war;
but the latter being defeated and put to
death, a general diet, in 1370, seated him
on the throne of Zagatai, upon which he
made Samarcand the seat of his empire.
His elevation, so far from satisfying his
ambition, only opened further prospects
to it;  and, in a  very few years, he re-
united to Zagatai its  former  dependen-
cies,  Candahar  and  Carizme,  overran
Persia, passed as a conqueror  through
the whole course of the Tigris  and Eu-
phrates, reduced the Christians  of Georgia,
subdued the kingdom of Cashgar, and his
emirs even  crossed  the river  Irtish into
Siberia. He also  despatched an army into
Western Tartary, under a fugitive prince
named Toctamish, who, having establish-
ed himself by its means, turned his arms
against his benefactor, and obliged Timour
to contend for his  capital and  empire.
He was,  however, finaUy  defeated, and,
in the pursuit, Timour captured a  duke
of Russia. In 1390,  he invaded Hindoos-
tan, and, rapidly penetrating  to Delhi,
soon completed  the subjugation of the
eountry.   While on the banks of the
Ganges, he was informed of great disturb-
ances on the  confines of Georgia and
Anatolia, and of the ambitious projects
of the Turkish sultan, Bajazet.  He soon
made arrangements to encounter this new
enemy, whom, after a  war of the  most
barbarous ferocity, which lasted two years
and upwards, he encountered and con-
quered, and made captive, in the decisive
battle of Angora, fought in 1402.   Con-
cerning the treatment of his prisoner, dif-
ferent accounts are given, the  most com-
mon of which states that he was carried
about by the conqueror in an iron cage,
against the bare  of which, he, in  a few
months, beat out his brains, in rage and
despair.  The conquests of  the Tartar
now extended from  the Irtish and Volga
to the Pereian gulf, and from the Ganges
to the Archipelago; and  the want of
shipping alone prevented him from cross-
ing into Europe.  His inordinate ambition
was not yet satisfied, and he was making
mighty preparations for an invasion of
China, when death arrested his progress,
at his camp at Otrar; and  he  expired in
1405,  in  the seventieth year of his age,
having previously declared his grandson,
Mahomet Jehan  Ghiz, his successor. He 
268
TIMOUR—TIN.
left fifty-three descendants, and a  name
much revered in the East, where his pos-
terity, until lately, stiff preserved the title
of the Mogul emperors, although tiie do-
minion had passed into other hands. Ti-
mour was tell and corpulent, with a wide
forehead, large  head, and pleasing  coun-
tenance ;  but he was maimed in one
hand, and lame on the right side. He
conducted his  government  alone, and
without favorites, but was, in the highest
degree, fierce and fanatical in his religion ;
and, although no conquests were ever at-
tended with  greater  cruelty, devastation,
and waste of human life, he affected the
title  of a  benefactor  to mankind.   Hap-
pily, his ambition was too gigantic  for its
consequences to last, and his dominions
rapidly became  divided as before.  Yet
he was not a mere barbarian conqueror,
if the  institutes are to be regarded  as
genuine,  which, under the title of the
institutions of Timour, have  been  made
known to us by a version from the Per-
sian, executed by major Davy and pro-
fessor White (Oxford, 1783).  (See Gib-
bon's Decline and Fall, ch. 65.)
  Tin was known to the  ancients  in the
most remote ages.  The Phoenicians pro-
cured it  from Spain  and from Britain,
with which nations they carried on a very
lucrative commerce.   It appears to have
been in common use  in the  time of Mo-
ses.  It is rather a scarce  metal, occur-
ring in the earth in but two forms, name-
ly, that of the peroxide, usually contami-
nated with the oxides of iron and manga-
nese, and ofa double sulphuret of tin and
copper, the last of which, however, is an
exceedingly  rare mineral.   (For  a de-
scription of these ores, see the end  of the
present article.)  Cornwall has been cel-
ebrated for its tin mines from the remotest
ages; and it still continues the most pro-
ductive country in  this metal in all Eu-
rope.   The  mountains  which separate
GaUcia from  Portugal were also very pro-
ductive of tin in ancient times, and still
continue  unexhausted.   The  mountains
between Saxony and Bohemia have been
wrought as tin mines for several  centu-
ries, and still continue productive.   Mines
of it occur in the peninsula of Malacca, in
India, in Chile and in Mexico.  The tin-
stone (or peroxide of tin) is the only ore
used for obtaining metallic tin.  The first
process to which it is subjected is grind-
ing.  The ground ore is  then washed,
which removes the  impurities; for the
specific  gravity is  so high that it  is easy
to wash away the earthy matter, and even
some of the foreign metallic ores with
which it is often mingled.  But there aro
other bodies so nearly of the same  spe-
cific gravity of the tin ore that they  can-
not be thus removed.  The next process
is roasting the ore in a reverberatory fur-
nace : this expels the sulphur and arsenic
with which the foreign matters were com-
bined, and  thus diminishes their specific
gravity so much that they can  now  be
washed away.  The ore, thus freed as
much as possible from  foreign matter, is
mixed with the requisite fuel  and lime-
stone, and heated strongly in a reverbera-
tory furnace,  so as to bring the whole into
the state of fusion, which is kept up  for
about eight hours.   The lime unites with
the earthy matters  still mixed with the
ore, and  flows  with them into  a  liquid
glass, while the coal reduces the oxide of
tin  to the  metallic  state.   It falls by its
weight to  the bottom, and is, at the end
of about eight hours, let out by tapping a
hole in the furnace, which had been filled
with clay.  The tin thus obtained is still
very impure.   It is returned to the fur-
nace, and exposed to a heat just sufficient
to melt it.  The pure tin flows out into a
kettle, while  a quantity of impurities  re-
mains behind.  The tin in  the  kettle is
kept in fusion  and agitated, by which a
quantity of impurity is accumulated on
its  surface.  It is skimmed off, and the
tin,  now  refined, is  cast  into  blocks,
weighing each about 300 pounds.—Tin,
when pure, has a  fine  white  color, like
silver; and, when fresh, its brilliancy is
great.  It has a slightly disagreeable taste,
and emits a peculiar smell when rubbed.
Its  hardness is between that of gold and
lead. Specific gravity, 7.28.  It is very
malleable ; tin leaf, or tinfoil, as it is call-
ed, is about  one thousandth part of an
inch thick  ; and it might be beat out into
leaves as thin again, if such were wanted
for the purposes of art.   Its ductility and
tenacity  are  much inferior to  those of
most of the metals known in early times.
It  is very flexible, and produces,  while
bending,  a remarkable crackling  noise,
sometimes called the cry of tin.  It melts
at  442°  Fahr.   When cooled slowly, it
may be obtained crystallized in  the form
ofa rhomboidal prism.  After a short ex-
posure  to  the  air, it loses its lustre, and
assumes a grayish-black color, but under-
goes no  further alteration.  Neither is it
sensibly altered by being kept under wa-
ter.  When  tin is melted in an open ves-
sel, its surface becomes very soon covered
with a gray powder, which is an oxide of
the metal.  If the  heat be continued, the
 color of the powder  gradually changes, 
TIN.
269
and  at last it becomes yellow.  It forms
two  oxides.  The protoxide has a black
color, but when combined with water, is
white.  The peroxide is yeUow,  and, in
certain circumstances, is  transparent, and
nearly white.  The black oxide, or protox-
ide, may be obtained by dissolving tin in
muriatic acid  till  a saturated solution is
obtained, precipitating the liquid by means
of carbonate  of soda, and  collecting  the
precipitate on a filter, washing and drying
it  at  a  temperature not exceeding 180°
Fahr.  By this process a white powder is
obtained,  which is a hydrated protoxide.
It requires to be raised to a red heat in a
glass retort to expel the water, after which
it  is  a  black  powder, devoid of lustre,
tasteless, and insoluble in water.  When
heated in the open air, it takes fire, burns
brilliantly, and is converted into peroxide.
It is distinguished from the peroxide of
tin not only by its  color, but by being in-
soluble in ammonia and  in  carbonate of
potash.   The other oxide  exists abun-
dantly in nature, though rarely free from
admixture with iron.  When pure, its
color is yellow.  It is translucent or al-
most transparent, and crystallizes in octa-
hedra with square bases.  Specific gravity
6.6.   It is insoluble in all acids, until it
has been fused with an alkaU.  Tin com-
bines with chlorine in  two proportions,
forming  the protochloride of tin, and  the
perchloride of tin.   The former  of  these
may be  formed by heating together an
amalgam of tin and calomel, or by evapo-
rating to dryness the protomuriate of tin,
and  fusing the residue in a  closed vessel.
It has a gray color, a resinous lustre and
fracture, and  takes  fire  when heated in
chlorine gas, and is converted  into  the
perchloride.  The perchloride of tin  has
long been known  under  the name  of
fuming liquor of Libavius, because it was
discovered by Libavius, a chemist of the
sixteenth century.   It is usually prepared
by mixing together an amalgam of tin and
con*osive sublimate, and distilling with a
very moderate heat  At first, a colorless
liquor passes into  the receiver, consisting
chiefly of water:  then the fuming liquid
rushes all at once  into the receiver in  the
state of vapor.   It is colorless, like water,
and  very fluid.  When three parts of it
are mixed with  one of water, the mixture
condenses into a solid mass.  It acts with
great violence on  oil of turpentine. There
are compounds, also, of tin  with bromine
and   with iodine.  Tin also  combines
with phosphorus and with sulphur.   One
combination of tin and sulphur  (the per-
sulphuret) has long been known in chem-
   r               23*
istry under the name of aurum mosaicum,
or mosaic gold.  It  is formed by mixing
twelve  parts tin, seven  parts  sulphur,
three parts mercury, and three parts sal-
ammoniac, and exposing the mixture to a
strong heat for  eight hours, in  a black-
lead crucible, to the top  of which  an
aludel is luted.  The mosaic gold sub-
limes.   It may also  be formed by mixing
together in a retort equal parts of sulphur
and  oxide of tin, and distilling.  When
pure, it is in the  form of light scales,
which readily adhere to other bodies, and
which have the color of gold.  Tin and
arsenic may be alloyed by fusion.   The
alloy is white, harder and  more sonorous
than  tin.   Tin  and antimony may  be
united together  in  various proportions.
Equal parts of tin and molybdenum melt
into a blackish-gray, granular, brittle, soft
mass.   Tin  does   not combine readily
with  iron.  An  alloy, however, may  be
formed by fusing them in a close crucible,
completely covered  from the external air.
Tin plate is formed  by dipping into melt-
ed  tin  thin   plates  of iron, thoroughly
cleaned by rubbing  them  with sand, and
then steeping them twenty-four  hours in
water  acidulated by  bran or  sulphuric
acid.  The tin not  only covers the sur-
face of the  iron, but penetrates it com-
pletely, and  gives the whole a white col-
or.   Tin and zinc may be  easily combin-
ed  by fusion.   This  alloy is often the
principal ingredient in the compound
called pewter.  Lead and tin may be com-
bined in any  proportion by fusion.   This
alloy is harder, and  possesses much more
tenacity tliau tin ; aud these qualities are
at a maximum when the alloy is compos-
ed of three parts of tin  and one of lead.
The  presence of tin seems to prevent, in
a great measure, the noxious quahties of
the  lead from becoming  sensible  when
food is dressed in vessels of this mixture.
This result is often employed to tin cop-
 [»er  vessels;  and the noxious nature of
 ead having raised a suspicion that such
vessels, when employed   to dress acid
food, might  prove injurious to the health,
Mr. Proust was employed  by the Spanish
government to examine the subject. The
result of his  experiments was, that vine-
gar and lemon-juice, when boiled long in
such vessels,  dissolve a small portion  of
tin, but no lead,  the presence of the for-
mer metal uniformly preventing the latter
from being  acted on.  The vessels,  of
course, are innocent.  What is called  ley
pewter is  often  scarcely any thing else
than this alloy.  Tinfoil, too, is almost
always a compound of tin and lead.  It is 
270                            TIN—TINDAL.
in the formation of these aUoys that tin ia
principally employed.  Its  oxides   are
used in enamelling,  and to  polish  the
metals; and its solution in nitro-muriatic
acid  is an important mordant in the art
of dyeing, rendering  several colors, par-
ticularly scarlet, more brilliant and perma-
nent.
  Tin Ores.  These are but two in num-
ber, tin ore and tin pyrites.  The firet of
these occurs  crystallized, and  in  a great
variety of forms, but which  may all  be
derived from an octahedron with a square
base, the angle over the  apex being 112°
lO**.   The majority of the crystals  have
the general figure ofa right square prism,
with four-sided pyramids at each extrem-
ity.   The  cleavages take place  parallel
with  the  sides of this  prism, and  with
both its diagonals.  The crystals  may be
cleaved also  parallel  to the sides of  the
above-named octahedron,  but  with diffi-
culty.  The prisms are sometimes verti-
cally streaked.  Lustre adamantine; color
various shades of white,  gray, yellow, red,
brown and black; streak  pale gray;  in
some varieties  it is  pale  brown; semi-
transparent, sometimes almost transparent,
and at others opaque ;  brittle ; hardness
about that of feldspar; specific  gravity
6.96.  Tin ore  presents  itself in a great
variety of compound or macled crystals.
It also occurs reniform, rarely in botry-
oidal shapes, and massive, with a granular
or columnar  composition,  the individuals
being strongly connected,  and  the frac-
ture uneven.  The wood tin of the  Cor-
nish mines is a mere variety of tin ore.
The following ingredients  were found  in
a specimen of crystaUized, and in a mas-
sive tin ore:—
                     Crystallized. Massive.
  Oxide of tin,.....99.00    95.00
  Oxide of iron,.....0.25     5.00
  Silex,.........  0.75     0.00
In its greatest purity, it  contains nothing
but oxide of tin.  Alone, it does not melt
before the blow-pipe,  but  is  reducible
when in contact with charcoal.   It occurs
disseminated  through granite, also in beds
and veins.  It also occurs  in pebbles, and
is extracted in this shape from stream-
works.  The variety called wood tin has
hitherto been found only in these  reposi-
tories. There are but  few  countries in
which the present species  is met with in
considerable quantities.  These are Sax-
ony, Bohemia, Cornwall, in Europe, and
the peninsula of Malacca,  and the island
of Banca, in Asia.  Within a few years,
email crystals have been met with at Go-
shen, in Massachusetts, in a granite rock,
accompanied by tourmaline  and spod«-
mene.  Tin pyrites, the other ore of tin,
occurs massive, with a granular compo-
sition ; fracture uneven, imperfectly con-
choidal; lustre metallic; color steel-gray,
inclining to yellow; streak black; opaque;
brittle; hardness about that of fluor; spe-
cific gravity 4.35.  Before the blow-pipe,
sulphur is driven off,  and the mineral
melts  into a  blackish  scoria, without
yielding a metallic button.  It is soluble
in nitro-muriatic acid, during which the
sulphur is precipitated.  It consists of
  Tin,.................34.00
  Copper,...............36.00
  Iron,................  2.00
  Sulphur,..............25.00
It is  found only at St. Agnes, in Corn-
wall.
  Tincal.  (See Boracic Acid.)
  Tincture; a solution of any substance
in spirit of wine.  Rectified spirit of wine
is the dhect menstruum of the resins, and
essential  oils of vegetables,  and totally
extracts these active principles from sun-
dry vegetable matters,  which yield  them
to water not  at  all, or  only  in part.   It
dissolves, likewise, the  sweet, saccharine
matter of vegetables, and generally  those
parts  of animal bodies in which  their
peculiar smell  and  taste reside.   The
virtues of many vegetables  are extracted
almost equally   by  water  and rectified
spirit; but  in the watery and spirituous
tinctures of them there is this difference,
that the active parts in the watery extrac-
tions are blended with a large proportion
of inert gummy matter, on which  their
solubility in  this menstruum in a  great
measure  depends, while rectified  spirit
extracts them  almost  pure  from  gum.
Hence, when the spirituous tinctures are
mixed with wateiy liquors, a part of what
the spirit had taken up from  the subject
generally separates and subsides, on ac-
count of its having been freed from that
matter, which,  being blended with  it  in
the  original vegetable,  made  it soluble  in
water. This, however, is not universal,
for the active parts of some  vegetables,
when extracted by rectified spirits, are
not precipitated by water,  being almost
equally soluble  in both  menstrua.
  Tindal,  Matthew, LL.  D., a contro-
versial writer, bom about 1657, in Devon-
shire, where  his father was a clergyman,
was admitted of Lincoln college, Oxford,
in 1672,  elected a fellow of All Souls'
college, and afterwards became a doctor
of law.  At the commencement of the
reign of James II, he turned  Roman 
TINDAL—TINTORETTO.
271
Catholic, but, in 1687, he returned to the
church of England.  Having concurred
in the  revolution, he was  admitted  an
advocate,  and  sat  as  a judge  in  the
court of delegates.  He published several
pieces, political and theological,  among
which were a  Letter to the Clergymen
of the two Universities, on the subject of
the Trinity and Athanasian creed, and
a  treatise  entitled  the  Rights  of  the
Christian  Church.  This work excited a
considerable  sensation among the high
church clergy, who attacked it with great
animosity.  Tindal published  a defence,
the second edition of which  the house of
commons ordered to be burned  by  the
common hangman, in the same fire with
Sacheverel's  sermon, thus  treating  the
disputants on each side in the same man-
ner.   In 1730, he published his Christian-
ity as old as the Creation, or the  Gospel
a Republication of the Religion of Nature,
in which  his  object  was to show that
there neither has been, nor can be, any
revelation  distinct from what he  terms
the internal revelation of the law of nature
in the hearts of mankind.  He died  in
1733, leaving,  in manuscript, a  second
volume of Christianity as old as the Crea-
tion, the publication of which was pre-
vented by  doctor Gibson, bishop of Lon-
don.   His nephew, Nicholas, born in 1687,
fellow of Trinity college, Oxford,published
a translation of Rapin's  History of Eng-
land, with  a continuation.  (See Raping
  Tindal, William, also named Hitchins,
a martyr to the  reformation, born in 1500,
near the borders of Wales, was educated
at Oxford, where he imbibed the doc-
trines of Luther.  Bearing  an excellent
character  for  morals and diligence,  he
was  admitted a canon of Wolsey's new
college of Christ-church ; but, his princi-
ples  becoming known,   he  was  subse-
quently ejected.  He then withdrew  to
Cambridge, where he took a degree, and
booii  after went to  reside  as tutor  in
Gloucestershire.  While in this capacity,
he translated Erasmus's Enchiridion Mil-
itis Christiani  into English ; but, in con-
sequence  of his  opinions, articles were
Kreferred against him before the chancel-
 >r of the diocese, and he received a rep-
rimand.  He then accepted ofa retreat in
the house  of an alderman  of London,
where he employed himself  in preparing
an English version of the New Testament.
England not being a place where  such a
work could with safety  be  effected,  he
proceeded  to Antwerp, where, with  the
assistance of John Fry, and one Roye, a
friar, he completed his work, which was
printed in that city, in 1526, 8vo., without
a name.  The greater  part was sent  to
England,  which  produced great alarm
among the  church dignitaries; and the
prelates Warham  and  Tunstall collected
all they could seize or purchase, and com-
mitted them to the flames.  The money
received by the sale of  the firet edition in
this way, enabled Tindal to print another
edition, in conjunction with Miles Cover-
dale.   He also translated the pentateuch,
and  subsequently  Jonas, which formed
the whole of his labors  on the Scriptures,
although others have been ascribed to him.
He then returned to  Antwerp, where he
took up his residence with an English mer-
chant  Henry VIII  employed a wretch
of the name of" Phillips to betray Tindal to
the emperor's procurator; and, in  1536,
he was brought to trial upon the emperor's
decree at Augsburg, where he was con-
demned to the stake, which sentence he
quietly endured, being first strangled and
then burnt  His last words were, " Lord,
open the king of England's eyes!"  Tin-
dal's translation of the Scripture is highly
esteemed for perspicuity and noble sim-
plicity of idiom.
  Tino (anciently Tenos); an island of the
Grecian Archipelago, forming one of the
group of the Cyclades,  and  consisting of
a long, mountainous ridge, between My-
conos and  Andros,  from which it is  sepa-
rated  by a narrow channel.  It contains
66 villages and 25,000  inhabitants, on 80
square miles.  It is  well  cultivated  by
means of terraces, and produces abun-
dance of silk, com and  fruit.  Silk is the
principal commodity.  There  are four
monasteries on the island, and the church
of the Evangelist, recently erected, has a
miraculous image  of the  Virgin Mary,
found there in 1823, which is much visit-
ed by pilgrims.   Part of the revenues
support a  classical  school  established
in  1825.   The  capital,  St.  Nicholas, on
the western side of the island, was the
residence of the European consuls, before
the Greek revolution.  Tenos, the ancient
capital,  one of the  oldest  cities of the
Greeks, lay near a sacred forest, in which
was a temple of Neptune.               )
  Tintoretto ; the surname of a Vene-
tian historical painter,  Giaccmo Robusti,
bom at Venice,  in 1512, died  in  1594.
His father was a dyer (in Italian, tintore), '
whence his surname.  Tintoretto studied
under Titian, who  was  so jealous of his
powers that he dismissed  him from his
school.  He therefore pursued his studies
without any director, and endeavored to
unite his master's coloring with the design 
872
TINTORETTO—TIPPOO SAIB.
of Michael  Angelo—a union which  is
discernible in his best pieces.  But he
executed his works with  so much  haste
that he remained far inferior to  both of
those great  masters.   His  manner of
painting was bold, with strong lights, op-
posed by deep shadows;  his  pencil was
wonderfully firm and free; his disposition
good; his execution easy, and his touch
lively and full of spirit  He painted many
works  for his  native city, among which
are a Last Judgment, the IsraeUtes wor-
shipping the Golden Calf, St. Agnes, St
Roche, and  a  Crucifixion, the Marriage
of Cana, the Martyrdom,  or Miracolo del
Servo, &c.  His portrait, by  himself,  is
in the  Louvre;  and  there  are many
of his  paintings  in  Germany, Spain,
France, and England.    Equal,  in  sev-
eral respects, to Titian or  Paul Veronese,
he wants the dignity of the former, and
the grace  and richness  of composition
which distinguish the works of the latter.
He had  great variety  in his attitudes,
some of  which  are  excellent, while
othere  are  contrasted  to extravagance.
Those  of  his women  are   generally
graceful, and his heads are designed in
a fine taste.
  Tippicanoe; a river of Indiana, which
joins the Wabash, about 420 miles  from
its mouth ; length about  170 miles.  It
is rendered famous for a  battle between
the Americans and Indians, in November,
1811.
  Tippoo Saib, sultan of  Mysore, son
of Hyder Ally, born in 1751,  succeeded
his father in 1782.  (See Hyder Ally, and
Mysore.)   He continued the war in which
his father was  engaged with the English
until the peace of Paris  (1783), which
deprived him  of the assistance of the
French; andthealhanceoftheMahrattas
(q. v.)  with  the  British induced him to
sign the treaty of Mangalore, in 1784, on
advantageous terms.  His kingdom had
now a superficial extent of 97,500 square
miles, with a revenue of about 14,000,000
doUars.  The country was well peopled,
and under good cultivation, and the peo-
ple, although of Hindoo origin, contented
with the Mohammedan government  But
Tippoo soon showed himself fanatical and
intolerant  He caused the Bramins to be
cruelly beaten,  or forcibly circumcised,
when they would not consent to renounce
their faith,  and  treated  the  Christians
with such rigor, that more than 70,000
left  bis dominions.  In  1787, he  again
attacked the Mahrattas,  and, in  1789,
turned his arms against the rajah  of Tra-
vancore, an  aUy of  the British   An
offensive and defensive  treaty was con-
cluded (June, 1790[ between the East
India company, the Peishwa, and Nizam
Ali.   In  the  campaign of 1790, several
places were reduced by the allies, and, in
that of 1791, in which  lord Cornwallis
commanded  in  person,  they  besieged
Tippoo  in  his  capital,  Seringapatam.
(q. v.)  A peace was concluded, Februa-
ry, 1792, by the terms of which the sultan
of Mysore consented to rehnquish nearly
half of his territory, and to pay 30,000,000
mpees (nearly 15,000,000 dollars).  The
ceded territory was divided between  the
allies.  But Tippoo  was  unwUling to
submit to  this  loss,  and endeavored,
though without success, to engage some
of the native powers  in  a war with  the
company.  He also entered into negotia-
tions with the French; and his intrigues
were  discovered to the English by  the
proclamation of the governor of the Isle
of France, encouraging  the  inhabitants
to enter his service. Suspecting that the
preparations of Tippoo  were connected
with Bonaparte's invasion of Egypt, and
receiving from him only evasive answers
to their  inquiries,  the company  deter-
mined to anticipate hostilities, and, on
the 22d of February, 1799, in connexion
with their  former  alUes, they  declared
war against the  sultan.   The forces of
the  native allies  being occupied by  do-
mestic troubles, the English were obliged
to conduct the war alone.  Two armies,
under generals Stuart and Harris, entered
Mysore, defeated Tippoo  in two battles,
and formed a junction before Seringapa-
tam, whither he had retreated.  The place
was reduced by storm, May 4, and Tippoo
perished  in the assault.   The  whole of
Mysore  was  now  divided between  the
aUies.  The English annexed portions of
the  ten*itory to the presidencies of Ma-
dras and Bombay, and erected another
portion into a vassal kingdom under the
young raja, or Kurtur Krishna, son of the
last raja (who had died in prison in 1796),
who was  found in prison in Seringapatam.
The children of Tippoo,  with his wives
and female relations, received the  fort of
Vellore, in the Camatic, as a place of resi-
dence, with a yearly pension  of 720,000
mpees from the English East India com-
pany.—Tippoo Saib was a man of bold
and deep views,  and evinced much pru-
dence and sagacity in the execution of
his projects.  But,  unfortunately for him-
self, he was surrounded  with flatterers,
and neglected his old officers  and coun-
sellors.   His  library, and his tiger,  an
automaton with which he was accustom- 
TIPPOO SAIB—TIRESIAS.
273
 ed to amuse himself at  table, are in the
 East India house, in London.
   Tiptoft.  (See Worcester, Earl of.)
   Tiraboschi,  Girolamo.  This Italian
 scholar,  bom in 1731, at Bergamo, was
 distinguished for love of learning and un-
 wearied  application, even in early youth,
 when  his  father placed him, at eleven
 years  of age, in the  Jesuit college of
 Monza, where he enjoyed the instruction
 of learned teachers, and at the same time
 acquired such a fondness for the clerical
 profession, that  he persuaded his father
 to let him, at fifteen yeare  of age, com-
 mence his novitiate at  Genoa.    On its
 expiration, after  the usual period of two
 years,  he was directed to give instruction
 for five years in the lower schools in Mi-
 lan, and  afterwards in Novara.  He was
 subsequently appointed to the professor-
 ship of rhetoric at Milan, in the universi-
 ty of Brera.  In this  situation he distin-
 guished  himself, not only as a teacher,
 but as an author.  Several works of deep
 research  and uncommon solidity obtain-
 ed for him an offer of the place of libra-
 rian to Francis III of  Modena.  Tira-
 boschi made use  of the  valuable  re-
 sources thus placed at his  command, to
 compose  his celebrated work Storia delta
 Letteratura Italiana, which appeared suc-
 cessively in fourteen volumes. This work,
 which, in extent of learning, in accuracy,
 in completeness and in style, has  not its
 equal in  any literature, extends from the
 commencement of intellectual cultivation
 in Italy to the year 1700, and  excites so
 much  the more wonder  at the quantity
 and value of its contents, as it was com-
 pleted in the short space of ten yeare,
 during which the author also found time,
 as  if for recreation, to  produce  various
 other  works, which  are highly  distin-
 guished  in their kind ; as the Biblioteca
 Modenese.  He also wrote other  works
 ofa Uterary, historical and theological na-
 ture.   He died at Modena, 1794, a sacri-
 fice to his incessant application.
   Tirade ;  a long,  declamatory  strain,
 generally of a violent nature.  This term
 probably originated from the musical ex-
 pression  tirata, which formerly signified
 a series of notes of the same kind, rising
 and falling by degrees.
   Tirailleurs ;  a name given, since the
 ware of the French revolution, to a species
of infantry, intended to  fight  seldom in
close  order,  but mostly dispersed,  two
and  two always supporting each other,
and in general to skirmish in front  of the
columns  (q.v.) and troops  of the line.
 The movements of the tirailleurs, never-
 theless, are systematicaUy ordered: they
 are  directed by signals, generally given
 by bugles or small trumpets.   The cnief
 requisites of good tirailleurs are great ac-
 tivity, and  a correct  and keen  eye, in
 order to accommodate themselves prompt-
 ly to circumstances; to collect  quickly
 into masses when so ordered, and disperse
 again with equal expedition;  and to act
 constantly in unison with the whole army.
 They must be good  marksmen,  though
 they do not need  the same degree of ex-
 pertness as  the sharp-shooters.   The
 French introduced the system of tirailleurs
 in the wars  of their  revolution ; having
 taken the  idea, probably, from the prac-
 tice  of the people of North America, in
 the  revolutionary war.  (See Infantry.)
 As the French, when firet attacked, could
 not  oppose their  enemies  with troops
 equally weU discipUned, they adopted the
 system of columns,  preceded by tirail-
 leurs.  Long practice  developed the rude
 beginnings, until tirailleurs have become
 indispensable in armies. They are of the
 greatest service  both  in attack and de-
 fence, and generally a great part of a bat-
 tle at the present day consists of the skir-
 mishes  of tirailleurs,  particularly when
the enemy is to be kept distant from the
 columns, or, in general, to be checked, or
where, from  the  nature of the  ground,
columns cannot act, as in the  defence of
woods, morasses, viUages, gardens.  It is
evident that the use of tirailleurs  has es-
 sentially changed tactics, as  well as the
system of war  in general.  Sometimes
the tirailleurs form a separate company
 in each battalion, as  was  formerly the
 case with  the French ; sometimes  the
 third line of the whole battalion  consists
 of  tirailleurs alone;  but in case of
 necessity, every soldier has to act as such,
 as in the Prussian army.
  Tiresias, in mythology; a  celebrated
prophet of Thebes, son of Everus and
Chariclo.  He Uved nine generations of
men.  In his youth  he found two ser-
pents in the act of copulation, and, having
struck them  with a  stick to separata
them, he found himself suddenly changed
into a girl.   Seven years after, he found
some serpents together in the same man-
ner,  and recovered his original  sex by
striking them with his wand.  Jupiter
and Juno, therefore, referred to his decis-
ion the question, which of the  sexes re-
ceived greater pleasure from the connu-
bial  state.   Tiresias declared that  the
pleasure which the  female received was
 ten times greater than that of  the male.
Juno, who supported a different opinion, 
274
TIRESIAS—TISSOT.
punished Tiresias by depriving him of his
eye-sight   Other accounts say that  his
blindness was inflicted on him because he
had seen Minerva bathing. Chariclo com-
plained of the severity with which her son
was treated; and the goddess, who knew
that his sight was irrevocable, alleviated the
misfortunes of Tiresias by making him ac-
quainted with  futurity, and giving him a
staff which could conduct his steps.   He
drew his prophecies from the flight or the
language of birds, in which he was assisted
by his daughter Manto,  and sometimes
evoked  the manes from the infernal re-
gions with mystical ceremonies.  He was
buried with great pomp by the Thebans,
and honored as a god.  His oracle at Or-
chomenus was in universal esteem.  Ho-
mer  represents Ulysses as going to the in-
fernal regions to consult Tiresias concern-
ing his return to Ithaca.
  Tirlemont ; a town of Belgium, South
Brabant, called by the people of the coun-
try Tienen; nine miles south-east of Lou-
vain ; population, 7788.  It was anciently
one of the principal cities of Brabant  It
has been a very nourishing and populous
city, and many vestiges of its grandeur are
yet visible; but it has suffered much by
war and other calamities.  In Nov., 1792,
the Austrians were defeated here  by the
French; and, in April, 1793, the French
were defeated  by the Austrians, with the
loss of 7000 men, and  33 pieces of can-
non.
  Tirol.   (See Tyrol.)
  Tironian Notes  (Nota  Tironiana).
(See Abbreviations.)
  Tisan, or Ptisan (from nnaou, to de-
corticate,  bruise, or pound);  1.  barley
deprived of its husks, pounded, and made
into balls.   2. A drink is so called by the
French, made mostly of farinaceous sub-
stances,  as barley,   rice, grits, and the
like, boiled with water, and sweetened to
the palate.  This is prescribed  by the
French  physicians  in  almost all com-
plaints, being the common mode of put-
ting a patient on a low diet, just as gruel
is a common prescription of English and
American physicians in like cases.
  Tischbein ; a German family,  distin-
guished in the fine  arts, of whom  we
shaU mention  only John  Henry, born at
Heyna, in Hesse, in 1722, died  at  Cassel,
in 1789, and John Henry William, born at
Heyna, in 1751.  The latter was appoint-
ed, in 1790, director  of the academy of
painting at Naples, where he did much
for the fine arts.  The troubles towards the
end of the last century caused him to re-
turn to Germany.  He  passed the rest of
his life chiefly at Eutin.  He  painted
many pictures of great beauty, and  was
fond of comparing the physiognomies of
men with  those of  certain animals,  to
which he mayliave been led by his con-
nexion  with  Lavater.   He  published
Tltes de diffirens Animaux dessinies d'apris
Nature pour donner une Iclie plus exacte  de
lews  Caracteres (Naples, 1796,  2  vols.,
foU: the moral disposition of each ani-
mal, if we may be allowed the expression,
is given here with  admirable truth:  also
Sir William Hamilton's Collection of En-
gravings from antique Vases, the greater
Part of Grecian Fabric, found in ancient
Tombs in the Two Sicilies, in the Years
1789 and 1790, with the Remarks of the
Proprietor, published by W.  Tischbein
(Naples, 1790—1809, 4 vols., fol.), which
contains 240 outlines of vases. The origi-
nals were lost in a shipwreck.   He like-
wise  published  Homer, illustrated by
Drawings from Antiques, by W. Tisch-
bein, &c, with illustrations by Ch. The-
ophilus Heyne, 1—6 numbers (Gotting-
en, 1801—4), and 7—11 numbers (1821—
23, Stuttg.), with Ulustrations by doctor
T.  Schorn.   Homer  occupied  him al-
most throughout his Ufe; he sought for
every antique with which the poetry of Ho-
mer was in any way connected, and made
a rich collection of drawings of antiques,
given to the world in the above-mention-
ed  work, the publication of which has
been unfortunately intemrpted.
  Tisiphone; one of the Furies.   (See
Furies.)
  Tissot,  Simon  Andrew, an  eminent
physician, born in the Pays de Vaud, in
1728, studied at Geneva and Montpellier,
and settled at Lausanne.  The success
with  which he  treated the  confluent
small-pox, by means of fresh  air and a
cooling diet, at a period when stimulants
and sudorifics  were  generaUy adopted,
fixed on the  young practitioner the  pub-
lic  attention.  He published a  tract  in
favor of inoculation, in 1750, and  Avis
au Peuple sur sa Santi (1761, translated
into EngUsh  by  doctor  Kirkpatrick);
Avis aux Gens de Lettres et aux Personnes
sidentaires  sur leur Santi  (Paris, 1768);
Essai sur les Maladies des Gens du Monde
(Lyons, 1770,  12mo.);  and Tentamen  de
Morbis ex Manustupratione ortis. Tissot
refused advantageous offers made him  by
the kings of Poland and England, to in-
duce him to quit Lausanne, but accepted
of a professorship in  the  university of
Pavia.  This  office,  however, he  relin-
quished after three years, and returned to
Lausanne,  where  his  death  took  place 
TISSOT—TITANIUM.
275
in 1797.  The principal works of Tissot
were published together at Paris,  1809
(8 vols., 8vo.), with the notes of professor
Halle.
  Tissot, Clement Joseph, a relative of the
preceding, born in 1750, studied at Besan-
con.  He published a  treatise  entitled
Gymnastique Midicale (1781).   He was
appointed adjunct physician to the house-
hold of the  duke of Orleans.  After the
revolution,  he  was surgeon-in-chief in
various corps of the French armies, and
served in the campaigns in Austria, Pms-
sia, Poland  and Italy.  At length he re-
tired from the service, and settled in pro-
fessional practice at Paris, where he died
in 1826.  He  published  several essays
and treatises, which  are esteemed in for-
eign countries.
  Titan ; a son of Ccelus and Terra (q.v.).
To him, as the eldest brother, belonged
the empire; but, at the request of his
mother and  his sisters, Ceres and Ops, he
ceded it to  his youngest brother, Saturn,
on condition that the latter should not let
any of his sons live, so that the govern-
ment would devolve on the sons of Titan.
But when he learned that some chUdren
of Saturn had remained alive, he and his
sons took up arms, conquered Saturn, and
made him  and his wife prisoners.  But
Jupiter, son of Saturn, who dwelt  in
Crete, made war upon his uncle with an
army of Cretans, conquered him, and re-
instated his father.   This  Titan is un-
known to the early writers on mythology.
The name of Titans is given to the sons
of Coelus and Terra, or Tinea (Earth),
in general.   Hesiod, and most of the
mythological writers, make them six in
number—Cobos, Crios, Hyperion, Japetus,
Oceanus, Saturn.   In  a mythological
fragment, Phorcys is added as the seventh.
Later writers make them  eighteen, reck-
oning, perhaps, in their number, some of
the Cyclops  and the Centimani, who were
also  sons of Coelus.  The  children of
the Titans, e. g. Atlas, are also called by
this  name.   Helios,  or Sol, son of the
Titan Hyperion,  is particularly  denomi-
nated Titan.  In general, the fable of the
Titans is mixed with many notions bor-
rowed from the  Phoenician cosmogony,
particularly  this, that several of the Titans
were the authors of various useful inven-
tions, the firet  artists, architects, agricul-
turists,  shepherds  and  hunters.  The
story that the eldest children of Coelus
dethroned their father, and waged war
with  Jupiter for the government, is one
of the earhest mythological fictions.  Ac-
cording to Hesiod (verse 176), they receiv-
ed this name because they stretched  out
their hands to their father (from nraivu or
raivoi).  They  are  also called Uranides.
Terra was indignant, it is said, at the cru-
elties of her husband, who did not aUow
the children, whom she  brought forth, to
see the light, but imprisoned them  in Tar-
tarus.  She therefore excited the  Titans
to insurrection : Coelus was imprisoned, .
and emasculated by Saturn, and the latter /
ascended the throne.  But as he also im-
prisoned his  brothers, the Cyclops and
Centimani, in Tartarus, Terra excited Ju-
piter, and the other children of Satum, to
insurrection, and the war between  the
Titanides and the chUdren of Satum  be-
gan.  For ten years, the  former  fought
from mount Othrys, the latter from mount
Olympus, without any decisive result to
either party, until Jupiter, in obedience to
an oracle of Terra, loosed  the Centimani
(q. v.),  by  whose  assistance  the  Titans
were beaten,  fettered, and thrown into
Tartarus.  The scene of the war is placed
in Thessaly, on Olympus and Othrys, by
Hesiod; on Olympus, Pelion and Ossa, by
Homer. Among the earlier cosmogonical
poets, this contest seems to be symbolical
of the  struggle of the  elements  at  the
formation of the world.
  Titania.  (See Mob.)
  Titanium;  a metal which has been
obtained in a state  of perfect purity only
in sufficient quantity for the  determina-
tion of its properties.  It was in the con-
dition of a powder as obtained, and pos-
sessed  of the following properties: color
dark copper-red; tarnishes in the air, and
takes fire when heated;  it detonates with
nitre, and is acted  upon with energy by
all tiie dense acids.  A crystaUized metal-
lic titanium, in small cubes, has been  ob-
served, occasionaUy, in the slags of great
iron smelting furnaces;  but it is  always
alloyed with iron,  sufficiently to affect a
delicate magnetic needle.   These cubes
have a copper-red color and much bril-
liancy.  They are hard enough to scratch
rock crystal,  and have a specific  gravity
of 5.3.  Neither of the  strong acids  are
capable of dissolving them, nor are they
fusible before the blow-pipe.  There  are
two combinations  of titanium and oxy-
gen ; the  one is an oxide, the other an
acid.   The oxide of titanium is ofa black,
bluish, or  purplish  color, and may be
formed by heating metallic  titanium in
fine powder along with caustic potash.  It
is also procured from titanic acid, by expos-
ing it to a very violent heat in a charcoal
crucible.  It is insoluble in aU the acids.
When heated, it  absorbs oxygen very 
276
TITANIUM.
slowly, and is converted into titanic acid
by heating it  with nitre, with great diffi-
culty.  Before the blow-pipe, it dissolves
in bi-phosphate of soda, and forms a very
dark-red glass.  The anatase,  an ore of
titanium, described at the close of this ar-
ticle, appears to be whoUy composed of
this oxide.  Titanic acid  occurs native in
the rutile. (See the close of the present
article.)  Its color is  reddish-brown,  and
it has a specific gravity  of 4.249.   The
native  acid is,  however, slightly impure,
from the presence of iron: when the iron
is  separated,  the acid presents  a  white
color.  It reddens Utmus  paper, after hav-
ing been exposed to  a  high temperature.
It resembles  zirconia so  closely  as to be
with difficulty distinguished from that
earth.   They may,  however, be  easily
recognised from a blow-pipe experiment.
Titanic acid, when fused  with borax, or
bi-phosphate   of soda, in the  exterior
flame, gives a yellow or colorless  glass,
which in the interior flame becomes deep
purple, or even brownish-black, if the acid
be in excess.  Wheu titanic acid  and zir-
conia occur together  in the same mineral,
we are unable to effect their separation :
such minerals, in the present state  of
chemical knowledge, cannot be analyzed.
Titanium unites with chlorine to form a
chloride.   It is formed by passing the gas
over ignited titanic acid and charcoal in a
porcelain tube.   It is a fluid, perfectly
transparent and colorless, heavier  than
water,  and  boils at 275° Fahr.  When
mingled  with water,  it is converted  into
muriatic acid and titanic acid.  When
titanic  acid, fluor spar, and sulphuric acid,
are mixed together in a leaden retort, a
yellow-colored liquid is gradually obtain-
ed, which water immediately  converts
into fluoric acid and titanic acid.   This
is  probably a fluoride of titanium.  A
phosphuret and   a  sulphuret  of  titani-
um have both been  fonned.   Nothing is
known  respecting   the  combinations
which  titanium  is capable  of forming
with selenium,  tellurium, arsenic, anti-
mony,  chromium, molybdenum, tungsten,
and  columbium.  Unsuccessful  attempts
have been made to  combine it  with sil-
ver, copper and lead.  It has been com-
bined with iron, and gave rise to an alloy
of a gray color, interspersed with yellow-
colored brilliant particles.  It would ap-
pear that the affinity of titanium for  oth-
er metals is, on the whole, very weak.
   Ores of Titanium.  These are five  in
number; viz. rutile,  anatase,  ilmenite,
crichtonite  and sphene.  1. Rutile, or
titanite,  occurs  crystallized,   in  right
square prisms,—the primary form of the
species,—which  are often terminated at
one extremity by a four-sided  pyramid,
whose faces incUne to the corresponding
lateral ones  under angles of  122°  451.
The lateral edges of the prism  are often
truncated,  and  the  primary  prismatic
sides are liable to numerous vertical stria.
Macled  forms,  or twin crystals, are very
common, whose appearance is  that of a
prism bent to an angle of 114° 30*;  some-
times the geniculations are frequently re-
peated.   The cleavage is  parallel  to the
primary planes  ; lustre metallic adaman-
tine ;  color reddish-brown, passing  into     «
red,  sometimes  yellowish;  streak very
pale brown; translucent to opaque; hard-
ness about that of feldspar; specific grav-
ity 4.24.   It also occurs massive, the in-
dividuals  being  of various  sizes  and
strongly  connected.   Alone before the
blow-pipe, it  is infusible, but gives, with
berax, a yellowish glass, which assumes
an amethyst color when further reduced.
It consists of titanic acid.   It  occurs, gen-
erally, in  imbedded crystals,  either in
quartz engaged  in gneiss,  mica-slate, or
chlorite-slate; or in  beds  consisting of
quartz, gamet and augite.   It is likewise
found in  transparent  crystals of quartz.
Imbedded  crystals in quartz have been
found at Rosenau in Hungary,  Teinach
on the Bacher, in Stiria, and at various
places along the Alps.   Very perfect crys-
tals occur in the Sanalpe in Carinthia,
also  at  St. Gothard.   Fine  pebbles of
rutile are  found  in Transylvania,  and
called nigrine, on  account of their black
color.  At St. Yrieix, in France, and in
the province of Guadalaxara,  in  Spain,
twin crystals occur of very large dimen-
sions.  Other localities are Bohemia, Si-
beria and Brazil.  In the U.  States, very
perfect crystals, and in great quantity, are
found  at  Windsor,  in  Massachusetts,
where they  occur in  seams of  quartz
traversing  chlorite slate.   Many other
 {daces might be mentioned in New Eng-
 and where rutile has been met  with ; but
the above-mentioned is the only produc-
tive  locality.  2. Anatase.  This species
is much more rare than that just describ-
ed, but is exceedingly interesting from the
beauty of its crystals, and from the na-
ture of  its composition, it being regarded
as composed solely of the protoxide of
the metal.   Its crystals are small,  and
of the  form of the octahedron, with  a
square base, the pyramids meeting under
an angle of 136° 47', which is the primary
fonn  of the  species.   The  cleavage  is
parallel to the primary planes, and  to the 
TITANIUM—TITHES.
277
longer axis of the crystals; fracture con-
choidal, though with difficulty observed ;
lustre metallic adamantine; color various
shades of brown, more or less dark, also
indigo-blue ;  streak white,  semi-trans-
parent ; hardness nearly that of feldspar ;
specific gravity  3.82.  It dissolves with
difficulty in the salt of phosphorus, be-
fore  the  blow-pipe, and  the  portion not
melted becomes white and semi-trans-
parent   It  occurs  in narrow,  inegular
veins,  accompanied  by  albite,  quartz,
mica,  and  axinito.  Its chief  localities
are Bourg d'Oisans in  Dauphiny, and  in
Switzerland ; it  is also found in Cornwall,
 :  Xorway, in  Spain and Brazil. 3. 11-
::<".iit(. Axotomous iron ore(Mohs);  me-
naccanite ?  iserine ? The primary  fonn
of this species is believed to be  a rhom-
boid of 85° 59/.   It occurs massive, rarely
crystallized in what are described by pro-
fessor  Ktipfer as being variously modi-
fied   four-sided  prisms ;  color black;
streak brownish; opacjue; lustre on the
fracture  shining and resinous;   fracture
conchoidal; no  visible cleavage ; hard-
ness between  apatite and fcld.-par; spe-
cific gravity 4.6—-l.il.  It is unalterable
before the blow-pipe, and consists of
  Titanic acid,............46.67
  Oxide of iron,...........47.08
  Oxide  of manganese,.......  2.39
  Magnesia,.............  0.60
  Lime,................  0.25
  Oxide  of chrome,.........  0.38
  Silica,................  2.80
It occurs in the  Ilmen mountains of the
Ural chain.  The menaccanite, a substance
found in small,  black, angular grains, at
Menaccan, in Cornwall, and  at Botany
Bay, as well as the iserine, found at Iser,
in Silesia, and some other places, are be-
lieved to fall within the present species.
4.  Crichtonite  resembles  very closely the
Umenite.   It occurs in very small crys-
tals,  in  the form of  acute  rhomboids,
having the summits replaced, and being
otherwise variously modified by seconda-
ry planes,  the  only cleavage being  at
right angles to the  axis of the rhomboid.
It  is  perfectly black, opaque, and of a
shining  lustre ;  fracture  conchoidal.   It
is  harder than fluor.  Before the blow-
pipe,   it  conducts  much  like  ilmenite,
but is believed to be a silicate of titanium.
It occurs, along with anatase, on crystals
of quartz, at Dauphiny.   5. Sp.hene  (sil-
ico-calcarcous oxide of titanium) occurs
for the most part in well-defined  crystals,
which have the general  figure  of very
flat  octahedrons, but  which ate dcriv-
  vol. xn.         'M
ed  from   an  oblique  rhombic  prism
of 133° 307, parallel to which a distinct
cleavage may be effected.   Fracture  im-
perfect conchoidal or uneven ; lustre ad-
amantine, sometimes inclining to resinous;
color  brown, yellow, gray  and green;
streak  white ; translucent on the edges;
rarely  transparent; hardness about that
of apatite ;  specific gravity 3.46.  Besides
occurring in crystals, it is found  massive,
with a granular or lamellar composition.
Before the blow-pipe, the yellow  varieties
do not change their color:  all the rest be-
come  yellow.  They intumesce a little,
and melt on the edges into a dark-colored
enamel.   They are  soluble  in heated
nitric acid, and  leave a  residue  of sUex.
Sphene is composed of lime 32.20, oxide
of titanium 33.30, and silex 28.00.  It oc-
curs in small nodules or crystals, imbed-
ded in gneiss and  beds  of sienite.   It  is
also found in white limestone, along with
augite, scapolite, gamet and hornblende.
It comes  from several  districts of  the
Sanalpe in Carinthia, where  it is  found in
a  coarse-grained   gneiss.   Other  Eu-
ropean localities  are, near Dresden in
Saxony, Arendal in Norway, St. Gothard,
and Scotland.   In the  U. States it  has
been found in  numerous  places; but no
where  so abundantly as  at Roger's rock,
on the shore of lake George,  where  it
occurs in  gneiss with augite and  horn-
blende. It is also found  at  Bolton in
Massachusetts,  in  limestone, along with
petalite, augite and scapolite, and at Ami-
ty, Orange  county, New York.
  Tithes, or Tythes ; the tenth part of
the increase yearly arising  from the profits
of lands, the stock upon  lands, and the
industry of the occupants, allotted to the
clergy  for  their maintenance.  The cus-
tom of giving and paying tithes is very
ancient.  In Gen. xiv. 20, Abraham gives
Melchisedek  the tenth of all the  spoils
taken  from the four kings defeated by
him.   Tithes were first legally  enjoined
by Moses.  They were not established by
Christ.   The Christian priests  and tiie
ministers of the altar  lived  at firet upon
the alms  and  oblations  of the devout
For  the first three hundred years after
Christ, no mention is made in ecclesiasti-
cal history of any  such thing as  tithes.
The firet authority produced (setting aside
the apostolical  constitutions, which few
of the advocates of tithes will insist on)
is a provincial synod at CuUen, in 356, in
which tithes are voted to  be God's rent.
After the church had enjoyed tithes with-
out disturbance for two or three centu-
ries, the  laity, in the eighth  century, ob- 
278
TITHES.
tained  possession of part of the tithes,
and appropriated them to their own ues.
Some time afterwards they restored them,
or applied them to the founding of mon-
asteries or  chapters.  In 1179, the third
council of Lateran commanded the lay-
men to restore to the church all the tithes
which  they yet held.  Upon the  first in-
troduction of tithes, though every man was
obliged to pay tithes in  general,  yet he
might give them to what  priests he pleas-
ed, which were called arbitrary consecra-
tions of tithes ; or he might pay them into
the hands of the  bishop, who distributed
among his diocesan clergy the revenues
of the  church, which were then in com-
mon.  But when dioceses were  divided
into  parishes, the  tithes  of each parish
were allotted to its own  particular minis-
ter ;  first by common consent, or the ap-
pointments of lords of the manors, and
afterwards by the written law of the land.
However, arbitrary consecrations of tithes
took place again  afterwards, and became
common in England till the time of king
John.  This was  probably owing to the
intrigues of the  regular clergy, or monks
of the  Benedictine and  other rules, and
will account for the number and riches
of the  monasteries and  religious houses
which  were founded in  those days, and
which  were frequently endowed  with
tithes.   But, in  process  of years, the in-
come of the laborious  parish-priests be-
ing scandalously reduced by these  arbi-
trary consecrations of tithes, it was reme-
died in England by pope Innocent III,
about the year 1200, in a decretal  epistle,
sent to the  archbishop  of Canterbury,
which  enjoined  the payment  of tithes to
the parsons of  the respective parishes,
where  every  man dwelt,  agreeably  to
what was afterwards directed by the same
pope  in other countries.  This  put  an
effectual stop to all the arbitrary consecra-
tions of tithes, except some traces which
still  continue in those portions of tithes,
which  the  parson  of one  parish has,
though rarely, a  right to claim in another;
for it is now univereally  held  that tithes
are due, of common right, to the parson
of the  parish, unless there be a  special
exemption.   This parson  of  the parish
may be  either  the actual  incumbent, or
else the appropriator of the benefice ; ap-
propriations being a method of endowing
monasteries, which  seems to  have been
devised by the regular  clergy, by way of
substitution to arbitrary consecrations  of
tithes.   (See the article  Impropriations.)
Mr. Smith  observes (Nature and  Causes
of the Wealth' of Nations, vol.  iii), that
tithes, as well as other similar  taxes  on
the produce of the land, are, in  reality,
taxes  upon the rent and, under  the ap-
pearance of equality, are very unequal
taxes; a certain portion of the produce
being, in  different situations, equivalent
to a very different portion of the rent.  In
some  very rich lands, the  produce is so
great, that the one  half of it is fully suffi-
cient  to replace  to the farmer his capital
employed in cultivation, together with the
ordinary profits of farming-stock in the
neighborhood.  The other half, or, what
conies to the same thing, the value of the
other half, he could afford to pay as rent
to the  landlord,  if there  was  no  tithe.
But, if a  tenth of the produce is taken
from  him in the  way of tithe, he  must
require an abatement of the fifth  part of
his rent, otherwise he cannot get back his
capital with the ordinary profit  In this
case, the rent of the  landlord, instead of
amounting to a half, or five tenths, of the
whole produce, will amount only to four
tenths of it.  In poorer lands, on the con-
trary, the produce  is sometimes so small,
and the expense  of  cultivation so great,
that it requires  four fifths of the whole
produce to replace to the farmer his capi-
tal, with the ordinary profit  In this case,
though there was no  tithe, the rent of the
landlord could amount to no more than
one fifth, or two tenths, of the whole prod-
uce.   But if the farmer pays  one tenth
of the produce in the way of tithe,  he
must  require an equal abatement of the
rent  of the  landlord, which will  thus be
reduced to one  tenth only  of the whole
produce.  Upon the rent of rich lands,
the tithe may sometimes be a  tax of no
more than one fifth part, or four shillings
in the  pound;  whereas, upon  that of
poorer  lands, it may  sometimes be a  tax
of one half, or of  ten  shillings in  the
pound.  It  is a great  discouragement to
the improvement of land, that a tenth part
of the clear produce, without any deduc-
tion for the advanced  expense of raising
that  produce, should  be  alienated from
the cultivator of  the  land  to  any  other
person  whatever.  The improvements of
the landlord and  the  cultivation of the
farmer are both checked by this  unequal
tax upon the rent.  The one cannot ven-
ture to make the  most important, which
are generally the most expensive improve-
ments,  nor  the  other  to raise  the  most
valuable,  which  are generally the most
expensive crops, when the church, which
contribute-s  no part of the expense, is  to
share so v ery largely in the profit. When,
instead eiither of a certain portion of the 
TITHES—TITIAN.                         279
produce of land, or of the price of a cer-
tain portion, a certain sum of money is to
be paid in full compensation for all tax or
tithe,  the  tax becomes,  in  this case, ex-
actly of the same nature with the  land
tax of England.   It neither rises nor falls
with the rent of the land.  It neither en-
courages  nor discourages  improvement.
The  tithe, in the greater part of  those
parishes which  pay what is called a mo-
dus, in lieu of all other tithes, is a tax of
this  kind.  It  is well  known,  and has
often  been lamented, even by the clergy
themselves, that this method of raising a
revenue for their  subsistence, is a contin-
ual source of dispute between the clergy
and their parishioners, and contributes to
obstruct the usefulness of their ministry.
In  Holland,  and some  other Protestant
countries, the civil magistrates have adopt-
ed what some would have thought a bet-
ter plan,  by allowing their  ministers a
fixed stipend, paid out of the public funds.
The custom of paying tithes, or of  offer-
ing a tenth of what a man enjoys, has
not only been practised under the old and
the new law, but  we also find  something
like it among the heathens.  Xenophon,
in the fifth book of the expedition of Cy-
ms, gives us an  inscription upon a col-
umn, near the temple of Diana, by which
the people were warned to offer the  tenth
part of their  revenues every year to that
goddess.   The Babylonians and Egyp-
tians  gave their  kings  a tenth  of  their
revenues.  (See Aristotle, in his (Econom-
ics, lib. ii., Diodorus  Siculns, lib. v., and
Strabo, lib. xv.)   Afterwards the Romans
exacted  of the Sicilians a tenth of the
corn  they reaped; and  Appian tells  us,
that those who broke  up, or tilled, any
new  grounds,  were  obliged  to  carry a
tenth  of* their produce to  the  treasury.
The  Romans offered a  tenth of all they
took  from their enemies  to the  gods;
whence  the  name  of Jupiter Pradator:
the Gauls, in like manner, gave a tenth to
their god Mare, as we learn in the  Com-
mentaries of Ctesar.  Authors have been
perplexed to find the origin of a custom
established among so  many  people  of
different  mannere and religions, to give a
tenth to  their  kings, their gods, or their
ministers of religion.  Grotius takes it to
arise hence, that the number ten  is  the
most  known,  and  the most common,
among all nations, by reason of the  num-
ber of fingers, which is ten.  On this ac-
count, he thinks the commandments of
God  were reduced to  ten, tor people to
retain them with greater ease; and the- phi-
losophers established ten categories, &c.
  Titian, or Tiziano Vercelli, one of
the most distinguished of the great Italian
painters, was born at Capo del Cadore, in
the Alps  of Friuli, in 1480.  His early
indication of talent for the arts of design
induced his parents to place him under
Sebastiano Zuccati  of Trevigi, and  sub-
sequently under Giovanni Bellini of Ven-
ice.   He  soon made  an  extraordinary
proficiency, and attained so exact an imi-
tation of  his  master's  style, that  their
works could scarcely be  distinguished.
This style, however, was stiff and dry, so
that when the young artist had seen the
performances  of Giorgione, which were
of a more free and elegant character, he
quitted  his former  master, and soon, by
his facility, excited envy in his new one.
At the same time, he by no means  neg-
lected other branches of study, but made
so great a progress under proper instruct-
ors, that at the  age of twenty-three he
was celebrated as one of the most prom-
ising poets of* the day.  With great judg-
ment, however, he devoted himself to the
pursuit for which he felt themost decided
predilection, and attained  to great  per-
fection in  landscape, portrait, and histo-
ry.  He was particularly remarkable for
his accurate observation and faithful imi-
tation of nature, as regards the tones and
shades of coloring :  his taste hi design was
less conspicuous; and it  is in portraits
and landscapes that he is deemed  unri-
valled.  Indeed, in the  opinion  of Mr.
Fuseli, he is to be regarded as the father
of portrait painting, as relates  to  resem-
blance, character, grace, and tasteful cos-
tume.  His principal  residence  was at
Venice, though he  occasionally accepted
invitations from princes  to their courts.
At Ferrara, he executed the portraits of
the duke and  duchess, also that of Arios-
to, then a  resident  there.  He  was  sent
for to Rome by cardinal Farnese, and at-
tended Charles V at Bologna, who was so
pleased with the portrait which he made of
him, that  he conferred on  him the order
of knighthood, and granted him a pension,
which  was  afterwards  augmented  by
Philip II.  Most of the princes and lead-
ing men  of the day were ambitious of
being painted  by hiin, so that his pictures
are doubly valuable as portraits of emi-
nent individuals and for beauty of execu-
tion.  He resided some time both in Spain
and Germany  ; but his home was Venice,
where  he lived  in great splendor, and
maintained the  rank due to his  genius.
He retained the spirit and vigor of youth
to the advanced age of ninety-six, and
then  died of  the plague, in 1576.  This 
280
TITIAN—TITLE.
 great  painter  had  his  weaknesses,  the
 chief of which was an extreme jealousy
 of rival  excellence, which rendered him
 ungenerous to Tintoretto, and even to  a
 brother of his own.   He is the first of all
 colorists, but less  eminent in  other re-
 spects.   In general, his  male  forms are
 less  elastic than muscular, while  his fe-
 males partake too much  of the fair, dim-
 pled, soft, Venetian figures, which are too
 full for elegance.  He left two sons, one of
 whom obtained preferment in the church;
 the other became a distinguished painter,
 but being addicted to alchemy, wasted his
 patrimony  and neglected his art.  Of the
 historical pictures of Titian, two are  pe-
 culiarly  excellent, a Last Supper  in  the
 Escurial,  and  Christ  crowned  with
 Thorns in  a church at Milan.   The  en-
 gravings  from  his  pictures,  including
 landscapes  and  pieces,  cut in  wood,
 amount to  more than six hundred.
   Titicaca ; a lake in Bolivia, 240 miles
 in circuit,  and 400  feet  in depth.  The
 water, though neither salt nor brackish, is
 muddy, and nauseous to the taste.   It
 contains several islands ; one was ancient-
 ly a mountain, levelled by order  of the
 incas.   It gave to the lake its own name
 of Titicaca, which, in the Indian lan-
 guage, signifies a mountain of lead.  Lon.
 69° 5& W.; lat 16° W S.
  Title ;  one  of the various  significa-
 tions of this word is a term by which the
 rink or office of an individual is denoted.
 In the articles Counsellor, Majesty,  and
 Ceremonial, the extreme to  which the
 Germans have gone in attaching titles to
 every office, and even extending the same
 to the  wife of the officer, is treated, and
 several curious examples  are given.  In
 England and the U. States, no title  is
 given to civil officers, except as a matter
 of courtesy or of convenience,  to distin-
 guish between individuals of the same
 name.   In  some parts of the U. States,
 some such means of distinction are re-
 quired  by the commonness of particular
names,  many  more individuals  being
 to be found with the same surname, than,
 usually, in  European countries.  But the
 cases in  which  an individual, holding a
 civil  office, are addressed by an official
 designation, are very few. With military
 titles, however, the case is different Hav-
 ing little of the reality of military distinc-
 tion, we seem disposed to make the most
 of the semblance, and generals, colonels,
and captains, swarm throughout the land.
Every traveller has his fling at the mili-
tary  dignitaries whom he meets behind
the bar of a tavern, or on the  box of a
 stage-coach.  In some places, it  is even
 an ordinary vulgarism to give the  title of
 captain to strangers.  There are also cer-
 tain terms of courtesv used in the super-
 scription of letters, the principal of which
 (to say nothing  of the chivalric term of
 esquire)  are  the reverend, addressed  to
 clergymen,  and the honorable, to judge*,
 members of  congress, and the  higher
 branch of the state legislatures.  These
 will, probably, before long, share the fate
 of other anti-republican distinctions. Tin-
 governor and lieutenant-governor of .'Mas-
 sachusetts are the only public functiona-
 ries in this country who are provided by
 law with titles of honor, the constitution
 of that state having  given to the  former
 the title of his excellency, to the latter that
 of his honor.  The  Germans, having so
 enormous a  mass of* titles, have divided
 them into titles of rank (Standestitel), e. g.
 those  of princes, nobles,  &c,  by which
 they are distinguished from commoners;
 titles of honor, as excellency, grace, high-
 ness ;  and titles of office, as  professor,
 counsellor, superintendent.   The holders
 of this latter class of titles are subdivided
 into real  (as real counsellor, &c), when
 actually possessed  of the  office  denoted,
 and titular,  when they have merely the
 title of an office, as, for example, so many
 counsellors of legation, court-counsellors,
 &c.  Almost all moiiarchs assume titles
 taken  from  countries  over which  they
 have no sway.  In some cases, this origi-
 nates from a real or supposed  claim of
 the crown upon the country in question ;
 in some, the sovereignty asserted may be
 actually exercised, under certain circum-
 stances, e. g. the king of Prussia calls him-
 self duke of Mecklenburg, because, under
 certain circumstances, the  government  of
 that country would  devolve upon  him.
 In some cases, it is a mere pompous form ;
for instance, the emperor of Austria calls
himself king of Jerusalem, and the king
of Portugal king  of the navigation, con-
quest and commerce of ^Ethiopia, Ara-
bia and India. Generally, moiiarchs have
a less and a great or full title, just as they
have two coats of arms. That epithet which
is added to the word  majesty, in the case
of the different sovereigns of Europe, is
generally  called the  predicate.    These
epithets are,  Most  Christian (q. v.), for
 France ;  Catholic (q. v.), for Spain ; Most
 Faithful,  for Portugal; Apostolic (q. v.),
for Hungary.  2. Title signifies the right
of a person  to some particular thing.  3.
The heads of the various  chapters in the
corpus juris  (q. v.), and other law books,
&c, are called titles. 
TITMOUSE—TITUS VESPASIANUS.
281
  Titmouse (pants).  The birds of this
genus  are of small size, but robust and
muscular.  The beak is thick at the base,
short and stout; the feet strong, especial-
ly the hinder toe.  The head is remarka-
ble  for the  solidity and thickness of the
bones of the skull.   They eat all kinds of
food,  but  more  particularly  insects and
wonns, in search of which  they fly per-
petually from branch to branch) examin-
ing every crevice, and  clinging in every
variety of posture, often with the  head
downwards.   They do not  spare young
or weaker birds,  when sick, or entan-
gled in snares, but pierce the cranium  by
blows  with the beak, for the purpose  of
feeding on  the  brain;  neither do they
hesitate to  attack birds much stronger
than themselves.  Notwithstanding their
pugnacious  disposition, they live in small
scattered flocks.  Most of" them build in
hollow trees, and are remarkable for their
fecundity among birds of their size,  some
laying eighteen or  twenty  eggs.  We
have  only two species in the U. States.
The black-capt titmouse, or chick-a-dee,
is the  most familiar.   The  crested tit-
mouse is larger and more uniform in  its
colors.
  Titus, a disciple of  St. Paul, who ad-
dressed to him a letter, was  born of pa-
gan parents, but, after his conversion, be-
came the faithful companion of the apos-
tle.  He  was  employed  by St. Paul  on
several missions, and sent to Crete to or-
ganize and  govern the  church  in that
island, where he died at an advanced age.
  Titus Vespasianus, a Roman emperor,
born A. D. 40, was the eldest son of the
emperor Vespasian.  He was educated at
the court of Nero, with Britannicus (q. v.),
and was the intimate  friend of that un-
happy prince.  Titus  first  served  as a
tribune in Germany and Britain, and won
general favor and  esteem by his courtesy
of manners, his courage, and his military
genius.  After his return to Rome, he oc-
cupied himself with the practice  of law,
and managed several  cases with much
skill.   While yet quite  young, he married
the daughter ofa Roman knight, and, on
her death,  united  himself  in a  second
marriage with a  noble Roman lady, whom
he  repudiated, after she had borne him a
daughter.   He  then  served  as  questor
with reputation, and, on the expiration of
his term of office, accompanied his father
in the war against the Jews as command-
er  of a legion.   When  Galba ascended
the throne, Titus  was sent by his father
to declare his adhesion to the new empe-
ror, but, on  the way, received the  news
                  24  *
of his assassination.  On the death of
Oth o, Vespasian  determined  to  possess
himself of the throne ; and Titus was left
to conduct the war in Judea. He took
Jerusalem (A. D. 70), after a siege, during
which it  had  been  the  scene  of  the
most  shocking  sufferings  and cruelties.
The temple was destroyed in spite of his
exertions to save it.  In some respects,
Titus displayed  much humanity ; but it is
impossible to justify  the crucifixion, by
his orders, of hundreds of the captives.
After paying a visit to Egypt, he returned
to Rome, which he entered  in triumph,
and was associated by his father  in  the
government of the empire.  His conduct
thus far, if we may believe the accounts
of Suetonius, had been marked by  the
most shameless  excesses.  He had chosen
his associates among the most abandoned
of the youthful courtiers, and indulged in
the gratification of every  impure desire
and unnatural vice.   From one so little
accustomed  to  restrain his passions, the
Roman people anticipated nothing but the
misrule  of a second  Caligula or  Nero;
but, on ascending the throne (79), Titus
disappointed these  gloomy prognostica-
tions, and, relinquishing his vicious hab-
its and debauched  companions, became
the father of his people, the guardian of
virtue, and the patron of liberty.  His ref-
ormation appeared to be sincere and  per-
fect: the unworthy and dissolute youth
assumed the character of the enlightened
and munificent sovereign of a vast  em-
pire.  All  informers were  banished from
his court, and even severely punished; a
reform took place in judicial proceedings;
and  the  public edifices  were repaired,
and new ones erected  for the convenience
of the people.   The memorable exclama-
tion of Titus, " Perdidi diem" (I have  lost
a day), which he is said to have uttered
one day when no opportunity had occur-
red for doing any service or granting a
favor to any one of his subjects, has been
considered as strikingly characteristic of
his sentiments and  behavior, which  pro-
cured for him the title of Amor et delicia
generis humani  (the delight of mankind).
Two senators having engaged in  a  con-
spiracy against  his  life, he  not only par-
doned them, but also admitted them to his
friendship.  During his reign, there was
a  conflagration  at  Rome,  which lasted
three days;  the towns of Campania were
desolated by an eruption of Vesuvius (see
Hercuianeum);  and the empire was visit-
ed by a destroying pestilence.  In  this
season of public  calamity, the emperor's
benevolence and philanthropy were most 
282
TITUS—TOAD.
 conspicuously displayed.   He comforted
 the  afflicted, relieved the  sufferers  by
 his  bounty, and exerted all his care  for
 the restoration of public prosperity.  The
 Romans did  not long enjoy the benefits
 of bis wise and virtuous administration.
 He was  seized  with  a violent fever, and,
 retiring to a country house which had be-
 longed to his father, he there expired,
 lamenting with  his latest breath the sever-
 ity of his fate, which removed him from
 the  world  before  he had perfected  his
 plans for the  benefit of his grateful sub-
 jects,  whose  sorrow for  his  loss  was
 heightened by their apprehensions arising
 from the gloomy and unpromising char-
 acter of his brother Domitian (q. v.), who
 was even  suspected  of having  hastened
 the catastrophe  which was to contribute
 to his own  elevation to imperial  power.
 Titus died A. D. 81, in tiie forty-first year
 of his age, after reigning two yeare.
   Tittos.  (See Tartarus.)
   Tiverton ; a borough of Devonshire,
 England, with  the remains of  a  castle,
 the site of which covered  nearly an acre.
 The  church  of St.  Peter,  a  handsome
 structure, is the work of different ages.
 The north side was built about  1073.  The
 south  side, ornamented with much curi-
 ous  sculpture, was erected about  1520.
 The tower is 116  feet in height.   A free
 grammar school was  founded here about
 1599, attached to which are two fellow-
 ships and two scholarships, at Cambridge,
 and  the  same at Oxford.  Tiverton re-
 turns  two members  to  parliament.   It
 was  formerly famous  for its woollen man-
 ufactures, and is now well known  for  an
 extensive manufacture of lace, in which
 more than 2000 persons are  employed.
 Population, 9766.   Fourteen miles north
 of Exeter.
  Tivoli,  on the Teverone, remarkable
 for its  classical associations and beautiful
 situation, is the capital of a district in the
 Campagna di  Roma; population, 5500;
 eighteen  miles north-east of Rome.  The
 Teverone (anciently Anio)  here precipi-
tates itself nearly 100 feet  in  one mass,
and then rushes through a chasm  of the
rock into a cavern below.  (See Terni.)
 Here are some  beautiful ruins in the vi-
cinity, the remains  of the ancient  Tibur.
 Near the town  is  also the Solfatara,  or
 Lago  di Bagni.   (See   Campagna  di
 Roma.)
  Tiziano.  (See Titian.)
  Tlascala; at the time of the conquest
 of Mexico  by  the Spaniards,  an inde-
 pendent  state at war with the Mexicans,
 but afterwards included in the intendancy
 of Puebla de los Angeles, in the viceroyal-
 ty of New Spain.  (See Mexico, and Pu-
 ebla)   It  now forms a  territory of the
 Mexican republic, the population (about
 60,000) not being sufficient to constitute it
 an  independent  state.   The  principal
 town, Tlascala (64 miles east of Mexico;
 lon. 98° 10' W.; lat. 19° 25' N.), situated
 on a river running into the Pacific, is said
 to have  contained  300,000  inhabitants
 when the Spaniards arrived here. At pres-
 ent, the population does not exceed 3000.
   Toad  (bufo).  The toads  are hardly
 distinguishable from the frogs, except by
 their more clumsy form and motions, and
 the warts with which the skin is studded.
 The jaws, however, are destitute of teeth,
 and their habits are more terrestrial;  for
 they keep at a distance  from  the  water
 during the greater part of the year. They
 come  out of their holes chiefly during the
 night, and feed  on snails,  worms  and
 insects.  They are capable  of living a
 long  time without food,  and  have been
 known to  remain  whole  years in  walls,
 hollow trees, in the earth, or even when
 artificially enclosed in plaster.*   In the

  * This, at least, is the common opinion ; but the
 celebrated geologist,  professor Buckland, in a
 paper published  in the Edinburgh Philosophical
 Journal for July, 1832, says,  in reference to a
 number of experiments which he made on  the
 vitality of toads enclosed in  wood and stone :
 " From the result, it seems to follow that toads
 cannot  live a year excluded totally from atmos-
 pheric  air, and  that  they cannot  survive  two
 years entirely excluded from food ; and there is a
 want of sufficiently minute and accurate observa-
 tion in those so frequently recorded  cases, where
 toads are said to be found alive within blocks of
 stone and wood, in cavities that had no commu-
 nication whatever with the external air. The first
 effort of the young toad,as soonasit has left its tad-
 pole state and emerged from the water, is to seek
 shelter in holes and crevices of rocks and trees.
 An individual which, when young, may have
 thus entered a cavity by some very narrow ap-
 erture, would find abundance of food by catch-
 ing insects, which, like itself, seek shelter within
 such  cavities, and may soon  have increased so
 much in bulk as to render it impossible to go out
again through the narrow aperture at which it
entered.  A small hole of this kind is very likely
 to be overlooked  by common workmen, who  are
 the only people whose operations on stone and
wood disclose cavities in the interior of such sub-
stances. In the case of toads, snakes and lizards,
that occasionally  issue from stones  that are
broken  in  a  quarry, or in sinking wells, and
sometimes even from strata of coal at-the bottom
 of a  coal mine, the evidence is never perfect, to
show that the reptiles were entirely enclosed in a
solid rock: no examination is ever made, until
 the reptile is first discovered by the breaking of
 the mass in which it was contained, and then it is
 too late to ascertain, without carefully replacing
every fragment (and in no case, that 1 have seen
 reported, nas this ever been  done), whether or 
TOAD—TOBACCO.
283
spring, they resort to the water for the
purpose of depositing then*  eggs.  The
tadpoles are born there, acquire gills, and
in every respect resemble those of frogs.
The  common  toad of Europe has been
an object of  disgust, and  even honor, in
all ages; and numerous fables have been
related concerning it.   It has been accus-
ed of being poisonous, but most certainty
is guilty of no other crime than that of
ugliness.   Notwithstanding  the popular
prejudice, it has been ascertained that the
legs are sold extensively in the markets
of Paris for those of frogs.—The common
toad of North  America (B. musicus) sel-
dom  crawls like  the  European species,
but moves by a succession of short leaps.
It is  found in all parts of the U. States.
Early in the  spring, these assemble in
great numbers  in ponds, and utter a long-
continued, thrillingnote,familiarto the ears
of most of us.—The tree-toads (hyla) belong
to a different genus, distinguished by hav-
ing a mucous tubercle at the extremity of
each  toe, by means of which, acting as a
sucker, they are enabled  to  cling to the
branches of* trees, or to a perpendicular
wall.   There are  several species in the
U. States.
  Toad-Flax (antirrhinum linaria). This
plant  is naturalized, and a  troublesome
weed, in many  parts of the U. States.   In
its general habit, it is not  very unlike the
flax;  but the flowers are bright yellow,
showy, and ofa singular form, the corolla
labiate, and  provided  with a long spur.
In  the ordinary state  of the plant, the
lips of the corolla are closed, and, if forci-
bly   opened,   somewhat  resemble  the
mouth  of some animal; hence the name
of snap-dragon has been applied to  plants
of this genus.  It grows in sandy soil.  A
singular  deviation  from the  ordinary
structure of the flower sometimes takes
place in this  plant, and has  led  to some
discoveries in  vegetable physiology: the

not there was any hole or crevice by which the
animal may have  entered the cavity from which
it was extracted.  Without previous examina-
tion, it is almost impossible to prove that there
was no such communication. In the case of rocks
near the surface of the earth, and in stone quar-
ries, reptiles  find  ready admission to holes and
fissures.  We have a notorious example of this
kind  in  the  lizard  found  in  a chalk-pit,  and
brought alive to  the  late doctor Clarke.  In the
case, also, of wells and coal-pits, a reptile that
had fallen down the well or shaft, and survived its
fall  would seek  its  natural retreat in ihe fir>l
hole or crevice it  could find; and the miner, dis-
lodging it from this cavity, to which his previous
attention had  not been  called, might, in  ig-
norance, conclude that the animal was  coeval
with the stone from which he had extracted it."
corolla then assumes a  regular form, and
is provided with five radiating spurs, in-
stead ofone.
   Toaldo, Giuseppe, a celebrated Italian
mathematician,  astronomer  and  mete-
orologist,  born  in 1719, near Vicenza,
studied theology at Padua, but occupied
himself chiefly  with  the mathematical
sciences, and, in 1762, was made professor
of astronomy and meteorology in the uni-
versity of Padua.   Through his influence,
an observatory was built there, and light-
ning rods were erected  in various places.
His  mathematical text-books are distin-
guished for clearness and precision, and
have been introduced into many schools in
Italy. His Astronomical and Meteorologi-
cal Journal war- continued from 1773  till
his death, and his essay  On the Influence
of the Weather upon the Growth of Plants,
which gained  the prize  proposed by  the
scientific society of Montpellier (1774), is
a  standard  work.   He published several
other esteemed works, and died in 1797.
   Tobacco (Nicotiana  tabacum).   The
introduction of the use  of tobacco forms
a singular chapter hi the history of man-
kind; and  it may  well  excite astonish-
ment, that the  discovery in America of a
nauseous and poisonous weed, of an acrid
taste  and  disagreeable   odor,  in  short,
whose only properties  are  deleterious,
should have had so great an influence on
the social condition of all nations; that it
should have become an article of most
extensive commerce ; and that its culture
should have  spread more rapidly  than
that  of the  most  useful plants.  At  the
time of the discovery of* America, tobacco
was in frequent use among the Indians,
and the practice of smoking was common
to almost all the tribes ;  and they pretend-
ed to  cure a great  variety of  diseases by
this  plant.   Its   introduction into   the
eastern  continent was every  where
marked with  ridicule  and persecution.
The book written against it  by James 1
is well known ; but a hundred others of
the same  character were published  in
various languages.  Pope Urban  VIII
excommunicated those who took tobacco
in churches; the empress Elizabeth also
prohibited its use in churches.  In Tran-
sylvania, an   ordinance was  published,
in 1689, threatening  those, who should
plant  tobacco with the  confiscation  of
their  estates.  The grand-duke of Mos-
cow and the  king of  Persia  forbade its
use under the penalty of the  loss of the
nose,  and even of death.  At present, the
aspect of affaire is so much changed, that
all the sovereigns  of Europe, and most 
284
TOBACCO.
of those of other parts of the world, de-
rive a considerable part of their revenue
from  tobacco.  The plant  is  glutinous,
and covered with  a very short down ; the
stem upright, four or five feet  high, and
branching; the leaves are alternate, sessile,
oval-oblong, and  entire  on  the margin;
the superior ones  lanceolate ; the flowers
are disposed in a terminal panicle; the
tube of the corolla long, inflated towards
the summit, and dividing into  five acute,
angular, spreading lobes, of a rose color.  It
was  originally a native of South Ameri-
ca.—Another species (N. rustica) is very
common, but is less esteemed, and is dis-
tinguished by the short, yellowish-green
corolla.—N. quadrivalvis is cultivated by
the Indians of Missouri, and furnishes
tobacco of excellent quality.—The best
Havana cigars are made from  the leaves
of .V. repanda.—Other species  of tobacco
are found in Mexico and South America.
One has been discovered in China, and
another in  New  Holland.   This genus
belongs to the natural  family solanea.
This popular narcotic is probably in more
extensive  use than any other, and its only
rival is the betel of the East.   According
to Linnaeus,  it was known in  Europe
from 1560, when seeds of it  were sent
from Portugal to Catharine de'  Medici by
Nicot (q.  v.), the  French ambassador in
that country, from whom it received its
botanical  name.  The common notion,
that the specific  appellation tobacco was
derived from  its  having been imported
from Tobago, is now universally admitted
to  be  without  foundation.   Humboldt
(Essai sur la Nouvelle  Espagnc, second
edition, Ui, 50) has  shown  that tobacco
was the term used in the Haytian lan-
guage to designate the pipe or instrument
employed by the  natives in  smoking the
herb; which term,  having  been trans-
fened, by the Spaniards, from the pipe
to the herb itself, has been adopted by
other nations.   Tobacco  is believed to
have been firet introduced into England
by  the settlers, who returned, in 1586,
from the  colony  which  it had been at-
tempted to found in Virginia  under the
auspices of  Raleigh.   Harriot says that
the English, during the time  they  were
in Virginia, and  after their return home,
were accustomed  to smoke it after the
manner of the natives (Hakluyt, i, 75).
Raleigh, and other young men of fashion,
adopted and introduced the practice into
England ; and it rapidly spread among the
English, as it had previously done among
the  Portuguese,  Spaniards  and  French.
During the  reign of George III, the
riractice of smoking, which had previously
been exceedingly prevalent, went out of
fashion, and was nearly superseded, among
the higher and middle classes, by that of
snuff-taking.  Latterly, however, smoking
has been revived in that country.  The
practice of smoking has become so gene-
ral, especially in Holland and Germany,
that it constitutes  a  daily  luxury  with
nearly all the peasantry of those countries,
as well as with the  more indolent and
wealthy classes of  inhabitants.  Tobacco
is a powerful narcotic, and also a strong
stimulant, and, taken internally, even in
small doses, it proves powerfully emetic
and purgative.  The oil is celebrated for
its extreme virulence, and, when applied
to a wound, is said, by Recli, to be as fatal
as the poison of a viper.  The decoction,
powder and smoke, are used in agriculture
to destroy insects. As tobacco is cultivated
for the leaves, it is an object to render these
as large and as numerous as possible, and
new, fresh and fertile soil is preferred.  It
is very sensible to  frost.  The plants are
raised on beds, early in spring, and when
they have acquired four leaves, they are
planted in the  fields, in well  prepared
earth, about three feet distant every way.
Every morning  and evening, the  plants
require to be looked over, in order to de-
stroy a worm which  sometimes invades
the bud.   When four or five inches high,
they are  moulded up.  As soon as they
have eight or nine leaves, and are ready
to put forth a stalk,  the top is nipped off,
in order  to  make  the leaves larger and
thicker.   After  this, the  buds, which
sprout from  the axils of the leaves, are all
plucked ; and not a day is suffered to pass
without examining  the leaves, to destroy
a large caterpillar  which is sometimes
very destructive to  them.   When they
are fit for cutting, which is known by the
brittleness of the leaves, they are cut, with
a knife,  close to the ground; and, after
lying some time, are carried to the drying
shed, where the plants are hung up by
pairs, upon lines, having a space between,
that they may not touch one another.  In
this state  they remain, to  sweat and dry.
When perfectly dry, the leaves are strip-
ped from the stalks, and made into  small
bundles, tied  with one of  the leaves.
These bundles  are laid  in  heaps, and
covered  with  blankets.   Care  is taken
not to overheat them ; for which reason,
the heaps are laid open to the air from
time  to time,  and  spread abroad.  This
operation is repeated till  no more heat is
perceived in the heaps, and the tobacco
is then stowed  in  casks for exportation.
In the manufacture of tobacco, the leaves
are first cleansed  of any earth, dirt, o*c 
TOBACCO—TOBOLSK.
285
 decayed  parts;  next,  they are  gently
 moistened with salt  and water, or water
 in  which salt, along with other ingredi-
 ents, has been dissolved, according to the
 taste of the  fabricator.  This liquor  is
 called tobacco sauce.   The next operation
 is to remove the midrib of the leaf; then
 the leaves are mixed together, in order to
 render  the  quality of whatever may be
 the  final  application, equal;  next, they
 are  cut into pieces, with a fixed knife,
 and crisped or curled before a fire.  The
 succeeding operation is to spin them into
 cords, or twist them into rolls, by winding
 them, with a kind of mill, round a stick.
 These  operations are  performed by the
 grower.   Afterwards, tobacconists cut it
 into chaff-like shreds for smoking, by a
 machine like a straw-cutter, form it into
 small cords for chewing, or dry and grind
 it for snuff.   In manufacturing snuff, vari-
 ous matters are  added for  giving it an
 agreeable scent; and hence the numerous
 varieties of snuffs.  The three principal
 sorts are called Rappees, Scotch, or Span-
 ish, and  Thirds.   The first  is only gran-
 ulated ; the second is reduced to a very
 fine powder ; and the third is the sittings
 of the second sort.  Tobacco is extensive-
 ly cultivated in France and  other Eu-
 ropean countries, in the Levant, and India;
 but the tobacco of the U. States is con-
 sidered decidedly superior to most others,
 being much  more highly flavored  than
 that of Europe.   Of 22,400,000 pounds
 of unmanufactured tobacco imported into
 England in 1829,21,751,600  pounds were
 from the U. States.  The yearly value of
 the tobacco exported from  this  country
 amounts to about 5,000,000 dollars.  The
 tobacco of Cuba is prefened  for smoking.
  Tobago ; one of the Caribbee islands,
 in the  West Indies, belonging to  Great
 Britain, about thirty miles in length, from
 south-east to north-west, and about nine
 in breadth ;  lon. 60°  30' W.; lat. 11° 16'
 N.; population, 322 whites,  1164 free
 people of color, and  12,556 slaves.  The
 climate of Tobago is temperate, the heat
 being allayed by the sea breezes; and  it
 lies out of the track of those hurricanes
 that prove so fatal to the other West In-
 dia  islands.   The  surface is  unequal and
agreeably diversified ; and its north-west
extremity is mountainous.   Its soil is of
different kinds, but, in general, the mould
is rich and black, and produces whatever
is raised in other parts of the  West Indies.
The abundance of springs upon the island
contributes to its  healtiifulness, and its
bays and  creeks  are very  commodious
for shipping.
   Tobit.  The book  of Tobit, though
 rejected as apocryphal by the Jews and
 Protestants, is received into the canon by
 the Roman Catholics.  It contains an ac-
 count of some remarkable  events in the
 life of Tobit or Tobias, a  Jew of the tribe
 of Nephthali, and his  son, of the  same
 name.  Jahn  thinks it  was written  in
 Greek,  about 200 or 150 B. C.  Tobit,
 though  canied away captive, and afflicted
 with the loss of sight,  retained his trust
 in God, and distinguished himself by his
 active benevolence  towards  his country-
 men.  Having become poor, he  deter-
 mined to send his son Tobias to Media to
 collect a debt  there due him, and the
 angel Raphael,  who was commissioned
 by God for that  purpose,  served him as a
 guide.  On aniving at the  river Tigris,
 the young Tobias  was  attacked, while
 bathing, by a large fish, which, by the
 direction of Raphael, he  killed, preserv-
 ing the  heart, liver and gall.  Reaching
 Ecbatana, they found there a relation of
 Tobit, whose beautiful daughter,  Sara,
 had been manied seven  times.  But her
 seven  husbands  had  all  been killed,
 before consummating the marriage, by a
 devil, who loved the maid. By command
 of the angel, Tobias married her, and, on
 going into her chamber, burned the heart
 and liver of the fish upon  the ashes of the
 perfume; and when the  evU spirit smelt
 the smoke, he fled  into the utmost parts
 of Egypt,  and the  angel  bound  him.
 Tobias  now returned to  his father with
 the money and his bride, and restored his
 sight  by  anointing his  eyes with the
 gall of the fish.  Tobit  died  at Nineveh,
 at the age  of ninety-nine years, and his
 son Tobias retired to Ecbatana, where he
 lived to  rejoice over the fall of Nineveh.
  Tobolsk;  a  government of Asiatic
 Russia,  comprising the western part of
 Siberia, bounded north by  the  Frozen
 ocean, east by Tomsk, south  by  Oren-
 burg, and west by Perm and Archangel;
 square miles, 356,000; population, 600,000.
 It is watered by the Oby and  its branches,
 the Irtisch, Tobol, &c.   (See  Siberia.)
 The  capital, of the same name, the chief
 city  of  Siberia, is on the Trtisch, at the
junction of the  Tobol; 1000 miles east
 by north of Moscow ; lon. 68° 167 E.; lat.
 58° 12' N.  It consists of two parts, upper
 and lower towns.  The upper town has
 an elevated situation, and fonns what is
 properly called the  city.  It contains the
 residence of the governor, the tribunals,
 public offices, and the  magazine of for-
 eign   merchandise.  The  lower town  is
 subject to inundation:  it  is  entirely built 
286                        TOBOLSK—TOLAND.
of wood, with the exception ofa convent..
Tobolsk contains  one Lutheran and thir-
teen Greek churches, and two convents.
Connected  with  the lower  town is a
suburb inhabited  by Tartars,  who are a
quiet and industrious race.   The other
residents are in a great measure descend-
ants of exiles sent here for their crimes,
or for offences against the Russian gov-
ernment, or  sometimes  on  the mere
caprice  of  despotism.  The largest  col-
ony ever transported hither consisted of
Swedish officers, made prisoners at the
battle of Pultava, in  1709, many of whom
were well-educated men.   Tobolsk  is a
great thoroughfare for the trade of Sibe-
ria; and hither are  brought all the  furs
collected as tribute to the government
Tobolsk is an archiepiscopal see, and has
a theatre  and  a theological seminary.
Population, 25,000.  There is much dif-
ference  in  the  climate and soil of the
government of Tobolsk.   The  northern
half is extremely  cold,  and unfit for  cul-
tivation, and even the heat of summer is
soon interrupted  by the icy winds from
the sea.   The wealth of this region con-
sists of furs, fish  and game.  The rein-
deer is  the  most  important  domestic
animal.  The southern and western parts
are more mild, although the winters are
severe, and have  a  fruitful soil, yielding
corn and flax in abundance, and furnish-
ing rich pastures for large flocks of sheep,
and herds of cattle  and horses.   Besides
Russians, there are numerousTartar tribes,
with Samoiedes, Ostiaes, &c. among the
inhabitants.
  Tocat, or Tokat; a city of Asiatic
Turkey, in the pachalic of Sivas, anciently
a city of Pontus,  called Berisa; lon. 36°
30' E.; lat. 39° 35' N.; population, 100,000,
chiefly Turks.  It is  almost  surrounded
with mountains, which afford quarries of
marble, and is well supplied with water
from innumerable  springs.  It  is  the
residence of a  cadi,  a  waywode, and
an   aga.  The Annenians  have seven
churches, the Greeks  one.  Tocat  may
be  considered as  the centre of an exten-
sive inland trade from all parts of Asia
Minor.   The caravans from Diarbekir
arrive in  eighteen  days,  from Sinob in
six, from Bursa in twenty, from Smyrna
in  twenty-seven, and proportionally less
on horseback or on mules.
   Toga (from tegere, to  cover); the gar-
ment of wool, which, in time of peace, Ro-
man citizens wore in public.  Latterly, it
was worn  almost exclusively by the male
sex. Under the  emperors, the toga went
 out of fashion.  As only freeborn citizens
were  permitted to wear the toga, it was
an  honorary  garment, and at the same
time distinguished the Romans from other
nations; hence  gens togata is  used  for
Roman people.  As the  toga was worn
only in peace (the warrior wore the sa-
gum), the word toga is sometimes used
as  a  metaphor for peace, or  peaceful
citizens.   The toga was thrown over the
left shoulder, and passed under the right
arm, which thus  remained entirely free.
From the breast downwards it was sewed
together, and,  as  the  Romans had  no
pockets, the hollow called  sinus, in front
of the breast, was  used to put small arti-
cles in.  The  variety  in  the color,  the
fineness of the  wool, and the ornaments
attached to it, indicated the rank of the
citizen.  Generally it  was white (toga
alba).  Rich persons wore wide toga, the
poor nanow ones.  Candidates  for office
wore  a pure white toga.   (See  Candi-
date.)   The  mourning  toga was  black.
Persons prosecuted at law wore dirty, or
old, or gray, or, in  general, unsightly toga
(toga sordida).  If it  was ornamented'
with a purple  stripe, it was called toga
pratexta.  Such was worn by all superior
magistrates and priests.  This ornamented
toga was also worn by boys and girls, the
former till their seventeenth, the  latter
till their fourteenth year, after which  the
former changed it for the toga virilis, i. e.
the common simple white toga, which
was also  called pura  and  libera. (See
also Stola.)   The triumphatores wore a
toga adorned with gold and purple (toga
picta, also palmata). Aid.  Manutius  has
written on the  toga, and  Seckendorf has
lately treated of its essential form.
   Togrul Beg.   (See  Caliph, vol. ii, p.
412.)
   Toise.  (See France, vol. v, p. 205.)
   Tokay ; a town of Hungary, in  the
county of Semplin, at the conflux of the
rivers Theis and Bodrog; lon. 20° 57' E.;
lat. 48° 10' N.; population, 2800.  This
town is celebrated for its wine, which is es-
teemed the best of the wines of Hungary.
It  is the product  of the country around
the town called the Subinontine  district,
or Hegyallya,  twenty  or thirty miles  in
extent.  The  prime  Tokay, or  Tokay
Ausbruch, as  it  is termed, is prepared
from grapes, gathered one by one, after
having become dry and sweet, like rai-
sins, whilst hanging on the vines.  A great
part  of the  wine sold for Tokay  is pro-
 duced in other parts of Hungary.  (See
 Hungarian Wines, vol. vi, p. 482.)
    Tokoly.  (See Tekeli.)
    Toland, John,  was  bom in 1669,  in 
TOLAND—TOMATO.
287
Ireland, of  Catholic  parents.   He  dis-
carded  the  Roman  faith before  he  had
attained the age of sixteen, and finished
his education at the universities  of Glas-
gow and  Edinburgh.  He then  went to
England,  where he was introduced to
some dissenting families, ..who  enabled
him  to pursue his studies  for two years
more at Leyden.  Returning to England,
he begau  the work, published in 1696,
under the title of Christianity not Myste-
rious, which was presented by the grand
jury of Middlesex.  To  withdraw him-
self  from  obloquy, he visited his native
country, where he was assailed with even
greater violence than in England; and the
Irish parliament not only voted  his book
to be burned by the hangman, but ordered
him to be  prosecuted by the attorney-
general.  He  was therefore obliged to
quit Ireland ; and, soon after his arrival in
London, he published a life of Milton, and
a treatise  entitled Amyntor, in which he
assailed the authenticity of the  received
canon of Scripture.  In  1699,  he pub-
lished a life of* Denzil lord Holies, and in
the following year, an edition of Harring-
ton's Oceana.  In 1718, appeared  his work
entitled Nazarenus, or Jewish, Gentile,
and  Mahometan Christianity, in  which
he stated his  own views  of primitive
Christianity.  This was  followed (1720)
by a  Latin  tract, called Pantheisticon,
which subjected him  to the charge of
atheism,  and by  Tetradymnus,   in  four
parts, the second of which, on the exoteric
and esoteric philosophy of the ancients, is
deemed one of his most learned  and  val-
uable productions.  In the conclusion of
this work, he professed his preference of
the  Christian religion, pure and unmixed,
to all othere.   He died  in 1722, in  the
fifty-third year  of his age.  His posthu-
mous works were published in  two vol-
umes, octavo,  1726, and again  in  1747,
with an account of his life and writings
by Des Maizeaux.
   Toledo  (anciently Toletum);  a city of
 Spain, in New Castile, capital of a prov-
ince, of the same name,  on the Tagus ;
thirty-two miles south-west of Madrid ;
lon. 4° 11' W.; lat 39° 53' N.; population,
25,000.   It is the see of an archbishop,
 who is primate of Spain, and  who had
 formerly  a revenue of $500,000; but it was
 appropriated to the public in 18*20.  The
 city is situated on the  sides of a steep
 hill, surrounded by lofty mountains, and
the  environs are rocky and unproductive.
 It contains an  alcazar or Moorish palace,
 now an hospital, a Gothic cathedral, twen-
 ty-five churches, thirty-eight convents and
monasteries, and fourteen hospitals.  The
streets are narrow  and  steep, and the
houses crowded.  Here was a university,
founded  in  1470,  suppressed in  1807.
The manufactures  consist of woollens,
linens, silk,  &c.   The  Toledo sword-
blades, formerly very noted, are  manu-
factured in a large building on the Tagus.
The secret of tempering them is said to
have  been recovered; and they fetch  a
b.':^li price.  Toledo is a place of great
antiquity, much celebrated  in the history
of Spain, and was successively the seat
of  government  under  the Goths,  the
Moors, and the kings of Castile.
  Tolenti.no ; a small town in the States
of the Church,  where  a treaty of peace
was concluded between  general  Bona-
parte and the papal  court, Feb. 19, 1797.
(See Pius VI.)
  Toleration, in politics;  a word which
indicates the misconception so long enter-
tained respecting the right of political in-
terference in the   religious  belief and
worship of individuals.  Every man is as
much entitled to liberty of opinion on re-
ligious subjects as on any other, and has
n right to adopt any mode of worship that
does  not  disturb the peace  of  society.
This truth, plain as  it seems to a reflect-
ing man of the  present day, is one which
men  have attained, as they  have many
other important truths, only by slow de-
grees and bitter experience; and, in fact,
few governments act fully upon this  prin-
ciple even now.  The historian finds that
intolerance has been the most deadly bane
to intellectual progress.   (See Religious
Liberty.)  It is  remarkable that England,
which has  been peculiarly  tolerant to-
wards dissenting sects as  far as concerned
their religious exercises,  has, at the  same
time, excluded  them  from  many  civil
rights.  No dissenter  can be admitted,
even  at this  day, into the universities  of
Oxford or Cambridge.
   Tollendal.  (See Lally-Tollendal.)
   Toltecs.  (See Mexico.)
   Tomato, or Love-Apple (solanum ly-
copersicum).  This  plant  belongs to the
same genus with the potato and egg-plant.
 It  was originally  brought from South
 America, but is now cultivated in many
parts of the globe, for the  sake of its large,
 variously shaped, scarlet or orange fruit,
 which  many  esteem a  great luxury.
 These are used in sauces, stewing, and
 soups, and, when boiled and seasoned with
 pepper and salt, make an excellent sauce
 for fish,  meat, &c.   In warmer climates,
 they  possess more  acidity  and briskness,
 and are therefore  more  grateful to the 
288
TOMATO—TOMSK.
palate.  The plant is a tender herbaceous
annual, of rank  growth,  weak, decum-
bent, fetid, glutinous and downy:  the
leaves somewhat resemble those of the
potato, but the flowers are yellow, and
disposed in large divided bunches: the
fruit is pendulous, shining, and very orna-
mental.  The tomato  is one of the most
common articles  in ItaUan cookery, and
its  use is, at the present time, rapidly
increasing in  England.    It  is cultivat-
ed  to  considerable  extent  near Lon-
don, against  walls  and artificial  banks,
being  raised  on  a hot-bed,  and  trans-
planted like other tender annuals.  With
Us,  it  is particularly cultivated in our
southern and  middle states.
  Tomb  (from the Greek word  rup/SV).
This  term includes  both  the grave and
the monument erected over it.  In many
countries of antiquity, it was customary to
burn the bodies of the dead, and to collect
the ashes into an  urn, which was  depos-
ited in a tomb.  Among the Greeks, these
tombs were generally constructed outside
she walls of the cities, with the exception
of such as were raised to the founders of
the place or to  heroes.   In  Campania,
several  tombs of  the ancient  inhabitants
have been discovered, containing beauti-
ful  Grecian  vases  (improperly  called
Etruscan), of which Mr. Hamilton formed
two collections, the first  published  by
D'Ancarville, the  second  by Tischbein.
The Campanian  tombs were  formed by
an  enclosure of cut stones, and covered
with a sort of roof of flagstones, shelving on
both sides.  The dead body was stretched
on  the ground, the feet turned towards
the entrance  of the sepulchre, and the
head ranged against the wall, from which
were  suspended,  by bronze  nails, vases
of terra cotta, whilst others of a similar
kind were disposed around the body.  In
the plains of  Etruria are also many shal-
low sepulchral grottoes scooped out of
the living rock.  These cells or sepul-
chres receive the daylight only through
an  opening placed in the middle of the
vault, and which communicates with the
superficies of the mountain or rock.  The
interior is often ornamented with paint-
ings.   The Romans designated by sepul-
chrum  the tomb wherein  the  bodies  or
the ashes of the defunct were deposited,
also the magnificent monuments (mauso-
lea), sepulchral arches,  destined to the
great and the rich.  Tombs where fune-
ral  rites were celebrated, yet without de-
positing the body, were called cenotaphs.
Persons of high rank had sometimes, in
their  palaces, sepulchral  vaults,  where
were deposited, in different urns, the ashes
 of  their forefathers.   The  pyramid  of
 Cestius,  at Rome, constructed of Parian
 marble, and which contained a chamber
 ornamented with beautiful paintings, was
 the tomb of an individual surnamod Ces-
 tius, one of the septemviri epulones.  Af-
 ter the  decline of the  arts,  this species
 of architecture was much neglected, the
 tombs becoming  simply masses  of large
 stones, upon which were engraved rude
 effigies of the deceased, and inscriptions
 stating his age and the  circumstances of
 his death, &c.  Sometimes, for marble or
 stone, plates of copper were substituted,
 rarely enamelled, but generally engraved.
 The dead person is here  represented as
 clad in the habit commonly worn by him
 when living; his  hands are  joined as in
 the act of prayer; and two angels are, in
 most instances, placed near the cushion
 upon which his head reposes, to  indicate
 his admission into heaven.  The revival of
 art brought improvements in the construc-
 tion of tombs.  On the splendid tomb of
Julius  II, Michael Angelo exercised his
surpassing  talent   (See  Sarcophagus ;
also Les Monumens de la Monarchic Fran-
caise, by Montfaucon; Les Antiquitis Na-
tionales, by A. L. Millin (5 vols., folio, or 5
vols., 4to.);  Sepulchral Monuments (3 vols.,
folio), &c. &c.
  Tombeckbee, the  western  branch of
Mobile  river, in Alabama, rises  in tho
ridges that  separate its  waters and those
of the Tennessee, in the northern  parts
of the state, and  receives some  of  its
branches from a range that diverges from
the  Tennessee hills, and runs south along
the  state of Mississippi.   It receives  in
its progress several considerable streams
from the state of Mississippi on the west
side.  It meanders through  the  Indian
country and a tract purchased by French
immigrants.  Eighty miles above St. Ste-
phens, it receives  the Black Warrior, to
which place small sea vessels ascend.  In
moderate stages of the water, it affords
steam-boat  navigation to Tuscaloosa, 320
miles from Mobile.   The  lands  on  its
banks are exceedingly fertile.
  Tombuctoo.  (See Timbuctoo.)
  Tomcod. (See Cod.)
  Tomsk ;  a  government of Russia, in
 Siberia, bounded north by Yeniseisk, east
by Irkutsk, south by Chinese Tartary, and
 west  by Tobolsk;  population, 352,000;
 square  miles, 300,000.    (See Siberia.)
 The capital, of the same name, is situated
 on  the Tom, 540 mUes east  of Tobolsk ;
 lon. 85° 21' E.; lat.  56° 307  N.;  popula-
 tion, 12,000.  It  contains five churchei
 and two convents,  is extremely well situ-
 ated for commerce, and the inhabitants 
TOMSK—TONE                           289
carry on a considerable trade.  It lies in
the  road  from the towns in the eastern
and northern parts of Siberia, and  on the
great line of rivers that connect Tobolsk
with  the  Chinese  frontier; so  that all
caravans going to and  from China pass
every year through this  town, besides a
caravan or  two going from the country
of the Calmucks.  Tomsk is represented
as much behind Tobolsk  and Irkutsk in
civilization,  and the inhabitants are ex-
cessively addicted to intoxication.
  Tone (Greek tovos, from ruvu, to stretch
or expand),  in  painting; a term used
chiefly in  coloring, to express the prevail-
ing hue.   Thus we say this picture is of
;: dull tone, of a lively tone, of a  soft tone,
of a clear tone, &c.  To heighten the tone
of a work, is to render  the  colors more
vivid, and, in some instances, the masses
more decided and the figures more strik-
ing.  The word tone, in relation to chiaro-
scuro, expresses the degree of brightness
or  intensity.  Tone is not precisely sy-
nonymous with tint; the latter relating
rather to  the mixture of colors,  and the
former to  their effect.
  Tone, Key, Scale, System of Tones.
Tone, in music, signifies a sound consid-
ered in the relations of height or depth  ;
also each particular sound in our musical
system.  The tone, in this  fundamental
sense, is determined by the greater or less
quickness of a  uniform series of vibra-
tions in a sonorous body.  Musical tones
differ from  those  of common  speech
chiefly by being more prolonged, so as to
give the ear a more decided perception
of their height, formation, and  relations
to each other. (For the  production  and
propagation of sounds, in  general,  see
Acoustics.)  The difference of one tone
from  another, in respect to height or
depth, forms  the interval,  (q. v.)  But as
music  deals  only with  those which are
capable  of  producing  harmony,  the
whole  body of sounds  used in  music
has been  brought into a  system, which
exhibits their different height and depth,
in regular order.  The compass  of tones
is not indefinite, because the ear is unable
to perceive a tone, when the vibrations
of  the body producing  the sound  are
either  excessively quick  or slow;  yet
they are not limited to a definite number.
This measured series of tones  is an in-
vention of modern times, since the nature
of  sounds has  been  accurately investi-
gated,  and their  relations settled by mu-
sical instruments.  Man in a state of na-
ture, or a state but little  removed from
this,'is guided only by Ins  feelings, in the
  VOL. xii.         *5
 production of tones, and knows nothing
 of  a regulated anangement;  hence  it
 is so difficult to adapt the songs of savages
 to our diatonic system.  As instruments
 do not, like the human voice, produce all
 the various tones without particular con-
 trivances, those who  firet endeavored to
 produce  a certain  tune by means  of in-
 struments, were obliged to assign to them,
 as it were,  certain tones, and arrange
 these in regular order; strings were to be
 tuned in  a certain way, for producing
 certain sounds; a distinct length was to be
 given to them, and holes were to be made
 at certain distances in wind instruments.
 The relations of tones first perceived by
 the ear,  were  undoubtedly those which
 were thus fixed.  Thus the  fable says,
 that  Hermes strung the lyre  with four
 strings, and tuned them in the proportion
 of the fourth, fifth and octave; and, prob-
 ably, these tones were sufficient for the
 simplest  accompaniment  of the  voice.
 By degrees the  other tones  of the octave
were added.  In this  first system, which
 embraced four strings or tones, were com-
prehended two fourths, forming the two
extreme  tones, as a d e a : the lowest
tone was called A. Hence this system,
or the division of tones  according to
fourths,  is called  tetrachord.  When the
 tones were increased in number, it seems
to have been done also  by fourths; so that,
e. g.  to the chord  d  the fourth g was
 given, and to  e (descending) the fourth b.
Now  g had not yet its pure fourth ; but,
 in order not to go beyond the octave, the
 same was taken within the octave from
 g downward: this received the fourth  f,
 and  thus the whole octave was formed,
 or a  series  of tones,   extending from  a
 fundamental tone  to its octave, which is
 called the scale.  The  scale thus formed
 consisted of the tones
      ABCDEFGa
which had the proportions
      1   8  J27  3   2  81 j)   1

          9  "32  4   3 128 16  2
When the fourths were  divided, in dif-
 ferent ways,  into  smaller intervals,  the
 genera of tones originated, viz. 1. The
 enharmonic   (q. v.);  2.  the chromatic
 (q.v.); 3. the diatonic, in which whole
 and  half  degrees  alone appear.   The
 modem diatonic system  is that division
 of tones, according to which the octave is
 divided into seven tones, consisting of five
 entire and two  half degrees (also caUed
 tones; hence tone often stands for  the
 interval  of a whole tone), and in which
 we  never proceed by smaller divisions 
290                                TONE.
than semitones, nor ever by two succes-
sive  semitones.   Now, as the ancients
had not adopted the semitones c#, d#, f^,
g-tf, into their system, and the scale or pro-
gressive series of eight tones in the oc-
tave (which, ascending from the funda-
mental tone, are designated by numbers,
as the  second, third, &c), was probably
as follows:
      CDEFGAbBc,
since the  seventh degree  had a double
tone, small and  great B  (the latter of
which was afterwards changed, by  mis-
take, into H, in  the  German notation),
they thus adopted two chief classes or
modes of sounds, the sharp and the flat.
(These terms are at present used also in
another sense, as will appear below.)  If
on the double B the higher tone  (now h)
was taken, the song  was called cantus
durus ; if the lower  one was taken, the
cantus  mollis was produced.   Now, as
everyone of the seven tones of the octave
may be taken as the fundamental tone or
tonic (q. v.), and thus the semitones of the
diatonic system  may assume constantly
a different situation, seven different keys
originate.  The  ancient church  singers,
who were not allowed  to go beyond  the
limits  of  an octave, were  enabled, by
sometimes  ascending from the tonic to
the fifth and  eighth,  sometimes  from the
fifth of the tonic  (the dominant) to  the
eighth and twelfth, to obtain a duplication
of* their modes, viz. the authentic and the
plagal.  If each tone of their system had
had its pure fifth and fourth, there would
have been in the whole fourteen keys, viz.
seven  authentic and seven  plagal;  but
as  the  II  had  no fifth,  and  the F no
fourth, the former could  only be plagal,
the latter only  authentic;  hence there
were but twelve, viz. six authentic and six
plagal keys in the ancient church music.
Every one of these keys, also called tones
in  ecclesiastical  music,  had its proper
Greek name, contained in the following
table:—
$ Auth.	d e f g	a h	c	d	Doric **	
1 Plag-	A II c d	e f	S	a	Hypo-Doric	
$ Auth. } Plag.	e f g a	h c	d	e	Phrygian	
	h c d e	f S	a	h	Hypo-Phrygian	
\ Auth. { Plag.	f g a h	c d	e	f	Lydian	
	c d e f	1? a	h	c	Hypo-Lydian	► S5
{ Auth. \ Plag.	g a h c	d e	f	i	Mixo-Lydian	£
	d e f g	a h	c	d	Hypotnixo-Lydian	
( Auth.	a h c d	e f	g	a	^Eolian	
1 P^g.	e f g a	h c	d	e	Hypo-iEolian	
$ Auth.	c d e f	S a	h	c	Ionian	
\ Plag.	G A H c	d e	f	e	Hypo-Ionian	
There yet remain a number of choral mel-
odies in  these keys.  According to the
ancient diatonic system, no tone, with the
exception of b, could be enlarged.   The
feeling of this imperfection, and the want
of transposition, gave rise to the inven-
tion of new semitones between the whole
tones ; hence the octave was divided into
twelve degrees or semitones,  so that, with
the repetition of the fundamental tone, it
received thirteen degrees and strings. If,
now, to every string of the instrument its
pure third (both lesser and greater),  pure
fourth and fifth had  been given, many
more intermediate tones would have been
produced, and, by  the  use  of quarter-
tones, the practice of music  would  have
been rendered  infinitely difficult.   The
thirteen tones and chords, therefore,  were
retained, so that each of the  twelve tones
of the octave may be made the funda-
mental tone  of the sharp or flat key, yet
not so that all the intervals are  given per-
fectly pure, but sometimes one, some-
times another tone is made a little sharper
or flatter.  This is  called the  tempera-
ment of the system of tones.  In Sulzer's
work it is  defined  as a small deviation,
judiciously made from perfect correctness
in an interval, in order to render it more
useful  in connexion  with othere.   He
also defines it, more  particularly, as the
arrangement of a whole system of tones,
in such a manner that some tones lose a
little of their perfection, so that they may
serve in different keys, and all remain
in the highest attainable harmony.  The
object of temperament is that each of the
twelve tones of the  system may be  used
as  a  fundamental  tone in the  flat  and
sharp keys, without increasing the num-
ber of strings, that the octave  may be
perfect, and the fifth not fall much sho...
of being perfect.   The even  temper-
ment is that in which all the tv/elve he.L-
tones or intervals of the system &rs meas- 
TONE.
291
 ured equally, by  which, consequently,  sion  of certain emotions.  This point is
 all the perfect fifths lose something of  connected with the fact, that the flat and
 their original purity, which is  added to  sharp keys are not entirely equal  in all
 the  fourths, and  also a  major  third is  the tones, as neither the  thirds nor the
 tuned as much too  high as the others,  sixths are equal.   This advantage of dif-
 1JlPUneven temperament is that in which  ference of the  scale  does not take  place
 some fifths  and thirds are so tuned that  in  the even temperament, in which the
 some are  a  little higher, some a  little  scales of C major and A minor are merely
 lower than perfect  The chief harmony,  repeated in the other tones.  The follow-
 or the  chief concord, of a tone can  be  ing is a view of all the scales in both keys,
 twofold, according as it has a major or  in  regard  to which,  we  must observe,
 minor third; and  this is called, in a nar-  1. that  in  the  sharp  key the same  tones
 rower sense, key, or mode, viz. in the first  are played as well ascending as descend*
 case, the sharp or greater third, in the  ing,  only  in reversed order; but in the
 second, the flat or smaller third.  Hence  flat key  the  major sixth and seventh are
 there are, in  modern  music, twenty-four  played  in  ascending; the latter in  order
 scales or keys in the wider sense (genera  to  have a leading tone (sharp seventh),
 of tones capable of being connected in a  the former to avoid the unharmonic pro-
 musical composition,  in relation to a fun-  gression of the enlarged second; Avhere-
 damental  tone).   Each  flat and sharp  fore more signs of transposition appear in
 key has its  peculiar character : the latter  the ascending series ; 2. that both  scales
 serves more particularly for  the expres-  contain an octave  of  five whole and two
 sion of gay and  lively; the  former,  of  half-tones, and that the different situation
 soft and  melancholy feelings.   Uncivil-  of the latter (which,  with the  ancients,
 ized nations prefer the flat keys.  Every  could not  be transposed into all tones),
 scale has, also, according to its fundamen-  with  the changes  thus made  in the de-
 tal tone, and its situation and relations to  grees of perfectness, produce  different
 the whole system, its  peculiar character,  shades or qualities in the scales.
 so as to be particularly fit for the expres-

 Table of the Scales in Resped to  the Relations of their Tones, and according to their
                                 Designation.

                               Major or  Sharp Keys.
   C natural   ...............   C    D   E   F   G    A    H* C*}
   G with   1 sharp,...........   G   A   H   C   D    E   #F   G
   D  "     2   "   ...........   D   E  #F   G   A    H   #C   D
   A  "     3   "   ...........   A   H #C    D   E   i*F   «G  A
   E  "     4   "   ...........   E  &Y &G    A   H   #C   #D  E
   H  "     5   "   ...........   H  #C  #D    E  i-V  #G   #A  H
   Fis(F#)  6J  "   ...........#F  #G #A    II #C   #D   *fE  #F
   Cis(C#)  7   "   ...........#C  #D #E   #F  #G  "#A  ^H  *C
   Gis§(G#)8   «   ...........WG  M  ffl   ^C  SD  «E ##F  #G
   Dis 'D*f)  9   "   ...........#D  #E  ##F   #G  if A  #H ##0  #D
                        Sharp Keys with Flats at the Signature.
   F  with  1  flat,.........  . .   F   G   A   hll   C    D    E   F
'  B   "   2   "    ...........bH   C    D   bE   F    G    A  bH
   Es(Eb) 3   "    ...........bE   F    G   bA  bH   C    D bE
   As Ab   4   "    ...........bA  bH   C   bD   bE   F    G bA
   DesDb)5   «    ...........bD  bE   F   bG   bA  bH    C  bD
   Ges(Gb)6   "    ...........bG  bA bH   bC  bD  bE    F  bG

 In  this  table are enumerated  sixteen ments) only by  one tone, and as composi-
 sharp keys; but as cis and  des, dis and tions are rarely written in the keys of cis,
 es, as and gis, ges and fls, can be repre- dis, and gis,  on account of the difficulty
 sented on most instruments (keyed instru- of playing where  the sharps amount  to

  * The letter H is used in German music instead   | The fundamental lone and  octave have but
 of B.  (See p. 290, col. i.)                    one sharp.
  + This scale is considered as the model. It must   § G sharp has a double sharp, which has the
 be observed here that the  Italians and French ex-  value  of two single ones.   The  latter is true also
 press the tones contained  in it l>y the syllables ut  of the subsequent scales.
 (or do),re, mi, fa, sol, la, si.  (See Solfeggio.) 
292
TONE—TONG.
seven and nine (not to  mention other objections), generally twelve keys  only  are
enumerated.

                         Table of Minor or Flat Keys.
			r a E H ifF ifC ifG ifB ( A E H #F ifC ifG ifB with b r d G C F bH bE bA bD ,bG r d G C F bH bE bA bD bG	G F D C A G E D H A ifF E ifC H H C #F G *fC D #G A #D E ifA H #E #FF C bH F bE bH bA bE bD bA bG bD bC bG bF bCbbH bF bbE E F A bH D bE G bA C bD F bG bH bC bE bF bA bbH	E H #F ifC ifG ifB ifA B A E H #F #C ifG A B G C F bH bE bA bD G ■? bH bE bA bD bG bC	D C H A G ifF E D #C II A ifG ifF E ifB ifC H ifA ifG ifF ifE E ifF ifG A ifC ifB ifF ifG ifA ifC ifB ifE ifG ifA HA ifB ifE ififF ifA ifAififC G F E C bH A F bE D bH bA G bE bD C bA bG F bD bC bH bG bF bE bC bbH bA a hh h#c D HE #F G HA HH C HD HE F HG HA bH tC HD bE HF HG bAHbH HC bD HbE bF	A
H " 2 " ___-		a 13					E 11
Fis(F#) 3 Cis " 4	(C	§•- \					#F
	li	•o a					ffV
Gis " 5	u	A					ifG
Dis " 6	If	......a					ifB
							\
		s					E
H "2	u	* -o c .					H
Fis " 3	li	......S.2 <					ifF
Cis " 4	u						#C
Gis " 5	li	' a					ifG
Dis " 6	u						ifB
D with 1	flat ....	Minor,					B
G "2	u						G
C "3	u	a					C
F "4	u	c					F
B "5	u	w <U					bH
Es " 6	a						bE
H "7	u	a					bA
Des " 8	u	c					bD
Ges " 9	u						bG
D with 1 flat ..........							D
G "2	u						G
C "3	K	c					C
F "4	cc	" -3					F
B "5	a	......8 .a J					bH
Es " 6	u	B 4> ...... "» m					bF,
H "7	u						bA
Des " 8	a						bD
Ges " 9	a						bG
 In these also, es and dis, as and gis,  des
 and cis, ges and^_f> are generally the same
 as the sharp keys of these tones.  In Sul-
 zer's work, the scales are also brought into
 the following view, according to their de-
 gree of sharpness and  perfectness, from
 which, at the same time, the most natural
 transitions from one fundamental tone to
 another  may be seen,  which  the  com-
 poser must know, in order to find, in each
 case, the most proper tone for the expres-
 sion of each musical conception.  Among
 the  sharp tones, the purest are C, G, D,
 F ; C is the purest, G less so; A, E, H,/ss,
. are harsher; B, cis, gis, dis, the harshest.
 Among  the  flat tones, the purest are A,
 E, H, D ; A is so in the highest degree ;
 fis,  cis, gis,  dis are softer; C, G,  F, B,
 the  softest.   He  adds, that the  purest
 tones are less suitable for pathetic expres-
 sion, but, with reference  to the peculiar
 expression of the sharp and flat keys, are
useful for noisy, warlike, lively and gay mu-
sic. The tones, according as they are less
pure, are more suitable for the expression
of strong or mixed feelings, and the harsh-
est and softest produce the most powerful
effect.—Tone is used also to  express the
peculiarities in the sound of different in-
struments,  though  the  different sounds
may have the  same place  in  the  system
of tones.   The human voice has  the
finest and most  expressive tone; and  it
may be said that the nearer an instrument
approaches to this tone, the more perfect
it is.  It is of the utmost importance to a
composer to know the peculiar character
of each instrument, that he may make  a
proper use of its tones.
  Tong, or Toung (Chinese for copper) ;
in many geographical  names, as Tong-
chan (Copper mountain). Tong also sig-
nifies, in  Chinese,  east; as  Tong-kong
(Eastern palace). 
TONGATABOO—TONSURE.
293
   Tongataboo  (properly  Tonga; taboo
 being merely an epithet signifying sacred),
 one  of the Friendly islands," about sixty
 miles in circuit, was first discovered  by
 Tasman, who called it  Amsterdam.  The
 productions and climate are the same as
 those of the other  Friendly islands, and
 the Society islands.  (See* the  articles.)
 The Wesleyan  missionary  society has
 established a mission here, and  many  of
 the natives have been converted to Chris-
 tianity.
   To>*gue ; an organ found in  most an-
 imals, and  serving in many as the organ
 of taste (q. v.); in all for taking in food.
 We  are  not justified in  considering the
 tongue as an organ of taste in all animals ;
 and Blumenbach thinks that it serves this
 purpose  in very  few  genera of birds.—
 See his Manual of Comparative Anatomy,
 2d Engl. edit, by W. Coulson (London,
 1827).    The  human tongue  is a soft,
 fleshy viscus, very movable in eveiy di-
 rection, situated interiorly in the cavity
 of the mouth, and constituting the organ
 of taste.  It is  composed  of muscular
 fibres, covered by a nervous membrane,
 on which are a  great number of nervous
 papilla, particularly at the point and sides,
 the  rete mucosum and  epidermis.  The
 use of this  organ  is  for  chewing, swal-
 lowing, sucking and  tasting.
   Toxic, in music; the  firet or funda-
 mental note of the diatonic scale, and, in
 general, the fundamental and key note of
 every piece. The fifth note (counted up-
 wards) from the tonic is the dominant.
   Tonics, in medicine (from row-.,tension),
 are medicines given to increase the tone
 of the fibres of the stomach and  bowels,
 and, in fact, of the muscular fibre in gen-
 eral : such are vegetable bitters, also stim-
 ulants, astringents, Sec'.
   Tonnage.  (For the mode of measur-
 ing, see Ship.)
   Tonnere, Mount (in Gei*man,Z)onner5-
 berg, Thunder  mountain); a summit of
 the Vosges, on the left bank of the Rhine,
 ten miles from Worms.   It is about 2300
 feet high; and half way up  its side is  a
 village called Donnersfeld, with the ruins
 of a castle.   The French  gave the name
 of this mountain to  a department 2700
 square miles in extent, with a population
 of 430,000 ;  capital,  Mentz.   It  is now
 divided  between  Bavaria  and  Hesse-
 Darmstadt.
   Tonquin; a country of Asia, bounded
north and east by China, south by Cochin-
China, and west'by Laos; about 350 miles
in length, and 221) in its greatest breadth,
extending from  lat.  19°  to  '»3-  N., and
 from  lon. 104 to 108 E.  The climate is
 mild  and temperate.  The rainy  season
 begins about April, and continues tiU Au-
 gust, and is the most unhealthy part of tiie
 year.  The country, lying low and flat, is
 frequently overflowed by violent rams, so
 as to do great  injury to the harvest;  and,
 on the other hand, if the rains be not in
 sufficient quantity to nourish  the  rice, a
 famine is the consequence.   The princi-
 pal river of the country is Song-ca (Song-
 koi).  Tonquin is but imperfectly known
 to us: it is a viceroyalty of" Cochin-China,
 both which countries  are known  to the
 Chinese by the common name of Annam.
 It is the most valuable and populous part
 of the empire, (See Cochin-China.)  Rice
 is almost the only grain cultivated.  Other
 productions are potatoes and yams; a va-
 riety of fruits, mangoes, lemons, cocoa-
 nuts,  and  ananas; sugar-cane,  indigo,
 areca, betel net, the tea plant, &c.  Some
 of the principal articles of commerce are
 silk and lacquered ware. The chief town,
 Kecho, or Cachao, on the Song-ca, eighty
 miles from the  sea, is supposed, by Craw-
 furd, to  contain  a  population of about
 150,000  souls:  twenty miles  lower is
 Hean,  a  considerable  town;  and  forty
 miles below Hean is Domea,  where the
 English  and Dutch merchants usually
 stopped,  and were  rowed to  Cachao in
 boats.  See Crawfurd's Embassy to  Co-
 chin-China and Siam (London, 1828), and
 the Nouvelles  Lettres  Edifiantes  (Paris,
 1821).
   Tonsure (corona clericalis).  A shaved
 crown has been,  from time immemorial,
 one of the  honorary distinctions of the
 priest.   The first Christian teachers, how-
 ever, wore their hair like  other men, his
 order to  distinguish themselves from the
 heathen priests. Penitents had their heads
 shaved, and, in imitation of their exam-
 ple, the monks  did  the same:  it was not
 until the sixth century, that, the fashion of*
 shaving the head, with many other  pe-
 culiarities of the monks, was adopted by
 the secular clergy.  A difference was then
 made between a shaved  forehead, which
 was called tonsure of the apostle Paul, and
 a shaved crown, called tonsure of the  apos-
tle Peter.   The  former became customary
 with the Greeks,  Britons and  Irish,  the
 latter in the Roman church and the coun-
tries most under its  influence.  At a
council held at Toledo, in 633, the  latter
mode was  formally prescribed, and called
corona  clericalis.  Since that time the Ro-
man tonsure has  remained common to
the clergy  and monks in the west of Eu-
rope, and furnishes a means to distinguish 
294                         TONSURE—TOOKE.
 he higher clergy from the lower, as the
extent  of the tonsure increases with the
rank.   The pope, if he is young enough
to  have hair, which is seldom the case,
loses nearly all on the fore part of the
head.   Many religious orders  (e. g. the
Franciscans) allow only a narrow strip of
hair around the head  to grow: all above
and below is shaved.   Shaving  the hair
precedes consecration: it is performed by
the bishop.   The tonsure  qualifies  the
subject for holding a simple benefice, and
subjects him to the laws relating to eccle-
siastics.  The clergy of the Greek church
retain the old custom.
  Tontines ; a  kind of  life  annuity.
When the credit of the governments in Eu-
rope, in the 17th century, was continually
sinking, and  rich men would  not  loan
them money, Lorenzo Tonti, an Italian, in-
vented a pecuUar species of life annuities,
called after him tontines, and first intro-
duced them  into France, in 1653, under
Louis XIV.   His method was the follow-
ing :—A certain  capital was loaned  by a
[society, generally, at the usual rate of in-
terest.   This  interest was divided equally
among  the members of equal  age ; and
among  those of unequal ages it  was di-
vided in proportion to their age.  This
interest was  paid as long as one of the
society remained alive; and when one of
the members died, his portion of the in-
home was inherited by the surviving mem-
cere, so that the last survivor enjoyed,
during his life, the whole income.  At his
death the interest ceased, and the  bor-
rower obtained the capital.  In  the for-
mation of a tontine contract, the members
of  the  society were  divided  into  nine
classes: 1. those  from one  to five yeare
old received three per cent.; 2. from five
to ten, three and a half per cent.; 3. from
ten to fifteen, four per cent.; 4. from fif-
teen to twenty, four and a half per cent.;
5.  from twenty  to twenty-five, five per
cent.; 6. from twenty-five to thirty, five
and a  half per cent.; 7. from thirty to
forty, six per cent.; 8. from  forty to fifty,
six and a half per cent.; 9. from fifty to
sixty, eighty,  ninety, seven per cent.  In
this way the whole capital paid only five
per cent.; and many  more lenders were
found to take part  in tontines  than  in
the old life  annuities, in which five  per
cent, was paid to each individual.  (See
Annuities.)
   Tooke, John Home, was bom in West-
minster, in 1736. His father was a poul-
terer,  who  had acquired   considerable
property.  John, the third son, was  edu-
cated  both   at  Westminster and  Eton,
whence he was removed to St.  John's
college, Cambridge.  In 1756, he had en-
tered  himself of the  Inner Temple; but,
at the request of his family, he consented
to be ordained, and was inducted to the
chapelry of New  Brentford, which  his
father had purchased  for  him.  Three
years  afterwards,  he  accompanied,  as
travelling tutor, the son of Mr. Elwes of
Berkshire,  in a tour  to France.  On his
return, he took a warm share in politics,
in behalf of Wilkes, to whom, on a second
visit to Paris, he  was personally intro-
duced.  When he returned to England,
he resumed his clerical functions, and ob-
tained some distinction in the pulpit, until
the return  of Wilkes plunged him again
into politics. He was the principal found-
er of the Society for supporting the Bill
of Rights; and, in 1770 and 1771, a public
altercation  took place  between Messrs.
Wilkes and Home, on account of the at-
tempts made by the former to render the
society instrumental to  the  discharge  of
his  private debts.   It  was  through  his
means that two printers of the newspa-
pers were, in 1771, induced to violate the
orders of the house of commons, by pub-
lishing their debates, which  brought on
those proceedings which terminated in a
defeat of the house,  and  the unopposed
practice of such publication  ever since.
The same year also witnessed his  contest
with Junius,  in which,  in  the general
opinion, he came off victor.   In 1773, he
resigned his clerical gown, and shut him-
self up in retirement,  with a view to study
for the bar; and it  was  by affording legal
advice to Mr. Tooke of Purley, in  his op-
position to an enclosure bill, and defeating
the same by a boldness of stratagem  pe-
culiarly in character, that he acquired the
good  will,  and ultimately shared in the
fortune, of  that  gentleman.  He was a
warm opponent of the American war, and
was prosecuted for sedition, for the word-
ing ofa resolution, by which the  Consti-
tutional Society voted £100 to the widows
and children of the Americans who fell
in the battle of Lexington.   For this ob-
noxious paragraph  he was tried at Guild-
hall, in 1777, on which occasion he de-
fended  himself with  his  characteristic
spirit and acuteness, but was sentenced to
a year's imprisonment and a fine of £200.
In 1779, after having  fully prepared for
the bar, he applied  for admission to the
society of the Inner Temple, and was re-
fused, on the ground that  he was still a
priest, and ineligible—a  decision which
destroyed all his future views in this pro-
fession.  In 1780, he published a keen re- 
TOOKE—TOP-MAST.
295
view of lord North's administration, in a
pamphlet  entitled  Facts, and in 1782, a
Letter on ParUamentary Reform, with a
Sketch ofa Plan, which did not embrace
the principle of universal suffrage.  About
this time,  he became the avowed friend
of Mr. Pitt, then also favorable to parlia-
mentary reform, and  a vehement oppo-
nent to Mr. Fox,  for his coalition  with
lord  North.  In 1786,  he appeared in a
character  more important to his lasting
reputation  than that  of a subordinate
politician, by the publication of an octavo
volume, entitled Epea Pteroenta, or the
Diversions of Purley, which he after-
wards extended to two  volumes quarto.
This celebrated work contains those ideas
concerning grammar, and  the formation
of words, of  which the germ had ap-
peared in a letter  to Mr. Dunning some
years before.  Of  these, one of the  most
prominent was the derivation of preposi-
tions  and conjunctions from verbs and
nouns, and,  in  consequence, assigning
them  a determinate meaning, often differ-
ent from  that which had been arbitrarily
given to them.  The  knowledge of lan-
guage and logical  acuteness which  he
displayed in this performance, raised him
to a high rank as a philologist  In 1788,
he published Two Pair of Portraits, the
figures in which were the two Pitts and
the two Foxes, of the past and present
generation, the preference being given to
the Pitts.  In 1790, he offered himself as
a candidate for Westminster, in opposi-
tion to Mr. Fox and lord Hood, when he
distinguished himself by a strong vein of
humor,  in his daily addresses to the pop-
ulace; and, although  he failed,  he re-
ceived one thousand seven hundred votes,
without solicitation or corruption.  In the
year 1794, he was apprehended and com-
mitted to  the Tower on a charge of high
treason, founded on the presumed objects
of the corresponding societies  to over-
throw the constitution.  His trial,  with
that of the other  parties accused at the
same  time, holds a conspicuous place in
the historical annals of  a period  rendered
so remarkable by the  excitement pro-
duced by the French revolution.  The
trial of Mr. Tooke, although made inter-
esting by the ease, self-possession and
acuteness  displayed by the accused, was
deprived of much political importance by
the previous acquittal of Hardy insuring
his own.  From this time, however,  he
was more cautious  in his company, and
seems to have declined the visits of per-
sons of violent characters and principles
at Wimbledon.  After  the  death  of Mr.
Tooke of Purley, he had taken his name,
in consequence of inheriting a portion of
his  fortune.  In 1796,  he  again  offered
himself for Westminster, and failed; and
in 1801, he accepted a seat for Old Sarum,
on  the  nomination of lord Camelford.
His parhamentary career was neither long
nor distinguished ;  but  an  attempt to ex-
clude him, on the ground of ordination,
was turned aside by the minister, Mr. Ad-
dington, who substituting a bill to deter-
mine the future ineligibility of pereons in
that predicament, the political life of Mr.
Tooke closed with  the dissolution of par-
Uament in 1802.  In 1805, he published a
second part of the Diversions of Purley,
which is chiefly dedicated to etymology,
and adjectives and participles, and then-
formation ;  but  also  abounded, like the
former, with various satirical strictures on
literary characters  of note.  He  died at
Wimbledon, in 1812,  in his seventy-sev-
enth year.  His latter days were cheered
by easy circumstances,  and the attention
of numerous visitors, whom  he treated
with great  hospitality,  and amused with
his  conversation, which was  singularly
pleasant and lively, although, at the same
time, he would often make his  guests ob-
jects of his satire, which he would cover
with the most imperturbable countenance.
At the same time his mannere  were  pol-
ished.  He manifested a libertinism, in his
habits  and discourse, very unbecoming
his  profession.  As  a  scholar, he  pos-
sessed considerable  learning; but  his
knowledge  of modern languages  was
more  considerable than  of Greek  and
Latin: his  acquaintance with the Gothic
was very extensive.  He was never mar-
ried, but left natural children, to whom he
bequeathed his property.
  Tooth.  (See Teeth.)
  Top; a sort of platform sunounding the
lower mast head, from  which it projects
on  all  sides like a  scaffold.  The princi-
pal intention of the top is to extend the
top-mast shrouds so as to  form a greater
angle with the mast, and thereby give ad-
ditional support to  the latter.  The top is
also very convenient to  contain the mate-
rials necessaiy for extending  the small
sails, and for fixing and repairing the rig-
ging and machinery with greater expedi-
tion.  In ships of war,  the tops are fur-
nished with swivels, musketry,  and other
fire-arms, and are  guarded with a fence
of hammocks in time of action.  Finally,
the top is employed as a place for looking
out either in the day or night
  Top-Mast; the  second division of a
mast,  or that part  next above  the lower 
296
TOP-MAST—TOPHET.
mast.—Top-gallant-mast;  the  mast next
above the top-mast, and is generally the
uppermost mast.—Top-sails ;  large sails
extending  across  the top-masts.—Top-
gallant-sails are extended  above the top-
sail yards, in the same manner as the top-
sails are extended above the lower yards.
(See the article Ship.)
  Topaz ; a gem in jewelry, and one of
the most interesting species in mineralo-
gy.  Its crystals are short  prisms,  termi-
nated at one or both extremities by a great
number of facets, the primary form be-
ing a right rhombic prism  of 124° 22'.   It
cleaves  with readiness at  right angles  to
the prismatic axis, but with considerable
difficulty parallel to the lateral faces of
the primary form;  fracture  more or less
perfectly  small  conchoidal, or uneven ;
the lateral faces are deeply striated ver-
tically, while  the  terminal  planes are
smooth  and brilliant;  lustre  vitreous;
color white, yellow, green, blue; the shades
arc generally pale;  transparent to  trans-
lucent ;  hardness intermediate between
quartz and  corundum; specific gravity
3.49.  It also occurs massive, the compo-
sition being granular, and  the individuals
varying much  in size.  There occurs, al-
so, a columnar composition, in which the
individuals are thin, long and parallel, and
their faces of composition longitudinally
streaked.  Two varieties  of topaz have,
without sufficient reason, been treated as
forming separate species, viz. pyrophysa-
lite and pycnite.  The first or these oc-
curs, in large individuals, ofa pale, green-
ish-gray  color,  and faint translucency,
imbedded, in round masses, in a granite
composed of white quartz, feldspar and
mica, at Fahlun  and Finbo in Sweden.
The pycnite (schorlite) consists of thin and
straight columnar particles of composition,
forming masses of considerable size, in a
rock com posed of quartz and mica,at Alten-
berg in Saxony, in Siberia, and at Kongs-
berg in Norway. But these varieties are
united with  common topaz by transitions,
which render  their distinction often im-
 Sossible.   Topaz consists, according  to
 ierzelius, of
                Topaz. Pyrophysalite. Pycnite.
  Alumine,  .  . 57.45 . .  57.74 . . 51.00
  Silex,  ....  34.24 . .  34.3(5 .  . 38.43
  Fluoric acid,   7.75 . .  7.77 . .  8.84

In a strong heat, the faces of  crystalliza-
tion, but not those of cleavage, are cov-
ered with  small blisters, which, however,
immediately crack.   With borax it melts
slowly into a transparent glass. Its pow-
der colore the  tincture of violets  green.
Those crystals which possess different
faces of crystallization on opposite ends,
acquire different  kinds of electricity, on
being heated; by  friction it acquires posi-
tive electricity.   Topaz  enters  into the
composition  of  several  granitic  rocks;
thus it forms, with quartz and tourmaline,
the topaz-rock of Saxony, and  is found
crystallized in its drusy  cavities.  It oc-
curs, also,  iu  irregular beds, either with
quartz and mica, like the variety called
pycnite, or it is found in veins and beds
in gneiss,  mica-slate, clay-slate; and por-
phyry, along with tin ore, wolfram, fluor,
beryl, quartz, &c.  It is met with, besides
in the alluvial deposits  of rivers,  along
with  other gems.  Among the  varieties
of topaz,  employed in jewelry, are the
following, which  depend upon their col-
ore :  1. colorless, or white topaz (called no-
va mina); its localities are New Holland,
Brazil, and the  Ural mountains,  and  it
commonly occurs in rolled  pebbles;  2.
blue  topaz, or  Oriental  aqua-marine;  it
comes from Siberia, and, of late,  has been
found in  Brazil;  3. straw-yellow topaz,
found in the Urals,  and at Mucla in Asia
Minor; 1. wine-yellow topaz,  found  in
Saxony;  5. brownish-yellow  topaz, from
Brazil;  6. pink-colored topaz, which  is
produced  by heating, in a sand bath, to a
moderate  degree, the  deep-yellow Bra-
zilian crystals.  The topaz  is now too
abundant  in nature to command the ex-
travagant prices of some other gems ; for
it  is  not  only  afforded plentifully   in
Brazil, but it is  found  also in  the  tin
mines of Saxony,  Bohemia and Cornwall;
also at Cairngorm in Aberdeenshire, where
pieces of  very extraordinary dimensions
have  been found possessed of very rich
brownish  tints.   The mountains of Altai
and the Urals produce an immense quan-
tity,  in like  manner, of this gem; and
large bags of pebbles and loose crystals are
frequently brought from Brazil and New
Holland.   The U. States have as yet fur-
nished but a  single locality of topaz: it
exists at Munroe  in Connecticut, and oc-
curs  in a  vein about  one foot wide, ac-
companied by fluor,  mica  and quartz.
The vein  traverses gneiss.  It occurs both
crystallized and massive; but the crystals
are rarely transparent.  They vary in size
from many pounds weight down to that
of a  few grains.  Their prevailing color
is white.
  Tophet, or Hinnom ; a  valley near
Jerusalem, called, also, in the New Tes-
tament,  Gehenna (Tiewa), by conuption
from the Hebrew  Ge (valley), and Hinnom.
It was infamous  as the spot in which the 
TOPHET—TORCH-DANCE.
297
 Jews passed their children through  the
 fire  to  Moloch, god  of the Ammonites.
 The  name  Tophet is from the Hebrew
 word for drum, because a drum was used
 to drown the cries of the  victims.  The
 valley was watered by the brooks Kedron
 and Siloam, and, being a fertile and agree-
 able spot, was at one time  occupied with
 gardens, whence  the propriety of Mil-
 ton's expression:

 The pleasant  valley of Hinnom, Tophet thence,
 And black Gehenna called.

 It was,  at a  later period, shunned as un-
 clean, by the Jews, and made the recepta-
 cle of the filth  of the  city.   The Acel-
 dama (q. v.) was adjoining it.  The Ge-
 henna of the New Testament is rendered
 hell in the English version; and with the
 Mohammedans  it is the name of one  of
 the circles of the fiery pit
   Topical, in medicine (from ronos, place),
 is used  of remedies applied externally to
 the suffering part, and intended to have
 an effect  there  only,  such as  ointments,
 cataplasms, &c.
   Topics.   The ancient Greek and Ro-
 man teachers of rhetoric  designated by
this word  (derived from ronos, place, pas-
sage)  a  systematic representation of cer-
tain  general notions  and  propositions,
which, as they thought,  might  be advan-
 tageously used, by public speakers, in the
selection and invention of arguments.
They distinguished the loci argumento-
rum (sources of proofs), and the loci com-
munes (common  places).  Under the first,
they  comprised general  notions,  from
 which the orator might deduce proofs by
 comparing with them the case in question,
 e. g. the similar, the  dissimilar,  the op-
posite, cause and effect, genus and spe-
cies, &c.  Common places were general
 propositions, formed by transfening the
proofs, which were deduced from the loci
argumentorum, and applicable only to the
special  case, again to the genus.  Such a
 common place,  in  the forensic  discourses
 of the ancients, Was the position, All legal
 causes are so far of equal  importance  as
the question is,  What is just  and right?
Compare  Aristotle's Rhetoric (lib. i, par-
ticularly chap. 2, 3);  the author of the
rhetorical  work  Ad Herennium (1st, 2d,
3d book);  Cicero De Inventione (lib.  i,
chap. 6—15; chap. 24—52; and lib. ii.);
Cicero's Topica and Partitiones Oratoria
(chap. 1,2,3,9—15); alsoDe Oratore (lib.
ii, chap. 30  et seq.);  Quintilian's  work
Institutiones  Oratoria  (lib.  v.).   The an-
cients applied topics exclusively to politi-
cal and  forensic  oratory; but some mod-
 erns, especially Germans, have employed
 them for pulpit oratory, and call them, in
 this case, homeletic topics.  They used top-
 ics and topology also to signify a theory
 of the principles  which  the theologian
 should follow, in  selecting and applying
 the various passages of the Bible, to prove
 important doctrines, or to  judge of those
 which are generaUy used for  this pur-
 pose.
   Topography  (from r&nos,  place, and
 ypa<pw, I write); the  accurate description
 ofa country, place, &c, going into details
 into which geography  does not  enter.
 Rivers, rivulets, mountains,  hills, forests,
 rocks, roads, particularly inhabited places,
 bridges, &c, are proper subjects for to-
 pography.  Topographical maps are such
 as treat of all these subjects, and  even
 show the variety of soils, &c.  The angle
 of declination of elevated  plains, moun-
 tains, &c, forms a  particularly important
 subject of  topographical surveys.  Leh-
 mann (q. v.) has invented a very  excellent
 mode of preparing  topographical maps.
  Tora (Hebrew,  the law) signifies the
five books of Moses, in which the written
law of the Hebrews is  contained.   (See
Hebrew Literature.)  In the  synagogues,
tora is used for the  parchment roll which
contains these five books, and from which
portions are read or sung on the  Sabbath.
The tora  is  contradistinguished to the
cabala (q. v.), or oral law,  which is con-
tained in the Talmud, (q. v.)
  Torbat; a bay in the English channel,
on the east  coast of Devonshire, and a
celebrated rendezvous for  the  English
navy.  It is about  twelve miles  in  com-
pass, and is secure against westerly winds;
but a south or south-east wind sometimes
forces ships out to sea.  Lon. 3° 28' W.;
lat. 50° 26'  N.; five  miles north-east of
Dartmouth.
  Torch-Dance.   Dancing and music
were, even with the Greeks and  Romans,
essential to a well-ordered festival; and
they were especially important  at  wed-
ding feasts, which  ended by conducting
the bride to the house of the bridegroom,
when a youth, who  personated  Hymen,
preceded them with the wedding torch,
and  hymns  were sung  in honor of the
god.  The Romans,  who had borrowed
this ceremony from the Greeks,  mingled
with  it their Fescennine  games.  This
seems to have been the origin of the torch-
 dance, which was introduced by  Constan-
tine  at his  court, after it was transferred
 from Rome to Byzantium.  It was known
 to the Christian  emperors in the fourth
 century, as a court  and ceremonial dance. 
298
TORCH-DANCE—TORRES  VEDRAS, LINES OF.
In later times,  it was connected with the
tournaments, with which  emperors and
kings celebrated their marriages.   At the
tournaments given by Henry the Fowler,
the successful  knight danced alone, with
the lady who presented him with the re-
ward of victory, by the light of torches,
which were  borne before and after them.
After tournaments ceased to be celebrated,
the torch-dance was revived as a relic of
the chivalric ages; and it is used,  in our
times, at the marriages of royal person-
ages,  when  it  is performed with great
splendor, at  the conclusion of the wed-
ding, when the married pair are conduct-
ed to their apartment
  Torch-Race.  (See Lampadephori.)
  Toreutics  (from the Greek ropcvTucrj,
the art of making work in relief) is some-
times used in a narrower sense, sometimes
in a wider.  Ernesti, in his Archaologia
lileraria (5th chap.),  treats it  as  almost
equivalent to plastics  (q. v.) in general.
He says the Greeks call ropcvrov and  y\vnrov
that  which  is  worked by  the  chisel.
Winckelmann,  on the  other hand, says
toreutics signified the art of making raised
work in silver  and bronze, while  raised
work in gems was called avay\v(pov.   Esch-
enburg  and Heyne   understand  by  it
castings; and,  according to  Schneider's
Greek Lexicon, tc-peuu and roptv/ia were
applied only to raised work in metal, pro-
duced by casting, not by engraving. The
later Greeks, as Pausanias, applied the
term  also to entire figures.  Pliny un-
deretood  by toreutice, statuary in  bronze
in general.  Veltheim and others have
considered  the  term  as used, also, to
express  the  finishing of  casts  by the
chisel.
  Torgau, an important fortress on the
Elbe, in the government of Mereeburg,
Prussian province of Saxony, belonged to
the kingdom of Saxony till 1815.  It has
4000 inhabitants and 700 houses.  Torgau
has suffered much in various wars.   Here
Luther and his friends wrote  his Articles
of Torgau, the foundation of the  Augs-
burg Confession; and the Book of Torgau,
against Crypto-Calvinists, was signed here
by more than eight thousand clergymen.
  Tornea; a  town of Finland, belong-
ing,  since 1809, to Russia,  on a  smaU
island in the river Tornea, at its entrance
into  the north  extremity of the gulf of
Bothnia; lon. 24° C E.; lat. 66° 51' N.;
population, 666.   It is a central place for
the imports  and exports of a  wUd and
thinly peopled country.  The climate  is
less severe than might be expected in so
high a latitude.   In June, the sun is visi-
ble above the horizon at  midnight  In
1736  and 1737,  Tomea was visited by
Maupertuis and other French savans, in
company with the Swedish astronomer
Celsius, to make observations to ascertain
the exact figure of the earth.
  Torpedo ;   a   machine  invented  by
Robert  Fulton, and intended to blow up
the largest ships.   The principal part of
the apparatus is a copper box, enclosing a
certain quantity of gunpowder, and pre-
pared with a spring which sets fire to the
powder. The whole is enclosed in cork,
or some light substance. It was intended
to be placed under the keel of the vessel
to be  destroyed,  by means of a harpoon
directed against the side.
  Torpedo ; a well-known electrical fish.
(See Appendix, end of this volume.)
  Torpid State of Animals.  (See Dor-
mant State.)
  Torquemada.  (See Inquisition.)
  Torre (in ItaUan, Spanish and Portu-
guese, tower) appears in many geographi-
cal and family names.
  Torre del Greco ; a town in Naples.
five miles south-east of Capua, nine east-
south-east of Naples;  population, 16,766.
It is situated on the sea-coast, at the foot
of mount Vesuvius.  The inhabitants an
mostly employed  in  fishing, navigation,
and the culture of the vine.  This  town
was destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius
in 1794; yet the inhabitants, after  the
eruption, returned, and rebuilt the  town
on the same spot.
  Torres Vedras, Lines of ; so called
from a  small village  lying on the road
from  Lisbon  to  Coimbra, twenty-four
miles  north-west  of the former.  These
stupendous works, constructed by  lord
Wellington in 1810, consisted of two lines,
the one  extending from  Alhandra,  on
the Tagus,  to the mouth of the Zizandra,
on the Atlantic ocean, twenty-nine miles
in length, and the  other, in the rear of the
former,  reaching from Q,uintella, on the
Tagus, to the mouth of the Lorenza, on
the ocean,  twenty-four miles in extent,
forming an impregnable barrier between
the enemy and  Lisbon.   Fifty miles of
fortifications, bristling with six hundred
pieces  of artillery, and one hundred  and
fifty forts, flanked with abattis and breast-
works, and presenting, in some places,
high hills artificially scarped,  in othere,
deep and nanow passes carefully choked,
and artificial  pools or marshes made by
damming up the streams, were defended
by 70,000 disposable men.   The French
force  under Massena,  which  had  been
much superior to that of the English,  be- 
TORRES VEDRAS,  LINES  OF—TORSO.
299
fore Wellington had concentrated in the
lines the Portuguese troops and the ma-
rines, amounted, also, to about  70,000
men.  The English were plentifully sup-
plied with provisions, by the Tagus and
the sea,  and  enjoyed  perfect security in
their rear.   The  French, on  the other
hand, were suffering from want, in a coun-
try where Wellington  had laid waste and
destroyed every thing which could  be
useful to an  enemy, and were harassed
by the  attacks of the  inhabitants.  Mas-
sena was, therefore, finally obliged to re-
treat, by hunger (March 4,1811), after hav-
ing made some ineffectual  attacks upon
the works.   The  lines of Torres  Vedras
thus saved Lisbon, annihilated  a well-ap-
pointed  French army, and gave Welling-
ton a fair opportunity to enter upon offen-
sive operations.
   Torricelli, Evangelista, an illustrious
mathematician and philosopher, born at
Faenza,  in Italy, in 1608, was  instructed
in Greek and Latin by his uncle, a monk,
probably with a view to his obtaining
preferment hi the church ; but his genius
induced  him to devote  himself  to  the
study of mathematics, which he  did for
some time without a  master ;  but at the
age of  twenty, he went to Rome, and
prosecuted his studies  under father Bene-
dict  CasteUi.  Torricelli, thus assisted,
made great  improvement,  and,   having
read Galilei's Dialogues, composed a
treatise  concerning Motion, according to
his principles. CasteUi, astonished at the
ability displayed  in this piece, took it to
Galilei at Florence, who conceived a high
opinion of the author, and engaged  him
as his amanuensis.  He entered  on this
office in October, 1641; but, Galilei dying
three months after, Tonicelli was about to
return to Rome, when the grand duke of
Tuscany, Ferdinand II, engaged  him to
continue at Florence,  giving him the title
of ducal mathematician, and the promise
of a professorship in  the university, on
the first vacancy.   Here he applied him-
self  closely to study, and made many
improvements and some discoveries  in
mathematics,  physics,  and astronomy.
He improved the  construction  of micro-
scopes and  telescopes, and  first ascer-
tained the gravity of the air, by means of
mercury in a glass tube, whence resulted
the barometer.   (See Barometer.)   He
was cut off prematurely, after a few days'
illness, in 1647.   He  published, in 1644,
a volume entitled Opera Geometrica; and
his academical lectures were  printed in
1715.                        J  ..-,
   Torricellian Vacuum,  and   Torri-
cellian Tube.   (See Barometer, and
Torricelli.)
  Torrigiano, Pietro;  a  Florentine ar-
tist of great eminence, who flourished to-
wards the  close of the  fifteenth and the
commencement of the succeeding centu-
ry.   He was born in 1472,  and, while yet
a lad, gave evidence of that genius for
sculpture which time only was wanting
to bring to perfection.    Being, at  the
time, a  fellow-student with  the famous
Michael  Angelo  Buonaroti,  a  dispute,
arising from a  jealousy  with respect to
their comparative proficiency, terminated
in blows; one  of which, from the hand
of  Tonigiano,  broke the  bridge of his
antagonist's nose, and  inflicted  a  mark
which he carried to his grave.  While in
the zenith  of his reputation, he went to
England, which he afterwards quitted for
Spain, and  there fell into  the hands of
the holy office, being denounced as guilty
of* impiety  and sacrilege,  in breaking to
pieces a statue of the virgin, which he
had  himself executed  for  a  hidalgo,
who afterwards refused to pay  him an
adequate price.  He was  condemned to
the stake, but  avoided the torture  of a
public execution, by starving himself, pre-
viously to the celebration of the  auto da
fe, in 1522.   The beautiful tomb of Hen-
ry VII, in the chapel  erected  by that
monarch in  Westminster abbey, is by
him.
  Torso (Italian) signifies originally the
core of an  apple,  pear, &c.;  secondly,
the trunk of a statue, of which the head
and  the extremities are wanting.   One
has become particularly celebrated, and is
often called the torso, by way of excel-
lence.  It is the torso of Hercules, in the
Belvedere of the Vatican (q. v.), at Rome,
considered, by  connoisseurs, one of the
finest works  of art remaining from  an-
tiquity.   " Mutilated in  the  greatest de-
gree," says Winckelmann, in  his  His-
tory of Art, "without head,  arms, and
legs, as  this statue is, it yet discloses to
those who  are  able to penetrate the se-
crets of art,  the  splendor  of  its  for-
mer beauty.  The  artist has formed, in
this  Hercules, a high ideal of a  body of
more than natural perfection, in the prime
of  adult age.  The figure was, as  we
may judge from the remaining part, seated,
with a  supported and  upturned head.
This Hercules  may be said to approach
nearer to the noblest period of art than
even the Apollo."   A Greek  inscription
ascribes it  to the artist Apollonius.   It
was found,  towards the  end of the 15tb
century, in Rome. 
300
TORSTENSON—TORTOISE.
  Torstenson, Leonard, a Swedish gen-
eral, bom  at  Toretena, in 1603, died at
Stockholm, in 1651, was one of the most
distinguished pupils of  the school  of
Gustavus  Adolphus.  He served under
that king, and under Baner, in the thirty
years' war, and was made prisoner in the
attack on Wallenstein's camp at Nurem-
berg, in 1632. He  returned to Sweden
in 1639, and, in 1641, on  the death of
Baner, was appointed to the command-in-
chief of the Swedish forces in Germany.
The position  of the Swedish affairs was
most discouraging; but the  activity of
Torstenson soon recovered them.  He de-
feated the imperial forces at Schweidnitz
(May 21,  1642), and, after being obliged
to retreat before a superior force, at Brei-
tenfeld (Nov. 2).  A rupture having taken
place between Denmark  and Sweden,
the Swedish  commander hastened from
Silesia  to  Holstein (a distance of 400
miles), by  forced  marches, and reduced
nearly the whole of that province. This
bold enterprise  contributed to produce
the peace  of Bromsebro, between Den-
mark and  Sweden, on terms  highly ad-
vantageous to the latter.  The imperial
general Gallas, who had closely pursued
the Swedes,  was now obliged  to retire to
Bohemia, w*ith great loss.    Torstenson
penetrated into  that country, formed  a
junction with Rakotsky, prince of Tran-
sylvania,  routed the imperial forces at
Jankow, or  Jankowitz  (Feb. 24, 1045),
and threatened Vienna.   But the gout
soon after compeUed him to resign (1646),
and retire to  Sweden, where he was cre-
ated count.   Torstenson has left behind
him the reputation of a great and suc-
cessful general, and of a friend and patron
of the arts and sciences.   (See  Thirty
 Years' War.)
   Tort, in law, denotes injustice or in-
jury.  The word is French.  Actions upon
torts or wrongs  are all personal  actions
for trespasses, nuisances, assaults, defam-
atory words,  and the like.
   Tortoise  (testudo).   These  reptiles
are distinguished by having the body en-
closed between two shields or shells, so
that the head, neck, legs,  and tail, only
appear extemaUy; and these are  capable
 of being retracted in a greater or less de-
 gree.  The upper shell  is formed by the
 ribs,  which  are enlarged,  flattened, and
 closely united by sutures; the under shell
is the sternum, or breast bone;  and the
 vertebrae  of  the neck and  taU only are
movable.   In consequence of this con-
 formation, the muscular system is invert-
 ed, in many respects, as with insects and
Crustacea; and to this circumstance these
animals owe  their great strength.  Tor-
toises have  no teeth; and  the margin of
the mandibles is  covered  with horn, as
in the beak of birds.  They are very te-
nacious of life, and will move weeks after
being deprived of the head; and this last
wUl continue to bite long after it is sev-
ered from the body.  They can remain
months, and even yeare, without food. The
eggs have a hard  shell, and are deposited
in the sand.  The land  tortoises are dis-
tinguished by the  convexity of their upper
shell, and their short toes, enveloped in
the common  integument, nearly  to the
nails.   They pass their lives altogether
upon land, and perish if thrown into the
water.  Some of them attain a very great
size.  The gopher, or large land tortoise
of the U. States  (T.  Carolina), inhabits
the pine forests of Georgia and Florida,
and is not found  north of the Savannah
river.  It digs large and deep holes,  dis-
coverable by  the mound  of earth at the
orifice, and rarely ventures out, except at
night. The shell exceeds a foot in length.
The flesh is eatable, and is often sold in
the markets.   Our common land tortoise,
or box  tortoise (testudo  clausa), is found
in all parts  of the U. States.   It  is re-
markable for the  hinge  of the  sternum,
by means of  which the animal can close
the shell, in such  a manner as to conceal
perfectly every part of the body.  The
colore are yellow  and  brown, but the
markings  vary in different individuals.
The shell does not  exceed six  inches in
length.   The fresh water  tortoises (emys)
have the upper shell more flattened, the
nails longer,  the toes more deeply di-
vided, and their  intervals  occupied by  a
membrane, which assists  the  animal in
swimming.   We  have numerous  species
in the U. States.  The largest is  the E.
Floridana of Le Conte,  which inhabits
the St John's river of East Florida.  The
shell of this  species  exceeds a foot in
length, and is more convex than  usual.
The red-bellied terrapin (E. rubriventris,
Lee.) is next  in size.  The shell is nearly
a foot in length, and, more or less dis-
tinctly, longitudinally striated.  The mar-
gin  of the  mandibles  is usually worn
away by use, and the  bone  presents  a
serrated or jagged edge.  It inhabits the
Delaware,  Susquehanna,  and  Potomac,
and is often brought to the  Philadelphia
market  The flesh is esteemed.   E. re-
ticulata is a southern species, hitherto not
found north of the thirty-fifth paraUel of
latitude.  It  is remarkable for the extra-
ordinary length of the neck.  E. serrata 
TORTOISE.
301
is  also a southern  species, distinguished
from the preceding by a carina or  keel
along the middle of the back.  It is found
as far north as the Chesapeake.   E. con-
cinna inhabits the  upper and rocky parts
of the  rivers of  Carolina and  Georgia.
The shell  is  perfectly  smooth,  but,  in
other respects, it bears" a general resem-
blance  to  the red-bellied  terrapin.   E.
geographica of Lesueur, so  called from
the pale, reticular or map-like lines ou the
back, inhabits the lakes and  the western
rivers.   E. insculpla (Lee.) is found in the
Northern and Middle States, but is rather
rare.   The back is carinate; the plates
> '.' the  upper shell are concentrically fur-
i  ". ed, somewhat  prominent, with radi-
ating yellow lines.   It differs somewhat
in  its  aspect from  the other fresh water
tortoises ; is observed to be more fond of
leaving the water, and will remain for
months  uninjured  in a  dry  place.  E.
Muhlenbergii is also rare.  It is found in
clear streams in New Jersey and Penn-
sylvania, and is readily distinguished by
two large,  irregular, orange spots  on the
back part  of the  head.   The common
terrapin  (Ii. palustrij) is well known in
the  Atlantic states south  of New York,
as an article  of luxury.  It is found ex-
clusively in the salt water—a remarkable
circumstance in this genus—and always in
the neighborhood of marshes.  It occurs
along the coast, from New York to Flor-
ida, and even in  the West Indies.  The
plates  of the upper shell  are concentri-
cally furrowed.   Immense quantities are
brought to market.   E. pida is found
only in  Canada  and  the  Northern and
Middle States.  The shell is flattened and
very smooth, and the plates are bordered
with a yellow margin.  It is fond of bask-
ing in  the  sun, upon rocks and logs, and
instantly takes refuge in the water on the
approach of danger.   The common spot-
ted tortoise (E. guttata)  is found in all
parts of the U. States.  The  color of the
upper  shell is black, with rounded yellow
spots ; the sternum is yellow, with  large,
dusky blotches. E. Pennsylvanicaandodo-
rata differ  from the preceding in  having
the sternum divided  into two  or three
pieces, by ligamentous hinges, admitting a
slight degree of motion. They are of small
size, of a brown color, or dusky, frequent
ditches and  muddy water, emit a strong
and musky odor, and are very trouble-
some  to anglers, as  they  bite  readily at
the hook.   The  snapper  (E. serpeidina)
has been separated  b>  some authors from
emys,  on  account of  the  small  size of
the sternum, which  serves very  imper-
   vol. xii.       26
fectly to conceal the head and members.
It is found from New England to Florida;
prefers muddy waters, is very voracious,
and desu*oys great quantities of fish. The
shell  is more or  less tri-carinate;  the
head, neck, limbs and tail are very large,
the latter strongly  crested.   From  the
form of its body, it is called, in the Scuth-
ern States, alligator tortoise.  It  bites se-
verely, and will seize any thing presented
to  it, and sometimes will not let  go its
hold  even  after the head is severed from
the body.   It  is sought after as an article
of food, but, when  old, the flesh is rank
and  disagreeable, and, at all times, it ex-
hales a strong,  musky odor.  It attauis
large dimensions : individuals  have been
met with exceeding four feet  and a half
in  total length.  The soft-shelled  tortoises
(trionyx)  differ much in appearance from
the preceding.  The shell is covered with
a  soft, cartilaginous  skin.   The nose  is
prolonged  into a  snout.   The  feet are
palmated, and provided  with only three
nails.  The tail  is  short.  They live in
fresh waters ; and the  flexible border of
the shell assists them in  swimming.   T.
ferox is found in the takes and the waters
of the Mississippi, but not in the  Atlantic
states north of the Savannah river.  The
Mohawk river, however, should be ex-
cepted, into  which these animals have
found their way, probably from lake On-
tario.  Notwithstanding its name, it is not
more inclined to bite than usual.   Of all
the tortoises, it furnishes the most whole-
some and delicious food.  It attains large
dimensions, and  is  usually speared or
shot.  T. muticus of Lesueur strongly re-
sembles the preceding, and, indeed, has
not been very clearly distinguished. The
only marked  difference seems to consist
in  the perfectly smooth shell.  It  is found
in  the western rivers.   The great soft-
shelled tortoise of Florida is known only
from  the figure; of Bartram.  The head
and neck are described as being provided
with  long  retractile tubercles, and  the
figure has five claws on each foot—if cor-
rect, a remarkable anomaly  in this genus.
There is, however, sufficient evidence of
the existence  of this animal.   The sea
tortoises (chelonia)  far surpass  the others
in  size, and are found chiefly within  the
tropics.   The head  and limbs  are  but
slightly retractile, and the toes are entire-
ly  united and enveloped in  the common
integuments, forming a sort of flipper or
paddle, as  in  the  seals.  They  feed on
sea-weed at the bottom,  but, at a certain
season, visit the shore, for the purpose of
depesiting their egg••  in the sand. The 
302
TORTOISE—TORTURE.
green turtle (C. my das) is well known
for its delicious and wholesome flesh.  It
is imported pretty  extensively from the
West Indies. The C. imbricata furnishes
the finest tortoise-shell of commerce, but
the flesh is disagreeable.   The coriaceous
turtle (C. coriacea)  differs  in  having the
shell covered  with a leathery skin, and
three prominent ridges upon the back.  It
is taken, occasionally, on our coasts, as far
north as cape Cod.   It attains enormous
dimensions, but is not applied to any use-
ful purpose.
  Tortola ; one of the Virgin islands,
near the island of  Porto Rico, belonging
to the English; eleven and a half miles
long, and three and a half  broad ; lon.
64° 20' W.; lat.  18° 20' N.  It  was firet
settled by  a party of Dutch bucaniers,
who, in the year  1666, were driven out
by others,  who  took possession  in the
name of the king  of England, by whom
they were protected ;  and Tortola was
soon after annexed to the government of
the Leeward islands. It has an unhealthy
climate, and suffers much for  want of
water.  The chief productions are sugar
and cotton.  The population, by the latest
census, amounts to 7172, of which 477
are whites, 1296 free people of color, and
5399 slaves.
  Torture (hatin, quastio; French, ques-
tion).  The extortion of confessions from
a suspected person, or of discoveries from
a condemned criminal, has been common
in all the nations of modern Europe.  It
was  also  practised by the ancient Ro-
mans, although only upon the bodies of
slaves, until the servile period of the later
empire (from the third and fourth centu-
ries).  In the  provinces, however, where
it had previously prevailed, as in the Ori-
ental countries, in Macedonia,  Rhodes,
Athens, &c, it was retained by the pro-
vincial magistrates, even to the  disregard
of the pereons of Roman citizens.  Even
the Roman civilians point out the absurd-
ity of the practice, which could not ex-
tort  truth  from the stubborn, and might
easily force the weak to  obtain  relief by
falsehood.- Beccaria, with exquisite irony,
puts  the   problem, The  force  of the
muscles, and the sensibUity of the nerves,
of an  innocent  person,  being  given, to
find the degree of pain necessary to  make
him  confess himself guilty.  Some wri-
ters  have  distinguished  between the ap-
plication  of torture, for purposes of dis-
covery, and for purposes of  evidence,
maintaining the propriety of the former,
while they acknowledge the  folly and
cruelty of the latter.  The term  torture,
although improperly, is sometimes alr-o
employed to signify the torments to which
condemned criminals are sentenced, as a
part of their punishment, and not for tho
purpose of obtaining confessions; but, in
all its applications, the practice of torture
shocks  every principle  of reason, justice
and  humanity.   Among the  Romans,
slaves were tortured, when their master
was found murdered, for instance, by be-
ing stretched on a machine called  equu-
leus;  their arms and legs being tied to it
with ropes, they were raised upright, and
their limbs were stretched by means of
screws ; to increase the pain, pincers, fire,
&c, were applied to them.   The  belief
of the middle  ages in the immediate in-
terference of God for  the  protection  of
innocence  and  the  exposure  of  guilt,
which gave rise to the ordeal, and Judi-
cial combat, contributed much to extend
the use  of torture, by inculcating the  no-
tion, that Divine Providence would  aid
the innocent to endure pains which the
guilty would be unable  to sustain.   The
church, which, in other respects, gave a
new form to  the  system of judicial pro-
cess, set the example in this practice also ;
and, when the old superstitious means of
discovering guilt (as by trial by fire and
water) lost their efficacy, torture became
general  in Europe.  It has been said, that
in England torture was  never practised ;
but this is a great error: for, though it is
tme, that the  law never recognised  the
use of torture, yet there were  many in-
stances  of its employment, as late  as  the
reigns of  Elizabeth and James,  when
prisoners were examined, to use the ex-
pressive words  of an English writer,
" before torture, in torture, between tor-
ture, and after torture;" and, notwithstand-
ing the judges, when consulted by Charles
I, as to  the legality of putting Felton, the
assassin of  Buckingham,  to   the  rack
(1628), declared that the law of England
did not  allow the use of torture, instances
of its application occur through the reign
of that  prince.  In France, the question
priparaloire was employed  during  the
progress of the trial, to  induce the accused
to confess (but his endurance of the pain
without confessing did not  necessarily
save  him from condemnation), and the
question prialable, to extort from a con-
demned criminal, previous to execution,
the confession of his accomplices,  or the
disclosure  of some circumstance  which
had not been explained or revealed  on
trial.   In 1574, the count of Montgomery
(q. v.) was subjected to the torture before
his execution, although he had only been 
TORTURE—TORY.
303
the innocent cause of the death of Henry
II, by an accident at a tournament Louis
XVI  abolished the question preparatoire,
by a decree  of Aug. 24, 1780;  but the
question prealable subsisted  till the time
of the revolution.  In Germany, the  in-
capacity of the criminal judges (ignorant
baillies. burgomasters, &c.) could sug-
gest to them, notwithstanding their offi-
cial obligations, no better  or  shorter
method of proceeding, than that of be-
ginning every examination with  torture,
and terminating it by capital  execution;
and it was the great  merit of the  Carolina
(q.  v.), that it established these two im-
portant principles of criminal jurispru-
dence, that  no man should be punished
without  confession,  or a  direct and full
proof, and that no man should be  tortured
without strong grounds of suspicion ; and
the opinion  of learned jurists was  re-
quired to be taken as to the sufficiency of
these grounds.  With these restrictions,
torture continued to be practised in the
German states till the  close  of  the last
century, and, in some of them, is at pres-
ent rather disused than abolished.  The
mere threat of torture is termed territion,
and is distinguished into  verbal territion,
in which the accused  is  given up to the
executioner, who conducts him to the en-
gines of torture, and describes, in the
most appalling manner possible,  the suf-
ferings which  he may endure, and the
real territion,  in  which  he  is  actually
placed upon the machine, but is not sub-
jected to torture.  Thomasius, Beccaria,
Voltaire, and Hommel,  were the  great
 {iromulgators of the better views which
 ed to the  abolition of  torture.  (See
Criminal Law.)  It is  needless to say,
that torture  is not allowed in the  U.
States ; the constitution provides, that  no
person in a criminal trial  shall lie com-
pelled to be a witness against himself, and
that no cruel or unusual punishment shall
be inflicted.—The instruments of torture
are very various; human ingenuity seems
to have been exhausted  in  inventing the
means of inflicting the  most  exquisite
and prolonged sufferings.  The following
kinds  of torture were chiefly employed
in the Tower of London:—The  rack  is a
large  open  frame of oak, under which
the prisoner  was laid on his  back, upon
the floor, with  his wrists and ankles  at-
tached by cords to two rollers at the end
of the frame.  These rollers were moved
by levers in opposite directions, till  the
body rose to a level with the frame; ques-
tions were then put, and, if the  answers
were  not satisfactory,  the sufferer was
gradually stretched, till the bones started
from the sockets.  The  rack  is said to
have been  introduced into England by
the duke of Exeter, under Henry VI, and
is  therefore  familiarly called the duke of
Exeter's daughter. The scavenger's daugh-
ter is a broad hoop of iron, consisting of
two parts, fastened together by a hinge.
The  prisoner was  made  to kneel on the
pavement, and contract  himself into as
small a compass as possible.   The  exe-
cutioner, kneeling  on his shoulders, and
having introduced the hoop  under his
legs, compressed the victim close together,
till he was able to  fasten  the  extremities
over the small  of the back;   The  time
allotted to  this  kind of  torture was an
hour and a half, during which the blood
commonly s'arted, by force of the  com-
pression, from  the  nostrils,  and some-
times from  the hands  and feet.   Iron
gauntlets, which could be contracted by a
screw, were used to compress the wrists,
and to suspend  the prisoner  in the air,
from two distant points of a  beam.   He
was placed on three pieces of wood,  piled
one ou the other, which were successively
withdrawn from under his feet, after his
hands  had  been made fast.   The  little
ease was a fourth kind of machine, made
of so small dimensions, and so construct-
ed, that the prisoner confined within  it
could neither stand, walk, sit, or lie at full
length, but was  compelled  to  draw  him-
self up in a squatting posture, and  so to
remain  several day.'.   Besides these,
there  were  manacles,  thumb screws,
Spanish boots, &c.  Several  degrees of
torture are distinguished.  In France  there
were two, the question ordinaire, and extra-
ordinaire ; and in Germany, we find  men-
tion of the first, second and third degree.
   Tory.  The following account of the
origin of the use of this term, as a  party
name,  so distinguished  in the political
history of Englaud, is given by a contem-
porary wh'g, Defoe (q. v.), in his Review
(vol. vii), published in 1711:—" The  word
lory  is L:.-h,  and  was first used in Ire-
land at the time  of queen  Elizabeth's
war, to signify a robber who  preyed up-
on the country.   In  the Irish massacre
(1G41), you had them in great numbers,
assisting in every thing that was bloody
and villanous:  they were such as  chose
to butcher  brothers and sisters,  fathers
and  re(.tilers, the dearest  friends,   and
nearest relations.   In   England,  about
ltir'O, a party of* men appeared among us,
who, though  pretended  Pn t.'stan..-*, yet
applied tin i::.-. Ives to the ruin of thV;i
counirj.  They began with ridiculing the 
304
TORY—TOTT.
popish plot, and encouraging the Papists
to revive it-   They pursued their designs
in banishing the duke of Monmouth, and
calling home  the duke  of  York  (see
James II) ; then in abhon*ing, petitioning
and opposing the bill  of exclusion ; in
giving up charters and the  liberties  of
their country to the arbitrary will of their
prince; then in murdering  patriots, per-
secuting dissenters, and at last in setting up
a popish  prince on pretence  of heredita-
ry right, and tyranny on pretence of pas-
: ive obedience. These men began to show
themselves so like the  Irish thieves and
murderers aforesaid, that they quickly got
the name of tories. Their real god-father was
Titus Oates. On account of some one say-
ing, at a meeting of honest people of the
city, upon the occasion of the discovery
of an  attempt to stifle the  evidence of
the  witnesses [to the  popish plot], that
he had letters from Ireland, that there
were   some  tories  to  be brought  over
hither to  murder  Oates  and  Bedloe,
the  doctor  [Oates] could never after this
hear  any  man  talk  against  the  plot
or witnesses  (see Popish Plot)  but  he
thought  he  was one of these tories, and
called almost every  one a  tory that op-
posed  him in discourse; till at last the
word tory became popular, and it stuck
so close  to the party, in all their  bloody
proceedings, that they had no way to get it
off.   So at last they owned it, just as they
do now the name of highflyer."  (For the
u.igin of the term whig,  and the history
of the two parties, see  the article Whig.)
The  Irish  word tory  is  derived  from
toruighim (to pursue for purposes of vio-
lence) ; and the country  was for a long
time so much harassed by the depreda-
tions  of  the tories (or  rapperees, as they
were  also called) that a price of £200
was set on their heads by Cromwell.
  Totality designates the character ofa
thing as one whole (consisting in the har-
mony of all its parts), or  the  body of all
beings of one genus, contradistinguished
to singularity and plurality.   Totality is
particularly used in reference to works of
art, which ought to contain  all those rela-
tions  and ideas which are necessary to
the complete expression of  the artist's
conceptions.  (See Kant.)
  Totila, king of the Ostrogoths in Ita-
ly, succeeded to the throne in 541, having
previously  distinguished himself in the
w*ar against the Romans.  The confusion
among me  Goths at this period  induced
the Romans to make  an attempt  upon
their capital, Verona; but Totila repeated-
ly defeated them, marched through Italy,
and  formed  the  blockade of Naples,
which  was  obliged  to  surrender,  and,
having reduced the provinces of Lucania,
Apulia, and Calabria,  led his *irmy to the
neighborhood  of Rome, and posted  him-
self at Tivoli, within eighteen miles  from
the capital.  Justinian now recalled  Beli-
sarius from the Persian war, and sent him
to its relief; but he was unable, from dis-
parity of force, to  meet the Goths in the
field, and Rome fell into the possession  of
Totila.  He indulged his Goths with free
liberty of pillage,  and then sent an em-
bassy to Justinian to proffer  a treaty of
amity, which  being rejected, he proceed-
ed to the demolition of the city, and had
destroyed a third part, when he was  in-
duced  by Belisarius to desist.   On  quit-
ting it, however, to march to Lucania, he
carried the senators along with him; and
Belisarius and his small army  soon after
occupied the  vacant city,  and began to
repair the fortifications and recall the  in-
habitants.   Upon  intelligence  of this
event, Totila  returned, and made a furi-
ous assault, in which  he  was repulsed
with great loss; and symptoms of disobe-
dience began  to appear  in   his army.
Having received a  reinforcement, howev-
er, he made a second attempt, and, by the
treachery of some Isaurian guards, was.
enabled to reenter Rome.   On this occa-
sion, he restored  the  senators to  their
honors, and the inhabitants to  their pos-
sessions, and repaired many of the  walls
and buildings which he had formerly de-
molished.  He then made proposals  to
Justinian a second time, which were not
even listened to, and,  passing  over to Si-
cily, made himself master of that island,
as also those  of  Sardinia and Corsica.
His troops were,  in the mean time, be-
sieging Ancona ; but, a naval  force  being
sent to its relief, the siege was  raised, and
the recovery of Sicily soon after follow-
ed.  At length Justinian recalled Belisa-
rius, and despatched  a powerful  army
under  Narees, which advanced directly
towards  Rome.  Totila  met  him in the
neighborhood  of that  capital.   A furious
battle ensued,  in which the Goths  were
entirely defeated ; and their leader quitted
the field with  five companions.  Being
overtaken by  a party of  Gepidse,  their
commander,  not knowing him, ran  a
lance through  his body.  With him ex-
pired (A. D. 552) the revived glory of the
Goths in Italy.  His character is  com-
mended, by the historians of the  time,
for valor,  tempered  by  humanity and
moderation, and justice.
   Tott, Francis,  baron de, a  Hungarian 
TOTT—TOULOUSE.                         305
nobleman,  was  born in France, where
his father  was  employed  as a  public
agent, in 1733.  In 1755, he accompanied
Vergennes,  the  French ambassador, to
Constantinople, and,  after seven  years
residence there, during which time he
learnt the Turkish language, was appoint-
ed French  consul in the Crimea.  After
remaining there several yeare, he with-
drew to Constantinople, arid obtained the
favor of the grand seignior, by preparing
a  map  of the  theatre  of  war between
Turkey and Russia, introducing improve-
ments  into  the  cannon founderies,  &c.
Peace  following in 1774, he returned to
France, and was employed to inspect the
consular offices in  the Levant.  At the
breaking out of" the revolution, he  was
commander of Douai; and, being obliged
to flee, on account of  his anti-republican
principles, he retired to Hungary, where
he died in 1793.  His interesting Memoires
sur les Turcs et les Tartares (1784, 4 vols.,
8vo.) have  been translated into English
and several other European languages.
   Toucan (ramphastos).  These birds, s>
remarkable  for  the enormous size of the
beak, are found exclusively in the tropi-
cal parts of America.  The  species are
numerous,  and,  in  their size", conespond
to the  raven, crow and  jay.  The  colors
of the  plumage are brilliant; but  black
predominates, especially on   the   upper
parts.  The beak is also varied with the
most beautiful tints during  life; but they
disapprai* in the stuffed specimen,  unless
prepared in a particular manner.    The
feet  are  short and strong, provided with
two  toes before and  two  behind;  the
wings short and concave ; the bill is long,
compressed, curved downwards towards
the extremity, and  has the*  margin of the
mandibles  serrated: it makes u formida-
ble appearance, but  is extremely light,
weak, and  of a cellular consistence.  The
tongue is long and .lender, and remarka-
ble for its resemblance to a  feather.   The
toucans  live in  small communities, com-
posed of six or eight individuals, and fre-
i;uct;*  the  summits of tho highest trees.
They  are  continually in  motion, but do
no: climb, notwithstanding  the conform-
ation of their feet.  They  feed on fruits,
especially  bananas,  insects,  and  even
young birds.  They throw their food into
the  air  before  swallowing,  in order to
seize it more favorably.  They nestle in
hollow trees, and lay two ogjjs.
   Touch.   (See Feeling.)
   Toulon; a seaport  of France, depart-
ment of the Var, on a bay of the  Medi-
terranean, thirty miles south-east of Mar-
                   26 *
seilles, and 220  south of Lyons;  lon. 5°
56' E.; lat. 43° 7' N.; population, 30,171.
It is  built at the foot of a ridge of  moun-
tains which  shelter it from the north, is
sunounded with ramparts, ditches and
bastions,  and  defended by a citadel and a
number of forts and batteries.   It consists
of two  parts, the old and new towns;
the  former ill built,  but the  latter in a
better style, containing the principal pub-
lic struclerts, and several straight streets.
The  chief" public buildings in  Toulon are
the hotel de  Ville,  the hotel  de l'lntcn-
dance, eight churches and three hospitals.
The  environs yield vines, figs, and other
products of a warm climate.   Toulon has
long  been one of the chief stations of the
French  naty, being on the  Mediterrane-
an what Brest is  on the Atlantic.  It  has
two  ports, the old and  new, communi-
cating with each other by a canal.  The
old  or commercial port is a basin, com-
modious, but  not large.   The  new or mil-
itary port is one of the finest  in Europe,
and  is said to be  capable of containing
200 sail of tho  line.  The  arsenal, situ-
ated  along the side of the new port, is a
very  large edifice, well filled with arms
and naval stores. Here are docks for ship-
building, store houses for timber,  manu-
factures  for  canvass, cordage, anchois,
&c.   The trade of Toulon is not exten-
sive,  being limited to  the products of the
vicinity,  such as wine, oil, silk and fruit.
In 1707,  the town was bombarded by the
allies,  under the  duke of  Savoy and
prince Eugene, by land, and by the Eng-
lish  and  Dutch fleets by sea,  and  nearly
destroyed, but the assailants were obliged
to raise  the siege.  It was occupied  by
the British troops in 1793 ; but, being  lie-
sieged by the French troops under Bona-
parte, the British abandoned  it (Dec. 19)
utter burning and carrying off about half
of the squadron contained in  the port.
The  bagnio  (q.  v.) of Toulon is capable
of receiving more than. 4000 convicts sen-
tenced to the  galleys,  (q. v.)
  Toulouse  ; a city  of France,  capital
of Upper Garonne,  formerly capital  of
Upper Langucdoc, on the Garonne, ne;;r
the  junction  of the canal of Languedoe ;
lon.  1° 27' E.; lat 43° 3d7 N.;  population,
55,311!.   The buildings are  almost all  of
brick: the walls enclose a space  larger
than any other city in  France  ;  but there
is much  -.scant  ground.  Some  of  the
streets are  tolerably broad ;  others  are
winding  and  irregular.  There is a fine
bridge over the Garonne, 810 feet long.
It is an  archbishop's see, and  contains a
cathedral, forty  Catholic churches, one 
306
TOULOUSE—TOURMALINE.
Reformed church, two hospitals, a mint,
a royal college, a provincial university or
academy,  an observatory,  a  museum, a
public library,  and a cavitolc,  or  town-
house.  The situation of Toulouse is ad-
vantageous ; but the commerce  and man-
ufactures  are  inconsiderable.   Toulouse
is an ancient town: in the sixth century,
it was the capital of the Visigoths  (see
Goths), and afterwards became the resi-
dence of the counts of Toulouse, till the
union of  Languedoc with France.   In
1814, Soult was  defeated here  by Wel-
lington, and the town was taken by the
English (April II).  The archbishop of"
Toulouse,  minister of Louis XVI,  was
Lomenie de Brienne. (q. v.)
  Tour  and  Taxis.  (See Thurn  and
Taxis.)
  Touraine;  before  the  revolution,  a
province  of France, bounded  north  by
Maine,  east  by  Orleannais,   south  by
Berry and Poitou, and west by Anjou.
It is about sixty miles in length, and fifty-
four in breadth.   The river  Loire runs
through it, and divides it into Higher and
Lower Touraine.  Tours was the capital.
(See Department.)
  Tourmaline ; one of the most inter-
esting species in the mineral kingdom, on
account of the forms of its crystals, its
various and rich colore, its electrical prop-
erties, and its chemical composition. The
general form of its crystals is a prism of
three, six or more sides, variously termi-
nated at one or both  extremities ; when
at both, the  two terminations being  dis-
similar.  The  primary form is  an obtuse
rhomboid of 133° 50"; and the secondary
crystals, or occurring forms, may be con-
ceived of by supposing  the lateral solid
angles deeply tmncated, so as to extin-
guish the lateral edges, and convert tho
rhomboid into a prism with trihedral ter
minations.    This  prism  is  sometimes
eight or ten times longer than thick ; in-
stead of six sides,  it often has twelve, or
a much greater number, and  rarely be-
comes, through the multiplication of late-
ral faces, nearly cylindrical.  The trihe-
dral summits have their apices truncated
also, and their edges variously bevelled ;
cleavage is rarely visible, and cannot be
determined with certainty; fracture im-
perfect conchoidal, or uneven. The sides
of* the prism are deeply striated longitudi-
nally :  the terminal faces are  generally
smooth.   Lustre  vitreous; color brown,
green, blue, red, white, frequently black,
generally dark : streak white ; transpar-
ent to opaque ;  less transparent, if viewed
in a direction  parallel to the axis, than
perpendicular to it, and generally presents
different colore in these directions ; hard-
ness a little above that of quartz ; specific
gravity 3.07.  Besides the crystals,  tour-
maline is found massive, the composition
being usually columnar;  individuals of
various sizes, thin, straight, parallel or di-
vergent.  Tourmaline and  schorl, which
were once distinguished as two particular
species,  differ  only  in their colore and
transparency.   The varieties  of green,
blue, red, brown and  white color, and
such in general as are not perfectly black,
were included  under tourmaUne ; while
the   black  and opaque ones constituted
schorl.   The red  variety  is sometimes
called rubellite, and the blue one, indico-
lite.  The composition of the species  is
as foUows:—
Red Variety.	Blue.	(ireen.	Blade
Alumine,......36.43 . . .	. . 40.50 . . .	. . . 39.00 . . .	. . . 33.24
Silex,.........42.12	. . 40.30 . . .	. . . 40.00 . . .	. . . 38.92
Boracic acid, .... 5.74 . . . .	. . 1.10 . . .	. . . 00.00 . . .	. . . 0.60
Oxide of iron, . . . 0.00 . . . .	. . 4.85 . . .	. . . 12.50 . . .	. . . 7.20
Oxide of manganese 6.32 . . .	. . 1.50 . . .	. . . 2.00 . . .	. . . 0.00
Potash,........ 2.45 . . . .	. . 0.00 . . .	. . . 0.00 . . .	... 2.53
			
Lime,.........   1.20 . .  .
Magnesia,......   0.00 . .  .
Water and loss, ., .   1.31 ..  .
               ByC. G. Gmelin.
. . .  .0.00......   3.84......  0.00
 .  .  0.00......   0.00......  9.80
 .  .  3.60......   0.00......  0.03
ByARFVEDsoi*. By Vauquelin. ByC. G.Gmeliit.
Those which contain lithia intumesce be-
fore the blow-pipe, and assume a slaggy
appearance, but do not melt; those which
contain soda intumesce still more, but like-
wise do not melt, excepton the edges; those
containing lime intumesce  very much,
and melt  into a white slag.  Long crys-
tals of tourmaline assume, by  heat, op-
posite kinds  of electricity at their oppo-
site extremities;  and transparent pieces
which  have  been   cut  and  polished
are electrical at  common  temperatures
without friction or pressure.   Tourma-
line is a very abundant mineral in granitic 
TOURMALINE—TOURNAMENT.
307
rocks,  occurring imbedded in them in
larger  or smaller masses, sometimes oc-
cupying  drusy  cavities  of considerable
extent  It exists also in beds with augite,
garnet and  various iron  ores.  It is also
met with in  pebbles in  the sand of rivers.
In Saxony, Cornwall and other countries,
massive varieties of tourmaline are very
frequent; but simple, well-defined  crys-
tals are rare.  The largest  and most re-
markable crystals of a black  color occur in
Greenland, in Bavaria, and near Bovey hi
Devonshire.  The red varieties are found
in Permia,  in Siberia,  and  at  Rozena in
Moravia.    Pale-green  crystals occur in
the dolomite  of St. Gothard, and  vari-
ous transparent, deep-green, red, brown
and  blue colors are  found among the
crystals and pebbles from Brazil and Cey-
lon.   Blue varieties also come from Uton
in Sweden.  The U.  States, however,
have afforded, and still  continue to afford,
the most superb varieties of tourmaline.
Large, black and well-defined crystals oc-
cur in the granite of Saratoga, New York;
of" Brunswick, Maine ;  and Munroe, Con-
necticut :  very  perfect  blackish-brown
crystals, of unusual dimensions, and under
great diversity of modification, are found
in a  soft mica slate  at Munroe,  Con-
necticut ; red, green and  blue varieties, of
bright  colors, and often transparent, exist
in albite granite at Chesterfield and Go-
shen, Massachusetts; while the same col-
ored varieties, but in much larger crystals,
occur at Paris in Maine.  The last-named
locality has furnished  specimens which
are unsurpassed in beauty  by any which
have been elsewhere found.  Tourmaline,
when  of a  handsome  color and transpa-
rent,  is much  esteemed  as a gem.   The
rubellite, or red varieties,  command the
highest price : next to them, the green
ones,  formerly called  Brazilian emerald,
are the most valuable ; but they are less
esteemed than real emeralds.  Plates of
brown tourmaline, if  cut parallel to the
axis, absorb one of the polarized  pencils,
which renders them useful in  the exami-
nation of  the structure  of minerals  in
polarized light.
   Tournament, and Jousts.  " Impar-
tial taste," says Gibbon,  "  must  prefer  a
Gothic tournament to  the Olympic games
of classic antiquity.  Instead of the naked
spectacles,  which corrupted the mannere
of the Greeks, the pompous decoration
of the lists  was crowned with the pres-
ence  of  chaste* and  high-born  beauty,
from  whose hands the conqueror receiv-
ed the prize of his dexterity and courage.
The  skill and strength that were exerted
in wrestling and  boxing, bear a distant
and doubtful relation  to  the  merit of a
soldier;  but  the  tournaments,  as  they
were  invented in France, and  eagerly
adopted both in the East and  West, pre-
sented a lively image of the business of
the field.  The single combat, the general
skirmish, the defence of a pass or castle,
were  rehearsed as in actual service ; and
the contest, both in real and mimic war,
was decided by the superior management
of the horse and  lance." (ch. 57.)  The
origin of tournaments  is uncertain : Von
Hammer, with othere, derives  them from
the Arabians; but  all historical monu-
ments tend to show their Teutonic origin.
They reached  their  full perfection in
France  in the ninth and tenth centuries,
and firet received  the form  under which
they are known to us from the French.
The word tournament is also evidently of
French  origin  (tournois,  from  tourner);
and the  German, Italian,  &c. terms for
this exhibition  betray the same source.
Godfrey de Preuilly, a French nobleman,
first collected the  rules of tourneying, in
1066,  which, in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, we  find to have been received
in other countries. The opinion that tour-
naments  originated in Germany, is with-
out foundation: Sebastian Munster  as-
serts that the firet great tourney in Ger-
many was held at  Magdeburg in  1066.
Tournaments  were introduced into Eng-
land soon after the conquest by the Nor-
mans, who were passionately fond of  this
amusement.  Jousts (French joute)  dif-
fered  from tournaments in being single
combats between  two knights, while tour-
naments were performed between   two
parties of cavaliers.  Jousts were of  two
sorts—the joide a I'outrance,  or the joust
to the utterance, or mortal combats, gen-
erally between two knights  of different
nations; and the joute d plaisance, or joust
of peace, which often took place after the
conclusion of a  tournament, but some-
times at times and places specially  ap-
pointed for the purpose.  Weapons of
war were frequently  used, even  in  this
latter species  of  jousts; but blood  was
seldom shed in them.  A favorite descrip-
tion of jousts was the passage of arms;
a party of knights assembled  at a certain
place, and suspended each several shields
of different colore, offering to  combat  any
knight who should present himself.  The
comer touched the  shield of  that knight
whom he wished to engage, and the  na-
ture of the combat and  descriptions of
arms to be employed were determined by
the particular shield  which  he  struck. 
308                  TOURNAMENT—TOURNEFORT.
But tne tournament was the most popular
and  splendid of these exhibitions:  in
these, blunted weapons were  used, and
heralds  were often despatched to differ-
ent courts, inviting all brave  knights to
prove their chivalry.   Certain qualifica-
tions  of birth were required for admis-
sion  to  the tourney, and their respective
hostels,  or tents, were assigned to  the
knights  by the king at arms  and  heralds.
The place of combat was the lists, a large
open  space,  surrounded by ropes or  a
railing.   Galleries were erected around
the lists for the spectators, among whom
were seated the ladies, the supreme judges
of tournaments.   The heralds  then read
to the  knights the  regulations  of  the
sport, and  announced the prize.  When
the knights entered the lists, their arms
were  examined  by  the  constable:  the
weapons used  were  lances,  with  the
points removed, or covered with pieces
of wood called rockets, and swords, blunt-
ed and rebated.  The tilting armor was
of a light  fabric,  and generally adorned
with some device of a lady's favor.   Ev-
ery thing   being  prepared,  the  heralds
shouted, Laissez aller I and  the  knights
dashed from the opposite ends of the lists .
to the encounter.  Each knight was fol-
lowed by  his squires, who furnished him
with amis, raised him if dismounted, &c.
To break a spear between the saddle and
the helmet was accounted one point of
honor;  to break it on  the  helmet, ten
points;  to  dismount an opponent,  three
points, &c.  (See the  Ordinances,  Stat-
utes  and Rules to be observed in Jusles,
Sfc, drawn up by the earl of Worcester,
by the royal command, in the Antiquari-
an Repertory.)  The sport being over, the
prizes were delivered  to the  successful
knights  by the queen of beauty, who had
been  chosen  by  the ladies.  On the sec-
ond day, there was often a tournament for
the esquires; and on the third, ame.ee of
knights  and  esquires in  the lists.   The
great  luxury  and expense to which  the
tournaments gave rise, frequently  occa-
sioned the prohibition of them by princes;
and they were opposed also by  the spirit-
ual [>ower, on the ground of humanity,
though  there appears to have  been little
cause for such opposition.  They gradu-
ally went out of use, however, as chivalry
declined ;  and the whole art of war was
changed by the  use of gunpowder.  In
France,  the death of Henry II, who was
accidentally killed, at a tournament, by
count Montgomery (q. v.), in 1559, con-
tributed to hasten their* abolition ; and they
were  Uttle practised after the sixteenth
 century.  Tournaments were succeeded
 by the carrousel, in which  several parties
 of knights executed various evolutions,
 and mock combats, and other shows were
 exhibited.—See Mills's History of Chival-
 ry, ch. yi, on Tournaments and Jousts; and
 Ferrario, Romanzi di Cavalleria,  diss. v.;
 Sui Tornei, sulle Giostre, &c. (Milan, 1828).
   Tournat, or Doornick; a city of Bel-
 gium, in Hainaut (q. v.), on  the  Scheldt,
 three posts east of Lille,  and thirtv-6ne
 north of Paris ; lon.  3° 23' E.; lat 50°
 36' N.;  population, 33,000.  It is a bishop's
 see, has a citadel, a  cathedral, twelve par-
 ish churches,  seventeen  convents, and
 five hospitals.   It formerly had a univer-
 sity, now converted into a lyceum.  On
 the side of the Scheldt is  a broad, hand-
 some quay, the only embellishment of the
 town, which is, in  general, ill built and
 gloomy.  It has manufactures of woollen
 and cotton stuffs, was  formerly  strongly
 fortified, and had one of the finest cita-
 dels in  Europe, which was  levelled by
 the French in the  middle of the eigh-
 teenth century.  It was anciently the cap-
 ital of the Nervii, and was the residence
 of some of the Frankish kings of the first
 dynasty.  This city has often been taken
 in the wars between the French,  English
 and Flemings.
  Tournefort, Joseph Pilton de, an em-
 inent  French  botanist, born  at  Aix, in
 Provence, in  1656,  was educated at the
 Jesuits'  college in that city.  His  passion
 for botany disclosed  itself at an early age,
 so that in a short time  he had made him-
 self accpiainted with all the plants in the
 vicinity. Though destined for the church,
 he continued his botanical researches by
 stealth;  and,  encouraged  by an uncle,
 who was an eminent physician, applied to
 the study of anatomy and chemistry.  In
 1677, being left, by  the death of his fa-
 ther, to pursue his own inclinations, he de-
 termined to adopt the medical profession,
 and lor that purpose repaired, in 1679, to
 Montpellier.  In 1683,  he  was appointed
 professor of  botany to the garden  of
 plants at Paris, and  soon after  visited
 Spain, Portugal, England  and  Holland.
 In 1691, he was elected a member of the
 academy of sciences, and, in 1694, pub-
 lished his first work, entitled  Elimens de
 Botanique (3  vols., 8vo., with numerous
 plates).   The  method established  by
 Toumefort was founded upon the varie-
 ties of the petals of  flowers, taken in con-
junction with the fruit.  It became rapid-
 ly popular by its facility and elegance, al-
 though imperfections were pointed out in
 it by Ray.  In  1696, he was admitted a 
TOURNEFORT—TOUSSAINT-LOUVERTURE.           309
doctor of the faculty of Paris, and com-
posed the History of Plants in the Neigh-
borhood of Paris (first edition, 1698 ;  re-
printed by Jussieu in 1725, in 2 vols.; an
English translation was given by profes-
sor Martyn, in 1732).  Iii  1700, he gave a
Latin version of his Elements of Botany,
with  many valuable  additions,  and a
•learned preface, under the title  of Insti-
tutiones Rci  Herbaria  (3  vols., 4to.).  In
the same year, he received an order from
the king to travel into the Levant,  for  the
purpose  of  examining the plants  men-
tioned by writers of antiquity, and accord-
ingly visited Greece and  its islands, and
Asia Minor as far as the frontiers of Per-
sia.   He  returned  to France by way of
Smyrna, in 1702; and the firet botanical
fruits of his travels appeared the follow-
ing year, in a supplement to his Elements
of Botany.   He died in 1708, leaving his
cabinet of curiosities to the king for public
use, and his botanical books to the abbe
Bignon.   The first volume of his  travels
was  printed  at  the Louvre before  his
death, and  the second being completed
from  his manuscripts, both were publish-
ed in  1717, with the title of Relation d'un
Voyage du Levant (2 vols., 4to.).  Of this
work, which stands high among books of
the class, there have been several editions,
and it has been translated into English.
   Tourniquet ; an instrument  employ-
ed in the practice  of surgery to stop
bleeding.   It can, however,  only  be ap-
plied  to  the limbs, and its use is only
intended to be temporary.
   Tournois, Livre. (See Livre.)
   Tours ;  a city of France, capital  of
Indre-and-Loire, on the Loire ; 140 miles
south-west  of Paris;  lon. 41'  E.;  lat.
47° 24'  N.;  population,  20,920.   It  is
situated  in  a delightful  plain,  in one
of the  finest parts  of  France,  the sur-
rounding country being remarkably beau-
tiful.   It is an  archiepiscopal see, and
contains a cathedral, remarkable  for its
lofty  spire,  and library  (30,000  vols.),
fourteen  churches, three  hospitals,  a
botanic garden,  and a museum.  The
houses are  generally low, and the most
of the  streets are  narrow and gloomy.
But the Rue neuve,  or royale, is a street of
great elegance, the houses being built of
stone, on a  uniform plan.  The  bridge
over  the  Loire,  1400  feet  long  and 45
wide,  consists of fourteen arches. The
approach to the town is remarkably fine,
the avenues  being bordered with rows of*
trees.  The principal manufacture is that
of siik, which formerly employed in  the
town and  neighborhood  20,000 people;
but at present  not more than one third
of that number.  Tours was formerly
more populous than at  present. • Before
the revolution it was the capital of Tou-
raine.   In  732, the  Saracens were  de-
feated, by Charles Martel, near this town,
with theloss of 10,000 men.
  Toussaint-Louverture,  the  cele-
brated black chieftain, was born  a slave,
in the year 1745, upon  the plantation of
count de Noe,  situated  near  cape Fran-
cais, now  cape Haytien.  His  amiable
deportment as a slave, the patience, mild-
ness and benevolence of his disposition,
and  the purity  of his conduct amid  the
general laxity of morals which prevailed
in the  island, gained for him many of
those advantages which afterwards gave
him  such absolute ascendency over his
insurgent  brethren.  His  good qualities
attracted the attention  of M. Bayou  de
Libertas, the agent  on  the  estate, who
taught him reading, writing, and arith-
metic—elements  of knowledge  which
hardly one  in ten thousand of his fellow
slaves  possessed.  M. Bayou made him
his postilion,  which gave him advantages
much  above those  of  the  field-slaves.
When  the  general rising of the blacks
took place,  in 1791, much solicitation was
used to induce  Toussaint to  join them;
but he  declined, until he had procured an
opportunity for the escape of M.  Bayou
and his family  to Baltimore, shipping a
considerable  quantity of sugar  for  the
supply of then*  immediate wants.  In his
subsequent prosperity, he, availed himself
of every  occasion  to  give  them new
marks  of  his  gratitude.  Having thus
provided security for his benefactors, he
joined a corps of blacks, under the ordere
of general Biassou, in the capacity of his
lieutenant;  but was soon raised  to  the
principal command,  Biassou  being  de-
graded  on account  of  his  cmelty   and
ferocity.   Indeed, Toussaint was every
way so much superior to the other negroes,
by reason of his general intelligence  and
education,  his   prudence,  activity,   and
address, not less than his bravery, that he
immediately attained a complete ascend-
ency over all the black chieftains.  Thus
it happened that, in June, 1794, when the
English, under general  Mbyte, captured
Port au Prince  from the French commis-
sioners Santhonax and Polverel, the latter,
on retiring into the  country, found  the
whole  island in the possession of Rigaud,
at the head of the mulattoes, and Tous-
saint-Louverture, with his negroes. They
contended  with various success against
the English,  until 1797, when Toussaint 
310
TOUSSAINT-LOU VEilTURE—TOWER OF LONDON.
received from the French government a
commission  of general-in-chief of  the
armies of St. Domingo, and,  as  such,
signed the convention with general A ait-
land for the evacuation of the  island by
the British.   From  1798 until 1801,  the
island continued peaceable and tranquil
under the government of Toussaint, who
adopted and enforced the most judicious
measures for  healing the wounds of his
country, and restoring its commercial and
agricultural prosperity.   His efforts would
have been attended with much, success,
but for the ill-judged expedition  which
Bonaparte sent against the island, under
the command of Le Clerc.  This expedi-
tion, fruitless as it was in respect of its gen-
eral object, proved fatal to Toussaint, solely
in consequence of the sincerity and good
faith which marked his character.  Tous-
saint was noted for private virtues; among
the rest,  warm affection for his family.
Le Clerc  brought out from France Tous-
saint's  two  sons, with their preceptor,
Coisnon,  whose orders were to cany his
pupils to Toussaint, and make use of them
to work on the tenderness of the negro
chief, and induce  him  to  abandon  his
countrymen.  If he  yielded, he was  to
be made second in command to Le Clerc;
if he refused, his children were  to be re-
served as hostages of his fidelity to  the
French.  Notwithstanding the greatness
of tiie sacrifice demanded of him, Tous-
saint  remained faithful to his brethren.
Wo pass over  the  details  of the war,
which, at length, ended in a  treaty of
peace concluded by the black chief Tous-
saint, Dessalines and Christophe, against
their better judgment, hut in consequence
of the effect of Le Clerc's professions upon
their simple followers, who were induced
to lay  down  their  arms.  Toussaint  re-
tired to his plantation, relying upon  the
solemn assurances of Le Clerc, that  his
person and  property  should  be  held
sacred.   But, notwithstanding these  as-
surances, he was treacherously seized in
the night, hurried on board a ship of war,
and transported to Brest.  He was con-
ducted, first to close prison in Chateaux
de Joux,  and from thence to Besancon,
where he was plunged into a cold, wet,
subtenanean  prison,  which soon proved
fatal to a constitution  used  only  to  the
warm skies and free air of the  West In-
dies.  He languished  through the winter
of  1802—1803 ; and  his death,  which
happened in April, 1803, raised a cry of
indignation against the government which
had chosen  this  dastardly method of
destroying one of the best  and bravest
men of the negro race.—See Malo, Ilis-
toire de Haiti, published 1825,  p.  181—
255); also the article Hayti.
  Tower  of London.   This  ancient
edifice  is  situated  on  the  north bank
of the Thames,  at the extremity of the
city.   The antiquity  of the  building
has been a subject of much inquiry ; but
the present fortress is generally lielieved to
have been built by William I,  and gar-
risoned with Normals,  to  secure  the
allegiance  of his  subjects ;  although  it
appears, that the Romans had a fort on
this spot.   The Tower is governed by the
constable of the  Tower, who, at corona-
tions and other state ceremonies, has the
custody  of the  regalia.  The  principal
entrance  on the  west  consists of two
gates on the outside of the ditch, a stone
bridge over it, and a gate within it  The
keys are kept during the day  at the ward-
er's hall, but deposited e very night at the
governor's  house.   The Tower is sepa-
rated from the Thames by  a platform,
aud by part of the ditch.  The ditch, of
considerable width and  depth,  proceeds
northwards on each side of  the fortress,
nearly in a parallel line, and meets in  a
semicircle ; the slope is faced with brick,
and the great wall of the Tower has been
frequently  repaired with  that materia'.
Cannon are planted at intervals round the
line, and command every avenue leading
to Tower hill.  The space enclosed by
the walls measures twelve acres five roods,
and the circumference on the outside of the
ditch is 3156 feet.  On the south side of
the Tower is an arch called the traitor's
gate, through which state-prisoners were
formerly brought from  the river.  Near
the  traitor's gate is  the bloody tower, in
which  it is  supposed  the  two  young
princes, Edward V, and  his brother, were
smothered  by order of Richard III.  In
the south-east angle of the enclosure were
the royal apartments;  for the Tower was
a palace for nearly 500 years, and only
ceased to be so on the accession of queen
Elizabeth.  The principal buildings with-
in the walls  are  the church, the  white
tower, the ordnance office, the old mint,
the record office,  the  jewel office,  the
horse armory, the  grand storehouse,—in
which is the small  armory,—the  lion's
tower, containing the menagerie, and the
Beauchamp tower.  The  church called
St. Peter in Vinculis, is remarkable as the
depository of the headless bodies of nu-
merous illustrious personages who suffer-
ed  either in the Tower or on  the hill;
amongst these are  Fisher,  AnnaTloleyn,
Thomas Cromwell,  Catharine Howard, 
TOWER OF LONDON—TOWNS.
311
the duke of Somerset, and the  duke of
Monmouth (1685).  The  white tower, a
large, square, irregular building, erected
in 1070, consists of three stories.  On the
first  story are the sea armory, consisting
of muskets for the sea-service, and other
warlike imjilemcnts of every description,
and the volunteer armory, for 30,000 men.
Within the white tower  is the ancient
chapel of St. John, originally used by the
English moiiarchs, which now  forms a
part of the  record  office.   South of the
white  tower is the modelling room, in
which are models of Gibraltar and other
places; but no strangers  are admitted.
The parade  near  the  white tower  is
much frequented as  a promenade.  The
office of the keeper  of the  records con-
tains the  rolls from the time  of  king
John to the  beginning of the reign of
Richard III.   Those  since that period
are  kept at the Rolls  chapel, Chancery
lane.  The price of a search is 10s.  0d.,
for which you may pursue one subject a
year.  The jewel office is a strong stone
room, in which are kept  the crown jew-
els, or regalia.   The  imperial crown,  and
the other emblems of royalty, such as the
golden  orb, the golden sceptre  and  its
cross, the  sceptre with the dove, St. Ed-
ward's staff", state salt-cellar, curtana or
sword of mercy, golden spurs,  armilla or
bracelets,  ampulla or golden eagle,  and
the golden spoon, also the silver font used
at the baptism of the  royal family,  the
state crown worn by his majesty in par-
liament, and a large  collection of ancient
plate, are  kept  here.  The horse armory
is a brick building, east of  the  white
tower, adorned with suits  of armor of
almost every description;  but the most
striking  are the  effigies of the  English
kings on horseback, armed cap-a-pie. The
line commences with William the Con-
queror, and extends to George II.   Sev-
eral of the cuirasses and helmets taken at
Waterloo are also kept here. The grand
storehouse, north of the white tower, about
'"•45 feet in length and 60 in breadth, is coin-
posed of brick  and stone, was begun by
James II, and finished by  William  HI.
The upper story is occupied by the small
armory, containing arms for about 200,000
men, all kept bright and  clean,  and  nu-
merous historical curiosities. The Span-
ish armory is principally occupied by the
trophies taken from  tiie Spanish armada,
such as thumb-screws, battle-axes, board-
ing-pikes, &c.  Here  also  are shown a
representation  of queen  Elizabeth   in
•  rmor; the axe which severed the head
of Anna Boleyn, as well as that of the
earl of Essex; the invincible banner taken
from the Spanish armada; a wooden can-
non used by Henry VIII, at the siege of
Boulogne, tVc  The Beauchamp tower is
noted for  the illustrious personages for-
merly confined within its walls.  Amongst
them were the ill-fated Anna Boleyn and
the accomplished  lady Jane  Grey.  The
former is said to have written her memo-
rable letter to Henry VIII in the apart-
ment called the mess-house.   The  lion's
tower, built by Edward  IV,  w*as origin-
ally called the bulwark,  but  received its
present  name from being occupied as the
menagerie.  It is  situated on the right of
the inner entrance to the Tower ; but the
animals kept here are not numerous.—See
Bayley's History of the Tower (2 vols., 4to.,
1821), and Britton and Jra-, ley's Memoirs
of the Tower (1  vol., 12mo.," 1830).
  Towklet, Charles,  a gentleman  of
large fortune, which he employed in the
collection  of antiquities,  was  bom  at
Townley  hall,  in Lancashire,  in  1737.
The  religious  opinions  of his  family
preventing his receiving a university ed-
ucation  in England, he  was sent  to the
continent;  and  a  residence  at  Rome
enabled him to  form a museum, replete
with valuable mauutrcripts, specimens of
the finest  sculpture, medals, vases, urns
and other  relics of ancient art.  These he
transported, eventually, to England, and
bequeathed to the British museum.  (See
Terra Cotta.)  His death took place Jan-
uary 3, 1805.
  Towns.  We have already  given an
account of the  rise and growth of towns
in modern Europe, and of their moral and
political influence upon  society,  in the
articles  City, and Community.  (See these
articles, and also Hanse Towns, and Free
Cities.)   In a  general  sense,  town,  in
England, is a walled place,  or  borough,
and comprehends the several species of
cities,  boroughs  (q. v.),  and  common
towns  or  villages; but,  in  a narrower
sense, it is restricted to the latter class of
places, a city being  a place  which is  or
has been a bishop's  see, and  a borough a
place  which  sends members  to  parlia-
ment.   In the U. States, where the differ-
ent states  are divided into counties (with
the exception of South Carolina and Lou-
isiana, in the former of which the divis-
ions are termed districts, and in the latter,
parishes), the word town l;**s a somewhat
different signification.   In the New Eng-
land and  Middle  States  (with the excep-
tion of Delaware), and in Ohio, the coun-
ties are  subdivided into townships, which,
at least in  many of the states, are improp- 
312
TOWNS—TRADITION.
erly styled towns, while by cities is com-
monly meant those  places  which  are
incorporated with certain peculiar  muni-
cipal  powers.   In  the New England
states, the townships differ much  in ex-
tent, vaiying from five to six miles square.
They are incorporated by the legislatures
of the states with  certain  rights,  and a
distinct  police,  conducted  by officers
chosen annually by the inhabitants.  Some
of the principal  officers are a town-clerk,
selectmen, assessors of taxes, overseers of
the poor, school committee, &c.   The
townships in  the  New England  states,
and  in  New York, are subdivided into
school districts  of a convenient size, in
which free schools are maintained at least
a part of every year.  The  money  neces-
sary for the  support of the schools and
the poor, for the repair of roads, &c, is
raised in each town by vote of the  inhab-
itants.  Each of these towns thus consti-
tutes a  little  democracy,  in which the
affairs of the community are managed by
the people themselves in their town-meet-
ings.
  Towton ;   a  village  of  England, in
Yorkshire, three miles south-east of Tad-
caster.   A sanguinary battle  was  fought
here, between the forces of the houses of
York aud Lancaster,  in 1461,  in  which
the latter were completely defeated. (See
Edward IV.)
  Toxicology  (from rof./td., properly the
poison which  the ancients  put upon  ar-
rows and spears);  the  science of poisons
and antidotes.   The works of Frank and
Orfila are distinguished in this branch, also
Buchner's and Witting's.   (See Poisons.)
  Tracheotomy, or Bronchotomy (from
trachea, or Ppoy^os, the windpipe, and Ttp.via,
to cut);  also  Laryngotomy (from  Xapvyt,,
the larynx, and renvoi).   This is  an  opera-
tion in which an opening is made into the
larynx, or windpipe,  either for the pur-
pose of making a passage for the air into
aud out of the  lungs, when any disease
prevents  the  patient   from   breathing
through the mouth and nostrils, or  of ex-
tracting  foreign bodies, which have acci-
dentally fallen  into the windpipe ;  or,
lastly, in  order  to be  able to inflate the
lungs, in cases of sudden  suffocation,
drowning, &c.  Its practicableness, and
little danger, are founded on the  facility
with which certain wounds of the  wind-
pipe, even of the most complicated kind,
have been healed, without  leaving  any ill
effects whatever, and on the nature of the
parts cut, which are  not furnished with
any vessel of consequence.
   Trackshuyt. (See Treckshuyt.)
  Tractors, Metallic  (See Perkins.)
  Trade  ok the World.   (See Com-
merce of the World.)
  Trade-Winds  (so called  from their
favoring commerce); easterly winds which
constantly prevail, with  slight  variations,
in certain regions within the tropics.  It
is a  common notion, that  the  north-east
trade-wind blows exactly from the north-
east point nearly to the  equator, when  it
gradually becomes more and more easter-
ly, till at length it blows due east; and so
with the south-east trade.  This notion is,
however, erroneous.  The trade-winds, in
the Atlantic  and Pacific oceans, extend to
about 28° of latitude  each side of the
equator; so  that a ship,  after passing 30°,
may expect  to  enter  them  every day.
But, on first entering them, they will be
found to blow  from the east, or  even  a
little southerly, and, as you advance, to
draw round  gradually to north-east,  and
even north,  at the southern limit of the
north-east trade,  where it is  commonly
represented  as   being  due east  This
limit varies with the position of the sun,
reaching, when  the sun has  a southern
declination,  to within three or four de-
grees north  latitude, and, as the sun ac-
quires a more northern declination, re-
ceding  ten or twelve degrees  from  the
equator.  At this point, the mariner  en-
ters  the region  of calms  and  variables,
as they are called, where the wind  has  a
more or  less southerly direction, and
sometimes blows freshly from the south-
south-west   This region varies from 150
to 550 miles, and  is  subject  to  heavy
rains.  On passing this  range, the south-
east trade begins, and displays the same
phenomena  as  the north-east.  To the
north and south of"  the north-east  and
south-east trades, westerly winds will be
found generally to  prevail, though  less
regular in the northern  than in the south-
ern hemisphere;  and it has been remark-
ed that the average of the  passages made
by the Liverpool packets from New York
out, for a period of six years, was twenty-
three days, and  from Liverpool to New
York, that is, from east to west, thirty-
eight days.
  Tradition, in its general application, is
any knowledge  handed down from one
generation to another by oral communica-
tion.  This is the shape in which history
appears before the art of writing is invent-
ed or introduced; and the  later this takes
place, the farther back  does tradition  ex-
tend, till it loses itself in mythology. Any
person who  has  noticed the  manner in
which  facts  are  distorted, even at  the 
TRADITION.
313
present day, if not protected against grad
ual change and misrepresentation by un
questionable  documents,  although the
sources of correct information have been
so greatly increased, will easdy under-
stand why historical tradition is to be re-
ceived with the utmost  caution.   Every
person, every country, every  age,  invol-
untarily gives a coloring to facts, to say
nothing of intentional misstatements. But
there is a species  of historical tradition
which exists  even after the invention not
only of writing, but of printing.  It is the
repetition of hearsay, by  which misrepre-
sentations of facts, or downright inven-
tions, creep into notice, and soon  become
widely repeated and believed, either be-
cause they suit the purposes off a party, or
because they are presented with an air of
credibility.  How many stories, believed
for centuries, have  at last been proved
utterly  false! how  many are yet in the
mouths of millions, and, nevertheless, un-
true !  It becomes the historian, therefore,
to examine into the origin of every state-
ment, and the character and  situation  of
those on  whose authority it rests: did
they know with certainty what they re-
late ? were they not actuated by interest,
passion or prejudice ?  The same caution
which the historian must  observe  in re-
gard to traditions, politicians and  citizens
ofa free government ought to exercise  in
regard to those party rumors which we
might term political traditions. Without
such caution, a free people becomes the
tools of demagogues. Every statement
in print receives, from this very circum-
stance, a kind of authority; and what has
not  been said in  print?    Newspapere
(q. v.), much as they contribute to general
information, also contribute much to the
propagation of these unfounded  reports.
The counterstatements of opposite papers
serve,  indeed, in some measure, to correct
each other's  misrepresentations; but,  as
the mass of people read only the papers
of their own  party,  misstatements will in-
evitably gain a footing;  and a man who
is desirous of believing only the  truth,
must subject  the stories admitted on hear-
say by his party to a critical scrutiny.  It
was long believed that a female was  raised
to the  papal  chair, under the name  of
John VIII (see Joan the  Papess); and
how  many  pereons have credited  the
newspaper stories that Napoleon  used to
beat his  wife, and  had criminal  inter-
course  with  his daughter-in-law!   The,
story of the  beating is,  in fact,  still re-
peated in some histories  of Napoleon,  so
called !   It is a very common mistake to
   vol. xii.         27
ascribe to the statements  of ancient wri-
ters full credibihty, though the writer may
have lived in a time or country so distant
from that to which his  narrative relates,
that he had no better opportunity of judg-
ing than  ourselves.  (See Niebuhr's Ro-
man  History.)—Tradition,  in  another
sense, forms one of the chief points of dis-
agreement between tiie Roman Catholics
and Protestants, perhaps the most impor-
tant.  The CathoUc understands by tra-
dition the unwritten word of God, that is,
sacred truths orally communicated by Je-
sus and the  apostles, which were not
written  down, but, by the assistance  of
the Holy Ghost, were preserved in the
church from one generation of bishops to
another.   The chief sources of it are con-
sidered to be  the fathers of the church,
who, indeed, introduced rites not prescrib-
ed by the Bible, and some of which,  as
the baptism of children, confession, the
celebration of certain festivals, &c, have
been retained  by many  Protestant sects,
yet with different views from those enter-
tained by the  Catholics respecting their
importance,  or  necessity  for  salvation.
The Catholics ascribe to their tradition
divine authority, and thus make it a prin-
ciple in their dogmatics.  They maintain
that the church has always remained in
possession of the  revelation of the  Holy
Ghost, which the apostles enjoyed, and
that this revelation or belief of the church
is ascertained by the decrees of the coun-
cils (q. v.), the concurrence of the fathers
of the church, and  the  decrees of the
popes  (the  Gallican church,  however,
does not give this authority to the decrees
of the pope, unless they are acquiesced in
by the church universal, though it admits
that this acquiescence may be tacit). The
Bible, indeed,  is adopted as a rule of faith
by the Catholics as well as by the  Prot-
estants ; but the former consider it  as to
be explained and understood according to
the construction which the church puts
upon the doctrines  contained  in  it—a
principle  sanctioned by  the council  of
Trent.  A reverence for  tradition, there-
fore, is taught in all Catholic catechisms;
and  it is the  foundation on which the
Catholic  believes  in  his rites,  and the
characteristic parts of his religious worship. "*
In the Canones et Decreta Concilii Triden-
tini, Appendix, p. xxii, we find in pope
Pius's creed the following passage: Apos-
tolicas et ecclesiasticas traditiones, reliqua-
que ejusdem ecdesia observationes et consti-
tutionesfirmissime admitto d amplector.
   Item, sacram scripturam juxta eum sen-
sum, quern tenuit et tenet sancta mater ecck- 
314
TRADITION—TRAGEDY.
sia, cujus est judicare de vero sensu et inter-
pretatione sacrarum scripturarum,  admit-
to ; nee earn unquam, nisijuxta unanimem
consensum patrum accipiam, et interpreta-
bor.   The council of Trent ascribes equal
authority to tradition and  the Bible.   It
has been said, indeed, that it ought to have
given greater authority to the former,  as
the latter can only,  by the  council's own
decree, be  legitimately explained  by the
church or traditions.  From all  that has
been said, it  appeare  that tradition is  to
the Catholic what reason is to the ration-
alist, and the literal  text of the Bible, sci-
entifically and conscientiously settled,  to
the supematuralist   (See Roman Catholic
Church.)
  Traditores ; a name given, in the first
ages  of the church,  to those Christians
who,  during the persecutions, especially
those under Diocletian, gave up the sacred
books and utensils to the heathen author-
ities, to escape the dangers which threat-
ened  them.  They were  generally tim-
orous priests, and were punished by the
church with dismissal from office.  The
Donatists (q. v.) considered the Traditores
on  a  level with the  worst heretics, and
separated from  the Catholic church  on
the ground that  it tolerated them.  (See
Donatists.)
  Traducians  (from traduco,  to  trans-
mit) ; a name which  the  Pelagians an-
ciently gave to the Catholics, because  of
their teaching that original  sin was trans-
mitted from father to  children.   At pres-
ent, the term  is sometimes applied  to
those who hold that souls are transmitted
to chUdren by the parents.
  Trafalgar, Battle of.  (See Navy,
where it is fully  described.)
  Tragedy (from the Greek and Latin tra-
gadia).  The Greek word is derived from
rpayos, and (,].)•, a song.   It is an old, but not,
therefore, less absurd opinion, says Ade-
lung, in his Worterbuch, that the first part
of the word rpayos signifies, in this compo-
sition, a he goat, and the whole, a song in
honor of Bacchus, sung at the sacrifice  of
a he goat, or a play, for which the poet re-
ceived a he goat—a derivation occasioned
by its being  generally known that rpayos
signifies a he goat, while it is not so com-
monly known that it  also signifies  melan-
choly, of which  the  Latin  tragicus is a
clear proof;  otherwise that word  would
have signified  goatish.   Hesychius ex-
plains  CKrpayiaiei, explicitly,  by  anoiuw&t,
anoQpwti, he weeps.   In the ancient Upper
Gennan, tiie word  Trego  signifies grief;
in Lower Saxon, trage is weary, sad; and
in Swedish, trdga means  to mourn, and
trdge, grief; all of which  are connected
with the Greek rpayuos, or rpayos.  Trage-
dy, therefore, properly signifies a melan-
choly song, as comedy signifies  a gay
one.  But that rpayos,  in Greek, signifies
both a he goat and melancholy,  is as ac-
cidental as that ram, in English, means a
male sheep, and  also to drive down.  So
far Mr. Adelung.   The  invention of
tragedy, in its firet rude form, is ascribed
to Thespis, who  lived in the time of So-
lon.   According to Herodotus, the people
of Sicyon introduced  tragic  choruses be-
fore  the times of Thespis, first in honor
of Bacchus, then of  Adrastus; to  them,
therefore,  the invention  of the  Greek
tragedy is  generally  ascribed; its  devel-
opement is due to /Eschylus.   As Aris-
totle found it, he described it as a dramatic
poem, which has for its object to  purity
by  terror  and pity,  awakened by the
poetical imitation of an action.  To un-
derstand this  oft-repeated  explanation,
we must examine the  meaning of purify-
ing passions by means of passions.  The
artificial production   of*  those  passions
which affect us disagreeably, cannot well
have any effect in purifying  the soul, ex-
cept  by strengthening  the  mind, and
exercising it in governing the passions in
general.  For  such a purpose, indeed, a
state of mind seems proper, in which man
feels at  the same time the  influence of
strong emotions, and  the power to free
himself from their influence  at  pleasure.
Into this state tragedy strives to bring us.
It aims  to awaken in us  those passions
which rest on  sympathy  (and which,
therefore,  impede our inward freedom
less than the purely  selfish  ones), by an
artificial appearance, by truth of concep-
tion without reality of action, and whilst
it does  not hide the want  of reality,  it
leaves us  the feeliug of ability to free
ourselves from the influence of the scene
at pleasure, even if it were only by the
consciousness that the whole is but ap-
pearance.   Who could  calmly witness
the performance of a  tragedy if he really
thought, but for a moment, the sufferings
represented on the stage were real ?  The
poet strives to operate  upon us by the
liveliness of his  creations,  and thus to
arouse  within us those powers  which
counteract  the passions.  As the exercise
of these powers is the object in view, he
must avoid  carrying the  sympathetic
emotion so far, that  we  can escape the
pain only by a  complete  destruction of
the iUusion ; because, as soon as we take^
this  means, that exercise of the  moral
faculty ceases.  We must be able to suffer 
TRAGEDY—TRAJAN.
315
the conception of being in the situation
of the actors, even when we see them
perish, by feeling in ourselves the exist-
ence of those powers, of which they, for
the moment, seem to be deprived.   From
this  point of view, the definition of
Aristotle is perhaps to be reconciled with
what has been said, in modem times, on
the essence of tragedy.  Even dramatic
writers have confounded the melancholy
with  the  tragic ;  but it may be deduced
from what has been said, that the essence
of tragedy does not depend on the mel-
ancholy end, on the tears extorted, but on
the greatness and elevation of the chief
idea contained in the fable, and which it
illustrates, as by a living example.  Whilst
we pity the suffering depicted, we must
be able to delight in the  nobleness of its
cause, as, otherwise, no feeling is excited
in us but a purely painful one, from which
we can only escape by the idea that the
whole spectacle  is  an illusion.   Many
theories  have  been  started  to  explain
what is  properly the tragical in tragedy,
some very obscure, others less so; as that
the tragical is founded on the struggle of
human freedom with necessity, of the will
with fate, &c.   But the comic, the true
comic, is, in  many  cases, nothing  else.
This  struggle belongs to  the  drama in
general.  (See Drama.)
  Trajan.  M. Ulpius Trajanus, a Ro-
man  emperor,  born  in  Italica,  in the
Spanish province  of Bsetica, was the son
of  Trajanus,  a  distinguished  Roman
commander,  under Vespasian.   He ac-
companied his  father  in  a  campaign
against the Parthians, and also served on
the Rhine, where he acquired so high a
character, that when the excellent and
aged Nerva came to the throne, he adopt-
ed  him, and  raised  him to the rank of
Caesar, in 97, being then in his forty-sec-
ond, or, according to  some, in his  forty-
fifth year, and ofa most dignified appear-
ance and commanding aspect.  His eleva-
tion immediately curbed the insolence of
the pretorian  guards; and Nerva dying a
few months after, he peaceably succeeded
to the throne.   He was at that time in Ger-
many, where he remained for more than
a year, to settle a  peace with the German
states, and, in 99, set out with a numerous
escort to Rome.  After a liberal  largess
to the soldiers and people, he took meas-
ures for supplying the capital with com;
in which he was eminently successful.
He then proceeded to punish and banish
the pernicious tribe of infomiers,  and to
reduce some  of the most odious of the
taxes, and showed the most praiseworthy
solicitude to fill the  most important posts
with men of talent  and integrity.  Like
Augustus, he cultivated personal friend-
ships, and  visited his intimates at their
houses with entire  confidence, and as a
private person.   His palace was open to
his friends and to all who chose to enter it,
and his audiences were free to all the
citizens.  At his table were always some
of the most respectable Romans, who in-
dulged in the ease of mixed conversation.
Although his  early  military experience
had  prevented him  from  acquiring the
accomplishments of  learning,  he  was
sensible of its importance, and founded
libraries; and under his patronage, the
studies were revived  which  had suffered
from the persecution of Domitian.  His
virtues procured for him,  by the  unani-
mous voice of the senate,  the title of
Optimus.   In the third year of his reign,
he accepted of  a third consulship; and
during his possession of this magistracy,
the celebrated panegyric upon  him was
pronounced  by  Pliny, which  is  still
extant.  In  the  following year,  a  war
broke out with  Decebalus,  king  of the
Dacians, whom  he  subdued.   He then
returned to Rome, and enjoyed the honors
of a triumph, with the name of Dacicus.
The two following  years  he  passed at
Rome, and in the last of them, 103, Pliny
was made  governor  of  Pontus and Bi-
thynia, which  circumstance  gave  rise to
a series  of official  letters  between  him
and Trajan, which, beyond any rhetorical
panegyric,  afford proof of the  liberal
spirit of the government.  Among these
are the  famous epistles respecting the
Christians, whom he directs Pliny not to
search for,  but to punish if brought be-
fore him ; and on no account to listen to
anonymous charges.  In 104, Decebalus
renewed the  war  with  the  Romans,
which immediately called out the warlike
emperor, who, with a view to form a
road for his troops,  constructed a  bridge
over the Danube, which was deemed one
of the greatest works of antiquity.  He
then marched into  Dacia,  and reduced
the capital of Decebalus, who, in despair,
killed himself; and Dacia  became a Ro-
man province.  I lis passion for war—the
only fault which can be charged on Tra-
jan as a sovereign—exhibits  him, for the
remainder of his reign, rather as a victo-
rious  commander,  engaged in distant
expeditions  for  the  enlargement of the
empire,  than as a sovereign ruler.  The
disposal of the crown of Armenia led, in
the firet instance, to a contest with Chos-
roes the  Parthian,  of  which  war the 
316
TRAJAN—TRANSCENDENT.
reduction of Armenia to a Roman prov-
ince was  the result.   The succeeding
Eastern campaigns of Trajan, and the re-
newal of the war with Parthia, cannot be
detailed in summaries of this nature.  The
year 114 is said  to be that in  which he
dedicated  the magnificent forum which
lie buUt in Rome, and erected the column
sculptured with  his exploits, which stiU
remains under his name.  In a  final
campaign in the  East,  after giving a king
to the Parthians,  he laid siege to Atra, the
capital  of an Arabian  tribe,  but was
obliged to withdraw to  Syria.  In  the
following year, 117, he proposed return-
ing into Mesopotamia,  but was attacked
by  a paralytic disorder, attended  by a
dropsy, which induced him  to repair to
Italy, leaving the  army under the  com-
mand of Adrian.  He had proceeded no
farther than  Selinus, in  Cilicia, when he
(Ued.  The empress Plotina  took advan-
tage of his last  moments to secure  the
adoption of Adrian for his successor, not
without some suspicion of a gross decep-
tion.   Trajan died in his  sixty-fourth
year, after a reign of nearly twenty years.
As  a sovereign,  the only blemish in his
character was his great passion for war, the
extension of empire produced  by which
—the greatest that ever  acknowledged
Roman sway—scarcely lasted longer than
his  own Ufetime.  In his private charac-
ter he was said to be addicted  to sensual
indulgences, of which a passion for wine
was by far the least  disgraceful.  His
good qualities as a ruler, however, were
such that, at the  distance of two hundred
and  fifty years from his death, the sen-
ators, in their acclamations on  the acces-
sion of a new emperor, were accustomed
to wish that he  might be more fortunate
than Augustus and better than  Trajan.
  Trajan's Column.   (See  Column.)
  Tramontana.  The Italians give this
name to the north wind, because it comes
to them over the  Alps, and for a similar
reason,  they call the north or polar star
stella tramontana.  This gave rise to the
saying perder la tramontana—applied to
one who loses his way—a metaphor taken
from mariners, who are guided in  their
course by the pole-star.   The phrase has
even passed from the Italians to the French
(perdre  la tramontane), and the Germans
(die  Tramontane  verlieren), though, in its
original signification, it has no application
to France and Germany.
  Trance ; an ecstasy, a state in which
the voluntary functions  of the  body are
suspended, and the soul seems to be rapt
into visions.   (For the state  of apparent
death,  which sometimes takes  place  to
such a degree as to have led to the inter-
ment of people under  the supposition
that death had  actually taken place, see
Asphyxia, and Death; and for the  means
of  restoring  suspended  animation, see
Drowning.)
  Tranquebar ; a seaport of the Car-
natic, in Tanjore, 56 miles south of Pon-
dicherry ; lon. 79° 54' E.; lat. 11° 1' N.;
population,  15,000.  It  belongs to the
Danes, having  been purchased by them
in 1616, and is the seat of a governor, and
the capital of the  Danish possessions  in
India.  (See East  India Companies.)  It
is situated on the  coast of Coromandel,
with a harbor at the mouth of one of the
branches of the  Cauvery,  defended by a
fortress.  The town is between two and
three miles in  circumference,  and sur-
rounded with a wall and several bastions,
well provided with artillery.  Within the
walls are three Christian  churches, one
Lutheran, one  missionary, and one for
Roman Catholics (descendants of Portu-
guese  who  were  in  possession of the
town before it  was  possessed  by the
Danes), a large  mosque for the  Moham-
medans, and five pagodas for the Hindoos.
The fort called  Daneborg is kept in neat
order.   The territory belonging to the
town is considerable (425 square miles,
population, 50,000), and is full of populous
villages.
  Transcendent and Transcendental
are technical terms in philosophy.  Ac-
cording to their etymology (from transcen-
dcre), they signify that which goes beyond
a certain  limit;  in phUosophy, that which
goes beyond, or transcends, the  circle  of
experience, or of what is perceptible  by
the senses.  Properly speaking, all philos-
ophy is in this sense transcendental, be-
cause all  philosophical investigations rise
above the sensual, even if they start from
that which is  perceptible by the  senses.
But philosophical inquiries  are to be dis-
tinguished  according  as  they proceed
from experience, or from principles and
ideas not derived from that source.  The
latter sort are called, in a narrower sense,
pure, or transcendental. The school of Kant
makes a still further distinction: it gives
the name of transcendental to that which
does not indeed originate  from experi-
ence, but yet is connected with it, because
it contains the grounds of the possibility
of experience ; but the term transcendent it
applies to that which cannot be connected
with experience, but transcends the limit
of  possible  experience  and  of philoso-
phizing.   The transcendent, therefore, is 
TRANSCENDENT-TRANSFUSION.
317
 properly opposed  to the immanent.  Im-
 manent principles are those the application
 of which is confined entirely within the
 limits of possible experience.  " 1 call all
 knowledge transcendental," says  Kant, in
 the Critique of pure Reason, " which oc-
 cupies itself not so much with objects as
 with the way of knowing these objects, as
 far as this is possible a priori.  A system
 of such notions would be called transcen-
 dental philosophy, and would be the sys-
 tem of all the principles of pure  reason ;"
 or, as he says in another passage, " the
 philosophy of the pure, merely specula-
 tive  reason, from which the practical is
 separated."  Accordingly, metaphysics, in
 particular, has  received  the name  of
 transcendental philosophy. But, in another
 passage, he distinguishes the metaphysical
 from  the transcendental.    The  former
 presents notions as obtained a priori; the
 latter explains the principles from which
 the possibility of other synthetic knowl-
 edge  can  be underetood  a priori.—In
 mathematics, transcendental or  transcen-
 dent  lines, are those curves the nature
 of which cannot be explained by algebraic
 equations.   Descartes  called them  me-
 chanical lines, and refused them  a place
 in mathematics;  but Leibnitz  received
 them again, inventing a peculiar kind of
equations, by which their  nature  is as
 well   explained   as  that  of algebraic
 curves.
   Transept.   (See  Architecture, vol. i,
 p. 343.)
   Transferring.  The following is the
 mode of transferring lithographic prints
 or copperplate engravings from  paper to
 wood.  The print is first placed in a ves-
 sel of water, until it is completely saturat-
 ed, which will  be about five or ten min-
 utes, and then placed between  blotting
 paper, to  remove the superabundant water
 from its surface.  It is then varnished by
 a brush, and applied immediately to the
 wood,  which  has been previously var-
 nished, and allowed  to dry. The  print
 thus appUed  may be  subjected to the
 pressure  necessary to effect its complete
 adhesion, by spreading over it a sheet of
 paper, and rubbing this with the  hand.
 The paper on which the print was made
 may then be peeled off by rubbing it cau-
 tiously with the moistened fingers, and,
 when wholly removed, a coat of varnish
 must be applied to the print.  When col-
ored prints are to be transfened, an acid
solution must be used instead of water, to
destroy the size which exists in the paper.
This solution  may be  composed of two
thirds of vinegar and one third of water,
                 27*
 and is to be applied only to the back of
 the print.  If the article is to be polished,
 apply several coats of vamish, allowing
 each to dry before the application  of an-
 other ; and then rub the surface with a
 piece of woollen cloth and pumice stone
 reduced to impalpable powder.   When
 the surface becomes smooth, the process
 may  be continued with a fine  cloth and
 the finest tripoli, with olive-oil.
   Transfiguration, in  the language of
 the church ; the glorification of Christ on
 mount Tabor, in memory  of which the
 Roman  CathoUc  church  celebrates  a
 feast  of the first rank on Aug. 6,  which
 seems to have been established  as late as
 the twelfth century.  Pope Calixtus III, in
 1456, attached to this many indulgences,
 in  memory of a victory gained over the
 Turks.   One of the most beautiful  pic-
 tures of Raphael  is  known  under  this
 name. It is in the Vatican. Dorigny and
 Morghen have given fine  engravings of it.
   Transfusion (transfusio, from  trans-
fundo, to pour from one vessel into anoth-
 er) ; the  transmission of blood  from one
 living animal to  another.  Harvey  was
 thirty yeare before he could get his dis-
 covery  admitted ; but, as soon as the
 circulation was  acknowledged, people's
 minds were seized with a sort  of  deliri-
 um :  it  was thought  that the means of
 curing all  diseases  was found, and even
 of  rendering man immortal.  The  cause
 of all our evils was attributed to the blood:
 in order to cure them, nothing more  was
 necessary but to  remove the bad  blood,
 and to  replace it by pure  blood, drawn
 from  a sound animal.  The firet attempts
 were made upon  animals, with  complete
 success.   A dog, having lost a  great part
 of its  blood, received, by transfusion,  that
 of  a  sheep, and became  well.  Another
 dog,  old  and  deaf,  regained, by  this
 means, the use of hearing, and seemed to
 recover its youth.  A horse of twenty-six
 years, having received in his  veins the
 blood of  four  lambs,  recovered  his
 strength.   Transfusion was soon attempt-
 ed  upon man.  Denys and Emerez, the
 one a physician, the other a surgeon of
 Paris, were the first who ventured  to try
 it  They introduced  into the veins of a
 young man, an idiot, the blood of a calf,
 in  greater  quantity than that  which  had
 been  drawn from them, and he appeared
 to recover his reason.  A leprous person,
 and a quartan ague, were also  cured by
 this means; and several other transfusions
 were  made upon healthy pereons without
 any disagreeable result.  However, some
 sad events happened to calm  the general 
318       TRANSFUSION—TRANSMIGRATION OF THE SOUL.
enthusiasm caused by these repeated suc-
cesses.  The young idiot we mentioned
fell into a state of madness a short  time
after the experiment   He was  submitted
a second time to the transfusion, and was
immediately seized with a hamaturia, and
died in a state of sleepiness  and torpor.
A young prince of the  blood  royal was
also the victim of it  The parliament of
Paris prohibited transfusion.   A  short
time after, G. Riva having, in  Italy, per-
formed the transfusion upon two individ-
uals, who  died of it, the pope prohibited
it  also.   From this  period, transfusion
has been regarded as useless, and even
dangerous.
  Transit,  in astronomy.   By a transit
over the disk of the sun, we understand
the phenomenon which occurs  when Ve-
nus or Mercury, in their revolution round
the sun, pass between the sun and the
eye of the observer on  this earth, and ap-
pear to move like black  spots  over the
sun's disk, their illuminated portion being
the side turned from  the  spectator.  If
this phenomenon is observed  by different
persons at  points considerably distant
from each other, it will not be of equal
duration at all of these  points; and, as the
differences of time depend on the  paral-
lax (q. v.) of the planet as well as the sun,
the former will enable  us to determine the
latter.  The  transits of Venus are partic-
ularly  suited to  this  purpose.  Such a
transit of Venus over the  sun's disk, ac-
companied with  very  favorable circum-
stances, occurred  last, June 3,1769, and
fonns an epoch in the  history of astrono-
my.   The royal society of London had it
observed at  Hudson's  bay and Otaheite;
the French court,  by Chappe, in Califor-
nia ;  the Danish, by Hell, at Wardhus, in
Lapland; the Swedish, by Planmann, at
Kajaneborg,  in Finland; and, by  these
five   observations, the  sun's   parallax,
which is one of the most important ele-
ments of astronomy, was determined with
great exactness.   The next transits of
Venus fall in tiie yeare 1872 and 1884.—
See the ninth book of  Lalande's Astrono-
my ;  the Mimoire sur le Passage de Venus
(Paris, 1772, 4to.); Bode's  Abhandlung
vom  Durchgang der  Venus (Hamburg,
1769). A good general view of the sub-
ject  may  be found in Lalande's Abrigi
d'Astronomie (Paris, 1795, p. 264 seq.).
  Transit Trade ; such as arises from
the passage of goods through one country
on their way to another.  It is  sometimes
of great importance, as, for instance, when
most of the commodities of the  East
which were consumed  in the north of
Europe passed through  Germany.   The
transit trade  leaves the  commission, and
other expenses attending the forwarding
of  the  goods, in  the country through
which they  pass ;  besides  which  they
sometimes also pay a duty.
  Transition Formations.  (See Geol-
ogy-)
  Transmigration of the  Soul.   Tho
doctrine of the passage of the soul from one
body into another has its foundation  in
the belief of the  connexion of all  living
beings, and of the gradual purification  of
the spiritual part of man, and its return to
the  common  source  and  origin of  all
things—God.  The earthly life, accord-
ing to this system, is  only a point in the
succession of states through which the
soul, proceeding from God, has to pass, hi
order,  at  last, to  return to its original
source.  Even some  modern  European
writers have  inclined  to the doctrine  of
transmigration, as enabling the soul in one
condition to supply the deficiencies of an-
other, and to fit itself better for a more
perfect state.   Pious and reflecting men,
for  example,  Herder,  have  thought that
many reasons were to be found for  a be-
lief in such  a transmigration, which  is
also taught in the Talmud.  Faint images
of divine magnificence once witnessed  in
a higher state, and revived in the soul, by
the  view of the  true, the good and the
beautiful, which are met  with in this life,
and which fill the spirit  with admiration
and  deUght, are  thought to  be  presenti-
ments of those feelings which will  again
be awakened  in us, when  we return  to
the  original source of all truth, goodness
and beauty.   The religion of the ancient
people of  India, in which the first traces
ofa behef in  a transmigration of the soul
are   found, considers it partly as the
course of  destiny, partly as a punishment
for the neglect of religious duties, in con-
sequence of which  the  soul is made  to
pass, after death,  through the  bodies  of
various  animals, by way of  penance and
purification.  With this  doctrine is con-
nected the regard which  the Indians have
for animals.  From the  Indians, this be-
lief passed into the secret doctrine of the
Egyptian  caste of priests, who believed
that the soul had to continue 3000 years,
after death, in the  bodies of animals, be-
fore it could reach the habitations of the
blessed. From them the Greeks received
the doctrine, and termed  it metempsychosis
(change  of  soul),  and mdensomatosia
(change of body).  (See  Metempsychosis.)
Pythagoras (q. v.) adopted it into his phi-
losophy, as indicating the immortality  of 
TRANSMIGRATION OF  THE  SOUL—TRANSPARENCY.    319
the human soul.  The later Pythagoreans
taught that the mind, freed from the fet-
ters of the body, will enter the realm of
the departed, there remain in an interme-
diate state for a longer or shorter time,
and again animate other human or animal
bodies, until the time of its purification is
finished, and its return to the Fountain of
life has become possible.  The mind of
Pythagoras himself was conceived to have
been already four times on earth.  The
stories of these Pythagorean notions rest
on comparatively late reports. The Greek
mysteries enveloped  the doctrine of the
transmigration of" the soul in  agreeable
mythuses, which represent Dionysos or
Bacchus  as the lord and leader of the
soul.  In  these, also, the belief in a pre-
existence is to be discovered. For this eso-
teric doctrine  distinguishes souls, which,
according to the organization of the uni-
verse,  are driven from their former ethe-
real or heavenly life down to the earth, to
appear for the first time as men, from the
souls in a state of penance, which  were
obliged to enter a human body a second
and third  time ;  and also from those souls
which voluntarily come to the earth from
curiosity, or delight in individuality. The
Greek  poets and philosophers have given
various forms to these mythuses. Pindar,
the Pythagorean, lets the soul arrive at the
isles of the blessed  after passing three
unblemished lives on this earth.   Plato
extends the period for the entire return
of souls into the Godhead to 10,000 years,
during which they have to abide  in tiie
bodies  of animals and  men.   Plotinus
treats of two  kinds of transmigrations, a
passage of souls from invisible, ethereal
bodies  into earthly ones, and from  earthly
into other earthly bodies.  Among the
Romans, Cicero and  Virgil have alluded
to this doctrine.  The rabbins  treat the
subject of transmigration in their peculiar
way, maintaining that God created but a
certain number of Jewish souls, which
therefore  constantly  return on  earth  as
long as Jews are to be found here, and are
sometimes made to dwell in the bodies of
animals for the sake of penance, but, at
the day of the  resurrection,  will all  be
purified, and in the bodies of the just re-
vive on the soil of the promised land.—
The Christian  sect of the Manichseans
(q. v.) also considered the  transmigration
of the soul as a means of penance.   This
belief was widely diffused.  It  existed
among the  ancient  Italians,  the   Celtic
Druids, the Scythians and Hyperboreans,
and is still entertained by the heathen
nations of Eastern Asia, the Caucasian
 tribes, the American savages, and African
 negroes.  With the ancient Egyptians, it
 led, as it stUl does with the Hindoos, to
 the veneration of certain animals, and the
 fear of eating their flesh, since  their bod-
 ies may be the abode of departed ances-
 tors or friends.  The Pythagoreans would
 not kill  animals,  for the same reason.
 This  belief in  the transmigration of the
 soul, as a means of purification and  pen-
 ance, may have been attended  with good
 consequences hi certain states of society;
 but the Christian is content  to leave un-
 drawn the veil which the  Creator has
 placed over the particular circumstances
 of our future condition.   Whatever may
 be the means for purifying and  perfecting
 the human soul after death, the Christian
 rests assured that a life passed  according
 to the commands of God wUl fit the soul
 to enjoy his presence; and that a  life
 passed in the neglect of his commands
 will lead to future misery.
  Transoms ; certain beams or timbers
 extended across the stempost of a ship, to
 fortify her after-part, and give  it the fig-
 ure most suitable to the service for which
 she is calculated.
  Transparency; the property of bodies
 by which they admit the passage of light
 through them.  It does not consist, how-
 ever, simply in transmitting light in suffi-
 cient  quantity,  but  in transmitting it  in
 straight lines. Water and oil, for instance,
 are each  separately transparent   sub-
 stances, but, mixed together, are untrans-
 pareut, because they refract  light  differ-
 ently.  On the  other hand, paper, which
 by itself is  opaque, becomes transparent
 by moistening it with water or  off.   The
 transparency of a body has no connexion
 with its hardness or softness, or porosity,
 as one would at first imagine.  The hard
 diamond is transparent: the softest kinds
 of wood, on the contrary, are not so, be-
 cause the rectilinear direction of the rays
 of light in the mass does not depend on
 the properties just  mentioned.   The un-
 changeableness of this rectilinear direc-
 tion of the rays  of light must  therefore be
 regarded as the proper fundamental cause
 of transparency. Newton, in his Optics,
 has proposed acute inquiries  and conjec-
 tures respecting transparency in the sense
just given.  Bouguet, in his Traiti d'Op-
 tique (Paris, 1760, 4to.), has given the re-
 sults of his experiments on the diminution
 which the light suffers  in  its passage
 through different  bodies.  The newly-
 invented photometer of Lampadius de-
 pends upon this principle of the diminu-
 tion of light by transparent bodies.  It is 
320
TRANSPARENCY—TRANSYLVANIA.
 a tube in which plates of the transparent
 substances are inserted, till  the  light at
 last becomes invisible through it.  (See a
 Practical Treatise on Gas  Light, by Ac-
 cum.)
   Transportation is a kind of  punish-
 ment, or more  properly an alleviation or
 commutation of punishment, for criminals
 in England convicted of felony; who, for
 the first offence, unless it is an extraordi-
 nary  one,  are generally  transported to
 New Holland  or Van  Diemen's Land,
 there to bear hard  labor for a term of
 yeare.
   Transubstantiation.    (See  Lord's
 Supper.)
   Transylvania ;  a grand principality,
 forming part of the Hungarian estates of
 the imperial house  of Austria, lying be-
 tween Hungary, Walachia and Moldavia;
 23,500 square miles; population,2,000,000.
 It is called by  the Germans Siebenbiirgen,
 from  Siebengebirge (q. v.), whence a col-
 ony of German colonists removed to the
 former region in  1143.  The Latin name
 Transylvania is derived from its situation
 beyond the Carpathian forests; and the
 Hungarian   name  Erdely  signifies  the
 mountainous forest.  Transylvania is sur-
 rounded  on the  east, south, and part-
 ly on the  north,  by  the  Carpathian
 mountains, from which  lateral  chains
 branch off,  and cross the country in every
 direction.  It consists chiefly of alternate
 mountains and valleys, with few extensive
 plains.  The principal rivers are the Ma-
ros, Samos and  Aluta.  The lakes  are
 deep.  The soil is  generally fertile, but
 badly cultivated;  the climate cold for the
 latitude,  but healthy.  The productions
are wheat,  oats, barley, potatoes; maize
and vines are raised in favorable situations;
 orchards are not neglected;  hay,  and all
artificial grasses, are unknown, and cattle
subsist upon natural  herbage; cattle  and
sheep are numerous; there are extensive
forests.   The  mineral  productions  are
various.  There are salt mines producing
annually from  30 to 40,000 tons; iron
mines, yielding 3000 or 4000 tons of iron;
mines of lead, copper, silver and gold;
quarries of marble, jasper, porphyry, slate,
limestone, coal, sulphur and  petroleum,
 precious  stones, as topazes,  chrysolites,
 opals, garnets,  &c.; and mineral  springs
 in abundance.   Transylvania is a part of
the ancient Dacia. (q.v.)  From the fifth
 century downward,  it was successively
occupied by different nations;  and, in
 1004, it was made a province of Hungary.
John Zapolya, in 1535, was acknowledged
by the king of Hungary sovereign prince
 of Transylvania; and he and his  succes-
 sors were often  supported  by the Turks
 against the Hungarian princes of the Aus-
 trian dynasty. Leopold I finally conquer-
 ed the country, in 1689; and, by the peace
 of Carlovitza (q.v.),  in  1(599, the sove-
 reignty of Austria over Transylvania was
 acknowledged byTurkey.  The country,
 however, continued to be governed by its
 own princes, until the extinction of their
 line, in 1713, when  it was incorporated
 with Hungary.   Maria Theresa erected it
 into a grand principality in 1765.   The
 population is composed of thirteen na-
 tions.  The three principal people are the
 Hungarians,  Szecklere  (supposed to be
 descendants  of  the  Petshenegure)  and
 Saxons  (the German  colonists  above
 mentioned).  The country  is accordingly
 divided into three main divisions: 1. the
 Land of  the  Szecklere, in the east, thinly
 peopled,  and subdivided  into three seats
 oi jurisdictions;  2. the Land of the Hun-
 garians, in the west, which comprises  half
 of the population and extent of the coun-
 try, and  is divided  into  eleven counties
 (comitatus) and two districts; 3. the Land
of the  Saxons in the south and  north,
which is the best cultivated, and is divided
into nine seats  or jurisdictions and  two
districts.   These three nations are called
the United (Uniti);  the othere, called the
 Tolerated (Tolerati), are Walachians, Ar-
menians,  Greeks, Moravians, Poles, Rus-
sians, Bulgarians, Servians or Rascians,
Jews and gipsies.  The  last mentioned,
 called  also Pharaohs,  and New Peasants,
 lead a roving life, and  cannot be induced
 to cultivate the land in a stationary place
 of residence.  The  Walachians  are the
 most numerous of the Tolerati.  Trade is
 chiefly in the hands of Greeks and Arme-
 nians.  The Saxons are the most indus-
 trious part of the  population, and  in their
 Land lie Hermannstadt, the capital, with
 16,000  inhabitants,  and  Cronstadt, the
 principal  commercial  and manufacturing
 place in Transylvania, with 30,000 inhab-
 itants.  The Transylvanian nobility enjoy
 exemption from taxes,  and  from  the
 county jurisdiction, and other  privileges.
 The higher nobility, barons and  counts,
are styled magnates.   The lower  nobility
 are not  altogether  exempt from taxes:
 this class includes those nobles who have
no manor, the citizens  of the free cities,
 and the officers of the chase to the sove-
 reign.  The rest of the people consists of
 the citizens of the other towns, emanci-
 pated peasants and serfs.   The Transyl-
 vanian estates are divided, in  regard to
 nations, into the Hungarian, Szeckler and 
TRANSYLVANTA-TRAP-ROCKS.
321
Saxon benches;  in  respect of reli*non,
into the Catholic, Reformed  (Calvinistic),
Evangelical (Lutheran), and Unitarian or
Socinian benches; and, in regard to char-
acter, into those of the prelates, of the mag-
nates, and of the nobles. The diets are held
in Hermannstadt The estates have the
right, in connexion  with the crown, to
make laws, impose taxes, and confer the
rights of citizenship  on foreigners.  The
revenue  of the  principality amounts to
5,000,000 guilders.  The four religions
above mentioned  are  privileged; others
are only tolerated.  (See Military Dis-
trict.)                          *
  Trapezoid, or Trapezium; a  quad-
rilateral figure of unequal sides, and, con-
sequently, unequal angles.  It is different
from  parallelograms  (q. v.), which are
quadrilateral figures, with  the opposite
sides always equal.   The word is derived
from  the Greek  rpane^ov, which had the
same meaning in Greek geometry.
  Trap-Rocks ;  an  important class  of
rocks  in  geology,  which  derive their
name from the Swedish  word trappa, a
stair, because they frequently divide into
regular  forms, resembling  the  steps  of
stairs.  These rocks vary in texture, from
an apparently simple  rock to a confusedly
crystalline  compound, in  which  crystals
of feldspar are disseminated.  The pre-
dominant substance in the members of the
family is a simple rock, of which  indu-
rated clay (wacke) may be placed at one
extreme, and compact feldspar at the oth-
er, the intermediate members being clay-
stone  or  clinkstone.   In some cases,  it
forms the  whole mass;  in  others, it  is
mixed with other materials in various pro-
portions, producing  great diversities  of
aspect, without any material variations in
the  fundamental  character.   It often ap-
peare  as if quartz,  feldspar and  horn-
blende composed the  mass, and various
circumstances determined their union in
such a manner as to  produce a large pro-
portion of the different compounds known
as trap-rocks, sometimes  the hornblende
being in mass,  at others  the  feldspar,
while the quartz rarely predominates.  In
other  situations,  confusedly crystalline
compounds have been the result.  Quartz,
feldspar and hornblende united form, sie-
nite;  or feldspar and hornblende, without
the quartz, constitute greenstone.   The
compounds occasionally contain dissemi-
nated crystals of feldspar, and thus become
what  are  called greenstone porphyries
(diabase  porphyroide, French; Grunstein
Porphyr, German).   A  paste  of green
hornblende, containing crystals of feldspar,
constitutes the antique green porphyry (the
ophite of the French).  Some of the trap-
pean  rocks  are often vesicular,  in  the
manner of  modern  lavas; the vesicles,
however,  being generally filled up  by
some  mineral substances,  which have
been infiltrated  into  them subsequent to
their  formation.   Such  substances  are
either agates, calcareous spar, or some of
the zeolitic minerals.  From these cavities
frequently being of an almond shape, or
rather from the appearance of their solid
contents resembling almonds in form, the
term amygdaloid has been applied to rocks
of this description.  It must be underetood
that the base, or paste of the amygdaloids,
is not constantly the same, but is Uable to
vary materially.  A trap-rock is  some-
times  both amygdaloidal and porphyritic
at  the same time.  Other minerals besides
those  above  enumerated  occur  in  the
trappean rocks, but cannot be considered
as  forming an essential part of them, with
the exception of augite and hypersthene,
which, with the mixture of either com-
mon compact, or glassy feldspar,  consti-
tute the augite and hypersthene rocks.  It
would be inappropriate to the present arti-
cle to attempt a notice of the various aspects
under  which these rocks  present them-
selves.  It should, however, be remarked,
that the  term basalt is applied to sub-
stances which are not precisely the same,
being sometimes given to a fine compound
of augite and compact feldspar; at othere,
to  a minute  mixture of hornblende and
compact feldspar;  sometimes to dark, in-
durated claystones, and finally to a com-
pound of  feldspar, augite  and titaniferous
iron.  The last mixture seems that  now
most commonly termed basalt.  Basalt is
possessed  ofa greenish, or brownish, and
sometimes of an iron-black, color.  It is
difficult to break, and possesses a consid-
erable degree of hardness.  It is  fusible
into a black glass, and is magnetic.  The
iron which it contains, as  is the  fact also
with greenstone, passes, when exposed to
the air, into a further state of oxygenation;
and they are consequently generally cov-
ered with a reddish-brown incrustation.—
The whole family of trap-rocks have, on
the one hand, a close alliance with volcan-
ic  rocks, and, on the other, with the more
ancient rocks of porphyry and  granite.
 The gradation  of trap-rock, having,  in
some  parts, a volcanic character, into true
granite, has been observed in a mountain
near Christiania, in Norway.  The lower
rocks are gneiss, over which occurs dark
slate,  in which are beds of blackish lime-
stone, containing organic remains.  These 
322
TRAP-ROCKS.
beds are covered by an enormous mass of
porphyry, varying in thickness from 1600
to 2000 feet.  In the lower  part of the
bed, the  porphyry becomes vesicular,
and changes into an amygdaloidal basalt,
containing crystals of augite.   Basalt, as-
sociated   with  porphyry  in enormous
masses, often covers  the primary moun-
tains of the Andes.  They are arranged
in regular columns, which  strike the eye
of the  traveller like immense castles in
the sky.  Porphyritic rocks may, in gen-
oral, be regarded  as more ancient than
basaltic rocks, as porphyry most frequent-
ly occurs intermixed with, or covering,
transition  rocks, and basalt is most com-
monly associated with the secondary stra-
ti, which it  either cuts  through in the
firm of dikes, or  covers  unconformable*.
Sometimes it appeare to have  broken the
strata confusedly, and to  have enveloped
large portions of other  rocks.  All the
trappean rocks  give decisive indications
of an  igneous  origin, not only  in  the
shapes of their masses, but in  their action
on the  adjacent rocks. Where basalt is
in contact with gneiss, it becomes nearly
compact, and approaches  to  the character
of hornstone ; and where  greenstone rests
on sandstone or clay, these  rocks have a
red and burnt appearance, and a hardness
superior to what they possess in  other
places.  Where they cross the coal strata,
and come in contact with the seams of
coal, the substance of the coal is, for sev-
eral feet, converted into soot. At a greater
distance from the trap, the coal is reduced
to a coke or cinder, which burns  without
smoke, and with a clear and durable heat.
At the distance of fifty feet from the dike,
the coal  is found in its natural, unal-
tered state.  The thickness of trap dikes
varies  from  a few inches  to twenty or
thirty yards.  The  extent to  which they
reach  across   a   country  has  seldom
been   explored   beyond  the  mining
districts.  The longest  in  England ex-
tends from the western side  of Durham
to Berwick, in  Yorkshire.  These dikes
are generally harder than the rocks they
intersect, and, when the  latter are  partly
decomposed, often  remain, forming  vast
walls of stone, that rise above the surface
(>f the ground.  They also extend into the
sea, and give rise to reefs of  rocks; and,
when they cross the beds of  rivers, they
form fords, and sometimes hold  up the
water,  and occasion cascades, of which
there are frequent  instances on the river
Tees.  From these circumstances, it seems
conclusive that basalt and greenstone (and
the same may be affirmed of the other vari-
eties of trap-rocks) were thrown out in a
melted state, like lava, and poured over the
surface of the ground. The frequent occur-
rence of trap-rocks forming isolated caps
on distant mountains, was for a long time
considered as opposing the  hypothesis of
the igneous origin of basaltic rocks;  but a
more attentive observation of such dis-
tricts has established the fact, that  these
isolated caps are parts of continuous beds,
which have, in remote ages, been exca-
vated by valleys, in the same manner as
the beds of other rocks, which frequently
form isolated  caps on  detached moun-
tains.—The occurrence of thick beds of
basalt, divided into regular  pentagonal or
hexagonal  columns,  and  disposed  in
ranges of vast  extent and height, early at-
tracted  the atteution of mankind, and
gave  rise  to  various theories respecting
their formation.  Few countries in the
world present more magnificent deposits
of columnar basalt than the  north part  of
Ireland and some of the Hebrides.  The
Giant's causeway (q. v.), in  the county of
Antrim,  constitutes  a small part  of  a
range of this description.   The promon-
tories of Fairhead and Borge, in the same
range, are situated  eight miles from  each
other.   These  capes consist of various
ranges of pUlars and  horizontal strata,
which rise from the sea to the height  of
500  feet   From their abruptness,  they
are conspicuous, and form a pile of natu-
ral architecture, in which the re*,, 'arity
and symmetry of art appear to be o.iited
with the wild grandeur and magnificence
of nature.  Many  of the columns in the
ranges at Fairhead are 150 feet in height,
and  five feet  in breadth.  At  the  base,
along the shore, is a wild waste of rocky
fragments  which have  fallen from the
cliffs, resembling the ruins of enormous
castles.  At the Giant's causeway, the col-
umns rarely exceed one  foot in breadth
and  thirty  in height.  They are  sharply
defined, and the columns are divided into
smaller blocks, or prisms, of one foot or
more in length, which fit neatly into each
other, like a ball and socket  The basalt
is close-grained,  excepting  the  upper
joint of the column, which is often cellu-
lar.   The columns usually have five or
six sides;  but  some  have seven or eight,
and  othere only three.  Beds  of basalt
that are not columnar, in some places  lie
over, and also  under, tin* columns.  The
basalt of the beds is  amygdaloidal.  The
columns at Fairhead are not articulated
like  those  of the Giant's causeway; but
blocks, which  are of great length, lie flat
on  each other.  The trap  formation ap- 
TRAP-ROCKS—TRASS.
323
pears to extend on the coast and inland
about forty miles in length and twenty in
breadth.  The basaltic columns of the
island of Staffa are too well known to re-
quire a description. No formation of gen-
uine basalt  has hitherto been found  on
the North American continent, at  least
north of  Mexico.   But localities of the
greenstone trap are found  in  several dis-
tricts, and present nearly all the peculiar-
ities of  the  true basalt, differing from  it
only in  possessing a lighter green color, a
less compact fracture, and a less decided
columnar structure.  A  formation of it
begins near  the north line of* Massachu-
setts, and proceeds down the valley of the
Connecticut to Long Island  sound.   Its
firet considerable elevations at the north
are in Greenfield and Deerfield.   It then
appears in the borders of Belchertown,
and forms  mount  Holyoke  (1000  feet
high), which, running eight  miles west,
disappears at Rock  Feny, below North-
ampton.  On  the opposite  side of the
Connecticut, it rises again in mount Tom
to the height of 1000 feet, and so contin-
ues about six  miles  towards the south.
The  same  range  extends   into  West
Springfield,  Westfield and   Southwick,
Massachusetts, and, in Connecticut, forms
the Talcott mountain, Farmington, Meri-
den and Southington mountains, and, hav-
ing a number  of subordinate parts and
parallel  ranges, terminates at East and
West Rock, in New Haven.  Another
extensive formation  occure in New Jer-
sey, forming the summits of almost all the
mountains between the western primitive
highlands and the Hudson.  The west
banks of the  Hudson, for  many miles
above New York,  present this  rock in
very well-pronounced columns, some  of
which rise, with more or less interruption,
to the  height  of 150 feet.   Again, this
rock abounds in the vicinity of the Basin
of Mines, in Nova Scotia, and upon  the
coast of Labrador, on the St Lawrence.
Greenstone porphyries and sienite, as well
as ophite, are found in many places in the
vicinity  of  Boston,  Massachusetts; and
a variety of greenstone (supposed to  be
of older origin than that above described),
sometimes called primitive greenstone, oc-
curs at  several places in  New England,
both in  beds  and  dikes.—The  trappean
rocks, when  free from vesicular cavities,
are valuable for architecture, especially
the greenstone trap,  which  is  quanied
with little or no expense, since it breaks
naturally into angular pieces, with smooth
faces.   Basalt is wrought into vases, ta-
bles for  inscriptions, &c; but its working
is attended  with great expense.  The
ophite, when handsome, is much prized.
  Trappe, La, Trappists.   In a valley
of Normandy, thirty-four leagues north-
west of Paris, Rotrou, count of Perche,
founded  a  Cistercian  abbey,  in  1140,
which, from its difficult access, he called
La Trappe (trap-door). It was approached
by no path, and the traveller was obliged
to direct his course by the sun and the
appearance of the trees.  The deep si-
lence of the wild  valley, surrounded by
woods and rocks, was sufficient to satisfy
the most  ascetic disposition.   In the six-
teenth century, the monks, however, had
become so licentious, that  they were the
terror of the surrounding country, rob-
bing, murdering and kidnapping young
females:  this wild and  lawless conduct
procured them the epithet of the "bandits
of La Trappe."  In the seventeenth centu-
ry, the abbey, then containing but six or
seven monks, was conferred on De Ranee,
then (1636)  ten yeare old, as a sinecure
benefice.   In 1664, after a youth passed
in dissipation, he became regular abbot of
La Trappe, and accomplished a most rig-
orous refonn of the monastery. The Trap-
pists prayed eleven hours daily, and passed
the rest of their time in hard labor and si-
lent meditation.  Beyond the sacred hymns
and  prayers, and their usual salutation,
Memento mori, no word passed their lips,
but even their wishes and wants were in-
dicated by signs.   Their meagre diet con-
sisted solely of fruits and pulse, flesh, wine
and butter being entirely prohibited.  They
received no information of what was go-
ing on in  the world, and no  news from
their relations; all their thoughts were
devoted to penance and death, and  every
evening they dug their own graves.  Lou-
isa, princess of Conde, founded a female
order of Trappists.  The Trappists were
obliged to leave France at the time of the
revolution ;  but they  returned  in 1815,
when their  house was restored to them.
A traveller,  who  visited them  in  1818,
found their number to amount to a hun-
dred, of whom  more than half were lay
brothers and frires donnes,  who pass onlv
a certain  time at La Trappe for the per-
formance of some acts of penance.  The
professed  brothers wear  a dark-colored
frock, cloak, and hood, which covers the
whole face.  The order has, besides, three
other houses  in France, the abbey Jara,
near Amiens, Mellerai, in the department
of the Loire  Inferieure, and an abbey at
St. Aubin.  There is, likewise, a female
convent not far from La Trappe.
  Trass.  (See Cements.) 
324
TRASTEVERE—TRAVELS  AND VOYAGES.
  Trastevere.   (See Tiber.)
  Travels  and  Voyages.  Travelling
has always  been one  of the  means of
forming the character for the business of
life, and for promoting scientific knowl-
edge.   By travelling, the ancients prepar-
ed themselves to become legislators and
philosophers, as, for instance, in the cases
of Lycurgus, Solon and  Pythagoras. He-
rodotus travelled  to study history.  The
statesman  and the man of the world, the
scholar, the naturalist, the geographer, the
physician, the artist, the merchant, the
political economist, the soldier,  &c, each
has his own objects in travelling.  Young
men who travel  extensively by  way of
completing their  education, should  be
weU acquainted with the ancient and mod-
ern classics,  mathematics,  the  principles
of trade, political economy, history, statis-
tics and geography, and with one or more
foreign languages.  The main object of the
tour should be, in the first place, well set-
tled, and all others be  made subordinate
to it.   The  young traveller should not
strive  so much to observe a great variety
of tilings,  as to learn accurately what  is
essential.  (See  Reichard's Guide des
Voyageurs.)  In  the histoiy of scientific
expeditions,  the  five following divisions
may be made:—1. The earliest age of
the Phoenicians, down to Herodotus, 500
B. C.  The Phoenicians undertook the
firet voyages of discovery for commercial
purposes, or to found colonies.   Their
colonies did the same.  Unhappily, the
accounts of these voyages  are very ob-
scure  (as, for instance, of the circumnav-
igation of Africa), or couched  in figures
(like the firet navigation of the straits  of
Gibraltar), or entirely lost.  We know
but little of their discoveries out of the
Mediterranean sea.  They discovered the
island  Cerne (Arguin),  on the  western
coast  of Africa, the  Red  sea, Madeira,
and the Tin  islands (England);  they
imported  amber  (probably obtained in
their  dealings  with  the Jutes).  Then*
caravans to Asia and Africa gave them a
knowledge of certain countries, beyond
what  we now  possess.   The  Tyrian
colony, the  powerful Carthage,, under-
took still more extensive expeditions of
discovery;  but they  are forgotten, and
their results have perished with the state
itself.—2. The travels of the Greeks and
the military expeditions  of the  Romans,
from 500 B. C. to 400 A. D.   The Greeks
made journeys to enlarge the territory of
science.  Besides the earlier travels  of
Herodotus, who has  given faithfully the
results of experience, and besides the al-
most contemporary voyages  of the Car-
thaginians, Hanno apd Himilco, we  are
acquainted with the voyage of Scylax of
Caryanda, who lived about  the time of
the Peloponnesian war. About 300 B. C,
Pytheas  of Marseilles firet instituted  as-
tronomical observations, to determine more
exactly the situation of places:  he under-
took two expeditions to the north ; but we
unhappilypossess only fragments of the ac-
counts of them.  He proceeded  even to
Thule (Thual, in Irish, signifies the north),
probably Iceland, where the floatingice fill-
ed him with surprise, and north-easterly as
far as the Dwina, which he believed to be
the Tanais, connecting, like a canal,  the
North sea with the Black sea.   Instructed
by the accounts  of Alexander's expedi-
tions, and by the sight of  the  subjects
which  this king  sent him, Aristotle  en-
larged  the territory of geographical sci-
ence.  Soon after  Alexander's death, the
materials  that had been collecting since
Herodotus were  employed  by  Eratos-
thenes, whom we know only from Stra-
bo, who, 300  years after (A. D. 10), pro-
duced  a  new edition, as it were, of the
works  of Eratosthenes,  in  seventeen
books.  Since Alexander's wars, Asia, as
far as the Indus and Ganges,  had  become
better known, and the Greek Macedonian
empires, that sprang up there, still farther
extended  the knowledge of it.  The  ar-
mies of Rome supplied, in  this  period,
many materials for tiie  knowledge  of
countries.  Asia was directly  known to
them of India; they obtained a knowledge
from Egypt  by means of the commer-
cial intercourse between the two coun-
tries ; the northern part  of Africa was
opened to them from Egypt to the Niger;
and in  Europe they became acquainted
with the  peninsula of the Pyrenees, Gaul,
South  Britain, Germany  as far as  the
Elbe, Dacia and  Pannonia.—3. The ex-
peditions  of the Germans  and Normans
till 900 A. D.   The  migrations of  the
nations in the fifth and sixth centuries
brought with them information respecting
countries  which had been  unknown or
merely the theatre of wild fictions.  The
Byzantines came in contact with many
new tribes, respecting  which its writers
have left  us much valuable  information.
The Arabians have done  much for the
more accurate knowledge of  the earth
by their campaigns, their commerce and
their scientific investigations.   The sword
opened to them a portion of North-eastern,
Central and Western Asia, Northern Af-
rica  and   Spain;  and  their  commercial
expeditions, by sea and land, extended as 
TRAVELS AND  VOYAGES.
025
 far as the Indian islands, China, and the
 interior of Africa;  but they have done
 less for the scientific improvement of ge-
 ography than for the knowledge of differ-
 ent nations.   What the Arabs contributed
 by their conquests  to this knowledge in
 the eastern part  of  the known world, the
 German  tribes effected in  the  west,  by
 coming in close contact with the more
 cultivated nations  of the Western Ro-
 man empire.  Farther to  the north, the
 Normans did more than the Germans ; for
 we are indebted to them for  uew, though
 but  accidental, discoveries.  In  their
 voyages, they discovered the Faroes, Ice-
 land in the year 861, Greenland in 982,
 the western coast of which was immedi-
 ately occupied  by Norman settlers; and,
 twenty years later, the Norman  Bjcim,
 being driven to the south-west by a storm,
 discovered Winland (Wineland, so called
 from  the  wild grapes found  there), prob-
 ably the eastern coast of Labrador, with
 which the whole description agrees.  The
 great  Anglo-Saxon king Alfred, who
 died in 901, set on foot, about that time,
 two voyages of discovery  under  two
 Normans,  viz. Other, who proceeded from
 Norway round the  North cape into the
 White sea  to Biarmen  (Pennia),  a*id
 Wtilstan, who went  from Slcswick w the
 gulf of Finland.—4.  Besides the  com-
 mercial and  military voyages of the Arabs
 and Mongols, the travels of the Christian
 missionaries and some Europeans, down
 to 1400, furnish  much valuable informa-
 tion.  Pilgrims undertook long journeys ;
 the crusaders diffused a more con*ect
 knowledge of Sclavonian Germany and of
 Asia; and the popes even sent envoys to
 the Asiatic  sultans,  and subsequently to
 the khans of the Tartars, to avert the
 further advances of these hordes.   Boni-
 face did much  for the better knowledge
 of Germany by his travels as a missiona-
 ry in 775, St. Otho for Northern Sclavo-
 nia in 1124, and Ansgarius, who died in
 865, for  Denmark and Sweden.  There
 were  also individual  secular travellers,
 such as John MandevUle of  England, in
 1327;  John  Schildberger, a German sol-
 dier, who  was taken prisoner at Nicopo-
lis, in 1396, by the Turks, and afterwards
by the Mongols, and  thus  had an op-
portunity  to become  better  acquainted
with those nations.   A hundred yeare be-
fore, about 1270, the  Venetian Marco Polo
travelled through all Asia as far as Cathay
\China); and at the same time with Schild-
berger, the  brothers Zeno, two Venetian
nobles, undertook a  journey to the north.
—5. The fifth period (from the year 1118)
  vol. xn.         28
 now begins  with Henry the Navigator
 and Columbus;  and we now firet meet
 with voyages of discovery,  properly so
 called.   The invention of the mariner's
 compass, between 1250 and 1320, by the
 aid which it furnished to navigation, led
 to extensive voyages.  The  Italians, es-
 pecially Venice and Genoa,  first set the
 example; but their commercial jealousy
 has deprived us of much of the benefit
 of their acquisitions.   Their  commercial
 gains excited other nations to similar en-
 terprises.  The Portuguese ware with the
 Mohammedans  made them  acquainted
 with Africa, and the eagerness for further
 discovery was encouraged and guided by
 the Infant Henry the Navigator (q. v.), who
 pointed out the path to be pursued. Porto
 Santo, Madeira, the Azores, were discov-
 ered between 1418 and 1450; in the  lat-
 ter year, Senegal also, and, soon after, Ar-
 guin  (the  Cerne of  the ancients).   In
 1462, Guinea was reached ; and, in 1486,
 Barthol. Diaz doubled the southernmost
 promontory of Africa, which he named
 the cape of Storms,  but which his king,
 John II, called the cape of Good Hope.
 The Portuguese  Vasco da Gama  (q. v.)
 discovered  the passage  to  the   Indies
 around  Africa in  1498 ; but Genoa con-
 tinued  to conduct its commerce through
the ancient channels, and Spain was so
 much occupied with the Moors of Gren-
ada, that the enthusiastic Columbus could
no where obtain a hearing for his plan of
seeking a new way to India towards the
west  The Spanish queen Isabella final-
ly gave  him  her support, and he  put
his project in  execution.  Oct. 12, 1492,
he came in sight of laud, which  proved
to be an island (the island of Guanahani,
or St. Salvador).  On  his third voyage,
in 1498, he reached the main land.  About
the same time (1497), Sebastian Cabot, an
Englishman, discovered the coasts of N
America,  from Labrador to  Virginia.
In 1500, Cabral, driven by a storm, dis-
covered Brazil;  Bastidas discovered Ter-
ra Firma, and Cortereal  visited Labra-
dor and Hudson's bay.  In 1512, Ponce
de Leon  discovered  Florida, and Balbao
crossed the isthmus of Darien, and came
in sight of the Pacific ocean.  It was
now first known that a new continent had
been discovered, separated from Asia by
a vast  ocean, in  which it was deemed
probable a second new world  might ex-
ist.  The learned Florentine Amerigo
Vespucci (who died at  Seville,  1512) now
made Europe acquainted with the char-
acter of the newly-discovered countries
by his description.  In 1519 et seq., Fer- 
326
TRAVELS AND VOYAGES.
nando MageUan sailed round the  south-
 m extremity of America, through the
straits named from him, and  discovered
the western  passage  to the Indies.  By
degrees the interior of America emerged
from obscurity ;  Cortez and  Pizarro, Al-
magro, Cartier and  Orellana, made the
most important discoveries respecting it,
from 1525 to 1541. More accurate infor-
mation respecting the northern and east-
ern parts of  America was furnished from
1559 to  1616 by  Francis Drake, Fro-
bisher, Heemskerk, Hudson  and  Baffin.
Whether Asia was connected with Amer-
ica was  as  yet unknown; but, in 1648,
the Cossack Semen Deshnew proceeded
from the river Kolyma, around the penin-
sula of the Tchouktsches, through Beer-
ing's straits,  to the mouth of the Anadir.
What had been rendered tolerably clear by
this voyage  was reduced to a certainty, in
1726, by captain Beering, who proceeded
from  the river  of  the Kamtschadales,
through  the straits named from him, to
the peninsula of the Tchouktsches. This
was   confirmed  by  several  subsequent
voyagers, and by Cook, in his third voyage.
They and Vancouver explored more par-
ticularly the western coast of America.
The North  American revolutionary war
made the country still more known; and
much information was diffused respect-
ing South America by the missionaries,
such as the  Jesuit Dobrizhofer, in Para-
guay.   The most light,  however, has
been  shed  on that part of  the western
continent by the travels of Alexander
von Humboldt (q. v.), the prince of Neu-
wied (q. v.), and those of several English-
men and Germans in Brazil,  (q. v.)  The
expeditions  of discovery into tiie  mterior
of Africa   have  been less  productive.
The Portuguese explored those countries
only which were situated near the coast,
in the prosecution of their commerce with
 India.  Prior to Vasco da   Gama, the
 western coast was explored, and after him
the eastern coast (since 1497); but they
did not discover the Red sea tUl the six-
 teenth century,  although they were ac-
 quainted with Abyssinia.—See Damien
 da Goes, De Rebus  JEthiopicis, etc. (Co-
 logne,  1574).   Egypt  was  visited by
 pilgrims, but the knowledge of it remain-
 ed,  nevertheless,  very imperfect  The
 south cape  of Africa was particularly ex-
 plored, indeed, by the Dutch; but farther
 to the north, the Swedes Sparmann and
 Thunberg  first  penetrated,   afterwards
 Levaillant,   and,  finaUy,  Lichtenstein.
 James Bruce traveUed to Abyssinia and
 Nubia, 1768—1773 ; and his account  of
the sources of the NUe was confirmed by
Salt in 1809.  A comprehensive plan for
exploring the interior of Africa was pro-
jected, and has been hitherto pursued by
the African association (q. v.), formed in
England in 1788.  Much light has been
thrown upon particVilar countries  by the
travels of Burckhardt, Bowditch, Mollien,
Campbell, as well as those of lord Valen-
tia  and Salt  to Abyssinia, tiiose of Bel-
zoni, Gau, Menu von Minutoli, to Egypt,
and those  of J. R.  Pacho to Cyrene, in
1824.   In  April, 1828, Caillie, a young
French traveller, succeeded hi reaching
Timbuctoo (see Caillii, and Timbuctoo),
and the Landers (q. v.),  in  1830, traced
the Niger, and discovered that it emp-
tied into the Bight of Benin.  (See Afri-
ca,  and Niger.)   Asia was first visited by
the Portuguese, but subsequently chiefly
by the English and Russians.  As early
as  1498,  Vasco  da  Gama  discovered
the coast of Malabar; and, before 1542,
almost all the south coast, with its islands,
and even Japan, were discovered  by the
Portuguese.  But  the coast alone was
known, till, in the middle  of the sixteenth
century, the English laid  the foundation
of their dominion in India, by which the
interior of Asia has been opened to civ-
ilized Europe.  Farther to the north, the
Russians undertook important expeditions.
In  1577,  Siberia was  explored  by the
Cossack captain Jermak  Timosejeff and
the Russian merchant  Stroganoff.  In
1639, Kopiloff reached the eastern coast
of Asia, and soon after, Kamtschatka was
discovered.  Since 1745,  the Kurile, and
the Aleutian,  or  Fox   islands,  on the
coast of America,  have  come to light;
and in the north of Asia,  Muller, Gmelin,
Lepechin, Giildenstadt, Falk, and, above,
all, PaUas, have made the most important
expeditions, under  the patronage  of thfl
Russian government  After Laperouse
had already accurately  determined thq
north-eastern coasts of Siberia, the Rus-
sians explored the Caucasus and the Cas-
pian sea, by means of Garber, Reineggs,
Klaproth,  Parrot,  and Engelhardt; Go-
lownin described his residence in  Japan.
The other regions  of  Asia also became
better known;  Arabia,  by the  traveis
of Carsten Niebuhr, who visited it under
the direction of the Danish government, in
1761, to add to the means for iUustrating
the Bible  ; Persia, chiefly by those of J.
Chardin, from  1664 to 1677, and, of late,
by those of Morier  and Ouseley ;  Cabul,
by those of Elphinstone; Syria and Pal-
estine, by  means of pilgrims and explorers
of antiquities.   But the  north of India 
TRAVELS AND VOYAGES.
327
Thibet, and the interior of the great East
Indian islands, are still little known.  In
the Southern ocean, the Portuguese sus-
pected the existence ofa new world ; and
the French jurist Bodinus, in his Intro-
duction to History, in 1610, gives  five
grand  divisions  of the  world—Europe,
Asia, Africa, America, and Australia.  In
1511, the Portuguese reached New Guin-
ea ; and Magellan, in his circumnavigation
of the earth, likewise visited the Southern
ocean.  But these  discoveries, like those
of Mendoza, Mindana and Guiros (1568—
1605), remained  for the most part unim-
£ roved, till the Dutch, in 1615, sent out
 lemaire, Schouten, Hertoge and Tasman
on voyages of discovery,  and became ac-
quainted with New Holland, New Zea-
land and the Friendly isles.   Dampiene
shed new Ught, in  1698, on the countries
in the Southern ocean, and Cook explored
this new world so accurately, in 1768 and
the following years, that little was left for
Vancouver,  Laperouse, Krusenstern and
Kotzebue.   The  discovery  of a  coast
near  the  south  pole,  made by British
navigators in  1819, which  was  called
New South Shetland,  promises to add to
the science  of geography.   (Respecting
the latest scientific travels of British ad-
venturers to the north  pole, see  North
Polar Expeditions.)  Hitherto, there has
been wanting a critical description of the
various voyages  of discovery.   It would
perhaps  be  tiie best method of studying
geography, if the extension of geographi-
cal knowledge,  gradually produced  by
travels since the times of Moses and Ho-
mer, could be brought before the youth-
ful understanding  in an  orographical
and hydrographical  description.  Many
good materials for this object are contained
in Zeune's Ansichten der Erdkunde (Berlin,
1815), and his Gaa, as well as in Spreng-
el's Geschichte der Geograph.  Entdeck-
ungen, in Von Zimmermann's  writings,
and in Malte Brun's History of Geography.
Murray pubUshed a  Historical  Account
of the Discoveries  and Travels in  Africa
(Edinburgh, 1817, 2 vols.), has a Histori-
cal Account of the Discoveries and Trav-
els in Asia (Edinburgh, 1820,3 vols.); and
an Account of Discovery in N.  America
(1829).   A chronological view of travels,
with literary and biographical notices, is
a desideratum; for the attempts of Stuck
(in his Verzeichnisse,  reaching to 1735),
Boucher de  la  Richarderie and  Beck-
mann  are  imperfect.   Even the  great
collections of travels  which  have been
pubUshed by  Ehrmann, Sprengel, Ber-
tuch,  &c, at Weimar—Bibl. der Wicldig-
sten Reisebeschr., extending already to 94
volumes—by Pinkerton, in London, 1808
—1813, by Robert Kerr, in London, 1814,
and by others, as well as Spiker's Journal
der Land-und Seereisen, are not compiled
on a strictly scientific plan.  This is also
the case  with the  Hist. Generate  des
Voyages, by Walkenaer (Paris, 1826), of
which three volumes have been published.
The first  genns of geography are con-
tained  in  the  Mosaic records, and  the
book of Joshua (1400 B. C.);  in Homer,
Hesiod, (1000  B. C); Herodotus  and
Aristotle (444  and 320 B. C.); Hanno,
among the  Carthaginians (440 B.  C).
(Respecting these works, see the modem
critical  geographers,  Rennel,  Gosselin,
Mannert, Voss,  &c).  Polybius, Hippar-
chus,   Artemidorus,  added,  300  years
afterwards, new accounts  of travels;  Ju-
ba, king of Mauritania, described  Lybia
as it was  in the  age of  Augustus,  and
Strabo, A. D.  10, collected  all  former
discoveries in   a  comprehensive  work.
The same  thing was done by Pompon ius
Mela, A. D. 50, and,  twenty years after-
wards, by  the industrious Pliny.  Under
the emperor  Adrian, Arrian  described
Lybia; and Marinus of Tyre, in Phoenicia,
A. D. 150, with his contemporary Ptole-
my, fixed, with much more exactoess, the
situation of places.  After them, geogra-
phy ceased to  be  scientificaUy cultivated
for upwards of a thousand years; but the
knowledge of particular countries gained
much  by excellent books of travels ; for
instance, those of Pausanias (A. B. 170),
Agathemer (A.  D. 200),  Marcianus of
Heraclea (A. D. 200), and Agathodaemon.
To this time, also, probably belongs the
Table of Peutinger. (q. v.) All that  was
learned from the  migrations of the Ger-
man tribes, and from the crusades,  was
collected  by the  fathers  of the church,
from whose (often fictitious) narrations, an
Egyptian monk, Cosmas,  commonly call-
ed Indopleustes (Indus navigator) though
he did not personally go  beyond ./Ethio-
pia, compiled  his Christian Topography
(A. D. 450).  About two  centuries after-
wards, lived the geographer of Ravenna
(Sprengel  calls him Guido, but this  is
only a corruption of his popular  name,
for he  was a Goth), whose geography we
know only from the  careless abridgment
of Galadro.   Several instances of maps
now occur.  The  map of Charlemagne
was a sUver tablet.  Besides these Chris-
tian geographers,  there were the Arab
writers.  Wahad  and Abuzeid travelled
through the Eastern countries of Asia,
and have left descriptions of their travels 
G28
TRAVELS AND  VOYAGES—TRAVESTY.
(A. D. 851 —877); Abu Ishak  published
(A. D. 920) his travels from Khorazin to
Sina.  Massudi Kothbeddin  of Cairo
described (A. D. 947) the most celebrated
kingdoms of the three parts of the world
then known  under the title the Gilded
Meadow, and the Mine of Precious Stones.
In the year 980, Ibn  Haukal gave a  de-
scription principally of the Mohammedan
countries. About 1140, appeared the trav-
els  of the Almagrurim (the wanderers),
and in 1153, appeared the  celebrated
Nubian geographer,  the  Sherif Edrisi.
We ought  to mention, moreover,   the
travels of the Jew Benjamin of  Tudela,
of the Syrian Ibn al Wardi, and the Per-
sian Hambullah, from 1160 to 1240.  Ru-
isbroeck (Rubriquis),  a  Minorite  of Bra-
bant, travelled, as ambassador from saint
Louis to  the great Mogul,  through   the
chief part of Central Asia, and has left an
account of the most interesting of his  ad-
ventures. Almost twenty yeare after Ruis-
broeck, in  1277, Marco Polo of Venice
travelled through all Asia to Cathay (Chi-
na).  Fifty  years afterwards, Abulfeda,
prince of Hamah, in Syria,  wrote  his
geographical  work, Description  of   the
Inhabited Earth.  In 1390, the brothers
Zeno of  Venice made  a journey to  the
north, which one of their descendants has
described.  At this time,  there also  ap-
peared several maps by the Pereian Nas-
sir  Eddin,  by  Picigno, Mart.  Sanudo,
Andrea Bianco, Benincasa, Roselli, Brazl,
Behaim,  and Ulug Beg, a grandson  of
Tamerlane, in  Samarcand.   The  first
map,  containing America, was executed
by  the brothers Appiani ; another was
soon after prepared by Ribero.  About
this time, 1526, lived Leo  of  Grenada,
who composed  a description of Africa.
Fifty years afterwards, the famous Gerard
Mercator, a German, published his charts,
and the  measurement  of  a degree was
now made,  for the first time in Europe,
by Ferrel, Schnell, Norwood, Riccili and
Picard, between 1550 and 1669, 700 years
after the Arabian Caliph Al-Mamun had
caused the firet measurement of a degree
in Asia.  In the beginning of the seven-
teenth century, the Austrian ambassador
Von Herberetein (q. v.) rendered a great
service to the geography of Russia by  his
Commentaries.  At the end of the same
century, Engelbrecht Kampfer travelled
to Japan, and has left us the description
of his  travels, which  are still very valua-
ble.   In the beginning of the eighteenth
century,  the  measurements of a degree
by  Condamiue and Maupertuis, and  the
maps of Sanson and Homann, must  be
 noticed.   The  attempts of the French,
 Swedish and Spanish matiiematicians to
 measure a degree under different latitudes,
 have been pursued in the nineteenth cen-
 tury, and, hi 1818, the British astronomers
 united their  exertions with the French.
 Our maps have been very much improved
 by this means, as weU as by the  trigo-
 nometrical surveys of various countries,
 since the Cassini set the example  in
 France.  (See the Monat.  Corrcspondenz
 of Zach, the Algemeine  Geographischen
 Ephemeriden, the Astronomisches Jahrbuch
 of Bohnenberger and of Lindenau; see,
 also, the article Geography.)
   Travesty (from the French  travestir,
 to disguise) designates a comic treatment,
 particularly in poetry, of a subject which
 has  been already handled  gravely,  so
 that it is, as it were, divested of its  grave
 dress, and a comic  one put on.  Tra-
 vesty presupposes weak  points in  the
 travestied subject; it takes for granted,
 that an air of grandeur has been attempt-
 ed to be given to  littleness.  But, in feet,
 most  travesties  purposely  degrade the
 subject treated, in order to make it appear
 ridiculous.   In its proper character,—that
 of ridiculing littleness, which has assumed
 the shape of greatness,—it differs essen-
 tially from parody, which  employs the
 existing  poetical dress of a grave sub-
ject, for clothing a ridiculous one.   Both
 depend  on contrast, and, though  they
 may excite a  laugh, hold a very inferior
 place among the  various species of po-
 etry.  It has been asked  whether they
 are at all admissible.  As respects  paro-
 dy, which  only imitates the  form of a
 grave composition, but without ridiculing
 its subject, there seems to be no sufficient
 reason for condemning it entirely.  But
 travesty, being a direct attempt to throw
 ridicule on subjects of an elevated  char-
 acter, seems less  entitled to indulgence.
 Still, however,  when the  poet  merely
 seizes upon the weak points which he ac-
 tually finds in the midst of greatness and
 dignity,  and exposes them  in a form
 adapted  to produce  a comic effect*, he
 will divert his reader, without degrading
 the truly noble, or impairing the effect of
 works  of an elevated character—a  re-
 proach which has been so often brought
 against  travesty, since the time  of  La
 Mothe.   The finest comic productions of
 the Greeks sprung from  this freedom of
 mirth ; and, though the Grecian spirit iu-
 cUned more to  the parody (for instance,
 the Batrachomyomachy (q. v.), the  paro-
 dies of  Matron,  and his  fragments,  in
 Athenseus ii, 5, and innumerable passages 
TRAVESTY—TREASON.
329
 of Aristophanes), travesty was yet by no
 means unknown by them, but showed it-
 self with equal  boldness in  the produc-
 tions of the fine arts, and in comic po-
 etry;  the highest  of their  gods  were
 made  to appear in works of sculpture,
 and on the stage, in  a comic character.
 The  question,  however,  stiU  remains,
 whether travesty is not a dangerous game,
 and especially  in the case  of such na-
 tions as have a natural tendency to levity,
 or  in  ages when taste has degenerated,
 lost its susceptibility for the great and no-
 ble, and become eager for  amusement
 solely.  In such cases, travesty undoubt-
 edly tends to encourage a tendency which
 is already  excessive;  and even  in those
 cases  in which it may be allowable for
 the sake of the satisfaction to be  found in
 a hearty laugh, it requires a sound judg-
 ment,  both in the writer and  reader, and
 should be enjoyed with much caution, to
 prevent it from exciting a sickly craving
 for amusement Travesty is either purely
 comic, the free effusion of a sportive hu-
 mor, or it unites with the object of mirth
 that of satire.   It may exhibit the ridicu-
 lous side of a  subject, or may merely at-
 tack the  form in which  it is presented,
 and show  the  incongruity between the
 two.   Either mode is consistent with the
 general aim of satire, the lashing of folly
 and vice.   In respect to its  form, the tra-
 vesty is either lyrical,  epic or dramatic.
 Among the modems, the  French have
 the most writers of travesties, as Mari-
 vaux,  Scarron  (who  travestied  Virgil),
 and Moreau; the Italians possess a tra-
 vestied Iliad, by Loredano, which  does
 not, however, correspond to the true ob-
ject of travesty; the Germans have, be-
 sides   several  smaller lyrical poems of
 the kind,  a travesty  of the  ^Eneid, by
 Blumauer (q. v.), which often runs into
 vulgarity, but is not without wit.   Cotton
 and Philips have travestied Virgil's .Eneid
 in English. There are also various other
 English travesties, but  generally  too vul-
 gar to be worthy of mention.
  Treadmill, an instrument  of punish-
 ment, lately introduced into England and
 this country, consisting of a large wheel,
about  twenty  or twenty-five feet wide,
with steps on its external surface, upon
which  the  criminals  are placed.  Their
weight sets the  wheel in motion, and
they maintain  themselves in  an  upright
posture by means of a  horizontal bar
fixed above them, of which  they keep
 hold.   The power thus obtained  may be
 applied to the  same purpose as water
 power, steam, &c.  The exercise is very
                 28*
 fatiguing, and the  prisoners  are  reUeved
 every eight or ten minutes.
   Treason.  Treason, the  crimen lasa
 majestatis of the Roman law, is consid-
 ered to be the greatest  crime that  can
 possibly be committed.  All crimes  are
 regarded  by the  law, and punished, as
 offences against the peace and dignity of
 the community; and that crime which at-
 tacks directly the supreme  authority of
 the  state,  is the  most aggravated  and
 heinous.  Such is treason, or high trea-
 son ; the minor species, or pdty  treason,
 being a treachery to some political or re-
 ligious superior, who  is not  the chief of
 the state.   There is no offence in the U.
 States that passes under the name of petty
 treason, nor does  there seem  to be  any
 subject to which the appellation could be
 given, except an  offence against a gov-
 ernment of one of the states, to which it
 could not be properly applied, since these
 governments are,  in  some respects,  su-
 preme.  Treason  is,  accordingly, differ-
 ently defined, in reference to what is the
 supreme power of the state.   In a mon-
 archy, it is considered to be  the betray-
 ing or the forfeiting of allegiance to  the
 monarch; but in a community not gov-
 erned by a  supreme  hereditary  chief, it
 has reference to the  government, or the
 whole body of the  community.  This
 crime  can be committed only by a sub-
ject of the sovereign  power, or a citizen
 of the state to which he owes allegiance,
 and only against such  sovereign or state;
 and it consists essentially in   renouncing
 his allegiance, and putting himself in  the
 attitude of enmity  or hostility. A traitor
 puts himself in the same relation to his
 own sovereign or  state that a pirate holds
 to all states and governments.   As all vio-
 lations of the laws are acts of disrespect
 and  disobedience  to  the authority  by
 which these laws are enacted and  ad-
 ministered, Socrates considered  the  act
 of escaping from prison, and  so avoiding
 the punishment of death, which awaited
 him, as inconsistent with his allegiance to
 his state, and a sort of treason, and, for
 this reason, refused to make  use  of  the
 means offered for his escape.   But what-
 ever opinion may  be formed  of the force
 and extent of the obligation of obedience
 to the laws in general, there  is a charac-
 teristical distinction between  other viola-
 tions or evasions of the  laws, and trea-
 son,  which crime  consists in betraying,
 setting at defiance, or making war against,
 the supreme authority.  Such is the dis-
 tinguishing characteristic of treason,  in
 the application of which to  particular 
330
TREASON.
acts, there has been  a great  diversity.
No one subject  of legislation and juridi-
cal interpretation has been more fruitful
of abuse, oppression and  cruelty.   The
more arbitrary  governments,  whether
popular,  aristocratical or  monarchical
(for all these species may be equally ar-
bitrary), have construed the most indiffer-
ent and  insignificant acts into  treachery
to the government, and a forfeiture of the
sacred obligations of allegiance.  In the
reign of Edward IV, in England, a citi-
zen of London said he would make his
son heir  of the crown, meaning the sign
of the house in which he  lived.   For
this pun, he suffered death, under a con-
viction for high treason.   In  the same
reign, a gentleman, whose favorite buck
had been killed by  the king, in hunting,
said, in his vexation, he wished its horns in
the belly of the person who had coun-
selled the king to kill it; and, as the king
had kiUed it of his own accord, and was
so  his own counsellor, this expression
was construed to be  high treason, for
which the party suffered death; though
one of the justices of  the court in which
the judgment  was  given, justice Mark-
ham, chose rather  to leave  his  place
on the bench, than to assent  to such a
judgment  Those convictions were had
under the species of treason, which  con-
sists  in  compassing  or   imagining the
king's death.   It was under the same de-
scription of this crime, and in  pursuance
of a still broader interpretation of it, that
Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, order-
ed a man to be executed, for dreaming
of the tyrant's death, on the pretence, that
he would dream of only that which had
occupied  his  waking  thoughts.    This
was construing  to be treason  what was
not even the act or thought of the party
executed.   But, when some  act of the
party aceused has been considered requi-
site to  constitute  this  crime, instances
have occurred, of constructive treasons,
which were little more than dreams. Al-
gernon  Sidney  was condemned  in the
court of king's bench for treason, while
the infamous Jeffreys  was chief justice,
and executed  in pursuance of the sen-
tence, in the  time  of Charles II, on the
proof of some  abstract  speculations on
the subject of government, found in his
hand-writing,  in his private cabinet, and
not proved to have been  shown to any
other person, or intended for publication.
These were construed to be  an act of
treason,  because scribere est   agere  (to
write is to act); and, upon this construc-
tion, he was executed  for  what was little
more, in a juridical view, than a  waking
dream reduced to writing.   The legisla-
tion  of parliament, during  the reign of
Henry VIII, seconded the capricious and
arbitrary disposition of that monarch, by
creating a multitude^fef descriptions of
high treason, such as stealing cattle by
Welshmen; counterfeiting foreign  coin ;           '
wilful poisoning; execrations  against the
king, and calling opprobrious names by
public writing; licentious  solicitation of
the queen or a princess; a  woman's be-
coming married to the king without first
disclosing any  deviations  from chastitv,
which she might  have committed ;  judg-
ing or believing  the king to have been
lawfully married  to Anne of Cleves; der-
ogating from  the king's royal style  or
title ; assembling  riotously, to the number
of twelve, and  not dispersing on procla-
mation.  It would be tedious to enumer-
ate aU  the acts, which, by legislative
enactments or judicial construction, have
been brought under the denomination of
treason, and, on the imputation of which,
men have been barbarously put to  death.
The present law  of treason in  England
rests substantially upon the statute  of the
twenty-fifth year  of Edward III,  which
comprehends seven  descriptions, viz. I.
compassing or imagining the king's death;
2. violation  of  the  king's  companion
(meaning the queen), his eldest daughter,
unmarried, or the wife of his eldest son           i
and heir; 3. levying war against the king,
in his realm; 4. adhering to his enemies
in his realm, and giving them  aid and
comfort  in the realm or  elsewhere;  5.
counterfeiting the great or  privy seal; 6.
counterfeiting the money  of the  realm,
or bringing  into the realm  any counter-
feit of the national coin ; and, 7. slaying
the  chancellor, treasurer, either of the
justices of the court  of king's  bench or
common pleas, or of the justices in eyre
or of assize, when in the  discharge  of
their judicial  functions,  in open  court.
To the provisions of this  statute  othere
have been added, by other statutes,  re-
lating, 1.  to Papists; 2. to falsifying the
coin; 3. to  the  Protestant succession in
the  house of Hanover.  Some  of these          **»<
laws have become obsolete by the extinc-
tion of the  Pretender's  branch  of the
reigning family, and the laws in relation
to Popery have been materially modified
and mitigated.   It is  evident,  from the
preceding enumeration of acts, now  or            \
heretofore considered in England as con-
stituting treason,  that this is a subject of
legislation and juridical administration, in
which the hberty of the subject or citi- 
TREASON.
331
zen is very deeply concerned. " The natu-
ral inclination," says  Mr. Rawle, in his
View of the Constitution of the U. States,
"of those who  possess power, is to in-
crease it.  History shows that to  enlarge
the description ofVeason has often been
resorted to, as one  of the  means of in-
creasing power." The governors, wheth-
er for life or fixed periods, or by heredi-
tary right, or election, or merely the right
of the strongest, in estimating what  acts
of disrespect, indignity, or  hostilities to
themselves, or  to  the government  of
which they,  for the time being, form  a
part, shall be considered as treacheiy to
the state, and a dissolution of the ties of
aUegiance, are,  very  naturally, liable to
err on the side of exaggerating  the trea-
sonable character and tendency of con-
duct.  As far, therefore, as the  influence
of self-esteem, and a love of the exercise
of power, are to be guarded against, it is
important to limit the discretion  of the
governors, in putting a construction upon
the  conduct of the governed, in this re-
spect   Accordingly, by the constitution
of the U. States, treason is declared to
consist in only two of the descriptions of
acts already enumerated, viz. 1. levying
war against the U. States, or, 2.  adhering
to their enemies.   The framere of the
constitution,  not stopping at the limita-
tion of the species, have also prescribed the
kinds and  degrees  of proof requisite to
conviction, by the provision, that no per-
son  shall be convicted of this crime, un-
less on the testimony of two witnesses to
the same overt act, or on confession in open
court   On the construction of this arti-
cle,  as  to  what shall be  considered  a
levying of war, we refer to Dane's Abridg-
ment, chapter 199, and so, also, as to the
interpretation of what shall be considered
as the giving aid and comfort to enemies.
This crime  may  also  be  committed
against  any of the states, by the citizens
owing allegiance to them,  respectively.
The  punishment of treason is  nothing
less than death, and, by the laws of some
states, a peculiarly cruel death ;  as in the
cases of Ravaillac and Damiens in France.
The English law condenms the  convict
to be drawn to  the place  of execution,
there hanged, and cut down aiive,  and
embowelled, and his entrails burned while
he is yet alive ; then he is to be beheaded
and quartered.   But the more barbarous
and   revolting  parts  of this   punish-
ment are usually  remitted, the  convict
being drawn to the place of execution, it
is true,  but  on a hurdle, and not on the
ground, aud,  "hen he arrives there, is
simply beheaded.  The mode of execu-
tion in the U. States  is by hanging.  By
the English  law, a conviction of treason
works forfeiture of lands and  goods to
the crown, and attainder of blood ; so that
no person can inherit an estate  to which
he must derive a title through the person
convicted of this crime.  This  attainder
may be reversed, that is, the punishment
of the traitor's heirs for his offence  may
be remitted by act  of parliament, as was
done in respect to the heirs of Algernon
Sidney.   The  constitution  of the  U.
States also  provides, upon this subject,
that no attainder of treason  shall work
corruption of blood or forfeiture, except
during the life of the  person attainted.
(See Blackstone's Commentaries,  b. 4, c.
6; Dane's Abridgment, c.  199; Rawle's
View of the  Constitution of  the  United
States ; Chitty's  Criminal Law.)  In the
French code penal, the term high treason
no  longer occure.  Crimes against  the
peace and  safety of France, and against
the person  of the king, or of the royal
family, are punished with death and  the
confiscation  of property (Code Pinal, A.
75—102).   The Prussian  code defines
high treason as that crime which has for
its object a  subversion, by violence, of
the government of the  state, or which is
directed against the life or liberty of its
sovereign, and is distinguished, both from
the Landesverratherei,  § 100  (by  which
the state is exposed to danger from foreign
powers), and from crimes against the in-
ternal tranquillity  and security of  the
state, and from the crimen lasa majesta-
tis,  or of personal injury  to  the dignity
of the head of the state.  The  Austrian
penal code of 1805 defines high treason
to be,  1. the  violation of the  personal
safety of the sovereign, and, 2. under-
takings for effecting a violent revolution
of the  government, or for  psoducing or
increasing a danger  to the  state from
abroad.   The Bavarian code (1813, of
Feuerbach)  assumes  a kind of treason,
without giving a definition of it, of which
the first degree is called high treason, and
is committed by attacks on the person of
the king, with the intention of  killing
him, taking him prisoner, or delivering
him into tiie hands of the enemy, and by
attacks on the independence and consti-
tution of the state.  Assisting the enemy
is treason of the second degree: treache-
ry to the state, by the delivery of papers,
&c, belongs to  the third class:  in  the
fourth, very different acts are brought to-
gether, such as  applying to a  foreign
power, on account ofa legal claim against 
332
TREASON—TRENCHES.
the state, injuring foreign sovereigns and
ambassadors, inducing subjects  to  emi-
grate,  and levying soldiers for foreign
powers.  In the new plan  of 1822 (by
Gonner), these ideas are somewhat differ-
ently arranged.   The second class of
treasons is united with high  treason; the
idea of treason against the state is limited
to the third class; and the fourth is brought
under  the title of actions dangerous to
the security of the state.  High  treason
is distinguished  from other crimes, inas-
much  as it is regarded as wholly perpe-
trated, i. e. is obnoxious  to the full pun-
ishment of  the  law, so soon as  the de-
sign is evinced by actions, and inasmuch
as those are participators in it who are
acquainted with treasonable projects, and
do not reveal them.
  Treasury.  In the U. States,  the de-
partment of the treasury is under  the
management of  the secretary  of  the
treasury. (See Secretaries.)   In England,
there was formerly a lord high treasurer,
who was the principal  officer  of  the
cro*wn, and under whose  charge was the
treasure in the royal exchequer.  He was
invested with his office by the delivery of
a white staff to him by the king.  But for
upwards of a century, the management
of the treasury has been put  in commis-
sion.   There  are five  commissioners,
among whom are the first  lord  of  the
treasury, and the chancellor of  the ex-
chequer.  The  former is considered as
prime minister, and has the appointment
of all offices employed in collecting the
revenues of the  crown, the disposal of
all places relating to the revenue,  and
power to let leases of crown  lands.   The
latter, to whom is specially intrusted the
revenue and expenditure of the nation,
commonly takes the lead of the ministeri-
al party  in  the  house of commons,  in
which  the* seats  occupied by that party
are called the treasury benches.  The of-
fices of first lord of the treasury and chan-
cellor of the exchequer  are sometimes
united in the same  person,  when  the
former is a commoner, as in the  case of
Pitt and Canning.
  Trebia ;  a river of Italy,  duchy of
Parma, which falls into the Po above Pia-
cenza.  It is noted as the scene of Hanni-
bal's second victory over the Romans (see
Hannibal), and was also the scene of Su-
warrow's victory over the  French  in 1799.
  Trebisond, or Tarabosan  (anciently
Trapezus); a city of Asiatic Turkey, cap-
ital of a pachalic, with a harbor on the
Black sea, founded by a Greek colony of
Sinope; lon. 39° 28' E.; lat 41° 3' N.;  pop-
ulation estimated at about 15,000.  The
houses, mostly buUt of stone and lime, are
of a mean appearance. It contains eighteen
mosques, eight khans, five baths, and ten
Greek churches, and is the  residence of
a pacha and a Greek •metropolitan.  The
trade is considerable.  The present walls
are built  of the ruins  of the ancient edi-
fices. The castle, which is much neglect-
ed, is situated  upon a rock, and its ditch-
es are cut in the rock.  Trebisond was,
at one time, the capital of a small king-
dom, erected  by Alexius,  a Byzantine
prince, at the time when the capital of
the empire was captured (1204) by the
Latins, or crusaders from the West (See
Byzantine  Empire.)   His successors  as-
sumed the imperial title, and continued
to bear their family  name, Comneni.
(q. v.)  After this little state had existed
for two centuries, Mohammed II besieged
and captured the king in his capital (1461),
and incorporated the  kingdom  with  the
Turkish  territories.—See  FaUmerayer's
History of the Empire of Trebisond (in
German, Munich, 1827).
  Trebuchet, or Cucking-Stool. (See
Cucking-Stool.)
  Trecht, Drecht, Tricht ;  termina-
tion of many Dutch names (derived from
the Latin trajectum,passage, ford), as Dor-
drecht, Utrecht, Mastricht  (passage of the
Masa, Meuse). It is the same as  the Ger-
man Furt. (q. v.)
  Treckschuyt ; a sort of  covered  ves-
sel, sixteen to twenty-six paces long, and
three to six broad, drawn by horses, and
used  in the Netherlands on the  canals.
They go at fixed tunes from one town to
another, and have generally a large apart-
ment for all the travellers, together with
a cabin for those who wish to De private.
  Tree.   (See Plant.)
  Tree-Nails ; certain long, cylindrical
wooden pins,  employed  to connect  the
planks of the  ship's side and bottom to
the corresponding timbers.   They  are
superior to spike nails or bolts, which are
liable to rust and loosen.  The thickness
of the tree-nails is usually proportioned to
the length  of the ship, allowing one inch
to every hundred feet.
  Tree of Liberty.  (See Liberty Tree.)
  Tremolite.  (See Hornblende.)
  Trenches  are,  in  general, all those
works which are used in attacking a for-
tress ; hence, when a siege (q. v.) is com-
menced, the trenches are said to be open-
ed. Ditches are dug from three to five
feet deep, from ten to  twelve feet  broad,
and the earth  taken from  them is thrown
up on the side  toward  the fortress, to 
TRENCHES-TRENT, COUNCIL  OF.
333
afford a defence against the shot  In order
to protect the flanks, the  ditches are so
extended as to reach beyond the fortress.
This gives to the trenches a. zigzag form.
Trenches of this kind were first  used by
the  French, at  the siege of Harfleur,
1449.  The idea of this mode of proceed-
ing  is found even among the ancients.
Sometimes  the besieged construct coun-
ter trenches (contre approclies),  to  the
extreme point of the trenches of the be-
siegers, and place cannon  on them.
   Trenck,  Frederic, baron von der, a
Prussian officer,  born  at  Konigsberg, in
172 i, was the descendant of an  ancient
family.  In his youth he displayed an ad-
venturous disposition, and, at the age of
sixteen, was admitted to the court  of
Frederic the Great, as a cadet in the regi-
ment of guards.  The king made him his
aid-de-camj),  and,  in  the seven yeare'
war, Trenck  greatly  signalized  himself.
An  intrigue with the sister of Frederic
involved him in severe misfortunes,  and
he was at length imprisoned  in the for-
tress of Glatz, under pretext of his car-
rying on a correspondence with his cous-
in, Francis von der Trenck, commander
of the Pandoore in the service of Austria.
Having effected  his escape, his  relation,
general Lieven, who was in the service of
Russia, persuaded him to  go to Moscow,
where he was exceedingly well received.
Having visited Sweden,  Denmark and
Holland, he returned to Vienna to take
possession of the  property of his cousin,
who  died in 1749, and then took a jour-
ney  to Italy.  On his return, he was ap-
pointed a captain of Austrian cuirassiers,
and, joining his regiment in Hungary, he
contributed materially to its improvement
in discipline.  The death of his mother
taking place hi 1758, he went to Dantzic
to areange the disposition of her  proper-
ty, when he was  anested and conducted
to the fortress of Magdeburg,  where  he
remained in close confinement till 1763.
His involuntary seclusion was devoted to
ineffectual projects for effecting his escape,
to study, and to writing verees.  Being at
length set at liberty, probably through the
interference of the princess Amelia,  he
went to Aix-la-Chapello, where  he fixed
his residence, and, in 1765,  married the
daughter of a burgomaster of* that city.
Literature, politics, and commerce  as a
wine-merchant, then alternately engaged
his attention.  He wrote a piece entitled
the Macedonian Hero, the professed de-
sign of which was to unmask the charac-
ter of Frederic II, and edited a weekly
paper called the Friend of Men.  In 1772,
he commenced a gazette at Aix-la-Cha-
pelle, which he conducted for some time
with considerable  success.   His  wine
trade failing, he returned to Germany,
and  was employed in  various political
missions.  At  Vienna, he received new
favors from the empress, Maria Theresa,
who bestowed a pension on the baroness
Trenck, which, however, she lost on the
death of that princess, for whom Trenck
composed a funeral oration and ode. He
then retired to his castle of Zwerback, in
Hungary, where, for six years, he devoted
himself to agricultural pursuits.  He also
published, by subscription, various works
in prose and  verse,  including the history
of his own life.  After an exile of forty-
two years, he was permitted to revisit his
native  country, in 1787, when he was
kindly  received by  the  successor of the
great Frederic ; and he had an interview
with the princess, to whose favor he had
owed so many of his misfortunes.   The
revolution in France  found a ready par-
tisan in Trenck, who published some po-
litical pamphlets, which involved lnm in
disgrace with the Austrian government;
and he not only lost  a pension which he
had  hitherto received, but also suffered a
short imprisonment.  Towards the end
of 1791, he  revisited  France, but was
arrested on suspicion  of being a  secret
emissary of the king of Prussia, and im-
prisoned at St. Lazarus.  There being no
evidence to  support this charge, he was
accused of having taken part in a con-
spiracy in the prison,  for which  he was
guillotined, July 25,  1794.
  Trent ; a city of  Tyrol (in Latin, Tri-
dentum, called by the Italians Trento, and
by the Germans Trient), formerly capital
of a princely bishopric of the same name,
sixty-five mUes north-west of  Venice;
Ion. 11° 4' E.; lat. 46° & N.; population,
9603.  It is situated on  the Adige, in a
delightful valley among the Alps ; but its
climate is subject to great extremes, being
intensely cold in winter and hot in sum-
mer.  It  is sunounded  with walls, and
contains a cathedral, two other churches,
an hospital, a gymnasium, and a lyceuni or
central school.  The streets are tolerably
wide and well paved, the houses general-
ly old.  The inhabitants are employed
partly  in the  manufacture of silk, and
partly in the culture of vines and tobacco.
Trent is remarkable for a famous council,
commenced  in 1545, tenninated  Dec. 4,
156*3, having continued, with more  or
less  interruption, during eighteen yeare.
(See the next article.)
  Trent, Council of. The reforma- 
334
TRENT,  COUNCIL OF.
tion of the  church, which had been the
object of the  councils of Constance and
Basle, the policy of the popes would not
suffer to be carried  into execution.  Pius
II, in 1460, forbade an appeal to a general
council, and Julius II renewed this pro-
hibition in 1512.   But to such a council
only could Catholic Christendom look for
the accomplishment of its earnest wish
for a thorough reformation of the church;
and, in the course of the German refor-
mation, even the Protestant  princes ex-
pressed their  desire for  such an  assem-
blage of the clergy.  The emperor Charles
V urged it zealously.  He found it a very
effectual mode of alarming the pope, and
curbing the Protestant princes, and  thus
controlling both parties,  to persevere in
demanding that a council should be con-
voked on German  soil;  for whilst the
pope  justly  feared  the questions  which
might come under investigation, the Ger-
man Protestants  dared not, on account of
the Catholic states,  refuse at  least to ac-
cept a proposal, which, in reality, was of
importance only  for the  latter.  Charles
solemnly  announced  a  council  to the
states at the diet of Augsburg, in 1530,
and, in order to prevent his summoning it
also,  preparations  for it were  made  in
Rome.  Accordingly,  Clement VII,  in
that same year,  decreed  it, but without
fixing the time ;  and Paul III, his succes-
sor, appointed it to be held, May 27,1537,
at Mantua.  As the  conditions offered by
the duke of Mantua were not acceptable,
the place was changed to Vicenza, and
May 1,1538, was fixed upon, when, as no
prelates  arrived, it was again  delayed tUl
Easter,  1539; and, as neither  France nor
Germany consented to the place selected,
it  was again postponed to an indefinite
period,  in  consequence  of the resolu-
tions of the diet of Ratisbon, in 1541. Paul
summoned it again  for Nov. 1, 1542, and
showed his willingness to choose a Ger-
man city by naming Trent.   His legates
anived  there Nov.  22 ; but a war of the
emperor with  France gave  occasion to
another postponement to a  more conve-
nient time.  Such a time the pope believ-
ed he had found amidst the preparations
of Charles against  the  Protestants, and
summoned the council to meet on  March
15, 1545.  The cardinals Del Monte, Cer-
vino della Croce, and Pole, arrived  at
Trent, at the appointed time, as presiding
legates; but as  the number of bishops
(twenty) and envoys who followed was
but small, the time was spent in disputes
about rank,  and in pleasure excursions;
the summer passed away, during which
 the prelates came and went, till at length,
 at the command of the  pope, Dec. 13,
 1545, the  general council of Trent (Sa-
 crosancta  acumenica et generalis  synodus
 Tridentina, prasidentibus legatis apostoli-
 cis, thus called in the papal brief) was sol-
 emnly opened, twenty-five bishops and
 some other prelates being present. In the
 succeeding confidential  conferences, it
 was agreed that committees of bishops and
 doctors of theology should prepare the
 subjects to be treated in particular and
 general meetings (not public  sessions of
 the fathers), the proposed decrees and
 canons should be decided by a majority
 of votes (the  votes being reckoned, not
 by nations, as at Constance, but by heads);
 the public sessions in the cathedral, with
 mass  and  preaching, should be merely
 ceremonial  acts, for publishing and con-
 firming the resolutions  that had  been
 adopted.    This  method  of voting by
 heads, of  which the Italian prelates and
 the titular  bishops (who were both on the
 side of the pope)  formed the majority;
 and the circumstance that the committees
 were  chosen and instructed  by the leg-
ates, was sufficient  to give a turn to the
councU according to the will of the  pope,
who had formed, at  Rome, a particular
assembly of cardinals to consult upon the
affairs of the council.  Add  to this the
vigorous, proud  and domineering  spirit
of the cardinal Del Monte, entirely de-
voted to his master ; his daily, nay,  hour-
ly, correspondence with him by means of
 an uninterrupted Une of couriers, which
 brought to "him, according to  the chang-
 ing resolutions of the  pope,  public and
 private directions for every aspect  of af-
 fairs,  and  many other arrangements by
 which the  Roman poUcy was able to in-
 fluence the assembled prelates according
 to circumstances.  Hence even the Ital-
 ian bishops were heard to complain, that
 the council was not a free one.   Princes
 and people expected from this union of
 holy  men  the abolition of abuses which
 had been long complained of, and an im-
 provement of the church in its head and
 membere, which would obviate the  objec-
 tions of the Protestants, and induce them
 to return   to the bosom  of the  Cath-
 olic church.  The imperial envoys open-
 ly urged that this should be the chief ob-
ject of their labors, yet, in  the second
 and third  sessions,  Jan. 7 and  Feb. 4,
 1546,  nothing was done except the  read-
 ing of rules  for the regulation of the
 fathers while at Trent,  of exhortations to
 extirpate heretics, and of the Nicene  creed.
 From the fourth to the eighth of April, when 
TRENT,  COUNCIL OF.
335
five archbishops and forty-eight bishops
were  already  assembled,  two  decrees
were  enacted, in which the reception of
the Apocrypha into the canon of the Holy
Scriptures was taken for granted ; tradition
was declared of equal authority with the
Bible  ; the Latin translation of the Bible,
known by the name of Vulgate, was re-
ceived as authentic ;  and the church  was
declared the only legitimate interpreter
of them.  From these,  as  well  as from
the decrees of the  fifth, sixth and seventh
sessions, June 17,  1546,  Jan.  13,  and
March 3, 1547, on the doctrines of origi-
nal sin, justification,  and the seven sacra-
ments, till then not confirmed by a statute
of  the  church, it  was  evident that  the
pope  and his legates had the intention of
placing Catholicism in pointed  contrast
with the doctrines  of Protestantism.  To
each  of these decrees, several canons, that
is, anathemas against those who dissented
from  them, were added.  In order  to  pay
some  attention to the wishes of the nation,
strenuously supported by the emperor, the
legates added some decrees, for the purpose
of reformation, to those intended merely for
the settlement of doctrines.  The  duties
of  preachers,  and  the administration
of the inferior offices, from the  bishops
downwards, were more suitably arranged,
without, however,  radically attacking the
prevailing abuses.  Even by these half
measures,  the legates  feared they  had
yielded  too much;  and, as the violent
contentions between the prelates and the
clergy of various  orders, the bold asser-
tions  and  proposals  of the  imperial  en-
voys  and  German  bishops, made  the
course of the deliberations  continually
more  doubtful, and a speedy vacancy of
the papal chair was anticipated, the  leg-
ates made use of the  false rumor ofa pes-
tilence in Trent, and, in accordance with
a power long since received from Rome,
in the eighth session, March 11, 1547, re-
solved upon transferring the assembly to
Bologna, which was  immediately follow-
ed  by the  departure of the Italian fa-
thers.  The solemn  protestations  of the
emperor against this measure compelled
eighteen bishops, from his states, together
with  the bishop of Trent,  cardinal Ma-
dmzzi, to remain in that city, whilst  the
legates, with six archbishops, thirty-two
bishops, and four generals of religious or-
ders,  contented themselves,  at Bologna, in
the ninth and tenth sessions, April 21  and
June  2, with publishing repeated decrees
of adjournment, without deciding further
upon  the  subject  of the council.   The
nominal council at  Trent,  in the mean
time, held no session, and, as the empe-
ror firmly refused to consider the assem-
bly at Bologna  as  a council, and as the
bishops departed, one after  another, the
pope  at length declared, in a bull of Sept.
17, 1549, the  council adjourned.  After
his death, the cardinal Del Monte, Feb. 8,
1550, ascended the papal chair, under the
name  of Julius III, and  formally  an-
nounced, at the desire  of  the  emperor,
the reassembling of the  council of Trent
in that very year. His legate, the cardinal
Marcellus Crescentius, a man of a pas-
sionate temper, came with two nuncios to
Trent, and opened the council, May 1,
1551, with the eleventh session.  This
second period commenced  with  little
splendor, on account of the small number
of prelates present; and even when the
influence of the emperor had brought to-
gether the German  archbishops, besides
many Spanish, Italian and German bish-
ops, in all sixty-four prelates, yet, on ac-
count of the  deficiency of theologians,
only the  subjects of future deliberations
could be decided upon in the twelfth ses-
sion, Sept. 5, 1551.  France kept back its
bishops, as in the firet period of the coun-
cil, and presented, in this session, protes-
tations against the continuation of it, by
its envoy, James Amyot, on account of*
the then existing political contentions be-
tween king Henry and  the pope.  Nev-
ertheless, the fathers proceeded  in their
work.  The Jesuits  Lainez  and Salme-
ron, who had  been sent as papal theolo-
gians,  had a decisive influence upon  the
decrees, which now, laying aside scholas-
tic differences, were briefly and precisely
drawn up respecting the Lord's  supper,
penance, and extreme unction, and were
published, the firet with eleven canons, in
the thirteenth session, Oct. 11, the two last,
with  nineteen canons,  in the fourteenth
session, Nov.  15.   They added to this
two decrees of reformation on  the  juris-
diction of the bishops, in which the limits
of the episcopal authority, and the causes
admitting of appeal to the pope, were de-
termined, encroachments in foreign dio-
ceses, and abuses in exercising the rights
of  patronage,  and  in the dress of  the
clergy, were  prohibited; and the privi-
leged ecclesiastical  bodies, universities,
monasteries, hospitals, &c, were exempt-
ed  from the jurisdiction of the bishops.
The canons, connected with the dogmatic
decrees, contained only sentences in con-
demnation of the opinions of Luther and
Zwingli; and  yet the pope had  invited
the Protestants, by several nuncios, to
take part in this act of the council, as the 
336
TRENT,  COUNCIL OF.
emperor  insisted  on  their  admission.
Some envoys of the Protestant powers
appeared, indeed,'at Trent; those of Bran-
denburg in order to obtain from the pope
the confirmation of prince Frederic  in
ihe archbishopric of Magdeburg, those  of
Wiirtemberg, and deputies from tiie cities
of Upper Germany,  to please the empe-
ror, and perhaps also at the instigation  of
the elector, Maurice, whose own envoy
arrived  there  Jan. 7, 1552, and obtained
an  audience Jan. 24, in a general assem-
bly.  To his extreme vexation, the cardi-
nal legate was obliged to consent, that the
Protestant  theologians   also  should  be
heard, and provided with safe conducts.
In order to cut off every possibility of  an
agreement with the Protestants, he had
composed a decree on the consecration  of
priests,  entirely in the  spirit of Gregory
VII; yet the emperor gained  his object,
and, in the  fifteenth session, Jan. 25, this
decree  was not published, but  only  a
postponement of the deliberations  was
resolved upon till the arrival of the Prot-
estant divines.  Under  the imperial  pro-
tection,  the divines  of Wiirtemberg and
Upper   Germany (from  the cities) now
also came to Trent, and the Saxons were
already  on their way thither, under the
conduct of Melanchthon.  These meas-
ures, however, were only a stratagem on
the part of Saxony, in  order  to  lull the
emperor into security, as was soon evin-
ced by  the sudden  commencement of
hostilities on the part of the elector, Mau-
rice, who forced the emperor to fly, and
the members  of the council to disperse.
They resolved, accordingly, in the six-
teenth session, April 8, upon its adjourn-
ment for two years, without having even
commenced negotiations with the Prot-
estants.   Amidst these circumstances,  of
the greatest disadvantage for the authori-
ty of the  pope, the treaty of Passau, and
the religious peace  of  Augsburg,  were
concluded, and two Catholic princes, the
Roman  king  Ferdinand, and the duke  of
Bavaria, even ventured, at their own risk,
to grant to their Protestant subjects the
privilege of the  cup, though  the council
}iad refused them permission so to do.  In
France, the increasing power of the Prot-
estants  threatened to extort similar, and
still greater privileges ;  and because pope
Paul IV (1555—59) would hear  nothing
of any  council held without the city of
Rome,  the  French  bishops  thought of
summoning a national synod,  for the set-
tlement of the religious disputes.  Paul's
successor, Pius IV, saw  himself compel-
led, in  15G0  and 1561, to reassemble the
general council.  Although the Protes-
tants did  not  accept the invitation, and
the French government, rejecting the pre-
vious decrees of the council, demanded
an entirely new and independent council,
yet  it was reopened, Jan. 8,1562, by six
legates of the pope, under the presidency
of the cardinal, prince Hercules Gonza-
ga,  of Mantua, with 112 bishops, mostly
Italians, four abbots, and four generals of
religious orders.  In the eighteenth ses-
sion, Feb. 26, a decree was merely pub-
lished for preparing an index of prohib-
ited  books; but,  in the nineteenth, May
4, and in the twentieth, June 14, it was
again resolved to delay the  publication
of new decrees.  This delaying was  a
common means of the  Roman  policy  to
avoid opposition  ; for  Fiance, as well as
the emperor and  Bavaria,  repeated their
propositions for  the reformation of the
church, and for the admission of the laity
to the cup in the  Lord's supper, the mar-
riage of the priests, and a revision of the
laws concerning forbidden meat; and, be-
sides, all  the bishops, except those from
Italy, agreed in the opinion so odious  to
the  pope, that  the episcopal power and
rights were not of papal but of divine
origin.  But, in consequence of the ma-
jority of the Italian bishops, the results of
the  votes  were always in  favor of the
views of the Roman court.  Thus there
were passed, in the twenty-first and twen-
ty-second  sessions, July 16 and Sept. 17,
1562, the  decrees respecting the celebra-
tion  of the Lord's supper, and the sacrifice
of mass, allowing preparatory  explana-
tions in the vernacular languages; but
the laity were  referred  to the pope, as re-
spected their demand  for the cup in the
Lord's supper.  In these sessions, there
were present  230 prelates, besides the
ambassadors of the Catholic courts; and
the  number was  increased, Nov. 13, by
the  arrival of the cardinal of Lonaine,
with fourteen bishops, three abbots and
eighteen  theologians, from  France, who
not only gave new strength to the opposi-
tion, but also proposed  thirty-four articles
of reformation, which  could not  but be
exceedingly offensive to the Papal party.
This party, therefore,  resorted  again to
delays, and postponed  the  next session
from one month  to another.   Gonzaga,
who was  generally esteemed for his up-
rightness, but who was  fettered  in every
step  by the directions which he  received
from the Roman court, died meanwhile,
March 2, 1563 ; and, in  his place, the new
legates Moroni and  Stavageri presided,
who amused the  fathers with empty for- 
TRENT, COUNCIL OF—TRENTON.
337
malities and theological disputes, so that
at length the imperial and French courts
were convinced that no reformation  of
the church was to be expected from this
council, and  still less a  peace with the
Protestants,  who entirely rejected the
council.  Moreover, the cardinal of  Lor-
raine was wou over to the Papal party by
secret promises of  personal  advantage;
and, although the German, Spanish and
French bishops had  hitherto  zealously
maintained the divine origin of their pow-
er, yet, at length, either tired out by length
of time, or influenced by intrigues, they
consented to a decree respecting the con-
secration of the priests and the hierarchy,
entirely in accordance with the views of
the pope, which received public confir-
mation in eight canons, in the twenty-
third session, July 15, 1563.   With equal
pliability,  they suffered to be passed, in
the  twenty-fourth session, Nov. 11, the
decree respecting the sacrament of mat-
rimony, in twelve canons, in which the
celibacy of the clergy was enjoined ; and,
in the twenty-fifth and last sessions,  Dec.
3 and 4, the hastily-composed decrees  re-
specting purgatory, the worship of saints,
relics and images, the monastic vows,
indulgences, fasts,  prohibition of certain
kinds of food, and an index of prohibited
books; the last of which, together  with
the composition of a catechism and brev-
iary, was left to  the  pope.  In the de-
crees  of  reformation,   published  in
these last five  sessions, which contained
mostly insignificant or self-evident  ordi-
nances, or at least the same repeated only
with different words, provision was made
for the removal of the prevailing abuses,
for the conferment and administration of
spiritual offices and sinecures, &c.  The
most useful provision was that for found-
ing  seminaries for the education of the
clergy, and  the examination  of those to
be  ordained.  At  the  close  of the last
session, the cardinal of Lorraine exclaim-
ed, "Cursed be all heretics!" and the
prelates joined  in the cry, " Cursed,  curs-
ed !" so  that the dome resounded  with
their imprecations.   Thus  ended  the
council of Trent, the decrees of which,
signed by 255 prelates, perpetuated the
separation  of  the Protestants  from the
Catholic  church, and acquired, with the
latter, the authority of a symbolical book.
The pope confirmed them, Jan. 26,1564,
in their whole extent   The chief object
of this council, the gaining back of the
Protestants to the Catholic church, was
not attained, and the points of dissention
between  the  Roman  and  the  Greek
  vol. xn.        29
churches were marked out so  distinctly,
as to leave no hope  of any future  recon-
ciliation.  By its decrees, the  Catholic
doctrines were more exactly detennined,
and many abuses remedied, though  the
worst and most  pernicious  were  left.
These decrees were received without limi-
tation in Italy, Portugal and Poland; in the
Spanish dominions they were restricteil
by the statutes of the kingdom ; in France,
Germany and Hungary, on the contrary,
they met with an opposition which grad-
ually resulted in a silent approbation of
the doctrinal decrees on the part of the
Catholics, but has always  prevented  the
reception of the decrees of refonnation,
as irreconcilable with many laws  of the
respective countries,  although  the real
improvements ordained were  cheerfully
received and put in execution.  For  the
explanation and interpretation of the  de-
crees  of this council, Sixtus V, in 1588,
instituted a council of cardinals, the con-
tinuation of which was  found  necessary
by  his  successors.   The  works  which
have been written in support of, and  op-
position to, the council of Trent, the  last
that has been held, are very numerous,
and many exhibit great talent.  During
the sessions of the  council, Calvin wrote
his antidote against the council of  Trem,
and, in 1560, when pope Pius VII order-
ed the reassembling of  the council,  the
Lutheran  princes   of Germany  issued
their Concilii Tridentini  decretis opposita
Gravamina,  and even  down  to  recent
times, works have continued to be writ-
ten on it though the notions of Protec-
tants are now too  well settled  to induce
them to spend much time  in refuting its
decrees.   The fundamental  enor con-
nected  with  this  council  was,  that
Catholics and Protestants could suppose it
possible to reconcile their  differences by
means of a council, which could only
bring  them out in stronger relief.  It was,
in fact, the great mistake  of the time to
suppose that truth could  be settled by  re-
ligious disputations.   But, though it is
easy to see now that a union between  the
Catholics and Protestants was impossible,
it was not easy to see it then ; and we can
hardly blame men  for  wishing to pro-
duce harmony in Christendom.  Even at
a much later period, men like Leibnitz
believed in the possibility of a reunion of
the churches.
  Trenton ; the metropolis of New Jer-
sey, in  Hunterdon  county, on  the east
bank  of Delaware  river, opposite  to the
falls;  ten miles south-west of Princeton,
thirty  north-east of  Philadelphia,  sixty 
338
TRENTON—TRESSAN.
south-west of New York,  one hundred
and  sixty-seven  from Washington,  lat.
40° 14' N.; lon. 74° 39' W.;  population
in 1820, 3942; in ia?0, 3925.   It is  the
fourth town in size in New Jersey.  It is
pleasantly situated, and incorporated with
city privileges. It contains the state and
county buildings, and  houses of worship
for Presbyterians,  Episcopalians, Meth-
odists  and Friends.   The Delaware is
navigable to this place for  sloops, but is
not navigable,  except for boats of mode-
rate size, above tiie falls.  At the  foot of
the  falls  is an  elegant covered bridge
across the river.   Trenton is distinguish-
ed, in the history of the revolution, for
the victory gained by general Washing-
ton over the British army, on the 26th of
December, 1776.   The  American army
crossed the Delaware on the night of the
25th, during a violent  storm of snow and
rain, and attacked the enemy on the north
and  west  parts of the town.   A detach-
ment of the army had  been ordered to
cross the river aud secure  a  position at
the bridge, to prevent  the  escape of the
British troops; but, owing to the extreme
difficulty of crossing the river, this part
of the plan failed, and almost 500 of the
troops escaped.  The British lost 20, who
were killed, and about 1000, who surren-
dered.  The American loss was 2 killed,
2 frozen to death, 5 wounded.
   Trepanning ; the operation  of open-
ing the skull, by means of a surgical  in-
strument, adapted for the purpose. The
instrument used is called a trepan, or tre-
phine, and consists of  a  handle, to which
is fixed a circular  saw, or hollow iron
cylinder, of about an inch in diameter,
called the crown, from the  centre  of
which projects a sharp perforator, called
the centre-pin.   The upper part of the
centre-pin screws into  a hole at the top
of the  crown; its use  is to  steady  the
trepan before  the teeth of the  saw have
made a sufficient furrow  to prevent it
from  slipping; for  which  purpose it is
pushed down  below the level of the teeth
of the saw, and  fixed  in  the  centre of
the  bone to be removed.   The trephine
differs from  the  trepan  in  having its
crown fixed upon and worked by a com-
 mon transverse handle, like a  gimlet, in-
 stead of being turned by a handle, like a
 wimble or centre-bit,  as is the case with
 the trepan. The former is used in Eng-
 land and the  U. States: the latter is pre-
 ferred by the  surgeons of continental Eu-
 rope.    The  trephine performs  only  a
 semicircular  motion,  imparted by  the
 pronation and supination of the hand,
the teeth being so arranged  as  to  cut,
whether the  instrument is turned from
right to left or the reverse.  The; trepan
is turned completely round and round on
its own axis. The operation is performed
in  the following manner:—The  hair  is
first removed from the portion  of the
skull to be taken out, and incisions, in the
form of a cross, or of the letter T or V,
are made quite through the scalp, in or-
der to expose the bone.  The centre-pin
is  then fixed, the trephine or trepan is
put in motion, as above described,  and
the operation is continued  until the bone
is sawn through, which is then removed
by  the forceps.   The divided scalp  is
finally placed, as nearly as possible, in its
natural situation, and dressed. The aper-
ture in the skull gradually becomes closed
with soft granulations, which slowly ac-
quire a hard  consistency.   Until this is
the case, the patient  must wear a  thin
piece of horn, or plate of metal over the
aperture.  The operation  of trepanning
is resorted to only for the purpose of re-
lieving the brain  from pressure. Such
pressure may be caused by the depression
ofa portion of the cranium, or it may be pro-
duced by an extravasation of blood, or by
the lodgment of matter betwixt the skull
and the dura mater, occasioned by a blow
upon  the head, or the inflammation of
the membranes of the brain.
  Tressan, Louis Elisabeth /le la Vergne,
count of, was born in 1705, at Mans, went
at an early age to  Paris, and became ac-
quainted with Voltaire, Fontenelle, and
other  celebrated men, by whom he was
confirmed in his  love  of literature.  In
1723,  he entered the  army, and after-
wards travelled in Italy.  When  the war
broke out between France and  Austria,
he  was appointed aid-de-camp  to  the
duke  de Noailles, with whom he was at
the siege of Kehl.  He also distinguished
himself at  Esslingen and Philipsburg, in
1734.  In 1741, he was employed in Flan-
ders.   In 1744, he was made marechal-
de-camp, and served at the sieges of Me-
rlin, Ypres, and Furnes.  He was aid-de-
camp to the king  at the battle of Fonte-
noi, where  he was  wounded. In 1750,
he was appointed  governor of Toulouse
and French  Lorraine, and,  soon  after,
made grand  marshal  to  the ex-king of
Poland, at Luneville, where he remained
till the death of that prince.  In 1781, he
was admitted into the French academy,
and took up his residence in Paris, where
he died, October 31,1783.   He published
a translation of the  Orlando Furioso of
Ariosto,  which, together with extracts 
TRESSAN—TRIANGLE.
339
and translations  of many other Italian
and old  French  romances, appeared in
Les (Euvres  Choisies de Iressan (Paris,
1787—91, 12 vols., 8vo).  He also wrote
Reflexions sur VEsprit; Discours,prononci
a I'Acad. de Nanci; Eloges, &c.
  Treves (in German,  Trier; anciently,
Augusta Trevirorum); a city in the Prus-
sian province of the Lower Rhine, capi-
tal of" a government of the same name,
fonncrly capital of an electorate and arch-
bishopric, on the Moselle; lon. 6° 38' E.;
lat. 49° 47' N.; population, 9608.  It has a
 tiicturcsque  situation in the  centre of a
 arge valley  lying along the Rhine, and
open to the north-west and south-east, but
confined on the other sides by gentle emi-
nences covered with vines; and the envi-
rons abound with gardens.  It  contains
the  late elector's  palace, now converted
into banacks, a cathedral, nine churches,
peven convents, three hospitals, a lyceum,
and a public library.  A university  was
founded here in  1454,  but converted by
the French, in 1794, into a central school,
now styled a gymnasium.   Treves is the
most ancient, and among the most cele-
brated, cities of  Germany.   It contains
many  Roman antiquities: coins,  medals
and inscriptions are frequently dug  up ;
and the remains of the  baths are exten-
sive.  The archbishopric of Treves was
the  oldest in Germany; the archbishop
was the second elector (q. v.) of the em-
pire, and had the title of " arch-chancellor
of the holy Roman empire, for  Gaul  and
Aries." By the peace of Luneville (1801),
Treves was annexed to France,  but, since
the peace of Paris, has belonged to Prus-
sia.  The gymnasium  has a library  of
70,000 volumes  and 2000  manuscripts.
Among the  churches, that of Our Lady
is one  of the finest monuments of Ger-
man architecture.  The arch called  the
black gate, from its color, is the most  im-
portant Roman monument in Germany.
  Treviso, Duke of.   (See Mortier.)
  Trewes.   (See Highlands.)
  Triad  (three in  one).   The number
three was thought holy in the earliest an-
tiquity.  (See, for instance, Numbers-xix,
12.) This must  have its reason in  the
nature of the  number.   The  number
three represents to  us unity and opposi-
tion, the principle and  the moments of
developement, or opposition, and the con-
necting unity (synthesis).  It is the firet
uneven number in which  the firet even
one  is contained; herein lie its  peculiar
signification and perfection.  Even in an-
tiquity, it could not escape attention, that
this  number is to be found wherever va-
riety  is  developed.   Hence  we  have
beginning,  middle,  end,  represented  in
the heavens by rise, point of culmination,
and setting; morning, noon, evening,and
evening, midnight, morning; and in gen-
eral, in the great divisions of time, the
past, the present, and the future.   In
space, also, this number three  occure, as
in above, midst, and below ; right, midst,
and left; and in general, in the dimen-
sions of  space, as  length,  breadth, and
thickness or  depth.  To  the  eye, the
number three is presented in the regular
figure of the triangle, which has been ap-
plied to numberless  symboUcal  represent-
ations ;  the car perceives  it most per-
fectly in the hannonic triad.   (See the
next paragraph.)  As the  triple is also the
basis of symmetry, the three-figured form
is found in architecture and  in simple
utensils, without any particular reference
to symbolical or other significations. Of
this kind are thetriglyphs in architecture,
the tripod, the trident, the three thunder-
bolts of Jupiter, the ancient three-stringed
lyre; though the number  three has  in
these objects, as well as in the three-head-
ed Cerberus, other more symbolical rela-
tions.   Even  in our thoughts, we meet
the triad in position (thesis),  opposition
(antithesis), and union (synthesis).
  Triad, Harmonic; a compound of three
radical sounds, consisting  of  a funda-
mental note, its third, and  its  fifth. Of
these three sounds, the gravest is called the
fundamental, the fifth the excluded sound,
and the third the harmonica! mean.  This
division of the fifth  into  two thirds is
performed  in two ways; firet, harmoni-
cally ; as when the greater third is lowest,
in which case, the triad is said to be per-
fect  and  natural;  secondly,  arithmeti-
cally ; when the lesser third is lowest; and
then the triad is called flat or imperfect
  Trial.   (See Jury, and  Process, and
Mittermaiers German  Penal Procedure,
fyc, compared with the English and French
(2 vols., Heidelburg, 1832).
  Triangle, in geometry; a  figure of
three  sides and three angles.  Triangles
are either  plane or spherical.  A  plane
triangle is one  contained by three right
lines;  and  a spherical triangle is one
contained by three arcs  of  great cir-
cles of the sphere.   Triangles are denom-
inated, from  their  angles,  right, obtuse,
and acute.  A right-angled triangle is that
which  has  one  right angle ; an obtuse-
angled triangle  is such as has one ob-
tuse angle ; and an acute-angled tiiangle
is that which  has  all its  angles acute.
The triangle is the most important figure 
310
TRIANGLE—TRIBUNAT.
in geomeuy ; and its various lines bear the
most interesting relations to each other.
(See Trigonometry.)
  Triangular Compasses  are such as
have three legs, or feet, whereby to take
off any triangle at once; much used in
the construction of maps, globes, &c.
  Triangular Numbers are a kind of
polygonal numbers,  being  the  sums of
arithmetical progressions, the difference
of whose terms is  1.   Thus, from  the
arithmetical numbers 1,2,3,4,5,6, are
formed the triangular numbers 1,3,6, 10,
15,21.
  Triangulating.   In surveying,  the
larger the space the more complicated is
the labor.  A number of points are taken
as the apexes of the angles  of  triangles,
into which the space  is supposed to be
divided.   This process is called triangu-
lating.  Triangles are chosen on account
of the  ease, with which, if some parts of
these figures are given, the  others can be
calculated.  In those surveys in  which
the  spheroidal form of the earth must
be taken into consideration,  astronomical
operations are necessary; accurate instru-
ments  are to be prepared for measuring
angles, such as theodolites, reflecting sex-
tants, &c.  The longitude and latitude of
places, at  least 140 miles  distant from
each other, must be accurately determin-
ed, and their meridians must be marked
on the ground.   These points then form a
network, to be afterwards filled up, and are
supported  by a great  basis, obtained as
well from accurate measurement as from
trigonometrical  calculations or  careful
triangulating.   This  basis is situated, if
possible, in a meridian, and is astronomi-
cally determined.   In each  of  the chief
triangles, a system of smaller triangles is
calculated; the whole is then divided into
square sections, each  of which contains
some of the points trigonometrically as-
certained in what we have called the net-
work.  These furnish the means of  sur-
veying in detail, and of examination.
   Trianon ;  the  name of two palaces
near  Versailles.    Great   Trianon  (le
 Grand Trianon) has a front of 384  feet,
and is remarkable for the beauty and lux-
uriance  of its  gardens, laid out  by Le-
notre.   The  palace, built by Mansard in
the Oriental style, is but one story high.
At the end of the park of Great Trianon
is le Petit Trianon (Little Trianon), which
consists  merely of a pavilion in the Ro-
man style, with English gardens.  This
little palace was the favorite resort of Ma-
rie Antoinette, and was therefore exposed
to the  violence of the populace during the
revolution.  Great Trianon was much vis-
ited by Napoleon, and the decree of Aujj.
3,1810, was dated here.  (See Continental
System.)
  Tribe (tribus). Romulus divided the
inhabitants of Rome  into three  bodies,
thence called tribes, each of which had a
presiding officer  (tribunus), and  was di-
vided  into ten curia.   Servius Tullius
divided the inhabitants into  four parts,
which still retained the name of tribes.
To these four city tribes (tribus urbana)
were  added the rural  tribes (tribus rus-
tica), the number of which was gradually
increased to thirty-one.  In the comitia
tributa, in  which the people voted  by
tribes, the lower magistrates, the ordinary
magistrates,  and  the provincial magis-
trates,  were chosen, laws  were  made,
and criminal trials, not  capital,  conduct-
ed, &c.
  Tribonian,  a celebrated statesman un-
der Justinian, a native  of Side,  in  Pam-
phylia,  was distinguished for his great
learning, particularly  in jurisprudence,
which gained him the favor of the empe-
ror, and raised him to the  highest offices
of state.  He became questor of the pal-
ace and consul;  but his vices made him
obnoxious, and he was removed (532),  in
consequence of a sedition, but again re-
stored  to his former dignities.  He was
notorious for avarice  and taking bribes;
but his learning and ability preserved him
the confidence of Justinian, who named
him, with nine other civilians, to prepare
the new code, with sixteen othere to com-
pose the digest or pandects, and with two
others to draw  up the institutes. (See
Civil Law.)  Tribonian was charged with
being  the  secret enemy of Christianity,
with  atheism, and attachment to  pagan-
ism ;  but these charges  are not sustained
by sufficient proof.  He died 545.
   Tribrachys.  (See Rhythm.)
   Tribunal,  with the Romans;  an ele-
vated  place where the pretor (q. v.)  sat
upon  his sella  curulis, when acting as
judge: his counsellors sat near him.   In
the camp, the  Roman general had also a
tribunal of turf,  where he gave judgment.
   Tribunat.  The  French  constitution
of Dec. 15, 1799, projected by Bonaparte
and  Sieyes,  committed  the legislative
power, though more in appearance than
in  reality, to a body (corps legislatif) of
300  men, and a tribunat of 100 members
chosen by the conservative senate, from
the three lists of candidates proposed  by
the departmental colleges.   To the three
consuls was reserved the right of initiat-
ing laws; to the tribunal, that of delibe- 
TRIBUNAT—TRICOLORE.
341
rating on subjects thus proposed, and to
the legislative body that of accepting or
rejecting measures thus proposed by the
firet, and discussed by the second.  The
membere of the  council of state, as the
mouthpieces of the  government, had  a
considerable  influence  in  each  body.
The tribunat had also the privilege of ex-
pressing  its wishes,  and making  repre-
sentations to the government, and  some-
times ventured to exercise this right.  A
tribun was to be twenty-five  years old,
and have a yearly income of 15,000 francs.
The  tribunat  was  renewed every  five
years, by the reelection of one fifth of its
members yearly.  The last voice of free-
dom in the tribunat was Carnot's speech
in opposition to the election of Bonaparte,
as emperor, in  1804.   By  the  sinatus-
consulte organique of May 18,  1804, its
general meetings were  abolished,  and  it
was permitted to meet  only by  sections,
of which there were  three (for legislation,
home affairs, and finance).  In 1807, the
tribunat was suppressed.
   Tribune (tribunus), among   the Ro-
mans ; originally, the commander  of  a
tribe  (q. v.), thence a public officer,  a
commander in general.   Thus there were
military tribunes, and tribunes of the pub-
Uc treasury (tribuni militarcs and tribuni
ararii). The former commanded a di-
vision of a legion, consisting usually of
about 1000  men; the latter assisted the
questore, particularly in the distribution
of money.   The most important officers
with this title  were the tribuni plebis, or
tribunes of the people (i. e. of the commons
or plebeians), who were chosen from the
plebeians to  defend  the rights  of their
order against the encroachments of the
patricians. These tribunes were not, strict-
ly speaking, magistrates, or invested with
magisterial powers ; but they exercised a
great influence upon public affairs.  The
occasion of the creation of this office was
the secession of the plebeians, on account of
tiie oppression and injustice which they
suffered from the patricians, to Mons Sa-
cer, whence  they refused  to return into
the city, till  they had procured the con-
sent of the senate to  the creation of tri-
bunes, whose pereons should be  inviola-
ble,  to  protect their rights.  They had
the power of putting a negative upon the
decrees of the senate, and of stopping the
proceedings of magistrates by their vdo
(Iforbid it); and  in process of time their
influence was  increased to such a degree,
that they often endangered  the safety of
the state.  Their number was at firet two,
but was afterwards increased to ten ; and
                 29*
as they were not dignified with the nam©
of magistrates, they enjoyed none  of the
external   marks  of  distinction  which
were attached to the magisterial dignities
in Rome.
  Tribune, in the  French  houses of
legislature:  the pulpit or elevated place
from which the  members deliver their
speeches,  which  they usually  read,  if
they treat  a subject at length.  In gene-
ral, only short replies are made ex tempore.
Hence tribune is  often used  metaphori-
cally.  (See Tribunal.)
  Tricolore.  Whenever a  great prin-
ciple or interest, good or bad, brings large
bodies of  men into direct opposition, it is
the common and natural course of things
for some distinguishing cry or badge to be
adopted by all those who espouse the same
side; and the more  active and absorbing
the opposition is, the more significant be-
comes the sign.  There is not time  to
give or receive long explanations:  the
questions  will be, Are you whig or tory ?
patriot or  royalist ?  a friend of the gov-
ernment or of revolution ? Do you fight
for the red or white rose ? Do you wear
the  white riband on your sleeve? &c.
These are the  signs  or  watchwords  in
times of great excitement.  Such  a  sign
is  the French tricolore  (white, red and
blue).  It is the emblem of all who adhere
to the principles of the new order of things
in  France, of all, whether monarchists or
republicans, Bonapartists  or  Orleanists,
who maintain the  principle  of equali-
ty, under  whatever modifications.  The
white  banner is the sign of the ancient
aristocracy,  the  Bourbons, and  repre-
sents the  old order of things, under aU
modifications.  The tricolore was  adopt-
ed, originally, by accident, but has be-
come a historical sign ; and even if the
elder line  of the Bourbons could  regain
any permanent power in France, it could
only be by adopting the tricolore; i. e. by
yielding to the spirit of modern France,
by becoming national.   Bourrienne's Life
of Napoleon contains  some  interesting
facts respecting this badge.   The comtt
(FArtois wore it  in 1814.   Fouche, in
1815, advised  LouisXVIII to adopt it;
but an inuigue prevented his so  doing.
" Why," said  the king,  when  Fouche
urged this measure, "should I change my
badge for another ?"  <: Afin que personne
autre que  V. M. ne puisse le prendre," an-
swered the duke  of Otranto.  The firet
thing the duke of Orleans did, when  he
hastened to Paris, in the revolution of 1830,
was  to put on the tricolore.  He gave a
pledge by so doing, which was understood 
342
TRICOLORE.
 by all, and section 67 was immediately add-
 ed to the constitution, which runs thus:
 France  resumes her colors: for the future,
 there will be  no  other cockade than the tri-
 colored cockade.  This shows, that the tri-
 colore is considered the emblem of France,
 in opposition to  the  white—the color ofa
 family, the Bourbons, and, of course, all
 the interests attached to, and  represented
 by, that family.  The tricolore, according
 to the best accounts  of the time  when  it
 was adopted, owes its rank, as a national
 color, to chance.  In a moment of enthu-
 siasm, the patriots had ornamented them-
 selves with green leaves ; and this color
 of hope  was about to be retained as the
 badge of their party, when it was recol-
 lected that it was the color of the comte
 cTArtois, the most unpopular prince of the
 whole royal family.  But a distinguishing
 sign was wanted ; therefore the colors of
 the city of Paris, blue and red, were taken,
 and planted every  where by the citizens.
 In the mean time, the national guard had
 been organized: it was not hostile to the
 king; and many  military men having
 been, besides, incorporated  with  them,
 the  white color of the  Bourbons  was
 added to the  colore of Paris, and  thus
 arose the famous white, red and blue en-
 sign, which accompanied the French ar-
 mies to Egypt, Spain and Russia.   It may
 not be irrelevant to remark, that the colore
 composing the tricolore  have been  suc-
 cessively those  of the French standard
 for many centuries.  The most ancient
 national  standard  of France  is  what is
 now called chape de Saint-Martin, though
 probably it diet not refer to the garment
 of the saint,  but to  the standard of his
 abbey.  St Martin of Tours  was one of
 the first apostles of Gaul; and the religious
 banners  of saints were, at early periods,
 assumed  by the  warriors, who  com-
 mended  themselves  to their protection.
 This banner was blue,  and became that
 of France.  Probably about  the begin-
 ning of the " third race" of kings, when
 the  sovereigns  resided permanently at
 Paris, St. Denis, the saint of Paris, be-
 came more important, and his banner was
 adopted as the common standard of the
 country. It is the famous oriflamme (a. v.):
 the color was red. During the crusades,the
 cross took the place  of the flag;  and we
 must often look for its color to find the
 national color of that period.  The French
 cross was red, and the English white; and
 it is difficult to ascertain exactly the period
 when the interchange of colors between
these two nations  occurred.   It is  gen-
erally placed under Charles VII; but we
 find the white cross even under Charles
 VI.   The change probably happened un-
 der Philip  of Valois.  At this period the
 EngUsh  kings began to claim the sove-
 reignty of France, and naturally adopted
 also the color  of France:  they  were,
 moreover,  of the house of Lancaster,
 whose  cognizance was  the  red  rose.
 When the English were in possession of
 Paris, it was impossible  for France to re-
 tain the red oriflamme as a distinguishing
 sign.  Charles VII, moreover, wished to
 place France under the  protection of the
 Virgin, whose emblem is often the white
 lily.  Hence France adopted  the  white
 color; and the standard of that time was
 known under the name of cornette blancfie.
 Other changes  were made  afterwards.
 The king of Navarre and the Calvinistic
 party wore  white scarfs; and the king
 himself wore the color  after he became
 Henry IV.  But it seems that from time im-
 memorial, a tricolored flag was the nation-
 al banner,  as contradistinguished  from
 that of the monarchy.   When the Dutch
 asked Henry IV to give them the  colore
 of France,  he gave  them the tricolored
 standard, which has ever since remained
 the Dutch flag, as well as that of the king-
 dom of the Netherlands.  It is, like the
 French, red, blue and  white,  only the
 colore are in a different order from  those
 of France.    The  livery of  Louis XIV
 was  tricolored, blue, with white and red
 galoon lace.  The vain Louis obliged his
 grandchild to take this livery with him to
 Spain, where it  has  descended to this
 day.  The  same was continued by the
 French descendants of Louis till the flight
 of Charles X.  Louis also gave a tricolor-
 ed livery to Philip of Orleans, red, with
 white and blue galoon lace.  It is now the
 livery of the servants of Louis-Philippe.
 In the eighteenth century, when Spain,
 France  and  Bavaria concluded an alli-
 ance, a cockade was invented, to be worn
 by the armies of aU three, in  which the
 red of Spain, the white of France, and
 the blue of Bavaria, were united.  As
 early  as  1458, the colors of Paris were
 blue and red.  Like many other tilings
 produced by the French revolution, the
fashion of a national cockade was adopted
by other nations; e. g.  the  Prussian is
white and black; the Dutch orange, from
the house of Orange; the Russian  black
and orange; the royal Saxon is green and
white; and, by the natural influence of
great examples,we find that the liberals of
aU countries on the continent have adopted
a tricolored banner and cockade—the Ger-
mans, Italians, Poles, Belgians, &c.   The 
TRICOLORE—TRILL.
343
 Germans have chosen the three colors of
 tho  ancient empire—black, red and gold.
 —For a historical investigation respecting
 the tricolore, see Recherches Historiques sur
 les Trois Couleurs Nationales  et le Coq
 Gaulois, reprinted in the Courrier des Etats
 Unis (New York) of Nov. 27, 1830, and
 Jan.1,1831.
   Trident.  (See Neptune.)
   Triennial Act ; the name generally
 given to the act of parliament, 16 Charles
 II, "for the assembling and holding of
 parliaments once in three years at least."
 This act was confirmed, after the revolu-
 tion of 1688, by 6 William and Mary, c. 2.
 Under George I, the  septennial parlia-
 ments were established. (See Septennial
 Elections.)
   Trieste  (anciently  Tergeslum;  Ger-
 man Triest),  a  seaport of the Austrian
 dominions,  in  the kingdom  of Illyria
 (q. v.), capital of a district of the  same
 name, is an  open town, and  lies at the
 head of  the  gulf of Venice, on the bay
 called the gulf of Trieste, in lat. 40° 43' N.,
 lon.  12° 58'  E.; population, 40,530,  con-
 sisting ofa mixture of Germans and  Ital-
 ians. As it is the only seaport of Austria
 which has a convenient harbor, it has an
 extensive commerce. Among the exports
 are quicksilver from Idria  and  Hungary,
 linen and woollens, printed cottons  from
 Switzerland, Hungarian and  Dalmatian
 wines, &c.  The imports are  raw cotton
 (in 1831, 21,000,000 lbs.),  coffee, sugar,
 spices, fish,  indigo, &c.   In  1830,  290
 vessels entered the  port,  of which 140
 were English, and 50 American.
   Trifolium.  (See Clover.)
   Triglyphs.  (See Architecture.)
   Trigonometry ; the  art of measuring
 triangles, (q. v.)  The meaning of the
 word, however, has been much extended,
 so that it embraces the determination of
 the situation and distance of all the points
 in a given  space, in which the situation
 and  distance of some points  are given.
 The surveyor measures  one or more lines
 and  angles, and  finds from these all the
 other points to be settled, by  calculation.
 The great practical usefulness of trigo-
 nometry is obvious.  If we imagine the
 various parts of the space to be surveyed
 connected by straight  lines,  besides the
 length of the lines and angles  which they
 include, those angles also are to be consid-
 ered which  the various  planes  to which
th'ey relate make with each other.  If the
geometer has  chosen  some  points  of
mountains, which, for the purpose of the
survey, he considers as connected in tri-
angles, they must, as they  lie in various
planes, be reduced to the horizontal plane;
so that a plan may be drawn, on which
all these various elevated objects shall ap-
pear in one plane.  But if we consider
the apparent celestial sphere, in the centre
of which the observer seems to stand, the
various points of the same may be regard-
ed as connected by arcs drawn from this
centre ; and thus we  shall have spherical
triangles, as we had before plane ones,
which again serve to ascertain the various
points on the surface of the sphere.  Trig-
onometry is divided into plane and spher-
ical, and, in general, teaches to find,  from
three given parts of a triangle (of which,
however, in plane triangles, one, at least,
must be a side), the three remaining parts.
How this is done we cannot show here.—
See  the articles Sine, and Triangulating.
For  further information,  see Fischer's
Manual of Plane and Spherical Trigonom-
etry  (in German, Leipsic, 1819)—-a  very
practical book; Lacroix's  Traiti element.
de Trigonomitrie  rectiligne et spherique
(6th ed., Paris,  1813); and the great work
of Cagnoli, Traiti de  Trigonomitrie rec-
tiligne  et spherique; Vince's Treatise on
Plane and Spherical Trigonometry  (Cam-
bridge, 1800); Ingram's Elements of Plane
and  Spherical  Trigonometry (1799, 8vo.);
also  the  works of Playfair, Bonnycastle,
&c. Respecting trigonometrical tables, see
Sine, and Logarithms.
  Trill, or Shake (in Italian, trUlo), is,
in music, the quick, uniform  alternation
of two adjoining tones or semitones.  The
beauty of" this  grace, in music, depends
upon its being equal, distinctly marked,
and moderately quick.  The lower  tone
is the chief and essential  tone, and sup-
ports the shake: it is therefore marked, in
writing the notes, and with this the shake
                     tr

closes; for example,   $ -  The  upper


tone is the assistant one, and distant from
the  lower either a whole or a half tone.
Whether a whole tone or only a half tone
higher  is to be taken, depends upon the
key, and the place of the chief note.  The
whole tone is taken, if the chief tone be-
longs to a sharp key;  the half tone if it
belongs to a flat key, or is a lower leading
tone.  The general rule for the execution
of a shake is to begin with the  assistant
tone, because  thus the shake becomes
                 *>>

clearer; hence zfizftz, when executed, 
344
TRILL—TRINITY COLLEGE.
becomes      ^ |   ^roaBJ---j


yet there are some who execute it thus:
^p=pgj±|=; that * they &»

the chief tone firet.  Several progressive
shakes are called  a catena di  trilli.  Ac-
cording to what we have said, it is a fault
if, in a shake, the second tone is heard
little or not at all.  This  is called by the
Italians tosse di capra, or goat's cough, and
happens when the singer continues to
quaver  on  the same tone, or when the
shake  is narrower than  the  interval  of
half a tone.  On instruments, the shake is
much easier than  for the voice.  Some of
the best singers have no shake; and, as it
is merely an ornament, it is much better
to omit it than to perform it badly. Some
birds have an exquisite shake, as the lark
and nightingale.   To learn a  shake, it is
necessary to begin slowly, in order to hit
the distance of the two tones precisely.
   Trilogy ;  among the ancient Greeks,
a union of three  tragedies, connected in
Riibject, which, together  with  a satirical
piece, were performed in immediate suc-
cession.  The trilogy in connexion  with
this satirical piece was called tetralogy.
Every tragic poet who became a compet-
itor for the prize at the feast of Bacchus,
was obliged  to produce  such a tetralogy
for  performance.  Such tetralogies  of
/Eschylus were the Orestias and the Ly-
curgia-.  Mr. Welcker also assumes the
supposition of a  trilogy of ^Eschylus, in
his Prometheus.   But there is only one
trilogy of antiquity which we can be cer-
tain of possessing complete,  namely, the
Orestias of iEschylus, which contains the
Agamemnon, Colphori, and Eumenides.
   Trim ; the state or disposition of the
ballast, cargo, masts, sails, &c, by which
a ship is best fitted for the purposes of
navigation.
   Trinidad ; an  island near the coast of
South America, separated from  Cumana
by the gulf of Paria, which is about sev-
enty-five miles broad.  It is of an in*egu-
lar square form,   seventy-nine miles  by
fifty-six, and belongs to Great  Britain.
Lon. 60° 6'  to 61° 36' W.; lat. 9° 48' to
10° 42' N.   It is  the  largest, most fertile,
and most beautiful, of all the Leeward
islands, and was compared by Columbus
to a terrestrial paradise.   It is full of for-
est trees, and is situated out of the paral-
lel of hurricanes, which have never as
yet shifted so far to the south.   The
incmings and evenings in the island are
delightful; the nights cool and refreshing,
although the heat is great during the day;
and the climate is healthy.   Trinidad  is
capable of producing every article for the
West India market, equal to any of the
Windward islands.   Here   are  several
sorts of animals, plenty of wild hogs, fish,
fowl and fruit  It also  produces maize,
cassava, and other roots, and, in general,
all that is commonly found  in America.
The island of Tobago is separated from
Trinidad by  a channel called Trinidad
channel.  The chief town is  Port of
Spain.  Population, 44,163; 24,006 slaves,
15,956  free  colored, and 4201  whites.
Exports  to  Great Britain,  in   1829,
£694,001 ;  imports  from  the   same,
£361,077.—Trinidad (Spanish,  Trinity)
was discovered b)* Columbus,  in  1498.
After having been  taken by Raleigh, in
1595, and by the French, in  1676, it was
finally reduced by the  British,  in  1797,
and was ceded to England  by the  peace
of Amiens.   Utensils, vases and  pastes
have been found here, which some have
supposed to have  been left by the Cartha-
ginians.
  Trinity.  The doctrine of the Trinity,
received by the greatest part  of the Chris-
tian world, teaches that in the unity of the
Godhead there are  three pereons, of one
substance, power and eternity, the Father,
the Son, and the Holy Ghost. The word
Trinity does not occur in the Scriptures,
nor in the Apostles' Creed, nor in the Ni-
cene creed, but is  found  in the Athanasian
creed (see Creed), in the  following clause:
" The Catholic faith is, that we worship
one God in Trinity, and Trinity in unity,
neither confounding the pereons  nor di-
viding the substance."   (See Antitrinita-
rians, and Unitarians.) The former clause
is directed against the  Patropassian and
Sabellian  heresies, and  the   latter against
the  Ebionites,  Cerinthians, Photinians,
Arians and Macedonians.  (See ffere-ic.)
   Trinity College, or Dublin Univer-
sity, was founded by queen  Elizabeth, in
1591.   It has  a provost, who  receives
£3000  a year, seven senior  fellows, with
about £1000 income, sixteen junior fel-
lows, who are tutors, and whose income
depends on their success,  and seventy
scholars.  The students are divided into
three classes, fellow-commoners, pension-
ers and sizars, about thirty in number,
who receive their commons  and instruc-
tion  gratis.   Roman Catholics and Dis-
senters are not excluded, as they are  in
England.  (See Dublin, and University.) 
TRINITY HOUSE—TRIPOLI.
345
   Trinity House (London).  The soci-
 ety of the Trinity was founded  in  1515,
 for the promotion of commerce and navi-
 gation.  It is a corporation, consisting of
 a master, four wardens, eight assistants,
 and thirty-one elder brethren,  selected
 from commanders in the navy and mer-
 chant service; but, as a compliment, some
 of the nobility are occasionally admitted.
 They  examine the  children in Christ's
 hospital, and the masters of king's ships,
 appoint pilots for the Thames, settle the
 rates of pilotage,  erect light-houses and
 sea-marks,  hear  and detemiine   com-
 plaints of officers  and men in the mer-
 chant service, and all business connected
 with the Thames, &c.  The revenues of
 the Trinity house are supposed to exceed
 £150,000  a year, derived from  light-
 house dues, pilotage, &c.  The present
 Trinity house, on Tower hill, was built
 in 1795.
   Trinity Sunday.   (See Sunday.)
   Trinity Term.  (See Terms.)
   Trinkamaly, or Trincomalee ;  a sea-
 port of Ceylon, on the  north-east  coast,
 seventy miles north-east from Candy; lon.
 81° 23' E.; lat 8° 31' N.   It is of greater
 extent than Columbo, but contains  fewer
 houses and much  less population.  The
 harbor is one of the best and safest  in the
 island, and, from its convenient situation,
 of great consequence  to  a maritime
 power.
   Trio; 1. an instrumental piece of three
 obligato voices, or two chief voices and
 an accompanying bass,  or of one chief
 voice and  two accompanying parts.  A
 trio  is also called sonata a tre, and gener-
 ally belongs to the class of sonatas, (q. v.)
 But it is not necessarily confined  to three
 parts, as, e. g. if one  part is for the piano,
 which, in a trio, is generally counted but
 one, though it plays at least two parts, as
 is the  case  in  many trios of Beethoven,
 Ries, &c.  2.  In a minuet (q. v.), trio sig-
 nifies the passage  which alternates with
 the proper minuet, and conesponds to it,
 and which, therefore, was formerly called
 menuetto altemativo,  or the second  min-
 uet  It is generally  written in the corre-
 sponding flat key, and was formerJJy writ-
 ten for three voices;  hence the name.
   Triolett ;  a stanza of eight lines, in
 which, after the third the firet line, and
after the sixth the  first two lines, are re-
peated, so that tiie firet line is heard three
 times ; hence the name.  It is cultivated
 by the  French ;  less by the  Germans;
and is  suited for  playful and  light sub-
 jects.
   Tripod ;  a symbolical instrument  in
 ancient Greece, which is firet met with in
 connexion with the worship of Bacchus.
 It was also connected with  the  Delphian
 oracle, or worship of Apollo (see Delphi);
 in general, a symbol of" prophecy, of di-
 vine authority and wisdom, &c, particu-
 larly at Delphi, Athens,  Thebes, Dodona,
 where it was also used in music.  Creuzer
 observes that  the tripod, like the three-
 stringed lyre, contained an allusion to the
 three seasons of the  primitive  calendar.
 We frequently find it guarded  by a grif-
 fin.  In the age of Homer, and till the
 beginning of a freer period of art, about
 the fiftieth Olympiad, the tripod was used
 chiefly  for sacred offerings,  or for the
 prizes in the games connected with reli-
 gious worship.  Thus, Olymp. 48, 3, the
 first contest was celebrated, in which the
 victor  received  a wreath; at the  same
 time the determining of the seven  wise
 men took place, among whom, accord-
 ing to  tradition, the  tripod was passed
 round.   The  tripod  was  retained  as a
 prize in the Bacchanalia to a late period.
 The traditions of robbed, or presented, or
 lost tripods, upon which  are founded al-
 most every where rights  of dominion and
 other claims, are of the highest antiquity.
 Of the robbing of the tripod by Hercules,
 an interesting representation is given up-
 on the  candelabrum in the  coUection of
 antiques in Dresden.  The eldest group
 of statues representing this subject (Pau-
 sanias XIII, 4) was a donation which the
 Phocians sent to Delphi, on account of a
 victory over the Thessalians.  It  consisted
 of large images  of Hercules and Apollo
 contending for the tripod, and had on one
 side Minerva, on the other Diana and La-
 tona. See Ottfried Muller's dissertation De
 Tripode Delphico (Gottingen, 1820,4to.).
  Tripoli ; the most easterly of the Bar-
 bary states, in  Africa,  bounded  north by
 the Mediterranean, east by Barca, south by
 Fezzan and the Desert,  and west by Tu-
 nis.  It consists chiefly of a line of coast
 extending about 800 miles in length, from
 lon. 11° 38' E. to lon. 32° 30- E.; square
 miles, about 190,000; population  differ-
 ently stated at from 1,500,000 to 2,000,000.
 (See Barbary States.)  The pacha exer-
 cises despotic authority.  He is nominally
 subject to the Porte; but the authority of
 that power is  little regarded.  The prin-
 cipal officers of state  are the bey or gen-
eralissimo; the aga, who commands the
Turkish troops; the kaya, or grand judge;
the kadi, or religious judge; the  kaids, or
governors of provinces;  and the first and
vice-admiral.   The naval force is smaU ;
the armed vessels not being supposed to 
346
TRIPOLI—TRIPTOLEMUS.
exceed six, mounting from six to sixteen
guns.  There is  no regular  army;  not
more than five or six  thousand men  are
often called out; but on emergencies, fif
teen thousand  have been assembled.—
Tripoli, the capital, lies on the Mediterra-
nean, 300 miles south-east of Tunis; lon.
13° 18'  E.; lat. 32°  54'  N.; population
stated from 20,000 to 25,000.   It is built
in a low situation, on a neck of land  ex-
tending into the sea.  It is of great extent,
but a large portion of the space included
within the walls is unoccupied.  The car-
avansaries,  mosques,  houses  of foreign
consuls, and  of the higher ranks of the
natives, are mostly built  of stone.  The
lower  ranks  construct their houses of
earth, small stones and mortar: they never
exceed one  story, and have  flat roofs,
which serve as  a  promenade.  With the
exception of  those belonging to the for-
eign consuls, they have no windows to the
street  Bazars occupy a considerable por-
tion of the city, and are kept  in excellent
order.  The chief monument of antiquity
is a superb  triumphal arch  of marble,
erected  in the  reign of Pius  Antoninus.
The harbor, though  not very spacious, is
safe, and will admit  small  frigates not
chawing  more than eighteen  feet.  The
castle is  an  irregular  square  pile.  The
town is sunounded by a wall,  flanked
with six bastions: there  are  two gates:
the batteries are mounted with about fifty
pieces of cannon.  The trade  is chiefly
confined to Malta, Tunis and the Levant
The city has a considerable portion of the
caravan trade with the interior of Africa;
and the exports consist of the productions
of the country  and articles from the interior.
  Tripoli, oi*Tarabolus (anciently Tri-
polis); a city of Syria, and capital of a
pachalic  of the same name,  seventy-five
miles north-west of Damascus; lon. 35°
44' E.; lat 34°  26' N.; population estimated
at 16,000.  It is situated at the foot of the
branches of mount Lebanon,and along the
edge ofa small triangular plain, which ex-
tends between them and the sea.  There
is no harbor, but a mere road, defended
against the action of the sea by small islands
or shoals.  The anchorage is neither safe
nor convenient   The only  fortification
consists of an  old citadel, a Saracen build-
ing, now useless.  The plain  is covered
with mulberry trees, serving  for the pro-
duction  of silk, the staple of Tripoli.—
The pachalic  of Tripoli comprises a great
part of the ancient Phoenicia, and consists
of the declivity of Lebanon, with the plain
between it and the Mediterranean.  (See
Syria, and- Turkey in Asia.)
  Tripoli.  (See Clay.)
  Tripolitza ; before the Greek revolu-
tion, the capital of the  Morea, and resi-
dence of the pacha;  at present, according
to Anderson (Observations on the Pelo-
ponnesus), a heap of ruins, affording shel-
ter  to  about 800 familes;  thirty miles
north-west of Misitra;  lon. 22°  18'  E.;
lat. 37°  257 N.  It contained  several
mosques and churches, with  12,000  in-
habitants, chiefly Turks.  In 1821, it was
taken by storm by the Greeks under Colo-
cotroni  (see  Greece, Revolution  of), and
became the chief city  of  free  Greece,
containing a Greek  population of 30,000
souls.  Ibrahim Pacha took possession of
the place in 1825, and, in 1828, exaspe-
rated at the destruction of his fleet at Nav-
arino, razed it to the ground, striking tho
first blow with his own  hand.  The walla
were levelled, the citadel blown up, and
the churches, khans and mosques demol-
ished, and whatever was combustible was
then destroyed by fire.
  Trippel,  Alexander,  a  very  distin-
guished sculptor, was bom at  Schaffhau-
sen, of poor parents, in 1747, and died at
Rome in 1793, where he  had  lived since
1776.   His works are  distinguished  by
deep study of the antique, richness of im-
agination, accuracy of proportion, and the
most delicate working  of the marble  in
the  naked parts.
  Tripping ; the movement by which an
anchor is loosened from the bottom, either
by its cable or buoy rope.
  Triptolemus,  in mythology; a son
of Oceanus  and Terra, or, according to
some, of  Trochilus, a priest of Argos.
According to the more received opinion,
he was son of Celeus, king of Attica, by
Neaera, whom some  have called Metanira,
or Polymnia.  He was bom at Eleusis, in
Attica, and cured, in his youth, of a severe
illness, by Ceres,  who had  been invited
into the house of Celeus by the monarch's
children, as she travelled over the country
in quest of her daughter.  To repay tho
kindness of Celeus, the goddess  took par-
ticular  notice of his son.  She fed  him
with her own milk, and placed him on
burning coals during the night, to destroy
whatever  particles of mortality he  had
received from his parents.  The mother
was astonished at the uncommon growth
of her son, and she  had the  curiosity to
watch Ceres.  She disturbed the goddess
by a sudden cry, when  Triptolemus was
laid on the burning ashes; and,  as Ceres
was therefore unable to make  him  im-
mortal,  she  taught  him agricul ore,  and
rendered him serviceable to mankind, by 
TRIPTOLEMUS—TRIUMPH.
347
instructing him  how to  sow  com and
make bread.  She also  gave him her
chariot, which was drawn by two drag-
ons ; and in this celestial  vehicle he trav-
elled over the earth, and  distributed com
to all the inhabitants of the  world.  In
Scythia, the favorite of Ceres nearly lost
his Ufe; but Lyncus, the king of the
country,  who had conspired to  murder
him, was changed  into a lynx.  At his
return  to  Eleusis, Triptolemus restored
Ceres her chariot, and established festi-
vals and  mysteries in honor of the  deity.
He reigned for some time, and, after death,
he  received divine honors.  Some sup-
 fose that he accompanied Bacchus  in his
 ndian expedition.
  Trismegistus.  (See Hermes Trisme-
gistus.)
  Trissino, Giovanni Giorgio, an Italian
poet and scholar, bom at Vicenza, of a
noble family, in 1478, devoted himself to
Btudy late in life.  Demetrius Chalcondy-
las, whose memory he honored with a
monument, was his first teacher in Greek.
After the death of his firet wife, he left
his native city for Rome, where Leo X
treated him with great distinction.   That
 rince employed him  in several honora-
 le posts, and sent him on embassies to
Denmark, the German emperor and Ven-
ice.  Clement VII likewise sent  him to
the emperor Charles V, who received him
with favor, and  loaded him with marks
of his esteem.   Meanwhile, Trissino had
married a second time, and his son by
his first  marriage had instituted a suit
against him  at Venice, which, being de-
cided in favor of the son, deprived the
poet of a great part of his fortune.   Tris-
sino accordingly  left  Venice for Rome,
where  he died  in 1550.  He acquired
great reputation  among his  countrymen
by his Sophonisba, the first modern trage-
dy composed after the rules of Aristotle
(1515).  On its first appearance, it was re-
ceived with incredible admiration, as a
revival of the old Greek  dramatic spirit,
and  was exhibited  under the patronage
of Leo with great splendor.  But this en-
thusiasm could not last, since Sophonisba
was a cold imitation of antiquity, and
foreign to the national taste.  It, however,
contains single scenes of merit, but, as a
whole, is deficient in vigor, elevation and
fire. This tragedy contains the firet speci-
men of Italian blank verse (verso sciolto).
Trissino attempted to compose an epic in
a similar way, after the model of Homer
and the rub s of Aristotle.  But his Italia
liberata dai Goti, although apparently pop-
ular in its subject, was too poor in inven-
tion and originality to become a national
epic.   His lyrical poetry is more happy.
He likewise wrote a treatise on the Art
of Poetry, which displays much learning.
The best edition of his works is that pub-
lished by Maffei (2 vols., 1729).'
  Tristan d'Acunha; the largest of three
islands in  the South Atlantic ocean, about
1500 miles from any land either to the
west or north, very lofty, and about fifteen
miles in  circumference.   A part of the
island  towards the north  rises perpen-
dicularly from  the sea to a height ap-
parently of a thousand feet or more.  A
level  then  commences,   fonning what
is termed table land,  and extending to-
wards the centre of the island; whence a
conical  mountain rises, not unlike, in ap-
pearance,  to the Peak of Teneriffe, as
seen from the  bay of  Santa Cruz.  Lon.
15° 407 W.; lat 37° S.
  Tritchinopoly, a town of Hindoostan,
in the Carnatic, capital of a district, sixty-
seven miles west of Tranquebar, one hun-
dred and fifty-six* south-east of Seringa-
patam, lon. 78° 507 E., lat. 10° 48' N., is
advantageously situated on  the south bank
of the  Cauvery, built on  a hill or rock
350 feet high, surrounded by double walls
flanked with towers, encompassed with a
ditch, and was esteemed  by the  natives
impregnable.  It  contains a  palace, a
mosque, and two magnificent Hindoo
temples, has a strong garrison, and is the
residence  of the civil authorities of the
district.  It was taken by the  British in
1751.
  Trithing.  (See Ridings.)
  Triton ; son of Neptune and Amphi-
trite; a sea god. In the war of the gods
with the giants, he  put the latter to flight
by  blowing  his shell.  Homer does not
mention him,  but  Hesiod speaks of  him
as  the  powerful.   He appears at  first
merely as the god of the Libyan lake  Tri-
ton, but was afterwards represented as one
of the  inferior deities  of the sea in gen-
eral ; and finally we find mention made of
many Tritons, who were half man,  half
fish, and upon whom the Nereids rode.
  Triumph.  One of the most splendid
spectacles  of  ancient Rome,  and  the
highest reward of victorious generals, was
the triumphal procession.   The triumphs
were of two kinds—the  great triumph,
and the  ovation,  or  inferior triumph.
Both could  be  celebrated  only by order
of the  senate, with the consent of tho
people, and the former only by a dictator,
consul or pretor, who had gained a vic-
tory over a foreign and free enemy, in a
just war carried on under his command 
348
TRIUMPH—TRIUMPHAL ARCH.
(suis auspiciis): it was likewise necessary
that at least 5000 of the enemy should
have fallen in  open fight   According to
the lex  Porcia triumphalis,  the  general
was required to appear, at the head of his
army, before Rome (ad urbem), and pre-
sent it to the senate, assembled in the
temple of Bellona.  The spectacle  then
began as  soon as he  had received  per-
mission to triumph  from the senate and
people.   First, the  triumphing general,
in his  triumphal robes, bearing a laurel
branch  in his hand, distributed, in the
presence of the assembled people, money,
marks  of honor, bracelets, lances  and
garlands among his soldiers.  The whole
senate then went out to meet the victor,
who,  being seated  in  a gilded  chariot,
usually drawn by white  horses, clad in a
purple  tunic  (tunica palmata) and an
embroidered toga (toga picta), crowned
with a  laurel wreath,  and bearing an
ivory sceptre, with the eagle, in his hand,
moved,  with  the  procession,  from the
campus Martins through the streets, deco-
rated with festive ornaments, to the capi-
tol.  Singers  and   musicians  preceded,
followed by choice victims, highly adorn-
ed, by the spoils, by the emblems of the
conquered   provinces  and  cities,   and,
finally, by the captive princes or generals,
in chains.   Next came the victor  (tri-
umphator), followed by his  relations and
friends, and a long train of citizens,  in
festal garments, and uttering acclamations.
Lastly followed tiie victorious army, on
foot, and on  horseback, crowned  with
laurel, and  adorned with the  marks of
distinction   which  they had received,
shouting Io  triumphe, and singing songs
of victory, or of sportive raillery.  It was
an old and touching custom for a slave to
stand close behind the triumphing general,
bearing a gold crown  set with precious
stones  in his hand,  and repeating to him
the solemn words, " Remember that  thou
art a man!" Upon the  capitol, the gene-
ral rendered public thanks to the gods for
the victory, caused the victims to be
slaughtered, and dedicated  the  crown
and  a  part  of the spoils to Jupiter.   He
then gave a great feast,  and, in the even-
ing, the people accompanied him home
with torches and acclamations.  It is not,
therefore, to be wondered at,  that every
Roman aspired to the honor of a triumph,
and considered it the highest  distinction
to be esteemed worthy of  it  A  com-
mander who had gained a victory at sea,
was honored  with a naval triumph (tri-
umphus navalis).  DuUlius  was the first
who received  that honor, in consequence
of his victory over  tiie  Carthaginians.
Those who  had once  triumphed (t*ri
triumphales)  continued to  enjoy some
marks of distinction, such as a place of
honor on public occasions, &c.  In the
ovation (so called,  as is supposed, from
ovis (sheep), because a sheep was sacri-
ficed  on the occasion), the  general  en-
tered  the city on horseback or on foot,
wore  a toga pratexta, and was crowned
with myrtle.  It was celebrated with less
pomp than the triumph, and was granted
when  the victory  was not  of the kind
prescribed as worthy of a triu mph.  From
the time of Augustus, few triumphs were
celebrated, and those only by the empe-
rors :   to the private generals trophies
were given.
  Triumphal Arch ; a monument con-
sisting of a grand portico or archway,
erected at the entrance of a town, in its
principal street,  upon a bridge,  or  in a
public road, to the glory of some cele-
brated general, or in memory of some im-
portant event  Several triumphal arches
appear to have  been erected with the
double purpose of serving as monuments
to the glory of the  chieftain whose name
they bear, and as  gates of the town to
which they  belong.  The invention of
these structures is attributable to the Ro-
mans.   The earliest specimens are desti-
tute  of any  magnificence.   For  a long
time,  they consisted merely  of  a plain
arch, at the top of which were placed the
trophies and the  statue of the triumpher.
Subsequently, the span was enlarged, the
style  enriched, and a profusion of all
kinds  of ornaments heaped  on them.
The triumphal arches varied  greatly in
point of construction, form and decoration.
Those existing at the present day are of
three very distinct  species:—Firet, those
which consist but of a single arch, such
as that of Titus at Rome, of Trajan at
Ancona, &c.;  secondly, those which are
formed of two arches or arcades, such as
those of Verona, &c, which appear to
have  formed, at  the same time, gates for
the town; thirdly,  the species composed
of three arcades,  the  centre  being the
principal or grand  arch, and the others at
each  side  much  smaller.   The  arch
known to us as that of Constantine is
the best preserved of all the great antique
arches.  The arch  of Septimius Severus,
placed at the foot of the  Capitoline  hill,
and also partly buried, greatly resembles
that of Constantine.  The arch of Titua
is the next most considerable in Rome,
after these two.  The arch of Benevento,
erected in honor of Trajan, is one of the 
TRIUMPHAL ARCH—TROIS RIVIERES.
349
most  remarkable relics  of antiquity, as
well on account of its sculptures as its
architecture.  The arch of Trajan, at An-
cona, is likewise one of the most elegant
works of ancient architecture.  The arch
of Rimini, erected in honor of Augustus,
on the occasion of his repairing the Fla-
minian way, from this town to Rome, is
the most ancient of all the antique arches,
and, for its size, one of the  noblest exist-
ing.   Many  beautiful structures of this
kind have been erected in  modern times,
but principally on the plan, and in imita-
tion of some one of those above mention-
ed.  Ancient medals often bear figures
of this species of architecture; and some
of them represent arches which have for
centuries past ceased to exist.
  Triumphal Column.   (See Column.)
  Triumvirate; an office administered
by three men (triumviri).  When  Coesar
was murdered,  Antony,  Octavius  and
Lepidus received power to restore order
in the state: they were called triumviri
reipublica constituenda,  and their office
the triumvirate.   (See Augustus.)  The
coalition between  Caesar,   Pompey  and
Crassus, is also often,  but improperly,
called a triumvirate, as it was merely a
union or conspiracy of three private men,
without the public sanction.
  Trivium; the name given, in the mid-
dle ages, to the firet three of the seven
liberal arts—grammar, rhetoric and logic.
The other four, consisting of arithmetic,
music, geometry and astronomy, were
called the quadrivium.  (See Schools.)
  Troad, or  Plain of Troy ; a  tract in
the north-west part of Asia Minor, to
which this name  has been appUed by
modern Europeans, and which included
the ancient city of Troy.   It now contains
no great cities, no grand features of nature,
nor even any ancient monuments  of ex-
traordinary  magnitude.    The  peculiar
interest excited by it depends on its being
the scene of events celebrated in the im-
mortal verse of Homer.   The subject,
however, is enveloped in mystery, and it
is impossible to identify, with certainty,
the various  objects mentioned  by  the
poet.  The most learned  travellers  and
inquirers,  Chandler, Wood, Chevalier,
Bryant, Gell, Clarke,  Hobhouse,  &c,
differ widely  in their conclusions.  Bry-
ant denies not only that  any spot can be
identified as  Troy, but  that there  was
ever such a  place as Troy, or such an
event as the Trojan war.  Other writers
have  endeavored to place Troy in a po-
sition farther to the south, and on  the
shore of the JEgean sea.   But the general
  vol. xii.        30
opinion seems now fixed  upon that part
of the coast  of Asia Minor which  lies
immediately without  the narrow sea, an-
ciently called Hellespont,  and opposite
to the island of Tenedos.  Eveiy trace
of ancient Troy being obliterated, its site
can only be guessed by the relative posi-
tion of the natural objects alluded to by
Homer.  Here is a plain of considerable
extent, watered by several streams, be-
hind which rises a chain  of mountains,
called by the Turks Kazdaghi, but which
correspond to the Gargarus  and Ida of
Homer.  Of the streams, the most con-
siderable  is the Mender, supposed to be
the ancient Scamander. A rivulet which
flows into the Mender on the east side,
called Callifat Osmack, is  thought to be
the ancient  Simois.  The Thrymbrek, a
larger river,  which  flows  much  farther
eastward,  and joins  the  Mender at  its
mouth, is supposed  to be the ancient
Thymbrius, though some  take  this to be
the Simois.  Various ruins are found in
different parts of the plain, as remains of
a citadel, of temples, tumuli, fragments of
pottery, terra  cotta,  medals,  &c.  The
city of Troy (Troja), more properly Ilios,
or Ilium,  was situated upon  an elevated
spot between the Simois and the Scaman-
der.   Fable relates, that  the  name was
derived from Tros, son of Ericthonius,
and father of Ilos. Paris,  son of Priam,
one of his successors, having canied away
Helen, gave occasion to the Trojan war,
which was terminated, after ten years, by
the destruction of the city by the victori-
ous Greeks, probably about 1184 B. C.
The citadel of Troy was called Pergamos,
which name  is sometimes given to the
city.
  Trochee.   (See Rhythm.)
  Trochilus.  (See Humming Bird.)
  Troglodytes (from rpu>y\rj,  cave,  and
Swu), to enter); individuals or  tribes who
live in subterranean  caverns. The an-
cients mention some tribes of troglodytes
in Asia, ^Ethiopia and Egypt, but give
little information concerning them. Trog-
lodytes is also the name  of an  ancient
heretical sect, who, rejected by all parties,
were  forced  to  hold their meetings in
caves. Certain Jews who were accused
of practising idolatry in secret, have  also
been  termed troglodytes.   In  natural
history, troglodyte is  the  scientific name
of the chimpanzee (see Ape), and of a
species of wren.
  Trois  Rivieres,  or Three Rivers ;
a town of Lower Canada,  and capital of
a district of the same name, at the en-
trance of the St. Maurice into  the  St. 
350
TROIS RIVIERES—TROMP.
Lawrence; 84 miles above Quebec,  96
below Montreal; lat. 46° 23' N.; lon. 72°
29' W.; population, about  3000.  It de-
rives its name from the circumstance that
two islands near the mouth of the  St.
Maurice divide it into three channels, and
give it  the appearance  of three rivers.
The town stands on a light, sandy soil: the
houses are generally mean, and the  trade
of the whole countiy centres in Montreal
and Quebec.  It was formerly the capital
of the French government of this coun-
try.
  Trollhatta.   (See Cataract, and Ca-
nal.)
  Trombone, or Trombono.   Of this
instrument there  are three kinds—the
bass, the tenor, and the  alto.   The bass
trombone begins at G gamut, and reaches
to  C  above the  bass-cliff note,  pro-
ducing every semitone within that  com-
pass.    The tenor trombone  begins  at
A, one  note  above G  gamut, and pro-
duces all the semitones up to the fifteenth
above.   The alto trombone begins  at C
above   G gamut,  and  produces  every
semitone up to the fifteenth above.   This
powerfully sonorous instrument  is  by
some esteemed extremely useful in grand
choruses and other full compositions; but
many acknowledged judges think it more
powerful than musical.
  Tromp, Martin  Harpertzoon, one  of
the most celebrated Dutch  naval officers,
was born at Briel, in 1579.   In his eighth
year, he was placed by his parents  on
board a vessel in the East India trade.
While very young, he was made prisoner
by an English privateer, and had an op-
portunity of learning, in his new service,
all the arts of petty naval warfare.   Some
years after his return to his country, he
was captured by the Turks, in the Medi-
terranean sea, from whom, however, he
escaped.  He subsequently entered the
service  of the states-general, accompanied
the celebrated admiral Peter Hein, whose
favorite he became, in all his enterprises,
and was fighting by his  side when  Hein
was killed.  He became, in 1639, admiral
of Holland, and, upon the information that
a Spanish fleet of ten  ships of the line,
four frigates, and  several small  vessels,
had gone out of Randyk, he followed
them, and took  and destroyed  five  ships
of the  line,  together with the frigates.
In October of the same year,  in connex-
ion with admiral  Cornelitzoon de Witte,
he  attacked the powerful  Spanish fleet
under  Oquendo, in  the  Downs, which
was assisted by the English, and obtained
a great victory.   Oquendo's  own ship
would have sunk had not Tromp gene-
rously sent a  frigate  to  his assistance.
This  victory made  his  name  famous
throughout all  Europe, and the king of
France conferred on him  a title of no-
bility.  In 1652, hostilities commenced
between  , Holland   and   England, and
Tromp and  the English  admiral  Blake
fought in the  Downs: the Dutch fleet
sustained some loss, and was compelled
to retire.   Soon after, Blake having taken
some ships engaged in the herring fishery,
Tromp received orders to attack him; but
a violent  storm dispersed his fleet, just as
the signal for attack was given, so that he
returned  to  port.   This misfortune, al-
though Tromp was not to blame, gave
occasion  to  the government to dismiss
him  and  appoint De Ruyter in his place.
Nevertheless, the chief command was
again intrusted to  him in the same year,
and,  November 29, assisted by Evertzoon
and De Ruyter, he  defeated the English
fleet, which  lay, under  Blake,  in the
Downs, so that it was compelled to retire
into  the  Thames, with the loss of five
ships.  Upon this  occasion, Tromp,  in
the spirit  ofa true sailor, caused a broom
to be fastened to his mast-head, as  a sign
that he would sweep the channel of the
English ships.  About the close of the
year, he  entered a  Dutch  port with  a
large fleet of merchantmen, and received
the thanks of the states-general.  In 1653,
Tromp and De Ruyter, accompanied by
a great number of merchant vessels, were
attacked  by  the united fleets of Monk,
Dean and Blake: both fleets were very
strong, but  the  English  were superior.
Au action of three  days' continuance
followed, in which  the Dutch lost eleven
ships, but retired in good order, and car-
ried  their convoy home.   Tromp, who
suffered no diminution of reputation  on
this  occasion,  was  sent out to convoy
another fleet of merchant vessels,  which
he carried to the northern coast of Scot-
land, without losing  a single one.  He
afterwards attacked, in June, the English
fleet under  Monk,  Dean and Lawson,
near Newport, but was compelled to re-
tire to Welingen, with considerable loss.
He and De  Ruyter  saved one another,
upon this occasion,  from  imminent dan-
ger.   After obtaining  additional supplies
of ships  and  men, Tromp sailed, with
eighty-five vessels,  towards the coast  of
Zealand, where he  came upon the Eng-
lish  fleet  of thirty-four ships.  A  storm
delayed the attack;  but, August 6, 1653,
having been strengthened  by the arrival
of De Witte, so that his fleet amounted  to 
TROMP—TROPE.
351
120  vessels,  the  battle  began,  between
Scheveningen and the Meuse.   The first
day, nothing  decisive was effected.   On
the second day, Tromp, according to his
usual custom, broke through the enemy's
line, but was soon surrounded, and was
not supported  by his  own fleet.   He
fought desperately in order to escape, till
he fell, pierced by a musket-ball.  " Cour-
age,  my boys," exclaimed he,  expiring;
u my course is ended with glory."  E veiy
effort of De Ruyter and the other officers,
after the news  of his death, to keep up
the courage of the Dutch sailors, was in
vain,  and  the English obtained a dear-
bought  victoiy.   Tromp is said  to have
been victorious in thirty-three naval  ac-
tions.   He  had  desired  to die  in  the
service of his country.   His body was in-
terred, with  splendor, in  the church at
Delft,  and  a  magnificent monument
erected  to his memory.   The state caused
medals  to  be struck in honor of him, and
sent a solemn deputation to his widow, to
assure her of the public sympathy.
  Tromp, Cornelius, the second son of
the preceding, born  1629, commanded a
ship, in his nineteenth year, against  the
African pirates, and, two years later, was
made vice-admiral.  In  1665, in the war
between England and the United Prov-
inces, he  was  present  at the  battle of
Solebay, where the Dutch fleet was  de-
feated, and the ship of admiral Opdam
blown up.   The masterly retreat  of
Tromp  allowed the victors  to  reap  but
little advantage from their success.   His
conduct and  courage gave him  a reputa-
tion little  inferior to that of his father;
and, like  him, he  was  devoted to  the
Orange party. On this account, De Witte,
although  politically   opposed   to him,
thought it advisable to appoint him to the
chief command of the fleet, during  the
absence of De Ruyter. After De Ruyter's
return,  Tromp refused  to serve under
him, but was forced  to  submit.  In the
battle, which lasted  four days,  in  the
Downs, July,  1666,  he showed  equal
courage and ability, without being so  for-
tunate as De Ruyter.  In August of that
year, while  he was pursuing,  with  too
much ardor,  an English  fleet which he
had  defeated, he was cut off  from  the
main body of the Dutch fleet, and was
thus prevented  from  going to  the assist-
ance  of De  Ruyter, who was  therefore
compelled to  retire.   Tromp brought his
own fleet, with littie loss, into the Texel,
but, upon De Ruyter's complaint was de-
prived of his command.  In 1673, how-
ever, when the war between Holland  and
the united kingdoms  of  England and
France  broke  out,  Tromp  was  again
taken into  the  service, and was entirely
reconciled  to his rival De  Ruyter.  In
this  war,  he distinguished  himself by
many victories over  the  English.  In
1675, after the peace, he visited England,
where he was received with the greatest
honor, and  made a baronet by Charles II.
In the same year, he was sent with a fleet
to Copenhagen, to assist Denmark against
the Swedes, and was invested by the king
of Denmark with the order of the  Ele-
phant.   After De Ruyter's death, he suc-
ceeded him as admiral lieutentant-general
of the United Provinces, remained, dur-
ing the  war,  in the Danish  service, and
had a great share in the conquests of this
crown in the  north.    In 1691, on the re-
newal of the war between  Holland and
France,  he was appointed  to the  chief
command of the Dutch  fleet, but  very
soon after  died, at Amsterdam, May 29
of that year, and was  buried in the splen-
did tomb of his father.
  Trona.  (See SodaA
  Trope (from the Greek  rponos,  turn);
an expression used  in a  different  sense
from its ordinary signification, for the
sake  of presenting an idea in a lively and
forcible  manner.  As  the change  of ex-
pression made by the  trope affects imme-
diately the chief idea  of the sentence (for
instance, when we say, instead of " This
cunning deceiver will ruin us," " This old
fox will  ruin  us"), tropes differ from fig-
ures  of speech.  Tropes are as old as the
application  of language to invisible things.
The  want of  means to designate concep-
tions obliged men to  apply the names of
sensual  objects, often  from  very obscure
principles of resemblance, to intellectual
subjects. Every language possesses many
words, borrowed in this way, which have
by degrees lost their  original meaning,
such as spirit, conception, <fec.  " There-
fore," says Jean Paul," every language, in
respect  to  intellectual relations, is  a dic-
tionary  of faded metaphors."   But,  a.s
these metaphors become  abstract, the
want of new tropes  is felt.  And  even
tropes  which do not  actually become
mere abstract terms, lose their force by
constant use, as when a great statesman
is called a pillar of the stale.  " With ev-
ery century," says Jean Paul, in his Vor-
schule zur Aesthetik, div. 2, "some field of
poetical flowers loses  its freshness, and
becomes dead matter;" and  lively tropes
become more and more rare with the
progress of time, because, though changes
of circumstances afford opportunities  to 
352
TROPE—TROPICS.
make new ones,  yet the best, that is, the
simplest, have been worn out, and every
writer is therefore obliged to omit the use
of numerous tropes, which his imagi-
nation suggests.  Writers disagree  as  to
the various kinds of tropes, some reckon-
ing more, some fewer sorts.  Quintilian
complains of this vagueness, and attempts
a new division,  but without much pre-
cision.  Adelung reckons only the me-
tonymy,  synecdoche,   and  metaphor,
among the tropes; but this enumeration
seems to be too restricted.  More modern
writers add the allegory and prosopopoeia,
or personification,  which certainly have
the character of tropes.
  Trophies (rponata); monuments in com-
memoration of a victory, formed of cap-
tive arms, or, in a more general  sense, all
memorials of victory.  The ancients usu-
ally  erected them upon the spot where
they had gained  a  victory.   In  the ear-
liest times, the Greeks were accustomed
to hang up the arms taken from  the  ene-
my, or the spoils, upon an oak or an olive
u*ee, in such a manner as to imitate the
appearance of an armed man.  From the
nearest  tree, most  of the branches were
lopped off,  a few being left, upon which
were fixed  swords, shields, spears, &c.
Upon the top was placed a helmet, and
around the trunk, a cuirass or breast-plate.
The trophies were, at a later period, also
formed by erecting wooden  frames, upon
which the  spoils were suspended, as the
Greeks were unwilling to render the me-
morials of hostility permanent.   At  a still
later period, they were formed of bronze
and marble, or even  of gold; and  they
were often the subjects of medals.   In
these, the   emblem  of  the conquered
province or town was sometimes repre-
sented in a mourning posture, under a
tree, with some inscription, indicating the
victory.   Similar  representations  were
also made  upon altars.  An inscription
was also sometimes placed upon a votive
shield, to perpetuate the victory.  At tri-
umphs, it was usual to bear trophies be-
fore the triumphant general.
   Trophonius,  a celebrated   architect,
son of Erginus, king  of Orchomenos, in
Bceotia. He built Apollo's temple at Del-
phi, with the assistance of his brother
Agamedes, and, when he demanded  of
the god a reward for  his trouble, he was
told by the priestess to  wait eight days,
and to  live,  during that time, with  all
cheerfulness and  pleasure.   When the
days  were passed, Trophonius and his
brother were  found dead  in their bed.
According to Pausanias, however, he was
S-./allowed up aUve  in  the  earth;  and
when, afterwards, the counuy was visited
by a great drought, the Boeotians were
directed to apply to Trophonius for relief,
and  to seek  him at  Lebadea, where he
gave oracles in a cave.  They discovered
this cave by means of a swarm of bees,
and Trophonius  told  them how to  ease
their misfortunes.  From that time, Tro-
phonius was honored  as a god: he passed
for the son of Apollo; a temple  and a
statue were erected to him, and sacrifices
were offered  to  his divinity, when  con-
sulted to give oracles.  The cave of Tro-
phonius  became one of the most cele-
brated  oracles of Greece.    Many cere-
monies were required, and the suppliant
was obliged to make particular sacrifices,
to anoint his body with oil, and to bathe
in the waters of certain rivers. He was
to be clothed in a linen robe, and, with a
cake of  honey in Lis hand, he was di-
rected to descend into the cave by a nar-
row entrance, from whence  he returned
backwards, after he had received an an-
swer.  He was always  pale and dejected
at his return; and thence it became prover-
bial to say of a  melancholy man, that he
had  consulted the oracle of  Trophonius.
There were annually exhibited games  in
honor of Trophonius, at Lebadea.
  Tropical Year.   (See Year.)
  Tropics,  Tropical Regions.    The
tropics are those points of the  ecliptic  in
which the sun, having reached his high-
est southern or northern declination, turns
back (Greek, rpmu>, to turn), and begins to
approach the equator, from which he had
been, for three  months, receding.  The
imaginary  circles  drawn through these
points, parallel to the equator, are  distant
from it 23° 30', and  are also called  trop-
ics or  tropical circles.   The  northern
tropic, cutting the ecliptic in the constel-
lation Cancer, is called the tropic of  Can-
cer ;  and the southern, cutting the  same
circle in the constellation Capricorn, is
called the tropic of Capricorn. The part
of the  globe included within these limits,
twenty  three  degrees  and  a half  each
side  of the  equator, and, consequently,
forty-seven degrees of latitude in breadth,
is called the torrid zone, or, to avoid the
error of implying, that it is  univereally
scorched by burning  heats, tropical  re-
gions.   As a great part of the tropical
regions known to us is formed of  insular
or mountainous countries,  the heat is
much  less excessive than was fonnerly
represented, and is even now generally
supposed.    (See  the  articles Climate,
Temperature, and Mountains;  consult 
TROPICS—TROUBADOURS.
353
also Humboldt  and Bonpland's Tableau
physique  des  Regions Equinoxiales, and
Humboldt's Views of Nature.)
  Troppau,  a  principality,  which has
belonged, since 1614, to the  house of
Lichtenstein,  is situated partly in  Prus-
sia, partly in  Austrian  Silesia.    The
Prussian part contains 54,500, the Austrian
76,000 inhabitants.  In the latter is situ-
ated the capital, Troppau, on the Oppa,
with  8300 inhabitants,  exclusive of the
3000 inhabitants of Katharinendorf, which
is connected  with the  city.   Troppau is
famous for the congress held there from
Oct. to Dec, 1820, in which  the assem-
bled monarchs, the emperors of Austria
and Russia,  and the  king  of  Prussia,
announced the  principle of armed  inter-
vention, (q. v.)  The revolutions of Spain,
Portugal, and  Naples, gave occasion to
this congress.  The protocols were drawn
up  by Gentz.  (q. v.)   The object of the
deliberations  was to effect a compact be-
tween the great powers, that  they would
not acknowledge any constitution which
should deviate from the legitimate mo-
narchical standard.  But England and
France endeavored to establish the sys-
tem of neutrality, the reasons for which
were  stated in a note  of lord Stewart.
Great Britain expressed her unwillingness
to take part in  any measure  of violence
against Naples, and France would join
the league only upon certain  conditions,
which, however, were  refused  by  Aus-
tria, Russia and Prussia, as these powers
were resolved to use force to put down the
revolutionary spirit.  The king of Naples
was invited to proceed to Laybach (q. v.), hi
order to act the part of mediator between
his people and the governments,  whose
quiet was endangered by the revolution
in Naples. The  king  of France joined
in the invitation, and  Ferdinand  I  left
Naples, Dec.  13, with the consent of the
Neapolitan parliament.   He arrived  at
Laybach in January.   It had been fur-
ther resolved at  Troppau, that in case a
war should actually break out with Na-
ples,  Austria should carry it on alone,
whilst Russia and Prussia pledged them-
selves to  keep watch on  the rest of Eu-
rope, and guarantied the security of the
Austrian states.  The  monarchs also dis-
claimed all ideas of conquest or of injury
to the independence of other  states. The
first work written against the congress of
Troppau  was Bignon's Du  Congres  de
Troppau.
  Trosachs.   (See Loch Katrine.)
  Trotzendorf,  Valentine  Friedland,
the most distinguished schoolmaster of his
                   30*
time, of whom Melanchthon said, u quern
ad regendas scholas non minus natum, quam
ad regenda castra Scipionem olim Africa-
num puto" (Deck, vol. v., p. 817), was born
probably in  1490,  in  Trotzendorf, in
Upper Lusatia.  His father  was a poor
peasant, and Valentine learned  to write
on the bark of birch, with ink  made of
water and soot  By great efforts, he was
enabled to study in Leipsic, where he
became master of arts  in 1515.  He in-
structed the rector of the  university in
the elements of Greek. In 1518, he went
to Wittemberg,  and, being  too poor to
pay a Jew for  teaching him Hebrew, he
became his servant, to enjoy his instruc-
tion.   In 1531, after having gone through
many changes, he became a second time
rector of  the  school at Goldberg.  For
thirty-three years he conducted this school
with  great faithfulness and  talent.  Pu-
pils came to him from Poland, Lithuania,
Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Transylva-
nia, Germany, &.c.; and it is said that he
used sometimes to salute them, on  enter-
ing the school  in  the  morning, thus:
" Good morning, ye noble lords, ye im-
perial, royal and princely counsellors, ye
burgomasters  and  magistrates,  mechan-
ics, artists, merchants and soldiere, good-
for-nothings though  you  be."  He  had
sometimes  above a  thousand  pupils,
and used   the  members of the  upper
classes to teach the  lower ones.  He in-
structed his scholars in the principles of
religion, in Latin, Greek and  Hebrew,
rhetoric, history, dialectics, gymnastics
and music.   " Learn to  sing, my dear
boys," he  would say, " and, then,  if you
go to   heaven, the angels  will admit you
into their choir."  His  institution  was a
republic, with  tiie forms of Roman gov-
ernment, at the head of which he  stood.
He was assisted by two consuls,  two cen-
sors,  and  a senate of twelve members,
with whom he decided important affaire.
Each  class had a questor, &c.   He died
in 1556, at Leignitz. He was grave, kind,
strict,   just, active,  learned, benevolent,
moderate,  and  pious ; one of the best and
most successful teachers that ever lived,
and revered by his pupils, who  were so
numerous,  that he used to say, " Could I
but collect all my pupils, I could  easUy
beat the Turks."  His memory was ex-
traordinary.
  Troubadours.   The  most beautiful
period of  the  middle  ages produced, in
the south   of Europe, the singers  and
poets  called Troubadours.  The name is
derived from  the French word trouver,
and marks the ease of their poetry, as if 
354
TROUBADOURS.
in opposition to the elaborate compositions
of the Greek no.j/njf.  The proper  home
of the Troubadoure was France, part of
Upper Italy, and, for some  time, the king-
doms of Catalonia and Arragon; and their
flourishing period extends  from the tenth
centuiy to the middle of the thirteenth.
In this period, corresponding to  the  he-
roic  era of Greece, after the migrations
of the tribes under Pelasgus and Da-
naus, chivalry arose, and spread all over
Europe, giving  birth,  in  the  different
countries,  to poetry as diversified as the
forms  of  the  chivalric character  from
which it  sprung.   Thus originated  the
productions of the minnesingers in Ger-
many, the lofty poetry of the north,  the
ballads of Spain, the  songs of the Trouba-
doure and  trouveres in France, and those
of their brethren, the  minstrels, in Eng-
land.   The Ufe of the nobles, at this pe-
riod, inall the Christian lands, was a scene
of hazardous and romantic  exploits, fa-
vorable, in a high degree, to poetry.  But
their  poetry was necessarily unpolished,
the genuine growth  of nature and of  the
genius of the times.  In different coun-
tries, indeed, it assumed different  shapes,
but its nature and spirit is one and  the
same.  Through the whole of the middle
ages, France was divided by the Loire into
two distinct countries, the provinces of the
Langue d'oui,  or Langue (Toil (Walloon
Romance), and of the Langue cPoc  (Pro-
vencal Romance).  The  difference  of
these two,  as shown  in their political con-
stitutions,  and their  history, appears also
in their poetry.   The trouveres of North-
ern France, in England called also min-
strels  (q. v.), who cultivated the Walloon
Romance,  the mother of the  modem
French language, were the epic poets of
France, whose songs and  chivalrous ro-
mances described the fabulous exploits of
the knights of the Round Table, of Ama-
dis, and of Charlemagne, with his peers.
They proceeded  chiefly from  the duchy
of Normandy, founded by Rollo, spread
over France and  England, and flourished
from  the twelfth century till  the rise of
the modern  French literature.   They
confined themselves to the reasoning, nar-
rative style, which still prevails in France.
The beautiful shores of Provence, Lan-
guedoc, and Guienne, together with Gas-
cony, had earlier become  susceptible  of
civilization,  through their  intercourse
with  tiie  Romans;  and  the  victorious
German tribes found  in  these regions
much stronger inducements to exchange
their savage life for gentler manners than
in the north of France.  Less isolated
 than  Spain, these provinces shared with
 that  country all the luxuriance  of the
 south.   Rich pastures, with  the finest
 productions, romantic valleys and  hUls in
 the  fertile Cevennes, a  long  extent of
 coast  on the  Meditenanean  sea, give
 loveliness  to  the country, and  a gay,
 pleasure-loving character to the inhabit-
 ants.    Their  chivalry  was  naturally
 different from  that  of Spain  or  of the
 north ; more gallant than the  latter, and
 softer and  brighter  than  the  former,
 and was prone to  show  and festivity.
 The storms which raged in France under
 the Merovingian and Carlovingian races,
 till Hugh Capet, in 987, possessed himself
 of the throne, were scarcely felt in  the se-
 cluded south, and Burgundy alone served
 to connect  the  Provencal regions with
 France in the stricter sense. In Aquitaine,
 as well as in Languedoc,  Provence, Bur-
 gundy, Auvergne, &c, the  power of the
 great barons, dukes and counts was more
 and more developed, while the authority
 of the king declined.  They not  only
 made their  own dignity  hereditary, but
 encroached continually on the royal terri-
 tory.  About 1071, the famous Troubadour
William IX, count of Poitou,  celebrated
by Tasso under the name of Raymond dc
 St Gilles, was duke of Aquitaine.  In
 1151,  it fell to Henry II (Plantagenet) of
 England.   In  Languedoc, during the
 ninth  century, the counts of Toulouse and
 the counts of Provence reigned together,
 and, in  the eleventh, Raymond  de St.
 Gilles and Alfonso II of Arragon.  Prov-
 ence made itself independent under Louis
 the Stammerer.  The duke of Burgundy,
 Boso, was crowned,  in 879, king of Prov-
 ence; and this  kingdom  was  called the
 Arelat, from its capital,  Aries.   Lower
 Burgundy, which is also highly important
 in the history of the Troubadours, enjoy-
 ed, for  more  than   two  centuries, the
 greatest tranquillity.   In   the  eleventh
 century, reigned the  celebrated count of
 Barcelona, Raymond Berengarius, under
 whom the Provencal poetry was intro-
duced into  Barcelona  and  Catatonia.
Around these political stare of the first mag-
nitude was a multitude of smaller counts,
viscounts, and barons, dependent  on the
greater merely in name, but in feet sover-
eigns. Of the devastating ware of the rest of
Europe.the south of France felt but 1 ittie. A t
times, the chivalrous  festivals of Provence
were disturbed by the noise of arms in some
private feuds between  powerful barons,
or were interrupted by the attacks  of the
Normans or Moore;  but  the inroads of
these  plunderers on  this coast  were nei- 
TROUBADOURS.
355
 ther frequent nor destructive. Sometimes
 the desire of adventures, or the cry of war
 in  foreign  countries, summoned  the
 knights of Provence to the battles of the
 other  European nations.  Thus, for in-
 stance, in the wars of king Alfonso VI of
 Castile with the Moore, many knights of
 the South  of France  fought under the
 Spanish  Cid, and  aided  in conquering
 Toledo,  by which means they came into
 close connexion with Arabian civilization.
 The crusades, to which the  first impulse
 was given in  the  south  of France, at
 Clermont,  in 1095, by pope Urban VII,
 and which had so  decisive  an influence
 on the whole of Europe, were also felt in
 Provence.  A single war took place upon
 the happy fields of Provence, which was
 fatal to the prosperity of that country, and
 to the  poetry of the Troubadoure, which
 never  recovered from the effects of it
 This was the unfortunate crusade against
 the Albigenses, in  the beginning of the
 thirteenth century, when the ancient fam-
 ily of the counts of Toulouse was ruined,
 and the  whole  land  filled  with  scenes
 of cruelty  and  bloodshed.   During this
 whole  period, courteousness and gallantry
 were no where  so  fully developed as  in
 Provence;  and we need not be surprised,
 when we see  the emperor  Frederic Bar-
 barossa in  Germany, and  king Richard
 Coeur de  Lion in England,  inviting the
 Provencal knights  to their courts, to re-
 ceive instruction from them in the usages
 and ceremonies of chivalry.  Provence is
 the native land of the courts of love (q.v.);
 and besides  the inferior  courts of this
 kind, as numerous as the castles of the vis-
 counts and barons, there were four station-
 ary courts of love at Pierrefeu, at Rama-
 gny, at Aix, and at Avignon.  The royal
 court  in Provence, at Aries, was from
 the times of  Boso i, for almost two cen-
 turies,  the theatre of the finest chivalry,
 the  centre  of a  romantic  life.  The  as-
 sembly of  knights and Troubadoure, of
 Jongleurs, with their Moorish story -tellers
 and buffoons, of ladies acting as judges or
 parties in matters of courtesy, exhibits a
glittering picture ofa mirthful, soft and lux-
 urious  life.  The knight of Provence de-
 voted himself to the service of his lady-love
 in true  poetic earnest, and made the dance
 and the  sport of the tilt-yard the great
 business of his life.  Each baron, a sove-
reign in  his  own  territory,  invited the
neighboring knights to his castle to take
part in tournaments and  to contend in
soup, at a time when the knights of Ger-
many and  Northern  France  were chal-
lon-'ing each other to deadly combat.
 There might be seen the joyous compa-
 nies of ladies and knights under fragrant
 oUve groves, upon the enamelled mead-
 ows, sporting  from  one  holyday  to
 another: there the gallant knight broke
 his lance on the shield of his manly an-
 tagonist ; there the princess sat in the cir-
 cle of  ladies, listening seriously to the
 songs  of  the  knights  contending  in
 rhymes respecting the laws of love, and,
 at the close  of the contest, pronouncing
 her sentence (arrd d'amour).  Thus the
 Ufe of the Provencals was  lyrical in the
 highest degree; and, if it degenerated, in
 later  times, to voluptuousness and Ucen-
 tiousness, this was owing to the want of a
 strong  moral principle.    Their poetry
 was necessarily lyrical, the expression of
 their feelings and passions.   Even deeds
 and facts were represented merely through
 the medium and in the form of feelings.
 Such a poetry could never be more than
 a  continual improvisatory  effusion.   It
 was necessarily superficial:  it could be of
 value only with the accompaniment of
 music, and was not suited to be preserved
 in writing.   With  the  Troubadour him-
 self his  songs lived  and died.  Provence
 cultivated its Romance idiom earlier than
 any other of the Romance countries.  The
 foundation of this was laid as early as the
 tenth  century, at the court of Aries.  In
 the eleventh and twelfth centuries, it had
 attained its highest bloom, while the Cas-
 tilian  language, the Northern French and
 the Italian, were but  beginning to be de-
 veloped. It had spread into Spain and
 Lombardy, and  even  German emperors
 (Frederic Barbarossa) and English kings
 (Richard Cceur de Lion) composed songs
 in the Provencal dialect. In the thirteenth
 century, it had completed its course, and
 sunk with the country into a state of de-
 pendence.  This language was peculiarly
 soft:  no other has  so  many onomatopoe-
 ias, so much indistinctness in the gender
 of the  words, so  complete a system
 of diminutives and augmentatives: noth-
 ing is wanting but energy.  With regard
 to rhyme and to the modern metres, the
 Provencals claim not  only  the merit of
 having firet made use of them, but also of
 having fixed the form which rhyme and
 metre assumed in the romantic poetry.
 In their  rhymed metre, they have seldom
 gone  beyond the simple  iambic, which
they exchanged, mostly in those feet of the
 verse  upon which there is no stress, for
 the trochee, pyrrhichius and spondee; so
 that if their verees  (usually of ten sylla-
 bles) only had the  cfrsura and the final
syllable  sufficiently accented, they cared 
35G
TROUBADOURS-TROUT.
little about the measure of the other sylla-
bles.  But they were  very fond  of com-
plicated rhymes.  We find in their stan-
zas not only the same  rhyme  repeated
through  a long series of verses, or the
same rhymed word returning at the  end
of every other verse,  but variously inter-
twined rhymes, in terzinas and other me-
tres, distinctly point  out the pattern of
Petrarca's canzone and  sonnets.  As a
specimen of the Provencal Romance idi-
om,and of their metres, we give the follow-
ing stanza of a sirvente of William de St
Gregory, with its translation, taken from
Roscoe's translation of Sismondi:—
      Be m play lo douz temps de pascor
       Que fai fuelhas efloras verdr;
      E play mi quant aug la vaudor
       Dels auzels que fan retentir
         Lor chan per lo boscalge,
      E plai vie quan vey stus els prat:,
      Tendas e pavallos fermatz ;
         E plai m'en mon coratge
      Quan vey per campanhas rengatz
      Cavailiers ab cavals armatz.
  The beautiful spring delights me well.
    When flowers and leaves are growing;
  And it pleases my heart to hear the swell
    Of the birds' sweet chorus flowing
      In the echoing wood ;
  And I love to see, all scattered around,
  Pavilions and tents on the martial ground;
      And my spirit finds it good
  To see, on the level plains beyond,
  Gay knights and steeds caparisoned.

What we have  left of the  poetry of the
Troubadoure  are  songs of contention
(tensones), satires, martial and other  seri-
ous songs (sirventes), and numerous small
songs (chanzos), war-songs, songs of pas-
toral life and love (soulas, lais, pastou-
relles), morning songs and serenades  (au-
bades and serenades), retrouanges and re-
dondes, the latter distinguished  by artifi-
cial burdens.  The poetry of the Trouba-
doure, as in the  course of times it became
more common,  was degraded,  not unfre-
quently, to mere ballad  singing, and was
exposed to much mockery, of which the
nobler singers often bitterly complain.  It
flourished most at the  court   of Aries,
especially under the counts of  Provence,
in the twelfth century.  The biographies
of the  Troubadoure  furnish us with  a
greater variety of matter than their poetry,
which, through  all  its periods,  turns con-
tinually  upon the  same subjects.   The
works of Nostradamus  and  Crescimbeni
are well worthy of being read, and  with
them the critical extracts of  Millot,  from
the collection of St Palaye.  Some of the
 most remarkable Troubadoure  were the
 foUowing: in the van of  the  royal and
 princely singers is William IX, count of
Poitou and duke of Aquitaine, equally fa-
mous as a poet and a warrior (born 1071).
He was followed by the  foreign princes
and  lords, who  gladly saw  the exotic
plant of gallant  poetry  transplanted  to
their courts—the  emperor Frederic  Bar-
barossa, Roger of Naples,  Richard Coeur
de Lion, with his famous minstrel Blon-
del,   who  composed,  also,   Provencal
verees, and  who, according to tradition,
discovered the prison of his king by means
of his harp; the kings Alfonso and Peter
of Anagon, and a vast number of princes
and  counts  in  Spain, France  and Italy.
The most renowned of the rest of more
than two hundred Troubadoure, whose
names and  poems have been preserved,
are Sordello of Mantua, celebrated for his
chivalrous exploits and  the  praises  of
Dante ; Peyrols, the happy as well as un-
fortunate servant of the sister of the dau-
phin of Auvergne, wife of the baron of
Mercceur; Bertrandde Bom, who is con-
nected with the  romantic adventures of
Richard Cceur de Lion; Arnald de Mara-
viglia, who was devoted to the noble lady
De Beziere, an eminent Troubadour and
valiant knight, whose motto was " A Dieu
mon dme, ma vie au rot, mon cozur aux
dames, I'honneur  pour moi."—See Diez,
Die  Poesie der Troubadours nach gedruck-
ten  und   handschrifllichen  Werken  dar-
gestellt  (Zwickau,  1827—Poetry of the
Troubadours according to printed Works
and  Manuscripts); Sismondi's Literature
of the South of Europe  (1st vol.).  Tho
chief work on  this subject is by Raynou-
ard, Choix des Poisies originales des Trou-
badours (Paris,  1818—21), and  contains  a
grammar of the ancientRomance language
and its history, besides biographical no-
tices of 350 Troubadoure.
   Trough, in marine language; the  inter-
val between two waves.
   Trout. Many of the species of salmo,
which pass  their lives altogether in fresh
water, never visiting the  ocean, have re-
ceived this appellation; it is not, however
always thus strictly applied, and, besides,
is often improperly given to fish of entire-
ly different habits and conformation. Trout
are found only  in the clearest streams, and
are  particularly fond of mountain torrents
and alpine  lakes.  They are remarkable
for  the beauty of their colore; are very
voracious, and have always been the favor-
ite  fish of the  angler.  (For an account
of the generic  characters, sec  Salmon.)
The common   trout of  our  waters  (S.
fontinalis of MitchUl) is found in all the
clear streams of  the Northern and Middle
States, those, at least, which flow into the 
TROUT—TROVER.
357
Atlantic.  It is a beautiful fish: the back
is mottled;  the sides dark-brown,  with
yellow spots, which have a scarlet dot in
the  centre.   It sometimes attains  the
weight of four  and a half pounds, but is
usually much smaller.   It is much in re-
quest for the table.  The large species of
trout which inhabit the larger lakes of
Maine, New Hampshire, aud those about
the sources of the  Susquehanna, have not
yet been described or properly distinguish-
ed, that  we  are aware of; indeed, it is
possible that more  than one species has
been confounded under the common trout.
A gigantic species  of trout, from lake Hu-
ron, has been described by doctor Mitchill.
It is said to attain the weight of a  hun-
dred and twenty pounds. The flesh is re-
markably fat, rich  and savory.   The spe-
cific name amethysthvus was applied on
account of the  purplish  tinge and  hyaline
tips of the teeth.  We add some observa-
tions on the trout as an  object of pursuit
to the American angler.  It is particularly
abundant in New England, where the wa-
ters and soil, being ofa more alpine char-
acter, are highly congenial to the* nature of
this species of fish.   They may be divided
into three principal classes, namely, pond
trout, river trout and sea trout.   Of these,
however, there  are as many varieties and
shades of difference as are known and
described in England, Scotland, and other
countries; but,  for  all the purposes of the
angler, it is unnecessary to enumerate any
others than those above mentioned. Pond
or  lake trout  vary in shape  and color.
Their size is  generally in  proportion to
the extent of the water in which they are
taken.   In Moose  Head lake, in  Maine,
they attain the enomnous weight of forty
or fifty pounds, and, in the lakes of other
states, are found of the average size of
salmon.  This  large description of trout
are seldom taken, except through  the ice
in  winter, and  consequently afford but
littie sport to the lover of angling.  In the
Winipisseogee  lake, in  New Hampshire,
and Sebago lake, in Maine, the average
size of the fish is about that of the largest
mackerel, which  it also  resembles  in
shape.   The  spots upon these  and other
lake trout are  seldom red, but dark and
indistinct, according to  their size.  The
Inst mentioned  lake is one  of the  few in
which  the fish  are taken  by  the usual
method  of angling,  for which  they
are  more  esteemed,  as affording good
sport, than for their flavor; and the com-
mon impression is, that  these fish sprung
from salmon, but that, having  been pre-
vented,  by obstructions  in  the river, from
entering  the sea, they  have become, by
confinement,  degenerated  in  size  and
quality, retaining only  the color  of the
flesh.  In the interior lakes of New York,
and  in the great lakes of the west, the
trout  grows to  a vast size; but these
lake trout, being coarse fish, and taken
without skill, in  the winter only, are held
in no estimation  by the scientific  angler.
River or brook   trout  are  common  in
the New England states;  but, much  to
the annoyance of the angler, they percep-
tibly diminish in proportion to the increase
of mills and manufactories upon the vari-
ous streams.   The  size of this class of
trout, and the color of the skin and spots,
are much alike in all, excepting that some
are ofa more silvery hue than others; and
the color of the flesh varies, perhaps, as it
has been observed, according to their dif-
ferent food, being  sometimes perfectly
white, sometimes of a  yellow  tinge, but
generally pink.   There are also  trout  hi
various  small  ponds,  both  natural  and
artificial, those taken from the latter being
in all respects similar to the brook or river
trout. This is to be underetood of ponds in
the interior, as there are  many artificial
ponds, situated near the sea  coast, at the
head of inlets from the sea and tide-water,
where the  fish are very little inferior  hi
size and quality to those which are taken
where the  tide ebbs and flows.   Of the
three  classes of trout refened to, there is
none  so much esteemed as the sea trout,
which may be called migratory,  in dis-
tinction from those which have no access
to the salt water.  In the  early spring
months, they are taken in great abundance
in the various salt rivers, creeks and tide-
waters upon the  shores of New England
and Long Island, but more particularly in
the waters of cape  Cod, where the cele-
brated Waquoit bay, with other neighbor-
ing waters,  has long been the favorite re-
sort of the scientific fisherman. As the sea-
son advances,  these fish repair to fresh
water, at which  time, as well  as earlier,
they afford great diversion to the angler, by
whom they are highly prized, not  merely
for  their superiority of form, color and
delicious flavor,  but for the voracity with
which they seize the bait or the artificial
fly, and their activity upon the hook. In the
U. States, as well as in Great Britain, tin's
fish is the great object of the angler's art, the
perfection of which is the use of the artifi-
cial fly. This seductive sport has received
new attractions from the  amusing work
of sir Humphrey Davy, called Salmonia.
  Trover ; an action against a man who
is in possession of the goods of another, 
358
TROVER—TRUCE  OF GOD.
and refuses to deliver them to the owner,
or sells or  converts them to  his own use,
without the consent of the owner.  It was
originally confined to cas^s in which one
man had actually found the goods of an-
other, and refused to deliver  them on de-
mand, but converted  them  to his own
use; hence the names of trover and con-
version.
   Troy.   (See Troad.)
   Troy, City of ;  capital of Rensselaer
county, New York, 164 miles north  of the
city of New York; lat. 42° 44' N.;  popu-
lation  in  1801,  1500;  in 1830, 11,584;
houses, 1667.  There are nine places  of
public worship, three banks, with a capi-
tal of $1,018,000 ; two  insurance compa-
nies, and a savings bank; a court-house,
of Singsing marble, county jail, of brick,
female seminary, Lancasterian school, an
infant school, and the  Rensselaer school,
a  very respectable institution, intended
particularly to teach the practical applica-
tion of knowledge; taxable property in
1831,  $3,857,793.   Large quantities  of
lumber, flour, grain, beef, pork, wool, &c,
besides manufactured goods, are shipped
to the river towns, and New York, New
Jersey and Boston,  in eighty vessels, ave-
raging more  than 75 tons:  ten transport
boats, averaging 250 tons, and towed  by
steamers, also ply between Troy and New
York,  it  is  common  to see boats from
lake Erie enter the  Hudson  at Troy, and
spread sails  on spars  which they have
brought on deck.  There are now  (1831)
two daily  lines  of western  boats, sixty-
eight in number ; also two daily lines of
northern  boats, forty-three  in  number.
The  united Champlain and Hudson  ca-
nals enter the Hudson  at Troy ; tolls  re-
ceived in  1831  at  the collector's  office,
$169,456.   Two large steam-boats run
daily between Troy and New York, and
two or three  steam-boats between Troy
and Albany.   The manufactories include
eight  grain mills,  grinding 500,000  to
600,000 bushels annually, three  mills for
grinding  gypsum, two large rolling and
slitting mills, using (1832) 3000 tons of for-
eign iron, connected with two nail facto-
ries and  one spike factory, which  will
make, in 1832, it is supposed, about 1300
tons of nails, and  700  tons  of spikes for
ships, rail-ways, &c.; two  air furnaces,
 melting about 600 tons of iron, two  steam-
engine factories, an extensive bell-foun-
dery, where 27,000 bells were cast in one
year ; two shops for  carriage  building,
which have sold, within a year, about  120
 post coaches, besides  a large number of
other carriages; als® four potteries, which
 make wares to the amount of $28,000
annually ;  two cotton factories, a woollen
factory, a rope-walk, two buhr mill-stone
factories, a paper-mill, a paper-hanging fac-
tory, four tanneries, a morocco factory, &c.
&c.  About 25,000 bbls. of beer, 95,000 rolls
of paper, 700,000 lbs. of tallow and soap,
100,000 pair of boots and shoes, and hats
to a large amount, 500,000 bricks, $30,000
worth of bmshes, and more than 100,000
caskR,  are annually made,  and not less
than 200 tons of staves annually sold.
  Truce  of God, in  the  Latin  of the
middle  ages, Treuga  Dei  (Treuge, or
Trewa, from the  German  word  Treu,
faithful), was, in the period  just mention-
ed, a limitation of the right of* private
warfare introduced by the church, in or-
der to mitigate an evil which it was unable
to eradicate.  This truce of God provided
that  hostilities should cease,  at least on the
holydays, from Thursday evening to Sun-
day evening in  each week; also  during
the whole season of Advent and Lent,
and on the " octaves of the great festivals."
(See Festival.)  This salutary regulation
was  first introduced in 1077, in Aquitaine,
where  a bishop professed to  have received
the command of God for its  institution ;
then in France and Burgundy.  In 1038,
the diet at Soleure deliberated respecting
the establishment of it in Germany.  Un-
der William the Conqueror, it was intro-
duced  into  England, and,  in 1071, into
the Netherlands.  In French, it was call-
ed Treve de Dieu.  The clergy w;-e very
anxious that it should  be  generr.'y ac-
knowledged.  At many councils, it was a
chief subject of discussion ; for instance,
at the councils of Narbonnc (1054), Troyes
(1093), Clermont  (1095), Rouen  (1096),
Nordhausen  (1105), Rheims (1136), St
John of the  Lateran (1139 and 1179), and
Montpellier (1195), it  was enjoined  by
special decrees.  At a later period, the
truce of God was sometimes extended  to
Thursday.  Whoever engaged in private
warfare on  these days  was excommuni-
cated.   This was all which the  clergy
could effect in that barbarous age.  The
truce of God was also extended to certain
places, as churches, convents,  hospitals,
church-yards, &c, and certain persons, as
clergymen, peasants in the  fields,  and,  in
general, all  defenceless pereons.  At the
council at Clermont (1095), it was made
to   include  particularly  all  crusaders.
Thus  the clergy  effected   what  would
have been impossible for any secular au-
thority, because they wisely demanded no
more  than  they could expect to obtain,
and because  religion was much the
strongest power which could be brought
to act on the turbulent warriors of thoes 
TRUCE OF GOD—TRUMPET.
359
 times.  It may be easily imagined, how-
 ever, that the  limits  prescribed were not
 very nicely observed; and we find con-
 stant complaints of their violation in the
 records of the councils  and the chroni-
 cles of convents.
   Truffaldino.  (See Masks.)
   Truffle  (tuber);  a  genus of mush-
 rooms (fungi), remarkable for their form,
 and for growing entirely under ground,
 at the distance of a few inches from the
 surface.  Unlike the  lycoperdon, or  puff-
 ball, they are not resolved into a powder
 at maturity, but their substance becomes
 gelatinous.  Only few species arc known,
 which  are found chiefly in temperate cli-
 mates.   Some of  them have the rind
 rough, with small tubercles; othere have it
 entirely smooth.  They attain tiie diame-
 ter of two or three inches.—The common
 truffle (7". cibarium), so celebrated in the
 annals of cookery, is said to inhabit all the
 warm and temperate parts of the northern
 hemisphere; but wc are in need of fur-
 ther evidence to establish the fact of its
 existence on  this  continent   In certain
 districts, it is astonishingly abundant,  as
 in Piedmont, and at  Perigord, in France,
 which latter place has,  in consequence,
 acquired celebrity for producing it  They
 abound  most in  light   and dry soils,
 especially  in oak and chestnut forests;
 but it would be difficult to procure them
 any where, were it not that hogs are ex-
 tremely fond of them, and lead to their
 discovery by rooting in the ground. Dogs
 are sometimes taught  to  find this fungus
 by the scent, and to scratch it up out of the
 ground.   The season for collecting con-
 tinues from  October to January.  The
 truffle is usually about as large as an egg;
 is entirely destitute  of  roots; the  skin
 blackish or gray, studded with small py-
 ramidal warts; the flesh white, gray  or
 blackish,  varied with  black  or  brewn
 veins.  They are prepared for tho table
 in various  manners, but should be eaten
 with  moderation, as they arc difficult  of
 digestion.  They may be kept in  ice,  or
 covered with lard: in some countries, they
 are dried.  They were in use among the
 ancient  Greeks and* Romans.   Several
 varieties arc  distinguished, and, besides,
 some of the other  species   are much
 esteemed for culinary purposes.
  Trullan Council.  (See Constantino-
ple, Councils of)
  Trumbull, John,  an eminent Ameri-
 can poet and  patriot, was bom April 24,
 1750, in the place now called Watertown,
 Connecticut   His constitution was deli-
 cate ; and his education was conducted by
 his father, a clergyman of good classical
 attainments, and his mother, a lady of su-
 perior refinement  until  1763, when he
 entered Yale  college.  In 1771, he was
 appointed a tutor in that institution.  In
 1773, he was admitted to the bar of Con-
 necticut, but removed to Boston, and con-
 tinued his studies in the office of John
 Adams.   At that time, the members of
 the bar in that city were distinguished for
 the zeal with  which they vindicated the
 rights  of the  colonies.   With Otis  and
 his compeers, Trumbull, though  much
 younger, warmly sympathized and  coop-
 erated.   In 1775, he published the first
 part  of  McFingal, a   political   satire,
 which he had  composed at the request of
 the members  of the American congress.
 This poem passed through thirty editions,
 and was very serviceable to the American
 cause.  For many  years, Mr. Trumbull
 was a member of the state legislature of
 Connecticut, and, in 1801, was appointed
 a judge of the superior court.  He receiv-
 ed  the additional appointment  of  judge
 of the supreme court of errors, which he
 held until the new organization of the ju-
 diciary under  the  constitution  of  1818.
 In 1825, he removed to the city of De-
 troit,  the capital of Michigan territory,
 where he resided until his death, which
 occurred  May 12,  1831,  from gradual
 decay.
  Trumpet; the loudest of all portable
 wind  instruments,  and  consisting  of a
 folded tube, generally made of brass, and
 sometimes of  silver.  The ancients had
 various instruments  of the trumpet kind,
 as the tuba, cornu, &c.  Moses, as  the
 Scripture informs us, made two of silver,
 to be used by  the priests; and Solomon,
 Josephus tells  us, made two hundred like
 those of Moses, and for the same purpose.
 The  modern  trumpet  has  a mouth-
 piece nearly an inch across.   The  pieces
 which  conduct the  wind are called  the
 branches; the parts in which it is bent, the
potences;  the  canal  between  the second
 bend and the extremity, the pavilion;  the
 rings where the branches take asunder, or
 are soldered together, the knots, which are
 five in number, and serve to cover  the
joints.  This powerful and  noble instru-
 ment, like the horn, only has certain  notes
within its compass.   The trumpet pro-
duces, naturally and easily, G above the
bass-cliff note,  or fiddle G, C on  the firet
leger line  below m  the treble, E on the
firet line  of the stave, G  on  the second
line, C on the third space, and all the suc-
ceeding notes up to C in alt, including the  A
sharp of F, the fourth of the key.   Solo 
360                       TRUMPET—TRUXTON.
 performers can also produce B flat (the
 third above the treble-cliff note); and, by
 the aid of a newly-invented slide, many
 other notes, which  the common trumpet
 cannot sound, are  now produced.   The
 trumpet, from its exciting effect, is  well
 fitted for military music; and a band of
 twenty or thirty trumpets has a peculiarly
 spirit-stirring sound. It is used for giving
 signals, and  also  accompanies  flags of
 truce, heralds, &c. With the ancients,
 the o-aXiriy!  seems to have come nearest to
 our trumpet.   Weidinger, in Vienna, has
 invented a trumpet with  keys; but the
 instrument, in this way, loses in beauty of
 tone what it gains hi compass.
   Trumpd, Hearing.  (See Ear Trum-
pet.)
   Trumpet, Speaking,  is a tube of con-
 siderable length,  viz. from  six  feet to
 twelve, and even more, used for speaking
 with, to make tiie voice heard to a great-
 er distance. In a  trumpet of this kind,
 the sound  in one direction is supposed to
 be  increased by the reflection from the
sides.
  Trumpeter (psophia);  a South Amer-
ican bird,  about as large  as a domestic
fowl, referred by naturalists to the waders,
of which it has the long neck and legs;
but it  possesses many characters in com-
mon with gallinaceous birds.   The feath-
ers of the  throat  and upper part of the
breast  have the most brilliant reflections
of green, gold, blue  and violet: the other
parts of the  body are  black, except  the
middle  of  the back and  lesser  coverts,
which are  reddish, and the greater cov-
erts of the wings and tail, which are  ash-
colored.  In the wild  state,  this bird is
found only  in the mountainous and woody
districts of the hottest parts of South
America, where it lives on fruits.  It runs
swiftly, sometimes  walks  with   a slow
pace, or leaps.  Its wings and  tail  are
very short, and its  flight  clumsy.   The
name has been applied on account of the
note which it utters.  It is easily tamed,
and shows as much attachment and fidel-
ity to its master as  a dog. It obeys his
voice, caresses and  follows him, and rec-
ognises him after a long absence.   It
drives  away  all  strange  animals,  and
fears neither cat nor dog.  Those which
live in  the  streets of Cayenne will often
attach  themselves to a stranger, and  fol-
low  him wherever  he goes.  In short,
these birds are superior  to  all  others
in  intelligence and social  disposition;
and it  would be desirable to naturalize
them in our  climate—an  experiment
which has never been fairly tried, that we
 are  aware of.  It  is said that flocks of
 sheep are confided to  their charge, and
 that they constantly bring  them  home
 every evening: it is certain that the care
 of poultry may be  safely  intrusted  to
 them.
   Trumpet-Flower (bignonia).  The B.
 radicans is a well-known ornamental vine,
 a native  of  the Southern and  .Middle
 States,  and frequently cultivated in gar-
 dens.   The flowers are very large, scar-
 let, and the corolla tubular, three times as
 long as the calyx. The leaves are. pinnate ;
 the leaflets ovate and dentate.  The stem
 climbs  by means cf radicles, which it
 throws  out at intervals. Among the vege-
 table productions of our climate, we hard-
 ly know  an object more imposing than
 this  plant when in full flower. B.  caprc-
 olala is more  strictly a southern species,
 but  succeeds  very well in  the Middle
 States:  the leaves are widely different:
 the  flowers are similar, though  much
 smaller.
  Truss, in surgery; a  bandage or ap-
 paratus  employed  in ruptures (see  Her-
 nia), to  keep  up the reduced parts, and
 hinder a fresh  protrusion. It is essential
 to the health of a large portion of the hu-
 man race.  A truss ought so to compress
 the neck of the hernial sac, and the ring,
 or external opening of the hernia, that u
 protrusion of any of the  contents of the
 abdomen  may be completely prevented.
 It should make an equal pressure on the
 parts without  causing  inconvenience to
 the patient, and be so secured as  not ea-
 sily to slip out of its right position.   Ev-
 ery truss consists of a  pad, for compress-
 ing the aperture through which the her-
 nia protrudes, and of another piece which
 surrounds the abdomen  : to these are
 sometimes added a thigh-strap and a scap-
 ulary, which  passes  over the shoulder.
 The various kinds are far too numerous
 to be described here.
  Truxto.v, Thomas,  a  captain  in the
 navy of the U. States, was born on  Long
 Island, in the  state  of New York, Feb.
 17, 1755.  At the age of twelve yeare, he
 went to  sea.   He was impressed, during
his apprenticeship, on board the Prudent,
an English sixty-four, but was subsequent-
ly released.  In  the early part of  1775,
while in command of a ship, he was suc-
cessful in bringing considerable quantities
of powder into the united colonics, but
was subsequently, in the same year, cap-
tured and carried  into St Christopher's.
Having  made his escape, and arrived in
PhUadelphia,  he entered, as lieutenant,
on board the  Congre?.*., one  of the  two 
TRUXTON—TSCHIRNHAUSEN.
361
 first private armed ships fitted out in the
 colonies.  This ship sailed in company
 with the Chance,  in the winter of 1776,
 and captured several valuable ships off
 the Havana,  one of which he took the
 command of, and arrived in her at Bed-
 ford, Massachusetts.  In June,  1777, in
 a vessel called the Independence, and fitted
 out by himself and Isaac Sears, esquire,
 he sailed for the Azores, and made many
 prizes. He now changed his ship, and sail-
 ed in the Mars, of upwards  of twenty
 guns. In this cruise off the British chan-
 nel, he sent his prizes into Quiberon bay,
 which induced lord Stomiont to make a
 remonstrance to the French court.  Dur-
 ing the whole war, he was constantly en-
 gaged either in fitting out or command-
 ing  ships  of war from Philadelphia.
 While carrying to  France Thomas Bar-
 clay, esquire, our consul-general  to that
 country, in tiie ship St. James, of twenty
 guns, he had a  very close engagement
 with a British private ship of thirty-two
 guns, which he obliged to sheer oft.  In
 all his  engagements with the British, he
 was  victorious.   From  the  peace  of
 1783 until 1794, he was very actively en-
 gaged in commercial pursuits.  President
 Washington, during the war with France,
 appointed him one of the six captains of
 the American  navy; and, after building
 the frigate Constellation,  he sailed, at the
 head ofa squadron, for the West Indies, in
 the early part of 1799. Feb. 9 of that year,
 he captured, after an engagement of one
 hour and a quarter, the French  frigate
 L'Insurgente, of fifty-four guns. This was
 the first opportunity offered to an Ameri-
 can frigate of engaging an enemy of su-
 perior force.  In a short time, the Con-
 stellation was again at  sea, and soon en-
 countered, Feb. 1, 1800, the French frig-
 ate La Vengeance, of fifty-four guns. An
 action ensued, which lasted from eight in
 the morning until one, when the  enemy
 was completely silenced.  A squall now
 ensued, which enabled the French ship
 to effect her escape, and to arrive  in Cu-
 racoa, in a most shattered condition, hav-
 ing lost 160 men,  killed and  wounded.
 Congress voted a gold medal to the com-
 modore,  for tiie  gallantry displayed  in
 this  action.  This was the last cruise of
 captain Tnixton.  Having, during the ad-
 ministration of Mr. Jefferson, been  ap-
 pointed  to  the command of the expedi-
 tion against  Tripoli, he was denied  the
assistance of a captain to command his
flag  ship (a custom which had always
prevailed),  and therefore declined  the
command  of the expedition, which was
  VOL. XII.       31
 construed, by the president, into a resig-
 nation of his rank in the service; and he
 was  therefore dismissed.   Commodore
 Truxton retired to the country, where he
 continued  to  reside until the citizens of
 Philadelphia,  in 1816, elected him their
 high sheriff.   He remained in that office
 till 1819, and died May 5,1822, in his  six-
 ty-seventh  year.
   Trying ; the situation in which a ship
 lies nearly  in the trough or hollow of the
 sea in a tempest; or it is the act  of lying
 to  in a storm, which may be performed
 under any of the  courses reeved, if re-
 quisite, or even under bare poles,  the
 helm being lashed a-lee.  (See Ship.)
   Tschaik (Turkish for ship) is used in
 Hungary to signify a sort of light galley,
 used on the Danube, and provided with
 sail and rudder. The tschaik carries from
 two to twelve cannon,  and from ten to
 one hundred men.   The  men who serve
 on board are called tschaikists, or  ponton-
 eers.  They occupy a part of the  military
 frontier of Hungary, lying between  the
 Theiss and Danube, and hold their land
 by rendering service in manning flotillas
 on the Danube, and acting as pontoneers
 on the rivers in Hungary.  Their arms
 are  muskets,  musketoons,  sabres  and
 lances.  (See Military Frontiers.)
   Tschirnhausex,  Ehrenfried  Walter
 von ; an ingenious  mathematician, born
 in Lusatia, April  10, 1651.  He  studied
 some time  at the university of Leyden,
 and, in 1672,  entered the Dutch army, in
 which he served some  time as a volun-
 teer, and then travelled  into  most of  the
 principal countries of Europe.   On  his
 return, being desirous to perfect  the sci-
 ence of optics, he established three glass-
 houses in Saxony, and showed how por-
 celain might be made  from a particular
 kind of earth, and may therefore  be con-
 sidered as the founder of the celebrated
 Dresden  porcelain  manufactory.    He
 likewise directed his attention to  mathe-
 matics, and discovered a  particular kind
 of curves, endowed with veiy remarkable
 properties, an account of which he com-
 municated to  the academy of sciences of
 Paris, in 1682, which body elected him a
 member.   About the year 1687,  he con-
 structed an  extraordinary burning mirror
 (see Burning Mirror), and, soon  after, a
 glass lens, three feet in diameter, and con-
 vex  on  both  sides,  which had  a focus
 of twelve feet, and weighed 160 pounds.
 Its effects were astonishing. (See Burning
 Glass.)  The  only work "which he pub-
 lished separately  was his De  Medicind
Mentis et Corporis (printed at Amsterdam, 
362
TSCHIRNHAUSEN—TSULAKEES.
in 1687); but he was the author of seve-
ral papers on burning glasses, and on his
discoveries in regard to curves, which ap-
peared in the Leipsic Transactions, and the
Memoirs of the French Academy of Sci-
ences.
   TsuLAKEES,or Tsalakees (sometimes
also written  Tsalagis); the proper name
of the Indian tribe whom we commonly
term Cherokees.  Their tenitory origi-
naUy comprised more  than half of what
is now the state of Tennessee, the south-
ern  part  of  Kentucky, the  south-west
corner of Virginia, a considerable portion
of the two  Carolinas, a  large part of
Georgia, and the northern part of Alaba-
ma.    This   tract probably  contained
more than  35,000,000  acres.   Between
the close of  the  revolutionary  war  and
the year 1820, the Cherokees  sold to the
U. States, at  different  times, more than
three quartere of their possessions,  and
now retain less than  8,000,000  acres, of
which Georgia claims  5,000,000 acres as
falling within that state, and Alabama near-
ly 1,000,000 of the residue.   The remain-
der, if a division takes  place, will go to
Tennessee and North  Carolina.   Their
population is  increasing.   In  eighteen
yeare, ending in 1825, their numbers, in-
cluding those who emigrated to the Ar-
kansas, had increased more than 7000, or
sixty per cent, which varies little from the
common  rate  of increase  among  the
white inhabitants of the Southern States.
The number of native Cherokees of pure
and mixed blood, east  of the Mississippi,
was at  that  time 13,563, and 147 white
men and 73 white women  had intermar-
ried with them, and resided among them.
The number of African slaves was 1277.
The population is now (1832) 15,060, of
whom over 1200 are African slaves.  Ag-
riculture and many of the arts of civil-
ized life  have  been  introduced  among
them,  and then progress in  civiUzation
has been very  considerable.    In 1825,
they possessed  79,842  domestic animals
(horses, cattle, swine   and   sheep), 762
looms, 2486 spinning-wheels, 172 wagons,
2943  ploughs, ten saw-mills, thirty-one
grist-mills, sixty-two blacksmiths'  shops,
eight cotton  gins, eighteen  schools, nine
turnpike roads, eighteen ferries, and twen-
ty public roads, being a great increase
above  the returns of  1809.   A well-or-
ganized system of government has been
established.   The executive consists of a
principal  chief and assistant, with three
executive counsellors, all elected  by  the
legislative body.   The legislature consists
of two bodies, a national committee and
a national council, the former containing
sixteen membere, the latter  twenty-four.
The members are chosen for the term of
two yeare,  by the qualified electors in
their several districts.  These electors in-
clude all free male citizens who have at-
tained the age of eighteen years, except
persons  of African  origin.   The rules
respecting the nature and powers of tiie
legislature in general, are similar to those
of the several states in the Union.  Each
of the two bodies has a  negative on the
other,  and  together they  are styled  the
general council of tlu.  Cherokee  nation.
The chief  and his  assistant hold their
offices for  four  yeare.   The  executive
counseUors are chosen  annually.  The
judiciary consists of a supreme court, and
of circuit and inferior courts.  The mem-
bers of the supreme court hold their offices
for four  years.   There  is also a public
treasury, a printing-office, and a newspa-
per, the  Cherokee Phoenix, commenced
in February, 1828, and edited by a Cher-
okee.  This newspaper is printed partly
in the  Cherokee character,  invented by
Guess. *   The press is owned and directed
by the  Cherokee government. They have
founts of types in the Cherokee character.
The Gospel of Matthew and a collection of
hymns,  translated  by  Mr.   Worcester,
one of the missionaries, have been print-
  * The inventor and the invention are  thus de-
scribed  in  the Cherokee Phoenix :—Mr. Guess
is,  in appearance and habits, a  full Cherokee.
though his grandfather on his father's side was a
white man.  He has no knowledge of any  lan-
guage but the Cherokee. He was led  to think
on the subject of writing the Cherokee language
by the  conversation of some young men,  wlio
said that the whites could put a talk on paper, and
send it  to any distance,  and it would be under-
stood.  In attempting to invent a Cherokee char-
acter, he at first could think of no way but that of
giving each word a particular sign.  He pursued
this plan for about a year, and made several thou-
sand characters.   He then became convinced
that this was not the right mode, and, after try-
ing  several other methods, at length conceived
the idea of dividing the  words into  parts.   He
now soon found  that the same characters would
apply in different words, so  that their number
would be  comparatively small.   After putting
down and learning all the syllables that he could
think of, he would listen to speeches and the con-
versation of strangers, and whenever a word or-
curred which had a part or  syllable in it which
was not on his list, he would bear it in mind till
he had  made a character for it.  In this way he
soon discovered all the syllables in the language.
In forming his characters, he made some use of
the English letters, as he found them in a spelling-
book in  his possession. After commencing upon
the  last mentioned plan, he is said to have com-
pleted his system in about a month, having re-
duced all the sounds in the language to eighty-five
characters.—Mr. Guess was considerably advan-
ced in life when he made this invention. 
TSULAKEES.
363
 ed  in this character.   Intermarriages
 have in many instances taken place be-
 tween the Cherokees  and the whites in
 the neighborhood, and many of the  half
 breeds have large plantations, and carry
 on  agriculture with more spirit than the
 full-blooded Cherokees.   There are very
 different  degrees of improvement among
 the members of the tribe.  Some families
 have risen to a level with the white pop-
 ulation of the U. States, while  the im-
 provement of others has just commenced.
 In general, those of mixed  blood are in
 advance of the full-blooded Indians. Not
 less than a quarter of the people are prob-
 ably in a greater or less degree of mixed
 blood. The dress of most of the Chero-
 kees  is substantially the same as that of
 the whites around them.  A great part of
 their  clothing is manufactured by them-
 selves, though not a little is of the fabrics
 of  New  England and foreign countries
 —caUco,  broadcloths, silk.  The greater
 part are clothed principally in  cotton, and
 many families raise their own cotton, out
 of  which  the women make  substantial
 cloth.  Cultivation by the plough is al-
 most  universal.   Most families   raise
 enough to supply their own wants, and
 many have considerable quantities of  corn
 for  sale.   Suffering  for  want  of food is
 said to be as rare  among the  Cherokees
 as in any part of  the  civilized  world.
 None of them depend, in any considera-
 ble  degree, on  game for a support.   The
 Cherokees live chiefly  in villages, and
 their  dwellings are mostly comfortable
 log cabins, with chimneys, and generally
 floored.  Many of the houses in the na-
 tion are  decent buildings of two stories,
 and some  are even handsome dwellings
 of painted wood or brick.  Polygamy is
 becoming rare, and women are no longer
 treated as servants, but  are allowed their
 proper place.  Superstition is  rapidly de-
 clining, and the ancient traditions are fad-
 ing from memory, so that it is  difficult to
 collect them.  Conjuring, however, is still
 practised to a considerable extent.  In re-
 gard  to   intemperance,  the  Cherokees
 would not suffer  by a  comparison  with
 the  white population around them.  The
I laws rigorously exclude intoxicating li-
| quore from all public assemblies, and oth-
 erwise restrict  their use.  They  have
 among them temperance societies on the
 principle  of entire abstinence.  The civil
 officers enforce the laws against the intro-
 duction of ardent spirits, and fine trans-
 gressors.    In  regard  to education,  the
 missionaries, in a report dated Dec. 29,
 1830 (see Missionary Herald  for March,
1831), state that they have the names of
200 Cherokee men and youths whom they
believe  to have attained an English edu-
cation sufficient for the transaction of or-
dinary business.  This number does not
include  females, and many men  and
youths who can barely  read and write.
An increasing anxiety among the people
for the education of their children is very
apparent.  The missionary schools con-
tain about 500 children, learning English.
A majority of the pereons between child-
hood and middle age can read their own
language, in Guess's alphabet, with greater
or less facility.  In regard  to religion, the
mass of the people have externally  em-
braced Christianity ; and there is regular
preaching at several places, both by mis-
sionaries  and natives.   How   far  the
schools and the preaching  have  been in-
terrupted by the agitations at present pre-
vailing,  we cannot say.  During  the two
last years (1831 and  1832),  the Cherokees
have been greatly  agitated  by  political
troubles.  Their  government has been
hindered in its operations, their laws coun-
teracted by the extension of the  jurisdic-
tion of Georgia over  their territory; many
of their citizens have been  imprisoned,
and the nation has been  threatened with
banishment.  The  missionaries of the
board of foreign missions have been pro-
hibited to reside among them by  the laws
of Georgia.  Four of them were arrested
in the summer of 1831, for  not removing *;
and two of them, Mr. Worcester and Mr.
Butler, have been, for the same cause,
tried and sentenced by the court of Georgia
for four yeare to the Georgia penitentiary,
where they are now  confined. The Geor-
gians have made a law, authorizing the
governor to have the Cherokee lands sur-
veyed and divided by  lottery. The gov-
ernment of the U. States  are endeavoring
to effect the removal of the Cherokees
from their lands by treaty—the only mode
in which they can legitimately deal with
them, as they have  already recognised
their independence  by several  treaties;
and their rights under these treaties have
been lately confirmed by a decision of the
supreme court of the U. States, in Janua-
ry, 1831.  The terms offered  them are an
extensive and fertile tenitory west of the
Arkansas, to be secured  to them by pat-
ent, and to be for ever beyond the boun-
daries of any state or  territory, where
they are to be allowed to exercise all the
powers  of self-government  compatible
with a general supervision of congress
over them, to appoint an agent to reside
at Washington, to send a delegate to con- 
364
TSULAKEES—TUBINGEN.
gress, and to be recognised,  when con-
gress shall deem proper, as  a territory.
The general  council of the  Cherokees,
however, have declined accepting the pro-
posal.—The Cherokees of the Arkansas
are those who, since the year 1804,  re-
moved, at different times, from the east
of the Mississippi to a tract on the  north
bank of the Arkansas river, between lon.
94° and 95° W.;  population, about  5000.
The greater part of this emigration took
place between 1816 and 1820.  There is
a missionary  station among them.   By a
treaty  concluded  in  May, 1828,  they
agreed to remove still farther west.  This
portion of the Cherokees  has also  made
considerable progress in agriculture and
the arts of civiUzed Ufe.—For further in-
formation, see the different  numbers of
the Missionary Herald and the Cherokee
Phanix;  the  Decision  of the Supreme
Court of the United States in the Cherokee
Case (published at PhUadelphia, 1831);
also Essays on the Present Crisis in  the
Condition of the American Indians  (Bos-
ton, 1829).  For information respecting
the language of the Cherokees, see Indian
Languages (appendix, end of  vol. vi.).
   Tuaricks,  caUed by Hornemann the
most interesting nation of Africa, are most
extensively spread over Northern Africa,
and, indeed, divide with the Tibboos the
whole of the  Sahara; the latter occupy-
ing the wells and the wadys of the east-
ern, and the Tuaricks those of the  west-
ern portion of this sterile belt The Tibboos
are black, yet without what we generally
call  negro features ; the Tuaricks, on the
other hand, are white people of the Ber-
ber race, and are  Mohammedans of the
sect of Maleki,  but are believed  to be
quite as indifferent  to  religion as the
Kabyles. They are a very warlike nation,
and often make incursions into the territo-
ry of the timid Tibboos  to carry off all
whom they can catch for the slave market.
The late travellere Lyon, Denham,  Clap-
perton and Laing found them  hospitable,
frank and honest.  They inhabit that ex-
tensive  portion of  the  Sahara circum-
scribed on the east by Fezzan and Tib-
boo, south by the negro nations of Bour-
nou, Haourra, Gouber and Timbuctoo,
and on the west  by the oases of Tedee-
kels and Twat   The country of the Mo-
zabis, Engousah  and Ghadames,  forms
their northern limits, beyond which they
never proceed.  Being nomadic, they are
found in the vicinity of all the negro pop-
ulation from Tibboo to Timbuctoo, where
they rove  for the purpose of kidnapping.
They carry on war  and  commerce with
equal activity.   According to Mr. Hodg-
son's interesting letters in the Transactions
of the American Philosophical  Society,
(vol. iv, new series), Tuarick comes from
the Berber language, in which it signifies
tribes.  Now  Icabail is  the Arabian  for
tribes, borders or famiUes; and  thus the
Kabyles  of the Atlas have an appellation
conesponding to the Kabyles of the des-
ert ; and they are the same people, as Mr.
Hodgson shows by a comparison of their
vocabularies.   They are one people, and
the great Lybian race still  exists in Afri-
ca:  its language  has not been effaced.
—For more  information  respecting  the
Tuaricks, and particularly then language,
the Berber, see the above  letters, already
alluded to in  the  article Berber, but not
published when that article was written.
  Tuba ; a wind instrument of the Ro-
mans,  resembUng our sacbut or trumpet,
though ofa somewhat different form.  It
was used in war.
  Tubercles.   (See  Pulmonary  Con-
sumption.)
  Tuberose (polianthes tuberosa).  This
highly odoriferous  and favorite flower
was introduced into  Europe  from  the
East Indies, about the middle of the six-
teenth century.  Though  almost purely
an ornamental plant, its culture is now so
extended that the roots  form a considera-
ble article of export from the southern to
the northern parts of Europe.  The root
is a rounded bulb; the radical and inferior
leaves long, sessile, entire,  almost sword-
shaped, and very acute; the stem upright,
cylindrical, unbranching,  three  or four
feet high. The flowers are disposed in a
simple and more or less elongated spike:
they are large, sessile,  alternate,  tubular,
and ofa very pure white:  the tube  of the
corolla is a little curved, and divides into
Bix oval  obtuse lobes.  The flowers ex-
pand successively,  so that they continue
nearly three months. Several remarkable
varieties  are known. It succeeds best in
a warm  exposure.  The  essential  oil is
used by perfumers.
  Tubingen ;  an  old town of Wurtem-
berg, circle of the Neckar, situated in a
valley ou the Neckar, sixteen miles south-
west of Stuttgard ;  lon. 9° 4' E.; lat. 48°
31' N.; population, 7600.  It contains an
hospital,  four churches, a theological sem-
inary,  a  college for the nobility,  and a
university. The environs are finely di-
versified by  hill, dale  and forest.   The
town has some woollen  manufactures,
but is supported chiefly by the university,
which was founded in 1477, and received
very important improvements in 1769.  It 
TUBINGEN—TUILERIES.
365
 has a good library, a botanic garden, and,
 in 1829,  had 874 students.  It was for-
 merly exclusively Protestant; but a few
 years since the Catholic university at El-
 wangen was united with it.   In 1828, the
 Wurtemberg chamber of deputies grant-
 ed it a yearly sum of 80,000 guilders.  It
 has thirty-one professors.
   Tuccoa Creek, Cataract in.   (See
 Cataract.)
   Tucker, Abraham, an English writer
 on morals and metaphysics, was the son
 of a merchant of London, where he was
 bom in 1705.  After completing his stud-
 ies at Oxford, he travelled in France. He
 married in 1736, and, having lost his wife
 in 1754, he published, under the title ofa
 Picture of Love without Ait,  her letters
 to him.   Some time after he produced his
 Advice from a Country Gentleman to his
 Son, and  commenced his great work, the
 Light of Nature pursued  (7 vols., 8vo.),
 the firet three of which appeared in 1768,
 under the pseudonym of Edward Search:
 the remaining volumes were printed after
 the death of the author, which took place
 in 1774.   (See   Mackintosh's Essay on
 Ethical Philosophy.)
   Tudor.  (See Great Britain, and the
 articles Henry VII, VIII, Elizabeth, &c.)
   Tuesday (Latin dies Mortis); the third
 day of our week, probably so called from
 the Anglo-Saxon god of war Tuu, (gen.
 Tuues, whence the Anglo-Saxon Tuues-
 dag.)  (See Week, and, for Shrove-Tues-
 day, see Shrovetide.)
   Tuet.  (See Tuiscon.)
   Tugendbund (German, union of virtue);
 the  name  generally given to an associa-
 tion in  Prussia,  called also  the moral-
 scientific union, founded by some patriots,
 soon  after the fatal  peace of Tilsit.  Its
 object was to promote the moral regene-
 ration of the people, and to prepare it for
 better times.  Schools and universities,
 physical  and  moral  science, the  army,
 the government, the distress of the people,
 all occupied the  attention of the society,
 which suggested many ideas subsequently
 adopted. The government formally recog-
 nised its existence, and at times received
 reports from the society.  There were no
 degrees, secrets, signs, or forms of initia-
 tion.  Any Prussian subject of good char-
 acter might become a member, on prom-
 ising in writing to promote the objects of
 the society,  and  to  be faithful  to  the
 reigning  famUy.   The minister  Stein
(q. v.) favored the society; but when he
left the ministry, and Schill (q. v.), one
of the members, had attacked the French,
 though not at the instigation of the socie-
                 31*
 ty, the French induced the king to abol-
 ish it  Professor  Krug  of Leipsic, who
 was himself a member, wrote Das Wesen
 und Wirken des sogenannten Tugendbundes
 und anderer angeblichen  Biinde  (Leipsic,
 1816).
   Tuileries (from tuile, a  tile, because
 the spot on which it is built was formerly
 used for the manufacture of tiles); the
 residence of the French monarchs, on the
 right bank of the Seine,  in Paris.  Cath-
 arine de' Medici,  wife of  Henry II, be-
 gan the  building  from  the  designs  of
 Philibert de I'Orme and  Jean BuUant
 (1564).  Henry IV extended it, and found-
 ed the gallery (1600), which was intended
 to connect it with  the Louvre, and form a
 residence for twenty-four artists.  Louis
 XIV enlarged it  (1654), and completed
 the great gallery.  The side  towards the
 Louvre consists of five pavilions and four
 ranges  of buildings; the other side has
 only three pavilions.  In the pavilion  of
 Flora Napoleon resided, and it was after-
 wards occupied by Louis XVIII.  The
 exterior of the Tuileries is  deficient in
 harmony, having  been built  at  different
 times,  and on  very different plans; but
 the interior is magnificent   The gallery
 above  mentioned,  which  connects  the
 Tuileries  with the Louvre, is completed
 on the side towards the Seine; the lower
 part consists of open arcades;  above is the
 collection of pictures.  The  second gal-
 lery leading to the place Rivoli  and the
 rue St. Honori, was begun  by Napoleon
 in 1808, but  is not finished.   To  make
 room for it, many  houses   and whole
 streets were  levelled; and  much of the
 ground is still occupied by the  ruins of
 the fonner buildings.  On the west of
 the palace  lie the  gardens of the Tuile-
 ries, forming a quadrangle  of the width
 of the  palace, and 1800  feet in  length;
 they are sixty-seven arpents* in superficial
 area.  Upon two sides they are enclosed
 by long terraces (that on the  side to the
 Seine commands  a beautiful prospect)
 and iron railings.   This garden, laid out
 by the celebrated Len6tre for Louis XIV,
 has, in more recent times, been highly orna-
 mented in the French style, and contains al-
 leys of orange trees  and other trees, groves,
 lawns with beds of flowers  and shrubbe-
 ries, fountains and  basins of water with
 swans and goldfish,a great numberofvases,
 and more than sixty statues imitated from
 ancient works.  It is filled at all hours of
 the day with persons of all classes: chairs
 and the newspapers may be had at  a
  * The Paris arpent  is rather more  than four
fifths of an English acre. 
366
TUILERIES—TULIP.
small price.  Towards the city, and sepa-
rated from the court by an iron paUsade,
is the place du Carrousel which receives
its name from a carrousel exhibited here
by Louis XIV, in 1664.  The arc du Car-
rousel, erected by Napoleon in 1806, forms
the principal entrance into the court: it
was formerly ornamented with the horses
of St. Mark and a statue of Napoleon,
which have been removed.  The French
court was formerly called the " court of
the Tudleries;" but under the  three  last
Louises, who resided  at  Versailles, that
appellation was changed to the " cabinet
of VersaiUes."  Napoleon resided  some
time at St. Cloud, and the court then  re-
ceived that name.  But since the restora-
tion, the kings have again occupied  the
Tuileries.
  Tuiscon.  According to  Tacitus,  the
Germans, in their songs, gave this name to
the founder of their nation.  Thvisco or
Tuisco is probably the adjective of Theut
or Teut; hence  theutisch, teutsch.   (The
Germans call themselves  Teutsche  or
Deutsche, and  their country Teutschland
or Deutschland.)   Theut signifies  some-
thing original, independent, e. g.  earth,
nation, father  and  lord.  From  Theut
comes  Teutones, the people of Theut;
hence  also lingua  Theutisca,  Theodisc,
Teutonic, Theutish, Teutsch  (called, in a
great part of Westphalia, Dusk).  In this
we  recognise  the  Thuisco  of Tacitus
(Germ, 2).  The word Deutsch firet  ap-
pears in a document of the year 813; and
the first king who was called Konig  der
Deutschen, rex Teutonicorum, was Otho
tiie Great.   (See German Language.)  In
the northern mythology, Thuiscon, Tuis-
con, Taut, Tot, Theot, Tuu, &c, is a god,
from whom the Gauls and Germans  be-
lieved themselves descended.   Thuiscon,
with the Earth  (Artha or Hertha), gave
birth to men ; hence  caUed  Teutones.
But only the inhabitants of the Scandina-
vian islands, between  the extreme coasts
of Southern Scandinavia and the Cimbric
Chersonesus,  were properly  called Teu-
tones.  The ancient  Germans revered
Tuiscon as a man with a gray beard, clad
in the skin of an animal, holding a scep-
tre in -his right hand, and stretching  out
the left with extended fingers.  Accord-
ing to Julius Caesar, they offered to him
human sacrifices.  The name of Tuesday
has been derived from this god.
  Tula ; a town of Russia, capital of a
government  of the same name on  the
Upha; 112 miles south of Moscow; lon.
37° 2 E.;  lat 54° 12* N.; population,
38,000.  It contains several seminaries,
but is chiefly distinguished for its  manu-
factures of hardware, on which account
it  is styled  the Sheffield of Russia.  It
has a cannon foundery, and  a manufac-
tory of arms for government, as muskets,
bayonets, swords, &c.; besides two iron
founderies, and 600 shops of smiths and
others for making fire-arms  and cutlery
for private use.  The ore is supplied in
abundance  from  the vicinity;  but  the
manufacture is inferior to that of Eng-
land.
  Tulip (tulipa); a genus of plants be-
longing to the liliacea, containing about a
dozen species, mostly natives of Europe,
or of the neighboring parts of Asia. Their
roots are bulbous; the leaves few in num-
ber, and disposed about the base of the
stem; the latter simple, and usually ter-
minated  by  a large  solitary flower.  The
calyx is  wanting;  the  corolla  composed
of six petals, and the stamens six in num-
ber.  The most noted species is the com-
mon garden tulip (T. gesneriana), which
has received its name from the celebrated
Conrad  Gesner, to  whom we owe  its
introduction into the European gardens.
It  was brought, originally, from the Le-
vant;  and Gesner  first discovered it  in
1559,  at  Augsburg,  in  the garden  of an
amateur, who had  received it from Con-
stantinople or Cappadocia.  The stem is
about  a  foot or eighteen inches  high,
provided at  the base with three or four
lanceolate, glaucous leaves.  In  the  wild
plant,  the color of the flowers is uniform,
often yellow or reddish, sometimes brown-
ish ; but cultivation has modified them in
a thousand  ways, and  produced an  im-
mense number of varieties.  The  tulip
has always been a favorite plant with the
Belgians and Dutch; and, about a centuiy
after its introduction, the mania prevailed
to  such an  extent  in these countries that
more than two thousand dollars were often
given for a single root—in those days an
immense sum.   It is still extensively cul-
tivated in Holland,  from which all Eu-
rope is supplied with bulbs; and it is said
that nothing can equal the magnificence
of the gardens in that country, at the time
when they are covered with innumerable
varieties of these flowers.  These varieties
are often disposed in a regular figure, ac-
cording  to their size and the different col-
ors.  In raising tulips from the  seed, flo-
rists pursue a mode in  some respects the
reverse of that practised with other plants.
Instead  of saving the seed from the finest
variegated tulips,  they prefer  unbroken
flowers for breeders, selecting such as have
taU, strong stems, with large, well-formed 
TULIP—TULIP-TREE.
367
cups, clear in the bottom.  Plants raised
from the  seed of  the  finer variegated
sorts form poor, weak breeders, of no val-
ue.  The  seed  is sown on fine, light soil,
thinly covered, and  protected and shaded
by a frame.  At the end of the second
year, the bulbs are taken up, and replant-
ed three inches  apart; and  again at the
end of the fourth year.  Some will bloom
the fourth year, most the fifth, and all the
seventh year.
  Tulip-Tree (lyriodendron tulipifera);
one of the most remarkable productions
of the North  American  forest.  Among
our deciduous trees, it is  second in size
only to the button-wood ; and the fine form
of the trunk, the beauty and singularity
of the foliage and  flowers, entitle  it to
rank among the most magnificent vegeta-
bles  of temperate climates.   It is, besides,
one of our most valuable trees, from the
numerous and  useful applications  of its
wood.  The tulip-tree is readily recog-
nised by the peculiar truncated leaves. It
belongs to the same natural family with
the magnolias.  The flowers are large and
showy,  variegated with different colore,
among which yellow predominates, and
somewhat  resemble those of the  tulip.
The fruit is a cone two or three inches in
length, composed of a number of long,
thin, nanow scales, attached to a common
axis.  The leaves are alternate, supported
on long foot-stalks, smooth,  and. of  a
pleasing green  color.  They are divided
into  three lobes, the middle one of which
is truncated, and slightly notched at the
summit   In most parts of the U. States,
this  tree is known  only by the improper
denomination of poplar:  sometimes it is
called white-wood, or canoe-wood; but the
more appropriate name which we have
adopted is used chiefly in European gar-
dens.  It  is unknown, in the wild state,
east  of the Connecticut river, although
occurring as far north as latitude 45°, at
the  southern extremity of  lake Cham-
plain. It is most common, and attains
the largest size, in the Middle and espe-
cially in the Western States.   Its com-
parative rareness in  the lower parts of the
Southern States is owing to the nature of
the  soil, which is either too arid or too
watery.  Every where it is less abundant
than the oaks, walnuts, ashes and beeches,
for it deUghts  only in deep, loamy,  and
extremely fertile soils, such as are found
in the rich alluvial flats which lie along
the  rivers, and on  the  borders of  the
ffreat swamps  that  are enclosed in the
•forests.   In some parts of  the Western
States, it constitutes, alone,  pretty exten-
sive tracts of the forest, and  here  attains
its largest dimensions:  stocks have been
measured more than twenty feet  in cir-
cumference, and whose height was esti-
mated at from  120 to 140 feet; and some-
times the trunk is perfectly straight, and
uniform in diameter, for more than forty
feet.  The heart, or perfect wood,  is yel-
low, approaching to a  lemon color, and
the sap white.  Though classed  among
the  light woods,  it  is  much  heavier
than the  poplars: the grain is  equally
fine, and more  compact:  it is easily
wrought, polishes well,  and is sufficiently
strong  and  stiff for purposes requiring
great soUdity.  The heart, if perfectly sea-
soned, long resists the action of the atmos-
phere, and is said to be rarely attacked by
worms.   Its greatest defect is, that, when
employed in wide boards, and exposed to
the weather, it  is  liable  to shrink and
warp, from the alternations of dryness and
moisture.  The nature of the soil has such
an influence upon the  color and  quality
of the wood, that mechanics distinguish
two varieties, the white and  yellow pop-
lar, the  former of which  is  always neg-
lected when the other can be procured.
At New York, Philadelphia, and  in the
adjacent country, this wood  is employed
in the construction of houses, for  rafters
and the joists of the  upper stories,  for
which purposes it is esteemed on account
of its lightness and strength.  In other
parts of the  Middle States, in the upper
parts of the Carolinas, and  especially in
the Western States, it is more generally
used in building, and  is considered the
best substitute  for the pine, red cedar and
cypress.   Wherever it  abounds, it serves
for the interior work ofthouses, and some-
times for the  exterior  covering in situa-
tions where  it is difficult to procure pine
boards.   The  panels of doors and wain-
scots, and  the mouldings of chimney-
pieces, are made  of this wood.   In the
upper part of North Carolina, Ohio, Ken-
tucky, &c, the shingles of this wood are
preferred, because they are the most du-
rable, and are not  liable to spUt  by the
effect either of intense frosts or a hot sun.
In all the large towns of the U. States, the
boards, which  are often two or three feet
wide, are  exclusively used for the panels
of coaches and chaises.  When perfectly
dry, they receive paint well, and admit of
a brilliant polish.   They are exported to
the  Southern as well  as the  Eastern
States  for this purpose.   The seat of
Windsor chairs, which  are made in New
York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c, is al-
ways of this wood.  A  very large quanti- 
'368
TULIP-TREE—TUMULI.
ty of the timber is consumed in this way,
as also in the manufacture of trunks and
bedsteads, which last are stained in imi-
tation of mahogany.  The circular board
and wings  of fanning-mills are of this
wood.   As  it  is very  light, and easily
wrought in  the lathe, it is much  used for
wooden bowls: it is also preferred for the
head of hair-brooms or sweeping-brushes:
farmers select it for the eating and drink-
ing troughs of then* cattle: in Kentucky,
it is  sometimes employed for rails:  it is
found useful in the construction of wooden
bridges,from uniting lightness with strength
and durability: the Indians of the Middle
and Western States preferred this tree for
their canoes, which are made of a single
trunk,  are  very light  and  strong,  and
sometimes carry twenty pereons:—in fine,
the tulip-tree affords excellent charcoal,
which  is employed by smiths in districts
which  furnish no stone-coal. These are
some of the more  common purposes to
which this wood is applied.  The lumber-
yards of New  York,  Philadelphia  and
Baltimore contain a great quantity of this
wood in different forms. It is very cheap,
being sold at half the price of black wal-
nut, wild cherry and curled maple.  In
all the country watered by the Mononga-
hela, this tree is extremely abundant, and
large rafts, composed wholly of its timber,
are floated  down the stream to Browns-
ville, where the logs  are  sawed into
boards,  and used in the environs,  and
even at Pittsburg, in the construction of
houses.
  Tullus Hostilius ; according to the
common statement, king of Rome  and
successor of Numa  Pompilius, B. C. 672;
a warlike monarch, in  whose reign took
place the combat of the Horatii  and Cu-
riatii.  (See  Horatii.)  He afterwards sub-
dued the Albans by treachery.   He like-
wise conquered  the  Fidenates  and Sa-
bines.  In his old age he became super-
stitious. His death,  after a reign of thirty-
three yeare, is ascribed  by some  to light-
ning, by othere, to Ancus Martius, his suc-
cessor.  (See Neibuhr's Roman History.)
  Tullt.  (See Cicero.)
  Tumuli, or Barrows, are the most an-
cient and general of all monuments to the
dead.   The earliest banow of which we
read  is that which Homer mentions as
having been formed over the remains of
Patroclus.  That of Achilles is  still, as it
was  originally designed to be,  a distant
sea mark.   By  the  Athenian  customs,
earth  was  heaped  on  the  dead by the
nearest relations, and corn was then sown
on the barrow.  The Scythians  heaped
huge barrows over the bodies of their
kings.  The height of the  mound was in
proportion  to  the honor intended to be
paid  to the deceased. The  steppes of
Tartary are thickly covered with barrows.
In vol. 2d of the Archaologia, a Tartarian
barrow is  mentioned, in  which  were
found two corpses wrapped in four sheets
of gold.  The weight of the gold  was
forty pounds.  The famous Irish barrow
at New Grange,  described by governor
Pownall (Archaologia, 2d, 236), is in the
county  of  Meath.  It consists  of small
pebbles.    The base  covers  two acres.
The circumference at  the  top is 300 feet,
height 70.  There is  a gallery within it
sixty-two  feet long, leading to a cave,
which intersects the gallery transversely,
so as to form  a cross.  The length and
height of the cave are each twenty feet,
the breadth eleven feet six inches.   Bar-
rows of loose  stones  or  of dark  mould
and  flints are very common in England.
Ashes, urns, spears, swords and shields,
bracelets, beads, mirrors, combs, and hair-
pins, are among the principal contents.
Denmark,  Sweden,  Lower Saxony, and
many other countries on  the continent,
abound  with sepulchral  monuments of
this kind.  To the north  of the Hotten-
tots,  innumerable  barrows are described
as having  been seen by doctor Sparrow
(Travels, 2d, 264).  In New  Caledonia,
Mr. Eorster met with a barrow four feet
high, surrounded  by  an  enclosure of
stakes.  Mr. Oxley, in  1817—1818, found
in the interior  of New South Wales  two
native burial-places.  The principal  one
showed much labor.   The  form  was
semicircular.  Three rows of seats formed
one half; the grave and an outer row of
seats, the other.   The seats constituted
segments of circles of from forty to  fifty
feet, and were raised by the soil being
trenched up between them.  The grave
was  an oblong cone,  five feet high and
nine  long.   The barrow  was supported
internally by  a  sort  of  wooden arch.
The body was  wrapped in a great num-
ber of opossum skins, covered with dry
barb grass and  leaves, and  lay about  four
feet below the  surface.  In the valley of
the Mississippi, tumuli, or mounds of earth,
are found in great numbers, of the origin
and uses of which we are yet ignorant
Similar constructions  are  also found in
Mexico.  (See Humboldt's Monuments of
the Natives of America.)  The mounds in
the Mississippi valley have been  found to
contain  bones, and  are said to  be com-
posed of earth different from that of th*
surrounding country.  They exhibit no 
TUMULI—TUNGSTEN.
369
 trace of tools, and are, in feet, merely reg-
 ular pUes of earth, without brick or "stone.
 They are  commonly  situated  in rich
 plains and  prairies.  There  is one near
 Wheeling,  seventy feet  in  height, and
 thirty or forty rods in circumference at
 base, and 180 feet at top.   There is a nu-
 merous group near  Cahokia, stated  nt
 about 200 in aU,  the  largest  of which is
 a parallelogram, about ninety feet high, and
 800 yards in circuit.  It has been asserted
 the skulls found  in these mounds bear a
 striking resemblance to those found  in
 Peru.
   Tunbridge Wells ; a town of Eng-
 land,  in  Kent;   thirty-five  miles from
 London.  It is an appellation given to a
 series of scattered villages,  which are
 nearly two  miles in length, and owe their
 origin and  importance  to  the celebrated
 mineral waters in the vicinity, consisting
 of four divisions, Mount Ephraim,  Mount
 Pleasant,  Mount  Sion, and  the  Wells,
 properly so called.  The air of this dis-
 trict  is remarkably pure and salubrious,
 the appearance  of the  country inviting,
 and the aspect  of the villages  pictur-
 esque, appearing like a large town in a
 wood, interspersed with rich meadows,
 and enclosing a large common, in which
 are walks, rides, handsome rows of trees,
 and various  other objects.   Here are
 excellent  accommodations for visitants,
 also assembly rooms, a theatre, libraries,
 chapel, market place, &c.  The waters
 are chalybeate (see Mineral Waters), ex-
 tremely clear and pellucid at the fountain
 head, and the taste is strongly impregnated
 with iron.   They are of great use  in re-
 moving complaints arising from sedenta-
 ry habits, weak  digestion, and nervous
 and chronic disorders.   The discovery
 of their virtue is ascribed to Dudley lord
 North, a courtier  in the reign  of James I,
 who was restored to  health  by drinking
 them.   A  variety of toys in  wood of
 various kinds is manufactured  here, and
 known by the name  of Tunbridge ware.
 The high rocks, one mUe and a half from
 the wells, are much celebrated.  In some
 parts they are seventy-five feet high, and
 form a very striking and romantic picture.
  Tune.   (See Tone, and Melody.)
  Tungsten ; one of the metals, so nam-
 ed from the Swedish word tung, heavy,
 in allusion to the great specific gravity of
 the mineral  in which it was first detected
as an ingredient.   The ores of tliis metal
are three, viz. wolfram,tungsten, and yel-
low oxide of tungsten.  1. Wolfram occure
in short, highly modified  prisms, whose
primary form is  a right oblique-angled
 prism, the  larger angle of  tiie lateral
 planes being  117°  22*\  The  secondary
 forms are produced through the replace-
 ment of  the lateral edges  and of the
 longer terminal edges.   Cleavage parallel
 to the primary form, perfect; surface  of
 the crystals streaked parallel to the axis  ;
 lustre metallic adamantine, or imperfect
 metalUc; color dark grayish, or brown-
 ish-black ;  streak  dark  reddish-brown  ;
 opaque; not very  brittle;  hardness be-
 tween apatite and feldspar;  specific grav-
 ity 7.15.   Besides  occurring  in  single
 crystals, it occasionally presents itself un-
 der the form of twin-crystals, and massive.
 The  massive varieties  are  irregularly la-
 mellar,  sometimes  columnar.   It is also
 found in pseudomorphs, in  the  shape  of
 tungsten.   It consists of
   Tungstic acid,...........78.77
   Protoxide manganese,......  6-22
   Protoxide iron,..........18.32
   Silex,................  1.25

 It decrepitates before the blow-pipe, but
 may be melted, in a sufficiently elevated
 temperature, into a globule, having its sur-
 face covered with  crystals possessing a
 metaUic lustre.  It is easUy soluble in bo-
 rax.   Wolfram  occurs very frequently
 along with tin ore,  in veins and in beds.
 It is met with also in  veins  along with
 galena.  Its localities are the Saxon and
 Bohemian tin mines, as at Schlackenwald,
 Zinnwald, Ehrenfriedersdorf and Geyer;
 also   many places  in  Cornwall.  It is
 also  found  in France  and Siberia.   It
 has  one locaUty in  the  U.  States,  at
 Munroe, Connecticut, where  it is found
 in a bed of quartz,  both crystalUzed and
 pseudomorphous, accompanied by galena,
 blende, native bismuth, and the other ores
 of tungsten.  2. Tungsten is found in crys-
 tals of an octahedral figure, and depend-
 ing upon  a primary form, winch  is  an
 acute octahedron, the upper pyramid in-
 clining to the lower one under  an  angle
 of 128° 40v, parallel with whose faces it
 cleaves, and also with  tiie faces  of  an
 octahedron less acute.   The surfaces  of
the crystals are commonly drusy;  lustre
 vitreous, inclining  to adamantine; color
 generally white,  often inclining to and
passing  into yellowish-gray,  yellowish
and reddish-brown ; streak  white;  semi-
transparent  to translucent; brittle ;  hard-
ness a little above that  of fluor; specific
gravity 6.07.  Besides the crystals,  tung-
sten  is  found massive.  It consists of
lime 19.40 and tungstic acid 80.42. Alone
upon  charcoal, it  is infusible before the
blow-pipe, except that the thinnest edges 
'370
TV NGSTEN—TUNGUSES.
 are converted, in a very strong heat, into a
 semitransparent vitrified mass.  It gives
 a white glass with borax.  It is found in
 similar repositories with wolfram.  The
 principal   localities   of  tungsten   are
 Schlackenwald and Zinnwald in Bohemia,
 Ehrenfriedersdorf in Saxony, and Corn-
 wall, England.   Splendid specimens have
 lately been found at Carrock in Cumber-
 land.  In the U. States it occure at Mun-
 roe, Connecticut, along  with wolfram, in
 large  imperfect  crystals imbedded  in
 quartz, and massive, in pieces  of consid-
 erable dimensions.   3.  Yellow oxide of
 tungsten is found in the state of an orange-
 yellow powder investing tungsten, from
 whose decomposition it appeare to result.
 It is readily soluble in  warm liquid am-
 monia, and is precipitated white by acids;
 the  precipitate, by standing, reacquiring
 the  yellow color.  It has only been met
 with at Munroe, Connecticut.  The easi-
 est method of obtaining tungsten in  the
 metallic state is the  following:—Fuse to-
 gether a mixture of wolfram and carbonate
 of potash in a cmcible.   Then digest the
 fused mass in water, which will  dissolve
 the tungstate of potash  formed.  To this
 solution add a quantity of solution of sal-
 ammoniac in water,  and evaporate  the
 whole to dryness.  Put the dry saUne
 residue into a Hessian crucible, and heat
 till the sal-ammoniac  is entirely  dissi-
 pated.  The residual matter being now
 dissolved  in hot water, a heavy  black
 powder separates, which is oxide  of tung-
 sten.  Let it be boiled in a weak solution
 of potash, and, finally,  in  pure water.
 When this powder is heated in  an open
 crucible, it takes fire, and is  converted
 into tungstic acid.  The affinity of tung-
 sten for oxygen not being very strong, it
 is easily reduced to  the  metallic  state by
 passing a  current of dry hydrogen gas
 over tungstic acid, heated to redness in a
 glass tube.  Thus purified, tungsten (schee-
 lium of  the Germans)  is of a grayish-
 white color, or rather the color  of steel,
and is possessed of considerable  brillian-
 cy.  It is one of the hardest of the metals,
it being almost impossible to make an im-
pression upon it by the file.   It seems
also  to be brittle. Its specific  gravity is
 17.6.  It is  therefore the heaviest of the
 metals after gold,  platinum and  iridium.
 It requires for fusion a very high tempe-
rature.  It is not attracted by the  magnet.
 When heated  in an open vessel, it grad-
ually absorbs oxygen, and is  converted
 into  an oxide.   Tungsten seems  capable
of combining with  oxygen  in  two dif-
 ferent  proportions, and  of forming the
brown or black oxide, and the yellow, or
tungstic acid.  The firet of these is ob-
tained by putting a quantity of tungstic
acid in a glass tube, heating it to a very
low red heat, and passing through it, while
in that state, a current of hydrogen gas.
Water is fonned, and the acid is deprived
of a portion of  its oxygen.  The oxide
has a flea-brown color, and, when heated
in the open air, takes  fire, and burns like
tinder, and is converted into tungstic acid.
This oxide has the power of uniting with
soda, and would appear to play  the part
of an acid.  The tungstic acid, obtained
as described above, has  a  pale  lemon-
yellow color.  When  strongly heated,  it
becomes green, as it does also when ex-
posed to the rays of the sun.  Its specific
gravity is 5.6.  It is tasteless, insoluble in
water, but  is very soluble in the caustic
alkalies.   It has  the  property of com-
bining with other acids.   When precipi-
tated from tungstate of ammonia by an
acid, the precipitate is always a compound
of tungstic acid and of the acid employed
to throw it down.  Tungsten forms three
compounds with chlorine, all of which
are chlorides.   It combines  also  with
phosphorus and  sulphur.  According to
the trials of GmeUn, tungsten, even when
in the state of an acid, has no injurious
effect on the animal economy, when taken
internally.
  Tunguses ; a  numerous people in Si-
beria, of  Mantchoo  origin  (see Mand-
shures), dwelling in the lower regions of
the Yenisei, on the Tungusca, the Lena
and  the  Amour.   Those  beyond  the
Amour are  under the protection of Chi-
na; those to the north under that of Rus-
sia.  Some of the Tunguses are convert-
ed to Christianity, and practise  agricul-
ture ; but  the most are devoted  to  Sha-
manism,  and  rove  about with  horses,
reindeer,  or dogs,  which  draw  their
sledges and serve  them for food, rarely
spending more than one or two nights in
the same place.   Hunting, fishing, and in
some cases the  breeding of  cattle, are
their  employment   They are  divided,
according to the nature of the  country
which they occupy, into the Tunguses of
the steppes and the Tunguses of the for-
ests.   The  former are shepherds, and
own horses, neat cattle, sheep, goats and
camels.  They are active and vigorous,
and are remarkable, for the  flatness of
their  feces, and the  smallness of their
eyes.  They have no money, and are un-
acquainted  with the  use of silver  and
gold.  They pay their tribute to the Rus-
sian  government in furs.  Some of the 
TUNGUSES—TUNIS.
371
 small tribes serve  as  light troops on the
 Mongolian frontiers, and are exempt from
 tribute.  AU the Tunguses have a com-
 mon language,  and,  although so much
 dispersed, are to be considered as form-
 ing one nation.   Their number is  un-
 certain.
   Tunic; a garment worn by the  Ro-
 mans of both sexes, under the toga and
 next to  the  skin.   It was  generally of
 wool, of a white color,  and reaching be-
 low the knee.  Several  tunics were worn
 one above another.  Only slaves and the
 lower class of the people appeared abroad
 in  the tunic; but  at home, the Romans
 generally wore only the  tunic, which they
 girded up when going  out, or when en-
 gaged in business.   The senators wore a
 tunic with a broad stripe (clavus) of pur-
 ple sewed on the breast: the equites had
 narrow stripes.   Hence the terms lati-
 clavii and angusliclavii, applied to pereons
 of these orders.  A sort of tunic worn by
 the women  under  another made of linen,
 and having sleeves, was called indusium,
 and much resembled the modern shirt.
   Tunis ; one of the Barbary states in Af-
 rica, bounded north by the Mediterranean,
 east by the  Mediterranean  and Tripoli,
 south by TripoU  and the deserts, and west
 by  Algiers.   It consists chiefly of a large
 peninsula, stretching into the Mediterra-
 nean in a north-east direction, and com-
 ing within a hundred miles of the coast
 of Sicily.  It has an extent of about  500
 miles of coast on the Mediterranean; and
 the cultivated part reaches 200 or 250 miles
 into the interior, till it terminates with the
 chain of Atlas and  desert plains.  Square
 miles, about 72,000; population variously
 estimated from  one to  two millions, of
 which about 100,000 are Jews. (See Bar-
 bary States.)  Tunis is  watered by  the
 river Mejerdah, or  Bagrada, on the banks
 of which are many towns and  large vil-
 lages.  Its banks, and the country to  the
 eastward, are  fertile, of  great natural
 beauty,  and  are the best cultivated parts
 of the country.  The western part is more
 thinly inhabited, and,  in many  places, is
 almost a desert  The mountains of Tu-
 nis contain mines  of silver, copper, lead
 and quicksilver, but they are not wrought
 The situation of the  country is very fa-
 vorable for commerce, and the amount is
 considerable.  The exports  consist  of
 grain, the principal article, next olive oil,
 wool, soap,  sponge and orchilla weed ;
also, gold dust, ivory, and ostrich feathers,
brought  by   caravans from Timbuctoo.
The imports are  European manufactures,
colonial produce, and  East  India cottons.
 Tunis, the capital, has a population esti-
 mated at from 100,000 to 150,000, of which
 about 30,000 are Jews.  It is 300 miles east
 of Algiers. It is situated at the bottom of a
 large bay, about ten  miles south-west of
 the site of ancient Carthage, on  a  plain,
 surrounded on all sides, except the east, by
 considerable  heights, encircled by lakes
 and  marshes. It is built in a most irreg-
 ular manner,  and the streets are extreme-
 ly narrow and  filthy.   The  principal
 structure is the palace of the bey.   There
 is one great  mosque, and a number of
 smaller ones, with several colleges and
 schools; and near the centre is a piazza
 of va*st extent, said to have formerly con-
 tained 3000 shops for the sale of woollen
 and Uueu manufactures. The houses be-
 longing to European consuls are all in-
 sulated  habitations,  resembling prisons.
 The Moorish houses  are of only one sto-
 ry, with flat  roofs, and cisterns  for the
 purpose of collecting rain water.   The
 city is well supplied with  water, by an
 aqueduct.   Large  sums have  been ex-
 pended in the construction of  forts, and
 in surrounding the city with a high  wall;
yet it is by no means  a strong place.  The
citadel, called El Gassa, is much out of
repair.  Six miles to  the west is the Go-
letta, the harbor and citadel of Tunis, and
the naval  and commercial depot of the
state.   It  is strongly fortified.   A  basin
has been formed sufficient to receive all
the vessels of war and merchant  ships
belonging to Tunis.   A lake extends from
the city to the Goletta.  Tunis has a more
extensive commerce than any other town
in Barbary.  After Tunis, Cairwan is the
chief commercial  place:  it contains  a
large  mosque, considered the most  holy
 in Northern Africa.  At Bereach (perhaps
 Byrea, the ancient citadel of Carthage) are
seen the ruins of a Carthaginian aqueduct.
After the destruction of Carthage, the Ro-
mans built a new city, near the site of the
modern Tunis: it was peopled with Roman
colonists, and soon became  one of the
most important cities of the ancient world.
This being destroyed by the  Saracens,
Tunis, before an  insignificant place, rose
to importance.   The Normans of Sicily
afterwards  possessed  themselves of the
city, but they were driven out of the coun-
try by Abdalmamum of Morocco.  In
 1530, the state was disturbed by domestic
troubles, of which Charles V availed him-
self to undertake his celebrated expedi-
tion to Africa.  He defeated the Turks,
who had  made  themselves  masters of
Tunis under  Hayradin Barbarossa, and
forced his  way into the city. (See Barba- 
372
TUNIS-TUPAC AMARU.
rosso, Charles V, and Barbary States.)  In
1574, the  Algerine Turks obtained pos-
session of Tunis, and established a Turk-
ish  regency and a military constitution.
An  aga presided over the divan, or prin-
cipal council and a pacha exercised the
supreme power in the name of the grand
seignior.  A mUitary revolution soon  af-
ter occurred, which placed the chief pow-
er in the hands ofa dey.  At present, the
head  of the government is styled bey;
the  present bey, Sidi Hassan, succeeded
Hamonda Bey in 1824.  The bey of Tu-
nis  acknowledges the  sovereignty of the
grand seignior, by the annual payment of
tribute under the name of a present; but
the  latter has no authority in the govern-
ment  The revenue is estimated at about
$4,000,000:  tiie land  force amounts to
15,400 men,  and the navy consists  of
about twenty corsair ships.  In case of
emergency, the bey can raise 50,000 ir-
regular Bedouins. (See Ottoman Empire,
and Turkey.)
  Tunkers, and  Tunkerstowk.  (See
Ephrata.)
  Tunny ; a fish belonging to  the  family
of the mackerel, or the genus  scomber of
Linnaeus.   It  attains  large dimensions,
weighing  a  hundred pounds, and often
considerably more.  The body is covered
with small scales; is thick, rounded, spin-
dle-shaped, and has a prominent carina, or
keel, on each side of the tail.   The colore
are  brilUant, but  not  much varied: the
back resembles polished steel; the under
parts are silvery;  all the fins  are yellow
except the first dorsal.  These fish live in
shoals, in almost all the seas of the warm-
er and temperate  parts of Europe, Asia,
Africa and America, but are not  equally
common in every season or in all parts of
the seas which  they frequent.  Immense
numbers enter the Mediterranean  by  the
straits  of  Gibraltar, and immediately di-
vide, one part following the shores of Eu-
rope and  the  other those of Africa, in
search of  a place to deposit their spawn.
They penetrate into the Black sea; and it
is remarkable  that they follow the right
shore of the Bosphorus in going, and the
left in returning—a circumstance which
induced some of the ancients  to suppose
that they saw more clearly with the right
eye than the other.  At the approach of
winter they retire to deep water.   They
often, besides, undertake irregular migra-
tions.  In sailing from Europe to Ameri-
ca,  they have been known to accompany
vessels for more  than forty days. The
tunny is very voracious, and consumes  a
great  quantity  of food.   Its  animosity
against the mackerel is well known: it is
sufficient to present a rough image of this
fish to draw it within the nets.  It is taken
in immense quantities in large nets.  The
flesh somewhat resembles veal, is delicate,
and has been in request from time imme-
morial.   It forms an extensive branch of
commerce in the Mediterranean, and not
less than 45,000 are taken annually on the
coasts  of Sardinia alone.  Stations have
been established, in elevated  places, for
watching the approach of the tunny, from
the most remote antiquity.   This  fish
rarely visits the  northern coasts of Europe
in shoals, though solitary individuals are
not unfrequent.
  Tupac Amaru is the name of several
Peruvian Indians, of the family of the
incas.  The subject of this article is Jose
Gabriel Tupac  Amaru, cacique of Tun-
gasuca, in the province of Tinta, in Low-
er Peru.  His  original  name was Jose
Gabriel Candor Canqui; but, being di-
rectly descended, by  the maternal Unc,
from Tupac Amaru, son of Manco Capac,
the last of the reigning incas, he assumed
the name of his ancestor, and  became
celebrated for his attempt, in 1780, to re-
establish the empire of the Sun.  He en-
deavored, in the first place, to obtain some
alleviation of the intolerable oppressions
which the Indians suffered.  Finding this
impracticable,   he proceeded from one
step to another, until he and his immedi-
ate dependants  took up arms, and put to
death  Arriaga,  the  corregidor of Tinta,
November  10,  1780.  This act was  the
signal for a general rising of the Indians,
who proclaimed the abolition of the mita,
repartos, and other odious forms of taxa-
tion and bondage, and kindled a civil war
through  the southern and upper provinces
of Peru.  Tupac Amaru now assumed
the imperial borla, and other insignia, of
the incas;  and a desperate attempt was
made by the Indians to regain their inde-
pendence.   The war  raged with various
success  for  two years, but ended  in the
subjugation of the  Indians.  Many cities
in Upper Peru, particularly La Paz and
Oruro, suffered greatly during this war,
which both parties regarded as a struggle
for life and death, and in which one third
of the whole population of the country is
supposed to have perished.   Jose Gabriel
was taken prisoner early, and put to death,
being  torn asunder by four  wild horses.
But the Indians rallied anew under his
brother Diego Cristobal, and his  nephew
Andreas, who, aided by a chief of obscure
origin,  named  Tupa Catari, were near
overcoming the Spanish  power.   The 
TUPAC AMARU—TUPELO.
378
 new leaders, however, were  at length
 subdued, and, in  violation of solemn en-
 gagements, were  executed as  traitors.
 See Funes Paraguay (vol. iii, p. 242).
   Tupelo (nyssa); a genus of forest trees
 peculiar  to  North America, and almost
 strictly confined within the tenitory of the
 U. States.  The  leaves are simple, alter-
 nate,  and  mostly entire ;  the flowers
 greenish and inconspicuous, disposed at
 the extremity of a  long peduncle; the
 fruit is a drupe, containing a hard stone.
 The natural  family to which  it belongs
 has not yet been clearly determined. The
 flowers are dioecious.—The black, yellow
 or sour  gum (N. villosa) is found in  all
 parts of the U. States south of the forty-
 first parallel of latitude.   It is distinguish-
 ed by the hairiness of the leaf-stalks, and
 by having the fertile peduncles 3—6 flow-
 ered.  The leaves are five or  six inches
 in length ; the fruit small, oval, and of a
 deep-blue color.  It attains the height of
 sixty or seventy feet, with a trunk eighteen
 or twenty inches in diameter.   On  high
 grounds, this tree has no peculiarity  of
 form; but, in the lower parts of the South-
 ern States, where it grows only in wet
 places, the base of the trunk is enlarged,
 and has  a regular pyramidal shape.  The
 wood is  fine-grained, but soft: the fibres
 are not  straight, but are interwoven and
 collected in bundles, which an*angement
 is peculiar to this genus, and renders the
 timber  exceedingly   difficult   to   split.
 Throughout the greater  part of Virginia,
 this wood is employed for the naves  of
 coach and  wagon wheels; and, at Rich-
 mond, Baltimore and Philadelphia, it is
 preferred  for hatters' blocks.   In  the
 Southern States, it is used  in rice-mills
 for the cylinder which receives the cogs.
 It  is also chosen by shipwrights  for the
 cap or piece which receives the top-mast.
 For all  these uses, the following species
 is equally well adapted:  N. bifiora, call-
 ed, indiscriminately,  tupelo, gum-tree,  or
 sour-gum, differs  from the preceding in
 having the  fertile flowers  disposed  in
 {>airs, and the leaf-stalks less hairy.   It is,
 resides,  a much smaller tree,  rarely ex-
ceeding  forty or forty-five feet  in height;
|and the limbs are given out at the distance
 of five or six feet from the ground, and
 spread horizontally.   It is found farther
 north, being not unfrequent at  the forty-
 third parallel of latitude, but is most abun-
 dant in the Middle States.   It is seen only
 in the vicinity of wet places, growing con-
 stantly along the margin of swamps. The
 fruit is deep-blue, about as large as a pea,
 and becomes conspicuous  after the fell
   vol. xn.          32
of the leaves.  It is  a great resource for
the  American  robin in its  migrations
at the approach of  winter.  The  wood
holds a middle place between soft and
hard-wooded trees, and, on account of the
interlacing of the fibres, and  consequent
extreme difficulty of splitting,  is preferred
for certain  purposes.   In  New  York,
New Jersey, and particularly at Philadel-
phia, it is  exclusively employed for the
naves of wheels destined to  bear  heavy
burdens.   In Europe, it could not be ad-
vantageously substituted for  the variety
of the elm caUed twisted elm; but, in the
opinion of Michaux, if it attained three or
four times its present dimensions, and,
besides, grew on  elevated grounds, it
would be the most precious to the me-
chanical arts of all the forest trees of Eu-
rope or North America.  As fuel, it is
esteemed for burning slowly, and diffus-
ing great heat; and, at PhUadelphia, it is
customary to select a certain quantity for
logs.—The large tupelo  (N. tomentosa) is
a lofty and beautiful  tree, inhabiting the
southern parts of the  U. States.  It grows
in wet swamps, and rises to the height of
seventy or eighty feet: the trunk is enlarged
at the base in an extraordinary manner,
and is often eight or nine feet in diameter
at the surface of the ground: above this
conical base, the trunk is only fifteen  or
twenty inches in diameter, and maintains
this  thickness for  twenty-five or  thirty
feet.  The  leaves have a few large teeth,
by which character it is easily distinguish-
ed.  The  fruit is solitary, about the size
and shape of small olives, and is preserved,
like  them,  by the French inhabitants  of
the Mississippi.  The wood is extremely
light, and softer than that of any other
tree in the U. States.   It is  used only for
bowls or trays.  The roots, also, are ten-
der and light, and are sometimes employ-
ed by fishermen, instead of  cork, to buoy
their nets.—The Ogechee lime (N. candi-
cans) is not found north of the Ogechee
river, in Georgia.  The fruit is an inch or
an inch and a half in length, ofa light-red
color, thick-skinned, intensely acid, and
contains a  large oblong stone.  It  might
be used as a substitute for the lime, were
it not that the latter tree succeeds perfect-
ly in the same countries, and is preferable
on many  accounts.  It is  of smaU size,
rarely  exceeding  thirty feet  in  height,
with a trunk seven or eight inches hi di-
ameter.  The wood is soft, and  is not
used on account  of its small dimensions.
There is a remarkable dissimilarity in the
mode of growth between the male and
female plants: the branches of the former 
374
TUPELO—TURENNE.
ascend  perpendicularly, while those of
the latter assume a horizontal direction.
  Turban (in Turkish, dulbend, tulbend);
a covering of the head, worn  by most
nations  in the East, and of very various
forms in different nations and  different
classes in the same nation.  It consists of
a piece of  cloth  wound  round a  cap.
The Turkish sultan's  turban  contains
three heron's feathers, with  many  dia-
monds and other precious stones, and the
Turks honor it  so much that they touch
it with  awe.  A particular  officer,  tul-
bend aga, takes  care of it.  The grand
vizier has two heron's feathers ; other of-
ficers but one.   The emirs wear a green
turban—a privilege which they enjoy as
relations to the prophet  and to Ali.
  Turbot (pleuronedes maximus).  This
species of flounder is second  in size only
to the  halibut.   In the excellence of its
flesh, it is decidedly the firet of the genus.
It is common along the coasts of Europe,
even in the  northern seas, but, unfortu-
nately, docs  not visit our western shores.
It often  weighs  twenty-five or  thirty
pounds, and  is generally very abundant in
its favorite localities. It is taken in deep
water by lines, some of which are three
miles in length, and are furnished with
more than two  thousand  hooks.   The
flesh is exquisitely flavored and nutritious,
though rather difficult of digestion.  This
fish, with several  othere, has  been sepa-
rated from the true flounders  on account
of the length of the dorsal and anal fins,
and its having the eyes  placed to the left.
We have species belonging to this sub-
division on our own coasts.
  Turcomania ; a name sometimes given
to Turkish Armenia, as the Tartar tribes,
who inhabit  it, are also sometimes called
Turcomans.   The more proper name of
the people is Curds, and that of the coun-
try Curdistan. (See Curds.)  The name
is also sometimes  applied to  the country
between the Caspian and Aral seas, the
country of the Turkmans, or Turcomans.
(See Turkestan.)
  Turcomans.  (See Turkestan.)
  Turenne,  Henri de  la Tour  d'Au-
vergne, vicomte de, a renowned French
commander, born in 1611, at Sedan, was
the second son of Henri de laTourd'Au-
vergne,  duke of Bouillon,  and of Eliza-
beth, daughter of William I, prince of
Orange.  The favorite books of the young
Turenne were  the lives of  great com-
manders, and particularly  the history of
Alexander by Curtius.  Under his uncle,
prince Maurice of Nassau, he studied the
art  of  war,  and, in 1634, received the
command of a  French regiment, served
at the siege of Lamothc, in Lorraine, un-
der marshal la Force, and took a bastion,
which the son of the marshal had in vain
attempted to occupy.   For this he was
appointed field-marshal; and, having also
performed important services at the taking
of Brisach, the cardinal Richelieu offered
him one of his nieces in marriage—an of-
fer  which Turenne declined on account
of his attachment to the Protestant reli-
gion, in which he had been educated.  In
1639,  he was sent to Italy, where he raised
the siege of Casale, and defeated the ene-
my near  Montcallier,  while the marshal
d'Harcourt besieged Turin.  In 1643, he
conquered RoussUlon, and was rewarded,
in 1644, with a marshal's baton and the
chief command of the army in Germany.
He  crossed the Rhine, defeated the Bava-
rians,  under Mercy, and joined the duke
d'Enghien, was defeated (1645) at Mer-
gentheim  (Marienthal), but, three months
after, gained a victory at Nordlingen.  In
1645,  having formed  a junction, after a
march of 150  French miles,  with the
Swedes, under Wrangel, he defeated the
Bavarians at Zusmarshausen, fell upon
Bavaria, and compelled the duke to sue
for peace.  This prince having afterwards
broken his engagements, his army was
once more beaten by Turenne, and  ho
himself was driven out of his territories.
In the war of the Fronde (q. v.), 1649, Tu-
renne  was at first gained over, by the duke
of Bouillon, to the  party opposed to the
court.  In  1650, being defeated by the
marshal du  Plessis-Preslin, near Rhetell,
he candidly confessed that he had lost tho
battle  through bis own negligence, for, he
added, if any one commit no faults in war,
it is a  proof that he  has not had long ex-
perience in it.   The Spanish court, in or-
der to encourage him to continue the war,
sent him 100,000 crowns;  but this sum
Turenne  returned, as  he  expected to be
reconciled to the court party.  Tiiis rec-
onciliation took  place in  1651, and  Tu-
renne  was now appointed general  of the
royal army.  His great adversary was tho
duke  d'Enghien, afterwards  prince  of
Conde, who was in  the Spanish service.
These two  commanders  carried on the
war with alternate success, until at length
Turenne,  by the taking of Dunkirk and
the  occupation  of a  great part of Flan-
ders,  enabled cardinal Mazarin to con-
clude  the  peace of the  Pyrenees.  In
1653,  he  married  the daughter of the
marshal and duke de la Force, a Protes-
tant lady; but she bore him no children.
On the renewal of the war with Spain, in 
TURENNE.
375
1667, Louis XIV selected marshal  Tu-
renne for  his teacher in  the art of  war,
gave hiin  the title of marshal-general of
the French army, and made him his lieu-
tenant-general.   Flanders  and  Franche-
Comte were subdued, and Turenne joined
the Catholic church in 1668.   The Cath-
olics consider this religious change as the
result of conviction ; the  Protestants, on
the contrary,  attribute it to  ambitious
views; Voltaire, perhaps  more impartial
than either, says, "The conversion of Tu-
renne was perhaps sincere.  The human
heart frequently unites policy, ambition,
and the weakness of  love, with religious
ideas."  When Louis XIV,  in 1(>72, re-
solved on the conquest of Holland, Tu-
renne was appointed  again to  the chief
command,  and compelled  the elector
Frederic William of Brandenburg,  who
assisted the Dutch,  to sign the  peace of
Vosscm.  Turenne appeared on all occa-
sions very honorable and disinterested.
When a general made a proposal to  him,
by the execution of which he might have
obtained 400,000 livres, he answered  that
he had often rejected such proposals, and
would not alter his course.  A city offered
him a present of $100,000, to induce him
not to march through its  territory.   "As
your city," answered Turenne, "does not
lie in my route, I cannot accept your of-
fer."  After the occupation of Franche-
Comte,  he defended  the  borders of this
district,  and, in 1674, crossed the Rhine at
Philippsburg, conquered  Sinzheini,  and
drove back the  imperial army, under Ca-
prara and the  duke of Lorraine, even to
the  Maine.   He then turned  his  arms
against  the  prince of Bournonville, who
had arrived with fresh troops, defeated
him also, and prevented his junction with
the imperial army.  The  imperialists fell
upon Alsace, with 70,000 men, and be-
sieged  Brisach and  Philippsburg.   Tu-
renne  had  only 20,000  men,  but  was
strengthened by Conde.  He then contin-
ued his march over mountains covered
with snow, and was in the midst of the
hostile army, in Upper Alsace, when they
supposed him in Lonaine. He dispersed,
without any important battle, the numer-
ous army which opposed  him, protected
Alsace,  and compelled the Germans to re-
tire over the Rhine.  The confidence of
the soldiere in him was almost boundless;
and this enabled him  to accomplish great
enterprises.  The glory which  Turenne
obtained in this campaign, was the great-
er, as he followed his own views entirely,
and not the commands of  the king.  But
the dreadful devastation of the Palatinate
tarnished his fame; and we are inclined to
believe that, in this measure,  he obeyed
the commands of the ministry in opposi-
tion to his own opinion.   "After the bat-
tle of Sinzheim," says Voltaire, " Turenne
laid waste the Palatinate (a level and fer-
tile tract) with fire and sword.   The elec-
tor of the Palatinate saw, from his castle
at Manheim,  two cities  and twenty-five
villages in flames.  Reduced by this sight
to despair, he sent a challenge to Tu-
renne in a letter full of reproaches.  The
marshal gave the letter to the king, who
forbade  the acceptance of the challenge;
and Turenne accordingly answered  it by
an unmeaning compliment.   He was ac-
customed to express himself with moder-
ation and ambiguity.  He also permitted
a part of the  cornfields of Alsace to be
laid  waste in cold  blood, in order to de-
prive the enemy of the means of subsist-
ence, and allowed his cavalry to ravage
Lorraine. He preferred  to be the father
of the soldiers intrusted to him, rather
than of the people, who, according to the
law's of war, are always the victim.  Tu-
rcline's extraordinary fortune induced the
imperial court to oppose to him their best
general;  and Montecuculi was sent, in
1673, over the Rhine.  After a variety of
skilful movements, they were about to
come to  an  engagement  at Sassbach, in
Baden, when Turenne,  while reconnoi-
U*ing for the purpose of finding a  place
for the erection  of a batteiy,  was killed
by a cannon ball.  The same ball carried
away the arm of general de  St. Hilaire,
who, upon his son's bursting into tears at
the sight, exclaimed, "Notfor me, but for
this  great man,  must you weep."  The
highest  honor was shown by  the king to
the remains of Turenne.  They were in-
tened, like  those  of the constable  du
Guesclin, at St.Denis. Turenne possessed,
under a rough and ordinary exterior,  a
great mind.  His  disposition  was  cold.
His  manners were decorous and simple.
He was not always fortunate in war, and
committed some faults;  "but," pays Vol-
taire, " he always  repaired them, and ac-
complished much with small means."  He
was  esteemed the most skilful commander
in Europe, even at a time when the art
of war was more studied than it had ever
been before.  Although  reproached  for
deserting his party in  the war of  the
Fronde; although, at the age of nearly
sixty years, he  suffered  himself to be se-
duced by lore to disclose a secret of state:
although he committed unnecessary cruel-
ties in the Palatinate,—yet he maintained
the reputation of a man of veracity, wis- 
376
TURENNE—TURKESTAN.
 dom and moderation; for his virtues and
 talents covered the weaknesses and faults
 which he had in common with so many
 others.  (See Condi, Fronde, Montecuculi,
 and Louis XIV.)
   Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, a pat-
 riotic and enlightened French  minister,
 son of the president of the grand council,
 was born at  Paris,  in 1727,  and, in his
 youth, gave  himself up to the study of
 theology at the Sorbonne.  At the age of
 twenty-four, he  commenced a translation
 of Virgil's Georgics, and, soon after, at-
 taching  himself to Quesnay  and  the
 Economists   (see Physiocratie  System),
 quitted the Sorbonne in order to accom-
 pany De Gournay, intendant  of com-
 merce, in his travels.  On his return, he
 was himself appointed  intendant of Li-
 moges, which post he occupied for twelve
 yeare, and was long remembered  with
 gratitude, for his wise, salutary and be-
 nevolent reforms and regulations.  When
 raised to the  post of comptroller-general
 of the finances  (1774), he  gave a widen
 extent to the  principles of amelioration.
 He moderated the  duties on articles of
 the firet necessity,  without loss  to  the
 revenue;  freed  commerce  from many
 fettere, and encouraged  industry  by en-
 larging  the  rights  of individuals,  and
 abolishing the  exclusive  privileges of
 companies and  corporations.   He  also
 formed a project for commuting the feu-
 dal rights*, for rendering salt an article of
 free merchandise, and for reforming the
 royal household. His reward for these
 useful and benevolent views  was oppo-
 sition and ridicule.  He was, however,
 able to carry  into effect  some very im-
 portant  improvements;  but  as  he  en-
 deavored to control the  nobility, restrict
 the clergy, and restrain  the  license  as-
 sumed by the officers of the crown, they
 all united against him.  The  result was,
 his dismissal  from office, in 1776, from
 which period  he lived a retired  and  stu-
 dious life until his death, in 1781, at the
age of fifty-four.
  Turin, or  Torino (anciently Augusta
 Taurinorum) ; the  chief city of Pied-
 mont, the capital of the  Sardinian mon-
archy, on the west side of the Po, 75
 miles south-west of Milan ; lon. 7° 407 E.;
 lat. 45°  4' N.; population, 117,987.  It
has an agreeable situation on a delightful
 plain, in a luxuriant  country;  a  beautiful
 range of hills rising on one side  of the
river ; on the  other,  a plain strewed with
 villas and gardens, extending  to the base
of the Alps.   The town is of an oblong
form, and, including the ramparts,  foifr
 miles  in  circuit.  The streets are gene-
 rally wide and straight, intereecting each
 other at right angles, and running in di-
 rect lines from one extremity of the city
 to the other.  They  are kept clean  by
 means of streams of clear running water.
 The  principal  square,  called   Piazza
 Reale, both for size and beauty, ranks as
 one of the fust in Europe.  Several of
 the streets have, at the sides, arcades or
 piazzas, affording a convenient walk for
 foot  passengers.  The houses are gene-
 rally of brick, and the best are plastered
 in front  with stucco.   Of  the  public
 walks, the most frequented are the public
 gardens.  The public edifices  of Turin
 arc buUt  or  ornamented with marble of
 every  vein and  color.  The palace has
 fine  gardens, which are  used as  .uiblic
 walks,  and  command  fine  prospects.
 The university (811 students) has a good
 library, an observatory, a natural cabinet,
 a botanical garden,  and a rich Egyptian
 museum,  containing  the  collections  of
 Drovetti, papyrus rolls, mummies, statues,
 inscriptions,   &c.   (See  Champollion's
 Lettres rilatives au Music royal Egypticn
 de Turin.)  After the battle of Marengo
 (1800), Turin became the capital of the
 French  department of the Po, und was
 restored to Sardinia in 1814.
  Turkestan, or Turkistan (i.  e. land
 of the Turks), is used, in a wider sense,
 to signify all the country between  Russia
 to the north, the Caspiau sea to the west,
 the Chinese dominions to the east, and
 Afghanistan to  the south.  This descrip-
 tion answers to the  Independent Tartary
 of geographers (see Tartary), and includes
 an extent of  country about 850 miles
 from north to south, and V00 from east to
 west.   The chief divisions of this re-
 gion  are Turcomania, between lake Aral
 and the Caspian sea; Turkestan,  in a
 narrower sense, to the east of lake Aral;
 Usbekistan, or  Bucharia, to the  south;
and the country of the Kirghises, on the
north.  The two last mentioned divisions
are described  under the  heads Usbechs,
Bucharia  and Kirghises.—1. Turcoma-
nia, or the land of the  Turkmans,  or
Truchmens,   consists chiefly  of sandy
steppes, destitute  of water, but contains
some fertile districts, and some mountain-
ous tracts.  It produces  com,  but  the
 principal employment of the inhabitants
 is breeding cattle.  Camels, horses,  neat
cattle, sheep, goats, game, birds, and fish,
of various sorts, are found here.  The in-
habitants are  of Tartar origin,  and  are
rude, ignorant, and ardently attached to
freedom. They are Mohammedans. Tur- 
TURKESTAN—TURKEY.
377
 comania, with Khiva, corresponds to the
 ancient Chorasmia (Khowaresm, or Cha-
 rasm), formerly the seat of a civilized
 Arabian state, overturned by Gengis Khan
 (1220), and Timour (1388).  The inhabit-
 ants  are Truchmens,  Khiwintzes, and
 Karakalpacs, Tartar hordes, who are sub-
 ject to the Usbecks.  The chief city, Khi-
 wa, or  Khiva, contains  a population of
 about 10,000  souls.—See  Mauraview's
 Voyage  en  Turcomanie  et b,  Khiwa, en
 1819 et  1820 (from the  Russian, Paris,
 1823), and  Meyendoif s Voyage d'Oren-
 bourg a Boukhara (Paris, 1826). 2. Turk-
 estan, or land of the Turks, is inhabited
 by  Usbecks,  Bucharians, Turcomans,
 Kirghises and Jews.  It is now subject
 to the khan of Kokan, who was formerly
 dependent upon Bucharia, but is now in-
 dependent   Kokan, the ancient Fergha-
 na, is little  known.  The Turkestanese
 speak the purest Turkish.  (See  Ottoman
 Empire, and Turkish Language.)
   Turkey  (meleagris gallo-pavo).   The
 wild  turkey was  formerly abundant in
 Canada, and in many of the now thickly-
 settled parts of the U. States.  It is still
 common in the wooded parts of the west,
 on the  Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri;
 but the day is, perhaps,  not far distant
 when it wiU be rare even there.  It is yet
 found occasionally in Carolina,  Georgia
 and Florida, more rarely in West Pennsyl-
 vania and Virginia, and may be consider-
 ed  altogether extinct in the  remaining
 Northern and Eastern States.  It is occa-
 sionally brought  to  the  New York  and
 Philadelphia markets; but a domestic va-
 riety, ofa very superior metallic tint, and
 closely resembling the wild one,  is  more
 frequently  sold in its place.   Wild tur-
 keys  feed  on berries, fruits, grasses, in-
 sects; even tadpoles, young frogs and liz-
 ards are occasionally found in their stom-
 achs.  The acom is their most general
 favorite; but they prefer the pecan nut to
 any other  food.   A common mode of
 taking them is by means of pens, con-
 structed of logs, and covered at  the top,
 while a passage is made in the earth just
 large enough to admit au individual stoop-
 ing:  Indian corn is strewed  some  dis-
 tance round to entice the flock,  which,
 picking up the grain, is gradually led to-
 wards the  passage, and  thence into the
 enclosure, when  they raise their  heads
 and discover that  they arc prisoners: all
 their exertions to escape  are directed up-
 wards and against the sides, as they have
not sagacity enough to  stoop sufficiently
low to escape  by the way they entered.
The male  is nearly four feet  in  length.
                  32*
The prevailing color of the plumage cop-
per  or bronze-gold, changing into violet
or purple.  The ordinary weight is from
fifteen to  twenty pounds, but sometimes
reaches thirty or even forty.  The female
is more plainly attired, and the medium
weight about  nine pounds.  The  turkey,
in its wild state, appears to be almost en-
tirely confined within the limits of the U.
States; and well may we be proud  of
having produced this noble bird.   It was
first introduced into England in 1524, and
is now domesticated in all parts of the
globe. The flesh is almost unrivalled for
delicacy of texture  and agreeable flavor.
A second smaller species  has lately been
discovered in Honduras, distinguished by
the greater brilliancy of the plumage, and
especially by ocellated spots on the tail.
It has received the name of M. ocellata.
   Turkey.  The extent and population
of the Ottoman empire, previous to  its
recent losses, were estimated as follows:
in Europe,  178,928  square  miles (in-
cluding Moldavia, Walachia, and  Servia,
52,600 square miles, population, 1,790,000,
which were   only  tributary  provinces),
population, 9,393,000;  in Asia,  425,000
square miles,  population,  10,290,000 ; in
Africa (Egypt  and Nubia), 300,000 square
miles, with 3,114,000 inhabitants; in  the
whole 900,000 square  miles, 22,800,000
inhabitants.   Of these  possessions,  the
African are not only lost,  but the Egyp-
tian  sovereign  has become the most
formidable enemy of the grand seignior,
and  has  actually  conquered the  four
pachalics of Syria, having, in the cam-
paign of 1832, successively reduced Acre,
Damascus  and  Tripoli.*  Greece has
been  severed  from the  Turkish domin-
ions, and a boundary more favorable for
the new  kingdom than that  established
by the protocol of 1830, has recently been
procured by the three powers from the
Porte. This frontier line extends from
the gulf of Volo to the gulf of Arta, and
annexes Etolia, Acamania, and part  of
Thessaly (about 3000  square  miles)  to
the kingdom  of Greece.   The numbers
of different races were, Tartars, 8,525,000;
Arabians,  4,449,000; Hellenes (Greeks),
4,598,000; Sclavonians (Servians,  Bulga-
rians, Bosniacs, Croats,  Sec), 5,926,000;
Armenians, 1,560,000; Walachians and
Moldavians, 1,375,000;  Syrians, 214,000;
Arnaouts, 460,000;  Jews, 620,000;  Curds,

  * The Egyptian fleet which sailed towards the
close of 1831, consisted of seven frigates, seven
corvettes, and nineteen smaller vessels, besides
transports, with a land force of 3000 infantry and
1200 artillery. 
378
TURKEY.
1,000,000; Gypsies, 80,000, &c.  Of these,
13,552,000 were Mohammedans; 7,083,000
of the Greek church; 1,483,000 of the Ar-
menian ; 613,000 Catholics ;  380,000 Mo-
nophysites;  300,000 Nestorians; 60,000
Druses, -fee.  The history of the state has
been given in the article  Ottoman  Em-
pire.  Moldavia, Walachia, Servia, Egypt,
Greece, Natolia, Syria, Bulgaria, Albania,
&c, are described in separate articles.
  Turkey in Europe is bounded by Rus-
sia, Transylvania, Hungary,  Galicia, II-
lyria,  Dalmatia,  the  Ionian  republic,
Greece, the Adriatic and Ionian seas, and
the Archipelago.   The command of the
Black  sea the Porte shares with Russia.
The Bosphorus (q.v.), the sea of Marmo-
ra, and the Dardanelles, are open to all
merchant ships of nations at peace with
Turkey.  The situation of the country,
with its long extent of coast and its nu-
merous bays, is favorable for commerce.
It is protected  on  its frontiers by the val-
leys of the Save and Danube, and also by
the Balkan (Hsemus), which extends from
cape Emineh  to the Illyrian mountains,
and which is connected with the Rhodope,
the Pangaeus and  other chains which in-
tersect Greece. Separate from these lies
Monte Santo,  or Athos.  (See Athos.)—
Turkey in Asia is  bounded  by Persia,
Russia, Arabia, and the isthmus of Suez,
which connects it with Egypt, and the
Mediterranean sea.  From the mountains
of Armenia flow the  Euphrates (q.v.)
and the Tigris (q. v.), which, uniting at
Bassora, flow  into the Pereian gulf.  In
Anadoli or Natolia,  there is  a considera-
ble river—the  Kisil Irmac (Halys)—flow-
ing into the Black  sea, and  in  Palestine
the Jordan, (q. v.)  The latter falls  into
the Dead sea,  a lake formed by volcanic
eruptions, fifty miles in length, and from
four to ten in  breadth, whose waters are
bituminous, saline, and sulphureous, and
have  no visible outlet.  The  principal
mountains are  the Taurus (q. v.), in Nato-
lia;  the Lebanon (q. v.), in Syria; the
Antilibanus, &c.  The most level prov-
ince is Irak Arabi.   In the south-east, im-
mense deserts extend  into the Arabian
peninsula.  The climate is  temperate in
the northern provinces, mild and refresh-
ing in the central, and hot in the southern.
The air of Mesopotamia is  noxious, and
there the debilitating samiel (see Simoom)
blows  over burning deserts,  and the
plague finds a  home.  Every region  here
yields  its  productions  in  abundance.
The staple articles  of export are wheat
from Rum-Ili, rice from the countries on
the south of Hoemus, cotton  and tobacco
from Macedonia,  silk from Arnaout and
Natolia, figs, saffron, gall-nuts and meers-
chaum from Natolia,  mastich from Scio,
wine from  Cyprus,  Angora hair from
Natolia, naphtha from Mesopotamia, wool
from Walachia, &c.  In addition to these,
opium,  Lemnian  earth,  saltpetre,  and
marble, especially the Parian, are  among
the exports.  Mining is totally neglected,
and there is, in general, little manufactur-
ing  industry in the  country; there are,
however,  some traces  of skill  in  the
preparation of saffron, the  dyeing of yam
(especially in Thessaly), the manufacture
of cotton  cloths,  carpets  and works  of
steel (particularly excellent sword-blades).
The Turks despise agriculture, and leave
it to the conquered nations, whom  they
plunder  when they find them to  be
wealthy  and  prosperous.  It  is  only
where the barbarians have no power, as
in the country of the Druses, on mount
Lebanon, or have not appeared, as upon
some of the islands of the Archipelago,
that successful industry is to be found.  In
Asia, agriculture is attended to only in the
neighborhood of the cities: the wide plains
on the banks  of  the  rivers are covered
with bands of wandering  robbers.  The
people of this vast empire consist  of a
number of different nations, which mutu-
ally hate and despise  each other, and are
held together  merely by fear and force.
1.  The lords of the country are all Sun-
nites (q. v.), as the Arabs, Tartars and Tur-
comans, and particularly  the  Ottoman
Turks, a people of great  natural vigor,
and inflamed with  political and religious
enthusiasm.   They are most numerous
in the northern provinces of Asia.  They
despise  unbelievers,  looking upon them
as dogs  and swine, and continue to act
the part of the first savage conquerors.
The character of  this people shows ex-
traordinary inconsistencies.  They are, at
the  same  time,  according to  circum-
stances,, brave and cowardly,  mild and
savage, strong and weak, enterprising and
sluggish, sensual and hardy.  The great
men at court, in the army, and in the
provinces, are proud  and  cringing, sus-
picious and  ungrateful.   In general, the
Turks are as ignorant as  they are indif-
ferent and insensible.  They make  no
provision  for  posterity.   No  nation is
more fully  convinced than the  Turks,
that all upon earth is subject to change.
2. The Turcomans (see Turcomania), in
Armenia,  Natolia  and on the  rivers of
the  interior.   3. The Tartars, who have
migrated from the Crimea to the prov-
inces on the Danube.  4. Arabs, (q.  v.) 
TURKEY.
379
 5.  Curds, (q.  v.)   6.  Greeks ;  among
 whom  are the Suliots, in the  ancient
 Epirus.   7.  Armenians (see  Armenia),
 scattered through the provinces as mer-
 chants  and mechanics.  8. Sclavonians,
 in several tribes, as the Albanians or Ar-
 naouts (q. v.); Bosniacs, in  Bosnia, in part
 Mohammedans, part Catholic Christians;
 Servians or Rascians (see Servia); Bulga-
 rians; Montenegrins, (q.v.)  10. Druses
 (q.v.), on the Lebanon. 11. Jews. 12. Wa-
 lachians.   13.. Gypsies, and several small
 tribes, of unknown  origin, principally in
 the mountains in Asia.  The written and
 court language is Arabic.  (See Turkish
 Language and Literature.)   In Constan-
 tinople, there are Greek, Armenian, Jew-
 ish and Turkish printing presses;  but, in
 all  the  cities, a  great number  of scribes
 (kodjakians) are occupied in transcribing
 the  almanacs, the  Koran, &c.    They
 form, in Constantinople, a powerful body.
 The  ulema  (q. v.),  or  body of lawyers,
 who  belong to the  religious  order,  is
 almost  exclusively in possession  of the
 learning.   Ptolemy is still  their guide  in
 geography, and  Aristotle in physics and
 natural history.  A historiographer is ap-
 pointed at the court of the sultan, and a
 court astrologer is consulted on matters
 of state.   Painting and sculpture are neg-
 lected,  because  the Koran forbids the
 imitation of the human form.  The music
 is noisy and without taste,  but  there are
 good female dancers.*   The constitution
 rests  upon seven collections of political
 laws (Kanunname), and is altogether Ori-
 ental.  The padishah, as  caliph,  unites
 the highest spiritual  dignity with the su-
 preme secular power.  He  has unlimited
 control over the property and Uves of  his
 subjects, especially of the highest officers
 of state, whom he  can remove or put to
 death at will.  They kiss the bow-string
 which he sends them, and it is  what they
 may  all look forward  to.  The  sultan
 makes laws without being himself subject
 to them.   The Koran  and the fear  of
 public opinion,  when it speaks  by the
 voice of rebellion, alone restrain his will.
 All his subjects are equal in his eyes,  for
 they are all slaves.   A  French historian
 calls  the Turkish  government un des-

  * The present sultan has not  only  endeavored
 to introduce European customs  and  tactics, but
 has  appointed  a librarian to the library of the
 Hamadirge mosque, in  Medina, with orders for
 the preparation of a catalogue,  and the adoption
 of measures for the preservation and increase of
 the library.  A newspaper is now likewise print-
ed at  Constantinople, in French and Turkish
(lHoniteur Ottoman), and another in Crete, in
Turkish and Greek.
potisme absolu, tempiri par le regicide.
The people have  no rights.   Merit,  or
favor, or intrigue, can raise the lowest to
the highest stations.  There is  no heredi-
tary nobility.   The  succession  to  the
throne is hereditary in the  family of Os-
man ; the will of the people and of the
janizaries has often  decided  upon  the
individual.  On  the extinction  of  the
male posterity of Osman, the right to the
throne passes into the family of the for-
mer Tartar khan.   Women are excluded
from the succession.  The padishah is
not crowned; he  is merely girded with
the sword of Osman, after  he  has sworn
to uphold the  religion of Mohammed.
The women of his  harem are, for  the
most part, Circassians or Georgians : a
free-born woman  cannot enter  the harem
as an odalic.  Since Ibrahim, the sultans
have been accustomed to  choose from
among them seven wives  (cadin).  She
who first bears a  son is called chakessi
sultana ; the other mothers  of the princes
have the name of sultana chassecki. The
mother of the reigning sultan, or the sul-
tana valide, enjoys great privileges.  She is
not confined in the apartments of the Eski
seraglio,and has ayearlypension of 500,0(.(>
piasters.   (See Harem, and Sultan.) Tha
princes  are  usually brought up in con-
finement, among  the eunuchs and oda-
lics.   Each learns  a mechanic  art  or
handicraft, but  they  never acquire  the
knowledge which would fit them to rule.
They have no prospect hut the throne or
death in prison.   The  daughters of  the
sultan have the title of sultana, and, while
yet in the cradle, are married  to viziers,
pachas, and other great officere; but their
male posterity,  by a law of the empire,
are condemned to  death from their birth.
The court  establishment,  with  all  the
eunuchs, women,  guards,  -fee, includes
10,000 pereons.   The external  court con-
sists of the attendants of the grand master
of the  seraglio, seven  chamberlains,  the
court officere, a body-guard of  2000 men,
(the bostangi was  dissolved in  1826), the
confidants or titular dignitaries, to which
class belong the mutes, the dwarfs,  the
musicians, the masters of  audience,  the
masters of the stinup, and  the viziers of
the shoulder. (See Seraglio.)  The inner
court establishment consists of the harem,
with its women, white and black eunuchs
(whose chiefs,  the kislar  and capi  aga,
possess great influence), the grand vizier,
and  the  sublime porte, which form  the
two cabinets of the  kiaga  beg, or minis-
ter of the interior,  and of the reis effendi,
or minister of foreign affairs.  Tho  title 
380
TURKEY.
of the present padishah is—" Sultan, son
of a  sultan,  chakan, son of a  chakan,
sultan Mahmoud II, khan, son of the vic-
torious  Abd-ul-Hamid,  by  the infinite
grace of the  Creator of the world and
the eternal Being, and through the medi-
ation  and great miracles of Mohammed
Mustapha, the greatest of prophets, upon
whom rest the blessing of God, servant
and master of the cities of Mecca, Me-
dina,  and Kods  (Jerusalem),  towards
which all men turn their faces when they
pray,  padishah of  the three great  cities
of Istambul,  Edreneh (Adrianople), and
Bursa, which all princes regard with
envy," <fec.  The arms assumed by Mah-
moud II, after the conquest of Constanti-
nople, are a  silver  crescent  in a green
shield.  Selim III, in 1799, after Nelson's
victory of the Nile, founded the order of
the crescent, in three classes, for  Franks,
which has been conferred on Nelson, Se-
bastiani, and  other foreigners.   The  ad-
ministration of government is also Orien-
tal.  The grand vizier rules in the name
of the sultan, or, in his absence, the cai-
machan. The intrigues of the women and
the eunuchs  in  the  seraglio have  also
much influence.  The supreme  council
of state, the divan, is held  in  the second
hall of the seraglio, under the presidency
of the grand vizier.   The ordinary divan
consists of the highest officers of the em-
pire (the kiaga beg, the reis effendi, the
defterdar, or minister of finances, the ca-
pudan pacha, or high admiral, the tchaush-
baschi, or minister of the executive), and
the agas of the troops: to  the extraordi-
nary  divan,  several  other persons  are
called, particularly the mufti.  The prov-
inces, with the exception of Moldavia,
Walachia  and Servia, and the two cities
of Istambul  (Constantinople), and Edre-
neh (Adrianople), are divided into twenty-
five  ejalets,  pachalics or  governments,
with two hundred and ninety sangiacs or
banners; the  pachas of Rum-Ili, Anadoli
(Natolia), and Damascus, bear the title of
beglerbeg, and have three horee-tails car-
ried before them.   The  capudan pacha,
or high  admiral, enjoys the same honor:
the other pachas have but two tails. The
pachas in the provinces have their divans
similar to the sultan's.  In other respects,
unless the powerful ulema opposes them,
their  authority is without control, and
their only duty is to pay the contributions
to the  grand seignior.   Yet they  are
sometimes  removed from their places,
when the people  are driven  to  rebellion
by oppression, or when the ulema is hos-
tile to them ;  sometimes, also, to punish
their pride, or from suspicion, or to con-
fiscate their property.  In June, 1827, the
pachas  in the provinces  lost their right
of civil administration, and civil govemors
were sent to supersede them.  In mihtary
matters, every pachalic is divided into san-
giacs.  The pachalics are likewise; divided
into moslemlics, woiwodolics, and agalics.
In  some countries there  are  moslemlics
and agalics, entirely  independent of the
pacha, the rulers of which, with the excep-
tion of administering justice, exercise all
the rights of sovereigns: some of these
places are given for perpetuity to certain
families. The source of all civil,  political
and criminal law is the Koran.  In addi-
tion to the code of laws (Moulteca), the in-
terpretations  of  the  ulema  have  great
weight in the tribunals.  The mufti is not
only the chief  of the priests,  but  the
highest  interpreter of the laws.  His de-
cisions (fetvas) are collected.  The high-
est  tribunal,  the  divan chaneb, is  held
four times a week by the grand vizier in
his palace, or, in his absence, by  the
tchaush-baschi.   In the lower tribunals
of the large cities, the mollas sit, in those
of small towns, the cadis.  The moslems
are, under  them, the executors of  the
sentences.  The administration of justice
is as simple as it is prompt and energetic.
The common punishments are the basti-
nado, hanging, drowning, strangling, and
impaling.   Bearing false witness is  the
greatest crime. At the head of the church
stands  the sultan, as caliph, and, in his
name, the mufti, who  is appointed and
deposed by the  grand seignior.  In the
larger cities,  the mufti  appoints under
muftis.  After him, the cadileskis, mollas,
and cadis, are  the most important mem-
bere of the ulema.  The priests are di-
vided into  secular and  monastic.  The
former (the imans, danishmends, and tal-
ismans) perform the public religious cere-
monies  in the mosques, dshamis (temples
built by the grand seignior in the capital
cities), and medsheds.   (See Mosques.)
The latter, the dervises, form about thirty
different orders  or  brotherhoods.   AU
other religious sects, though despised and
insulted, are allowed the  free exercise of
their  religion in their temples, and under
their patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops.
The revenues of the state flow into the
miri or public treasury, and  amount to
about eighty-four purses,  or 20,000,000
dollars.  They are drawn  from the ka-
radsch (a poll-tax  upon unbelievers, and
a tax upon their real estate),  from the
tithes which the moslems pay for the sup-
port of the  church, from the taxes upon 
TURKEY—TURKISH  LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.     381
property, the customs, monopoUes, mines,
the mint, taxes in the provinces, and the
tribute of  the  hospodars of  Moldavia,
Walachia and Servia.  The miri has a
debt of  about  seventy million  florins.
Distinct from this  is the itsch hazne, or
treasury of the sultan, which is filled by
the rents of estates, by presents and  ex-
tortions, and by  the confiscated property
of the  great  officers.  The  land forces
were, until recently, organized on a mise-
rable Asiatic system, and amounted, ac-
cording to Mareigli, to 220,000 men ;  of
whom 74,000 were  mercenaries, 59,000
infantry (see Janizaries), toptshis, or ar-
tillery, and othere, and 15,000  cavalry.
(See Sipahis.)  There were, besides, in
time of war, the bands of feudal vassals,
amounting to 126,000 men, the  contin-
gent of the Tartars, 12,000, and that of the
Moldavians and Walachians, 8000.  The
grand vizier is  commander-in-chief; the
separate  corps are commanded  by agas,
the provincial troops by pachas  and san-
giacs.   The  present  sultan, with more
success than Selim III, has begun, since
1814, to form an army on  the  European
plan, and, in the year  1826, dissolved the
body of janizaries  throughout the king-
dom.  SeUm III formed a mathematical
school  for the officers of the navy, which
consists of ten ships of the  line, twenty
frigates, and  thirty smaller  ships, com-
manded by the  capudan pacha.  Tunis
and Tripoli are still nominally dependent
on Turkey.  Algiers is now in the hands
of  the French.    See  Von  Hammer's
Constitution and  Administration of the
Ottoman Empire (in  German,  2 vols.,
Vienna,  1815),  and   his  History of the
Ottoman  Empire,  drawn from  original
sources (in German, 7th vol., Pest, 1831);
Palla's Histoire abrigie de  I'Empire Otto-
man (Paris, 1825).  Mareigli has given an
account of the military, and Mouradgea
d'Ohsson  of the ecclesiastical establish-
ment.  Of the Tableau ginirale de I'Em-
pire Ottoman, par M.  d'Ohsson,  the firet
four parts appeared in five volumes (Paris,
1788 and 1790); the  fifth, sixth and sev-
enth  parts  complete  the work (Paris,
1824).  The writings of Tott, lady Mon-
tague,  Olivier,  Eton, and Thornton, to-
gether with  the  accounts of later travel-
lers, Clarke, Von Hammer (Constantinople
and  the  Bosphorus),  Forbin, Choiseul-
Gouffier, Pouqueville, J. Carne (Letters
from the  East,  London,  182(5,  3 vols.),
and others, serve to give a correct idea of
this empire, composed of various nations
and countries, the fragments  and ruins of
ihe aneient world.
  Turkish  Language  and   Literature.
The Turks are of Tartar origin, and their
language is a Tartar dialect.  It  is en-
tirely different from the Arabic, as well as
the Persian, and from the languages re-
lated to these.  The Turkish language is
sonorous, but, at the same time, rough
and  harsh.  The Eastern nations have
various sayings  to  indicate the character
of the  principal languages of Western
Asia, the Arabic, Pereian  and Turkish ;
for instance,  the Arabic  language, they
say, persuades ; the Pereian flatters; tho
Turkish reproves; the Serpent employed
Arabic in paradise to seduce our general
mother; Adam and  Eve discoursed  of
love in Persian;  the angel spoke Turkish
when he was compelled to drive our firet
parents from paradise.    The  Turkish
language is very regular in its grammati-
cal construction, but, in itself, is poor in
words.  The Turks, therefore, to supply
its deficiencies, have adopted all the stores
of the  Arabic and  Pereian;  and these
have become so  united  with it,  that a
good knowledge of Turkish cannot be
acquired without a knowledge of Arabic
and Persian.  By the mixture of three so
completely dissimilar languages, the learn-
ing of Turkish becomes very difficult;
for words and phrases from all are inter-
mingled, without  any change, as well
in common life as in writing. The Turks
use the Arabic characters, with some small
alterations, and write, after the manner of
the Jews and Arabians, from right  to left.
Their paper they receive principally from
Venice, but polish it highly before using
it.  Their pens are made of fine reeds,
and  their ink is like our printer's ink.
They write upon their knees, or, at the
most, use a piece of pasteboard for a sup-
port.   The vowels, which consist of little
straight or crooked strokes, and are placed,
some above, some below, the consonants,
are, excepting in the Koran, seldom writ-
ten.  The difficulty of reading is increas-
ed by the many dissimilar alphabets and
characters which are employed in writ-
ing : one alphabet is used in the  official
papers of the government, another in let-
ters, another in the courts,  another in
literary productions, another in accounts,
fee.  A person who can read one of them
easily,  may not be able to read a word of
another.  Like the French in Europe, the
Turkish is, in a great part of Asia, and on
the northern coast of Africa, the common
medium  of communication between na-
tions speaking different languages. After
the Turks had received a written charac-
ter with the  Koran of Mohammed, and, 
382
TURKISH  LANGUAGE  AND LITERATURE.
at the commencement of the fourteenth
century, under one of their emirs, Osman,
had founded an independent empire upon
the ruins of the Greek, they began grad-
ually to feel the necessity of more literary
cultivation.  Even sultan Orkan, the suc-
cessor of Osman, although devoted to
war  and conquest,  founded, in 1336, at
Brussa, in  Natolia, a literary institution,
which became so celebrated for the learn-
ing of the  teachers,  that  even  Arabs
and Persians were not ashamed to be-
come scholars of the Turks.   Their own
historians remark that the  monarchs of
this house, until the time  of Achmet I
(1603), although not  all  equally distin-
guished by glorious  undertakings  and
princely  virtues, yet  all  gave  lustre to
their reigns, by their love and encourage-
ment  of  learning.   The  golden age of
Turkish literature was in the second half
of the fifteenth century, during the gov-
ernment of Soliman, who was called the
lawgiver, the  great-grandson of Moham-
med II, whose victories put an end to the
Roman empire.  In the Turkish schools
and higher literary establishments which
are usually connected with the mosques,
and whose number amounts in Constanti-
nople to several  hundreds, the principal
branches taught are the Arabic, grammar,
logic, rhetoric, d ialectics, according to man-
uals which were written by the Arabians
in the middle ages.  In general, the Arabs
of what we call the middle ages, continue
to be the teachers of the Turks in phi-
losophy, mathematics, physics, medicine,
law, and  theology.  Treatises on astrolo-
gy, the interpretation of dreams, and all
the modes of predicting  future events,
form  no  inconsiderable part of Turkish
literature, and are  continually  studied.
Astrology, in particular, holds the rank of
a science among the Turks, and has also
an important influence upon all affairs of
state and private concerns.  The mimed -
schim baschi (superior or court astrologer)
is one of the most important court officers,
since  the time  of  the most important
transactions is determined by him.   The
calendar is likewise prepared under his
superintendence.   But the instruments
essential  to investigations in natural sci-
ence  are, in  Turkey, either entirely un-
known, or used only in childish  jugglery,
to excite the astonishment  of the igno-
rant.   The  telescope, the magnifying
glass, the electrical machine, and all sim-
ilar aids to the study of nature, the Turks
do not know how to  use to advantage.
They do not even generally employ  the
compass in  their sea voyages.   Hence
navigation,  astronomy,  geography, agri-
culture, chemistry,  and  other  sciences
which have  received  an entirely new
form by the  discoveries of the  moderns,
must  be in  a very  low state among the
Turks.  They are  fond of history, but
their historical works are  written, for the
most  part, either in a dry chronological
method, or in a bombastic style, half po-
etry, ha'f prose, and overloaded with fig-
ures.   One of their oldest and most es-
teemed annalists is Saad-ed-din,  who,
after having been the instructer and tutor
of two sultans, died in the office of mufti
at Constantinople,  in 1599.  His chroni-
cle is entitled Tadsch-et-tawarich (that is,
the Crown  of Annals), and extends from
the origin of the Turks to  the  death of
Selim I, in 1520, and is regarded by tho
Turks as a  classical work.  It has been
translated by Leunclavius into Latin, by
Bratutti into Italian, and by Podesta into
German and Latin.  In the works of Naima,
Raschid and Tchelebisade, the annals of
the Turkish empire, from 1592 to 1727, are
continued in unbroken succession. Hadschi
Chalfa, sumamed Tchelebisade, who died
at Constantinople, 1657, was distinguished
for his historical and literary attainments.
Under the  title of Ope?i  Books,  and
Knowledge  of  Science, he  composed a
work ofa cyclopaedic and bibliographical
character, in which the names of all the
branches of science  cultivated  by the
Arabians, Pereians  and Turks, are given,
and the titles of all  the works written  in
these three  languages, from the 1st to the
1050th year of the Hegira (A. D. 1640).
This  work served  as the foundation of
the  Encyclopaedic  View  of  Oriental
Science (by Joseph  von  Hammer, Leip-
sic, 1804), to  which  is  prefixed an auto-
biography of Hadschi Chalfa.   Besides
this biographical work, and several other
writings of Hadschi Chalfa, his  chrono-
logical tables, beginning with Adam, and
continuing to 1640, deserve to be particu-
larly  mentioned.   The Latin translation
of these, by Reiske, is still to be found in
manuscript in the royal library at Copen-
hagen.  In poetry, also, the Arabians and
Pereians are their  models.  Their poems
are chiefly of a mystical or moral cast, or
devoted to  love.  We need only men-
tion  the romantic poem of  the  Turk
Molla Khosrew, Chosroes  and  Shereen.
Some Turkish eclogues are contained in
Hammer's   Morgenlandisches   Kleeblatt
(Eastern Trefoil, Vienna, 1819).  Riddles,
logogryphs,  chronograms,  and  similar
poetical trifles,  are  very popular among
them.  All their poetical productions are 
TURKISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE—TURKISH MUSIC. 383
in rhyme.  Their prosody and the tech-
nical part of their poetry are the same as
those of the Arabians and Pereians. Mos-
nevi is a long poem, in which each dis-
tich has its peculiar rhyme ; gazdles and
cassides are odes or songs with  a single
rhyme ; the rubaji (tetrastichon) is most-
ly epigrammatic ;  the kitaa has  4—8
strophes with various  rhymes, and is ap-
plicable to  all  subjects.   Accounts  of
Turkish  poets,  and  specimens  of their
poetry, are contained inLatifi, or Biograph-
ical Sketches of eminent Turkish Poets,
together with an Anthology drawn from
their works ;  translated from the Turk-
ish  of Monka  Abdul Latifi and Aschik
Hassan Tschelebi, by Thomas Ghabert
(Zurich, 1808).  The Divan of Baki, the
principal lyric poet of Turkey, who died
in 1600, has been translated  into  German,
entire, by Joseph von Hammer (Vienna,
1825).    In 1727,  during  the reign of
Achmet III, Ibrahim, a renegade, a native
of Buda, with the assistance of a Jew of
Prague, Chacham Jonas, and under the
patronage  of the grand vizier,  Ibrahim
Pacha, established  a Turkish  printing
press   at  Constantinople,  at which, in
1742,  seventeen works, comprising twen-
ty-three volumes, and 13,000 copies, had
been printed.  After a long interval of in-
action, the press was again used, in 1783,
during the reign of the sultan Abdolha-
mid.  But its activity continued only about
two years.  In 1793, it was again brought
into action by  Abdorrhaman Effendi, a
Turkish mathematician, who had render-
ed valuable services to the Porte, as com-
missioner for settling boundaries after the
peace  of Sistow.   Abdonhaman  con-
nected it with a school for  teaching en-
gineering at Chasskoi, a suburb of Con-
stantinople.  It remained  there  some
years, and, at the beginning of the present
century, was removed to the barracks of
the  new militia  at  Scutari.   In  1806,
twenty-six  works  had issued from this
press.  In  the disturbances of 1807 and
1809,  it suffered great damage, but was
restored  by the  present  sultan, Mah-
moud II, in 1809.  A  complete catalogue
of the  books printed at  Constantinople,
down to  1813, has been given  by Ham-
mer, in  the  Leipsic  Literary  Journal,
1813, No. 42,  1814, No. 197  and 198, and
1820,  page 307, and in Hormayr's  Ar-
chives.   See, also, Toderini's  Turkish
literature (3  vols.); and  Ludecke's Ac-
count of the  Turkish Empire (3 parts).
All  books  relating to  theology and  law
were excluded  frem  the  press.  The
press  at  Constantinople has  since pro-
duced the Ramus (3 vols., fol.); the Mew-
ahib, a metaphysical work, and, in 1824,
the Arabian commentary of the  Scheich-
sade (written under Mohammed IV), on
the Arabic  Moulteka, the famous Mo-
hammedan religious code, composed by
the sheik Ibrahim  von Haleb, under So-
lyman the Great   The imperial  histori-
ographer, Jerome  Megiser, published, at
Vienna, the firet  Turkish grammar, in
1612.   Afterwards the study of the Turk-
ish language was much attended to, partic-
ularly atVienna, as the intercourse between
Austria and the Porte had become very
considerable.  Francis von Mesgnier Me-
ninski, court interpreter, published the best
Turkish grammar (Vienna, 1680), in Lat-
in, folio, and likewise the best dictionary
of the Turkish language.  The first, with
the addition of exercises in analysis and
reading, was republished by Kollar (Vi-
enna,  1756,4to.): the last, likewise, much
enlarged, by Jenisch, was republished at
the expense of the  emperor  (Vienna,
1780—1803).   There are Turkish gram-
mars in the French language, in which
the Turkish words are printed in Roman
letters, by  Preindl (Berlin, 1789, with  a
dictionary), and by Yiguier  (Constanti-
nople, 1790—1794). The last grammar of
the Turkish language was published by
Jaubert (Paris, 1823).  Many scholars,
of much learning  in Turkish literature
have been formed at the Oriental acade-
my in Vienna, established by the empress
Maria Theresa, in 1753, for the education
of young diplomatists to conduct the in-
tercourse  with the Porte; particularly
Von Jenisch, Von Sturmer, Von Chabert
and Von Hammer.  The last has given a
view of Turkish literature,  in the appen-
dix to the Codices Arabici,  Persici,  Tur-
cici Bibl. Vindob. rccens. (Vienna, 1820).
Toderini, in his work upon Turkish lite-
rature, written in Italian (Venice, 1787, 3
vols.),   Mouradgea  d'Ohsson,   Joseph
Christ. Clodius, Goldermann,  Von Diez
and Von Hammer have also done much
to furnish  information concerning  tho
Turkish language and literature.
   Turkish  Music.  The Turks  received
their music from the Pereians.  It is rude,
but much employed by them, especially
in the expression of love or warlike ex-
citement   But public exhibitions of mu-
sical skill for money they consider as dis-
graceful.  The chief instruments in their
warlike music  are  hautboys, trumpets of
a piercing  sound,  cymbals, small drums
of various kinds, and the bass drum ; but
small  flutes, triangles and  bells,  such as
the Europeans use  in what they  call 
384
TURKISH  MUSIC—TURNING.
Moorish or Turkish music, are rarely unit-
ed  with those above mentioned.  Their
martial music is  monotonous, and has
principally the character of a rhythmical
noise,  which  inspires  the  warrior  with
fire and fury.  In general, their music is
deficient hi harmony, and  most of their
pieces are not played from notes: they
have, however, the same  tones as we
have, but they use the half tones much
more.   Their  soft music has  something
melancholy and touching: the instruments
which they use for it are  a violin with
three strings, the viole d'amour, borrowed
from foreigners,  the dervise  flute,  the
tambour, a kind of lute (mander), the
shalm, and the drum with bells.   Turkish
music has been much used in operas and
concerts of late;   but  it  confuses and
deafens rather than delights the cultivat-
ed ear.
  Turkmans.   (See Turkestan.)
  Turk's Islanos  ; a  cluster of small
islands among the  Bahamas, the largest
of which is situated in lat. 21° 207 N.,
lon. 71° W.  They  belong to the British,
and  there is a port of entry established
on the largest, Grand Key: there is here
an anchorage,  but no harbor.  The num-
ber of inhabitants is  small and fluctuating;
many of them merely spending  part of
the year there for  the  purpose  of salt-
making.  Salt, which is procured from
salt ponds, is the only article of export
  Turmaline. (See Tourmaline.)
  Turmeric (terra  menta); the root of
the curcuma longa.  It  is brought from
the East Indies, and is very rich in a yel-
low color, which has great brightness, but
Uttle durability.  Common  salt and sal-
ammoniac are the mordants best adapted
to fix it.  The root  must be reduced  to
powder to be fit for  use.  It is sometimes
employed to give the yellow made with
weld a gold cast, and an' orange tinge  to
scarlet; but the shade which the turmeric
imparts soon disappears in the air.  It has
an aromatic smell, somewhat resembling
that of ginger, and is much cultivated in
the East Indies, where  it  is in common
use as  a seasoning for ragouts  and other
dishes.  It  constitutes a principal ingre-
dient in curry powder, and in this form is
used in great quantities both in India and
Europe.
  Turnament.  (See Tournament.)
  Turner,  Sharon, an English solicitor,
is the author of several valuable works
on tiie  history of  England,  which  are
distinguished  for  accuracy and  extent
of research.  They  form together (His-
toiy  of England from  the  earliest Pe-
 riod to the Death  of Elizabeth) twelve
 volumes, octavo, but  consist of the fol-
 lowing separate parts :  Histoiy of the
 Anglo-Saxons  (5th edit, 3 vols., 8vo.);
 England during the Middle Ages (5 vols.,
 8vo., 3d ed.); Reign  of Henry  VIII (2
 vols., 8vo., 3d ed.), being the firet part of the
 modern history; Reigns of Edward VI,
 Mary, and Elizabeth  (2d part of modern
 history, 2 vols.,  8vo.),  and contain much
 new and interesting matter on the govern-
 ment,  laws, literature and  manners, as
 well as on the civil and ecclesiastical his-
 tory of the country.  His other works are
 Vindication of the ancient British Poems
 of Aneurin, Taliesin, «fec.  (8vo., 1803),
 and Sacred History of the World to the
 Deluge (1832).
  Turnerite ;  a rare mineral found in
 small crystals, having  an oblique rhombic
 prism  of 96° 107 for then* primary form.
 Color, yellowish-brown ; shining ; trans-
 lucent ; scratches fluor, but yields to the
 knife, affording a grayish-white  powder.
 It contains alumine, lime, magnesia, and
 very little iron.   Its only locality is mount
 Sorel, in  Dauphine, where  it occure ac-
 companied by quartz, feldspar and an-
 atase.
  Turning, in  mechanics; a  very in-
genious and useful art, by which a great
variety of articles are  manufactured, by
cutting or fashioning them while they re-
volve upon an axis or line, which in most
cases  remains immovable.  Every  solid
substance in nature may  be submitted to
this process; and, accordingly, we have ar-
ticles turned in the metals, in wood, in pot-
tery, in stone, in ivory, <fec, so numerous,
 and so universally in use, that it would be
 superfluous to point them out.  The sim-
 plest process of turning is that of the pot-
 ter, who, in the first stage of forming his
 ware, sticks a  piece of wet clay upon a
 wheel, or flat table, while it revolves  hori-
 zontally, and, in this state of rotation of the
 clay, fashions it, with  the greatest facili-
 ty, into vessels of every description. But in
 most operations of the art, the revolving
 body is cut or shaved by applying a chisel,
 or other suitable tool, to its surface, while in
 motion ; a condition that requires firmness
 in the  axis of rotation, and also that the
 tool itself should be  steadily  supported.
 The instrument or apparatus for these
 purposes is called a  lathe.  Among the
 great varieties of lathes, it  is indispensa-
 bly required, for circular turning, that the
 work should be supported by two steady
 centres, or by  parts  equivalent  to  two
 centres, at  a distance  from each other in
 the axis of rotation,  and that the tool 
TURNING—TURPENTINE.
385
  should be supported by a steady bar, or a
  piece called the  rest.   A great  number
  of turned articles either have, or wiU ad-
  mit of a perforation  through their axis.
  All wheel-work, and  most of the articles
  turned in wood, are of this description.
  Clock and watch-makers accordingly use
  a very cheap, simple and portable  lathe,
  caUed a turn-bench, consisting ofa straight
  bar of iron, about five  inches long, with
  two cross bars or heads, about two inches
  long,  one fixed at the end of the long
  bar, and the other capable of being shifted
  by means of a socket and screw. In each
  of these heads is a centre-pin, terminating
  in a point at one end, and in a central
  hole at the other, Uke the centre-pin in
  the poppet-head of any other lathe; the
  use of which is to  afford point-centres
  when the points are turned towards each
  other, or hole-centres when the contrary
  is  the case; and lastiy, there is a  small
  rest, with its support, slidable and adjust-
  able  along the bar, as  In another  lathe.
  These instruments will  therefore  support
 any piece of four or five inches long, and
 three  inches diameter, between the cen-
 tres ; and the method of producing the
 rotation  is by passing  the  catgut suing
 of a bow once or twice  round the work,
 and drawing the bow backwards and for-
 wards with one hand, while the  other is
 employed in applying the tool. The turn-
 bench itself is held steady in a vice fixed
 to a bench or stand.  The common  lathe
 of  the turners  in wood, called  the  pole-
 lathe, is the same thing as the watchma-
 ker's turn-bench, but upon a large  scale,
 and a little varied.  Instead of the  hori-
 zontal bar, it  has two long stout  bars of
 wood, caUed shears, forming what is called
 the bed of the lathe, and its two  poppet-
 heads are upright blocks  of wood,  mor-
 tised in between  the shears, above which
 they rise and cany the centre-screws, and
 between  which  they are movable, and
 may be  wedged firmly at any required
 distance from each other.  The work it-
 self is either put  between the centres, or
 upon a wooden mandrel, and is made to
 revolve by a  string or  band, proceeding
 from  a long spinning pole at the ceiling
 or roof of the shop, round the work, and
 thence to  a treadle or foot-board, which
 acts by alternate  pressure from the foot,
 while the  workman  applies the  cutting
 tool with  his  hands.  In  these,  and all
 similar lathes, the rotation is made back-
 wards and forwards; and there are some
 kinds of work in  which such a motion is
 advantageous ; but in general it is much
preferable that the work should constantly
  vol. xii.        33
 revolve the same way as in the lathe usual-
 ly known by the name of the foot-lathe.
 The stronger, the firmer, and the better the
 workmanship of a lathe, the easier it wiU
 be to perforin work with expedition and
 truth ; but a good  workman wiU  make
 true and excellent work  with a very in-
 different lathe, by taking care to cut so
 little at a time, that the parts of the engine
 may never be shaken out  of their contact.
 Metallic lathes, if ever so  strong, have an
 elastic tremor, which makes it difficult to
 cut brass and bell-metal as firmly and
 smoothly as in  wooden  lathes;  but  the
 structure of the former admits of greater
 precision and truth.   The velocity of ro-
 tation  may be extremely swift in wood,
 slower in brass and bell-metal, still slower
 in cast-iron, and slowest of all in forged
 iron or steel.  The reason for these limits
 appears to be, that a certain time is requi-
 site for the act  of cutting to take place,
 and that the tool  itself, if  heated by rota-
 tion, will instantly become soft, and cease
 to cut  Steel and iron require to be kept
 wetted. Hitherto we  have  spoken  of
 plain turning, which is indeed the  most
 useful  and most universally practised.
 But many  other nice  and very curious
 operations are performed by this art.  If
 the poppet-heads, supporting the mandrel,
 be made regularly to move from  side to
 side, during the  rotation, or  the rest be
 made to approach to, and recede from,
 the work, any number of times in a  turn,
 the cuts will not be circular, but undu-
 lating, indented  or waved in any curve
 that  may  be required.   Work of this
 kind,  which is  chiefly done on watch-
 cases, snuff-boxes and trinkets, is called
 rose-work.   The  motion  is  commonly
 regulated by certain round plates of brass
 fixed on rfie mandrel, called roves, which
 have their edges waved,  and are called
 roses.   The act  of turning is so  exten-
 sively applicable,  that it would require a
 volume to describe its uses, and the meth-
 ods of practising it  The largest columns,
 the  most ponderous artillery,  and  the
 minutest pivots  of watch-work, with  all
 wheel-work, rotatory machines, vessels,
 fee, are worked in this method.
   Turnip. (See-tf/fpenrfu^endof this vol.)
   Turnpike ; a gate set up across a road,
 watched by an officer for the purpose, in
 order to stop travellers, wagons, coaches,
 fee, to take toU of them. In the U. States,
 turnpike roads are often called turnpikes,
just as mail-coach, hackney-coach, stage-
 coach, are shortened to mail,hack and stage.
   Turnspit.  (See Appendix to this vol.)
   Turpentine is a resinous juice extract- 
386
TURPENTINE—TUSCANY.
ed  from several  trees belonging to the
genus pinus.  The  common  American
turpentine comes from the pinus palustris,
which grows abundantly in the Southern
States.  English  turpentine  is from the
Scotch fir (P. sylvestris).  Venice turpen-
tine, which is more thin and aromatic, is
from the pinus larix.  Strasburgh turpen-
tine is from the pinus picea.  All these
kinds of turpentine, and  many  others,
known in commerce, are obtained by ex-
udation and hardening of the juice flow-
ing from incisions into the pine trees.
To obtain the oil of turpentine, the juice
is  distilled in an apparatus like the com-
mon still; water is placed  with the tur-
pentine, and the  residuum and  product
exceed the original weight:  250 pounds
of good turpentine produce 60 pounds of
the oil.  Sixteen ounces of Venice turpen-
tine,being distilled with water, yielded four
ounces three drams of oil of turpentine ;
and  the  same quantity distilled without
water, yielded,  with  the heat of a water
bath, two ounces only. When  turpen-
tine is distUled, or boUed with  water till
it  becomes  solid, it  appears yellowish ;
when the process is  farther continued, it
acquires a reddish-brown color.  The oil
of turpentine, caUed also spirit of turpen-
tine, cannot without singular difficulty be
dissolved  in alcohol, though turpentine
itself is easily soluble in that  spirit.  One
part of the oil may be dissolved in seven
parts of alcohol; but on standing, the oil
chiefly separates, and falls to the bottom.
  Turpin, archbishop of Rheims, to which
see he  was probably raised about 753,
died at the beginning of the  ninth centu-
ry.  He  encouraged literature by pro-
curing books to be copied, and enriched
the Ubrary  of his church, for which he
procured from Charlemagne many privi-
leges.  His name has escaped  oblivion in
consequence of its having been prefixed
to the romantic history of Charlemagne
and Roland, one of the grand sources of
the tales of chivalry of the  middle  ages.
(See Romance.)  From internal evidence
it appears  that this mass of  fable was
compiled in the  eleventh  century,  and
was translated from  Latin into French in
1206 and 1207, by a clerk dependent on
Renaud, count of Boulogne.  A more re-
cent  version was published by Robert
Gaguin, in the^beginning of the sixteenth
century.  The  original first appeared in
the  historical collection of  Schardius,
Frankfort on the  Maine (1566, folio); and
Ciampi printed (Florence, 1822, 8vo.) an
edition  of the work, With a preliminary
dissertation.
  Turcjuoise, or Calaite, is a  mineral
found only massive, having an impalpable
composition and a  conchoidal fracture ;
color blue, or green, often  bright; feeblv
translucent on the edges, or opaque; hard-
ness that of feldspar; specific gravity 2.83
to 3.00.  It is not dissolved by muriatic acid.
Before the blow-pipe, it becomes brown
in the reducing flame, and gives a  green
color to it   It is infusible by itself,  but
very easily so with borax or salt of  phos-
phorus. _ According  to Berzelius, it con-
sists of phosphate of alumine and lime,
silex, oxide of iron and copper, and a little
water.   It is found  in Persia,  either in
pebbles, or in small veins, in its original
repository, traversing a kind of trap.  Cut
and polished, it is used for ornamental pur-
poses.   It is commonly cut in  oval.  A
piece of fine color, five  lines by four and
a half, is valued at about forty-five dollars.
  Turtle.  (See Tortoise.)
  Turtle Dove.  (See Appendix.)
  Tuscaloosa,  the  metropolis  of  the
state of Alabama, is  situated  at the falls
on the Black Warrior, near the centre of
the state,  320 miles above Mobile,  160
south-west of HuntsvUle.   The name of
this town is  the Choctaw word for  Black
Warrior.  The first settlement was  made
here in 1816—17.  In 1821, it contained
about 700  inhabitants, and in 1830,1600.
It is the capital of Tuscaloosa county, and
contains the state and county buildings,
and the usual variety of dwelling-houses,
shops and offices, that are  found in  the
new and  flourishing towns of the  south
and west.   The  temporary log buildings
first erected here have not wholly  disap-
peared.  Tuscaloosa is 858 miles from the
city of Washington, and stands in lat. 33°
12' N, lon. 87° 42-* W.
  Tuscan  Order   of Architecture.
(See Architecture, vol. i, page 341.)
  Tuscany (Toscana); a grand duchy of
Central Italy, bounded north by Modena
and the States of the Church, east  by the
States of the Church, and south-west by a
part of the Mediterranean called the Tus-
can or Tyrrhenean sea.   It includes Elba
and some smaller islands;  is divided into
three provinces,  Florence, Pisa and Sien-
na ; chief  towns,  Florence (q. v.), the
capital, Leghorn (q. v.), the chief seaport,
Sienna, Pisa, Arezzo, Cortona, and Piom-
bino ; square  miles, 8390 ; population,
1,300,530.  The face  of the country  is
agreeably diversified with hills,  valleys
and plains.  The Apennines, entering on
the north, traverse the country in a south-
east direction.   In Tuscany, their highest
summits do not exceed 3000 feet,  some- 
TUSCANY—TUSCULANUM.
387
times  bleak and  sterile, but generally
covered to the tops with vegetation and
forests.  The country is well watered by
numerous streams:  the most considerable
are  the  Amo,  Cambrone  and  Chiana.
The  climate  is generally pleasant and
healthy,  except the Maremma, or mari-
time district  The  soil, for the most part,
is a rich  alluvial mould.  The chief ob-
jects  of culture are wheat, maize, beans,
peas  and  a variety of vegetables; also
clover and other artificial grasses ; vines,
mulberries, olives, oranges, lemons, figs;
and rice in the marshy parts.  Sheep and
cattle  are  numerous in the  mountainous
districts.   Near Pisa is a stud of camels,
established at the time of the crusades.
There are mines  of  copper, lead  and
quicksUver; also marble, alabaster, crys-
tal and  rock salt.   There  are  scarcely
any large  farms, but the land is  divided
into petty  lots, and the culture takes place
more  commonly by the spade than  the
plough.  Tuscany is no longer conspicu-
ous for  its manufactures: the most im-
portant  article is  silk.  The commerce
is considerable,  and  carried on chiefly
through the port of Leghorn.  The Tus-
cans  are well  formed, with a  pleasing
countenance, and, among all the people
of Italy, are most fond of the arts and sci-
ences : pohte and kind in their manners,
they are at the same time industrious and
gay.   The language of the Tuscans is
considered the purest and finest dialect
of Italy  (see Italian Language and Lite-
rature) ;  and in the history of letters and
art, the  names of Dante, Petrarca, Boc-
caccio, Galilei, Machiavelli, Giotto, Cima-
bue, Leonardo da Vinci, Michael Angelo,
 the Medici, &c, appear among the natives
 of Tuscany.  There are universities at
 Florence (200 students), Pisa (450), Sien-
 na (250).   There  is  an observatory at
 Pisa; and the  Florentine  academy, and
 the academy of fine  arts  at  Florence.
 Little has been done towards popular ed-
 ucation ; and, in 1818, there were 750,000
 individuals, or about three quarters of the
 population of the best educated  part of
 Italy, unable to read or  write.  The  an-
 cient names of this country were Tyrrhe-
i nia and Etruria. (See the articles.)  After
| the fall  of the Western Empire  (476),  it
passed successively into  the hands of the
Ostrogoths (see Goths), Byzantine Greeks,
and Lombards (q.v.),  under whom He-
truscia formed a  duchy.  The name of
 Toscana dates from this period.   Charle-
magne made it a Frankish province;  and
it was governed by marquises or dukes,
who, in  course of time, rendered them-
selves independent.  In 1160, the empe-
ror  Frederic  I  purchased  it  of the
Guelfs; but the towns endeavored to ren-
der themselves independent.   Florence
leagued herself with several cities against
the empire, while Pisa, at the head of oth-
ers, adhered  to the emperors.   For 300
yeare Tuscany was desolated by the con-
tests of the Guelfs and Gibelines.  (See
Guelfs, and Italy.)  In the middle of the
thirteenth century, Sienna was a flourish-
ing republic.   The country was next dis-
tracted  by the disputes between the no-
bles  and  the  citizens,  and, hi 1343, the
former  were  excluded from all share  in
the government in Florence.  Next came
the quarrels  between the  rich and the
poor.  The famUy of Medici finally ac-
quired  the favor  of the poorer classes,
and the sovereignty over Tuscany (1434—
1737).   During  this  period Pisa (1509)
and  Sienna (1557) were  conquered by
Florence.  Tuscany  became the seat of
refinement and the arts under the patron-
age of the Medici, (q. v.)   In 1569, Cos-
mo de' Medici had assumed the title of
grand duke, and, in 1737, the grand duchy
of Tuscany, on the faUure of the Medici
Une, passed to Francis, duke of Lorraine,
and, on his ascending the German throne
(see Francis I), to the house of Austria.
Napoleon formed the kingdom  of Etruria
of the  Tuscan  state (see Etruria, and
Lucca); but, in 1814, the archduke Ferdi-
nand HI again took possession of it.  The
congress of Vienna then incorporated the
Stato degli presidj,  the  principality  of
Piombino, with Elba and the enclaves,
with the  grand  duchy.  After the  death
of the archduchess Maria Louisa, Lucca
will also be attached to Tuscany.  The
present  grand duke, Leopold II  (bom
1797), nephew of the emperor  of Austria,
succeeded his father in 1824.  The reve-
nues of the  state amount to about two
and a quarter milhon dollars ;  the debt is
nearly four millions.  The grand duke is
an absolute   sovereign.—See   Pignotti's
History of Tuscany,  with an Account  of
the Revival  of Letters, Science and Art,
from the Italian,  by Browning (4 vols.,
8vo., London, 1826).
   Tusculanum ;  a  celebrated vUla  of
Cicero's near Tusculum.  It was the  fa-
vorite residence of the great orator,who not
only adorned it more highly than any of
his other villas or estates, but also gave in-
structions here in philosophy, and convers-
ed with his friends and disciples on those
subjects which are treated of in his Tus-
culan Questions. Tusculum (now Frasca-
ti), one of the chief cities of ancient Latium, 
388
TUSCULANUM—TWILIGHT.
 lay to the north of Rome, in a deUghtful
 region, which was so filled with gardens
 and villas, that the whole  distance from
 Rome  to Tusculum  seemed one great
 pleasure  ground.   According  to table,
 Tusculum was built by the son of Ulysses
 and Circe.  Upon the classic soil of the
 ancient Tusculum lies Ruffinella, an es-
 tate bought by the late king of Sardinia
 of Lucien Bonaparte. (See Frascati, and
 Lucien Bonaparte.)
   Tutenag.   This name is given in In-
 dia to the metal zinc.  It is also some-
 times appUed to a white metallic com-
 pound Drought from China (called  like-
 wise  Chinese copper), the  art of making
 winch is unknown in Europe.  It is very
 tough, strong, malleable, and may be/ea-
 sily  cast,  hammered and polished.  The
 better kinds  of it, when well manufac-
 tured, are very white, and not more dis-
 posed to  tarnish than silver.  Three in-*1
 gredients  of this alloy have been discov-
 ered  by analysis to be copper,  zinc and
 iron.
   Tutti (Italian plural, all); a word used
 in contradistinction to solo, to point out
 where the whole band, or all the instru-
 ments of the kind required, are intro-
 duced.
   Tweed, a river of Scotland,  which
 rises in the south part of Peeblesshire,
 Easses by or  near to Peebles, Melrose,
 [elso, Coldstream, from near which place
 it forms the boundary Une between  Eng-
land and Scotland, and runs into the Ger-
 man sea, at Berwick.
  Twelve Tables, Laws  of the.  In
 the year 454 B. C, the Romans deter-
 mined, at the suggestion of the tribunes,
that a new code of laws should be  pre-
pared.  An embassy was  therefore  sent
to  Greece, say the Roman  historians, to
examine the laws of that country.  Mean-
while the consulship and tribuneship were
both suspended, and a legislative body of
ten patricians  (decemviri), clothed with
dictatorial powers was created, B. C. 451,
A. U. 303.  They collected the laws and
customs, which were thenceforward to be
of general application in place of the
former partial and local laws, and thus
laid the foundation of a system of com-
mon and equal law.   This code was en-
graved upon ten oak tablets, to which two
othere were added in 450; hence the name
Leges Duodecim Tabularum (Laws of the
Twelve Tables). (See Civil Law, and Ap-
 pius Claudius.)  This account is found
 in  Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, &c.
 See Dirksen's Review of the Attempts hith-
erto made  towards a Critical Examination
 and the Restoration of the Laws of the
 Twelve Tables (Leipsic, 1824).  But it has
 been observed by LeUevre, in  his prize
 essay, Commentatio  de Legum XII Tabu-
 larum Patria (Louvain, 1827), that  the
 Roman  and Athenian constitutions and
 legislation were essentially different from
 each other, and that no traces of Grecian
 law are discoverable in the Twelve Ta-
 bles.  Cicero and the Greek writers  are
 also entirely silent as  to the supposed
 Grecian origin of  this earUest Western
 code.
   Twickenham; a populous village on
 the  Thames, about ten and a half mUes
 from London.  Between Richmond bridge
 and this village is  a rural walk, on  the
 border  of  the river; and probably no
 promenade of a similar extent, in any part
 of England, presents a display of scenery
 so. soft and so highly  cultivated.   The
 margin of the Thames is lined with state-
 ly dwellings, whose ornamental grounds
 descend to the water's edge; among which
 is the residence of Pope.  The house was
 not large, but  Pope took great delight in
 embellishing the grounds.  The weeping
willow, planted by him, perished in 1801,
and another has been planted on the spot.
Here he translated a part of the Iliad, and
wrote the Dunciad, the Essay on  Man,
the Epistles, fee, and hence are dated the
greater number of his letters; here, also,
he died.  His villa was taken down by
baroness Howe, in 1807,  and a new dwell-
ing erected about one hundred yards from
the site.  His grotto has been stripped of
its most curious spare and minerals, by
persons desirous of  procuring memorials
of the poet.  Strawberry hill  (Walpole's
 viUa), and its fine  collection of virtu,  are
 entire.  In the church of Twickenham
 Pope and his parents are interred.
   Twilight;  the  faint  light  diffused
through the atmosphere  by the sun, some
time before rising, and after setting. The
atmosphere, by means of the vapors and
clouds, refracts the  rays of the sun, and
turns them down on the un illuminated
 Earts of the earth.   The  morning twilight
 egins,  and the evening  twilight  ends,
when the sun is about eighteen degrees
below the horizon.   When he  is below
that point, the smallest stars are visible to
the naked eye, or it is entirely dark. The
duration  of the twiUght is various.  In
the equatorial regions it  lasts, during the
equinox, one hour  and twelve  minutes,
and increases as the  sun  recedes from the
equator.  At the poles, where there are six
months day and six months night, the twi-
light continues about two months, so that 
TWILIGHT—TYCHSEN.
389
 a great part of the half year's night is il-
 luminated.  It is doubly useful, since it
 shortens the night, and prevents,  at the
 same time,  the injurious effect, upon our
 eyes, of the sudden change from light to
 darkness.
   Twin ; one of two young produced at
 a birth, by an animal that ordinarily pro-
 duces but one.  It is calculated that of
 eighty  human births, one  is  of  twins.
 W hether twins are begotten contempora-
 neously or successively is doubtful.  Some
 examinations  seem  to render  the  latter
 more  probable.  Twins  are often  as dif-
 ferent in  body and disposition as  other
 jiersons.  They are often weakly after
 birth,  and require  especial  care.  Many
 rules are to be observed, during the birth
 of twins,  which this is not the place to
 state.—In astronomy, Twins, or Gemini, is
 a constellation of the zodiac,  so  called
 from the Dioscuri.   (See Castor and Pol-
 luxA
   Tyburn Tickets. (See Informer.)
   Tyburn Turnpike, at the west end of
 Oxford street, London, was  formerly the
 place of public executions.
   Tycho (Tyge) Brahe, a celebrated as-
 tronomer, descended from an old and no-
 ble family, was bom, in 1546,  upon his
 father's estate at Knub Strup, in Schonen,
 or Scania, a province then subject to Den-
 mark.   From early youth, he showed an
 inclination for the mathematical sciences.
 When  he  was fourteen years old,  an
 eclipse of the  sun, which  took  place ex-
 actly at the  time predicted by the astron-
 omers,  made  such an impression  upon
 him, that  be afterwards devoted himself
 with ardor to astronomy.   He was sent to
 the  university of  Leipsic to study law,
 but employed himself, while there, almost
 exclusively  hi astronomical observations.
 After his return to Denmark, he manied
 a peasant girl, upon his  father's estate,
 and  afterwards travelled to Italy and Ger-
 many, but refused the invitation of sev-
 eral  princes, who wished to engage him
 in their service, upon advantageous terms.
 Frederic II, king of Denmark, gave him
 a considerable salary, and granted him for
 life the small island of Hween (Hveii),
 lying in the Sound.   Here Tycho erected,
 at the king's expense, the castle of Urani-
 enborg, and an observatory. In this retreat,
 where he was visited by various princes,
 he framed that system  of the universe
 which  is yet known by his name.  He
 assumed the principle that the earth re-
mains fixed and immovable in the centre
of the  universe, and that the sun and all
the heavenly bodies revolve round it; but
                   33*
 succeeding  astronomers  have rejected
 Brahe's system,  and adopted that of Co-
 pernicus, (q. v.)  We are indebted to his
 observations for a more correct catalogue
 of the fixed  stare,  for several important
 discoveries respecting the motions of the
 moon  and the comets, and the refraction
 of the rays of light (q. v.), and for impor-
 tant improvements in astronomical instru-
 ments : they served also  as the basis  of
 Kepler's astronomical labors.  Tycho was
 likewise a skilful chemist, and found in
 poetry his recreation from severer studies*.
 He was by no means free from the predi-
 lection of his  time  in favor of astrology,
 and had  a  propensity  to  superstition.
 His impetuous character, and his fondness
 for satire, made him many enemies, who
 prejudiced Christian IV, the successor of
 Frederic II, against him, so that  he was
 deprived  of  his  pension.   On this ac-
 count, he accepted, in 1597, an invitation
 of the emperor  Rodolph II, who was a
 great friend to astronomy and astrology,
 to come to his court at Prague.  Here  he
 received a considerable salary and many
 aids in the prosecution of his studies; but
 he died  in 1601.   Tycho was, notwith-
 standing his faults and weaknesses, a re-
 markable  man for  the age in which  he
 Uved.  His works are  written in Latin.
 Such of his poems as  are yet extant,  do
 not possess much poetical merit.  The
 emperor  Rodolph  purchased  his  ex-
 pensive astronomical and  other  instru-
 ments; but they  were mostly destroyed
 after the battle on  the Weisseberg,  near
 Prague, in 1620.  A large  sextant alone
 remains  in Prague. The  famous brass
 celestial globe, which was six feet in di-
 ameter, and cost about 3500 dollars, re-
 turned to Copenhagen, after various ad-
 ventures, but  perished in the great fire
 of 1728.  Of the castle of Uranienborg,
 on the island  of Hween,  only the ruins
 are now to  be seen, in  digging among
 which, in 1823, Tycho's study was dis-
 covered.  A fuller account of the life of
 Tycho, and  a catalogue  of his writings,
 are to be found in a work entitled Tycho
 Brahe, &c, an essay by Helfrecht (Hof,
 1798).
   Tychsen, Olaus Gerhard, professor of
 the Oriental tongues at Rostock, was bom
 in the duchy of Sleswick,  in 1734.  He
 studiedat the gymnasium of Altona, where
 he acquired  a knowledge  of classical
 learning, and  also  became  acquainted
 with the Hebrew and Arabic languages,
previously to his removal to the university
of Halle.  There he added to his acquire-
ments a knowledge of the  English, the 
390
TYCHSEN—TYPES, PRINTING.
Hindoostauee and Tamul languages, which
he  was  taught  by  Schulz,  and  the
Ethiopic,  which  he studied  under Mi-
chaelis. Thus qualified, he was employed
by a  society for the conversion  of the
Jews  and Mohammedans; and, in  1759
and 1760, he  traversed various parts of
the north of Germany, Prussia, Denmark
and Saxony, on this mission.   Soon after,
he was appointed magister legens, at the
newly-founded  university  of  Biitzow,
where he received the professorship of
the Oriental languages in 1763.  This es-
tablishment being suppressed,  and  reunit-
ed to the university of Rostock in 1789,
the library which had been collected by
Tychsen,  and  of which  he  had  been
keeper since 1770, was removed to Ros-
tock, and still committed to his care.  He
died  in 1815.  His works are numerous,
including  Tentamen de variis Codicum
Hebraicorum Vd. Test. MSS. Generibus
(1772, 8vo.); Introductio in Rem Numa-
riam Muhammedanorum (1794, 8vo., with
a Supplement); Physiologus  Syrus, sive
Historia Animalium XXXII, in S. S. me-
moratorum, Syriaci  (1795,  8vo.);  tracts
On Samaritan Coins; On the Nail-headed
Characters of Pereepolis; and editions in
Arabic and Latin of Makrizi's works On
the Money  and  On  the  Weights and
Measures  of the Mohammedans.  His
papers and literary collection  were pur-
chased, after his death, for the university
of Rostock.
  Tympanum (Greek);  a musical  instru-
ment, used by the Greeks and Romans,
iiot unlike the tambourine, beaten  with
the hand, and much employed in reli-
gious ceremonies.—In anatomy, tympanum
signifies the membrane, or drum, of the
ear.  In architecture, it is the  flat surface
or space within a pediment.
  Tynbale, William. (See Tindal.)
  Tynbarides ; the twins Castor (q. v.)
and Pollux, and their sister Helena (q. v.),
so called from their father, Tyndarus, king
of Laconia.
  Type (from  the Greek rhr.os, from n-n™,
to strike); die; figure ; outline;  model.
These various  significations naturally
sprung from the first  The word has
been  received  into various modem lan-
guages.  In numismatics, it has retained
most of its original meaning, and signifies
the impression on a coin or  medal. In
philosophy,  it  has been used, and is still
used, in  its  most general sense, to desig-
nate those fonns which are conceived to
exist in the mind of the Creator, who reg-
ulates the universe (mens archetypa in the
scholastic phrase), and which determine
the character of all  individual existence.
Kant,  in  some passages,  has used the
word schema to designate something sim-
ilar.  In nature, type, according to  this
conception, is that form which gives the
character of similarity to all the individu-
als of a  species, and  at  which nature
seems  continually to aim.  To take but
one example:—In crystals we find that an
individual crystal  never presents a perfect
mathematical figure; yet we can show the
angles, the sides, &c.,of the mathematical
figure, which nature strives to produce in
each particular instance.   The  case is
similar in  the fine arts.  Though no an-
tique figure of Jupiter is precisely like an-
other,  nor any representation of  Christ
exactly similar to  the rest, yet there is the
same type in  all, which is  no  vague  con-
ception, but can be clearly described. We
must not  confound this with the  ideal.
The ideal, which  is  before the eye of the
artist, embraces all the peculiarities of his
particular  conception, as well as the gen-
eral characteristics of the type, and is that
image  which  he  strives to represent in
form or color.—In theology, type signifies
the representative  relation  which certain
persons, events and  institutions of the Old
Testament are conceived, by some  theo-
logians, to have to corresponding individ-
uals, events and institutions  in the New
Testament; e. g.  certain  sacrifices,  or-
dained by Moses,  are conceived to repre-
sent the great sacrifice of Christ—a view
of the Old Testament which  other theo-
logians consider as unfounded.
  Types,  Printing.   Printing, at  the
present day, is executed  with  movable
types, which are oblong square pieces of
metal,  each bearing a  letter  in relief at
one extremity.  The metal of which they
are made  is  an alloy, which consists es-
sentially of lead and antimony.  The lead
is selected in preference to other metals,
because it is fusible  at a low temperature,
and  retains accurately  the shape  it re-
ceives from the mould.  But as lead alone
is too soft  to sustain the friction and pres-
sure to which it is  liable in use, about a
fifth part  of  antimony is added.   This
gives it a  superior  hardness  when cast;
and  as this  alloy  has  the  property  of
shrinking  less than most other metals as
it cools, the type  receives all the sharp-
ness and finish, which it can  acquire,  by
filling every part of  the mould.  In mak-
ing types,  the letter  is first cut by an ar-
tist upon  the end of a steel  punch, an-
swering to the shape of the intended type.
This punch is driven into a piece of cop-
per, which forms the matrix, or bottom 
TYPES, PRINTING—TYPHON.
391
of the mould intended to produce the let-
ter.  As many varieties of punches must
be made of steel as there are sizes  and
species of characters required.  In cast-
ing, the types are  formed with great ra-
pidity, owing to the quickness with which
the metal cools.   An expert operator will
make  2000 or 3000 types in a day.  Some
machines  have  been introduced for cast-
ing types,  which  operate  with  much
greater  rapidity.  The characters upon
types are of course reversed, so that, when
they are arranged for the press, they stand
in an opposite  order  to that in which
they  appear  on the printed page.  Be-
fore  the types  are  applied to use, they
are ananged in the  cells, or compart-
ments, of a long wooden receptacle, called
a case;  each species of letter, character
or space by itself.   In arranging the com-
partments, the collections of letters do not
succeed each other in  alphabetical order;
nor are they all  of equal size.  Those let-
ters which occur most  frequently in print-
ing,  are required  in  greater numbers.
They are  therefore made to occupy the
largest  compartments, and  are  placed
nearest to  the compositor.  Thus  the let-
ter e, which is of frequent occurrence, fills
a large compartment,  and is nearest the
compositor; while the letter x, which oc-
cure much less frequently, is provided in
small  numbers, and placed at the extrem-
ity of the case.  In a biU or collection of
types  of the size called pica, weighing in
all 800 pounds, the number of the letter e
is 12,000; of t, 9000;  ofa, 8500;  of i,
n, o and  s, 8000  each;  of c there are
3000; of b, 1600;  k, 800; x, 400, z, 200.
This  is for  the English language.   In
other languages, the comparative frequen-
cy must be different  Different names
are given to the various sizes of types, of
which the foUowing are most employed
in common book printing:

Pica.—a bcdefghijklm
Small Pica.—a bcdefghijkl
Long Primer.—a bcdefghijkl
Bourgeois.—a bcdefgh ijklmno
Brevier.—a bcdefghijklmnopqrs
Minion.—a bcdefghijklmnopqrstuv
Nonpareil.—a bcdefghijklmnopqrstuv

(See Bigelow's Technology ; also the arti-
cle Printing.)
  Typhon (Typhoon, Typhonus, Typhos);
in the Greek mythology, a monster,  con-
cerning whom the  accounts are various.
According to Hesiod,  he was  the  son of
the Earth and  of Tartams, who begot
him in revenge for the defeat of the Ti-
tans and giants by the Olympian gods.
Eustathius relates that tiie Earth, grieved
at the defeat of the Titans, had fomented
discord between Juno and Jupiter.  The
former complained to Saturn, who gave
her two eggs, with directions to place
them  upon the earth, declaring that the
creature which should issue from them
would be powerful enough to hurl Jupi-
ter from his throne.   Juno  accordingly
deposited the eggs upon mount Arime, in
CUicia, but,  on being reconciled to her
husband, disclosed  to him what she had
done.  Jupiter prepared, therefore, to en-
counter the monster with his thunderbolts.
According to Pindar, Typhon then dwelt
in a dark cave, filled with poisonous ex-
halations (Typhoneum):   he  was  larger
and stronger than  any thing which the
Earth had borne.  His head reached the
stars; his arms  extended from  east to
west; instead of  fingers, 100 snakes pro-
ceeded from his hands; and around his
middle  were  twined dreadful serpents,
which raised themselves above his head,
and uttered  terrible hissings.  His eyes
darted fire..  Hesiod says, that  from a
hundred serpent heads flamed fiery eyes,
and   black  tongues  darted  from  their
mouths: sometimes he roars like a Uon,
howls like a dog, or hisses so  tenibly that
the mountains quake.  This description
answers to that of a tempest, which He-
siod himself declares Typhon to be.  He
is also described with wings, and is said
to have stormed Olympus  with masses of
heated rocks and flames of fire, and to
have  made a way to the dwelling of the
gods, with dreadful hissings.  The gods
fled to Egypt, and, when pursued thither,
changed themselves into beasts. According
to ApoUodorus,  Jupiter hurled his thun-
derbolts against him, and threatened him,
when he approached nearer,  with his ad-
amantine sickle.  The monster then fled
to mount Casius, or Caucasus,  where,
after a fierce conflict, he  bound the god
with his serpents, and threw him into a
cave.   He  then took from  Jupiter his
sickle, cut the tendons of his hands and
feet, and carried him to CUicia, where he
confined him in the Corycian cave.  The
tendons, having  been left in the  care of
the dragon Delphine, were stolen by Mer-
cury  and iEgipan,  who  cured Jupiter.
The latter now pursued Typhon to Nysa,
a mountain near  the  Serbonian  lake,
where the Parcae had  artfully detained
him by offering him refreshments.  But
Typhon again escaped, and fled to Thrace.
Here, on mount Haemus, ensued a furious
fight  Typhon hurled whole mountains
upon his enemy, but finally fled to Sicily, 
392
TYPHON—TYRANT.
where  Jupiter buried him under mount
iEtna.   Hesiod says that  he was thrown
into Tartarus ; and Pindar relates that the
Phlegraean fields in Italy were placed up-
on him, while his head reaches to jEtna.
By day  he spits out vapore, and by night
flames and stones.  By  Echidna, he had
Orthrus, Cerberus,  the Chimsera, and the
Lernsean hydra.  The Nemean lion, the
Hesperian dragon, the Caucasian vulture,
and the Sphynx, with all noxious winds,
were also his chUdren.  The whole fable
of Typhon  is nothing but a symbolical
representation  of  subterranean  winds,
earthquakes, volcanoes, and their destruc-
tive effects.
  Typhon;  an Egyptian deity, son  of
Satum  and Rhea, and brother  of Osiris,
Areris, Isis and Nephthys. His mother's
husband, according to Plutarch, was the
Sun, who, having surprised her with Sat-
urn, condemned her not to  bear  either
in a year or in a month. Mercury, anoth-
er of her lovers, relieved her in this emer-
gency.   By playing at dice with the Moon,
he won the seventy-second part of each
day,  and  of  this  composed  five days,
which he gave to Rhea, and which  serv-
ed the  Egyptians  as intercalary days to
complete their year.  Rhea gave birth to
the third class of Egyptian gods, and Ty-
phon was born on the third  of the days
thus  obtained.  Typhon  aspired to the
sovereignty of Egypt,  possessed by his
brother  Osiris.  His  designs  were for a
long time frustrated by  Isis, wife of Osi-
ris;  but the latter, while on his return
from a  tour round the  world, was killed
by his  brother, who cut his body  in
pieces, and threw it into the Nile. During
the reign of Typhon, all kings laid  aside
their crowns, in token that they had sub-
mitted to his supremacy.   When Horns,
the youngest son of Isis,  had grown up,
he overcame Typhon, after a  severe con-
flict,  and sent him bound to his mother.
Isis,  however, set him free, and the war
was  renewed.  Typhon was  defeated a
second time, and continued his flight sev-
eu days upon an ass. He now begot Hi-
erosolymus and Judaeus, who, according
to Tacitus, led the Jews  out of Egypt.
He is said to have escaped from Horus by
changing himself into  a crocodile.   Ac-
cording to another account,  Mercury or
Hermes conquered him, and made cords
of his tendons.  Herodotus says that he
hid himself in lake Serbonis (see the pre-
ceding  article), which was thence called
from him by the Egyptians.   His sister
Nephthys was his wife.  With the Egyp-
tians, he was an evil deity, the author of
all evil in the world.  His name is said to
signify the destructive south wind, which
dried up the earth: according to others,
it signifies the month of drought.  All
noxious and unclean creatures were sa-
cred to  him, as, for instance, the ass, the
hippopotamus and the crocodile ; and, on
certain  festal days, he  was made a sub-
ject  of  derision and ridicule.  In times
of excessive heat, of disease, &c, it was
customary to shut  up  some animals sa-
cred to him in a dark place, and threaten
them:  if the evil was not averted, they
were then slain.   Red-haired men were
treated  in a similar manner:  they  were
esteemed sacred to Typhon because  he
himself had red hair.   He is  commonly
represented under the  fonn of an ass, a
crocodile, or a hippopotamus. He is also
considered the symbol  of the sea, which
swallows up the Nile.
  Typhon, or Typho (ecnephius vibrans,
vortex);  the same as hurricane.  (See Hur-
ricane, and Whirlwind.)
  Typhus.  (See Fever, vol. v., p. 105.
  Typography.  (See Printing.)
  Tyr,  in northern mythology; the son
of Odin, brother  of Balder; not  to  be
confounded with Thor.   He was the god
of war and victory.  The Danes and Ice-
landers still call Tuesday, after him, Tirs-
day, or Tyrs-day.
  Tyrant (from the Greek rvpawos, which
signified an  absolute ruler).  The  word
did not  have originally the bad signifi-
cation which we now attach to it;  but as
it is a rule which admits of very few ex-
ceptions, that the possessor of uncontrol-
led power, whether individual, corpora-
tion  or  multitude, will abuse it,  tyrant
came at length  to signify an abuser of
power,  particularly of the chief power
in the state.  But all ranks and relations
afford instances of the misuse of power,
when unrestrained by other power, or by
interest  or affection. Towards the end of
the Peloponnesian war, the Lacedaemo-
nians established the government of the
thirty tyrants, so called, in Athens, which,
however, lasted only eight  months.  (See
Attica.)   In Roman history, the thirty ty-
rants were those generals who, under the
worthless government of Gallienus (from
259 to 268 A. D.), declared themselves in-
dependent masters of the provinces which
their armies occupied—Britain,   Gaul,
Spain, Rhaetia,  Illyria, Asia, Africa, and
even Italy.   But the legions themselves,
and  the successors of Gallienus, Claudi-
us and  AureUan, were victorious over
them.  The most known  among  them
are Posthumus, Lselianus, Lollianus, iEli- 
TYRANT—TYROL.
393
anus, Victorinus I and II,  Marius, Tet-
ricus I and II, Regalianus, Trebellianus,
•fee.   The  coins struck by  them, and
mostly very rare, are called the  " coins
of the tyrants."
   Tyre ; one of the most celebrated cit-
ies of antiquity, and, with its elder sister
Sidon, the richest  and most  important
commercial city  of Phoenicia.  The in-
significant village of Sur, or Sour, in the
 Siachalic of  Acre, now occupies its site;
 at. 33° 13? N.; lon. 35° 13*" E.; eighteen
miles south-west of Sidon.   Sour is situ-
ated on a neck of land which  was  for-
merly an island, but was joined to the
main land by Alexander, at the siege of
Tyre.   " There appear  to  have been,"
says Madden, "two cities of* that name
adjoining one another, the great Tyre be-
ing situated about five miles south of the
now peninsular Tyre, which appears, from
Strabo's description, to have been inhab-
ited only by sailors, and persons con-
nected with the shipping."   As early as
1200 B. C, Tyre was a powerful city, en-
riched by commerce and refined by the
arts.   (See  Phanicia.)  The ancient Ga-
des (Cadiz) and  Carthage  were  Tyrian
colonies.  Syria and Phoenicia had been
some time under the power of Alexander
the Great, when he made preparations
for the conquest of this  place.   Built on
an island, it was separated from the con-
tinent  by an arm of the sea half a mile
in breadth.  The conqueror made  several
unsuccessful attempts to take it; but he
at length  formed a  project to fill up the
strait,  and unite the  island  to the conti-
nent.  The  city was taken in the seventh
month after it had been besieged.  The
Scriptures reckon among the number of
the illustrious men of Tyre, king  Hiram,
the friend of David and Solomon.  Two
councils were held  at Tyre; the  first in
335, when Athanasius was stripped of his
bishopric and banished from Alexandria,
and the other in 448, the  result of which
was to absolve bishop Ibas, accused of
supporting the errors of Nestorius. Tyre
was the seat of an archbishop, subject to
the patriarch of Antioch, and had fourteen
suffragans dependent on  it.   Relics of
the splendor of the ancient city are every
where to be  seen, as, numerous and beau-
tiful columns stretched  along the beach,
ruins of an aqueduct, <fec.
   Tyre, ^Era of.  (See Epoch.)
   Tyrol, or Tirol ; a province of the
Austrian empire, bordering on Bavaria,
Austria, Illyria, the  Lombardo-Venetian
kingdom,  Switzerland,  and  lake Con
stance, comprising a superficial area of
1650 square mUes, and a population of
774,457 souls. Of aU the countries in Eu-
rope, Tyrol is the most exclusively moun-
tainous. The Tyrolese Alps extend through
the country.  Some of the most remarkable
summits are Ortler, Glockner and Brenner.
(See Alps.)   Tyrol  resembles  Switzer-
land : the valleys and  lakes are less ex-
tensive, the cascades less numerous; but
there is the same sublime scenery, similar
lofty and perpendicular  mountains, cov-
ered with perpetual snow and ice; the
same contrast of the beautiful and terrific,
of vineyards  and wastes, of uninhabited
summits, and populous valleys. No coun-
try contains a more romantic road than
that  over  mount Brenner,  along  the
Adige.   (See Alps, Roads  over.)   The
climate, in consequence of the height of
the mountains, is cold.  Among the pro-
ductions are  com, wine, silk, hemp, flax
and  tobacco.  The quantity  of corn is
not sufficient for the inhabitants. In many
parts the raising of cattle is the  principal
employment.  Almost  all kinds of min-
erals have been found; but the only mines
that  have been worked to advantage are
those of salt, iron, copper and calamine.
There  are  no  less  than sixty mineral
springs in the country. The Lech, Etsch,
Isar, Drave and Brenta rise in Tyrol. The
Inn,  which rises in Switzerland, trav-
erses it. The Rhine only touches its bor-
ders.   Lakes Constance  and Garda are
also  on its  frontiers.   The manufactures
of silk and of metaUic wares are the most
important; cotton and linen goods  are
also manufactured.  The position of Ty-
rol between Germany and Italy, and the
facilities  for  passing over the  Alps by
good roads, render it the theatre of con-
siderable  transit  trade.  The  Tyrolese
wander all over  Europe, and  are even
seen in America, peddling small wares ;
but they always return to spend their sav-
ings at "home.  The number which leave
the country annually in this way is esti-
mated at 30,000 or 40,000. The Tyrolese
are chiefly of German extraction; only
about 150,000 in the southern part of the
country being Italians.   The prevailing
religion is  Catholic.    The  Tyrolese is
gay,  lively, faithful, honest and ardently
attached to his country.   Hunting is the
chief amusement of the people. The es-
tates of Tyrol were  confirmed in their
former privileges in 1816. There are four
estates—the prelates, the nobles, the citi-
zens and the peasants.  The seat of the
government authorities is Innspruck ; the
principal fortress Kuffstein.  This  coun-
try was firet  conquered by the Romans 
394
TYROL—TZSCHIRNER.
in the time of Augustus, and at a later
period was traversed and desolated by
various barbarous  tribes.   The  Franks,
and, after the extinction of the Carlovin-
gian dynasty, the dukes of Bavaria, ob-
tained the sovereignty ;  but some of the
counts continued  to  be powerful.  In
1359,  Margaret Maultasche,  the only
daughter  of Qne of these, conveyed her
possessions  to  the  duke of  Austria;
and  Tyrol, has since belonged  to that
power,  with  the  exception of  a short
time from 1805 to 1814.  (See Austria.)
  Tyrrhenia, Tyrsenia ; the  ancient
name of that part of Italy afterwards call-
ed Etruria.  Niebuhr has proved that the
Tyrrhenians, or Tyrsenians, were a Pe-
lasgic race, and entirely different from the
Etruscans, who occupied the country, and
gave it their name at a later period. Much
confusion  has  been produced in history
from confounding the two nations.  (See
Etruria, and Tuscany.)
  Tyrtj-us, an ancient Greek poet, cel-
ebrated for his martial strains, is said to
have been a native of Miletus, who settled
at Athens in the capacity of poet, musi-
cian and school-master.  He is described
as being short, lame, and bUnd of one eye;
but he possessed  a manly and  elevated
soul.  In the war between the Lacedae-
monians and Messenians, the former were
promised  victory by the oracle,  if they
obtained  a general from  Athens.  The
Athenians, it is supposed in derision, sent
them Tyrtaeus, who so animated the Spar-
tans by his spirited strains, and aided them
so effectually by his advice, that the Mes-
nenians were reduced to subjection.  For
these  services,  the  Spartans treated him
with great respect, and granted him the
rights of citizenship.  The war poems of
Tyrtaeus must have been in high repute,
as Horace joins him with Homer in that
department.   He also  composed  Moral
Precepts, and a work On the  Policy of
the Lacedaemonians.  Some fragments of
his war poems remain, which are charac-
terized  by their   masculine  simplicity.
They have been published with the other
minor Greek poets,  and  separately by
Klotz  (Altenburg, 1767).   Matthia has
written a treatise De Tyrtai Carminibus
(Altenburg, 1821).
  Tyrwhitt, Thomas, a profound scholar
and distinguished critic, born in 1730, was
educated  at Eton  and Oxford, where he
took his degrees, and, in 1755, obtained  a
fellowship at Merton.  He was acquainted
with almost all  the European languages,
as well as those of classical antiquity.  In
1756, he  was  appointed under secretary
in the war department, and, in 1762, suc-
ceeded Mr. Dyson as clerk  of the house
of commons.  This office he resigned  in
1768; and the remainder of his life was
devoted to study.  His death took  place
in 1786.  Mr Tyrwhitt pubUshed a valu-
able edition of the Canterbury Tales of
Chaucer, with a Glossary (1778, 5 vols.,
8vo.; reprinted .Oxford, 1798,2 vols., 4to.);
DeBabrio (Gabriae) FabularumJEsopearum
Scriptore (London, 1776,8vo.); Audarium
Dissertationis de Babrio adjecit  Tyrwhitt
sua Orphei de Lapidibus Edit. (1781,8vo.);
Rowley's  (Chatterton's) Poems, with  a
Preface and Glossary  (8vo.*); Vindication
of the Appendix to Rowley's Poems, with
Observations on these Poems;  Poems in
English and Latin, which were his earU-
est productions.  Mr. Tyrwhitt likewise
left materials for a new edition of the Po-
etics of Aristotle, which was printed at
Oxford, in 1794 (4to. and 8vo.).
  Tythes.  (See Tithes.)
  Tytler, Alexander Fraser (lord Wood-
houselee), one of the senators of the col-
lege of justice in Scotland, was born  at
Edinburgh,  in  1747, and died  in  1813.
He published the Decisions of the Court
of Session in the Form of a Dictionary;
and, having been elected professor of his-
tory at Edinburgh, he printed,  in  1783,
Outlines ofa Course of Lectures on Uni-
versal History (8vo.), which  was followed
by his popular work Elements of general
History, Ancient and Modern  (2  vols.,
8vo.).  Among  the other works of lord
Woodhouselee  are Memoirs  of  Lord
Karnes, containing Sketches of the Prog-
ress of Literature  in  Scotland in  the
Eighteenth Century (1807, 2 vols., 4to.),
with a Supplement (1810,  4to.), and  an
Essay on the Life of  Petrarch (London,
1810, 8vo.).  Memoirs of bis life, by Ali-
son, were published in  the Transactions
of  the Royal  Society  of Edinburgh,
vol. viii.
   Tzschirner, Henry Theophilus, doc-
tor of theology,  pastor in Leipsic, and
professor in the  univereity of that city,
was bom in 1778, at Mitweida, in the
kingdom of Saxony.   In 1796, he entered
the university  of Leipsic.   In 1800, he
received permission to lecture in Wittem-
berg; but, in 1801, the circumstances of
his famUy obliged him  to undertake the
duties of the clerical office.  He continu-
ed his studies,  however, uninterruptedly,
and, in 1805, published  the firet part of a
History of Christian Apologetics, with a
preface by Reinhard; but  he never con-
tinued the  work, having become  quite
dissatisfied  with  the  plan  of it  In the 
TZSCH1RNER—U.
395
same year, he was appointed professor or-
dinarxus in Wittemberg.  In 1809, he re-
ceived a chair at Leipsic, where he show-
ed  himself a "rational supematuralist,"
adhering to  principles which  he subse-
quently developed in his Letters on Rein-
hard's  Confessions (Leipsic,  1811),  as
Reinhard had maintained that the  entire
separation of rationalism from supernatu-
ralism was indispensable. In 1814, he ac-
companied  the  Saxon  troops,  under the
grand duke of Weimar, as chaplain. After
his return from  the war, he published the
results of his experience in his work On
War (Leipsic, 1815).   In 1815, the corpo-
ration of Leipsic appointed him a minis-
ter in the city.  In 182.1, he published his
Explanation of Haller's Secession, and, in
1822, Catholicism and Protestantism in a
Political Point of View, which, in a short
time, went  through three editions, and
was translated  into English, French and
Dutch.  Both these works were occasion-
ed by Louis von HaUer's becoming a Cath-
olic.  (See Holler.)  Soon after, he mani-
fested much interest in the Greek revolu-
tion, and, somewhat  later, published his
Danger of a  German Revolution (2d ed.,
1823),  and System of Reaction  (1824).
In 1822, he undertook the  editorship of
the Magazine for Ministers.  In  several
works, he attacked the arrogance  of Ca-
tholicism and the  mysticism of Protest-
ants.   He also wrote a series of  Letters
ofa German to French Scholars (Chateau-
briand,  De la Mennais, Montlosier, Con-
stant).*  His last work was, How did it
happen that  France  remained Catholic ?
in Politz's (q. v.) Annals of History and
PoUtics.  He  died  suddenly, in 1828,
having many  works in contemplation;
among others, a History of the Church in
his time.  Tzschirner was enthusiastically
beloved by his fellow-citizens, and much
respected, even by the Catholics.
U.
U j  the twenty-first letter in the English
alphabet;  a vowel which is pronounced,
in most languages, somewhat like o.  But
the moutii  is less pointed, and the open-
ing of the  Ups, therefore, less round, but
closer, in pronouncing the former vowel.
The sound which we refer to  is that  of
the Italian or German u, corresponding to
the English oo, as in  tooth, or u in brute.
The  character u, in   English, like the
other vowel characters in this language,
represents  various  sounds,  as in  the
words tube, tub, bull.   The pronunciation
of u  in the last-mentioned word  is the
same sound short which we find long in
truth, rule and prudence.  The German u
is often changed, by the rules of grammar
and etymology, into ii, which corresponds
to the French u, as in plus.  The Ger-
mans early adopted the  alphabet of the
Romans, and, not finding there a character
for the French  «,  used the compound
character ui for this sound, being an inter-
mediate sound between i (as in pin) and

  * Edited  by  Krug,  though unfinished. The
same was the case with his intended Fall of Pa-
ganism, edited  by  Niedner, which would have
been probably his largest work.
u (as in brute).  Some,  however, soon
wrote it ue, which  became changed in-
to & and u, and these, in the current hand-
writing, into  ii, as  the e, in the German
current hand, may be easily changed into
two such dashes;  but, in German print-
ing, the sign put over the u, in such cases,
is stiU a small e.  In printing with Latin
characters,  the Germans substitute for *fi
ue, or ii.  In  the German words printed
in this Encyclopedia, we  have preferred
to use the two dashes, as the use of ue, or
it, might lead an inexperienced reader into
mistakes.   A similar remark is applicable
to the character 6  in this work.—U is so
nearly related to o,  that they often  pass
over into each other in various dialects.
(See our article O.)  The Latins called u
a vowel, but said that it often had  the
power of a  consonant,  which  we now
designate by v; and it is true that u, be-
fore  some  vowels, cannot well be pro-
nounced without partaking much  of  the
nature of a consonant, as in uaco, uelox,
sUua, now written vaco, velox, silva.  The
primitive sound of u in these cases, how-
ever, does not resemble the present sound
of v,  but that of  the English w, which 
396
U—UKRAINE.
corresponds to oo before  a vowel, and
therefore to the u* of many modern na-
tions, the Germans, Italians, Spanish, &c.
The sound which v has now acquired is
so different from  the  sound of u, that
there seems to be no  propriety in  min-
gling the letters in dictionaries and ency-
clopedias.  As the ancient Roman abbre-
viations were  made with  capital  letters,
and the character v was used for the cap-
ital form of both u and v, none of their
abbreviations belong to  this place.    U. S.
is  the  abbreviation of   United  States.
(See, also, the  vulgarism U. S., mentioned
in the article John Bull.)
   Ubes, St. (See Setubal.)
   Ubiquity ; a word made in the fashion
of the Latin of the scholastic phUosophy,
to signify  universal  presence.  Luther
gave the name of ubiquity to that quality
of the body of Christ by which it is pres-
ent  every  where  in  the  bread  of the
Lord's  supper.  The  term had already
become disagreeable, in consequence of
the heat of the firet disputes respecting the
Lord's supper, when the Lutheran minis-
ters  at  Bremen applied it, in 1556, in a
sense still more opposed to reason in their
controversies with the  Calvinists; and at
Wurtemberg, in the creed drawn  up in
1559, by John Brenz, it was made a fun-
damental point of the orthodoxy of the
church in that country.  As the Calvinists
acknowledged a real presence of the body
of Christ in the Lord's supper, though
only perceptible by faith, these Lutherans,
in order to make a marked distinction be-
tween themselves and their opponents,
started  the doctrine of the real mutual
communication of the qualities of both
natures in  Christ  (communicatio idioma-
tum), and strove to prove by it that the
body of Christ is  necessarily  present in,
with and under the bread in the Lord's
supper every where, without reference to
the faith of the communicants.  As this
notion  drew upon them  the  names of
Ubiquists and  Ubiquitists, and was expos-
ed to the reproach of similarity with the
Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, the
authors of the formula  of Concord (q. v.),
called the Book of Berg, declared explicit-
ly that the  ubiquity of  Christ's body does
not  take  place in a  material way.  In
1610, a new dispute arose respecting this
ubiquity between the theologians  of Tii-

   * The resemblance in sound between w and the
German u appears from the circumstance that, in
dictionaries intended to teach Germans  the pro-
nunciation of English words, u is written for to ;
for example, the English  wane is written uen.
In French, our w is expressed  also  by ou ; thus
 Washington is pronounced Ouashinglonne.
bingen, who zealously adhered to it, and
the theologians of Giessen; but the inter-
est in this question ceased with the ad-
vance of theological science.  The  Ger-
man Lutherans and Calvinists now gen-
erally agree that Christ is  present in the
Lord's supper to tiiose who receive it with
a proper spirit, but that it must, and safely
may be, left to each individual to decide
(or to leave undecided)  in what way this
presence, and the union  of his body with
the bread (unio sacramentalis)  takes place,
or is to be imagined.
  Ugolino.  (See Pisa.)
  Uguale, in Italian music; equal.
  Uhland, John Louis, a distinguished
German poet, was bom in 1787, at Tu-
bingen, where he studied  law from 1805
to  1808.   In 1810, he went  to Paris,
where he devoted himself principally to
the manuscripts of the middle ages.   He
published,  at a later period,  translations
of early French poems.  His earliest pub-
lished poems were written in 1804.   He
gave to the world a collection of his po-
ems in 1814 (3d ed., 1826).   In 1812,  he
was a practising lawyer  in Stuttgard.  In
1815, when a great political excitement
existed throughout Wurtemberg, Uhland's
patriotic songs became very popular, and
contributed not a little to strengthen the
patriotic spirit.  In 1809, he was  elected
a representative of Tfibingen, and has, we
believe, ever since continued in the cham-
ber.  Uhland  is undoubtedly one of the
best lyric poets of Germany.  There is a
truth, a warmth, an intensity of feeling, in
his  poems, which  stir  the heart.   His
patriotic songs are often noble, but would
have a far more elevated character if the
state of his country was  such  that, instead
of  being  the  poet of  Wiirtemberg,  he
could be the poet of Germany.   His dra-
matic  works—Duke  Ernest of Suabia
(Heidelberg, 1817) and  Louis of Bavaria
(Berlin, 1819)  are less distinguished.
   Uist, North and South.  (See Heb-
rides.)
   Ukase (Russian) signifies an ordinance
of the government of the Russian empire.
(See Russia.)
   Ukraine (the frontier; from the Teu-
tonic word Uker);  an extensive  country
in the south-east part of Russian  Poland,
now forming the Russian governments of
Kiev,  Podolia,  Charkow  and   Poltava;
lying between lat  48° and 52° N.  It is
watered by the Dnieper, which  intersects
it  in a  winding  course  from north to
south.  The  chief town  of Ukraine is
Kiev; the chief outlet  for its exports is
Odessa.   The surface is generally level;
and it is one  of the most fertile parts of 
UKRAINE—ULM.
397
Europe.  The heat of summer and cold
of winter are intense in this region.
  Ulans; a species of light cavalry, of
Tartar origin.  From the Tartars it was
introduced  into  Poland.   The Austrians
adopted it  next  ; the Prussians,  in  the
seven years' war; and, at the present day,
almost all armies have some of this cav-
alry, whose chief weapon is a lance, gen-
erally, or always, provided with a little
flag, in order to frighten the horses of the
enemy.  They are always light troops, and
are particularly useful in taking  squares.
(See Lance, and  Cavalry.)
  Ulema is the collective name for the
Turkish jurists,  considered,  at the same
time, as priests;  for the law of the Turks
comes from Mohammed, as well as their
reUgion; and the Koran  is  their code.
The chief of the ulema is the mufti, (q. v.)
After  him  follow the cadileskiere, of
whom there are  three, one hi Europe, one
in Asia, and one in Egypt.  They have a
vote in the divan, and appoint all tiie ca-
dis in their district  No one can become
a mufti  who has not been a  cadileskier.
The third class of the  ulema consists of
the mollahs (q. v.), who  are the  superior
judges in tiie provinces. After them fol-
low the cadis, who every where decide in
the first instance.
  Ulfilas, Ulphilas, or Wulfilas, was
born in Cappadocia, and, from 360 to 380,
was bishop of the Christian Goths in Da-
cia and Moesia (the Mceso-Goths,so called),
with whom he had a very great influence.
He induced them to adopt the Arian doc-
trine.  He was learned  for his  age, and
was sent several times as  ambassador to
the court of Constantinople.   The inven-
tion of Gothic letters is generally ascribed
to him; but probably the  Gothic written
character only  became  more  common
through  his  means.  He  translated the
Bible into the Moeso-Gothic dialect.  Of
this remarkable translation, the most an-
cient monument of the German language,
considerable  fragments have come down
to us, particularly the Gospels.  The codex
argenteus, so called, at Upsal, coptehis the
four Gospels, and  a manuscript  in Wol-
fenbiittel contains fragments of the Epistle
to the Romans (best edition by Zahn and
Fulda,  Weissenfels, 1805,  4to.).   The
zealous scholar  Angelo Maio (q. v.) has
discovered in the library at Milan manu-
scripts of Ulfilas, from which the breaks
in his translation may be supphed.
  Ullage of a cask, in gauging, is what
it wants of being fuU.
  Ulloa, don Antonio di; a celebrated
Spanish mathematician, born at Seville, in
  vol. xn.         34
1716, and brought up in the royal  ma-
rines, in which  he obtahied the rank of
lieutenant-general.  Having distinguished
himself as an engineer and  man of sci-
ence, he was, in 1735, joined in a  com-
mission with don George Juan and  oth-
ers, to measure a degree  of the meridian
in Peru.  He remained  nearly ten years
in South America on this  occasion,  and,
on his return to Europe, in 1745, was in-
tercepted, and  carried  into  an  English
port.  Here  his talents and character rec-
ommended  him to Folkes, president of
the royal society, of which he was elected
a member in the  same year.  On his re-
turn to Spain, he published his voyage to
South America (Rdacion historica del Vi-
age  a  la America  Meridional,  Madrid,
1748),  which  was  soon translated  into
German, French and English;  but  the
latter version (1758, 2 vols., 8vo.) is inac-
curate.   He was afterwards appointed by
Ferdinand III  to travel over Europe, to
collect information in regard to improve-
ments  in the arts, sciences and  agricul-
ture.   He promoted the  royal  woollen
manufactories,  newly organized tiie col-
leges of history  and surgery, superintend-
ed and completed the basuis at Ferrol and
Carthagena,  and gave new activity to the
quicksilver mines of Aliraadan.  In 1766,
he  was  made  governor of  Louisiana,
which  had been ceded to Spain. In 1772,
he published Noticias Americanos sobre la
America  Meridional, y la Septentrional-
Oriental,  containing disquisitions  upon
the peopling of America.  The Noticias
secretas  di  America, firet published in
1826 (London, folio), consists of the confi-
dential reports of Juan and  Ulloa to the
Spanish  ministiy,  which had  been sup-
pressed as discreditable to the country.
U'loa died in 1795.  He must not be con-
founded  with don Bernard, a  near rela-
tion, who published, in  1740, a work  On
the  Revival of  the Manufactures and
Commerce of Spain.
  Ulm, on the left bank of the Danube, at
the confluence of that river with the Iller
and  Blau, was  formerly a free imperial
city, hi 1803  was attached to Bavaria, and,
in 1810,  to  Wurtemberg.  It has 11,888
inhabitants.  The Danube at this place is
200 feet wide.   Its situation, in a military
point of view, is highly important; and it
would  be so likewise in  a  commercial
point of view, were it not for the ruinous
systems of imposts which clog the wheels
of trade  throughout Germany.  The  ca-
thedral  is  celebrated,  and,  though  the
steeple is unfinished, is one of the finest
specimens of* Gothic architecture. It was 
398
ULM—ULTRAMARINE.
begun  in  the  fourteenth century.   The
foundation  was  laid in 1377, and the
church was completed, as far as it went, in
111 yeare.   It is 152 feet high, and the
unfinished  steeple 337 feet high.    The
city capitulated to Napoleon October 17,
1805, and general Mack, with 24,000 men,
became prisoners of war.  It has been
repeatedly contemplated to make  Ulm a
fortress of the  Germanic confederacy,  as
Mayence is.   There is much manufac-
turing industry ia this place.
  Ulmin ;  a very  peculiar  substance,
which  exudes from  the trunk of a spe-
cies of elm, the  ulmus nigra.  It differs
essentially from every other known  body,
and must therefore be regarded as a new
vegetable principle.   In its  external ap-
pearance, it resembles gum.   It is  solid,
hard, ofa black color, and possesses con-
siderable lustre.   Its powder is brown.
It dissolves readily in the mouth, and is
insipid to the taste.   It is completely in-
soluble  both in  alcohol and  ether. M.
Dobereiner says, that gallic acid is con-
vertible into  ulmin, by combining the
acid with ammonia, and  exposing the
compound to oxygen.
  Ulphilas.   (See Ulfilas.)
  Ulpianus, Domitius; an eminent law-
yer, the tutor,  friend and minister of the
emperor  Alexander  Severus.   When
Alexander  became <-;mperor,  one  of his
first acts was to recall Ulpian, who had
been exiled by Heliogabalus, and to  place
him at the head  of his council  of state.
He was also made secretary of state, and
ultimately pretorian prefect.  He lived  in
great repute for his wise and virtuous ad-
ministration, until the emperor, probably
at his suggestion, undertook the danger-
ous task of reforming the army.   The
discontent of the soldiery broke out into
a mutiny, and Ulpian, pursued by a body
of them, was massacred in  the presence
of the  emperor  and his mother, in the
year 228.  Ulpian has obtained the praise
of aU  the heathens ;  but the Christians
accuse him of a determined enmity  to
them, which he  carried so far as to col-
lect all the edicts and decrees  of the pre-
ceding sovereigns against them.   There
are remaining of Ulpian twenty-nine  ti-
tles or fragments, which are  inserted  in
some of the editions of the civil law.
  Ultimatum (from  ultimus,  last),  in
modern diplomacy; the final conditions
offered for the  settlement of a dispute
between  two  governments.   Ultima-
tums are often as numerous  as the last
appearances of a distinguished actor; as,
for instance, the  long series  of Russian
ultimatums delivered to the  Porte  be-
fore the  last war between Russia and
Turkey.
  Ultra ; a prefix in modern politics, to
denote those members  of a party who
carry its  notions to excess.   In  1793,
those persons were called ultra revolution-
ists who demanded much more than the
constitution then adopted allowed. When
the Bourbons returned to France in 1815,
the words ultra-royalists  and  ultra-libe-
rals were  much used, and have  become
common  on  the  European  continent
wherever political parties are allowed to
exist.
  Ultramarine ;  a beautiful  and un-
changeable  blue pigment, which  was
originally  obtained  only  from the rare
mineral lapis-lazuli  (q. v.), but  which
has of late been manufactured artificially.
The method of preparing the ultrama-
rine from lapis-lazuli is as follows:—The
mineral is made red hot, and thrown into
water, to render it easily pulverizable.  It
is then reduced to a fine powder, and in-
timately combined  with a varnish, form-
ed of resin, wax, and boiled  linseed oil.
This pasty mixture  is put into  a linen
cloth, and repeatedly kneaded with hot
water: the first water, which is usually
dirty, is thrown away ; the  second  gives
a blue of the  first quality,  and  the third
yields one of less value.  The process is
founded on the property which the color-
ing matter of lapis-lazuli has of adhering
less firmly to the resinous cement than
the foreign matter with which it is asso-
ciated.  The  artificial ultramarine was
discovered by  M.  Guimet,  a  French
chemist.   He was led to the discovery by
accidentally  noticing a  fine  blue color
upon the hearth  of one  of his furnaces,
which color appeared to be identical with
that of the ultramarine.   The substance,
when analyzed, was found to  consist of
sulphur, sodium, silex, and alumine ; and,
by combining these principles in the pro-
portions found in the pigment, the  arti-
ficial URramarine was formed.  The new
product is said to possess a color equally
rich with \hat of the  mineral ultrama-
rine ; and it is now so extensively manu-
factured  as \o become an object with
painters and colormen, in point of econ-
omy, to substitut-e it in room of cobalt, in
the bluing of paper, thread, and  stuff, in
which this material has been  heretofore
employed. The discoverer has purchased
a situation near  Lyons, in which  he is
about  to  establish  a manufactory on a
large scale, so as to satisfy the demands
of commerce.  M.  Guimet has proved 
ULTRAMARINE—ULTRAMONTANISM.
399
by experiment, that a pound of his ultra-
marine of the second quality, and which
can be afforded at twenty francs, will blue
as much paper as ten pounds of cobalt,
which,  at  wholesale,   costs twenty-six
francs; and an  important  advantage of
the former is, that, on account  of its
lightness, it spreads more uniformly over
paper.  Siifce his success  in  this appli-
cation of the  new color, he  has tried it in
dyeing, and has obtained upon linen, cot-
ton, and silk, a degree of success which en-
courages the  hope of an ultimate and de-
cided superiority  over  indigo.   M. Gui-
met  offers his ultramarine  for  bluing
paper at sixteen francs the  pound.
  Ultramontanism (from ultra monies,
the other  side  of the  mountains, i. e.
Alps). As the nations north of the Alps—
France, Germany, <fec.—have been most
opposed to the  papal assumption of ab-
solute power, they have termed the en-
deavors of the  Roman curia to extend
the papal authority and destroy the con-
sequence of the national churches, such
as the  Gallican church, ultramontanism.
The name  has been particularly used of
late years, since the attempts of the Ro-
man court, during the reign of the elder
line of Bourbons  in France, to arrogate
powers wholly inconsistent  with the pres-
ent state of civilization.  We have spoken
of the influence of the pope in the mid-
dle ages, in the article Pope ; have given,
we believe, deserved praise to that great
man, Gregory VII (q. v.),  and have not
denied the  good which even the Jesuits
(q. v.) have  done; but the times have
changed, and that  influence, which, cen-
turies ago, was a benefit to nations dur-
ing the prevalence of  general disorder,
would be in the  highest  degree  detri-
mental at the present day.   Modern his-
toiy is made  up, in a great measure, of
the struggles  of the nations to disenthral
themselves from the control of the Ro-
man see ; and we may be allowed to ob-
serve,  that one  of the  circumstances
which have essentially contributed to the
developement of free institutions and the
general advancement  of  civil  govern-
ment  in England, has been the  absence
of foreign nuncios in that  country, since
the twelfth century, when the archbishop
of Canterbury was declared the perma-
nent legate of the pope.   She has thus
escaped the violent struggles against the
papal  power, which have  convulsed the
governments  and  nations  of Germany
and France.   In  the latter part of the
last century, the political influence of the
pope declined rapidly, and continued so
to do, until, under  Napoleon,  it ceased
entirely.   But, after the return of the
Bourbons, ultramontane principles were
more and more  boldly  proclaimed in
France, and, though sometimes  opposed,
were, on  the whole, favored by the gov-
ernment  This alone would have been
sufficient  to place the  Bourbons in de-
cided opposition to the nation, and, sooner
or later, bring on their  ruin.  A man
may be  a good Catholic, and yet wholly
opposed  to ultramontane principles; as,
for example,  most, perhaps all, the Ger-
man Catholics distinguished for learning
and talent are so.  Those  who explain
the canon law on ultramontane princi-
ples, are called curialists.  (See Curia.)
Ultramontanism may be briefly described
as the endeavor  to  render  the  Catholic
churches of the various countries  more
subservient to the pope than is  compati-
ble with the  existing ecclesiastical laws
of the various countries, with the rights
of the  bishops and  sovereigns,  with the
independence  and  intellectual  freedom
of each  country, and with various ele-
ments of Catholicism itself.  Its princi-
ples are decidedly in the spirit of Grego-
ry VII, who wished the pope to be bishop
every where, and to leave to the various
bishops  only  such rights and privileges
as he had not reserved for himself.  Gen-
eral  councils  were not to meet nor sit
without  his  permission,  and  national
governments, of course, to have  no influ-
ence upon national churches, farther than
the Roman see  should think fit.   We
do not  know whether we should treat
the infallibility of the pope as a  principle
of ultramontanism, since it  is a theory
almost entirely exploded among German
and  French  Catholics, even such  as in
other respects might be called ultramon-
tane.  Among the books  that have been
written ou this subject, are  count  Mont-
losier's work  against the  sovereignty of
priests—Memoire a  consulter sur un Sys-
tbne  religieux et politique, tendant a ren-
verser la  Religion, la Sociiti et le  Trone
(Paris, 1826).   The  three most eloquent
defenders of  ultramontanism, before the
revolution of  1830, were  count  de Mais-
tre (q. v.), M.  de  Bonald, and especially
the abbe de la Mennais, whose  work De
la Riligion considerie dans ses Rapports
avec  I' Ordre politique et civil, defends the
supremacy of the  ecclesiastical power
over the secular in all states, declares all
Protestants, and even the Jansenists, athe-
ists,  and affixes the same stigma to the
government, because the charte (q. v.) of
France allows freedom  of religious wor- 
400                   ULTRAMONTANISM—UMBER.
ship, &c.  The work was seized, and the
author  brought before the  tribunals;
but sixteen French bishops and archbish-
ops, among  whom  were two cardinals,
expressed, in decided terms, then* hostili-
ty to this kind  of ultramontanism, in an
instrument dated Paris, April 3,1826, and
put into the  hands of the king, April 10.
Hyacinth, archbishop of  Paris,  M.  de
Quelen,  and the cardinal de Clermont-
Tonnere, archbishop of Toulouse, wrote
letters in approbation of this step.  The
ultramontane periodical, the Giornale Ec-
clesiastico di Roma (which has now ceased
altogether), was prohibited  to be circu-
lated in France.
   Ulysses (in Greek, Odysseus); a king
of the islands of Ithaca and Dulichium,
son of Anticlea and  Laertes.   He be-
came one of the suitors of Helen; but, as
he despaired of success, he solicited the
hand  of Penelope,  the daughter  of Ica-
rius.  The rape of Helen did not long
permit  him to  remain in Ithaca,  and
he was  summoned to the Trojan  war
with  the  other princes of Greece.  He
pretended insanity, to avoid leaving Pe-
nelope ; but Palamedes, by placing before
the plough  of Ulysses his son Telema-
chus, convinced the world that the father
was not mad, who  had the providence to
turn away the plough from  the  furrow,
not to hurt his child.  Ulysses was there-
fore obhged to go to the war, where he dis-
tinguished himself by his  sagacity.   By
his means, Achilles (q. v.) was discovered
among the daughtere of Lycomedes, and
Philoctetes (q. v.) was induced to aban-
don  Lemnos.   He was not less distin-
guished for his activity and valor. With
Diomedes he   murdered  Rhesus,  and
slaughtered  the Thracians  in their camp.
He also introduced  himself into the city
of Priam, and carried away the Palla-
dium of the Trojans.  (See Palladium.)
For these services he was rewarded with
the amis of  Achilles.  After the war,
Ulysses was exposed to a number of mis-
fortunes,  before he reached his native
country. He was thrown upon the coasts
of Africa, and  visited the country of the
Lotophagi, and of  the Cyclops in Sicily.
Polyphemus seized him, with his com-
panions, five of whom he devoured (see
Polyphemus);  but  the prince, having in-
toxicated him  and put out his eyes, es-
caped from  the cave.  iEolus gave  him,
confined  in bags,  all the winds which
could obstruct his return to Ithaca;  but
the curiosity of his companions to know
what the bags contained,  proved nearly
fatal.  The  winds  rushed out, and all the
fleet was destroyed, except the ship which
carried Ulysses.  Then he  was thrown
upon the coasts of the Liestrygones, and
of the island JEea, where Circe changed
his companions into  pigs.  He  escaped
their fate by means of an herb which he
had received from Mercury ; and, after he
had obliged  the  magician, by force  of
arms, to restore his companions to their
original shape, he yielded to her charms,
and made her mother of Telegonus. He
visited the infernal regions, and consult-
ed Tiresias how to return .with  safety to
his country ;  and, after he had  received
the necessary information, he returned on
earth.  He passed along the coasts of the
Sirens  unhurt, by the directions of Circe
(see Sirens), and escaped the whirlpools
and shoals of Scylla and Charybdis. On
the coasts of Sicily, his companions killed
some oxen sacred to  Apollo, for which
the god destroyed the ships; and all were
drowned  except  Ulysses, who swam  to
the island of Calypso, where, for  seven
years, he forgot Ithaca, in the arms of the
goddess,  by whom he had two children.
The gods at  last interfered, and Calypso
suffered  him  to depart   Neptune, still
mindful  that  his son Polyphemus had
been robbed of his eyes by Ulysses, raised
a storm and sunk his  ship. Ulysses swam
to the  island  of  the Phaeacians, where
the kindness of Nausicaa,  and the hu-
manity of her father, king Alcinous, en-
tertained  him for a  while.   He related
his misfortunes to the monarch, and was
conducted in a ship to Ithaca, after an ab-
sence of twenty yeare.  He was informed
that his  palace was  besieged by suitors,
who continually disturbed the peace of
Penelope; and, therefore, he assumed the
habit of a beggar, by the advice of Mi-
nerva,  and made himself known to  his
son and his faithful  shepherd Eumaeus.
The suitors were put to death, and Ulys-
ses restored to peace and the bosom of
his family.  He lived about sixteen years
after his return, and was at last  killed by
his son  Telegonus,  who had landed in
Ithaca, with the hopes of making him-
self known to his father.   The  adven-
tures of  Ulysses on  his return are  the
subject of Homer's Odyssey.
   Umbagog ; a lake  in  New Hampshire
and Maine, lat. 44° 42' N.  The  greater
part of it is in Maine: the part belonging
to New Hampshire  is within the town-
ships of Errol and  Cambridge.  It  is
eighteen miles long and ten broad.
   Umber, or Umbre  (Italian ombria), in
painting; a kind of dry, dusky-colored
earth,  which, diluted with  water,  serves 
UMBER—UNIGENITUS DEI FILIUS.
401
to make a dark-brown color, usually called
with us a hair color.  This substance was
originally obtained  from Ombria, the an-
cient name of the  duchy of Spoleto, in
Italy.
   Umpire.  (See Arbitrator.)
   Uncial  (Latin,  uncia, a twelfth);  a
terni applied to letters standing for words
in inscriptions and epitaphs. Manuscripts
written with uncial letters possess, from
that circumstance, a proof of considera-
ble age, since these characters  have not
been in use since the  seventh century.
   Unction, Extreme, has been,  since
the  twelfth  century, one of the seven
sacraments (q. v.) of the Catholic church:
the  council of Trent also declares it to
be a sacrament (sess.  xiv, canon  1 et
seq.).  It is performed, in cases of mortal
disease, by anointing  the head,  the hands
and the feet with  oil  consecrated by the
bishop, and  accompanied with prayers.
(See Chrism.)  As it has, according to the
opinion  of the  Catholics,  sacramental
power (that is, it effects the purification
of the dying person from his sins, and a
communication of the divine forgiveness),
it can  only be administered by a bishop
or priest; and, because  it requires  piety
on the part of those who receive  it, it is
allowed to such sick  pereons only as are
permitted to partake of the Lord's supper.
Small children and excommunicated per-
sons are, therefore, not permitted to re-
ceive it   The Catholic  church derive
their opinion  of the efficacy of extreme
unction from the custom of the apostles
to anoint the sick with oil, accompanied
with prayer (James  v,  l4  and  15), in
order,  by this  means, to console them
and promote  the good  of their souls.
The Protestants deny  the sacramental
signification and power of this ceremony,
because nothing is known  of a formal
establishment of it by  Christ himself.  In
the Greek church, it is administered, not
only to  dying persons, but generally, in
diseases of all  kinds,  as  tending to pro-
mote the restoration  of health and the
forgiveness of sins.
   Underwalden.  (See Unterioalden.)
   Unicorn.  According to  Von  Zach's
examination  of the accounts  given, in
ancient and modem times, of the unicorn,
the  opinion  of its  fabulous  character,
which  has prevailed  since the time  of
Buffon, does not rest on sufficient grounds.
In the country of the ancient  Meroe, a
beast of this description is found, of the
size of a cow, and the form of an antelope;
and  the  male  has  upon his forehead a
long and straight hom.
                 34*
  Uniformity, Act of.  (See Non-Con-
formists.)
  Unigenitus  Dei Filius, &c, are the
firet words of a  bull  issued by pope
Clement XI, in 1713, which,  under the
name of Constitution of Unigenitus, has
acquired a celebrity very dangerous to the
papal authority and  the  peace of the
Catholic church.  This bull  condemns
101 propositions drawn from the work of
Pasquier Quesnel, priest of the oratory
(q.  v.J,  entitled Le  nouveau  Testament
traduit en  Franpais,  avec des  Riflexions
morales.  Those who  adhere to the bull
say that the doctrines contained in those
101 propositions had  been  already con-
demned  in the writings of Baius and
Jansenius.  (q. v.)   Against  the reproach,
that the pope had condemned  the propo-
sitions in  mass,  without teaching any
religious truth, so that the bull could not
serve  as a rule of faith, the " constitution-
ists,"as the adherents of the "constitution"
were  called,  say that the " anti-constitu-
tionists"  were equally regardless of the
bull of Innoceni X, which, nevertheless,
censured every error of Jansenius in par-
ticular ; and as regards the charge that
the condemnation of  Baius,  Jansenius
and Quesnel was occasioned  mainly  by
an intrigue of the Jesuits against  the
Jansenists,  they say, that it is unnecessary
to investigate this  point, or  whether the
Jesuits are really enemies to  the  adhe-
rents of St Augustine's doctrine,  since
the condemnation has been  pronounced
and confirmed by four or five  successive
popes, and that similar doctrines  were
condemned by the church before the in-
fluence of the Jesuits existed, as those  of
the predestinarians, in the fifth century,
of Gothescalc, in the ninth, and those  of
Calvin,  condemned by  the council  of
Trent, in 1547, when the society of Jesu-
its was  just beginning to exist, having
been founded in 1540.—The reader who
wishes to see the views of the anti-con-
stitutionists further treated  must be re-
ferred to works written on  this subject,
also to the article Unigenitus, in the Dic-
tionnaire de Thiologie, Extrait de  VEn-
cyclopidie Mithodique (Toulouse, 1817).
We will now state the case  as  viewed  by
those  who  consider  themselves disin-
terested  judges.  In  order  to strike a
deadly blow at the Jansenists,  the Jesuit
party at the court of Louis XIV, especial-
ly the confessor of the king, Le Tellier,
projected the bull unigenitus, and extort-
ed it  from the  pope.  The 101 proposi-
tions condemned—though those respect-
ing grace wUl not be acknowledged by 
402
UNIGENITUS DEI  FIL1US.
all Christians—were taken, almost literal-
ly, either from  the  Bible  or other ac-
knowledged authorities of the Catholic
church.  Quesnel, who,  after his exile,
lived in Amsterdam, was considered by
the Jesuits as the principal champion of
the Jansenists since the death of Arnauld
and Nicole.  The hatred of the  Jesuits
towards him and the  archbishop of Paris,
cardinal Noailles, who was almost  uni-
vereally revered,  and who  had publicly
recommended Quesnel's  work, and  hon-
orably   maintained   his  independence
against Le Tellier, affords an explanation
of this  arbitrary  measure.   The world
was astounded to see the papal condem-
nation  extended, not merely to those
passages in which  Quesnel,  as  a  true
Jansenist, ascribed to divine grace an un-
conditional and irresistible influence upon
the human heart,  but also to those which
insisted upon  purity of  motives,  on the
necessity of true  religious love of virtue,
and reconciliation with God, on the gen-
eral use of the Bible,  on the correction of
the morals of the clergy, and the necessi-
ty of a conscientious fulfilment of  their
duties;  and was unable to  understand
why the chief of the Roman church had
yielded so far to the Jesuits and the
French court as to issue, under his name,
a  denunciation of some of the  funda-
mental  truths of Christianity;  for the
bull was considered as such, not only by
many Jansenists,  but also by many other
Catholics in  foreign countries.   The
French parliament, cardinal NoaiUes, with
a  large part of the  French clergy, the
majority of the theologians of Sorbonne,
even the French ladies (from whom the
bull, by condemning  the passage of Ques-
nel " that women ought to be allowed the
means of a thorough  knowledge of re-
ligion and the holy Scriptures," withholds
the fundamental right of Christians), and
public  opinion,  either  openly declared
against this bull—which was universally
considered as the production of the  Jesu-
its—or actively  opposed  it  in  private;
whilst the Jesuits, through  the king, used
all the means of power and persuasion
to make the  bull a law  of the realm.
But, though a  large  number could  be
won over  by royal decrees, by bribes,
threats, and the  arrest of some refractory
 persons of lower rank, yet nothing was to
 be effected by these  means against the
 parliament and  the  archbishop.  The
 former would not enrol the bull  as a
 law of the kingdom, except on certain
 conditions, which invalidated it almost
 entirely ; the  latter at  first refused  to
publish the bull;  an.l when  he did pro-
claim it at a  later period, it  was  with
explanations which greatly mitigated  its
rigor.  During this contest,  Louis XIV
died, without having obtained a complete
victory.  The  streets of Paris  resounded
with songs in  ridicule of the  " constitu-
tion ;" the Parisians gave its  name,  Uni-
genitus,  to the natural daughter of  i.s
bearer, the  papal  nuncio Bentivoglio;
numerous pamphlets were written on the
question; and all France became divided
into  " constitutionists" or " acceptants,"
and  " anti-constitutionists," " recusants,"
or "opponents."  During the regency,
which was not favorable to  the Jesuits,
several bishops,  in connexion with the
members of the Sorbonne and the arch-
bishop of Noailles,  dared  to appeal,
against the bull, to a general council; and
thus the  opposition  party, which was
supported by the most distinguished uni-
versities  and  ecclesiastical corporations,
received  the  name of appellants.   This
party became divided,  when Noailles
agreed, in 1720, to sign the bull condition-
ally, and  thus excited  against himself the
zealous appellants.   Louis XV, and his
minister Fleury, who was desirous of the
cardinal's hat,  and therefore flattered the
Jesuits, treated the  appellants with great
severity;  the  priests belonging  to the
party were discharged; the laymen were
refused the sacraments;  at length, the
court, in 1728, induced the archbishop of
Paris, then eighty years old,  to sign the
bull unconditionally; and, in 1730, the par-
Uament was forced to register it without
reservation, by which it became a law of
the land.  The persecuted appellants re-
mained, nevertheless, active, and, in 1752,
the  parUament  ventured  on  new  and
bold steps to remedy the cruel refusal of
the sacrament.  The contest  broke out
with  renewed bitterness, and  at length
was assuaged by  a  moderate brief of
Benedict XIV, which  ordered severity
against open appellants only.   In addition
to this, the order of the Jesuits was abol-
ished ; a consequence of which was natu-
rally the gradual decrease of the impor-
tance of the  unhappy bull Unigenitus  in
France.   In  other Catholic  countries  it
had been  adopted, indeed, but little ob-
served, as the whole  scope of it was  di-
rected against a party in France.   In the
Austrian monarchy, where some bishops
had published  it,  it was formally sup-
pressed  in 1781, together with the bull
In Cana Domini.  It now belongs only to
history,  as the popes themselves do  not
insist on it as a rule of faith. 
UNION CANAL—UNITED BRETHREN.
403
  Union Canal.  (See Canals.)
  Unison; that consonance, or coinci-
dence  of sounds, proceeding from an
equahty in the number of vibrations made
in a given time by two sonorous  bodies;
or the union of two  sounds, so  directly
similar to each other in respect of gravity
or acuteness,  that the ear, perceiving no
difference, receives them as one and the
same.  The ancients were much divided
in opinion respecting the question whether
the  unison be a consonance.  Aristotle
speaks in the  negative. Muris Mereennus,
and others,  declare  in the  affirmative.
The decision of  the  question, however,
depends  on  the definition we give to the
word consonance.   If by a  consonance
we  only understand two or more sounds
agreeable to the ear, the unison is a con-
sonance ; but if we include in the conso-
nance sounds of a different pitch, that is,
sounds less or more acute with respect to
each other, the unison, by its own  defi-
nition, is not  a consonance.
  Unitarians.  (See Appendix,  end of
this volume.)
  Unitas   Fratrum.    (See  United
Brethren.)
  United  Brethren  (Protestant), or
Unitas Fratrum ; the official denomi-
nation of tiie  religious society common-
ly known  by the name  of Moravians.
This society  was originally  formed by
descendants of the Bohemian and Mora-
vian Brethren  (see Bohemian Brethren),
who, being persecuted for their reUgious
tenets, and non-conformity in their native
country,  founded a colony, under  the
patronage of  count Zinzendorf (q. v.), on
an  estate of  his, called  Berthelsdorf, in
Upper Lusatia, in the year 1722, to which
colony the name  of Herrnhut was given,
on  account of its  situation on the south-
ern declivity  of a hUl called the Hutberg.
It was not until the number of emigrants
from Bohemia and  Moravia, who there
found  an asylum,  had considerably in-
creased,  and many religiously disposed
persons from other  quarters, attracted by
their pious zeal and their  sufferings, had
settled along  with them, that the diversity
of sentiments, perceptible among so many
zealous Christians  of various modes of
{thinking, suggested to them the propriety
of some  general agreement  concerning
faith and mles of conduct.  Accordingly,
under the guidance of count  Zinzendorf,
who, from an early age, had entertained
an idea of constituting a Christian com-
munity, on the model of the primitive
apostoUc congregations,  certain  articles
of  union were proposed among  them,
which, leaving all the distinctive doctrines
of the  various Protestant denominations
of Christians entirely out of the question,
adopted,  as  articles of faith, only those
fundamental  Scripture  truths in which
they all agree, and, at the same time, in-
troduced a system of social compact and
church discipline resembling that of the
ancient church of the Moravian Brethren,
and intended to form a society in some
degree such as the primitive churches are
represented  to have been.  All the in-
habitants of  Herrnhut, after mature con-
sideration, adopted this  social scheme
and these statutes,  by the name  of  a
brotherly agreement, and pledged  them-
selves mutually  to  its observance, in the
year 1727, and thus fonned the firet stock
of the present society of United Brethren.
Count  Zinzendorf was justly, in some
measure, considered the founder of the
society, to which he thenceforward de-
voted his whole life, property and energy.
It will be readily  conceived,  however,
more especially after observing that  fur-
ther emigrations  from Bohemia and  Mo-
ravia were checked  by the Saxon gov-
ernment at au early period, that the de-
scendants of the firet emigrants, at  this
day, constitute but a small proportion of
the present society.  Individuals from all
Protestant denominations,  coinciding in
the fundamental doctrines of Christianity
common to all, and professing a desire to
lead a truly Christian life, as membere of
such a community,  under its peculiar
regulations, were, from the beginning, ad-
mitted among them, without  renouncing
their original church and creed.   On the
contrary, to facilitate the maintenance of
their connexion withtheiroriginalchurch-
es,  the society expressly includes three
different  tropes or  modifications within
its pale, the Lutheran, the Reformed and
the Moravian, which latter comprises all
other  Protestant denominations.  Expe-
rience has taught, that these  differences,
among pereons  so  intimately  associated,
vanish of themselves to such a degree, that
the original  idea of these tropes  is  now
maintained  only as  an evidence  of the
principle of their union, while its prac-
tical consequences have  become  alto-
gether imperceptible. The United Breth-
ren, however, continue strenuously to ob-
ject to  being considered a separate sect or
denomination, because their union is ex-
clusively founded  on general Christian
doctrines, and their peculiarities relate
solely to their social  organization, which
is intended  only to facilitate  their joint
purpose of putting truly Christian princi- 
404
UNITED BRETHREN.
pies of life and conduct into actual prac-
tice.  They consequently admit of no pe-
culiar  articles of  faith, confining them-
selves altogether to regulations of conduct
and discipline.  As a body, they have at
all  times,  when  required  by  govern-
ments to point out their creed, professed
general adherence  to  the  Confession
of Augsburg,  as  most congenial to the
views  of  a  majority;  and,  although
they do not pledge their  ministers to an
express adoption of its articles, it is agreed
among them not to insist upon any doc-
trines utterly  repugnant thereto.   They
avoid discussions  respecting the specula-
tive truths of religion, and insist upon in-
dividual experience of the  practical effi-
cacy of the gospel,  in producing a real
change of sentiment  and  conduct, as the
only essentials in religion.  They consider
the manifestation of God  in  Christ  as
intended to be the most beneficial revela-
tion of the Deity to the human race; and,
in consequence, they make the life, merits,
acts, words, sufferings and death of the Sa-
vior the principal theme of their doctrine,
while they carefully avoid entering into any
theoretical disquisitions on the mysterious
essence of the Godhead, simply adhering to
the words of Scripture.  Admitting the
sacred Scriptures as the only source of di-
vine revelation, they nevertheless believe,
that the Spirit of God continues  to  lead
those who believe in Christ into all further
truth, not  by revealing  new doctrines,
but by teaching those who sincerely de-
sire to learn, daily better to  understand
and apply  the truths which the Scrip-
tures contain.  They believe, that, to live
agreeably  to  the  gospel, it  is essential to
aim, in all things, to fulfil the will of God.
Even in their temporal concerns, they en-
deavor to ascertain the will of God: they
do not, indeed, expect  some  miraculous
manifestation  of  his wUl,  but  only en-
deavor to test the purity of their purposes
by the light of the divine word.  Noth-
ing of consequence  is done by them, as
a society, until such  an examination has
taken place;  and, in cases of difficulty,
the question  is decided by lot, to avoid
the undue preponderance  of  influential
men, and in the humble  hope that  God
will guide them  right by its decision,
where their  limited understanding fails
them.   In former times, the maniages
of the members of the society were, in
some respects, regarded  as  a  concern of
the society, as it was part of their social
agreement, that none should take place
without the approval of the elders; and
the elders' consent or refusal was usually
determined by lot.  But this custom was
at length abandoned ; and nothing is now
requisite  to  obtain  the  consent  of the
elders, but propriety of conduct in the
parties.   They  consider none of  their
peculiar regulations essential, but all lia-
ble to be altered or abandoned, whenever
it is found necessary, in order  better to
attain their great object—the promotion
of piety.  Such alterations are  effected
through  the  medium of  their synods.
The society early undertook to propagate
the gospel among heathen nations.  The
success of their  attempts in this  respect
is generally known, and a  great propor-
tion of their energy is at this day devoted
to this object  In the prosecution there-
of, circumstances occurred, which, com-
bined with the increase  of its  numbers,
and certain  difficulties in  their way at
Herrnhut, induced  the society to plant
colonies, on the  plan of the mother soci-
ety there,  in different  parts of Germany,
England,  Holland,  America, &c, all  of
which, together,  now constitute the Unity
of the  Brethren.  Each individual colony,
called a place congregation, is  indepen-
dent in its individual concerns, under the
superintendence, however,  of the board
of general directors of the Unity; which
superintendence, in  England and Ameri-
ca, is  administered  by subordinate local
boards, in  respect to all things not of a
general nature ; but they are  responsible
to the general board of the directors, at
present  situated at Berthelsdorf,  near
Herrnhut, and denominated the board of
elders of the Unity.  The appointments of
all the ministers and officers of each com-
munity  rest exclusively with this board.
In England and  America, however, these
are committed to the  local boards.  To
them  is further committed  the  direction
of all general objects of the whole society,
such  as their heathen  missions, the sup-
port of superannuated ministers and their
widows, and the education of the  chil-
dren  of such of these as are  without
means of  their own.  For, as the  princi-
ples and  circumstances  of the  society
prevent them  from  allotting a  greater
salary to  any officers  than their decent
maintenance requires, those among them
who are not possessed of fortunes, cannot
lay by any thing for their old age, or  for
the  education  of  their  children: the
charge of these, therefore, devolves upon
the whole society.
  The economical  affaire  of each  indi-
vidual community  are administered  by
one of the elders of that particular com-
munity, with the concurrence of a com- 
UNITED BRETHREN.
405
 mittee elected biennially from among the
 inhabitants, generally by the votes of all
 male members, or  by  an  intermediate
 body thus elected. The objects for which
 each community has thus  to provide, are,
 the erection and maintenance of a church,
 the support of the active ministers and oth-
 er officers, of proper schools, and all other
 things necessary for the well-being of the
 community and the preservation of  good
 order, while the individuals composing
 it are as entirely independent in  their
 private property  as any  other  persons
 whatever; each carrying on his particular
 business, for  his own profit, and upon his
 own responsibility.  A contrary impres-
 sion, viz. that there exists a community
 of goods among them, is still very preva-
 lent, especially in America.  This is at-
 tributable to the fact, that, when  their
 colonies in America were  commenced, it
 was for some  years found  necessary to
 combine the  efforts of all the members,
 in order to  maintain themselves amid
 their difficulties ; and, although each in-
 dividual retained the absolute disposal of
 any property, before his  own, their joint
 earnings, for the time, went into a com-
 mon stock, from which their daily neces-
 sities  were  supplied.   This  unnatural
 state of things, however, continued no
 longer than it was imperiously necessary.
 Many other erroneous conceptions have
 become prevalent,  concerning the  eco-
 nomical concerns of this society.  The
 original membere  of it  had nothing to
 depend on  but their industry.   Count
 Zinzendorf and some of his  nearest con-
 nexions sacrificed the whole of their es-
 tates in the  various undertakings, mis-
 sions and colonies.  As the society grew,
 numbers of  wealthy members afforded
 liberal aid ; but the society never had any
 actual funds, upon which  they could de-
 pend.   Individual  members  borrowed
 the necessary sums, upon their own credit.
 These funds were invested, partly in com-
 mercial undertakings, partly in landed es-
 tates, and various manufactures, and the
 profits applied to pay the expenses of the
 society.  Upon the  death  of count  Zin-
 zendorf, it was  found that  a  debt had ac-
 crued, greatly exceeding the value of aU
 the available  investments.   A separation
 of interests now took place.  Each indi-
 vidual community assumed a proportion-
able share of the  assets  and debt, and
thenceforward  undertook the  manage-
ment of its  individual concerns, and to
provide for its  own necessities by means
of an institution, operating very much in
the manner of a  savings' bank, termed
the diacony of each community. Moneys
were taken up, under the special superin-
tendence of the elders and of the  com-
mittee above mentioned, and invested: the
proceeds went to defray the disburse-
ments  of  that  particular community:
the understanding was, that if the avails
were such as to leave any thing to be dis-
posed of after defraying their own ex-
penses, such surplus was  to  go to aid
other communities, whose means might
not be so ample, or to assist the  general
concerns.  Thus, in most communities of
the  United Brethren,  certain trades or
manufactures  are  carried  on for  then
benefit,  as  such.   By these  means, to-
gether  with the voluntary annual  sub-
scriptions  of  the  membere  towards
the maintenance  of  the  ministers,  and
the support of the church and schools,
the necessary funds are raised for defray-
ing the  charges  on the particular com-
munities, and for certain proportionate
contributions, which each is expected to
furnish to that fund of the Unity which
is established for the support of superan-
nuated ministers, and other officers, and
their widows, as weU as for the education
of their chUdren.  The funds required, in
each community, for the purposes of po-
lice and convenience, are raised by regu-
lar taxes on the householders, assessed by
the committee before mentioned.  The
rest of the assets on hand, at the death of
count Zinzendorf, were  put  under the
control of a special board,  forming one
department of the board of elders of the
Unity, and  the proceeds applied to dis-
charge the debt before  mentioned.  The
disbursements required by  the missions
among the heathen are supplied by vol-
untary contributions.   The greater part
of the annual amount at the present time
is  furnished by  pereons  not  connected
with the society.   Some few of the West
India missions are in part supported by
the industry of the missionaries, and those
in Labrador by a  commercial establish-
ment trading thither under the guidance
of a society established at  London.  In
the U. States there is a society for propa-
gating the  gospel  among the heathen,
incorporated by  several states, and  con-
sisting of members of the United Breth-
ren's church.  This society has recently
acquired  large funds by the bequest of
one of its members.  AU these resources
flow into the common missionary fund,
which is  administered,  and the mission-
ary concern in general  managed, by an-
other department of the board of elders
of the Unity, called the missionary depart- 
406
UNITED BRETHREN.
ment.   (See  the article Missions.)   A
third department of this board is term-
ed  tiie department  of education.  This
has  charge,  not  only  of the  subject
of the education of children throughout
the  society generally, but,  in an especial
manner, of  those  who are educated at
the pubhc expense.  In many of the com-
munities of  United  Brethren  in Ger-
many, England aud  America,  boarding
schools, for the education of young per-
sons of both  sexes,  are established, in
which not only their own youth, but a
great number of others, are instmcted in
useful  sciences and polite acquirements.
For many years, these schools have sus-
tained, and stiU maintain, a considerable
reputation both  in Europe  and  America.
At  Niesky, in Upper Lusatia, the Unity
maintains a higher  classical institution,
where those  receive  a preparatory edu-
cation who intend to embrace the liberal
professions, or be prepared  for the minis-
try.  The latter complete their studies in
a college situated at Gnadenfeld, in Sile-
sia, which serves the purposes of a uni-
versity. Similar institutions, upon a small-
er scale, are established at Fulnec for the
English, and at Nazareth for the Ameri-
can  portion of  the  Unity.   These are,
properly speaking,  theological seminaries
only.  Young men  desirous  of devoting
themselves to the medical or other learned
professions, resort, of course, to the public
universities of their respective countries. In
the  three departments of the board of  el-
ders of the Unity before alluded to, taken
collectively,  the direction of the whole
Unity is concentrated.  This board, how-
ever, is responsible to the synods of the
society, which meet at stated times, gen-
erally at intervals of from seven to twelve
yeare, and from whom all its authority
emanates.  They are composed of  the
bishops and civil seniors of the church,
certain other  general  officers of the  so-
ciety, such as the members of the board
of elders of the Unity for the time being,
and of the representatives chosen by each
individual community.  At these  meet-
ings, a revision of all the concerns of tiie
society and its parts takes place, and such
alterations are adopted as circumstances
seem to require.  They are terminated by
the appointment of a new board of elders
of the Unity.
  The following is a sketch of the  mode
of life of the  United Brethren,  where
they form separate communities, which,
however, is  not always the case ;  for, in
many instances, societies belonging to the
Unity are situated in larger and smaller
cities and towns, intermingled with the
rest  of the  inhabitants,  in which cases
their peculiar regulations are, of course,
out  of  the question.   In their  separate
communities, they do not allow the per-
manent residence of any persons as house-
holders who  are  not membere in  full
communion, and who have not signed the
written instrument of brotherly agree-
ment, upon which their constitution and
discipline  rests; but they freely admit of
the temporary residence among them of
such other persons as are willing to con-
form to their external regulations.  Ac-
cording to these,  all  kinds  of amuse-
ments considered dangerous to strict mo-
rality are forbidden,  as balls, dancing,
plays, gambling of any kind, and all pro-
miscuous assemblies of the youth of both
sexes.   These, however, are  not debar-
red  from  forming, under proper advice
and  parental  superintendence, that ac-
quaintance which their future  matrimo-
nial  connexions may  require.  In the
communities  on the European continent,
whither, to this day, numbers of young
persons of both sexes resort  in order to
become members  of  the society  from
motives of piety and a desire to prepare
themselves to become missionaries among
the heathen,  and where, moreover, the
difficulties of supporting a family greatly
limit the number of marriages, a stricter
attention to this point becomes necessary.
On this account, the unmarried m -n and
boys, not belonging to the families of the
community, reside together,  under  the
care of an elder of their  own class, in a
building called the  single brethren's house,
where usually divers   trades  and manu-
factures are carried on, for the benefit of
the house or of the community, and which,
at the same time,  furnishes a cheap and
convenient place for the board and lodg-
ing of those  who  are  employed as jour-
neymen, apprentices, or otherwise, in the
families constituting the community. Par-
ticular daily opportunities of edification
are there afforded them;  and such  a
house  is the place of resort where the
young men  and boys of the  families
spend their leisure time, it being a  gene-
ral rule, that every  member of the society
shall devote himself to some useful occu-
pation.  A similar house under the guid-
ance of a female superintendent, and un-
der simUar regulations, is called the single
sisters' house, and is the common dwelling
place of all unmarried females, not mem-
bers  of any  family, or not employed as
servants in the families of the community.
Even these  regard the sisters' house as 
UNITED BRETHREN.
407
their  principal place of  association at
leisure hours.   Industrious  habits  are
here inculcated in the same way.  In the
communities of the  United Brethren in
America, the facilities of supporting fam-
ilies, and the consequent early marriages,
have superseded the  necessity  of single
brethren's houses; butthey all have sisters'
houses of the  above description, which
afford a comfortable asylum to  aged un-.
married females, whUe they furnish an
opportunity  of  attending  to  the  further
education and improvement of the female
youth after they have left school.  In the
larger communities, similar houses afford
the same advantages  to such widows as
desire to live  retired, and are called ivid-
ows' houses.   The individuals residing in
these establishments pay a small rent, by
which,  and by  the sums paid for  their
board, the expenses  of these  houses are
defrayed, assisted  occasionally  by the
profits on the sale of ornamental needle-
work, &c, on which some  of the inmates
subsist. The aged and needy are support-
ed by the same means.  Each division of
sex and station just alluded to—viz. wid-
ows, single  men and youths, single wo-
men and girls past the age of childhood—
is placed under the  special guidance of
elders  of their  own  description, whose
province it is  to assist them with  good
advice and admonition, and to attend, as
much as may be, to the spiritual and tem-
poral welfare of each individual.  The
children of each sex are under the imme-
diate care of  the superintendent of the
single choirs, as these divisions  are term-
ed.  Their instruction in religion, and in
all  the necessary branches  of  human
knowledge,  in good  schools, carried on
separately for each sex, is under the spe-
cial superintendence of the stated minis-
ter of each community, and of  the board
of  elders.   Similar  special  elders are
charged to attend to the spiritual welfare
of the married people.  All these elders,
of both sexes, together with the  stated
minister, to whom the preaching of the
gospel is chiefly committed (although all
other elders who may be qualified parti-
cipate therein), and  with the persons to
whom the  economical concerns of the
community  are intrusted,  form together
the board of  elders,  in which rests the
government of the community, with the
concurrence of the committee elected by
the inhabitants for all temporal  concerns.
This committee superintends the observ-
ance of all regulations, has charge of the
police, and  decides  differences between
individuals.   Matters of a general nature
are submitted to a meeting of the whole
community, consisting either of all male
members of age,  or of an intermediate
body elected  by them.  Public meetings
are held every evening in the week. Some
of these are devoted to tiie reading of por-
tions of Scripture, othere to the commu-
nication of accounts from the missionary
stations, and  others to the singing  of
hymns or selected verees.  On  Sunday
mornings, the church  litany is publicly
read,  and sermons  are delivered to  the
congregation, which, in  many places, is
the case likewise in the afternoon.  In
the evening,  discourses are deUvered, in
which the texts for that day are explained
and brought home to the particular circum-
stances of the community.  Besides these
regular means of edification,  the festival
days  of the  Christian church,  such as
Easter,  Pentecost,  Christmas, fee,  are
commemorated in a special manner, as
well as some days of peculiar interest in
the history of the society.  A solemn
church  music  constitutes  a  prominent
feature of their means of edification, music
in general  being a  favorite employment
of the leisure of many.   On particular
occasions, and  before  the congregation
meets to partake of the Lord's supper, they
assemble expressly to listen to instrumen-
tal vocal music interspersed with hymns,
in which the whole congregation joins,
while they partake together of a cup of
coffee, tea or chocolate, and light cakes, in
token of fellowship and brotherly union.
This solemnity is called a love-feast, and
is in imitation of the custom of the aga-
pae in the  primitive Christian churches.
The Lord's supper is celebrated at stated
intervals, generally  by  all communicant
members together, under very solemn  but
simple rites.  Easter morning is devoted
to a solemnity of a peculiar kind.  At
sunrise, the congregation assembles in the
grave-yard; a service, accompanied  by
music, is celebrated, expressive of  the
joyful hopes of immortality and resurrec-
tion,  and  a  solemn commemoration is
made of all who have, in the course of the
last year, departed this life from among
them, and " gone home to the Lord  "—
an  expression  they often  use  to des-
ignate death.  Considering the termina-
tion of the present life no evil, but the  en-
trance upon  an eternal state of bliss to
the sincere disciples of Christ,  they  de-
sire to divest  this event of all its tenors.
The decease of every individual is  an-
nounced to the community  by solemn
music from a band of instruments.  Out-
ward  appearances of mourning are dis- 
408
UNITED BRETHREN.
countenanced.  The whole congregation
follows the bier to the grave-yard (which
is commonly laid out as a garden), ac-
companied  by  a  band,  playing the
tunes of well-known  verses,  which ex-
press the hopes of eternal life  and resur-
rection ; and the corpse is deposited in the
simple grave during the funeral service.
The preservation of  the  purity of the
community is intrusted  to the board of
elders and its different members, who are
to  give   instruction and  admonition to
those under their care,  and make a dis-
creet use of the established church disci-
pline.  In cases of immoral conduct, or
flagrant  disregard of the regulations of
the  society, this discipline is resorted to.
If expostulations are  not successful, of-
fenders  are  for  a time  restrained  from
participating in the  holy communion, or
called before the committee.  For perti-
nacious  bad conduct, or flagrant excesses,
the  culpable individual is dismissed from
the  society.  The ecclesiastical  church
officers,  generally speaking, are the bish-
ops, through whom the regular succes-
sion of ordination, transmitted to the Unit-
ed Brethren through the  ancient church
of the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren,
is preserved, and who alone are author-
ized to ordain ministers,  but  possess no
authority in the government of the church,
except such as  they derive from  some
other office, being  most frequently the
presidents of some  board  of elders ; the
civil seniors, to  whom, in subordination
to the board of elders of the Unity, be-
longs the management of the external re-
lations of the society ; the presbyters, or
ordained stated ministers of the commu-
nities, and the deacons.  The degree of
deacon  is the first bestowed upon young
ministers and  missionaries,  by  which
they are authorized  to administer the
sacraments.    Females,  although  elders
among their own sex, are never ordained;
nor  have they a vote in the deliberations
of the board of elders, which they attend
for  the sake of information only.—It now
remains to give some account of the num-
bers and extension of this society, which
are often strangely exaggerated.  On the
continent of Europe, together with Great
Britain, the  number of persons living in
their different communities,  or formed
into societies closely connected with  the
Unity, does not  exceed  thirteen  or four-
teen thousand, including children.  Their
number in the U. States of  America
falls something short of four thousand
souls.   Besides these,  there  are  about
three times this number of persons dis-
persed through Germanv, Livonia, <fec,
who are occasionally visited by brethren,
and  strengthened in their religious con-
victions, while they  have no  external
connexion with the Unity.  These cannot
be considered membere  of the  society,
though they maintain a spiritual connex-
ion with it.   The number of  converts
from heathen nations, as regularly report-
ed at the  last synod, in the  year  1825,
though larger than at any previous time,
did not exceed 34,000 souls, comprehend-
ing all those  who are in any  way under
the care of" the missionaries.  Indeed, it
never was the object of the society to at-
tempt the Christianization of whole  na-
tions  or tribes, as such  must be a mere
nominal conversion.   They  profess to
admit those  only  to the  rite  of baptism
who give  evidence of their faith by  the
change wrought in their life and conduct.
On this account, they  have every where
introduced among their heathen converts
a discipline similar to their own, as far as
circumstances permit.  It would be pre-
posterous  to  conceive  that the  peculiar
views, and the regulations of a society
such as that of the United Brethren, could
ever be adopted by any large body of men.
They are exclusively calculated  for small
communities.  Any one desirous of sep-
arating from  the  society meets with no
hinderance.   The following is a succinct
view of the principal establishments of
the society :—In the U. States, they have
separate communities at Bethlehem, Naz-
areth and  Litiz in Pennsylvania, and at
Salem in North Carolina.  Bethlehem is,
next to the mother community at Herrn-
hut,  in Germany, their  largest establish-
ment  Besides these, there  are congre-
gations at  Newport in Rhode Island, at
New  York,  at  Philadelphia, Lancaster
and  Yorktown,  at Graceham in Mary-
land ; and several country congregations
are scattered through  Pennsylvania,  the
members  of  which  chiefly  dwell  on
their  plantations,  but  have  a  common
place of worship.  There are  four of  this
description in North  Carolina,  in the vi-
cinity of Salem.  In England, their chief
settlements  are  Fulnec  in  Yorkshire,
Fairfield in Lancashire, Ockbrook in Der-
byshire: congregations exist  likewise in
London, Bedford, Bristol, Bath, Plym-
outh,  Haverfordwest, together  with  a
number of country congregations in di-
vers  villages.  In Ireland, they have a
considerable community at Gracehill, in
the  county of Antrim, and small congre-
gations at Dublin, Gracefield and Ballin-
derry.  On the  continent   of  Europe, 
UNITED BRETHREN—UNITED STATES (HISTORY).      409
Herrnhut, Niesky  and  Kleinwelke  in
Upper Lusatia,   Gnadenfrew,  Gnaden-
berg, Gnadenfeld  and Neusaltz in Silesia,
Ebensdorf, near Lobenstein,  Neudieten-
dorf in the  duchy of Gosna, Konigsfeld
in that of Baden, Neuwied on the Rhine,
Christiansfeld in Holstein,  Zeyst,  near
Utrecht,  in Holland, and Sarepta, on the
confines  of Asiatic Russia, are the names
of their  separate communities;  besides
which there are organized  societies at
Berlin, Rixdorf,  Potsdam,  Konigsberg,
Norden in Friesland, Copenhagen, Alto-
na, Stockholm, Gottenburg,  St.  Peters-
burg and Moscow.   Their principal mis-
sions among the heathen, at this time, are
the following:—among the negro slaves
in the three Danish West India islands;
in Jamaica,  St  Kitts, Antigua, Barba-
does, Tobago, and in Surinam, among the
same description of pereons; in Green-
land, among the  natives of that desolate
region;  in Labrador, among  the Esqui-
maux ; at the cape of Good Hope, among
the Hottentots and Caffres; and in North
America, among the Delaware Indians in
Canada,  and the Cherokees in Georgia. It
is a general  principle of the society, that
their  social  organization is in no case to
interfere with their duties as  citizens or
(subjects  of  governments under which
they live, and wherever they  are settled.
They have always supported a good rep-
utation, and been generally considered val-
uable members of the community, on ac-
count of the moral and industrious habits
successfully inculcated by their system.
  United Colonies of New England.
(See New England.)
  United Greeks  are Christians who
originally belonged to  the Greek church,
but whom the Roman  church has united
with  her own  members on certain con-
ditions.   They differ  from  the Greek
church in believing  that the Holy Ghost
proceeds both  from the Father and the
Son, by  believing also in the supremacy
of the pope, in purgatory, and the effica-
cy of  masses for souls, according to the
doctrines of the  Roman church.  They
have their own church government, and
retain the old names of ecclesiastical dig-
nities. Their priests wear beards and caps,
and are allowed to marry.  They retain
the  ancient  rites,  the Greek  language
during service, the strict Greek fasts, and
the Lord's supper under both forms, in
common with the old  Greek church, be-
cause the Jesuit  missionaries, who grad-
ually  effected  their conversion in the
-seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries
could not induce them to make changes
  vol. xn.          35
in these particulars.  Such United Greeks
are found in  Italy,  especially in Venice
and Rome, in Naples  and Sicily, in the
eastern parts  of the Austrian monarchy,
also in Transylvania,  Hungary, Croatia,
Sclavonia,  Dalmatia,  &c, where many
Greeks live, and in Eastern Poland.  The
number of the United Greeks is estimated
at 2,000,000.   The non-united  Greeks in
the above-mentioued countries, except in
Italy, where there are  none, acknowledge
the patriarch  of Constantinople as their
spiritual  head, and consider the United
Greeks as apostates. (See Greek Church.)
  United  Provinces.    (See Nether-
lands.)
  United Provinces of South Ameri-
ca.  (See Plata, United Provinces of the.)
  United States of North  America.
I. History.   The history of the United
States  naturally  divides  itself into two
periods,  the  firet embracing the  annals
of the  British North American colonies,
which separated  from the mother coun-
try hi 1776; and the second, the history
of the independent republic  establish-
ed by  the victorious  colonists.—1.  The
Settlement and progressive Growth of the
Colonies (1607 to 1776) during a Period of
one hundred  and  seventy Years.  Of the
thirteen colonies, whose  delegates signed
the Declaration of Independence, twelve
were settled in the seventeenth century,*
and the colonists, with a few trifling ex-
ceptions,  were Englishmen.  In  1630,
the number   of  English   colonists  in
North America did not exceed 4000; in
1660, it  was  not less than  80,000, and
had therefore increased twenty-fold in the
short space of thirty years:  in 1701, the
population of the colonies is estimated to
   * Dates of the Settlement of Ou Colonies.
Virginia, 1607.
New York,  by the Dutch,  1614; occupied bv
  the English, 1664.
Plymouth, 1620; incorporated with Massachu-
  setts in 1692.
Massachusetts,  1628.
New Hampshire, 1623.
New Jersey, by the Dutch,  1624; occupied by
  the English in 1664.
Delaware, by the Dutch, 1627; occupied by the
  English  in 1664.  Some Swedes  settled here
  in 1638, but they were conquered by the Dutch,
  and most of them left the country.
Maine, 1630 ; united with Massachusetts in 1677.
Maryland, 1633.
Connecticut, 1635 ; settled from Massachusetts.
New Haven, 1637; united with  Connecticut in
  1662.
Providence, 1635 ;?•,_,  ,CAA
Rhode Island, 1638 ;(united1644'
North Carolina, 1650 ;  a distinct colony in 1729
South Carolina, 1670.
Pennsylvania, 1682.
Georgia, 1733. 
410
UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
have been about 262,000.  The period of
colonization was,  one of great intellec-
tual and political excitement in the moth-
er country; in  which a nation that had
for a long time enjoyed free and popular
institutions,  was  engaged in  defending
them against the  encroachments of the
crown,  and in  extending and securing
them by new bulwarks.  The  principles
of liberty, the rights of man, particularly
of Englishmen, the nature, use and ob-
jects of government, were topics of gene-
ral interest and discussion  in  England,
and  republican  maxims were  warmly
embraced by many.  It is an observation
of Fox, "that  from 1588  to  1640  was
a  period of almost  uninterrupted tran-
quillity and peace: the general improve-
ment in all  the aits of civil life, and, above
all, the astonishing progress of literature,
are the most striking among the general
features of that period, and are in them-
selves causes sufficient to produce effects
of the  utmost  importance.  A  country
whose language  was  enriched by the
works of  Hooker, Raleigh and Bacon,
could not   but   experience a  sensible
change in its mannere and  in its style of
thinking; and even to speak  the  same
language in which Spenser and Shak-
Bpeare had  written,  seemed a sufficient
plea to rescue the commons of England
from the appellation of Z*rut"es,with which
Henry VIII had  addressed them."  The
same commons were,  in fact,  peevishly
designated  by James I as  kings ;*  and
such was the progress of the  people of
England in wealth, as well  as  in cultiva-
tion, that, according to Hume,  the house
of commons, in 1628, was three times as
rich as the  house of lords.   Another re-
markable element  in  the  society from
which swarmed  the American colonists,
was the state of religion.   An imperfect
reformation, favored by the government,
and   amounting  to  little  more than  a
secession from  the Catholic church, was
accompanied by  a popular refonnation,
ready to  follow  out  its  principles  to
their results.  The state religion derived
its force and its  rights from the crown ;
the  church, therefore, became  the cham-
pion of passive   obedience  and divine
right, and  the Puritans,  as  they  were
reproachfully called, or Non-conformists,
were compelled  to  attack the temporal
power, and to defend civil liberty, while
assailing the intolerance of the church

   * When informed of the approach of a com-
 mittee of the house of commons, he ordered
 twelve chairs to  be brought;  " for," said  he,
 " there are twelve kings a-comiug."
and defending  freedom of  conscience.
This mixture of religious faith in the con-
test for political rights, gave  the English
Puritans the zeal, firmness and boldness
of religious  reformers.   (See Puritans.)
It is further to be  considered, that, while
the English colonists brought with them
to America the broadest and most gene-
rous principles  of liberty, and  those free
institutions which convert general maxims
into practical truths, and make them a
part of the  daily life of men, they  left
behind them those  restraints which in
some degree checked their free action in
England.   They brought the jury and
the right of representation, but left  behind
them  the  chains  which the church and
court  were endeavoring to  fasten upon
their countrymen : feudal services, privi-
leged  ordere,  corporations  and  guilds,
with other similar burdens upon industry,
and insults upon  honest merit, found no
place in the western forests;  but civiliza-
tion, arts and letters, without the corrup-
tion and gross licentiousness  which char-
acterized  the  reigns of James  I  and
Charles II,  were brought hither  in  the
train of  liberty.   The  next  important
element in  the colonial  history,  is  the
political institutions  established  in  the
colonies.   In  1606,  two companies of
merchants and others were incorporated,
under the  names of the London company
and the Plymouth company, with the ex-
clusive right of settling and trading with-
in   their respective limits.   The  former
began the colonization of British America,
in 1607, by  sending to Virginia a feeble
colony of 100 men, which, before  the
end of the year, was reduced, by suffering
and the badness  and scarcity of food, to
thirty-eight.   In October, 1609, the num-
ber had been increased  by new colonist.-*
to  500:  a famine reduced  them in six
months to sixty persons.   In 1613, land
was distributed to each individual,  both
the land and the  produce having before
been held in common.   In 1619, the first
colonial assembly was convoked,  consist-
ing of representatives  elected by  the
boroughs, the  concerns of the  colony
having been previously managed by the
company  in England.  As  the colonists
were mostly adventurers without families,
ninety young girls were sent over by the
company  in 1620, and  sold  to the young
planters, at  the rate of 100—150  pounds
of tobacco.   In 1621, the company passed
an ordinance vesting the government of
the colony  in  a governor,  council  and
general assembly,  the latter chosen by
the inhabitants, with power to enact laws. 
UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
411
In 1622, 347 men, women and children
were massacred  by the Indians; a gene-
ral Indian war followed, and  the settle-
ments were reduced from eighty to eight.
In* 1624, the  company was dissolved by
the crown, and the colony taken into the
bands of the king.  Such are a few inci-
dents from the humble annals of the firet
colonists, presenting a picture of suffering
too often renewed in other parts of tiie
country.—The  Plymouth  company, to
which was granted the exclusive right to
trade and settle in North Virginia, did
nothing effectual towards the coloniza-
tion of their jurisdiction.  But, in 1620,
a  number  of Puritans (Brownists),  who
had set sail for Virginia, were landed,
either  by accident or treachery, within
the  limits of the  Plymouth  company.
Ten yeare afterwards, they obtained from
the company a grant of the land to which
they had previously no  title but occu-
pancy ; but they were never incorporated
as a  body  poUtic by royal charter, and
they therefore remained a mere volun-
tary association, yielding obedience to
laws and magistrates  formed and chosen
by themselves,  untU their  union  with
Massachusetts, in  1692*  But the  germ
of the New England colonies was the
Massachusetts colony, settled, in 1628, by
a  company  incorporated  that year by
royal charter, the land having been previ-
ously purchased from the Plymouth com-
pany.   The government of  the colony
was transferred  to Massachusetts, in 1630,
by vote of the company ; and, a few yeare
 later,  the freemen adopted the plan of
 acting by delegates  or representatives:
 courts were also  established, and the
 charter of a trading company was thus
 tacitly converted into the constitution of
 a commonwealth.   The Massachusetts
 colonists were  Puritans, and  were ren-
 dered not less obnoxious to the court par-
 ty at home by their religious principles,
 than by this unwarranted assumption of
 political  power.  This,  with other cir-
 cumstances, led the Plymouth company
 to resign their charter to the king (1635),
   * As this instance of the formation of a society
 which  actually exercised the power of life and
 death  is, perhaps, unique in history,  we have
 thought it worth  while to give the document
 itself?  " In the name of God—we, whose names
 are underwritten, do, solemnly and mutually,  in
 the presence of God and one another, covenant
 and combine ourselves together into a civil body
 politic, by virtue hereof to enact,  constitute and
 frame such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts,
 constitutions and offices, as shall be thought most
 meet and convenient for the general good of the
 colony, unto which we promise all due subjection
 and obedience."
and  Massachusetts,  like  Virginia,  was
thus taken into the royal  hands.  Such,
however, was the disturbed state of Eng-
land at the time, that these remote and
insignificant colonies attracted little at-
tention, and wene therefore left to grow
up in habits of self-government, with lit-
tle  restraint, while  their numbers and
wealth were increased by successive em-
igrations of the  parties worsted  in  the
civil strife at home.  The persecuted Pu-
ritans  fled to New England; the  op-
pressed Catholics to Maryland; the de-
feated cavaliers or royalists to Virginia.
Such  were some of the  events of the
earliest periods  of colonial history.—It
would lead us beyond  our limits to at-
tempt even a sketch  of  the annals of the
colonies.  We must satisfy ourselves with
a hasty view of the forms of government
which  prevailed in them, and  which
served  as the elements of the political
system established rather than introduced
by  the revolution.  Of these forms of
government there were three—tiie royal,
the charter, and the  proprietary govern-
ments.   1.  The charter governments
were confined to New England.  The
people  of these  colonies, by the express
words of their charters, were  entitled to
the  privileges  of natural  bora subjects,
and invested with the powers of govern-
ment, legislative, executive and judicial.
They chose their own governors,  elected
legislative  assemblies,  and  established
courts of justice, and in many points even
exceeded  the  powers conferred  by the
chartere.   The  only limitation to then-
legislative  power was, that  their laws
should not be contrary  to those of Eng-
 land.   The crown  claimed,  indeed, the
 right of revoking these charters; but the
 colonists  maintained that they were sol-
 emn  compacts,  irrevocable  unless  for
 cause.  The chartere  were  sometimes
 declared  forfeited, or forcibly taken away
 (particularly towards the close of Charles
 IPs reign, when the corporations in Eng-
 land shared the  same fate); and  the dis-
 putes to which this question gave rise, be-
 tween the mother country and the char-
 ter colonies, were one of the causes of the
 revolution.—2.   The royal governments
 were those of Virginia, New York, and,
 at a later period, the Carolinas (1728) and
 the Jerseys (1702).  In  these colonies, the
 governor  and council were appointed by
 the crown, and the  colonists chose repre-
 sentatives to the colonial assemblies. The
 governors were commissioned  by  the
 crown, and acted in obedience to instruc-
 tions received from the same.  They had 
412                   UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
a negative on the proceedings  of the le-
gislatures, which  were composed of the
councils and the popular assemblies: the
judges and most of the officers were also
appointed by the king, although, in many
cases, paid by the colony.  The sources of
discontent in these colonies were the arbi-
trary acts of the governors, and the royal
claim to an absolute veto on the acts of the
assemblies, which would have virtually
abolished the right of the people to par-
ticipate in the government.—3. The pro-
 firietary governments were those of Mary-
 and, Pennsylvania, and at first the Caro-
linas and the Jerseys: the two former re-
mained such till  the revolution.   These
colonies were in the hands of proprietors
or individuals, to whom  grants of  land
had been made by the crown, with au-
thority to establish civil governments, and
make laws,  under certain restrictions in
favor  of  the crown.  The history of the
proprietary  governments is  little  more
than that of a perpetual quarrel between
the people  and the proprietors, chiefly
owing to the manner in which the latter
exercised their prerogative of repealing or
negativing the acts of the colonial assem-
blies ; for, even in these colonies, repre-
sentative bodies,  partly elected  by the
freemen, and  partly summoned by the
proprietors,  were soon introduced.  In
1719,  the people of Carolina had  become
bo exasperated against the proprietors,
that they took the government into their
own hands,  and elected a governor and
council, and assembly, which published
a  declaration of independence,  setting
forth the  causes of their renunciation of
the former government, and signed by all
the members of the new one.  The oldest
laws  of the Virginia assembly  (1624)
comprise a declaration defining the power
of the governor and the assembly, and as-
serting the privileges of the people in re-
gard to taxes and personal  services.  At
an early  period in  the existence of the
New England colonies (1643), a confeder-
ation was established between them for
mutual offence and  defence, leaving to
each colony its own peculiar jurisdiction
and government,  the common affaire of
the confederacy  being  managed  by  a
congress, consisting of two commission-
ers from  each colony. These three meas-
ures, emanating the first from a proprie-
tary,  the second  from a royal, and  the
third  from a charter colony, show that  a
common spirit pervaded them all; and
ihey may be considered as the prototypes
of the bill of rights, the declaration of in-
dependence, and the general confederacy,
in which all joined at a later period.  Bo-
sides the subjects of chartere in one set of
colonies, and of representation in another,
the question of taxation was a matter of
common interest.   " There is something
curious," says Fox (History of James II,
Introduction"), " in discovering that even at
this early period (1685) a question relative
to North  American  liberty, and even to
North American taxation, was considered
as tho test of principles friendly or ad-
verse to arbitrary power at home.   But
the truth is, that, among the several con-
troversies  which have arisen, there is no
other where the natural rights of man, on
the one hand, and the authority of artifi-
cial  institutions, on  the other, as applied
respectively by the  whigs and tories to
the English constitution, are so fairly put
in issue, nor by which the line of separa-
tion between the two parties is so strong-
ly and distinctly marked."  The common
English right of assent to taxes, as the
colonists themselves called it, was assert-
ed in the fullest manner by nearly all the
colonies, as early as the middle  of the
seventeenth century; and it was a com-
monly received opinion in America, from
that  period, that the  authority of parlia-
ment in the  colonies did not extend to
taxation or internal  legislation, but was
confined to the regulation of trade.  Re-
strictions on trade and manufactures were
also  a cause of vexation and  ill-blood in
the colonies. For a long time they enjoyed
almost  unlimited freedom of commerce ;
and it was not until  they had surmount-
ed the hardships and difficulties incident
to their first establishment, and had begun
to increase rapidly in wealth, that their
commerce began to be submitted to re-
strictions calculated  to secure all its ben-
efits  to the mother country.  The act of
1651  confined the  export  and  import
trade of the colonies exclusively to Brit-
ish or colonial vessels, and the navigation
act of 1660 enacted that certain specified
articles  (enumerated  articles)  should not
be exported directly from the colonies to
any foreign country.   Besides compelling
the colonists to sell  their produce  ex-
clusively  in  the  English  markets,  it
was  next provided (1663) that they should
buy such foreign articles as they stood in
need of entirely  of the merchants  and
manufacturers in England. In 1672, cer-
tain colonial products transported from one
colony to another were subjected to duties.
It was further a principle of the colonial
policy  of England, to discourage all at-
tempts to manufacture such articles in the
colonies as could be provided for them by 
UNITED STATES  (HISTORY).
413
the mother country.  In  1699, it  was
enacted, that no wool, yam, or woollen
manufactures, should be exported  from
the American colonies; and, in 1750, ev-
ery slitting or rolling mill, plating forge
to work with a tilt-hammer, &c, was de-
clared a common  nuisance, which the
governors were  directed to  cause to be
abated.   It is true, however, that many
of these and similar acts  of parliament
were openly disobeyed or secretly evaded
by the colonists.—Such were some of the
features  of the  colonial  policy of the
mother  country, and the causes of inita-
tion and discontent in the colonies: impo-
sitions,  requisitions  and restrictions on
one side, were met by petitions,  remon-
strances and open resistance on the other.'
" The colonies," said lord Clarendon, at
nn  early period, " are already hardened
into republics."   In  time of peace,  each
colony  defrayed the expenses of its  civil
establishment;  and  the  money for this
purpose  was raised by taxes  assessed by
themselves in such  way as they thought
proper.   In time of war, the  crown made
requisitions of men  and money, and ap-
portioned them among the colonies in the
ratio of their wealth and population, or
with reference to their proximity to the
scene of war: the troops were fed, cloth-
ed and paid  by the colony raising them.
Thus, in the two French  wars, 1744—
1748, and 1755—1763, the colonists,  who
were deeply interested on account of the
increasing  strength  and encroachments
of the French settlements  on their  bor-
ders, took an active  part,  and  often had
more troops  in  the field  than were re-
quired of them: in  the latter  war,  they
raised 25,000 men, and the colonial forces
favorably distinguished themselves on sev-
eral occasions.   The various Indian  wars
which prevailed at intervals all along the
extensive and exposed line of frontiers,
were in general conducted  by the colo-
nists  themselves.   Measures  had  been
taken at an  early period, in some of the
colonies, for providing for the general edu-
cation of the people. Primary schools  were
firet established  in New England, and  it
e rly became a favorite object, in that part
of the country, to enable every individual
to read and write. Free schools were in-
stituted in  Boston in 1635,  and, in 1647,
the legislature of Massachusetts  passed
an act requiring every township with fifty
families  to provide a school where  chil-
dren  might be  taught to read and write,
and every township with 100 families to
provide  a grammar  school.   Colleges
were also founded for the  higher educa-
                     35 *
tion of youth; and, at the beginning of
the revolutionary war, there  were eight
institutions of this kind in the country—
Harvard college (founded 1638), Massa-
chusetts ;  William and Mary  (1693), Vir-
ginia;  Yale (1700), Connecticut; Prince-
ton (1738), New  Jersey;  King's (now
Columbia), New York, 1754 ; Providence
(1764), Rhode Island ; Dartmouth (1770),
New  Hampshire; and  Hampden and
Sidney  college  (1774),  Virginia.   The
peace of  Paris,  in 1763, by  annihilating
the French power in North America, re-
lieved the colonies from the  pressure of
foreign  hostilities.   But a course of poli-
cy was now adopted by the British min-
istry, which finally led to the separation
of the  American colonies from the Brit-
ish empire.   Like all  other points of the
English constitution,  the precise  limits
of royal  and  parliamentary  authority
over the colonies had  remained unsettled.
Many of the acts regulating the trade of
the colonies, had been submitted to with
reluctance, as violations of their rights,
or secretly evaded  or openly disregarded;
but measures were now taken  by the
ministry,  not only  rigidly to enforce such
acts, but  to raise  a revenue  in America
by internal taxation;  and, as a part of
this scheme, modifications in  the coloni-
al governments,  calculated   to  render
them more dependent on  the  crown,
were also contemplated.*   In 1764, an
act of parliament was passed, continuing
the duties on certain articles  imported
into the colonies, towards raising a reve-
nue ; and it  was provided that all penal-
ties for breach  of the acts of trade and
revenue committed in America might be
recovered in  any vice-admiralty court in
the  colonies.  In  1765 (March 22) the
stamp act was passed; and soon after a
bill  was   brought in  authorizing the
quartering of  troops  in the colonies.
These acts and measures were  received
in America  with universal  opposition;
and  a general congress of the colonies

  * A scheme  for  taxing the colonies was pro-
posed to sir R. Walpole. " I will leave that," said
he, " for some of my successors who may have
more courage than  I nave, and be less a friend to
commerce than I am.  It has been a maxim with
me, during my administration, to encourage the
trade of the American colonies in the utmost lat-
itude.  Nay, it has been necessary to pass over
some irregularities  in their trade with Europe ;
for, by encouraging them to an extensive growing
foreign  commerce, if they gain £500,000,1 am
convinced  that, in two  years afterwards, full
£250,000 of their gains will  be in his majesty's
exchequer,  by the labor and product of this king-
dom.  This is  taxing them more agreeably to
their constitution and ours." 
414
UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
(the  first of the kind) was held at New
York,  which  adopted a declaration of
rights  and  grievances, asserting taxation
by themselves, and trial by jury, to be the
inherent rights of the British subjects in
the colonies.  The colonial  assemblies
adopted  similar measures, and popular
meetings throughout the country, heated
essays in the newspapere, and more elab-
orate,  but  not less inflammatory,  pam-
phlets,* served to set the whole country
in a flame.   In many places, the stamp
officers and their supporters were expos-
ed to personal violence; and, on the first
of November, the day on which the act
was to have taken effect,  neither stamps
nor officere were to be found in the colo-
nies ; business of all kinds was  therefore
transacted without  the aid of stamped
paper.   In  this state of affaire, the stamp
act was repealed (March 18,1766),  and,
at the  same time, a declaratory act was
passed, asserting the right of parliament
to bind the colonies in all cases whatso-
ever.   The  Rockingham  ministry, by
which  these measures were canied, was
soon displaced; and, in June, 1767, the new
chancellor of the exchequer brought in a
bill imposing duties  on glass, paper, paste-
board,  white and red lead, painters' colore,
and tea, imported into the colonies.  This
act, after increasing the exasperation of the
colonists, particularly as troops were quar-
tered in Boston to enforce obedience, and
giving  rise to  combinations among  the
Americans  against  the  importation of
the articles specified,  was  also repealed
(March 5,  1770), the  duty on  tea being
alone continued.  The colonists accord-
ingly renounced the use of that article, or
obtained it  from foreign  countries.  In
1773, the ministry procured an act, per-
mitting to  the East  India company  a
drawback on  teas exported to  America,
for the purpose of rendering it cheaper in
this country, and inducing the Americans
to submit to the small duty imposed upon
it.  Large shipments were made; but in
Philadelphia and New York, the vessels
were not allowed to  land  their cargoes;
in Charleston, it was put into stores, but
not permitted to be offered for sale; and
in Boston, where the  British authorities
refused to  allow the vessels  to return,
without having been entered, the tea was
thrown overboard.  This act of violence

  *The most important productions to which this
dispute  gave  rise, were Otis's Rights of the Colo-
nies (1764); John Adams's Essay on the Canon
and Feudal Law (1766); Bland's Enquiry  into
Ihe Rights of the British Colonies (1766).   The
Farmer's Letters, by Dickinson, were written on
ihe passage of the act of 1767.
 was  followed  by the  Boston  port  bill
 (March  31,  1774), interdicting  all com-
 mercial intercourse with the town of Bos-
 ton, and by a bill (May  20)  for entirely
 subverting the government of Massachu-
 setts.—See Quincy's Observations on the
 Boston Port Bill (1774, republished in his
 Life by his son).—In this crisis, the other
 colonies made common cause with Mas-
 sachusetts,  and,  September 5, a general
 congress met at  Philadelphia.   Congress
 adopted a declaration of rights, asserting
 the exclusive power of legislation, in all
 cases of taxation and  internal  policy, to
 be in the provincial legislatures; with a
 statement of grievances,  declaring  the
 acts  imposing duties for raising a reve-
•nue in America, extending the power of
 the admiralty courts, and depriving the
 Americans of trial by jury, authorizing
 the trial in England of pereons charged
 with certain offences in America, shutting
 up the harbor of Boston, altering the gov-
 ernment of Massachusetts, &c, to be in-
 fringements and violations  of the rights
 of the colonists.  They  next proceeded to
 interrupt all commercial intercourse with
 Great Britain, by the  non-importation,
 non-consumption  and  non-exportation
 agreement, binding themselves not to im-
 port, consume or export certain articles,
 until the acts complained of should be
 repealed.  These proceedings had no ef-
 fect to change the  policy of the British
 government,  and general  preparations
 were now made in the colonies tor resist-
 ance:  gunpowder  was  manufactured,
 warlike stores collected, and the citizens
 began to arm.   Massachusetts  was  de-
 clared to be in rebellion, and new restric-
 tions were imposed upon the trade of the
 colonies.  A  detachment of troops sent
 from  Boston to  seize  6ome  provincial
 stores, collected  at  Concord,  fired upon
 the citizens who  assembled to oppose
 them, and actual hostilities  were  now
 commenced.  (See Lexington.)  The sec-
 ond  congress, which met in  May, 1775,
 immediately determined  to  organize an
 army,  and  Washington  was  appointed
 (June 15) commander-in-chief of the co-
 lonial forces.  "We have counted the cost
 of this contest," said congress, in a decla-
 ration of July 6, " and are with  one mind
 resolved  to die freemen rather than to
 live  slaves."  July 4,  1776,  congress
 adopted a declaration of independence.*"*

   t For the history of the colonies, we refer the
 reader to Hazard's  State Papers (containing tho
 colonial charters, and other early documents, 3
 vols., 4to., 1792); Chalmers's Annals of the United
 Colonies (1st vol. to 1688, chiefly compiled from 
UNITED  STATES (HISTORY).
418
  2. The History of  the  U. States from
1776 to  1832,  a Period offifty-sii Years.
1.  To the Adoption of the Federal Consti-
tution in 1789.  The  Declaration of In-
dependence, after recapitulating those acts
of  the  British government  which were
viewed  as  subvereive  of the liberties of
the British subjects in America, declares
the United Colonies to be  free and inde-
pendent states, absolved from all allegi-
ance to the British crown, and all political
connexion between them and the state
of Great Britain to be totally dissolved.
There is a striking parallel between the
English revolution  of 1688 and the North
American  revolution  of 1776.  In both
cases, previous discussion had fairly put
the  disputed  question  in  issue:  each
party to the  dispute  had fully  weighed
and settled its principles, its claims, and
its duties:  -the people of England and the
people of America were in both cases on
the defensive; not  aiming at establishing
new rights, or setting up new pretensions
against old established despotism, but de-
fending against encroachment  liberties
which they had always enjoyed, and seek-
ing  new  guarantees to  secure  them.
Broken chartere, insulted legislatures, and
violated judiciaries, arbitrary acts defended

documents, London, 1780); Burke's  European
Settlements  in  America  (2 vols., 8vo., 1757);
Marshall's History of the Colonies (printed sepa-
rately, in 1824); Holmes's Annals of America (2d
ed., 2 vols., 1829).  For the disputes preceding
the revolution, see the pamphlets already men-
tioned, with Franklin's Interest of Great Britain,
&c. (1760); Jefferson's Summary of the Rights
of British America (1774) j  J. Adams's History
of the Disputes with America, from their Origin
in 1754; Quincy's  Life of Quincy; Wirt's Life
of Henry ; Tudor's Life of Otis ; Lee's Lives of
the Lees. The Massachusetts State Papers, from
1765 to 1775, and Hutchinson's History of Mas-
sachusetts, are also of general interest.  The An-
nual Register (Dodsley's), of which the chief part
of the  earlier volumes was written by Burke,
the volumes of the parliamentary history (Han-
sard's ed., 36 vols.) relating to the period,  and
Almon's Prior  Documents, from 1764 to 1775
(1779), and  Remembrancer (17 vols., 1775—84),
are also valuable sources.  Congress has recently
made an appropriation for examining the papers
in the English archives, relating  to the colonies,
with a view to procuring copies of them.  The
library of Harvard university contains nearly a
complete collection of works relating to America.
The library  of Ebeling (q. v.), presented by the
late IsraelThorndike of Boston, contains upwards
of 3200  volumes, chiefly on American history,
and 10,000 maps, charts and views.  The origin-
al owner was fifty years in collecting it. Another
collection, made by Mr. Warden, late American
consul at Paris, and author of a valuable work on
the If. Stales, was presented to the library by
Samuel A. Eliot of Boston.  This collection con-
sists of about 1200 volumes, besides maps, prints
and charts.
by arbitrary principles, and  injustice sup-
ported by violence, drove the English na-
tion, in 1688, and the English colonies, in
1776, to declare that  the respective sove-
reigns  had abdicated  the  government
The American revolution was  complete
in 1776, but it still remained to defend  it
by arms.  The affaire of Lexington  and
Bunker hill (see Charlestown), the capture
of several posts, and an unsuccessful ex-
pedition against Canada (see Arnold,  and
Montgomery), were among the acts of hos-
tility which had preceded the declaration
of  independence.  General  Washington
had been at Cambridge at the head of an
army, whose term of service expired with
the year (1775), without ammunition, and
but imperfectly supplied with arms.  By
the  beginning of  March,  1776, 14,000
regular troops had been enlisted, and the
British were  obliged to evacuate Boston
March  17.  June 28, the British forces
under sir Peter Parker had  been repelled
in an attack on Charleston.  The military
operations which closed the year were
the capture of New York by the British
forces under lord Howe and sir W. Howe
(Sept. 15), after the defeat of the Ameri-
cans on Long Island (Aug. 27), the battle
of White Plains (Oct. 28), the retreat of
the American forces through the Jerseys
and across the Delaware (Nov. 28), the
battle of Trenton (Dec. 26), and of Prince-
ton  (Jan. 3,  1777).  The ensuing cam-
paign of 1777 was more favorable to the
American cause.  General Howe had in-
deed  taken possession of  Philadelphia
(Sept. 27), and the Americans  had been
defeated on the  Brandywine  (Sept. 11),
and at  Gemiantown  (Oct.  4); but the
northern army, under  the  command of
general Gates, after some partial success,
had compelled general  Burgoyne to sur-
render his army at Saratoga (Oct. 17), and
thus cut off the communication attempted
to be kept up between New York and
Canada.  On the reception of this intelli-
gence in Europe, the French government
entered into  treaties of amity and com-
merce with the U. States (Feb.6,1778),and
thus recognised their existence as an inde-
pendent nation. A complete history of the
diplomatic transactions of this and the  sub-
sequent period will be found in the Diplo-
matic Correspondence of the American Revo-
lution, published by Order of Congress (Bos-
ton, 1830,12 vols.', 8vo.).  The British com-
mander now came to the resolution to evac-
uate Philadelphia (June 18), and concen-
trate his forces at New York. While effect-
ing this measure, his rear was attacked by
general Washington at Monmouth (28thk 
416
UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
with  partial success.   About  the same
time,  a French fleet arrived on the coast,
having  on  board  about  4000  French
troops.  Congress had  hitherto consisted
of an assembly of delegates from thirteen
independent states, with little more au-
thority  than that of  advising  the states
to adopt certain  measures.  Money  was
raised only by consent of  the states; the
congress had no power to enforce obedi-
ence,  and the states  were held  together
only by external  pressure.  It had been
some  time  thought desirable  that some-
thing  should be done to give security and
permanency to this loose  union, and to
define with precision the  nature of the
federal  compact,  the  powers of congress,
and the residuary sovereignty of the states.
After long  and embarrassing discussions,
the articles  of confederation were agreed
upon  by congress, Nov. 15,1777, and sub-
mitted to the state legislatures for ratifica-
tion.   Most of the  legislatures  ratified
them  in the following year  (they bear date
July 6,1778), but Delaware and Maryland
did not accede  to them  till somewhat
later.    By  these articles,  the exclusive
cognizance of foreign relations, the rights
of war  and  peace, and the  right to make
requisitions of men and money, were con-
fided  to congress.  But, like  all former
confederations, the  decrees of the federal
government operated upon the states in
their sovereign capacity, and not upon the
individual citizens; and as  soon as danger
from  abroad was past, this confederacy
was found  to be utterly incompetent to
govern  the  country.  In 1779, the south
became the principal theatre of warlike
operations.   The successful  invasion of
Georgia, in the preceding year, was fol-
lowed by a war of depredation and min
on the  coasts, and a partisan warfare in
the interior, which  desolated the  country,
but led to no decisive results.   This con-
tinued during the following year, in which
Charleston was captured (May 12) by the
British. The southern guerilla war car-
ried on by  the back-woodsmen of North
and South Carolina and Virginia was mur-
derous, but there was nothing which de-
served  the  name of an army, capable of
opposing the British forces, notwithstand-
ing the exertions and brilliant services of
Greene, Morgan,  Sumter and  Marion.
In 1781, the contest was finally closed by
the surrender of Cornwallis, at Yorktown,
to the  combined French  and American
forces  under Washington and  Rocham-
beau (Oct 19).   In the following year,  a
treaty  was concluded between  Holland
and  the U. States;  and after  long-pro-
tracted negotiations, a definitive treaty of
peace with Great Britain was signed Sept.
23, 1783.   Denmark, Spain, Sweden and
Russia had previously recognised the U.
States as a sovereign "power.*   The  war
was attended with  great sacrifices on the
part of the Americans.  Without arms,
ammunition or pecuniary resources, con-
gress was  obliged  to have recourse to a
paper medium.   Three  hundred million
dollars, in  bills of  credit, had been emit-
ted during the five first years of the war,
and no provisions were made for redeem-
ing them,  the states neglecting, or  par-
tially complying with, the requisitions of
congress.  In 1780, these bills had depre-
ciated to such a degree as to cease to cir-
culate ; the treasury was empty, the army
unpaid, without clothing, and often with-
out food.   At this  time, the French gov-
ernment  made  a  grant of six  million
livres, by way of subsidy,  and a further
sum by way of loan; and finally a loan of
ten million of livres was raised in Hol-
land.   These  supplies, with a new or-
ganization of the finance department, and
the establishment of a national bank, con-
tributed to relieve  the pressure.  At the
peace, the public debt was found to amount
to forty-two million dollars, on which
congress was unable to pay even the in-
terest.-*-   The requisitions and regulations

  * For the  history of the American revolution,
the principal works, in addition  to some of those
previously mentioned, are Marshall's Life of Wash-
ington (5  vols., 8vo.,   and Atlas, Philadelphia,
1804; 2d ed., omitting the history of the colonies,
2 vols.,8vo., and Atlas, Philadelphia, 1832); Pit-
kin's Civil and  Political History of the United
States to 1797 (2 vols., 8vo.. New Haven, 1828);
Ramsay's History of  the American Revolution
(2 vols.,8vo... Philadelphia, 1789); Botta's Storia
della  Guerra Americana (English,  2d ed., 2
vols.,  8vo.,  1826); Stedman's  History of the
American War (2  vols., 4to.,  London, 1794);
Gordon's History of the United States (4  vols.,
8vo., London, 1788);  Tarleton's Campaigns of
1780 and  1781 (4to., London, 1787); Moultrie's
Memoirs ; Drayton's Memoirs ;  Sparks's Life of
Morris (3 vols., 8vo., Boston, 1832);  Journals of
the Continental Congress from  1774 to 1778 (13
vols.); and  Secret Journals  of Congress to the
Dissolution of theConfederacy(4 vols., 8vo., 1821).
   t 1. Expense of the  Revolutionary War. As
the commerce of the  U. States was interrupted
during the revolution, no revenue was raised from
this branch of industry to sustain the great and
pressing demands of  the nation.  Nor, indeed,
had congress power  to levy a general tax on
commerce, this being  the prerogative of the sev-
eral states.  The country itself,  moreover, in the
midst of an oppressive war, was not in a condi-
tion to contribute pecuniary aid to  the general
cause, and the  necessary resort of congress was
to loans and paper money.   It is not possible to
ascertain with certainty the expenses  of the revo-
lutionary war.   An estimate was made  in 1790, 
                         UNITED  STATES (HISTORY).                     417

of that body were little regarded by the   own affaire, and whose legislative and ju-
itates, and the country was  already be-   dicial  institutions in some  cases needed
coming a  prey to anarchy, when a con-   only a slight reform.  The constitutions
vention, composed of delegates  from the   of the states were, in general, modelled on
several states, met at Philadelphia (May,   the same plan, having, in imitation of the
1787), for the purpose of revising the arti-   British constitution, a legislative authority
cles of confederation, and, under the presi-   vested in two houses, one or both of which
dency of Washington, agreed on a federal   were chosen directly by the people ; and
constitution (Sept  17), to  be proposed to   an executive, with definite power, chosen
the people in state conventions.—2. From   by the people or by their  representatives.
the  Establishment of the Federal Govern-   These documents  are' the first written
ment in 1789.*   At an early period of the   constitutions of government with which
war (1776), congress had recommended   history makes us acquainted. (For a full
to the assemblies and conventions of the   account of them, see Constitutions.) These
several colonies, to establish governments   governments  were aU  highly popular in
suited to the new exigencies of the coun-   their principles, simple in their machine-
try.   This was not a  difficult task,  to a   ry, and well  calculated for  the manage-
people who had always been accustomed,   ment of home affaire.   But the  general
with  a few exceptions, to manage their   regulation of commerce on uniform prin-
by the register of the treasury, and furnished to a
committee of congress.  The following general
abstract will show the results :—
The estimated amount of the ex-
  penditures of 1775 and  1776 is,  Dolls. SOths.
  m specie,............20,064,666 66
            1777.........24,986,646 85
            1778.........24,289,438 26
            1779.........10,794,620 65
            1780.........  3,000,000 00
            1781.........   1,942,465 30
            1782.........  3,632,745 85
            1783.........  3,226,583 45
To Nov. 1st, 1784..........  548,525 63
Forming an amount total of treas- -------------
  ury payment of........#92,485,693 15

The  whole expense of the war is estimated, in
specie, at #135,193,700.
  2.  Emissions of Continental Money.  The ad-
vances made from the treasury were principally in
a paper medium,  which was  called continental
money, and which in a short time depreciated;
the  specie value of it is given in the foregoing
estimate.  The advances made at the treasury of
the  U. States in continental  money, in old  and
new emissions, are estimated as follows, viz.

              Old Emission.   New Emission.
                 Dolls.  90ths.   Dolls.  90ths.
In 1776.....20,064,666 66
  1777.....26,426,333  1
  1778.....66,965,269 34
  1779 ... .  149,703,856 77
  1780.....82,908,320 47 . . .  891,236 80
  1781.....11,408,095 00 . .  1,179,249 00
             $357,476,541 45   #2,070,485 80

By comparing this amount of paper money, is-
sued during the revolution, with the above esti-
mate of the total expense in specie dollars, it will
be seen  that the  average depreciation of the
whole amount issued was nearly two thirds of its
original value.
  3. Loans and  Grants of  Money  in France.
The following is a sketch of an account of the
loans, subsidies and grants of money received in
France during the revolution.  The  fractions of
dollars are omitted.  Five livres and eight  sols
are reckoned to the dollar.
                             Livres.  Dollars.
1776, February 6.—Cash received
      from sundry individuals
      up to this day, including
      a loan from the farmers-
      general, ..........3,000,000  555,553
  "   Loan  by  the  court  of
      France for this year,  . .  3,000,000   555,555
1779.—Loan for this year, . .  . .  1,000,000   185,185
1780.—Loan............4,000,000   740.740
1781.—Loan,...........4,000,000   740,740
  "   Subsidy from the court of
      France,..........6,000,000 1,111,111
  "   Loan granted by the court
      in Holland,.......10,000,000 1,851,851
1782—Loan............6,000,000 1,111,111
1783.—Loan,...........6,000,000 1,111,111

                          43,000,000 7,962,959

             4. Troops employed.
                  Continental.         Militia.
  1775.........27,443
  1776.........46,901......26,060
  1777.........34,750......  10,112
  1778.........32,899.......4,353
  1779.........27,699.......2,429
  1780.........21,115.......5,811
  1781.........13,832.......7,398
  1782.........14,256
  1783.........13,076

  * Introduction of States into the Confederacy.
The thirteen United Colonies, which issued the dec-
laration of independence, entered into the confed-
eration of 1778, and formed the constitution of
1789,  were, New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut,  New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,  Maryland, Vir-
ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Geor-
gia.   The  states subsequently  admitted into the
union  are,
Vermont, separated from New York, 1791 ;
Tennessee, from North Carolina, 1796;
Kentucky, from Virginia, 1799 ;
Ohio,  formed from lands north-west of the Ohio,
  which had been ceded to the general govern-
  ment by the states to which it belonged, 1802;
Louisiana, from Louisiana purchase, 1812;
Indiana, from North-west Territory, 1816 ;
Mississippi, from Georgia cession, 1817;
Illinois, from North-west  Territory, 1818;
Alabama, from Georgia cession, 1819 ;
Maine, separated from Massachusetts, 1820;
Missouri, set off from Louisiana purchase, 1820. 
418
UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
ciplcs, the management of the intercourse
with foreign states, the support of a mili-
tary peace  establishment, the settlement
of  disputed questions between  thirteen
sovereign powers, required a general au-
thority  competent to  decide  these  and
similar  questions.  The convention of
Philadelphia, after a session of about four
months,  finally adopted  the present fed-
eral constitution of the U. States (Sept. 17,
1787), with the provision that the ratifica-
tion of it by nine  states  should be suffi-
cient  for the  final establishment of the
new system.  The plan thus  submitted
to the states was warmly debated in the
several conventions, but was finally adopt-
ed  by all, seven  of them recommending
certain  amendments,  and six ratifying it
absolutely.   (The Journal of the  Phi-
ladelphia convention  was published  in
1819, by order of congress, and the de-
bates of some of the state conventions
have  also been published.   The whole
subject  is fully argued in  the celebrated
essays  written  by Jay, Hamilton  and
Madison, and collected under the title of
tiie Federalist.)  July 14, 1788, ten states*
having acceded to it, it was ratified by con-
gress, and the firet president was elected
Feb.  1,  1789.   The  first president  was
Washington, who was chosen by a unani-
mous vote of his fellow citizens.   The
first congress assembled at New York,
March 4, 1789, and immediately proceed-
ed to raise a revenue, by  imposing duties;
to establish a federal judiciary,  consisting
of a supreme court, with circuit and dis-
trict courts; to organize the executive ad-
ministration, by creating the departments
e f war, of foreign affaire, and the treasu-
ry ; to fund the debt of the U. States, and
assume the state debts;  and to create a
national bank.   The jealousy  of state
rights, which had made the adoption ofa
federal constitution a matter of  great deli-
racy and difficulty, began already to mani-
fest itself in opposition to the federal gov-
ernment, and the two parties of federalists
and anti-federalists began to be more dis-
tinctly marked.  Indian hostilities had also
required an increase of the  military estab-
lishment ; and the duty on domestic spirits
met with such open  resistance from the
people, that the president issued a procla-
mation against unlawful combinations and
proceedings tending to obstruct  the exe-
rution of the laws. The period for which
the president was chosen having  expired,
Washington was reelected by a unanimous
  * New York gave in her adhesion July 26 of
that year; North Carolina in November, 1789;
Rhode Island, May, 1790.
vote of the electors, and entered upon the
second term of his administration in 1793.
An insurrection in the western counties
of Pennsylvania, on account of the duties
on  domestic spirits, was quelled  (1794)
without bloodshed, by the prudence and
vigor of the executive; and the hostilities
with the Indians on the western frontier
were terminated  by the entire defeat of
the savages, by general Wayne.   Mean-
while, the progress of the French revolu-
tion, which had stirred  up all the nations
of Europe,  had excited a lively interest
in America.  The sympathy aroused by
the sight of a nation struggling for liberty,
and particularly of a  nation which had
borne arms  in their cause, naturally pro-
duced a degree of enthusiasm among the
Americans'  in its  favor.  The president
was determined to maintain a strict neu-
trality  in  the contest between the new
republic  and  the  European cabinets, in
conformity with his settled principle of
avoiding entangling alliances with foreign-
ers.  The minister of the convention in
this country, offended with  this neutral
policy, actually undertook to raise troops
against the Spanish possessions, to fit out
naval expeditions  in the ports of the U.
States, and to take other similar measures
in direct defiance of the ordere of the ex-
ecutive.  He was supported  in this con-
duct by a strong party,  which  formed
democratic societies in  different parts of
the country; but the course of the presi-
dent was  finally approved by the great
body of the nation.  A treaty of friendship,
limits and navigation, settling the bounda-
ries between the U. States and the Span-
ish colonies, and conceding to the former
the  right  to navigate  the   Mississippi,
was concluded,  after  protracted  nego-
tiations, Oct.  27, 1795; and a treaty of
amity, commerce  and navigation  (Jay's
treaty), with Great Britain,  was ratified
by  the American  government, Aug. 14,
1795.  This treaty created such divisions
in the U. States, as to put in danger the
existence  of the government.  Petitions
against it were sent in from all parts of
the country, and it was the  subject of a
violent debate in the house of represent-
atives  during the next session of con-
gress.!  But public opinion was  gradu-
  t " The objections of those  opposed to carry-
ing the treaty into effect, were, generally, that it
wanted reciprocity ; that it gave up all claim of
compensation for negroes carried away, contrary
to the treaty of peace, and for the detention of the
western posts; that it contravened the French
treaty, and sacrificed the interest of an ally to
that of Great Britain ; that it gave up, in several
important  instances, the law of nations,  particu- 
UNITED STATES (HISTORY).
419
 ally settled in favor of the treaty, as be-
 ing the only possible means of saving the
 country from  becoming  involved  in the
 ware of the French revolution.  In the
 president's message to congress (Decem-
 ber, 1796), he urges the necessity of cre-
 ating a navy, encouraging manufactures
 and agriculture, establishing  a military
 academy and  a national univereity, and
 declares his detemiination to retire from
 the government, which he  did, accord-
 ingly, on the 4th of March, 1797.  The
 weight of his personal character was of
 the highest moment in setting the ma-
 chinery of the new government in mo-
 tion, as it had been in carrying on the
 war, in preserving tranquillity on the con-
 clusion  of peace,  and  in effecting the
 adoption of the constitution by the con-
 vention.  In  the short  period of eight
 years, all  the disputes  between the  U.
 States and foreign  nations had been ad-
 i'usted, with the exception of  those with
 •Vance, which had arisen  during that
 time, out  of the new state of things  in
 Europe.  "At home, pubUc and private
 credit was restored; ample provision made
 for the security and ultimate payment of
 the public debt; American tonnage had
 nearly doubled; the exports had increased
 from nineteen to more than fifty-six million
 of dollars; the imports in about the same
 proportion ; and the amount of revenues
 from imposts had exceeded the most san-
 guine calculations." (Pitkin's History, &c.)
 The depredations ott French cruisers up-
 on the  commerce of the  U. States had
 been such, that, on the 7th of July, 1797,
 the treaties with France were declared to
 be no longer obligatory on the U. States ;
 an army was raised, of which general
 Washington was named  commander-in-
 chief; and several engagements took place
 at sea between the French and American
 cruisers.  In this crisis, the revolution of
 18th Bmmaire changed the policy of the
 French republic, and  a treaty was con-
 cluded between the two powers, Septem-
 ber  30,  1800.   On  the  retirement of
 Washington, John Adams had been elect-
 ed to succeed him;  and, in 1801, Thomas
 Jefferson was chosen third president of
 the U. States.  One of the most impor-
 tant events of this period was the pur-
 chase of Louisiana from the French gov-

 larlv in relation lo free ships making free  goods,
 cases of blockade, and  contraband of war; that
 it improperly interfered with the legislative powers
of  congress, especially by prohibiting the seques-
tration of debts ;  and that the  commercial part
 ?ave few advantages to the U. States."  (Pitkin's
 Ustory of the U. States.)
 emment  (1803), for the sum  of fifteen
 million dollars, two million and a half of
 which were  retained by the U. States, as
 a compensation for the illegal captures
 made  by  France.   An expedition  was
 sent out by the American government to
 explore the country, which reached  the
 Pacific,  across   the  Rocky  mountains.
 (See Louisiana.) The  peace of Amiens
 had restored a  short peace to Europe;
 but hostilities, in which all the  European
 powers were involved, were soon renew-
 ed ; and the U. States was almost the only
 power  which  preserved its   neutrality.
 The  Americans, under  these circum-
 stances, had become possessed of an exten-
 sive and lucrative carrying trade; but the
 continental system of Napoleon, and  the
 counter measures of the British  govern-
 ment (see Continental System), directed to
 the intermption  of all commercial inter-
 course between the respective beUigerents
 and neutrals, led to a series of acts which
 threatened the entire destruction of Ameri-
 can commerce.  In addition to the depre-
 dations committed by the two powers,
 Great Britain also claimed the right of
 searching American vessels, and impress-
 ing from them British seamen. In order to
 counteract the imperial decrees and the
 British orders in council, the general gov-
 ernment laid an  embargo, prohibiting the
 exportation of every article from the U.
 States (December, 1807), and thus entire-
 ly annihilating  their foreign commerce;
 the coasting trade was at that time insig-
 nificant, and this measure was received
 with so much opposition, that, in 1809,
 the embargo was repealed. At the same
 time, all trade and intercourse with France
 and England was prohibited  by act of
 congress.   In June, 1812, war was de-
 clared against Great Britain, and was con-
 tinued,  with  various success,  for three
 years,  during which the  Americans  at-
 tempted, without success, the conquest of
 Canada, and the British were repulsed in
 several  attacks upon the maritime cities.
 The successes of the Americans by sea
 were more brilliant.  (See Navy.)  Peace
 was finally concluded at Ghent, Decem-
 ber 24, 1814, by a  treaty which settled
 nothing, and made  no allusion  to  the
 causes of the war.*  The change in Eu-
  * The following  account of a convention of
 delegates from several of the New England states,
 assembled at Hartford  in December, 1814, and
called the Hartford Convention, is from Holmes's
 Annals : " At this perilous and alarming crisis,
some of the northern stales held a consultation!
The misunderstanding between the national ex-
ecutive and the executives  of these states on the
requisition of the militia  to be placed under oili- 
420                  UNITED STATES (GEOGRAPHY).
ropean affairs, produced by the peace of
Paris  in 1815,  aud  the events of the
American war,  contributed to  introduce
a considerable change in the policy of the
American government, and the  relations
of domestic parties, which stiU continues
in operation.  Previous to this time, party
divisions were founded, in a  great  meas-
ure, upon points  of foreign  policy,  and
on foreign predilections or aversions. The
great facilities for commerce had diverted
a great portion of the  national capital
into commercial channels, and manufac-
tures had received Uttle attention.   Since
that period,  foreign  politics have had lit-
tle influence in the country; manufactur-
ing  industry has  been developed  to an
astonishing degree,  and  taken under the
protection of the government;  internal
improvements—the  construction of roads
and canals—have been pushed with won-
derful  vigor;  the acquisition of Florida
has given a  more secure southern bound-
ary  to the republic ; six new states have

ccrs of the president's  appointment, embarrassed
the measures of the state  governments.   Massa-
chusetts, Rhode Island  and Connecticut were at
this time destitute of the protection of the national
troops, and exposed to the ravages of an incensed
enemy, with scarcely any other than their own re-
sources, and these  continually diminishing, by an
onerous system of taxation for the national treasu-
ry.   The alarm and horror  of the people were
immeasurably excited, and the pressure upon the
state governments was proportionably great. The
governor of Massachusetts convoked the general
court of that  commonwealth; the  legislature of
Connecticut was about  to hold its usual semi-an-
nual session;  and the legislature of Rhode Island
also assembled.  When these several bodies met,
what should be done in  this unexampled state of
affairs, became a subject of most solemn deliber-
ation.  To insure unity of views and concert in
action, the legislature of Massachusetts proposed
a ' conference,' by  delegates from the legislatures
of the  New  England  states, and of any other
states that might accede to  the measure.  Their
resolution for this purpose, and the circular letter
accompanying it, show, that the duty proposed to
be assigned to  these delegates was merely to devise
and recommend to the states, measures for their
security and defence, and such measures as were
' not repugnant to their  federal obligations  as
members of the Union.'   The  proposition was
readily assented to, and the delegates  appointed
in pursuance of it met at Hartford on the 15th of
December following.   The convention recom-
mended, J. that the states  they represent take
measures to protect their citizens  from ' forcible
draughts, conscriptions or impressments, not au-
thorized by the constitution of the U. States.'  2.
That an earnest application be made to the gov-
ernment of the U. States, requesting their con-
sent to some arrangement, whereby the states
separately, or in concert, may assume upon them-
selves the defence of  their  territory against the
enemy, and that a reasonable portion of the taxes
collected within the states be appropriated to this
object. 3. That the several governors be author-
been admitted into the Union, and seven-
teen years of peace and prosperity have
well  developed  the   resources  of  tho
country.
   Geography and Statistics.   1.  Physical
Geography.   The  U. States  form  the
great middle division of North America,
bounded north  by New Britain  and  Up-
per  and Lower  Canada, east  by  New
Brunswick and the Atlantic ocean, south
by the gulf  of Mexico, south-west  and
south by the country of Mexico,  and west
by the Pacific ocean.   The boundary be-
tween the U. States and  the British do-
minions  begins at the entrance  of the St
Croix into the  Atlantic,  proceeding up
that river to its source ; thence due north
to the high lands which separate the waters
falUng into the Atlantic from those falling
into the  St. Lawrence; thence along those
high lands, in  a south-west direction, to
the  parallel of lat. 45° N.;  thence along
that parallel  to the river  St. Lawrence;
thence up that  river, and  through the

ized  by law to employ the military force under
their command in assisting any state requesting it,
to repel the invasions of the public  enemy.  4.
That several amendments  of trie  constitution of
the U. States, calculated, in  their view, to pre-
vent a recurrence of the evils of which they com-
plain, be  proposed, by the states they represent,
for adoption either by the state  legislatures, or by
a convention chosen by the people of  each state.
Lastly, That if the application  of these slates to
the government of the U. States should be un-
successful, and peace should not be  concluded,
and the defence of these states be still neglected,
it would,  in their opinion, be  expedient for the
legislatures of the several states to appoint dele-
 fates to another convention, to meet at Boston in
 une, with such powers  and  instructions as the
exigency  of a crisis  so momentous may require.
The effect upon the public mind, in the aggrieved
states, was alike seasonable  and salutary. The
very proposal to call a convention, and the confi-
dence reposed in the men delegated to that trust,
served greatly to allay the passions, and to in-
spire confidence  and hope.   Nor was the influ-
ence of this body upon the national councils less
perceptible.  Within  three weeks after the ad-
journment of the convention and the publication
of their report, an act passed  both houses of the
national legislature, ana received the signature of
the president, authorizing and requiring him to
' receive  into the service of the U.  States any
corps of troops which may have been or may be
raised, organized, and officered, under the au-
thority of any of the states,' to be ' employed in
the state  raising the same, or  an adjoining state,
and not elsewhere, except with the consent of the
executive of the state raising the same.'  Before
the commissioners who were sent to  confer with
Ihe government  could reach  Washington, a bill
passed the senate, providing  for the payment of
the troops and militia already called  into service
under the authority of the states.  The arrival of
the treaty of peace at this juncture, arrested al
further proceedings." 
UNITED STATES (GEOGRAPHY),
421
 middle of the great lakes Ontario, Erie,
 Huron and Superior, to the north-west
 extremity of  the lake  of  the  Woods;
 thence, on the meridian  line, to the paral-
 lel of lat. 49° N.; thence along that parallel
 to the Rocky mountains.   The north-east-
 ern  boundary is yet in dispute.   The
 words of the treaty of 1783 (art. 2) are as
 follows:—" From the north-west angle of
 Nova  Scotia,  viz.  that angle  which  is
 formed by a line drawn due north from
 the  source of St. Croix  river to the high
 lands, along said high lands which divide
 those rivers that empty themselves into
 the river St. Lawrence from those which
 fall into the Atlantic ocean, to the north-
 westernmost head of Connecticut river."
 This part of the  country was but imper-
 fectly  known at the time of making the
 treat)', and the  dividing ridge  of high
 lands is  by the Americans assumed to
 be in lat. 48°, while, by  the English con-
 struction, it is placed in lat. 46° 30".  The
 question  in dispute was referred to  the
 arbitration of the king of the Netherlands,
 whose decision has been rejected by the U.
 States on the ground that, instead of decid-
 ing upon  the claims of the two parties, he
has attempted to establish a new line of his
own, as a matter of expediency and con-
venience.   (The question is fully treated
in vols. 26 and 34 of the  North American
Review.)   Between the Rocky moun-
tains and the Pacific ocean the  boundary
is not yet settled.  The country west of
the Rocky mountains is claimed by Great
 Britain:  and, by the convention, for  ten
yeare, made in 1818 and renewed in 1827,
 it was agreed, between the U. States and
that  power, that the country should re-
 main open to both.  By the convention
of 1824,  between  Russia  and  the  U.
 States, it was  agreed that the  Russians
should make no settlements to the south,
 nor the Americans to tiie north, of 54° 40v
 N. latitude.  The boundary  on the side
of Mexico, as ratified by a treaty Avith
 Spain, in 1821, begins on the gulf of Mex-
 ico, at  the mouth of Sabine river, pro-
 ceeding along the west bank of that river
to lat. 32° N.; thence by a line due north
to Red river; thence up that river to the
 meridian of lon. 100° W.;  thence due
north along that meridian to the river Ar-
kansas ; thence along the south bank of
the  Arkansas  to  its source; thence due
north to  the paraUel of lat  42° N.; and
thence along that parallel to the Pacific
ocean.   Lon. 66° 49' to 125° W.; lat.  25°
to 49° N.; square miles, estimated at  up-
wards of 2,000,000.  More  than half of
the  territory included within these limits
  vol. xn.         36
 contains few or no settiers, and is not yet
 formed into states.  If a line were drawn
 from the mouth of the Sabine due  north
 to the Missouri ; thence in  a north-east-
 erly direction to the south end of lake
 Michigan,  the eastern division would in-
 clude nearly all the population, though
 less than half of the territory.  The other
 division is almost wholly in the possession
 of  the  Indians.  The Une of  frontier,
 taken according to the claims of the U.
 States, is estimated by Darby as follows:—
 Frontier in common with British Ameri-
 ca, from the mouth of the St. Croix to the
 Rocky mountains, 3000 miles, of which a
 considerable  portion is a  natural water
 boundary ; west of the Rocky mountains,
 northern boundary in common  with the
 Russian  settlements, 600 mUes ;  western
 frontier, along the Pacific ocean, from 54°
 to 42° N. lat, 800 miles (Darby estimates
 it from 42° to 51°, 560 miles); in common
 with Mexico, along the  parallel of lat. 42°
 to the Rocky mountains, and thence, as
 above described, to the  mouth of the Sa-
 bine, 2300 miles; along the  gulf of Mexi-
 co to Florida point, 1000 miles ; along the
 Atlantic  ocean to  the  mouth of the St.
 Croix, 1850 miles.  According to this es-
timate, the whole line of frontier amounts
to  about 9550 miles, of which 3650 are
sea coast.  This  vast extent of country,
comprising one twentieth of the habitable
land of  the  globe, is  divided,  by two
ranges of  mountains,  into  three  great
natural sections, the Atlantic slope,  the
Mississippi  valley, and  the  Pacific slope.
The AUeghany(q. v.)chain is more remark-
 able for its  length than its height   Per-
 haps there  is no tract  of country in the
world that preserves the mountain charac-
 ter over so  great a space with so littie el-
evation.  The mean  height of the AUe-
 ghanies is  only from 2000  to 3000  feet,
about one  half" of which consists of the
elevation of the mountains above their
base, and the other of the elevation of the
adjoining country  above the sea.    To
this height the country rises, by an almost
 imperceptible acclivity, from  the ocean,
at the distance of 200 or 300 mUes on the
one side, and from the channel of the
 Mississippi, at an equal distance, on the
other.   A  gradual elevation  of  1000 or *
 1200 feet upon a horizontal surface of 200
 or 300 miles, would give the surface of
 the country, on the eastern side, an ave-
 rage rise of" from three to four feet in the
 mile, and from two to three feet on the
 western side, aUowing for the height of
 the channel of the Mississippi above the
 sea.   This  small degree of  inclination 
422                 UNITED  STATES (GEOGRAPHY).
accounts for  the  great extent of inland
navigation  which the U.  States enjoy.
By the  course  of the  Mississippi, Ohio
and Alleghany rivers, vessels ascend over
an inclined plane of 2400 miles in extent,
to an elevation of perhaps 1200 or 1400
feet, without the help of canals or locks.
The second  great  mountainous  range
which traverses the U. States is the Rocky
mountains, (q.  v.)  This ridge is more
elevated than  the  former, but  is also
more distent  from the  Pacific ocean on
the one  side  and  the Mississippi  on the
other.   From the Mississippi to the Pa-
cific, in  lat. 40°, is about 1500 miles ; and
the Rocky mountains, which crown this
gradually-swelling surface, rise, with the
exception of some  insulated  peaks,  to
a height of about 9000 feet  This eleva-
tion is about three times  as great as that
of the Alleghanies; and it is remarkable
that the Mississippi, which is the common
reservoir of the streams descending from
both, is  about three times farther from the
higher chain than from the lower, so that
the declivity on both sides of the immense
basin included  between these mountains,
is nearly the same ;  and the streams flow-
ing from the Rocky mountains are as sus-
ceptible of navigation  as those from the
Alleghanies.  The Mississippi valley also
presents a southern  declivity,  by which
it gradually  sinks  from  the high table
land of  the centre of the continent to the
level of the ocean on the gulf of Mexico.
From this table land, which is estimated
to have an elevation of  not  more than
1500  feet  above  the  sea, descend the
great rivers of North America—Macken-
zie's to  the north, the St. Lawrence to the
east, and the Mississippi to the south.
(See Mississippi, Missouri, and Mississip-
pi  Valley.)  To the west of the Rocky
mountains lies the Pacific slope, the de-
clivity of which is greater and more rapid
than those of the others.   This region, as
yet  little  known,  and  unoccupied by
whites,  is visited only by hunters and
trading   ships,  and  is  now  generally
known  under the name of Oregon.  (See
Columbia, and Oregon.)  With  regard to
soil, the territory of the U.  States, to the
east of the Rocky  mountains, may  be
classed  under  five  grand  divisions:—1.
That of the New England states, cast of
the Hudson, where the Alleghanies spread
out into a  broken, hUly country. The
boU is here, in general, rocky, has but Ut-
tle depth, is  barren in many places, and
better adapted for  pasture than tillage.
2. The sandy soil of the sea shore, com-
mencing from Long Island, and extending
along the coast of the Atlantic and the
 fulf of Mexico, to  the  mouth  of the
 lississippi, with a breadth varying from
thirty to a hundred  miles.  This tract
from the Potomac southward, approaches
to a horizontal plain, very  little raised
above the  sea, and traversed through its
whole  breadth by  the tide water at the
mouths of the great rivers.  The surface,
which consists of sea sand, is scarcely ca-
pable of cultivation, and produces noth-
ing but pines, except on the banks of riv-
ers, and in marshy spots  where rice is
raised.  3.  The land from the  upper
margin of this sandy tract to the foot of
the Alleghany mountains, from ten to
two hundred miles in breadth, the soil of
which  is generally formed from the allu-
vion of the mountains, and the decompo-
sition of the primitive rocks beneath the
surface.  This tract  is fertile, and gen-
eraUy well adapted  for tillage.   4. The
valleys  between the  ridges  of the Alle-
ghanies, the soil of which  is various, but
rather  richer than that of the  tract last
mentioned.  5. The extensive region west
of the Alleghanies, bottomed on limestone,
well watered, inexhaustibly productive,
and containing perhaps as large a propor-
tion of firet rate soil as any country in the
world.   The northern and western parts
of the  Mississippi valley,  stretching for
hundreds of miles along the foot of the
Rocky  mountains, and several  hundred
miles in width, is a barren desert of sand.
(The  geology of the U. States has been
fully described in the article North Amer-
ica.)  Volney, who visited the U. States
in 1796, describes the country as a  vast
forest, interrupted by open spaces formed
by  brackish marshes, and by  cultivated
tracts round the cities.  In a state of na-
ture, the whole Atlantic slope was, in fact,
covered by a  dense forest, which  also
spread  over  a great part of the basin of
the St. Lawrence to the fifty-fifth degree
of north latitude, and nearly the whole of
the Mississippi valley on the east of the
river, and stretched beyond the Mississip-
pi for the distance of fifty or one hundred
miles.   Of this enormous forest, one of
the largest on the globe, nineteen twenti-
eths yet remain, the efforts of man having
made  but  partial  inroads,  on  either its
mass or its extent.  This forest  is bound-
ed on its western limits by another region
of much greater area, but of a very differ-
ent character. " This," says Darby, "may
be strictly called the grassy section cf
North  America, which, from  all that is
correctly known, stretches from the forest
region  indefinitely westward, and from
the gulf of Mexico to the farthest arctic
limits  of the continent."   The  grassy or 
UNITED STATES (GEOGRAPHY).
423
prairie region,  in  general, is  less hilly,
mountainous or rocky than the forest re-
gion ; but there are many exceptions to
tins  remark: plains of great extent exist
in the latter, and mountains of  considera-
ble elevation and mass in the former. The
■two regions are not divided by any deter-
minate limit, but frequently run into each
other, so as to blend their  respective fea-
tures. With the Atlantic ocean on the east,
the Pacific on the west,  the gulf of Mex-
ico on the  south, and an  Atlantic coast
of nearly 3000  miles, the  U. States  con-
tain  some of the  finest harbors  in  the
world.  The largest bays are Passama-
quoddy,   Massachusetts, Delaware and
Chesapeake. The principal sounds  are
Long Island sound, Albemarle  and Pam-
lico sounds.  The largest  lakes included
wholly within the U. States, are  Michi-
gan  and  Champlain.  The  great lakes
Superior, Huron,  Erie  and Ontario, lie
partly within the U. States and partly in
the British  dominions.  The  country is
intersected  by a  great number of rivers,
which afford great facilities for inland
navigation, and  an unlimited natural pow-
er for mechanical purposes,  which, in a
great measure, rendere the use of steam and
other artificial powers unnecessary, and
thus  gives great advantages to the manu-
facturing  establishments of  the country.
Some of the principal are the following:—
    Rivers flowing
      Miles in Length.
Penobscot,  .  . 250
Kennebec,  .  . 200
Androscoggin, 170
Saco,......160
Merrimac, . . . 200
Connecticut,  . 410
Hudson,  .... 324
Delaware, ... 300
into the Atlantic.
       Miles in Length.
 Potomac, .  . . 620
 James,.....550
 Roanoke, .  . . 350
 Cape Fear,  . . 350
 Pedee,.....450
 Santee,  .... 450
 Savannah,  . . 700
  Alatamaha,  . . 500
 St John's,... 300
Susquehannah, 450

 Rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico.
Appalachicola,  500 I Tombeckbee,. 450
Alabama,  .  . . 450 | Mississippi, .  3000
  Rivers tributary to the Mississippi, fyc.
                    Yellowstone,  1100
                                 1350
                                  500
                                  800
Red river,  .
Arkansas,  .
White river,
Missouri, .  .
Kansas,  .  .
Platte, . .  .
Osage, . .  .
  Rivers west of the
Columbia,  . . 1500
Multnomah, . 900
1500
2150
1300
3100
1200
1500
 500
 Ohio,
 Illinois,  . . .
 Moines,  . . .
 Tennessee,  .  1100
 Cumberland, . 750
 Wabash,. ... 500
Rocky Mountains.
 Lewis's, .... 900
 Clarke's,. ... 900
(See the separate articles, and the article
Rivers, Navigable.  Many details in phys-
ical geography wUl also be found  in the
articles on the separate states, written for
this work, and containing the most recent
information in regard to this country.)
   Climate.   In a country having so many
varieties of exposure as the U. States, and
extending through twenty degrees of lati-
tude, the climate must, of" course, be vari-
ous.   In the northern parts, between lat
42° and 45°, the winter is severe for three
or four months : during this  season, the
snow is abundant enough for  the use of
sledges, and the ice of the rivers suffi-
ciently strong to  bear the  passage of
horses and wagons.  In summer, the heat
is very intense during five  or six weeks.
In the southern parts of New York, Penn-
sylvania, New Jersey and Maryland, the
winter is equally cold, but of shorter du-
ration, generally commencing about the
beginning of November, and the  severe
cold seldom continuing more than fifteen
or twenty days.  The temperature of the
summer  is nearly  the same as in the
Northern States.   Between the first of
May and the firet of October, a fire is not
necessary.   In the  Southern  States, in-
cluding Virginia, the Carolinas and Geor-
gia, tiie cold gradually diminishes, and to
the south of the Potomac there is but lit-
tle snow except on  the mountains.  The
winds  which  chiefly  prevail,  are  the
north-west,  south-west  and  north-east
The firet, which  blows from  the  moun-
tains and high table land, predominates in
winter, and is  by far the driest and cold-
est ; but along the Atlantic coast, where it
meets warm clouds and warm currents of
air, it produces snow, hail, and sometimes
rain :  along the banks of the  Mississippi
and  Ohio  rivers,   it  produces rain in
winter and  storms  in  summer.  The
south-west wind prevails in summer, and
is more constant on the western side of
the Alleghany  mountains than on the At-
lantic coast  In the basin of the Missis-
sippi,  it is said to  prevail throughout the
year, except during  two months about the
winter solstice.   The  north-east wind,
crossing a great extent of sea,  brings cold
and moisture  on  all the Atlantic coast.
Proceeding  southwardly,  however,  its
effects are found to  diminish.   Its  course
is directed, in  some measure,  by that of
the mountains, and the space over which it
blows  is sometimes marked by the snow
which it deposits.   The following table
shows the results of observations taken at
several of the military posts in  the U.
States.  The observations were taken at
Beven  o'clock  in the morning, and at two
and nine in the afterno6n, and from these
the aggregate means are deduced:— 
424
UNITED STATES (GEOGRAPHY).

          For the Year 1827.
	THERMOMETER.				WINDS.							
	Aggr.	High-	Low-		N.	w. w.	N. E.	E.			J. w.	w.
Places of Observation.	mean	est	est	Range.			--				---	---
	temp.	deg.	deg.		days.	days.	days.	days.	days.	days.	days.	days.
	41.46	84	—20	104	0.75	9.41	4.82	3.08	6.16	0.75	3.00	2.47
Fort Snelling, ....	46.10	96	—22	118	1.33	2.83	1.92	1.41	2.42	5.75	5.33	9.42
Fort Howard, ....	45.60	98	—16	114	2.42	2.17	5.33	1.17	0.83	4.17	5.17	9.00
Fort Preble,.....	45.93	95	— 8	103	2.42	5.17	2.75	1.58	3.75	4.92	6.17	3.67
Fort Constitution,. .	46.22	92	— 8	100	2.00	7.16	3.66	1.42	1.17	8.00	2.58	4.42
Fort Wolcott, ....	49.73	86	— 2	88	2.33	9.58	4.83	0.42	2.25	0.58	9.50	0.92
Fort Armstrong, . .	51.83	94	— 6	100	3.83	5.42	2.58	2.75	2.08	6.83	4.08	2.83
	51.66	101	—10	111	4.50	8.25	2.17	0.50	4.83	4.00	3.92	2.25
Fort Trumbull, . . .	53.10	88	0	88	2.08	4.67	5.00	1.33	3.25	3.83	7.16	3-83
Fort Columbus,. . .	51.77	96	0	96	3.75	7.50	325	1.08	5-08	3.50	3.08	3.17
Washington, ....	57.84	98	9	89	1-75	9.00	5-25	0.58	4-00	2.58	6.00	1.00
Jeffereon Barracks,.	59.27	94	8	86	3.25	4.92	0-58	1.92	342	6.67	4.25	5.42
Fortress Monroe, . .	60.37	94	13	81	2.00	3.00	6.92	3.42	5-33	1.92	6.16	1.67
	66.81	102	26	76	2.08	2.58	3.16	3.00	417	3.67	6.50	4.50
Cantonment Jesup, .	69.22	95	24	71	1.25	4.83	6.50	3.58	8-17	2.67	2.17	1.17
Cantonment Clinch,	70.32	92	24	68	3.50	3.16	1.75	0.67	5-58	5.08	9.58	1.08
Petites Coquilles, . .	70.79	95	23	72	1.00	3.33	5.08	6.83	4-67	3.83	3.67	2.00
Cantonment Brooke,	74.19	94	26	68	0.25	1.67	1.83	1.25	5.83	3.83	3.33	12.42
When North America  firet began to be
colonized by the Europeans, it was soon
discovered  that the temperature of any
given latitude was much more rigorous
than in the same latitude in Europe.   Dif-
ferent explanations have been given of
this phenomenon, of which the following
are some of the most striking circum-
stances.   Humboldt  has  endeavored to
connect the system of climates of the old
world with that of the new, by fixing,
at every ten degrees of latitude,  under
different meridians, a  small number of
places, whose mean temperature has been
correctly ascertained, and through these,
as so many standard points, supposing
certain Unes of equal heat, or isothermal
lines, to pass.   The  observations which
have been  made  on the temperature of
places in the eastern and western conti-
nents, show that, advancing seventy de-
grees to the east or west, a sensible alter-
ation  in the heat of the atmosphere is
found.  Places  situated, however, under
the same latitudes  in America and  Eu-
rope, do not differ so many degrees as has
been  commonly supposed.  The follow-
ing tables indicate  the  difference of cli-
mates expressed by that of mean tempe-
rature, and  by the number of degrees
which it is necessary to go northward, in
Europe, in order to find the same quan-
tity of annual  heat as  in America; the
differences under the column of latitudes
are the  differences between the latitude
of a place in  Europe and a.-place in
America, which have the same  mean
temperature;  and the differences  under
the column of mean temperatures are the
differences  between the mean tempera-
ture of a place  in Europe and of one in
America, having the same latitude.  As a
place could not  be found in the old world,
whose  mean  temperature was  58°, the
same as that of  Williamsburg, Humboldt
supplied it with an interpolation between
the latitudes of  two points, whose mean
temperatures  are 56°.5 and 59°.4.

1. Parallels of Georgia, Mississippi, Lower
          Egypt and Madeira.
                 Latitude.    Mean Temp.
Natches,......31° 28' . .
Funchal,.....32  37  . .
Orotava,......28  25
Rome,.......41  53  . .
                                64° 8'
                                68 7
                                69 8
                                60 4
Algiers,......36  48.....70 0
Difference,
7° 0*.....4° 1'
2. Parallels of Virginia, Kentucky, Spain
         and Southern Greece.
                 Latitude.    Mean Temp.
Williamsburg, . . 38e
Bordeaux,.....44
&.....58° 0*
50
56
Montpellier,
43 56.....59
•Rome,.......41
Algiers,......36
53
48
60
Difference,
7° 0*
70 0

 7° 7' 
UNITED STATES (GEOGRAPHY).
425
3. Parallels of Pennsylvania, Jersey, Con-
     necticut, Latium and Rumelia.
                 Latitude.    Mean Temp.
Philadelphia, . . . 39° 5&.....54° 9
New York,  .... 40 40.....53 8
St. Malo,.....48 39.....54 5
Nantes,......47 13.....54 7
Naples,......40 50.....63 3
  Difference, ...  7° C......9° 5/

Ipswich,.....42° 38'.....50° C
Cambridge, (N.E.) 42 25.....50 4
Vienna.......48 13.....50 5
Manheim,.....49 29.....51 3
Toulon,......43  7.....62 1
Rome,.......41 53.....60 4
Difference,.
6° 30*.....11° V
4.  Parallels  of  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,
     France and Southern Germany.
                  Latitude.    Mean Temp.
Quebec,......46° 47'.....41° &
Upsal,.......49 51.....41  9
Padua,.......45 24.....57  7
Paris,.......48 50.....51  4
Difference,
13° 0'.....12° o7
5. Parallds of Labrador, south of Sweden
            and Cowrland.
Latitude.
Mean Temp.
Nains,.......57°  0'.....26° 4'
Okak,........57  20.....29  8
Umea,.......63  50.....33  3
Enoutekies.....68  30.....27  0
Edinburgh, .... 55  58.....47  8
Stockholm,-----59  20.....42  3
Difference,
11° C.....17° 1'
By an analogous method,  he found that
the isothermal line of 32° passes between
Uleo and Enoutekies, in Lapland (lat 66°
to 68°),  and Table bay, in Labrador (lat.
54°); 2. that the isothermal  line of 41°
passes by Stockholm (lat. 60°) and the bay
of St George, Newfoundland (lat. 48°);
3. that the isothermal  line of 50° passes
by Belgium (lat. 51°) and Boston (lat. 42°
30'); 4. that the isothermal  line of 59°
passes between Rome  and Florence (lat
43=) and near Raleigh (lat 36°).   The di-
rection of these lines of equal heat gives
for the two systems of temperature known
by precise observation, viz.  that of the
middle and west of Europe  and that of
the  east of America,  the following dif-
ferences:
	Mean Temp, of	Mean Temp, of	
Lat.	west of	east of	Diff
	Old World.	New World.	
30°	70°.52	66°.92	3°.60
40	63.14	54.50	8.64
50	50.90	37.94	12.96
60	40.64	23.72	16.92
 In tracing the directions of the isother-
 mal Unes from  Europe to the  Atlantic
 countries of the  new world, they are
 found to have the character of parallelism
 towards  the  south, and  to converge to-
 wards the north, particularly between the
 thermometric curves of 41° and 50°. In
 pursuing these lines to the west, the  ther-
 mometric means prove that they do not
 again rise, the quantity of heat which
 each point  of the globe receives under
 the same parallel's being nearly the same
 on the east and west sides of the Alle-
 ghanj* mountains.  The  presence of the
 gleditsia  monosperma, the  catalpa,  and
 otner vegetable productions, several de-
 grees farther to the north, in the basin of
 the Ohio, than on the coast of the Atlantic,
 led, at one time,  to the supposition that
 there  was  a  difference  of tempera-
 ture amounting  to three degrees;  but
Humboldt has now clearly explained that
the migration of vegetables towards the
north is favored  in the basin of the  Mis-
sissippi by the form and direction of the
valley, which opens from north to south;
 while, in the Atlantic states, the valleys
 are transverse, and oppose great obstacles
 to the passage of plants from one valley
 to another.  The following is a comparison
 of the mean temperature of an Atlantic
 city with that of one in the Mississippi
 valley:—
               Cincinnati. Philaddphia.
                Lat. 36° 6' N.   Lat. 39° 56' N.
 Winter,.........  32° 9'........32°2'
 Spring,.........  54  1 ........51 4
 Summer,.......72  9 ........73 9
 Autumn,  .......  54  9 ........56 5

   Mean,........  53  7         53 5
 If the isothermal lines remain parallel, or
 nearly so, to the equator, from the Atlantic
 shores to the Rocky mountains, it cannot
 be doubted that they rise  again beyond
 the  mountains, between  35° and  55° N.
 latitude.  Througn 122° 40'  W. longitude,
 the isothermal line of 50° of temperature
 appeare  to pass, almost as in the Atlantic
 {>art of  the eastern continent, at 50° of
 atitude.  The western coasts of the conr
 tinents resemble one another to a certain
 point But these  returns of the isother-
 mal line  do not extend beyond 60°.  The
 distribution of heat over different parts 
42b
UNITED STATES (GEOGRAPHY AND STATISTICS).
of the year, differs extremely in the same
isothermal line on  the two  continents.
The whole of Europe, compared with
the eastern parts of America and Asia,
has an insular climate ; and upon the same
isothermal line, the  summers  become
warmer, and the winters colder, as we ad-
vance from the meridian of Mont Blanc
towards the  east or west  Europe may
be considered as the western prolongation
of the old continent,  and the  western
parts of all continents are not only warm-
er at equal latitudes than the eastern parts,
but even in zones of equal annual tem-
perature, the  winters are more rigorous,
and the summers  hotter, on  the east-
ern coast than upon the western coasts
of the two  continents.   The northern
part of China, like the Atlantic region of
the U. States,  exhibits  seasons  strongly
contrasted; while the coasts of New Cal-
ifornia and the mouth of the Columbia
have winters and summers almost equai
ly temperate.   The meteorological con-
stitution of these  countries in  the north-
west resembles that of Europe  as far as
50° or 52° N. latitude.  In comparing the
two systems of climates, we find at New
York the summer of Rome and the win-
tor of Copenhagen ; at Quebec, the sum-
mer of Paris and the winter of Peters-
burg.  At  Pekin, China,  the  scorching
heats of summer are greater than at Cai-
ro,  and the winters as rigorous as at Up-
sal.  It appears, according to the observa-
tions of Darby, that the mean annual fall
of rain in the U. States amounts to about
37J-  inches, while in north-western Eu-
rope it amounts to about 31.2 inches ; but
that the number of rainy days in the lat-
ter  region is much greater than  in  the
former. This is explained by the fact, that
rains are  much more heavy  in  the  U.
States than in Europe. (See Climate, Tem-
perature, and Winds.)
  Productions.   The  vegetable produc-
tions of the U. States are exceedingly va-
rious ;  there are some, however, common
to every section of the Union.  Maize, or
Indian corn,  an indigenous  American
plant, is cultivated from Maine to Louisia-
na, but succeeds best in the Western and
Middle States.  It is adapted to a greater
variety of soils and  situations than wheat,
and yields generally double the produce :
land of the firet quality has been  known
to give 100 bushels to an acre.   Wheat is
also cultivated from one extremity of the
Union  to the other, but of superior  quality
in the Middle and Western States.
 Inspection of Wheat and Rye Flour, and Indian Corn Meal, during ten Years.
                Wheat Flour.         Rye Flour.            Indian Meal.
                   Barrels.               Barrels.             Hogsheads. Barrels.
1821........1,707,350........43,976........17,449  40,693
1822........1,599,973........59,363........15,157  32-274
1823........1,557,724........75,620........14,705  36,862
1824........1,714,410........68,380........17,192  70,415
1825........1,882,611........57,419........14,781  51£97
1826........2,031,558........27,282........18,619  36,979
1827........2,061,559........34,487........16,869  51,192
1828........2,245,257........55,239........19,178  78,958
1829........2,255,132........77,945........17,891  51,766
1830........2,851,876........41,351........18,372  35,070
The cultivation of tobacco begins in Ma-
ryland,  about the parallel of 39° or 40°,
and  continues through all  the Southern
States,  and  partially  in  the  Western
States south of the Ohio.  It forms the
staple of Maryland and Virginia, where it
is raised to  a greater extent than in any
other part of the Union.  (See Tobacco.)
The soil and climate favorable for cotton
is not found beyond 37°, though it can be
raised as far north as 39° on both sides of
the Alleghanies.  It was first cultivated
far exportation in 1791, and is raised from
the Roanoke to the Sabine, forming the
staple of the Southern and South-western
States.   (See Cotton.)  The rice crops
require  great heat  and a  marshy soU,
commence about the same parallel with
the cotton, and have nearly the same geo-
graphical  range.  Rice is cultivated to a
great extent in the  Carolinas, Georgia,
&c, Louisiana, and as high as St Louis
in Missouri.   The sugar-cane grows in
low and warm situations  as high as the
latitude of 33°; but the climate favorable
for its production does not extend beyond
31° 307.  It is now  cultivated to a great
extent in Louisiana: in 1829, there were
691  plantations in that  state,  producing
81,000 hogsheads of 1000 pounds  each.
Oats, rye and  barley are raised in all  the
Northern and in the upper districts of the
Southern States.  Hemp,  flax  and  hops
are produced  of an  excellent  quality. 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
427
 Hemp grows naturally  in the  Western
 States, and hops in the Western and Mid-
 dle States.  The vine has been success-
 fully cultivated in  various parts of the
 Union, and the mulberry-tree grows spon-
 taneously, and  has  been  extensively
 planted of late years. Fruits of all kinds
 of the temperate  and tropical  climates,
 and the culinary vegetables which have
 been introduced  from  Europe,  thrive
 here.  The forest contains a great variety
 of useful  trees, some of which are of
 great size and height.  Among the forest
 trees are  numerous species of oak, ash,
 beech, pine,  magnolia,  elm, maple, &c,
 affording  an unbounded supply of excel-
 lent wood for ship-building,  carpentry,
 cabinet work,  &c, naval stores, sugar
 (see Maple), &c.   The domestic animals
 are  the same  as  those  of Europe, and
 they are found to thrive remarkably well.
 Among the wild animals there  are many
 which bear the same name with those of
 the old continent, but which differ from
 them in their characteristics. Some of the
 most remarkable wild animals are the bi-
 son (improperly called buffalo), the black
 bear, the grisly bear, the  cougar or puma
 (incorrectly called  panther), the wild-cat,
 the wolf, the lynx, &c, the Rocky moun-
 tain sheep, the moose, elk and other spe-
 cies  of deer  (q. v.), the  antelope,  &c.;
among the smaller animals, the beaver,
skunk, glutton, raccoon,  marten, badger,
opossum*  squirrel, fox, otter, porcupine,
 &c.   (See the articles.)  The birds are
 numerous. Among them  are  the wild
 turkey,  wild pigeon, swan, wild  goose
 and  wild  duck, quail,  &c.; the  eagle,
 mocking-bird, humming-bird, &c. (seethe
 articles), some  of which are remarkable
 for the beauty of their plumage, the rich-
 ness and variety of their  song, or the ex-
 cellence of their flesh.  Among the rep-
 tUes, the alligator, tortoise, serpents, frogs,
 &c. are separately described. (The works
 of  Michaux,  WUson,  Audubon, Bona-
 parte, Nuttall, Godman, treat fully of the
 forest trees, the birds and the quadrupeds
 of the U.  States.)  The mineral kingdom
 is equally  rich in its productions.   Iron,
 coal, lime  and salt, articles of primary im-
 portance, exist ki great abundance.  Lead
 is  found in inexhaustible  quantities  in
 Missouri.  Salt, which is obtained from
 the sea on the eastern side of the Allegha-
 nies, is procured on the western side from
 salt springs, which are numerous and co-
 pious in their produce, all over the West-
 ern States.  The supply of coal is equal-
 ly abundant: on  the west of the moun-
 tains,  immense beds of bituminous coal
 stretch for hundreds of miles through the
 valley of tiie Mississippi;  and on the east
 anthracite coal is  found in various posi-
 tions.   Gold has recently been found, in
 considerable quantities, in  some  of the
 Southern States.
  2. Political Divisions and Population.
 The U. States are divided politically into
 twenty-four states, three territories, and the
 district of Columbia; all of which, with
 the exception of Louisiana and  Missouri
 states  and Arkansas  territory, lie on the
 east of the Mississippi.  The  states are
 Maine,  New Hampshire, Vermont,  Mas-
 sachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut
 (familiarly known as the Eastern or New
 England States*), New York, New Jer-
sey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware  (Middle
States), Maryland, Virginia, North  Caro-
lina, South  Carolina,  Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, Louisiana "(Southern States),
Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illi-
nois and Missouri (Western States).  The
ten*itoriesareFlorida,Michigan and Arkan-
sas.  The regions to the west of Missouri
and lake Michigan have few inhabitants,
and have no separate governments.   The
 whole  inhabited part of the country with-
in the  limits described in the beginning
 of this  article,  is about 800,000 square
 miles in extent; and the total population,
according to the official census of 1830,
 is 12,858,670, of  which 10,530,044  are
whites, 319,576 free colored persons, and
2,009,050  slaves.   The following table
exhibits the area in square miles, and the
population, according to five official enu-
merations, of the several states and terri-
tories :—
  * Foreigners often confound these geographical
with political divisions, and speak of the "state
of New England," &c. 
428
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
	Square	POPULATION.					Incr. pr. ct. 10 ys.
	miles.	1790.	1800.	1810.	1820.	1830.	
	32,628	96,540	151,719	228,705	298,335	399,437	33.9
New Hampshire	9,491	141,885	183,858	214,460	244,161	269,328	10.4
Vermont, . . .	10,212	85,539	154,465	217,895	235,764	280,657	19.0
Massachusetts,	7,500	378,787	422,845	472,040	523,287	610,408	16.6
Rhode Island,	1,340	68,825	69,122	76,931	83,059	97,199	17.0
Connecticut, .	4,764	237,946	251,002	261,942	275,248	297,675	8.2
New York, . .	46,085	340,120	586,050	959,049	1,372,812	1,918,608	39.4
New Jersey, .	8,320	184,139	211,149	245,562	277,575	320,823	15.6
Pennsylvania,.	44,000	434,373	602,545	810,091	1,049,313	1,348,233	28.4
Delaware, . . .	2,120	59,096	64,273	72,674	72,749	76,748	5.5
Maryland,. . .	13,950	319,728	345,824	380,546	407,350	447,040	9.7
Virginia,....	64,000	747,610	880,200	974,622	1,065,366	1,211,405	13.7
North Carolina,	48,000	393,951	478,103	555,500	638,829	737,987	15.6
South Carolina,	28,000	249,073	345,591	415,115	502,741	581,185	15.7
Georgia,....	62,000	82,548	162,686	252,433	340,989	516,823	51.5
Alabama, . . .	46,000	\	8,850	40,352	C 127,901 ) 75,448	309,527	141.6
Mississippi, . .	45,760					136,621	80.1
Louisiana, . . .	48,220			76,556	153,407	215,739	40.7
Tennessee, . .	40,000		105,602	261,727	420,813	681,903	62.7
Kentucky, . .	42,000	73,677	220,959	406,511	564,317	687,917	22.1
Ohio,.....	39,128		45,365	230,760	581,434	9&5,884	61.2
Indiana, ....	37,000		4,651	24.520	147,178	343,031	132.1
Illinois, ....	52,000		215	12,282	55,211	157,445	185.4
Missouri, . . .	63,000			19,783	66,586	140,455	110.4
Michigan, . . .	40,000		551	4,762	8,896	31,639	250.1
Arkansas, . . .				1,062	14,273	30,388	113.3
Florida, ....	45,000					34,730	
Dist. Columbia,	100		15,093	24,023	33,039	39,834	20.1
Total, ....		3,929,328	5,309,758	7,239,903	9,638,166	12,858,670	33.4
Slaves, according toflve official Enumerations.
__________STATES.
Maine.
New Hampshire,.  .
Vermont,......
Massachusetts.
Rhode Island,  . .  .
Connecticut, .  . .  .
New York,.....
New Jersey, ....
Pennsylvania,  . .  .
Delaware,......
Maryland,.....
Virginia,......
North Carolina,. . .
South Carolina, . .
Georgia,......
Alabama,......
Mississippi,.....
Louisiana,.....
Tennessee,.....
Kentucky,.....
Ohio,........
Indiana,......
Illinois,.......
Missouri,......
Michigan,.....
Arkansas,  .....
Dist. Columbia, .  .
Florida,.......

   Total,......
    158
     16

    948
  2,764
 21,324
 11,423
  3,737
  8,887
103,036
292,627
100,571
107,094
 29,264
12,430
 3,417
   380
   951
 20,613
 12,422
  1,706
  6,153
108,554
346,968
133,296
146,151
 59,699
  3,489

 13,584
 40,344

   133
3,244
    108
    310
 15,017
 10,851
    795
  4,177
111,502
392,518
168,824
196,365
105.218
 17,088

 34,660
 44,535
 80,561

    237
    168
  3,011
     24

  5,395
     48
     97
 10,088
  7,557
    211
  4,509
107,398
425,153
205,017
258,475
149,656
 41,879
 32,814
 69,064
 80,107
126,732

    190
    917
 10,222

  1,617
  6,377
     14
     23
     76
  2,254
    403
  3,292
102,994
469,757
245,601
315,401
217,531
117,549
 65,659
109,588
141,603
165,213
   746
25,090
    32
 4,576
 6,119
15,501
697,696
896,849
1,191,364
1,538,064
2,009,050 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
429
It was provided by the  constitution, that
the first census of the  U.  States should
be made within three years after the first
meeting of congress, and within every
subsequent  term  of ten  years, in  such
manner as they shall by law direct.  The
first census was accordingly taken in  1790,
and the fifth in 1830.  These several enu-
merations furnish satisfactory views of the
rapid progress of population;  but  it is
much to be regretted that a more uniform
and philosophical system of classification
of the  inhabitants,  with respect  to age,
has not  been adopted.   In this  respect
there is a great diversity among the seve-
ral censuses; yet there has been a gradual
improvement, and the division adopted in
the last is far the best, and, with  respect
to the white inhabitants, very satisfactory.
But, in this  census, there is a want of
uniformity in the  division of ages be-
tween the white and the colored popula-
tion—a circumstance which  renders it
very defective as a basis for comparative
views relating to these two classes.

     The First  Census.—1790.
In the first census, the whole population
of the U. States was divided into only five
classes, in which the total amount of the
several classes was as follows:

          Free White Males.
1.  Under 16 years,........  802,127
2.  Of 16 years and upwards,  .  813,365

3.  Free white females,......1,475,656
4.  All other free persons  except
     Indians not taxed,.....    59,511
5.  Slaves,.............  697,696
                 Total, .
3,929,328
     The Second  Census.—1800.
In  the  second census, the total popula-
tion of the  U. States  was divided into
twelve classes, the free white males and the
free white females being each distributed
into five classes, according to age, and all
other free  persons,  except Indians not
taxed, forming the eleventh class, and the
slaves the twelfth.   The following  state-
ment exhibits the total amount of each of
the several classes:
          Free White  Males.
1. Under 10 years of age,  . .
2. Of 10 and under 16 years,
3. Of 16 and under 26 years,
4. Of 26 and under 45 years,
5. Of 45 years and upwards,
         Free White Females.
6.  Under 10 years of age,  . .  .
""".  Of 10 and under 16 years,  .
. 715,046
. 343,650
. 393,934
. 478,520
. 263,075

. 726,774
. 323,906
 8.  Of 16 and under 26 years,  . 403,553
 9.  Of 26 and under 45 years,  . 406,207
10.  Of 45 yeare and upwards,  . 254,991

11.  All other persons except In-
      dians not taxed,  ......110,072
12.  Slaves,.............896,849
Total,
5,309,758
      The Third Census.—1810.
 In taking the third census, the same di-
 visions  were adopted as in the second;
 and  the numbers of the several  classes
 were as foUows:

          Free  White Males.
 1. Under 10 years of age,  . . 1,035,278
 2. Of 10 and under 16, ... .   468,183
 3. Of 16 and under 26, ... .   547,597
 4. Of 26 and under 45, ... .   572,347
 5. Of 45 and upwards, ....   364,736

          Free  White Females.
 6. Under 10 years of age,. . .   981,426
 7. Of 10 and under 16, ... .   448,322
 8. Of 16 and under 26, ... .   561,668
 9. Of 26 and under 45, ... .   544,156
10. Of 45 and upwards,  ....   338,378

11. All other free persons except
      Indians not taxed,  ....   186,446
12. Slaves,............1,191,364
Total,
7,239,903
     The  Fourth Census.—1820.
In the first three enumerations, " all other
free  persons except Indians not taxed"
were thrown into  one mass, without dis-
tinction of age or  sex,  and  the  same
course was adopted respecting the slaves;
but in the fourth census, each sex of both
these descriptions of persons was dis-
tinguished, according to age,  into four
classes, and each sex of the free white in-
habitants was  divided, as in the second
and third censuses, into five classes; and,
in addition,  the number of free white
males between sixteen and eighteen years
was exhibited in a distinct column.  Per-
sons engaged  in  agriculture, commerce
and manufactures, were also distinguished
into three several classes; and " foreigners
not naturalized"  formed  an additional
class.  This census gave the  foUowing
results:

          Free White Males.
 \- ^der 10 years-   ......1,345,220
 2. Of 10 and under 16,  ... .   612,535
 3. Of 16 and under 26,  ... .   776^150
 4. Of 26 and under 45.....   766,083
 5. Of 45 and upwards,  ....   495,065 
430
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
         Free White Females.
 6. Under 10 years,.......1,280,550
 7. Of 10 and under 16, ...  .   605,348
 8. Of 16 and under 26, ....   781,371
 9. Of 26 and under 45, ...  .   736,600
10. Of 45 and upwards, ....   462,788
                Slaves.
11. Males under 14 years, . .  .   343,852
12.    "  of 14 and under 26,.   203,088
ia    "  of 26 and under 45,.   163,723
14.    "  of 45 and upwards,.    77,365
J 5. Females under 14 years,  .   324,344
16.    "  of 14 and under 26,.   202,436
17.    "  of 26 and under 45,.   152,693
38.    "  of 45 and upwards, .    70,627
         Free Colored Persons.
19. Males under 14 years, . .  .    47,659
20.    "  of 14 and under 26,.    24,048
21.    "  of 26 and under 45,.    23,450
22.    "  of 45 and upwards, .    17,613
23. Females under 14 vears,  .    45,898
24.    "  of 14 and under 26,.    28,800
25.    "  of 26 and under 45,.    27,181
26.    "  of 45 and upwards,.    18,881
27. AU other persons except In-
      dians not taxed,......    4,631

                 Total, .... 9,638,166
28. Free white males between 16
      and 18,..........   182,205
29. Foreigners not naturalized,    53,687
30. Persons engaged in agricul-
      ture,............2,070,646
31. Persons engaged in com-
      merce,...........    72,493
32. Persons engaged in manu-
      factures,   .........   349,506
      The  Fifth Census.—1830.

In the fifth census, a  new division of
white persons has been adopted, each sex,
under twenty years, being distributed into
quinquennial divisions, and above twenty,
into  decennial divisions, while each sex
of free colored persons and slaves is di-
vided into six classes.   This census gives
the following results:

            White Persons.
                    Af 3J6S
Under 5 years,      972,194
Of 5 and under 10,   782,637
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
15,  671,688
20,  575,614
30,  952,902
40,  592,596
50,  369,370
60,  230,500
70,  134,910
Females.
920,104
751,649
639,063
597,713
915,662
555,565
355,425
225,928
130,866
Of 70 and under 80,    58,136      58,034
   80     "    90,    15,945      17,272
   90     «   100,     1,993       2,484
         Upwards,      274   _____234
         Total,    5,357,102   5,172,942
  Total whites,........10,530,044

         Free Colored Persons.
                     Males.      I'emalcs.
Under 10 years,       48,737      47,347
Of 10 and under 24,   43,126      48,125
   24     "    36,   27,629      32,504
   36     "    55,   22,262      24,266
   55     "   100,   11,475      13,369
         Upwards,      266        361

         Total,      153,443     166,133

  Total free colored,.......319,576

                Slaves.
                    Males.      Females.
Under 10 years,     353,845     347,566
Of 10 and under 24, 313,676     308,793
   24     «    36,  185,654     186,082
   36     «    55,  118,996     111,753
   55     "   100,   41,456      41,422
         Upwards,_____718        668
         Total,    1,012,822     996\228

  Total slaves,.........2,009,050

  Total population,......12,858,670

  Number of Deaf and Dumb Persons.
               WHITE9.
Under 14 years of age, .......1652
Upwards of 14 and under 25,....  1905
Upwards of 25,............1806
                                  5363
               BLACKS.
Under 14,............273
Under 25,............246
Upwards,............224
                             ---  743
         Total,..........6106

             Blind  Persons.
Whites,................3974
Blacks,   ................1470

         Total,............"5444

Aliens,   ...............107,832

These facts give the  following results il-
lustrative of the density and  distribution
of the population:—Number of inhabitants
to a square mile in the U. States, 16; in
New England, 20.9; in the Middle States,
36.3; in the Southern States, 7; in Mas-
sachusetts, 81;  in  New York, 41.5; in
Pennsylvania,  30.6; in  Ohio,  24;  in 
UNITED  STATES  (STATISTICS).
431
Illinois, 3; in the Western States, 11.  In
England, the density of the population is
about 230 persons to the square mile ;  in
France, 160 ; in Gemiany, it varies from
100 to 200.*  The number  of Indians
within  the U. States  was  estimated,  in
1830, at about 313,000, of which upwards
of 215,000 were to the west of the limits
above  described  as  inhabited  by the

  "The following curious speculations concern-
ing the  future  progress of the population  of the
American continent are deserving of attention.
They are taken from the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
now publishing in  Edinburgh, article America.
" Humboldt gives tho following estimate of the
entire population of America in 1823:
                                  Proportion.
  Whites,..........13,471,000     38 per cent.
  Indians,.......... 8,610,000     26

  "H-.jSr.-.WSSSI   ,9
  Mixed races.......6,428,000     18
                    34,942,000
 If we assume the annual ratio of increase to be two
 per cent, per annum upon the whole, the entire
 population in 1830 will  be about 40,000,000, dis-
 tributed as follows:—
Brazil,
Colombia,
La Plata,
Peru,
Bolivia,
Chile,
Paraguay,
5,000,000
2.860,000
 550,000
1,740,000
1,200,000
1,200,000
 250,000
British Amer-
  ica,        1,870,000
Hayti,        935,000
Spanish islands, 800,000
French Ameri-
  ca,          224,000
Danish America, 40,000
Dutch America, 114,000
Independent
  Indians,    1,400,000
Banda Oriental, 100,000
Guatimala,   2,000,000
Mexico,      8,000,000
U. States,   12,000,000

The black population of America forms three
grotipg, the centres of which  are in the southern
parts of the U. States, in the West India islands,
and in the eastern parts of Brazil:

  U. States,........................2,000,000
  West Indies,......................2,400,000
  Brazil,...........................2,800,000

                                    7,200,000

The number of blacks in all other parts of Ameri-
ca probably does  not  amount to 100,000.—One
of the most interesting questions connected with
America, relates  to the increase  and  probable
.unount, at a future period, of its inhabitants.  It
was the astonishing progress of the U. States that
first clearly unfolded the principles on which the
multiplication of  human beings depends.  We
know with certainty that a prosperous community.
possessing abundance of unoccupied  land, will
double its numbers in 25 [23] years, without any
aid from emigration ; and as the scale ascends in
a geometrical ratio, a short time necessarily pro-
duces a wonderful change.   It is to be observed,
however, that the whites, possessing the advan-
tages of superior industry, order, andforethought,
naturally increase faster than the  other classes.
In the U. States, this part of  the population in-
creases at the rate of threv per cent. [:>$] per an-
num ; and when the Spanish American republics
have settled down into a tranquil state, there is no
doubt that their white inhabitants will multiply at
whites; but measures have since been in
progress for removing those  within  the
limits of  the states to a  region  on  the
western borders  of Arkansas territory;
and we have no certain  data as to  the
actual number now remaining within the
settled parts of the U. States.  Many of
those   who   remain   have   become  so
much intermingled with blacks, that they


the same rate.   The Mexican Indians, and prob-
ably the  Peruvians, have also been  increasing,
but slowly,  while  nearly all the independent
tribes have been mouldering away.  The black
population does not maintain its numbers in the
West Indies :  it is rather increasing in Brazil,
and in the U. States it grows rapidly.   Setting
aside the West Indies, where  the negroes do not
increase, and attending to the continent merely,
let us take the number of each class as it stands
at present, and  see what  the  result will be in a
course of years, assuming the rate of increase to
be three per cent,  for the whites, one and a half
per cent, for the negroes, and one per cent, for
the civilized Indians.  If the whole population is
40,000,000 at present, the continental whites will
be about 16,000,000, the Indians about 9,500,000,
the  negroes  5,000,000,  and the mixed   race
7,000,000.  In Spanish America,  it may be as-
sumed that the mixed race, consisting almost en-
tirely of mestizoes, will merge into the white, and
increase  nearly in  the same ratio.  We   shall
therefore add five sevenths of the former to the
latter, which will raise the whites  to  21,000,000.

   Number of whites in 1830,.......21,000,000
      "        "     1855,.......  42,000,000
      "        "     1880,.......  84,000,000
      "        "     1905,.......168,000,000
      "        "     1930,.......336,000,000

As the difficulty of providing  for the growing
annual increment  of inhabitants  must increase
with the  magnitude of the population,  let us as-
sume that, at the end of a century, the rate of in-
crease falls to two per cent.  The period of
doubling will then he thirty-six years.

   Number of whites in 1966,...... 672,000,000
      "        "     2002,......1,344,000,000
               "     2030,......2,380,000,000

Thus, in  two centuries, the whites now in Ameri-
ca would multiply  to a mass of people  three
times as great as are at present on the whole sur-
face of the globe.   The  new continent, though
less than half the size of the old, contains at least
an equal quantity of useful soil, and  much more
than an equal amount of productive power.  Of
the 31,000,000  of square miles  which  compose
the three eastern continents, we cannot find that
the productive soil  constitutes so much as  one
third, and of that third a part is poor.   Now, in
estimating the useful soil of America, we reject,
1.  all the region northward of the  latitude of53°,
amounting  to 2,600,000  square miles ;  2. a belt
of barren land about 300 miles broad by 1000 in
length, or 300,000 square miles, lying on the east
side of the Rocky mountains; 3. a belt of arid land,
of similar extent, situated on the cast  side of the
Andes, between 24° and 40J of  south latitude ;
4.  the  desert shore of Peru, equal  to 100,000
square miles; 5.  an  extent of 100,000 square
miles  for  the  arid country of  California  and
Sooora; and  6  an extent  of 500,000 square 
432
UNITED  STATES (STATISTICS).
may be more properly designated as col-
ored persons than  as Indians.  (See In-
dians, American;  Indian Languages of
America; and Tsulakees.)

Towns  with a  Population  of more than
                   5000.
       Maine.
Portland  .  .  12,601

  .Veto Hampshire.
Portsmouth, . 8,082
Dover,  .... 5,449
   Massachusetts.
Boston, . .  . 61,392
Salem,  . .  . 13,886
Charlestown,  8,787
New Bedford,  7,592
Gloucester,. .  7,513
Nantucket,.  .  7,202
Springfield,  .  6,784
Lowell,(1832) 10,000
Newburyport,  6,388
Lynn,.....6,138
Cambridge,  .  6,071
Taunton,. .  .  6,045
Roxbury,. .  .  5,249
Marblehead, .  5,150
Middleboro',.  5,008

    Rhode Island.
Providence,  16,882
Newport,. . •  8,010
Scituate, . . •  6,853
Warwick,  . .  5,529

     Connecticut.
New Haven,  10,678
Hartford,. . .  9,789
Middletown, .  6,892
Norwich,. . .  5,169

     New York.
New York, 203,007
Brooklyn,  .  15,396
miles for  the  summits of  the  Andes  and the
southern extremity of Patagonia.  These make
an aggregate of 3,900,000 square miles, which,
deducted from 13,900,000, the whole surface of
the American continent, leaves 10,000,000 square
miles as the quantity of useful soil.  Now, what
relation does the fruitfulness of the ground bear to
the latitude of the place ?  The productive pow-
ers of  the soil  depend on  two  circumstances,
heat  and moisture ;  and these increase as we ap-
proach the equator.  First, the warm regions of
Ihe globe  yield larger returns of those  plants
which they have in  common with the temperate
zones; and, next, they have peculiar plants, which
afford a much greater proportion of nourishment
from the same extent of surface.  Thus maize,
which produces 40  or  50  for 1 in France, pro-
duces 150 for 1, on an average, in Mexico  ; and
Humboldt computes that  an arpent (five sixths
of an  acre),  which will  scarcely support two
men  when sown with  wheat,  will support fifty
when planted with bananas.  From a considera-
tion of these and other facts, we  infer  that the
nutritive powers of the soil will be pretty correct-
ly indicated  by combining the ratios of  the heat
and  moisture, expressing the former of  these in
degrees of the centigrade scale.
Latitude.
  60°
  45
   0
Annual Rain.	Mean An-	Product.
Inches.	nual Heat.	
16	7	112
29	14	406
96	28	2688
Ratio.
   4
  15
 100
Thus the same extent of ground which supports
four persons at the latitude of 60° would support
fifteen at the latitude of 45°, and 100 at the equa-
tor.  But the  food preferred will not  always  be
that which the land yields in greatest abundance -
and the  power of  the human  frame  to  sustain
labor is greatly diminished in  hot climates.  On
these grounds, we shall consider the capacity of
the land to support population  as proportional to
the third power of the cosine for the latitude.  It
will therefore  stand thus :
  Latitude,..........0°  15°  30°  45° 60°
  Productiveness,...100   90   65   35   12^
Assuming that the  number of persons whom  a
square mile can sustain without pressure is 150
at the  latitude of 50°, we have 26 as the sum
which expresses the  productiveness of this paral-
lel.  Then, taking, for the  sake of simplicity,  35
as the index of the productiveness of the useful
soil beyond 30° in America, and 85 as  that of the
country within the parallel of 30° on each side of
the equator, we have about 4,100,000 square miles,
each  capable of supporting  200 persons, and
5,700,000 square miles, each capable of support-
ing 490 persons. It follows that, if the  natural  re-
sources of America were fully developed, it would
afford sustenance to 3,600,000,000 of inhabitants.
a number five times as great as the entire mass of
human beings existing at present upon the globe.
And, what is more surprising, there is every prob-
ability that this prodigious population will be in
existence within three, or, at most, four centuries.
The imagination is  lost in contemplating a state
of things which will make so great and rapid a
change in the condition of the world.  We almost
fancy that it is a dream; and yet the result is
based  on principles quite as  certain  as those
which govern the conduct of men in their ordinary
pursuits.  There are many elements of disorder
now operating in Spanish America, but these are
merely the dregs left by the old Spanish despot-
ism ; and the Anglo-American republic is a pole-
star to guide the people  in their course towards
freedom  and prosperity.  Nearly all social  im-
provements spring  from the reciprocal influence
of condensed numbers  and diffused intelligence.
What, then, will be the state of society in America
two  centuries  hence, when a thousand or  two
thousand  millions of civilized men are crowded
into a space comparatively so narrow, and when
this immense mass  of human beings speak only
two  languages !  We take for granted that  the
Portuguese will merge into the Spanish ; and it is
clear to us that the Russian will never obtain  a
footing in the new world.   Such a state of things
may be said to undo the curse of Babel, and re-
store the  great mass of mankind to their pristine
facility of intercourse ; for the languages  spoken
by the communities of Europe and Asia will be as
unimportant then, in the general scale of the globe,
as the dialects of Hungary, Finland and Bohe-
mia are  in Europe at  this day.  History shows
that wealth, power, science, literature, all follow
in the train of  numbers,  general intelligence and
freedom.  The same causes  which transferred
the sceptre of civilization from the banks of the Eu-
phrates and the Nile to  Western Europe, must, in
the course of no long period;carry it from the latter
to the plains of the Mississippi and the Amazon.
Society,  after all, is in its infancy; the habitable
world, when its productive powers are regarded,
may be said hitherto to  have been an untenanted
waste.  If any one suspects us of drawing on our
fancy, we would request him  to examine thor-
oughly the condition and past  progress of the
North American republic.  Let him look at its
amazing strides in wealth, intelligence and social
improvements ; at its indestructible liberty;  and,
above all, at the prodigious growth of its popu-
lation ; and let him answer the  question  to him-
self, what power can stop the tide of civilization
which is  pouring from this single source over an
unoccupied world." 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
433
Albany,  .  .  24,238
Troy,   . .  .  11,405
Rochester,*.  . 9,269
Buffalo,  .  .  . 8,653
Utica,.....8,323
Fishkill, .  .  . 8,292
Johnstown,  . 7,700
Gates,* .... 7,484
Manlius, .  .  . 7,375
Poughkeepsie, 7,222
Salina,  .... 6,929
Brighton,*  .  . 6,519
Newburgh,  . 6,424
Hempstead,  . 6,215
Seneca,. .  .  . 6,161
Bethlehem,.  . 6,092
Brookhaven,. 6,095
Sempronius, . 5,705
Onondaga, .  . 5,668
Huntington,  . 5,582
Hudson, .  .  . 5,395
Ellisburgh,.  . 5,292
Ithaca,  .... 5,270
Hector, .... 5,212
Dryden, .  .  . 5,206
Oyster Bay,  . 5,193
Canandaigua, 5,162
Schoharie,  .  . 5,146
New Paltz,.  . 5,105
Lenox,  .... 5,039
Warwick,  .  . 5,013

    New Jersey.
Newark, .  .  10,953
New Bruns-
  wick,  .  .  . 7,831
Paterson,.  .  . 7,731

   Pennsylvania.
Philadelphia, 167,811
Pittsburg,  .  17,000
Lancaster,  .  . 7,704
Reading, .  .  . 5,859
     Ddaware.

Wilmington,. 6,628

     Maryland.
Baltimore, .  80,625

District of Columbia.
Washington, 18,827
Georgetown,  8,441
Alexandria, . 8,263

      Virginia.
Richmond,.  16,060
Norfolk,   . . . 9,816
Petersburg, . 8,322
Wheeling, . . 5,221

  South Carolina.
Charleston,  30,289

      Georgia.
Savannah, . . 7,303
Augusta, . . . 6,696

     Louisiana.
New Orleans, 46,310

     Tennessee.

Nashville,  . .  5,566

     Kentucky.
Louisville, .  10,352
Lexington, . .  6,104

       Orit'o.

Cincinnati (1831),
             28,014

     Missouri.
St. Louis,  . .  5,852
  There are a number of towns described
in the early volumes of this work, which
were printed  before the census of 1830
was taken.  We take this opportunity to
■jive their population  according to  that
i'ensus,   with  that of  a  few  in  later
volumes.

    Andover, Mass.,  .....4,540
    Annapolis, Md.,......2,623
    Athens, Ohio,.......   729
    Augusta, Me.,.......3,980
    Ballston Spa,  N. Y., . .  . 2,113
    Bennington, Vt.,.....3,419

  *  The  village  of Rochester is situated in the
townships of Gates and Brighton.
    Brighton, Mass.,.....  972
    Brunswick, Me.,.....3,747
    Burlington, Vt.,......3,526
    Carlisle, Penn.,......2,523
    Castine, Me.,.......1,155
    Chillicothe, Ohio,.....2,846
    Cleveland, Ohio,.....1,076
    Columbia, S. C,.....3,310
    Columbus, Ohio,.....2,437
    Concord, N. H.,......3,727
    Crown Point, N. Y., ... 2,041
    Detroit, Michigan,  .... 2,222
    Dover, Del.,........3,416
    Fayetteville, N. C,  . . .  . 2,868
    Frankfort, Ky.,......1,680
    Frederick, Md.,......4,427
    Fredericksburg, Va., . .  . 3,307
    Germantown, Penn., . .  . 4,642
    Guilford, Conn.,......2,344
    Hagerstown, Md.,.....3,371
    Hanover, N. II.,......2,361
    Indianapolis, Ind.,  .... 1,200
    Lebanon, New, N. Y., .  . 2,695
    Lexington, Mass.,.....1,541
    Litchfield, Conn.,.....4,458

  There are in the  U. States 205 towns
with a  population  of upwards of 3000
and less than 5000  inhabitants, 64 with
upwards of 5,000 and less than  10,000,
and 20 with upwards of 10,000.

  3. Commerce, Manufactures, Agricul-
ture, and Mechanic Arts.—We have al-
ready treated, at considerable length, of
the commerce and  agriculture of the I.'.
States,  in  the articles Commerce of the
It'orld, Agriculture,  and  Horticulture, to
which we refer the  reader for further in-
formation on these subjects.  The  follow-
ing tables  will serve to  show, in some
degree, the progress of the commerce of
the country, and the nature of the  articles
exported and imported.

        Commerce of the Colonies.

                   Exports to   Imports from
                  G. Britain.    G.  Britain.
  1701,  ..... . £309,136    £343,828
  1710,.......249,816      293,662
  1720,.......468,190      319,705
  1730,.......662,586      536,862
  1740,.......718,418      813,384
  1750,.......804,770    1,313,076
  1760,.......761,101    2,611,766
  1770,......1,015,538    3,725,575
  17T3,......1,369,232    1,979,416

It should be remarked, in regard to  this
table, that there was a very active trade
VOL. XII.
37 
434
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
kept up with other countries by the colo-
nies, though prohibited by the navigation
laws of Great Britain.

Estimated  Value of the Domestic and For-
  eign  Produce  exported from  the  U.
  States  to  Foreign  Countries,  during
  each Year, from 1790 to 1830; each Year
  ending on the 30th September.
Year.
1790
1791
1792
1793
1794
1795
1796
1797
1798
1799
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
Articles,  the
Growth, Pro-
duce or Man-
ufacture  of
the U. States.
Dollars.
40,764,097
29,850,206
28,527,097
33,142,522
31,840,903
47,473,204
36,708,189
42,205,961
41,467,477
42,337,002
41,253,727
48,699,592
 9,433,546
31,405,702
42,366,675
45,294,043
30,032,109
25,008,152
 6,782,272
45,974,403
64,781,896
68,313,500
73,854,437
50,976,838
51,683,640
43,671,894
49,874,079
47,155,408
50,649,500
66,944,745
53,055,710
58,921,691
50,921,669
55,700,193
59,462,029
Articles,  the
Growth, Pro-
luce or Man-
ufacture  of
  Foreign
Countries re-
 exported.
Dollars.
26,300,000
27,000,000
33,000,000
45,523,000
49,130,877
46,642,721
35,774,971
13,594,072
36,231,597
53,179,019
60,283,236
59,613,558
12,997,414
20,797,531
24,391,295
16,022,790
 8,495,127
 2,847,845
   145,169
 6,583,350
17,138,556
19,358,069
19,426,696
19,165,683
18,008,029
21,302,488
22,286,202
27,543,622
25,337,157
32,590,643
24,539,612
23,403,136
21,595,017
16,658,478
14,387,479
Total Value of
 the Exports
from the  U
   States.
  Dollars.
 20,205,156
 19,012,041
 20,753,098
 26,109,572
 33,026,233
 47,989,472
 67,064,079
 56,850,206
 61,527,097
 78,665,522
 70,971,780
 94,115,925
 72,483,160
 55,800,033
 77,699,074
 95,566,021
101,536,963
108,843,150
 22,430,960
 52,203,233
 66,757,970
 61,316,833
 38,527,236
 27,855,997
  6,927,441
 52,557.753
 81,920,452
 82,671,569
 93,281,133
 70,142,521
 69,691,669
 64,974,328
 72,160,281
 74,699,030
 75,986,657
 99,535,388
 77,595,322
 82,324827
 72.516786
 72,358'671
 73,849^508
  The following  statement for the year
1831 shows the  nature  of the domestic
exports:
Summary Statement of the Value  of the
   Exports of the Growth,  Produce  aixd
   Manufacture of the  U.  States, during
   the Year commencing on the 1st of Oc-
   tober, 1830, and ending on the 30th of
   September, 1831.

               THE SEA.
Fisheries—
   Dried fish, or cod fisheries, .  $625,393
   Pickled fish, or river fisheries,
     —herring,  shad,  salmon,
     mackerel,...........304,441
   Whale and other fish oil,  . . . 554,440
   Spermaceti oil, .........   53,526
   Whalebone,...........133,842
   Spermaceti candles,......217,830

              THE FOREST.
Skins and furs,...........750,938
Ginseng,...........  .  . 115,928

Product of Wood—
   Staves, shingles, boards, and
     hewn timber,........1,467,065
   Other lumber,..........214,105
   Masts and spars, ........   7,806
   Oak bark and other dye-stuffs,  99,116
   All manufactures of wood, .  . 275,219
   Naval stores, tar, pitch, rosin,
     and turpentine,........397,687
   Ashes, pot and  pearl,  .....935,613

             AGRICULTURE.
Product of Animals—
   Beef, tallow, hides, and horn-
     ed cattle,............829,982
   Butter and cheese,.......264,796
   Pork (pickled), bacon, lard,
     live hogs,..........1,501,654
   Horses and mules,.......218,015
   Sheep,..............   14,499

Vegetable Food—
   Wheat,..............523,270
   Flour,  .............9,938,458
   Indian corn,...........396,617
   Indian meal,   ..........595,434
   Rye meal,............   71,881
   Rye, oats,  and other small
     grain and pulse,.......132,717
   Biscuit, or ship bread,.....250,533
   Potatoes,.............   41,147
   Apples,..............   31,14;*!
   Rice,..............2,016,^(37

Tobacco,.............4,892,388
Cotton,.............25,2*9,492
Flaxseed,..............216,376
Hops,................   26,664
Brown sugar,  ...........   10,105 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS)
435
            MANUFACTURES.

Soap, and tallow candles, . . . $643,252
Leather, boots and shoes,  ..." 290,937
Household furniture,.......229231
Coaches and other carriages, . .   49'490
Hats*.  ................353,013
Saddlery,..............   39,440
Wax,................114,017
Spirits  from grain,  beer,  ale,
  and porter,............141,794
Snuff and tobacco,........292,475
Lead,................    7,068
Linseed oil and spirits turpentine,  54,092
Cordage,..............    6,109
Iron, pig, bar, and nails,.....   62,376
----castings,...........   21,827
----, all manufactures of, .... 149,438
Spirits from molasses,......   34,569
Sugar, refined,...........215,794
Chocolate,.............    1,965
Gunpowder,............102,033
Copper and bi-ass,.........   55,755
Medicinal drugs...........104,760

Cotton Goods—
  Printed or colored,.......   96,931
  White...............947,932
  Nankeens,............    2,397
  Twist, yarn, and thread, ....   17,921
  All other manufactures of,. .  .   61,832

Flax and Hemp—
  Cloth and thread,........     231
  Bags, and all manufactures of,    2,599

Wearing apparel,.........   59,749
Combs and buttons,........120,217
Brushes,..............    3,947
Billiard tables and apparatus, . .    2,343
Umbrellas and parasols,.....   29,580
Leather and morocco skins, not
  sold per lb............   58,146
Printing presses  and type, ....    8,713
Musical instruments,.......   10,906
Books and maps,.........   35,609
Paper and other stationery,  . .  .   55,121
Paints and varnish,........   22,022
Vinegar,  ..............$7,178
Earthen and stone ware,.....   7,378
Fire engines and apparatus, . . .   5,630
Manufactures  of glass,......102,736
-----------  of tin,.......   3,909
-----------  of jiewter and lead,  6,422
-----------of marble and stone, 3,588
-----------  of  gold  and  silver,
               and gold leaf, .   3,464
Gold and silver coin,......2,058,474
Artificial flowers and jewelry,. .  11,439
Molasses,   .............    948
Trunks,   .......'......   5,326
Brick and lime,..........   4,412
Salt,.................  26,848
      ARTICLES NOT ENUMERATED.
Manufactured,...........394,681
Other articles,...........715,311
           RECAPITULATION.
Products of the sea, .
               forest,
agriculture,
.  1,889,472
.  4,263,477
47,261,433
.  6,752,683
.  1,109,992
Manufactures,
Articles not enumerated,
               Total, .... 61,277,057
Deduct gold and silver coin, .   2,058,474
Total  produce and  manu-
  facture of the U. States,. . $59,218,583

  The exports of foreign produce for the
same period amounted to $20,033,526.
Value of  Merchandise imported into the
      U. States from 1821 to 1830.
  1821,............$62,585,724
  1823,.............77,579,267
  1825,.............96,340,075
  1827,.............79,484,068
  1829,.............74,492,527
  1830,.............70,876,920

In  1831,  the  value  of  imports  was
$103,191,124 ;  of  exports,  as  above
given, $81,310,583.
American and Foreign  Tonnage employed in the Coasting, Foreign and  Fishing
                            Trade, from 1790 to 1825.
American Vessels.					Foreign Vessels.
	Foreign Trade.	("oasiino- Trade. 103,775	IKiNlieries. 28,348	T. ...	
1790	354,767			4s(',f,90	106,654
1795	580,277	171,918	34,102	786,297	56,832
1800	68>,87l	228,496	26,439	937,806	121,403
1805	922,298	284,863	59,445 •	1,266,606	87,842
1810	908,713	324,037	31,491	1,264,241	80,316
1815	700,500	375,207	33,223	1,108,930	217,413
1820	801,253	660,370	69,423	1,531,406	78,859
1825	814,854	722,916	81,443	1,619,213	89,481
 
436
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
This table is that furnished by the records
of the treasury department; but it appears
that there was a slight misconception in
regard to the real  amount of the tonnage
of the U. States until 1829, on account of
an  omission  to  deduct the  losses,  sales
and condemnations for several years.  The
appai^ent aggregate  of tonnage,  without
correction,  for   the   year  1829,  was
1,818,490;  but the  real  aggregate,  after
making the correction, was 1,260,798 tons,
of which  650,143 was employed  in for-
eign trade, and 610,655 in coasting trade
and fishery.  In 1831, the amount of the
tonnage  is stated  at 1,191,776,  of which
the registered tonnage was 576,475 tons,
and the enrolled 615,301.  The following
remarks are from a report of a committee
of the New York convention of friends of
domestic industry  (1831):—"The great
improvements made in shipbuilding of late
years, by combining the carriage of large
burdens with fast sailing, have  given this
country a decided advantage over all  oth-
ers in the despatch of  business; whence
it may be inferred that  the U. States gain
in celerity, in the performance of effective
duty,  and the preference obtained in the
freighting business, at least one fifth over
their  most  judicious   competitors   (the
British); so  that it would not be extrava-
gant  to estimate  the  1,260,798 tons of
American shipping as equivalent,  at one
fifth gain, to  1,512,957 tons of  that of
other nations.   It may  be remarked here,
that the  magnitude  and  extent  of the
-a-*-, isc
 s k s
 °-S'1
 £ a «
 ?.*->».
  • ft* . *J
*^_ s»'F
55 i6


"g"S^

 4, -u**e
-s: -
*"■* -2"«os
v^** SCM
 ©"»•£ eao

 h H O "u



 «*4. £^
:5... *- V.
*■* -a e ©*>
*©«*,3 J?!

J 1*3*



■2 «- „© *>
"3 •£-."*! S
35
3L:
>*-
TfOOOOlH
i-i CM i>» as m
-h,CO ©CM OS,
r-T   i-h i-H*-*
KHMffifN
CO CM OS©
coi» coin
  o"t>."CM"
  co
os   *# m   *>
CO   CSCO   J-_
m   oo *>.   eo
©"   ©"i>"   »*
00 o
00 IC
1/5 ©	o w O l-H © 00 cm"	CM OS 00 x* ** '"•""2. i—i	rtHOOlO cm ooh r-Tof CO" CO	CO i^ OS l>. i-i o COCO-*	O OS OS CM CM***	x* s os"	CM "-I co"
W X iO O CO QD CM «) N W C*> M H   ©CfjmO5CMCMC0CS
■*"<jirj-f-tcoNcoHT)iono   iOr-i -si t>- co co •*# >-h
OS, i—i CM CM,©,t>. CO OS., CM, 00,, CO, 00,, *>;,  © TTfi CO i—I cs ao_ ao_ ©

       CM   iflM  r-iN
OCSCOOS  MCONOlNlOCOtXJtOMtNPIiOCNOCOCO
CM GO »n CO  CO m O CM O I>» i—I i—i i—I !>. l^» OS CM CO CM *0 i-H
■■-J< CO TF OS  xtfxtOSCOCMCM^Ht^-i '-x.l^***,'-1 CC,^-*,*^
co"   co"t>."  co-*   coaTcM^oo"  cocfcd  c?f**£of©
     -Hi-H  TfCM   -H CO             CO00  i-HlA   **
3S
n- '-.
CM
rtiHCOrtOOONNCOtOO
_^OSCO©COi-HCOm03COCO
os i> ^x*_,co cq,cor,'*,'* co -j,
co"coco<?fo*rco"'acr*>rcjr  o
CMCMi-i0000*>.i-hCO'H   CO
l-H     CM 00 l-H   t>.     l-H
CM m©
CO ©00
r^ino"
"* COI>.00
00 *>.*>. CO
OV11*1-.1***-4"**-
aQ"w"ao"in
l>. ©-* l-H
CM l-H t*.
i-Tcm"
HOI
t>. CO

o oT
coco
Tf mCCMNON
00 i—i CO CM OS i-h ir.
co •* co o m © ao
-r *** cm" *#* co cm" in
in t-h cm oo i> •** os
     i-i co   oo
            fhCO
t>. l^ CO
oaoco
CfOS*"rH
CO 1^ 00
  COCM^
     !-H
     CM
m oo <m
WNih
in r>Ti-r
OS CM O
00 COCO
o co-«*
t>. coo
O rji i-h
CM
f-^cs -H_co_iin,cs,t>;,
QTD 00 CO*" O CO rjT ic
os o oo m i-h i-h •**
os o oo o   oo m
r-T 00*"  i-?"
m iooc*i'i,w'-f
os co i-h -r i-i co in
os os os o os cm oo
oo" cm" o" co" cm" co" r>."
i-h cm c* to co m m
CM   O" CM   C ©
CM"   i-h"     CMi-h"
00 CM CO
"-H coco

i-h"oo"cm"
CM COOS
■-1 **ao
m i-h i—i
hhn
CM lO -t
iTcm"*-^
CM CO-*
OC0CM
l^ OS -t CM
00 CO CM t
N LO CM O
i:>."c*s"©"i>r
  CM -* t^
  CM cm m
m — t^ cm
NtMlOO
CO, OS, CO, OS,
-hTqo" ©"*>T
StON
CM CM lOI>
cm"oo"
OS OS
o©
oo *«n*

1> CO
f-i to
     c
     n

ef .3" S

3 w IS
ShPhO.

•a a

«3-a
tt^r
          U CO nj
          O W .5
          a.-^'o
          B Ch

         .2 « «
          C ^ cu
      ,  _,t*< 03 ^
ts'tT  -. b < W ">
 C 5-C S---_
S
Is 5  3«s 3 s c §"a!r^*S'E"C
i ^  CO
is  |

! SH
<«J S3
 — di *^
!§I^
M
*z;»
h,6h
  s

S3
c o
Ex 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
437
American bays,  rivers and lakes call into
existence two descriptions of boats, un-
known in  Europe, which navigate  the
Mississippi,  Alabama,  Tombigbee,  and
other  large rivers of the west and south,
with their tributary waters.  These boats
carry from thirty to fifty  tons,  and  are
to be  seen  in countless numbers on  the
Mississippi  and  Ohio  especially, and are
not licensed or noticed in the custom-house
reports.   By a conjectural estimate, they
amount to from  150 to 200,000 tons.   To
these may be added the coal boats of the
Susquehanna, Delaware, Lehigh, Schuyl-
kill and  Lackawaxen, which this year
delivered 200,000 tons of coal at  Phila-
delphia, Baltimore and New York.  The
coal trade employed last year 1172 coast-
ing vessels, measuring 100,966 tons.  The
steam-boat tonnage  is now  75,000 tons,
having greatly  increased  within the last
two years."  Such, indeed, has  been the
rapid  growth of manufactures,  and the
great developement of internal resources,
that, while the  foreign trade of the U.
States has  been nearly stationary  for a
number of years, the coasting trade has
steadily  increased at a rapid pace: the
country, in fact, forms a great island, sur-
rounded by the Mississippi, the lakes and
the ocean, intersected by navigable rivers
and canals, and furnishing such a variety
of  natural productions as to afford, in
miniature, a picture of the commerce of
the world.
©CO   OS 1^ CO
CMrH   COCOOO
i-HCM   © l-H
00
rH     t^
oo
0%
3
OO t"» CM OS «>•   i-h
tJhCO©©CO   *>.
00 co m © rH   i-H
I-H     OO
tO^'i'criiHK-HtMa.i-1
rHi-HC*50S*nOSC_St>»©C5   wau   ou
in t>. m m ©co© ©cm o   co©   ©
**i-h"  tjTi-hCm"©"  CO"l>"   CO*"     ri
       -h i-h                     CM
©OO   CMOSOS*-^>nn©i-<©OSCM
os *>»   CN*-^-<#Tj<©mcMincM©i-H
^r os   ** ©_,*>. n"_rH co„c*> *> os co co
od*©"   *>oT   cm"   ce"©"eo"  cm"-*
«*€>.   CM©
OOOO   OOCM
       ■- CO
         co"
       CM
OTorN.osc"s©©-i©!-iincMr^*>CMin
i>.^w^i^*r^cocoi-i-H'<*co05CO'nco
cm •<* i-h t>. —i m — *> co co co -* i^ i-h co "#
00"   <*n"*£Os"cOCO"  i-TcO   rfCM"  ©CO
       OS i-h CM        i-h          CM
8
 «
*
I
"3

I
©T*
co"cm"
i— co
m cm m
00   i-HCMCM©
o .» <-> © © oo os oo o. t^»   ore
©i—> co cm © cm ao •>. r^ m   ©oo
1^ CO -# CO, OS, CO ©,  *-*CM,   CM^CO,
irfco ©"oroo"   >n"  coi-T   cft^T
■>* CM © >0 CO   l-H   rii-H
00
©
CM
I - © 00 t—i OS
CO —I   "-t* l-H
X ■ i-h   W41
© oo m m
CJNiHN
CO l^ © -H
—"o"oTco"
oocoi-h
i-h m i-h
 ^ iw © m —i os oi
—^-i t>^CM in,cs,co
**©"cm"  cs"o"t*
g~8   •"*«
c*» os o» co © oo ti< os go in
m ~** o © oo go .>. t cm m
os go go cm i^. © ©.o^in,!-"^
in r>>"©~ os" oTcm" in"j>Tgo* os"
oo t»< i-h i—i o -3< i^   ©ao
—     '- CM   -i      CM
Oj _   © -1 CO CO O
GO O   OI CO Oj 00 ©
CM ©   © © © 1-^CM,
oT*^-"   io"co"cM"in"©"
©CM   OSCM -i CM i-H
■<*<     rj< i—i   mm
CfflWO
t»_.co in co,
T^*cT—Tt>T
rf OS OS "t
TJ< 00   rH
OS © —' •>* j-n. a. i-h
m os cm © co © »h
t^,Tt i^ CO 00 o\os,
© cT ©* cm" oo" in"©*"
© m ■<* ©o •<*
CM CO   i-h ii
co"	•-■			m IO
O CO '" ~f CM — ©CM©00 cm oo o cm co in m © © oo n cm cm i n oo, co ©„co -* in rf > n or CO 00 1--"co -""co cT I^CMOIOGSCOOCMCM© r}< CM 00,00 CM "* "# Tj<~ i-H	©O.©-Hi-Hj>.O->.©->H"0000CM OSCO—i©CO'H<nCOt^ni-Hinm oo cm _>»,t>»,os_,oq,co ** ©,r^,*~*LT^'/*t. i-Tco"© ©" i-T^ in in"co"cm"co"-"rj""co" ©osrioJ-icomco -HrHom n CM ©_,CO CM in OS •<* ©_, m" i-Tcm" rH	4,680,847 3,314 66,191 300 211,735 20,235		CM m OS •**
 c  .  »■  .
 03   —
 0)  •  -n  •
 a  . —  .
 6  \l  :'
 g    a,
■2  *  f^  '•
S  ift,  .-

**  -5  *
 a t.  w

.s £■■"= i
«J c  3-2
KUgO
W
*s on
O S5!
 ^3
' =C*x
  _J.lf"'
** ?» « U ^SO
t '-."3
o H  S
.  eg u
..g*4J
.  ft)  -

.'si.
•■sa
• 3 aJ
-aO
es u
--""" -a
■2 a
■^ ft-
-— CD
5c2
         ■S-*** P****
          Ut J- *— i^
         -a = o «
b O r5 d5 < H S S
C*S
"2 >.ft-=Tc
•— C J3   S *3  "
 rt 3 C —T*"L c  «
 fc"3 S ***.— § »
 g o"5 S.2 "j=
rjSo«o*<o
   b4  ^ .
   4) oT
   S Q. '
   ft) o  •



  ■g8  •
   so  .


 g a c..a
 a> o es -E
Oh (WOO

  i,' S *"  . O  .
 oo"s3 2 o>    **'




>v - 3*- e O fl
^<w<Ja."2:o

37* 
438                  UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
It has been the policy of the U. States, for
the last seventeen years, to encourage do-
mestic manufactures;  and the tariffs of
1816,1824,1828 and 1832 have been con-
structed with  reference to that principle.
On the termination of the three years'
war with Great Britain,  in  1814, it was
found  that the restrictive system which
had preceded it, and  the  necessities at-
tending the war itself, had created and
fostered a new and more extensive manu-
facturing interest than  had before existed.
The capital  thus vested  has been  pro-
tected by heavy duties upon the importa-
tion of such articles, the produce of the
manufactures  of  foreign countries,  as
would  interfere with the   permanent
growth and stability of the manufacturing
establishments thus brought into being.
The  cotton  crop  of the U. States  at
present amounts to 1,038,347 bales,  or
376,000,000 lbs.: in 1816, it was 68,000,000
lbs.  The number of cotton  mills is 795,
with 1,246,503 spindles, and 33,506 looms,
producing annually 230,461,990 yards of
cloth, consuming 77,757,316  lbs. of cot-
ton, and employiiig 18,539 men, 38,927
women, and 4691 children under twelve
years of age:  annual value of manufac-
tured articles,  $26,000,000: the quantity
of" cotton  goods printed is estimated  at
40,000,000 yards:  about one third of the
goods  manufactured  are  bleached: the
number of hand-weavers is not more than
5000. (See Cotton Manufacture.) Thenum-
ber of sheep is estimated at 20,000,000, pro-
ducing 50,000,000 lbs.  of wool  annually;
value of cloth manufactured, $40,000,000;
j)ersons employed, 50,000.  Of glass, por-
celain, and  other manufactures in  clay,
there are annually produced articles to the
value of about $3,000,000, the manufac-
ture of which employs 2140 persons.  The
annual value of the paper manufactured
is estimated at $7,000,000; of chemical
articles  used   in   manufactures, about
$1,000,000,  in 30  chemical  establish-
ments.  Hats and caps are manufactured
to the  value of $10,500,000, occupying
18,000  laborers. Cabinet  ware manufac-
tured to the annual value of $10,000,000,
employing 15,000  workmen.   Of  iron
were  made,  in  239 furnaces, in  1830,
191,536 tons,* converted into 112,866 tons
of  bar-iron,  and  28,273   tons  of  cast-
ings, which  give an aggregate value of
$13,329,760,  employing  29,254 hands.
Quantity of salt manufactured, 4,444,929
bushels (besides which  5,901,157 bushels
were imported during  1831, chiefly from
  * Erroneously stated, in our article Iron, at
50,000 tons.
Great  Britain).  Lead,  from   l'.  States
mines at Fever river and  in Missouri,  in
1830,14,541,310 lbs. (in 1831, tiie quanti-
ty was only 6,449,080 lbs.).  Sugar, from
the cane, 100,000,000 lbs.  (with 5,000,000
gallons of molasses), the whole consump-
tion of the country being  176,000,000:
150 steam-engines  are employed on the
sugar  plantations;  and  there  are about
40 sugar refineries in the U. States.  The
inspections  of flour and  meal for 1831
give the following results: 3,117,112 bbls.
wheat  flour, 37,399 bbls. rye flour, 17,337
hhds.  and 56,496  bbls.  of Indian corn
meal.  The whale fishery employed,  in
1831, 102,500  tons  of shipping, yielding
110,000 bbls.  of sperm  oil, and  115,000
bbls. of whale oil, with  100,000 lbs.  of
whalebone: about 2,500,000 lbs. of sperm
candles are manufactured :  the  annual
product  of the whale  fishery is about
$3,500,000. (See Whale Fishery.)  Within
a few  years, the consumption of  coal for
fuel has greatly increased  in this country;
and the anthracite coal, which is found
on the  eastern side of the Alleghanies, has
been much used for this purpose: in 1820,
the quantity mined was  365 tons of  28
bushels; in 1823, 5823;  in 1826, 48,047;
in 1830, 174,925.   In 1824, gold  to the
value of $5000, the  product of the South-
ern States,! was received at the mint  of
the U.  States;  in  1830, $466,000, and  in
1831, $496,000, from the same  source.
The whole annual  value of the produce
of the commerce, manufactures and agri-
culture of the  U. States has been estimat-
ed at from 1,200,000,000 to $1,500,000,000.
An inspection of the table of articles  of
domestic growth and  manufactures ex-
ported in 1831, will give some indications
on this subject.
  4. Constitution, Administration, Finances.
The government of the U. States  is a rep-
resentative democracy, in which the  peo-
ple intrust the administration of affairs
to executive  and  legislative  officers  of
their choice.  The powers of these offi-
cers are strictly defined by a written act,
the constitution, which was framed by the
people, through their  delegates,  adopted
  t The gold region extends from the Potomac
into Alabama; and gold has  also been recently
found in Tennessee. There are, at present, about
20,000 laborers employed, partly in washings and
partly in mines.  The whole value of the gold
produced has been estimated at 55.000,000 annu-
ally, which is chiefly exported to Europe, where
gold bears a higher price, in proportion to silver,
than in  the U. States.  It is also said that there
are proofs of these mines having been formerly
worked, pieces of machinery and crucibles, much
superior to the Hessian crucibles now in use, hav-
ing been found there. 
UNITED STATES  (STATISTICS).
439
by them, and can be altered only by them.
The confederation consists of a  number
of states, united together so as to form  a
federal republic, in which each state re-
serves its internal legislation, and leaves to
the representatives of the  whole people,
in general congress, the adjustment of the
relative claims of the members ;  the levy-
mg, direction and government of the com-
mon  force of the confederation ; the re-
quisition of subsidies for the  support of
this force; the making of peace and war;
the entering into  treaties; the regulation
of commerce, &c.  The government rests
on the basis of a full, fair and equal rep-
resentation, the elective franchise  being
nearly universal.  (See our articles Con-
stitution of the United States, Congress of
the  United States, President of the United
States, Courts of  the United States, and
Elections.) In the executive administration
of the government, the president is assist-
ed  by the several  heads of departments,
who hold their offices at his will.   1. The
department of state was created by an act
of congress of Sept. 15, 1789 :  by a previ-
ous act of July 27, 1789, it was denomi-
nated the " department of foreign affairs ;"
and it embraces what, in  other  govern-
ments, are styled the " department of for-
eign affairs"and the "home department."
The  secretary  of  state   conducts  the
making of  all treaties between the U.
States and  foreign  powers, and corre-
sponds officially with the public ministers
of the U. States at foreign courts, and with
the  ministers of foreign powers resident in
the  U. States,   He is intrusted with  the
publication and distribution of all the acts
and resolutions of congress,  and of all
treaties with foreign powers and  Indian
tribes; preserves the originals  of all laws
and treaties, and of the public correspond-
ence  growing out of the intercourse  be-
tween the U. States and foreign nations;
is required to procure and preserve copies
of the statutes of the several states; grants
passports  to American citizens visiting
foreign countries ; preserves the evidence
of copyrights, and has control of the office
which issues patents for useful inventions.
He has the charge of the seal of the U.
States, but cannot  affix it to any commis-
sion, until signed  by the president, nor to
any act or instrument, without the special
authority of the president  2. The treas-
ury department was created by an act of
congress of Sept. 2,1789.  The secretary
of the treasury superintends all the fiscal
concerns of the government, and, upon
his own responsibility, recommends to
congress measures for improving the con-
dition of the revenue.  All the accounts
of the government are finally settled at the
treasury department; and,  for this  pur-
pose, it  is divided into the office of the
secretary (who has a general superintend-
ence of the whole), the  offices of the  two
controllers, five  auditors,  a treasurer,  a
register, and a solicitor.  The first auditor
receives  all accounts  in relation to the
revenue  and civil  list; the second  and
third, those relating to the army, fortifica-
tions, and  the  Indian department; the
fourth, those relative to the navy  depart-
ment; the fifth,  those  connected  with
the department of state, the post-office,
light-houses, &c.   The first controller ex-
amines the accounts settled  by the  first
and fifth auditors; the steeond, those of the
other three auditors. The following tables
will show the amount of the revenue, and
the mode of raising it.  The two sources
of revenue are duties on imports, and the
sale of public lands.  The internal duties
(on spirits, sugar, licenses, &c.) which had
previously existed, and  the direct  tax on
lands, houses and slaves, imposed in 1798,
were abolished  in  1802.  In 1813, direct
taxes and internal duties (on  licenses, car-
riages, sales by auction, &c.)  were again
laid, in consequence of the increased ex-
penditure arising from the war, and the
diminution of the  revenue  on  imports
from foreign countries.   The acts  impos-
ing these  taxes were repealed soon  after
the war, and the two sources of revenue
first mentioned have been amply sufficient
to meet the expenses of the  government,
and to pay off the public debt 
440
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
         RECEIPTS OF THE UNITED STATES,




As stated in a Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury
Years.		Customs.	Internal Rev-enue.	Direct Taxes.		Postage.
From March 4,						
1789 Dec. 31,	to 1791					
		$4,399,473 09	. .			
« -<	1792	3,443,070 85	$208,942 81			.
u u	1793	4,255,306 56	337,705 70			$11,020 51
U a	1794	4,801,065 28	274,089 62			29,478 49
u u	1795	5,588,461 26	337,755 36			22,400 00
u «	1796	6,567,987 94	475,289 60			72,909 84
(( i(	1797	7,549,649 65	575,491 45			64,500 00
u u	1798	7,106,061 93	644,357 05			39,500 00
u u	1799	6,610,449 31	779,136 44			41,000 00
u «	1800	9,080,932 73	809,396 53	$734,223 97		78,000 00
U «	1801	10,750,778 93	1,048,033 43	534,343 38		79,500 00
u u	1802	12,438,235 74	621,898 89	206,565 44		35,000 00
U ((	1803	10,479,417 61	215,179 69	71,879 20		16,427 26
<( «(	1804	11,098,565 33	50,941 29	50,198 44		26,500 00
« «	1805	12,936,487 04	21,747 15	21,883 ai		21,342 50
« <<	1806	14,667,698 17	20,101 45	55,763 86		41,117 67
« u	1807	15,845,521 61	13,051 40	34,732 56		3,614 73
U <<	1808	16,363,550 58	8,210 73	19,159 21		. .
u «	1809	7,296,020 58	4,044 39	7,517 31		.
u u	1810	8,583,309 31	7,430 63	12,448 68		.
it «	1811	13,313,222 73	2,295 95	7,666 66		37 70
u u	1812	8,958,777 53	4,903 06	859 22		85,039 70
(( a	1813	13,224,623 25	4,755 04	3,805 52		35,000 00
u u	1814	5,998,772 08	1,662,984 82	2,219,497 36		45,000 00
« u	1815	7,282,942 22	4,678,059 07	2,162,673 41		135,000 10
u u	1816	36,306,874 88	5,124,708 31	4,253,635 09		149,787 74
« «	1817	26,283,348 49	2,678,100 77	1,834,187 04		29,371 J91
(( u	1818	17,176,385 00	955,279 20	264,333 36		20,070 00
u u	1819	20,283,608 76	229,593 63	83,650 78		71 32
u u	1820	15,005,612 15	106,260 53	31,586 82		6,465 95
u «	1821	13,004,447 15	69,027 63	29,349 05		516 91
(( («	1822	17,589,761 94	67,665 71	20,961 56		602 04
u u	1823	19,088,433 44	34,242 17	10,337 71		110 69
<■' u	1824	17,878,325 71	34,663 37	6,201 96		. .
It u	1825	20,098,713 45	25,771 35	2,330 85		469 56
(( «	1826	23,341,331 77	21,589 93	6,638 76		300 14
t( ((	1827	19,712,283 29	19,885 68	2,626 90		101 00
(( ((	1828	23,205,523 64	17,451 54	2,218 81		20 15
<i (1	1829	22,681,965 91	14,404 74	11,321 29		•
		520,296,996 89	22,204,438 03	12,702,597 11		1,090,275 91
 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
441
FROM MARCH 4,1789, TO DECEMBER 31,1829,




to the Chairman of the Committee on Retrenchment, April 9,1830.
		Dividends				
	Loans and	and Sales				
Public Lands.	Treasury Notes, &c.	of Bank Stock and Bonds.			Miscellaneous.	Total.
	$5,791,112 56				$19,440 10	$10,210,025 75
	5,070,806 46	$8,028 00			9,918 65	8,740,766 77
	1,067,701 14	38,500 00			10,390 37	5,720,624 28
	4,609,196 78	303,472 00			23,799 48	10,041,101 65
	3,305,268 20	160,000 00			5,917 97	9,419,802 79
$4,836 13	362,800 00	1,240,000 00			16,506 14	8,740,329 65
83,540 60	70,135 41	385,220 00			30,379 29	8,758,916 40
11,963 11	308,574 27	79,920 00			18,692 81	8,209,070 07
	5,074,646 53	71,040 00			45,187 56	12,621,459 84
443 75	1,602,435 04	71,040 00			74,712 10	12,451,184 14
167,726 06	10,125 00	88,800 00			266,149 15	12,945,455 95
188,628 02	5,597 36	1,327,560 00			177,905 86	15,001,391 31
165,675 69					115,518 18	11,064,097 63
487,526 79	' 9,532 64				112,575 53	11,835,840 02
540,193 80	128,814 94				19,039 80	13,689,508 14
765,245 73	48,897 71				10,004 19	15,608,823 78
466,163 27	, .				34,935 69	16,398,019 26
647,939 06	1,822 16				21,802 35	17,062,544 09
442,252 33	,				23,638 51	7,773,473 12
696,548 82	2,759,992 25				84,476 84	12,144,206 53
1,040,237 53	8,309 05				60,068 52	14,431,838 14
710,427 78	12,837,900 00				41,125 47	22,639,032 76
835,685 14	26,184,435 00				236,571 00	40,524,844 95
1,135,971 09	23,377,911 79				119,399 81	34,559,536 95
1,287,959 28	35,264,320 78				150,282 74	50,961,237 60
1,717,985 03	9,494,436 16				123,994 61	57,171,421 82
1,991,226 06	734,542 59	202,426 30			80,389 17	33,833,592 33
2,606,564 77	8,765 62	525,000 00			37,547 71	21,593,936 66
3,274,422 78	2,291 00	675,000 00			57,027 10	24,605,6* 55 37
1,635,871 61	3,040,824 13	1,000,000 00			54,872 49	20,881,493 68
1,212,966 46	5,000,324 00	105,000 00			152,072 52	19,573,703 72
1,803,581 54 916,523 10		297,500 00			452,355 15	20,232,4*27 94
		350,000 00			141,019 15	20,540,666 26
984,418 15	5,000,000 00	350,000 00			127,603 60	24,381,212 79
], '216,090 56	5,000,000 00	367,500 00			129,982 25	26,840,858 02
] 393,785 09		402,500 00			94,288 52	25,260,434 21
1,495,845 26 1,018,308 75 1,457,004 66	.	420,000 00			1,315,6*21 83	22,966,363 96
	,	455,000 00			65,106 34	24,763,629 23
		490,000 00			112,425 62	24,767,122 22
32,403,527 80	156,181,578 57	9,413,506 30			4,672,744 17	758,965,664 78
 
442
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
         EXPENDITURE OF THE UNITED STATES,




As stated in a Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury to the
Years.	Civil List.	Foreign Inter-course.	Miscellaneous.	Public Debt.	Naval Estab-lishment.
From March					
4, 1789, to Dec.31,1791					
	$757,134 45	$14,733 33	$311,533 83	$5,287,949 50	$570 00
" " 1792	380,917 58	78,766 67	194,572 32	7,263,665 99	53 02
" " 1793	358,241 08	89,500 00	24,709 46	5,819,505 29	
" " 1794	440,946 58	146,403 51	118,248 30	5,801,578 09	*61,408 97
" " 1795	361,633 36	912,685 12	92,718 50	6,084,411 61	410,562 03
« " 1796	447,139 05	184,859 64	150,476 14	5,835,846 44	274,784 04
" " 1797	483,233 70	669,788 54	103,880 82	5,792,421 82	382,631 89
" " 1798	504,605 17	457,428 74	149,004 15	3,990,294 14	1,381,347 76
" « 1799	592,905 76	271,374 11	175,111 81	4,596,876 78	2,858,081 84
« " 1800	748,688 45	395,288 18	193,636 59	4,578,369 95	3,448,716 03
•« " 1801	549,288 31	295,676 73	269,803 41	7,291,707 04	2,111,424 00
" " 1802	596,981 11	550,925 93	315,022 36	9,539,004 76	915,561 87
« " 1803	526,583 12	1,110,8:34 77	205,217 87	7,256,159 43	1,215,230 53
" " 1804	624,795 63	1,186,655 57	379,558 23	8,171,787 45	1,189,832 75
« « 1805	585,849 79	2,798,028 77	384,720 19	7,369,889 79	1,597,500 00
" " 1806	684,230 53	1,760,421 30	445,485 18	8,989,884 61	1,619,641 44
" « 1807	655,524 65	577,826 34	464,546 52	6,307,720 10	1,7'.'2,064 47
" " 1808	691,167 80	304,992 83	427,124 98	10,260,245 35	l,te4,067 80
" « 1809	712,465 13	166,306 04	337,032 62	6,452,554 16	2,427,758 80
« « 1810	703,994 03	81,367 48	315,783 47	8.008,904 46	1,654,244 20
« " 1811	644,467 27	264,904 47	457,919 66	8,009,204 05	1,965,566 39
» « 1812	826,271 55	347,703 29	509,113 37	4,449,622 45	3,959,365 15
» » 1813	780,545 45	209,941 01	738,949 15	11,108,128 44	6,446,600 10
« « 1814	927,424 23	177,179 97	1,103,425 50	7,900,543 94	7,311,290 60
« " 1815	852,247 16	290,892 04	1,755,731 27	12,628,922 35	8,660,000 25
» » 1816	1,208,125 77	364,620 40	1,416,995 00	24,871,062 93	3,908,278 30
•: « 1817	994,556 17	281,995 97	2,242,384 62	25,423,036 12	3,314,598 49
" " 1818	1,109,559 79	420,429 90	2,305,849 82	21,296,201 62	2,953,695 00
« « 1819	1,142,180 41	284,113 94	1,640,917 06	7,703,926 29	3,847,640 42
" « 1820	1,248,310 05	253,370 04	1,090,341 85	8,628,494 28	4,387,990 00
" « 1821	1,112,292 64	207,110 75	903,718 15	8,367,093 62	3,319,243 06
« « 1822	1,158,131 58	164,879 51	644,985 15	7,848,949 12	2,224.458 98
« " 1823	1,058,911 65	292,118 56	671,063 78	5,530,016 41	2,503,765 S3
■- « 1824	1,336,266 24	5,140,099 83	678,942 74	16,568,393 76	2,904,581 56
« « 1825	1,330,747 24	371,666 25	1,046,131 40	12,095,344 78	3,049,083 86
« « 1826	1,256,745 48	232,719 08	1,110,713 23	11,041,082 19	4,218,902 45
" « 1827	1,228,141 04	659,211 87	826,123 67	10,003,668 39	4,263,877 45
" « 1828	1,455,490 58	1,001,193 66	1,219,368 40	12,163,438 07	3,918,786 44
" « 1829	1,323,966 86	207,060 35	1,570,656 66	12,383,800 77	3,312,931 87
	32,400,706 44	23,225,074 49	26,991,517 23	362,719,701 34	101,656,137 64
 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
443
FROM MARCH 4,1789, TO DECEMBER 31,1829,




Chairman of the Committee on Retrenchment, April 9,1830.
Military Establishment.							Balances in the
Military Services,							
including Forti-						Total.	Treasury at
fications, Arse-nals, Armories, Ordnance, In-	Revolutionary Pensions.			Other Pensions.	Indian Department.		the End of each Year.
ternal Improve-ments, «kc.							
$632,804 03				$175,813 88	$27,000 00	$7,207,539 02	$973,905 75
1,100,702 09				109,243 15	13,648 85	9,141,569 67	783,444 51
1,130,249 08				80,087 81	27,282 83	7,529,575 55	753,661 69
2,639,097 59				81,399 24	13,042 46	9,302,124 74	1,151,924 17
2,480,910 13				68,673 22	23,475 68	10,435,069 65	516,442 61
1-260,263 84				100,843 71	113,563 98	8,367,776 84	888,995 42
1,039,402 66				92,256 97	62,396 38	8,626,012 78	1,021,899 04
2,009,522 30				104,845 33	16,470 09	8,613,517 68	617,451 43
2,466,946 98				95,444 03	20,302 19	11,077,043 50	2,161,867 77
2,560,878 77				64,130 73	31 22	11,989,739 92	2,623,311 99
1,672,944 08				73,533 37	9,000 00	12,273,376 94	3,295,391 00
1,179,148 25				85,440 39	94,000 00	13,276,084 67	5,020,697 64
822,055 85				62,902 10	60,000 00	11,258,983 67	4,825,811 60
875,423 93				80,092 80	116,500 00	12,624,646 36	4,C37,005 26
712,781 28				81,854 59	196,500 00	13,727,124 41	3,999,388 99
1,224,355 38				81,875 53	234,200 00	15,070,C93 97	4,538,123 80
1,288,685 91				70,500 00	205,425 00	11,292,292 99	9,643,850 07
2,900,834 40				82,576 04	213,575 00	16,764,584 20	9,941,809 96
3,345,772 17				87,833 54	337,503 84	13,867,226 30	3,848,056 78
2,294,323 94				83,744 16	177,625 00	13,319,986 74	2,672,276 57
2,032,828 19				75,043 88	151,875 00	13,601,808 91	3,502,305 80
11,817,798 24				91,402 10	277,845 00	22,279,121 15	3,862,217 41
19,652,013 02				86,989 91	167,358 28	39,190,520 36	5,196,542 00
20,350,806 86				90,1(54 3(5	167,394 86	38,028,230 32	1,727,848 65
14,794,294 22				69.656 0(5	530,750 00	39,582,493 35	13,106,592 88
16,012,096 80				188,804 15	274,512 16	48,244,495 51	22,033,519 19
8,004,236 53				297,374 43	319,463 71	40,877,646 04	14,989,465 48
5,622,715 10	$300,000 00			590,719 90	505,704 27	35,104,875 40	1,478,526 74
6,506,300 37	1,847,900 85			568,039 00	463,181 39	24,004,199 73	2,079,992 38
2,630,392 31	2,766,440 00			441,936 31	315,750 01	21,763,024 85	1,198,461 21
4,461,291 78				242,817 25	477,005 44	19,090,572 69	1,681,592 24
3,111,981 48	1,642,590 94			305,608 46	575,007 41	17,676,592 63	4.237,427 55
3,09(5,924 43	1,449.097 04			331,491 48	380,781 82	15,314,171 00	9,463,922 81
3,340,939 85 3,659,914 18	1,267,600 41			231,726 18	429,987 90	31,898,538 47	1,946,597 IS
	1,308,810 57				724,106 44	23,585,804 72	5,201,050 43
3,943,194 37	1,305,194 82			251,399 01	713,417 83	24,103,398 46	6,358,686 It
3,938,977 88 4,145,544 56	796,012 52			180,126 34	760,(524 88	22,656,765 04	6,668,286 IC
	723,1:34 80			127,438 77	705,084 24	25,459,479 52	5,972,435 81
4,730,605 03	767,492 38			185,344 26	589,159 41	25,071,017 59	5,668,540 44
175,489,957 86	14,174,274 33			6,119,172 44	10,520,582 57	753,297,124 34	
 
444                  UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
The receipts into the  treasury during the
year 1830 were $24,844,116 ; balance re-
maining from past year, $5,668,540; ex-
penditures, $24,585,281; as follows:

                Receipts.
Customs,............21,922,391
Lands,..............   2,329,356
Dividends on bank stock, . .    490,000
Incidental receipts,......    102,000

             Expenditures.
Civil list, foreign intercourse,
  &c...............   3,237,416
Militai*y,includingfortifications,
  internal improvements, &c,   6,752,688
Naval service,.........   3,239,428
Debt,..............11,355,748

The receipts  for 1832  are  estimated at
$30,100,000;  of which it  is  estimated
that $26,500,000 will  be raised  by the
customs, and $3,000,000 from the  sale
of public  lands.   The expenditure for
1832, for all objects other than the  public
debt, is estimated at $13,365,202;  which
will leave a balance of $16,734,797 in the
treasury.  The following statement  ex-
hibits a view of the  public  debt  of the
U.  States from  the period of the  adop-
tion of the constitution to the present
time. The debt created by the revolution-
ary war amounted to forty-two millions of
dollars, and the debt contracted by each
individual state was assumed  by the U.
States on the organization of the new gov-
ernment.  This debt was to be redeemed
by the proceeds  of the national domains,
and the  interest of several species of
stock,  under the direction of the com-
missioners of the sinking fund.
       Years.          Amount of Debt.
       1791,.....$75,169,974
       1801,.....    82,000,167
       1804,.....    85,353,643
       1812,.....    45,035,123
       1816,.....  123,016,375
       1820,.....    91,015,566
       1822,.....    93,546,676
       1825,.....    83,788,432
       1826,.....    81,054,059
       1827,.....    73,987,357
       1828,.....    67,475,222
       1829,.....    58,362,135
       1830,.....    48,565,405
According to the report of the secretary
of the treasury (Dec. 17,  1831), the amount
of the public  debt on the first of Janua-
ry, 1832, would be $24,322,235, of which
$14,019,548 would be paid (exclusive of
interest)  in 1832, leaving, at the close of
the year,  an  amount of $10,302,086, or,
exclusive of bank stock, $2,302,686, which
may be paid off in March, 1833, leaving-
the government  without debt.   " The
moral   influence,"  says  the  secretary,
" which such an  example would neces-
sarily produce, in removing apprehension
and inspiring new confidence in our free
institutions, cannot be questioned.  Seven-
teen years ago, the country emerged from
an  expensive war, encumbered  with  a
debt  of more  than  one hundred and
twenty-seven millions, and in a compara-
tively defenceless state.  In this  period it
has repealed all direct and internal taxes
which were imposed during the  war, re-
lying mainly  upon revenue derived from
imposts and sales of the  public  domain.
From  these  sources,  besides providing
for the general expenditure, the  frontier
has been extensively fortified, the naval
and  maritime  resources  strengthened,
and  part of the debt  of  gratitude to the
survivors of  the  revolutionary war dis-
charged. We have, moreover, contributed
a large share to the general improvement,
added to the extent of the Union, by the
purchase of the territory  of Florida,* and
finally  acquired the means of extinguish-
ing the heavy debt incurred in  sustaining
the late war, and all that remained of tho
debt of the  revolution." In order to adapt
the revenue to the reduced expenditure,
the new tariff" of 1832 provides  for the
admission  of tea,  coffee, and some oth-
er articles, free  of duty.  (See Public
Stocks.)  In 1812, a general land office
was established, in which all  patents of
land are made  out and  recorded.  This
office is a subordinate branch of the treas-
ury  department.    (See  Public  Lands.)
By the report of the director of  the mint
in 1832, the  operations  of that office for
1831 were  as follows: Amount of coinage,
$3,923,473, comprising $714,270 in gold
coins,  $3,i75,600  in  silver coins,  and
$33,603 in  copper coins,  making together
11,792,284  pieces: of the  gold coined,
$26,000  worth   was  from   Virginia,
$294,000   from   North   Carolina,  and
$176,000 from  Georgia.   The total value
of  the coinage  from 1792 to   1831  is
$40,000,000.—3. The war department was
created,by act of congress, Aug. 7, 17r'.\
and at first embraced not only  military
but naval  affairs.  The  secretary at war
superintends every branch of military af-
fairs, and has under his immediate direc-
tion a  requisition bureau, a bounty land
office,  a pension bureau, a  bureau  of
  * Five millions were paid  for the purchase of
Florida (1321), and fifteen for that  of Louisiana
(1803). 
UNITED STATES (STATISTICS).
445
Indian affairs, an engineer office, an ord-
nance office, an office for the commissary
general of subsistence, a paymaster-gen-
eral's office, and a surgeon-general's office.
This department has the superintendence
of the erection of fortifications, of making
topographical surveys, of surveying and
leasing the national lead mines,  and of
the  intercourse  with the  Indian tribes.
The military peace establishment of the
U. States was fixed, by act of congress of
March 2,  1821, at 6000 men. The army,
as  organized  according to this  law,  is
under the command of one major-gene-
ral, and two brigadier-generals. It consists
of four regiments of artillery (2240 men),
and seven  regiments  of infantry (3829
men).  This might be increased to 12,000
men without a proportionate increase of
the  expenses in the war department, the
number of privates being reduced as low as
possible, while the officers are kept up on a
scale adapted  for thrice the effective nu-
merical force ; by which arrangement the
general expenses are diminished  in time
of peace, and a sufficient number of offi-
cers are in readiness on the breaking out
of war.  This circumstance, and  that of
the high price of labor in  the U. States,
render the expenses of the  military peace
establishment much greater in proportion
than those of the European powers.  It
appears, from  the report of the  secretary
of war (Dec, 1831), that the U. States now
have, in  serviceable  condition,  465,000
muskets. The annual demand to supply the
necessary loss in the army and the militia,
and to furnish the  issues to the respective
states, is  18,300: the number manufac-
tured in  the public  armories is about
25,000, which, with  11,000 made at pri-
vate works, gives a total annual production
of 36,000. In 1815, there were but 20,000
in the arsenals.  There are at present 623
cannon for field service, and at the arse-
nals and in the old fortifications  1165, of
antiquated patterns, and, with the excep-
tion of about 400 pieces,  unserviceable.
1214 cannon of the improved pattern have
been procured for new fortifications, in
addition to which, 25S7 are  required ; and
for  works now constructing, 4045 pieces
will be necessary.  The U. States have no
public armories for the fabrication of can-
non.  The number of militia is 1,262,315;
but  the  organization is very defective.
The military academy at West Point, sup-
ported by  the federal  government, con-
sists of the corps of engineers, professors
and  teachers,  and 250  cadets, who are
trained to the duties  of privates, of non-
commissioned officers,  and  of  officers.
To the bureau of Indian affairs, all matters
touching the Indian relations are  refer-
red.  This bureau is subordinate to the de-
partment of war.—4. The navy department
was  created by act of congress of April
30, 1798.  The secretary issues all orders
to the navy of the U. States, and  superin-
tends the concerns of the navy establish-
ment in  general.   The board  of navy
commissioners, consisting of three officers
of the navy, in rank not below that of a
post-captain, was  established in  1815.
The board is attached to the office of the
secretary of the  navy, and,  under his su-
perintendence, discharges all the  ministe-
rial  duties of  that office relative  to the
procurement of naval  stores and  mate-
rials, and the   construction, armament,
equipment and  employment of vessels
of war, as  well as  other  matters con-
nected with the naval  establishment  of
the U. States.   There are navy-yards at
Portsmouth (N. II.), Charlestown (Mass.),
Long Island (N. YA Philadelphia, Wash-
ington, Gosport (Va.),  and  Pensacola.
The  naval  force consists of twelve ships
of the line, seventeen  frigates, sixteen
sloops of war, and  seven smaller vessels.
(See Navy.)  Two dry docks have been
completed  at Charlestown  and Gosport,
at an expense of $500,000 each, and tim-
ber has been procured  for five ships of
the line, five frigates, and five sloops of
war.—5.  The postmaster-general has the
appointment of the postmasters through-
out the U. States, the making of contracts
for carrying the mails, and  the direction
of every thing relating  to the post-office
department.  The revenue arising from
the post-office has been principally ex-
pended upon the extension and improve-
ment  of  the   establishment, by which
means  the regular  conveyance of letters,
newspapers, pamphlets, Arc, has been ex-
tended to the inhabitants of every part of
the Union, even to  the remotest territorial
settlements.
-offices in 1790,	75
1800,	903
« 1810,	2300
1820,	4500
1830,	8450
Extent of post-road in  miles,
  1,875
 20,817
 36,406
 72,492
1151,76
VOL. XII.
38 
446
UNITED STATES (EDUCATION).
In July, 1831, the number of offices  was
8686.  The amount of postage accruing in
1829 was $1,707,418; in 1830, $1,850,583;
in  1831,  $1,997,811; the  expenses  of
the department during the  latter year,
$1,935,559, of which  635,028 was in com-
pensation  to  postmasters, and $1,252,226
for transportation of the mail. (See Post.)
  5. Education. The general education of
all classes  has no where been so much at-
tended to  as  in the U. States, where it is
well understood that  free institutions can
be rendered secure only by the diffusion
of intelligence  among  the  citizens.   A
remarkable proportion of the first colonists
of New England  were  educated men.
The tone which they imparted has never
been lost; and the principle which  they
established, that  the education  of  the
community should be carried on at the
common expense, has never been aban-
doned in the states they planted,  but has
been successively adopted by other states,
until, at last, though its practical operation
has been extended only to eight or nine,
its soundness and importance are acknowl-
edged  by  all.  From this principle  has
grown  up  whatever is peculiar in Ameri-
can education: and in order to understand
how this is carried on, and how  it differs
from education in other countries,  it is
necessary  to trace its  operations through
the three  stages of instruction  provided
tor or  protected  by  law in  the different
states—common schools, or free schools,
supported  at  the public expense; incor-
 fiorated academies ; and incorporated  col-
 eges.  1. Common Schools, or Free Schools.
It is obvious that the  character of the
mass of the  people  will be formed in
these schools, because the great majority
cannot, from their circumstances, afford
to seek higher or better education than
can be  obtained in them.  These schools,
therefore,  demand the first attention  in a
free state,  and, happily for New England,
received this  attention so early, that they
have always  constituted the foundation
of what is most peculiar and valuable in
the character of its inhabitants. (See
Schools.)   One  of the advantages of the
system is, that the whole population is
made to take  a direct personal interest in
the business of education, and to  carry it
on in the  way best suited to supply  the
general wants.  The  people, in their
town-meetings, vote  the money, by their
committees spend the  money, and by
their children get the benefits of the out-
lay : the whole management of the schools
is directly in their hands.  Another great
advantage is,  that the schools are support-
ed by a tax upon property, although thia
remark does not apply strictly  to  all the
states, in some of which there Ls a public
fund for bearing a certain  proportion of
the  expense.  But- every where in  New
England, except in Connecticut, they are
supported by a tax on the property of all.
It is therefore  an arrangement eminently
beneficial to the poorer classes  of the
community.  In most towns, one fifth of
the  inhabitants  pay at least one half of
the tax, and, instead  of sending one  half
of the scholars, do  not send  one sixth.
Of course  the school tax is substantially
a tax on  the rich to  educate the children
of the poor;  and it  is thus equally bene-
ficial in  its operation upon both  parties.
The poor have  the  promise of the law
and the  constitution that  their children
shall be educated,  and thus   preserved
from the greatest temptation to  crime :
the rich are assured that they shall live in
a community where  universal  education
shall keep the  foundations of society safe,
and afford them a greater personal secu -
rity than the law can offer.  In this way
the  system of free schools, as practically
carried into operation in New  England,
is to be regarded as a great moral police,
to preserve a decent,  orderly and respect-
able population;  to teach men, from their
earliest childhood, their duties and their
rights; and, by giving the whole mass of
the  community a sense of  character and
a general intelligence,  make  them un-
derstand the value of justice,  order and
moral worth, and more  anxious to main-
tain them  than  the  law itself can  be.
The means of improvement being thus
given to all, we find daily examples, i*i
the  U. States, of men raised to the  most
commanding influence  from the poorer
classes of the obscurest  villages, who, but
for  the  opportunity  offered by the free
schools, at  their own doors, to make the
first step in their career,  would never
have risen from the humble  station in
which they were born. The following re-
marks are from an article in a number of
the  Quarterly Journal (published in Lon-
don), written  by  professor Ticknor  of
Boston, from whom we have received the
materials for these remarks on  education
in this country:—" This system of univer-
sal  education has now, therefore, become,
to a remarkable  degree, the basis  of the
popular character which marks the two
millions of people in New England.  The
laws, indeed, differ in the six states, and
have been altered in each, from time to
time, since their first enactment;  but all
the states have laws on the subject: the 
UNITED  STATES (EDUCATION).
447
 leading principles are  the same in all of
 them; and the modes of applying them, and
 the results  obtained,  are  not materially
 different.   Indeed, in  almost every part
 of these six states, whatever may be the
 injunctions  of the law, the popular  de-
 mand for  education is so much greater,
 that the legal  requisitions  are generally
 or constantly exceeded.  The most strik-
 ing instance of this is, perhaps,  to  be
 found  in  the city of  Boston,  where  the
 requisitions of  the law could be fulfilled
 by an expenditure of three  thousand dol-
 lars annually, but where  from  sixty to
 seventy thousand are  every year applied
 to the purpose.   And  yet  multitudes of
 the poor and small towns in the interior
 show no less zeal on the subject, and, in
 proportion to their  means, make no less
 exertion.  The mode  in which this  sys-
 tem of popular education is carried  into
 effect is perfectly simple, and is one prin-
 cipal  cause  of  its practical  efficiency.
 The New England  states are all divided
 into territorial  communities called towns,
 which have corporate  privileges  and du-
 ties, and whose affairs  are managed by a
 sort of committee  annually chosen  by
 the inhabitants, called selectmen.  These
 towns are of unequal size ;  but in the ag-
 ricultural portions of the country, which
 contain four fifths  of the people, they are
 generally five or  six square miles ; and
 upon them,  in  their corporate capacity,
 rests the duty of making provision for the
 support of free  schools.   This  duty is
 fulfilled by  them, in  the first place,  by
 voting, at a meeting of all the  taxable
 male inhabitants  over twenty-one  years
 old, a tax on property of all kinds to sup-
 port schools for the current  year, always
 as large  as the law requires,  and often
 larger;  or,  if this is  neglected  by any
 town, it is so surely complained of to the
 grand jury by those  dissatisfied inhabit-
 ants, who  want education for their chil-
 dren, that  instances  of such neglect are
 almost  unknown.  The  next thing is to
 spend  wisely and effectually the money
 thus raised.  In  all but the smallest towns,
 one school, at least,  is  kept through  the
 whole year, in  which  Latin, Greek,  the
 lower  branches  of  mathematics,  and
 whatever goes  to constitute a common
 English  education in  reading,  writing,
 geography, history, &c, are taught under
 the  immediate  superintendence  of the
selectmen, or of a  special committee ap-
pointed for the purpose.  This, however,
would not  be carrying  education  near
enough to the doors of the people, in agri-
cultural districts, to enable them fully to
 avail themselves of it, especially the poorer
 classes  and  the younger children.  To
 meet  this  difficulty,  all the towns are
 divided into districts, varying in number,
 in each town, from four to twelve, or even
 more, according to its necessities and con-
 venience.  Each district  has its  district
 school committee, and receives  a part of
 the tax  imposed  for  education ;  some-
 times in proportion  to the population of
 the district, but oftener to the number of
 children to be educated.  The committee
 of  the  district   determine  where  the
 school  shall  be kept,  select its teacher,
 choose the books  that shall be used, or
 delegate that power to  the instructer, and,
 in short, are responsible, in all particulars,
 for the faithful fulfilment of  the  trust
 committed to them ; the  general  system
 being that a  school  is kept in  each  dis-
 trict during the long winter months, when
 the children of  the  farmers are unoccu-
 pied, by a male teacher  capable  of in-
 structing in reading, writing, arithmetic,
 English grammar, geography and history;
 while in the same school-house, during the
 summer months,  schools are  kept  by
 women, to instruct the  smaller children in
 knowledge even more elementary.   In
 this way, for the population of New Eng-
 land, consisting of two millions  of souls,
 not less than from  ten to twelve  thousand
 free schools are open  every year,  or, on
 an average, one school to every two hun-
 dred  souls—a   proportion  undoubtedly
 quite sufficient, and larger than would be
 necessary, if the population were  not in
 many  parts very  much  dispersed."*—

   * On this point no one has spoken  with more
 power than Mr. Webster, who,  alluding in public
 debate, to the free schools, where he himself re-
 ceived  his earliest training, said,—" In this par-
 ticular, ?s"e\v England  may be allowed  to  claim, I
 think, a merit ofa peculiar  character.  She early
 adopted, and has constantly maintained the prin-
 ciple, that it is the  undoubted right, ana the
 bounden duty of government, to provide for the
 instruction of all youth.  That which is elsewhere
 left to chance, or to charity, we secure  by law.
 For  the purpose of public instruction, we hold
 every man subject to taxation in proportion to his
 property ; and we look not to the question wheth-
 er he himself have,  or have not, children to be
 benefited  by  the education for which he pays.
 We regard it as a wise and liberal system of po-
 lice, by which property,  and life, and  the peace
 of society, are secured.  We seek to prevent, in
some measure, the extension of the  penal code,
by inspiring a salutary and conservative princi-
ple of virtue and of  knowledge in an early age.
VVe hope to  excite a feeling of respectability,
and a sense of character, by enlarging the ca-
pacity, and increasing the sphere of intellectual
enjoyment.  By general instruction, we seek, as
far  as possible, to  purify  the whole  moral  at-
mosphere, to keep good sentiments uppermost, 
448
UNITED STATES (EDUCATION).
2. The common or free schools  give in-
struction in the elements  of an English
education  (reading,   writing, arithmetic,
geography), and in the larger towns teach
Lathi and Greek.  The public legislation
goes no further in its requisition, but has
generally stood ready to assist the people,
whenever  they have shown themselves
disposed to go beyond this  point.   This
is visible in the number of academies, in-
corporated  by law for the  purposes  of
giving higher instruction than can be ob-
tained at  the  common schools.   Indi-
viduals desirous of securing better teach-
ing for their clrildren than  the  law pro-
vides, associate together and raise funds,
obtain an  act of incorporation from the
legislature  for the management of their
funds, and sometimes receive  a  grant of
money from the public autiiorities. These
institutions are often also  founded  by
charitable  donations  of individuals, and
are supported in part by the tuition fees
of the pupils, which are  generally very
low. They give instruction in the ancient
languages,  and often  in French,  with the
lower  branches of the  mathematics and
natural philosophy.   Children from the
neighboring towns are sent to  them, and
are prepared for the colleges, or for active
life  as traders, mechanics, farmers, &c.
There are  about 500  such institutions in
the country, and  they  are of great im-
portance, by bringing  the means of a use-
ful practical education within the reach
of a very large portion of the community.
3. The last step in  education, of which
the government and  the people take any
direct  cognizance, is in the colleges, which
are  incorporated  institutions, possessing
more  or less funds, a  regular  body of
teachers, and the power of conferring de-

and to turn the strong current of feeling and opin-
ion, as well  as the censures of the law, and the
denunciations of religion, against immorality and
crime.  We hope for a security, beyond the law,
and above the law, in the prevalence  of enlight-
ened and  well-principled moral sentiment. We
hope to continue  ana prolong the time, when, in
the villages  and farm-houses of New England,
there mav be undisturbed sleep within unbarred
doors.  And, knowing that our government rests
directly on the public will, that we may preserve
it, we endeavor to give a safe  and proper direc-
tion to that public will.  We do not, indeed, ex-
pect all men to be philosopher's or statesmen;
but we  confidently trust,  and our expectation of
the duration of government rests on  that trust,
that, by the diffusion  of general knowledge and
good and virtuous sentiments, the political fabric
mav be secure, as  well against open violence
and overthrow,  as against the slow but sure un-
dermining of licentiousness."  (Journal of De-
bates in the Convention to revise the Constitution
of Massachusetts, 1821, page 245.)
grees.  (See  Colleges.)   The  oldest and
amplest of the colleges  is Harvard col-
lege, in Cambridge, founded in 1638.  (See
Cambridge.)  The example of Massachu-
setts  was  early  followed  by  the  other
colonies;  and in 1776 there were eight of
these institutions in  the  U. States.   The
number at present is sixty, differing, how-
ever, extremely  in  the  extent  of  the
course of studies, the number of teachers,
and other advantages which they afford
to the students.   The course of studies in
all of them lasts four years, and embraces
Greek, Latin, natural philosophy, mathe-
matics, metaphysics, moral   philosophy,
chemistry, &c.; but all  these studies are
pursued very superficially, as may be in-
ferred from the  circumstances of the age
and qualifications of the  pupils  when
they enter the institution, and of all being
required to pass through the same course
without regard  to the veiy unequal  at-
tainments, and the  different  talents and
objects of each.   The colleges have done
much good in preparing many, in some
degree, for their professional  studies; but
they do not give that thorough education
which is now more  and more felt to be
wanted in the country.  The period  of
education  is  itself   too  limited;   most
young men, in the U. States,  completing
their preparatory studies  at about the age
of eighteen.  These  remarks, though still
applicable, in all their force, to nearly all
the institutions  of the country,  are less
strictly true at present of two or three of
the oldest, in which attempts have  been
made  to  introduce  a better method of
study. On leaving the colleges, the young
men who have been educated in the man-
ner described, have hitherto, with  few
exceptions, entered upon the study of one
of the three  professions ;  but at present
those who devote themselves to the  busi-
ness  of manufacturing  and  engineering
are more numerous  than formerly.  Be-
yond the colleges littie has been done by
public legislation for  education.   The
law, medical and theological seminaries
have been generally established and main-
tained by the exertions of private indi-
viduals, although this remark is not  with-
out exceptions.   There are  at  present
twenty-six theological  seminaries in the
country; but a small portion of the clergy
have,  as  yet, been educated in these in-
stitutions, most of which are, indeed, yet
in their infancy.   The great  body of the
clergy pursue their  studies under the di-
rection of some  individual clergyman, or
do not study at all.   The standard of the-
ological instruction in the U. states  must 
UNITED STATES (EDUCATION).
449
therefore be considered as very low. The
number of medical schools is eighteen, in
some of which the standard of education
is high, and the  advantages for scientific
instruction great.   The number of law
schools is  nine, most of which are of re-
cent origin ; the lawyers hitherto having
been  educated chiefly in the offices of
the older  and more eminent counsellors,
little more having been required, for ob-
taining permission to practise, than  read-
ing more or less, according to the inclina-
tions of the student, for a certain course
of time.  Besides these more public and
general means of instruction, the private
schools (i. e. such as are kept and  man-
aged by individuals at  their own risk and
discretion) are numerous ;  and, in many
cases, they afford greater advantages than
the public schools : several of these have
been  organized and  conducted  on  the
plan of the German gymnasia, and sev-
eral mechanical and agricultural institutes
have  recently  been established.   Infant
schools and Sunday schools also exist in
great  numbers.   Subsidiary  to  direct
teaching,  the state of the  public libraries
should be considered; and in this respect
there is a deplorable  deficiency in  the
country.  The only respectable  libraries
are those of Cambridge (36,000 volumes),
Boston Athenaeum (26,000 volumes),  of
Philadelphia  (24,000 volumes),  of con-
gress (16,000 volumes), and of Charles-
ton (13,000 volumes);  and these must, of
course, be very imperfect. (See Libraries.)
Until the libraries of the country are  put
upon a better footing, it is  not to be  ex-
pected either that the scholars and scien-
tific inquirers in this  countiy can take
their place at the side of those  of Europe,
or that instructers can be formed who will
give the coming generations such advan-
tages as their  situation  and  wants will
require.   There are  other  institutions,
which are of great importance in promot-
ing general instruction,  and  which  are
little known in the U. States.  There  are
botanical  gardens  at  Cambridge,  New
York and Philadelphia;  there  are few
collections of instruments  for teaching
natural philosophy and mechanics ;  there
are some  good collections  of minerals,
especially those at Cambridge, New Ha-
ven and Brunswick ; but there is neither
an observatory nor a good cabinet of natural
history in the country.  These are defects
whieh also call for remedies.   On  the
whole, it will be seen that, while  popular
education is very  widely diffused, and a
great amount of knowledge is communi-
cated to the mass of the people, the means
                 38 *
of education, as we ascend to the higher
departments of  literature  and  science,
grow more and  more  imperfect, and at
last  almost entirely  fail.
  6. The population of no country in the
world ever enjoyed  the  necessaries and
comforts of life in such abundance as that
of the  U. States.   The high  rate  of
wages, the great demand for labor of all
kinds, the plenty of provisions, the cheap-
ness of land, and the  lightness of taxes,
connected with the  absence  of all  re-
strictions upon industry, and the character
of the  institutions, would naturally pro-
duce such a result.   It  has  been com-
puted that a laborer can earn as much
in one day as will furnish bread and meat
to himself, wife  and  four children  for
three days nearly.  It  is observed by
travellers—and the  observation agrees
with facts known regarding the  lower
animals—that this abundance of  substan-
tial and nourishing diet has had  a visible
effect upon the  human  frame.   In  the
western country, in particular, where  the
climate  is good,  and  rural occupations
prevail, the great  size and athletic frames
of the men have struck  foreigners with
surprise.  Where the  means of subsist-
ence are  so easily procured, no person
able  to work need be in want ; but there
must be some in all countries, who, from
age, or bodily or mental  infirmities, are un-
able  to support themselves : the number
of these, however, is  small, and  comfort-
able  provision is  made for their support
by state legislation.   The actual  expense
is light; but  we  have  no accurate data
for determining its amount in the differ-
ent  states.  A beggar  is rarely  seen in
any part of the country.  To have a just
idea of the advantages  which  industry
enjoys in the U. States, we must take into
account that, while labor yields larger re-
turns than in any  other country,  a much
smaller  proportion  of the  produce  is
taken away in the shape of taxes. The
revenue of* the  general  government is
raised from the customs and the sale of the
public lands—no direct taxes being paid
except state taxes,  which are very light.
I.t should also be borne in mind,  that the
distribution of taxes is regulated on juster
principles in the U. States than in other
countries ; so that the burden falls more
directly upon property and  consumption.
The following statements  will serve to il-
lustrate these general  remarks:—It is esti-
mated  by  Mr.  Holmes (Speech in  the
Senate of the U. States, 1832), that, if  the
industry of this country were divided in-
to twelve equal parts, we might assign to 
450        UNITED STATES (CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE).
commerce two, to navigation one, manu-
factures two, and agriculture seven.  The
price of agricultural labor must, therefore,
regulate th^at of the rest; though, of course,
the price of other labor will be lower or
higher  according to the demand,  skill,
certainty of success, constancy of employ-
ment, &c.; yet it  will rise or fall relatively
with that of agriculture. The average price
of agricultural labor, in 1830, was  $8,95
per month  throughout  the U. States, in
addition to the board of the laborer; in
the New England and Middle States, va-
rying from $8,00 to $10,00 per month; and
in the Southern and Western, generally,
from  $6,00 to $10,00; while in Georgia it
was $12,00, and in Missouri $15,00.  Some
attempts have recently been made to esti-
mate, with more accuracy than had pre-
viously  been done, the total amount paid
by each individual  for expenses of gov-
'lnment,  including  the  federal and state
budgets, the amount paid for public schools,
the clergy, the poor, and all incidental ex-
penses.   Some statements in the Revue
Britannique for June, 1831, have elicited
estimates on this subject from Mr. Coop-
er and from general Bernard. The writer
in the Revue Britannique had calculated
the sum of the public charges paid by
each inhabitant of the U. States at thirty-
five francs,  and  that of each person in
France  at thirty-one francs.  Mr. Cooper
makes this  amount fourteen francs five
centimes  (or $2,64£); and general  Ber-
nard,  who, however, leaves out the eccle-
siastical expenditure, eleven francs forty-
seven centimes ($2,16-*-), or, exclusive of
that  paid for the public debt, six francs
eight centimes ($1,27).   According to the
esrimateofthe secretary of the treasury, the
whole debt will be paid off in March, 1833.
The estimated expenditures of 1832, for
other purposes than  the public debt, were
$13,365,200, of which $3,000,000 would
be raised by the sale of the public lands;
leaving  $10,365,200  to  be  paid by the
people  in the form  of  duties, or,  esti-
mating  the  population  (according to the
rate of increase),  at the close of 1832, at
13,250,000, at 80  cents per head for the
federal budget.  An  estimate by Francis
Lieber,  in  the  Courrier des Etats  Unis,
makes the local charge on each citizen of
Massachusetts, where the taxes are higher
than hi the rest of the Union, as follows:
  Town  taxes, for schools, roads, &c. $2,00
  County taxes, for gaols, courts, coun-
   ty roads,  &c.,..................    50-
  State taxes, for militia, state govern-
   ments, &c, ....................    50
  Paid for clergy, ..................    50
      Total,  ....................... #3^50
 An estimate in the same journal calcu-
 lates  the  local charges upon a citizen of
 New York at $1,75.   If these estimates
 are correct, the total charge for a citizen
 of Massachusetts would  be,  after ^the
 year  1832,  $4,30, and for a  citizen  of
 New York, $2,55.  Whatever the amount
 may  be, it is  very certain that the public
 charges are in no part of the U. States
 felt as a burden.   " Instead of sanguina-
 ry executions and injustice, we find in
 America  a  penal code, singularly mild,
 and  cautious  to  an  extreme  in  taking
 away human  existence, a system of pun-
 ishment formed  with a view to  the pre-
 vention of crime, and not in a vindictive
 spirit, and adapted for the reclamation of
 the criminal rather  than for his destruc-
 tion.   Instead of spoliation or pillage, we
 see no country in which the  possession
 and  disposal  of property are better pro-
 tected, or its acquisition by judicious  in-
 dustry  better secured.  And,  above all,
 there is no countiy in which  religion and
 its ministers are more generally respected
 and supported by the mass of the popu-
 lation, although without compulsory pro-
 vision, and where the lives and example
 of the  clergy more nearly approach to
 those  of their  great primitive models."—
 Ouseley's  Statistics of the United States.
(See our  articles Crime,  Criminal Law,
Prison Discipline, Temperance Societies.)
   We close this  part of the article with
 the following remarks  from  Warden's
 Introduction:—"There  is  no  national
 church in the  I". States, but the  support
 of religion is left  to the voluntary contri-
 butions of individuals.  This is a singu-
 lar contrast to the policy of the European
 states;  and  yet religion is by  no means
 neglected among  us.   It is true, the rural
 population is,  in general, ill supplied with
 places of worship; but  it ought to  be
 recollected, that this population is thinly
 scattered  over a  new  countiy, and that
 Europe owes her amply-endowed church-
 es not to the religious  zeal of an enlight-
 ened age,  but  to the  superstition and big-
 otry of an age of ignorance.   It will  be
 found, however, that in the great cities of
 Europe, where the  population has out-
grown  the  original church funds,  the
places of worship  do not bear a greater
proportion to the population than hi those
of the U. States.*  It is only between the

  * The number  of clergymen at present is esti-
mated at about 13,000.  Many of these, however,
among the Methodists, are continually travelling
about,  and  preaching in different places; and
there are, besides, many persons who officiate aa
clergymen,  although engaged in some other oc-
cupation.  In 1830, Boston, with a population of 
UNITED STATES (RELIGION).
451
large towns of America and Europe that
a comparison can be fairly instituted.  And
if the supply of churches is considered
as a criterion of religious zeal, we should
take into account,  that new churches in
Europe are built by compulsory assess-
ments,  whereas in America  they  are
built  by voluntary contributions.   Even
in country districts  ill  provided   with
churches, no impartial  observer will say
that the moral duties are less attended to
than  in  Europe.   The truth is, church
establishments  were founded in a  dark
and barbarous age, when the interests of
religion were little understood ; and  they
have since been supported as instruments
of state policy.   It has, no doubt, an im-
posing appearance, to set apart  a large
proportion of the fruits of the  earth to
furnish all classes with  religious instruc-
tion.   Something of this kind may have
been  necessary in the  rude times when
Christianity was first established in West-
ern Europe.  But religion is  one of the
natural wants of the human mind, and, in
an enlightened age, requires no aid from
the civil magistrate.  His presumptuous
attempts to promote its  interests  have
been  the means of corrupting  and de-
basing it: they have lessened its influence
over the hearts and conduct of men, un-
dermined its  authority,  and  filled the
world  with contention and bloodshed in
its name.  Church cstaulishments, con-
nected, as they commonly are, with ex-
clusive creeds, have been the most effec-
tual  engines ever contrived to fetter the
human mind.  They shut up religion from
the influence of new lights and increasing
knowledge, give an unnatural  stability to
error, impose the dogmas and the preju-
dices of rude and ignorant times upon ages
of knowledge and refinement, and check
the genuine influence of religion byassoci-
ating it with absurd practices and impious
impostures.  By connecting the  church
with the state, they degrade religion into
an  instrument of civil tyranny ;  by pam-
pering the  pride of a particular sect, and
putting the sword into its hands,  they
render  it indolent,  intolerant,- cruel, and
spread jealousy and irritation through all
the others.  By  violating the right of pri-
vate judgment in their endeavors to en-
force uniformity of belief, they multiply
hypocrites.   To what can we attribute
the monstrous tyranny of modern Rome,

61 392  had  forty-three churches ;  New  York,
with 203 000 inhabitants, upwards  of one hun-
dred ; Philadelphia, with a population of 167,811,
bad one hundred churches ;  and Cincinnati, with
84,831 inhabitants, twcnty-ihree.
 from which it cost so much to emancipate
 the human mind ?  Not to any thing pe-
 culiar in its tenets, but to the corrupting
 influence  of power associated with reli-
 gious  functions.   The church of Rome
 was an established church of the most
 complete kind, and had, in the highest de-
 gree, all the vices that naturally belong to
 such a body.  But experience  will not
 warrant us in saying, that any  other great
 sect, placed in the same circumstances,
 would have acted  with more moderation.
 It is true that the toleration  which the
 progress of philosophy has wrung from
 the priesthood, has stripped many of the
 national churches of their most offensive
 features ; but  much of the  ancient spirit
 yet remains.   It is still the case that men
 are compelled to pay for the support of a
 form of religion they do not approve of;
 that a difference of belief excludes indi-
 viduals from  many civil offices and civil
 privileges ; that the established clergy are
 every  where ready to justify  the worst
 actions of men in power; and if they can-
 not impose  silence upon the  dissenters,
 they are often ready enough to harass and
 mortify them by such means as they still
 possess.  In nothing  have the U. States
 more reason to congratulate themselves
 than in their  total exemption from the
 numerous dissensions, jealousies and op-
 pressions that spring  from  an exclusive
 reUgious system.  On this, as on  other
 points, their experience affords a useful
 lesson to the world, and confirms the rea-
 sonings of  doctor Smith,  who  pointed
 out the pernicious effects of such estab-
 lishments more than forty years ago.  In
 settling the form of her political and civil
 institutions, North  America had great ad-
 vantages.   She had  the  knowledge and
 experience of  Europe to guide her, with-
 out being fettered by the prejudices and
 sinister interests  that  check improve-
 ments in that quarter of the world. In all
 old communities,  men are  governed  by
 ancient forms  and usages as much as  by
just  views  of their interests, or  the exi-
 gences of their situation.   But when they
 are removed to a  new scene, old habits
 and  prejudices are  cast  off',  and  their
 opinions and  conduct are  moulded  bv
 their circumstances. Attempts were made
 in several  of  the colonies to establish
 feudal practices and high  church privi-
 leges ;  but they were inconsistent with the
 habits  and situation of the colonists, and
 fell to the ground.  The constitution and
 histoiy of the parent state  taught them
 the principles of freedom; her laws af-
 forded them models of what is wise and 
452          UNITED STATES (POLITICAL  INSTITUTIONS).
humane in legislation;  while her errors
and sufferings, and  still more those of
other nations, were beacons to warn them
against the evils  of corruption, injustice
and tyranny.   Guided by these lights and
by  their  own experience, the  colonists
gradually framed  their institutions on the
basis of equal rights.  The establishment
of their independence delivered them en-
tirely  from  foreign  influence,  and  left
them at liberty to  consult their own wish-
es and  interests in the form of then* gov-
ernment.   The constitution that resulted
may be said to be the deliberate act of the
whole nation; and, if it is not perfect, it
at least answers all  the ends for which
government is  framed in a much higher
degree than any  other which the history
of  mankind presents.  This government
rests on what  must be the basis of every
system of freedom—a full, fair and equal
representation.  All interests are secured,
because all are represented.  The elec-
tive  franchise is  nearly  universal,  and
there is no excluded class, whose irritated
feelings threaten  destruction to a system
that subjects them to degradation.*   The
government is strong without a military
force, because the  majority, who govern,
are interested in its preservation.   There
can be  no  collision  between  the people
and their rulers, because the former have
an organ  that faithfully expresses their
will, and to this will the government, from
its  nature,  must  yield  obedience.  The
lower house of congress,  elected  every
two years, may be said, in the words of
Burke, ' to be the express image of the
feelings of the people.'  The senate, elect-
ed every six years, must be less affected
by the  fluctuating humors of  the people,
and  may  be considered as representing

  * It will be seen, by referring to the constitu-
tions of the different states, that, in some of the
older states, infidels  are excluded  from certain
offices;  in others, Jews and Roman Catholics.
There are also restrictions,  in some of the older
states, on the elective franchise, in one or two of
which it is limited to  persons possessing a certain
amount of property,  and in  several is confined to
citizens paying taxes.  But  in all the other states,
the elective franchise belongs to the whole body
of free citizens without distinction; and the effect
of these restrictions  is but inconsiderable.  The
exercise of this franchise is  not only almost uni-
versal, but, from the shortness of the terms of of-
fice, very frequent. The whole number of electors
inFrance, by the new electoral lawof 1831, amounts
only to about 250,000 persons, out of a population
of 32,000,000. In Great Britain and Ireland, with
a population of 24,271,398, only 400,000 enjoyed
the elective franchise, previous to the passage of
the reform bill, which has increased the number
Dy about 500,000. In the U.  States, the number is
about 2,000,000, out of a population of 13,000,000.
more correctly their deliberate judgment
and  permanent interests.  The  control
which the senate  exercises over the acts
of the house of representatives, is not that
of an independent body over the will of the
nation; but it may rather be compared to
the control which  the reason and experi-
ence of the nation exercise over the sud-
den impulses of its feelings and sentiments.
It is only in the U. States  that a genuine
representation  exists.  What  we see in
the most enlightened states of Europe is
but a feeble approximation. The legisla-
tive  bodies there, though respectable in
point of talent, are, properly speaking, but
a kind of drags or  encumbrances, hung on
the machine of monarchy to  equalize its
motions.  They rest  on the basis of the
privileged  classes, whose interests  they,
of course, strengthen, but their connexion
with the mass of the nation is very small;
and  they are much more efficient in rais-
ing taxes, and  in  supporting  and enforc-
ing the designs of the executive, than  in
checking its misconduct, or protecting
public freedom.   When a people in any
country give themselves a representative
system, they will  take the U. States  for
their model; but when a new  constitution
emanates from the prince,  the representa-
tion  will be framed on as  narrow a basis
as possible: it will be virtually an aristoc-
racy.  Almost every other advantage is
comprised in a government being free;
and  the  freedom of that of the U. States
appears, fortunately, to rest on the firmest
foundation.  So long as the present equal-
ity of condition subsists, the government
must be essentially republican.  If it be
impossible, as  some allege,  to  establish
democracy in Europe, it is equally impos-
sible to  establish  aristocracy  in America.
A democratic or unprivileged class exists
in all countries;  but no  class  exists  at
present in the U. States, or can exist for
a  long time to come, that could sustain
the  part of an  aristocracy.   And before
such a class arises, the principles of free-
dom will have such a firm  hold in the
habits and associations of the  people, that
all attempts to strip them of the rights
they now enjoy,  must  prove  unavailing.
As for monarchy, it cannot exist without
a privileged class, unless in the shape of a
military despotism.   Against  this evil the
U. States are secured by  their situation,
which exempts them from the necessity
of keeping up  a great  military force.
North America has not, and, if she  re-
main united, never can have, a formidable
rival in her own division of the continent.
In a few years, she will outgrow all her 
UNITED STATES (POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS).
453
 rivals  in  Europe  so far, that her fleets
 alone will protect her from their attacks;
 for,  with the  extensive coast she  pos-
 sesses, and a population of fifty or a hun-
 dred millions, the empire of tiie sea must
 unavoidably fall into her hands.  Besides,
 the noble moderation of Washington will
 render it difficult for any commander, at
 a future period, to become a traitor to the
 liberties of his  country.  In  addition to
 all these securities for her freedom,  she
 has the liberty of the press, and the grow-
 ing  intelligence of her population.   In
 both of these respects, she enjoys such a
 distinguished preeminence over all other
 nations, as to render conclusions  drawn
 from their experience inapplicable to her.
 The  circulation of the journals is much
 more extensive than in any other country,
 and the class who take  an interest in po-
 litical  matters includes the whole  people.
 Every act of the government may  be said
 to be performed under the eye of an in-
 telligent population, which is  continually
 exercising its judgment on public affairs,
 and never fails to reprehend, in the proper
 way, any abuse  of trust on the part of the
 public servants.  Any person who should
 attempt to  play the usurper in  the  U.
 States, could not succeed by gaining over
 a few great men, as in other countries,
 but must impose upon the judgment of a
 whole nation, trained to decide on the con-
 duct of public men; and this is a difficulty
 which no usurper has  encountered yet.
 It is to the ignorance and apathy of the
 people  that political impostors owe their
 success.  An  argument of rather more
 weight against  the  permanence  of  the
 government, is drawn from the tendency
 of so great a country to separate into dif-
 ferent empires, from the strength  of fac-
 tions, or the opposite interests of different
 sections of the  country.  Admitting the
 reality of this danger, there are consider-
 ations that lessen its amount.  The states
 that have been  added to the Union since
 the revolution,  and those that may be
 added  in future, are peopled  slowly and
 gradually by drafts  from the older and
 densely peopled parts.   The effect of this
 is to spread a similarity of manners, lan-
 guage  and  character over the different
states; the ties  of relationship and  of a
common  origin are multiplied; and the
connecting links, thus formed  in  the in-
fancy of each new state, acquire the force
of habit before it  has grown up to matu-
rity.   An empire,  formed in this way,
contains  none   of the  elements of dis-
union which existed in the Roman empire,
and  is even much more  homogeneous m
its character than the kingdoms of mod-
ern Europe. Again, the interests of single
states, in different quarters of the Union,
though  opposite   in some points,  may
not be practically incompatible; and they
have all so strong a common interest in
remaining  united, that  it is difficult to
imagine how any benefit  can  be gained
by a separation, which shall overbalance
the advantages, both commercial and po-
litical, secured  by the union.  With re-
gard to the danger from the violence of
factions, it is to be considered, that, though
the leaders of a faction are led  by their
passions, the majority  of the people, in
any distinct, will  generally be guided by
their interests;  and as men become more
intelligent,  the pretexts by which the am-
bitious practise upon their followers must
be continually losing their hold, and the
dangerous  influence of faction be more
and more reduced.  Faction naturally en-
deavors to make its strong-hold in the state
legislatures; but the weight of each state
in the confederacy diminishes as the num-
ber of the whole increases, and the influ-
ence of the general government will aug-
ment in the same proportion.   But the
grand remedy for all the evils to wh' i
the U. States may be exposed, lies in the
spirit and  intelligence of the population.
What is the effect of  the diffusion  of
knowledge  but to give men juster and
clearer views of their true interests ? and
it  is contrary  to  experience to suppose,
that, the better men understand their in-
terests, the  more they are disposed to dis-
regard them.   Can a great empire be held
together by no other means than the com-
pressing force of despotic power? and
must men first be degraded and oppressed,
before they can be made  to understand
the advantages of peace, union, and free
intercourse ? The stability, prosperity and
greatness of a free nation is the most se
cure of all, because it rests not upon tie
wisdom or the virtue of one man, or one
class of men, who may have separate in-
terests incompatible with the public good,
but upon a sense  of common  interest in
the whole society, which never can cease
to operate,  and which,  in an enlightened
age, sophistry will find it hard to mislead.
It has been said that the Americans have
no national character.   Without stopping
to inquire  in what this consists, we may
observe, that, according to the testimony
of travellers, the  aspect of society in the
U. States is distinguished,  by many strik-
ing peculiarities,  from that of Europe.
Though the number of learned and sci-
entific characters is much smaller than in 
454         UNITED  STATES (POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS).
France and Britain, the mass of the pop-
ulation are better informed than in either
of these countries.  They are not merely
better educated, but they derive from their
habits more practical sagacity and good
sense.  Indeed, the political and physical
situation  of the U. States  explains what-
ever is peculiar in the character  of the
people.   Their migratory habits enlarge
the circle of their ideas, and destroy those
local prejudices and attachments  which
belong to the European nations,  where
successive generations continue to vege-
tate on the same spot, and  tread  in the
same  circle.  Reading the journals uni-
vereally,  and knowing a little of what is
doing both in their own country and the
world generally, they betray none  of the
clownish  awkwardness  which springs
from conscious ignorance.   Placed often
in situations  where they have to work
their way and  supply their wants with
littie assistance  from others, they are in-
ventive, persevering, full of resources, not
easily deterred by difficulties.  The preju-
dices of  birth and rank, which fetter in-
dustry in Europe, have little existence in
America: men change their profession as
often as it suite  their interest, and  never
deem any honest occupation disreputable.
Enjoying abundance, and depending on
no man's patronage, they are free, open-
hearted, unreserved, and, perhaps,  some-
what  rough  in  their manners.  Accus-
tomed to rely much on their own arm,
they are  manly,  brave, high-spirited and
enterprising.  Of these qualities they ex-
hibited many brilliant  proofs during the
late war.  The shameful defeats sustained
by land at first, which would have sub-
dued the spirits of men of less energy, only
provoked them to greater efforts; and, at the
close of the war, the American arms were
every where victorious, both by land and
sea.  The triumphs of the navy,  gained
by men without experience, over an ene-
my renowned for skill and courage, and
inured to war by twenty years of victory,
have few parallels  in history.  The issue
of the contest  has raised the American
character in  the eyes  of the world, and
nobly sustained the ancient reputation of
republican valor.   There is  no  where so
much public spirit in the body of the peo-
ple as  in the U. States.  Daily exercised
in judging of public measures, and  taught
to consider themselves as members of the
commonwealth, they feel a personal inter-
est in the fortunes of their country.  They
are proud of her glory, and jealous of her
honor, in a degree  sometimes offensive to
foreigners.   Though parties are loud and
violent in their contests, these are but the
wholesome exercises of free and generous
spirits in the field of honorable ambition.
The people at large are proud of the gov-
ernment, because it is a monument of
their superiority to other nations.   They
are attached to it, because, by its composi-
tion,  its conduct and views are always in
harmony with  their opinions and  inter-
ests.  They feel its influence more by the
protection it gives than by the  burdens it
imposes.  All  its offices are open to their
ambition; and  neither birth, profession,
nor any form of religious  belief, is a bar
to their  hopes.  Doubtless  the  govern-
ment of the U. States is not exempt from
the errors and  imperfections that adhere
to all human institutions.  But compare
its public  conduct with  that of the old
governments of Europe.   How calm and
reasonable is  its language,  always ad-
dressing itself to the  understanding and
the solid interests of the people, never to
their passions or prejudices!  It seeks no
aid from superstition, supports no gain-
ful impostures, and uses none of that dis-
gusting cant with which the old govern-
ments of Europe varnish over the degra-
dation of the people.   It is a stranger to
state craft  and mystery.  All its acts are
done  in the face of  day.   It promotes
knowledge, religion and learning, without
the preference  of particular sects,  and
without debasing them by falsehoods ben-
eficial to the ruling powers.  It is the only
government in the world that dares to put
arms freely into the hands of all  its citi-
zens. From Maine to Mississippi, it com-
mands a prompt and ready obedience,
without any other weapon than a consta-
ble's staff.   In a word, it secures property,
satisfies opinion, promotes the develope-
ment of industry and talent with a rapidi-
ty hitherto  unexampled;  and, with the
smallest sacrifice of individual rights and
property on the part of the  people, it ac-
complishes  all  that the most expensive
and powerful governments pretend to."—
For further information concerning the
U. States,  see  Warden's  Account of the
United States  of North America (Edin-
burgh, 1819, 3 vols., Svo.); Seybert's Sta-
tistical Annals of the United Stales (1 vol.,
4to., Philadelphia, 1818);  Pitkin's Statis-
tical View of the United States  (2d ed., I
vol.,  8vo.,  New York,  1817); -Bristed's
Resources of the United States (New York,
1818); Darby's View of the  United States
(Philadelphia, 1828);  Ebeling's  Geogra-
phy and  History  of  North America (in
German, Hamburg,  1793—99, 5 vols.);
Flint's Geography of the Mississippi Vat- 
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
455
 ley, with a View of the Physical Geography
 of the Atlantic States (2d ed.,  Cincinnati,
 1832);* Hinton's History and Topography
 of the United States (2 vols., 4to., London,
 1832); Everett's America; Lyman's  Di-
 plomacy of the United States (2d ed., Bos-
 ton, 1828, 2 vols., 8vo.); Kent's  Commen-
 taries on American Law (New York, 1826
 ^1830, 4 vols., 8vo.); Story's Commenta-
 ries on  the  Constitution  of the  United
 States (Boston, 1832, 3  vols., 8vo.).  The
 North American and American Quarterly
 Reviews,  published in Boston and Phila-
 delphia, and the American Annual Regis-
 ter (5th vol., Boston, 1832), are also repos-
 itories of much valuable information on all
 subjects illustrative  of the recent history,
 politics and statistics of this country.
   IAterature in the  U. States.   The first
 printing press in the  U. States was set up
 at Cambridge, by the exertions and joint
 contributions of different individuals in
 Europe and America, in 1638.   The first
 work published was the Freeman's Call,
 and the second, the Almanac  for New
 England, both in 1639:  the  first book
 printed was the  New  England  Version
 of the Psalms, an octavo volume  of 300
 pages,  in 1676, books began to be printed
 in Boston:  in 1686, printing was known
 in Philadelphia;  and,  in  1693,  in New
 York.  In  1700, there were  but four
 printing-offices in the  colonies;  at  the
 beginning of the  present  century, there
 were  300  in  the U. States; and  in 1830,
 there were  about 1200.  In 1800, about
 100 original books and pamphlets were
 printed annually: in 1825, the  titles of
 590 original works and 257 reprints were
 collected   without  difficulty,   and  the
 number of all  kinds now  published is
 much greater, including nearly all books
 of general interest and value which  ap-
 pear  in  London and  Edinburgh, and
 many translations from  the German and
 French.  During the first century, by far
 the greater part of the books printed were
 on theological subjects, and the remain-
 der were chiefly publications made  by
 order of the government.   All were un-
  * A  great mass of statistical matter is to be
 found  in the reports  made annually by the head
of each department to congress, and in "the reports
of the different committees of congress, all of
which are printed.  In 1832, the fruit of much sta-
tistical inquiry has been presented to  the public
in the printed memorials and reports of two con-
ventions, held, the one at New York, the other at
Philadelphia, on the subject of the contemplated
modifications of the tariff.  The American Alma-
nac printed at Boston, and  the National Calen-
dar' printed at Washington, also  contain  full
statistical tables on all subjects relating to the U.
States.
 der the restraints of authority, which at
 last became so  severe as seriously to im-
 pair the freedom of the press,  and were
 more or less felt throughout the country
 till  after  the middle  of the eighteenth
 century.  But, from  this period, a  great
 change took  place.  Political,  historical
 and miscellaneous works, a few in the
 belles-lettres, and several on scientific sub-
jects, began to appear;  and  since the
 revolution, school books, periodical pub-
 lications,  political  discussions,  historical
 and miscellaneous  works,—which, till
 1700,  were  entirely  unknown  in the
 country,—gradually obtained the  superi-
 ority, and, since 1800, have  constituted
 tiie great mass of what has issued  from
 the  press.   It is our intention  to notice
 here the most prominent of those publi-
 cations  which have obtained a permanent
 value and reputation.
   1. Newspapers. No newspaper appeared
 in the colonies until 1704, when the News
 Letter was issued at Boston, and continued
till 1776. The first paper published in Phi-
ladelphia was issued hi 1719, and the first in
New York in 1733.  In 1775, there  were
37 ; in 1801, there were 203; in 1810,358 ;
and, at  present, probably not less  than
1200.  (See Newspapers.)   Their num-
ber  and cheapness,  and the  extent of
their diffusion, are unparalleled.  It may,
in fact, be  asserted, that almost  every
man in  the  country reads a newspaper;
for, as every man has a direct personal in-
terest hi public affairs, and as the policy of
the countiy has been to facilitate  their
distribution  by the  mail, they penetrate
every where, and constitute, probably, the
greater  part  of the reading of at  least
the  agricultural portion of the people.-*-
Their tone is favorable  to  morals, and to
the diffusion of good knowledge, though,
on the subjects which divide the political
opinions of the countiy,  they almost uni-
formly  take party ground, and .maintain
it  with  extreme warmth and prejudice.
Their influence is greater than any other
element of society, except  that  of the
schools  and of the pulpit.
  2. Periodical Publications.  The earliest
magazine  attempted in  the colonies was
the General Magazine, published at Phi-
ladelphia (1741) by Benjamin Franklin,
then a  printer in that city; but  it was
  tThe  number  of post-offices, in  1831, was
8686.  The postage on each newspaper is one
cent, if not carried beyond the state in which it
is published, or not more than 100 miles, if car-
ried out of the state ; and one and a half cent for
any distance above 100 miles, and  out of the
state.  It has been proposed  to abolish all post-
age on newspapers.  (See Posts.) 
456
UNITED STATES  (LITERATURE).
sustained  only six months.   In 1743, a
weekly magazine was started in Boston,
but was continued only four weeks.   In
the course  of the  succeeding twenty
years,  twelve or fourteen others were
attempted in the different cities, which,
however, all failed; and it is believed that,
in 1775, not one  existed in the country,
with the exception  of the Pennsylvania
Magazine, begun in  that year, of which
Thomas Paine was a principal contribu-
tor.  All such works, in fact, made their
way,  for a long  time afterward, slowly
and with much difficulty.  In 1810, there
were twenty-four, of which the Portfolio,
edited  by Mr. Dennie,  in Philadelphia,
and  the Anthology, edited  at  Boston,
were  the  principal  of general  interest.
The number is  now greatly increased,
amounting, probably, to about 100.   The
London Quarterly and the Edinburgh Re-
views (q.v.) are regularly republished; the
North American  Review, edited in Bos-
ton, by A. H. Everett, and the American
Quarterly, conducted  in Philadelphia, by
R. Walsh, the former since 1815, the latter
since 1827, are the leading reviews of the
country, and have each a circulation  of
between 3000 and 4000  copies, to which
their execution amply entitles them.   (See
Reviews.)  The Southern Review, pub-
lished at Charleston, and the Western Re-
view, at Cincinnati, were discontinued after
havingbeen issued a  few years.
  3. Publications of Learned  Societies.
The passion  for learned societies, which
sprang up in England and France about
the middle of the 17th century, was not
felt in the colonies till  past  the middle
of the 18th.  The oldest and  most  active
of the scientific societies in the U. States,
is the American philosophical society,  in-
stituted at Philadelphia, in  1769, over
which Franklin and Rittenhouse were suc-
cessively called to preside.   It  has pub-
lished ten quarto volumes of Transactions,
principally on scientific subjects, and, in
1815, appointed  a committee to superin-
tend the  historical department,  in which
two volumes, octavo, have been printed,
including  Heckewelder's Account of the
Delaware Indians.    No  other society
of  the  kind  existed in the U.  States
until after the revolution, when, in 1780,
the American academy of arts  and sci-
ences was founded at Boston, which has
published four quarto volumes of Trans-
actions.  In these are found mineralogical
articles by professor  Cleaveland, papers
on literary subjects  by John Pickering,
and mathematical and  astronomical pa-
pers by N. Bowditch, the translator and
commentator of Laplace.   The Massa-
chusetts historical society was founded in
Boston, in 1791, and has been the most
active of the literary societies  in  the  U.
States.   It  has  published  twenty-two
octavo volumes of collections, which con-
stitute a rich mine for the  history of the
U. States, and particularly of New Eng-
land.   An academy of arts and sciences
has existed  at New Haven  since  1799,
but it has published only one volume of
Transactions.  The historical society of
New York was established in 1809; and
it has published four volumes, octavo, the
last of which contains the remaining vol-
ume of Smith's valuable  history  of the
state.   The  literary and  philosophical
society of New York, established in 1815,
has published two volumes, quarto.  The
academy of natural sciences, founded at
Philadelphia, in 1818, has published six
octavo volumes, which are indispensable
to a knowledge of the natural  history of
the U. States.   The lyceum of natural
history, founded at  New York, in 1818,
has  published  two  volumes,  octavo.
There are some other associations in  the
U. States, which, like  the New Hamp-
shire historical  society, and the Colum-
bian institute, at Washington, are just
beginning to publish their transactions;
and yet others, especially several devoted
to natural science, which send their papers
regularly to some of the more prominent
periodical publications of the time.
  4.  Theological  Writings.   The Pu-
ritan colonies of New England  were,
from the first,  addicted to religious dis-
cussions  and controversies; and  as  the
press existed among them for a long time
before  it was found in other parts of the
country, the early books of the colonies
are, in a great degree, of a theological char-
acter.   Even  before  printing was   in-
troduced, theological  controversy was
already known.   Roger  Williams had
been banished from Massachusetts   for
heretical opinions as early as  1634; and
the vanity and enthusiasm of Mrs. Hutch-
inson  had  disturbed the  whole colony,
and nearly unsettled its foundations,  be-
fore 1638.   For the first ten years after
the press was established,  nothing was
printed on  theological subjects,  except
the version of the Psalms and a cate-
chism; but, in 1649, was published  the
Platform of Church Discipline, common-
ly known by the name of the Cambridge
Platform, which had  been adopted  the
year previously, and continued to be the
constitution and rule of government for the
New  England Congregational  churches 
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
457
down to the period of the revolution, and
is even now appealed to  by those who
are desirous to follow  most strictly the
ways of  the Puritan fathers.  This and
the Indian Bible of Eliot, accompanied
by Psalms in  verse, in  1663,  were the
most important  theological works  that
came from the press in  the first century.
The controversy with the Quakers, how-
ever, which was at its height between
1650 and  1660, produced  two curious,
among many worthless books—the Heart
of New  England  rent by  the  present
Blasphemies,  written by  John Norton,
by order of the general  court of Massa-
chusetts, and printed in 1650 ; and George
Foxe digged out of his Burrow, by Roger
Williams (1676).  At the beginning of
the eighteenth century,  the two Mathers
were the leading  divines of the colonies,
and published a  vast amount of books,
which,  however,  are  almost without
value. The elder (see  Mather, Increase)
took part  in some discussions with the
Baptists as early as 1680; and the younger
(see Mather, Cotton) is chiefly famous for
his Magnolia Christi Americana (London,
folio, 1702), containing the  Ecclesiastical
History of New  England, from 1625  to
1698.  It has  much that is  curious and
striking, mingled with a  strange credulity
and  the most fantastic learning, destined,
perhaps,  one  day,  to furnish abundant
materials for works of fiction.  The most
powerful divine  and metaphysical writer
whom the country has yet produced was
Jonathan Edwards, whose works have
been frequently reprinted in England and
the U. States (8 vols. 8vo.). (See Edwards.)
His principal treatise, on the Freedom of
the Will (1754), written  in  opposition  to
the Arminians, is a classic with the stricter
followers of Calvin. The  preaching of
Whitfield (q. v.) in this country, between
1738 and 1769,  produced  the same re-
markable effect here which it had done
in England, and called forth Chauncy's
Seasonable Thoughts on the State of Re-
ligion in New England (1743), a work
of great  firmness, dignity and Christian
tenderness.   In  1763,  a  warm  contro-
versy broke out  in  Massachusetts on the
subject of Episcopacy, in  consequence
of some attempts, on the part of the Eng-
lish church, to set up her authority, and
introduce her system of church discipline
into that strong-hold of Puritanism. About
thirty works were published on this sub-
ject, by  Mayhew (q. v.), Johnson (q. v.),
archbishop Seeker, &c.  The principal
works were Mayhew's  Observations on
the Charter and  Conduct of the Society
   VOL. XII.         39
for the Propagation of the  Gospel in
Foreign Parts (8vo., Boston,  1763); his
Defence  and  Second  Defence  of the
Observations; and  Chauncy's View of
Episcopacy from the Fathers (1771). In
the period immediately before the breaking
out of the  revolution, the clergy of the
country generally manifested a deep inter-
est in the political discussions of the times;
and when  the revolution  had actually
commenced, they almost uniformly took
part with the  colonies.  Doctor  Cooper
(q. v.), of Boston, was  the confidential
friend  and correspondent  of Franklin,
Otis, Quincy and Warren;  doctor Stiles
(q. v.), president of Yale college, and one
of the most learned men the country has
produced, both preached and wrote on
the same side; and doctor Witherspoon,
of New Jersey, signed the Declaration of
Independence, and was,  from 1776 to the
end of the war, a useful and able member
of congress.  Until  some time after the
peace of 1783, theological controversy al-
most ceased, and was not revived till the
country became  once more settled.  In
1793, doctor Hopkins (q. v.), of Connecti-
cut, published his System of Divinity, in
which the doctrines of Calvinism are car-
ried to an extreme which many of their
advocates would  not admit,  and which
laid the foundation of a  separate sect of
ultra-Calvinists, who bore the name of
Hopkinsians.   Dwight's System of Divin-
ity (8 vols., 8vo., 7th edit., 1830) is perhaps
the ablest exposition of Calvinistic divinity
that  has appeared, and continues  to be
frequently reprinted both in England and
in this countiy.  Since the beginning of
the present century, anti-Trinitarian and
anti-Calvinistic doctrines have been very
extensively adopted by many of the cler-
gymen of  Boston and  the  vicinity (see
Unitarians); and a warm controversy has
been carried  on between them and the
orthodox clergy, in which doctor Noah
Worcester, doctor Channing, doctor Ware
and  Mr.  Norton have  been the leading
writers in  defence of Unitarian views,
and Mr. Stuart, doctor Woods and doctor
Samuel Worcester on  the  opposite side
of the question.   The  controversy has
been managed with great  ability, acute-
ness and learning on both sides, and can-
not yet be considered at an end.   Th«
Sermons of doctor  Freeman (1812 ; sec-
ond  collection, printed in 1830), of Mr.
Buckminster  (q. v.), (published in 1813
and 1829), of Mr. Thacher (1824), and of
doctor Channing (1829; second collection,
1832),  exhibit the prevailing views and
style of thought of the Unitarians, with a 
458                 UNITED  STATES (LITERATURE).
less  mixture of a  polemical spirit than
the  strictly controversial works of the
Unitarian writers.   Apart from  polem-
ical  and paraenetical divinity, very little
has  yet  been done in this country for
the  advancement  of  theological  sci-
ence.   Whilst the  best  foreign works,
both of  former and recent times, on bib-
lical criticism and interpretation, are ap-
preciated and studied, scarcely any origi-
nal works in these  departments have yet
appeared.  A few elementary books have
been prepared for  the  use of students,
such  as  Stuart's  Hebrew Grammar (4th
edition,  1831), and  Chrestomathy  (2d
edition, 1832); Gibbs's Hebrew Lexicon,
on the basis of  Gesenius,  and  Robin-
son's translation  of Wahl's Lexicon  of
the New Testament.  Some  subsidiary
works have likewise been translated for
the same purpose, of which it  may  be
sufficient  to  mention  Jahn's  Biblical
Archaeology, translated by  Thomas  C.
Upham (1823);  Jahn's Introduction  to
the Old Testament, translated by Samuel
H. Turner and William R. Whittington
(1827); Jahn's Hebrew Commonwealth,
translated by Calvin Stowe(1828); Wi-
ner's  Grammar  of the  New Testament
(1825), and Ernesti's Elements of Inter-
pretation (1822).    The most  important
original contributions that have as yet been
made to theological literature in the U.
States are the new translations of Job, with
an Introduction  and explanatory Notes
(1827), and of the Psalms  (1831), both by
George R. Noyes, who, it  is understood,
is now engaged in making a similar ver-
sion  of the prophetic books, and purposes
to continue his labors upon the remaining
books of the Old Testament.  A new ver-
sion  of the Epistle  to the  Hebrews, with
a  Commentary  and  Notes (1827), and
a similar work on Romans  (1832),  by
Moses  Stuart, display much  learning
and  research; and the New Testament
in  the common version,  conformed  to
Griesbach's standard text, by John  G.
Palfrey (8vo., Boston, 1828J, deserves hon-
orable mention.  Much of the theological
literature appears in the form of contribu-
tions to  religious  periodicals—a  species
of publication  with which the  country
abounds, from the  weekly newspaper to
the tri-monthly journal.  At the head of
this department stands the Christian Ex-
aminer and General Review, published,
once in  two months, at Boston—a  work
distinguished  for its  talent and  literary
character, as well as for its elevated moral
tone and deep religious  spirit.  The Bib-
lical Repository,  published quarterly at
Andover, is no less celebrated for its crit-
ical  and exegetical  learning; whilst the
Christian  Spectator, published quarterly
at New Haven, displays great acuteness in
discussing the vexed questions of  dog-
matic theology.  The theology of  the U.
States is as distinctive as any other feature
in its character.  Modified by the various
degrees of intelligence and refinement in
different sections of the country, it exhibits
every where the same freedom, elasticity,
and aptitude for change, which character-
ize all our manners and institutions.  Per-
haps in no other nation on the earth is there
so much diversity of religious sentiment, or
so great a variety of sects.  This is doubt-
less owing, in a great measure, to the ab-
sence of a church  establishment, and to
the consequent freedom enjoyed by each
individual for forming his  opinions for
himself.  In theology,  as  in every thing
else here, all is in progress, and in the way
of improvement, because all is unfettered
and  free.  American theology, in its va-
rious forms, may be considered  as the
native  growth of the land; for, though
originally imported from  abroad, it can
hardly be said to have been since subject-
ed to any extraneous influence.  Multi-
form as  it is, it  has  sprung up from the
varying sentiments held  by the  first  set-
tlers,—coming as they did  from different
countries,  England,  Holland, Germany,
Sweden,—from the  subsequent intermix-
ture  of these  sentiments, and from the
free scope here given to religious thought
and  feeling.  Neither  the orthodox nor
the liberal system of theology has  been
perceptibly affected by foreign influence.
The works of the most eminent Europe-
an theologians, particularly the German,
are diligently studied,  and are  prized as
the most valuable helps in the  criticism
and interpretation of the Scriptures.  Yet,
though highly esteemed as verbal  critics,
they are not regarded as very safe guides
in matters of taste and judgment.   Their
theological deductions are not held in any
undue honor; and the  extravagant inter-
 Eretations and wild conjectures advanced
 y some of these transatlantic scholars,
meet with no  sympathy or encourage-
ment from any denomination of Christians.
In short, American theology, like its  lite-
rature, is  yet in its infancy ; and many
years must elapse before it arrives at its
full growth.  At present, it-; products are
green and crude.  Not till it has reached
its maturity, will it yield fruit that  shall
be for the healing of the nation.
   5.  Law.  The  earliest colonists, of
course, needed laws, in order to maintain 
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
459
among  themselves  civilization and  the
rights of persons and property.  Those
who settled  Virginia brought  out  with
them a code of laws, which rested on the
authority of the  company in England :
but the religious adventurers at the north
were republicans from the first contract
for a civil  government, signed on ship-
board, Nov.  11, 1620; and they elected
their governor, and made such regulations
as they thought expedient, by popular vote.
In  1640, 100 ordinances  were prepared,
under the direction of the legislature of
Massachusetts, by the reverend Nathaniel
Ward, of Ipswich, who had formerly been
a lawyer in  England.  They were called
the Body of Liberties, and  were published
by the constables through the villages of
the colony.   In 1648, they were enlarged,
and printed at Cambridge, and thus form
the  first law book  prepared  and printed
in the colonies. They were again enlarged
and printed in 1660 and 1672.  This col-
lection was followed, in 1672, by the Book
of the General Laws of New Plymouth,
and, in 1673, by the Book.of the General
Laws of Connecticut, and so on, in suc-
cession, by the codes of the other colonies.
But, excepting such special laws as were
needed  to  suit  the  particular  circum-
stances of the country, there was nothing
done, for a long time, to enlarge or perfect
either legislation itself or the study of the
law  as  a  profession.  The students of
legal and political science  resorted to the
mother  country  ; and thence, too, came
nearly all thejudges. Even down to the pe-
riod of the revolution, excepting Mercer's
Abridgment  of the Laws of Virginia, in
1758, Simpson's Justice  of the Peace, in
1761, and  the County and Town Officer,
in 1768, with perhaps one or  two more
practical works of the same kind, nothing
appeared but the records and acts of the
different colonial legislatures.  The whole
of this state of things, however, was neces-
sarily changed as soon as the  country be-
came independent, and was compelled to
look within  its own limits for no small
part of its judicial authority and construc-
tion.  Since that period,  therefore, the
following division may be made of the
legal writings that have been published in
the U. States:—1. In the first place, the U.
States, as a  government, have published
their statutes regularly from 1789 to the
present  time ; and an excellent edition has
recently been printed under the direction
of judge Story (3 vols., 8vo., Boston, 1827).
The decisions of the supreme court of
the U. States have  also been published
regularly, from 1791, by Dallas, Cranch,
Wheaton and Peters.  Besides these, the
circuit courts of the U. States- have some-
times had reporters, of whom the most
prominent are  Gallison and Mason in the
eastern  circuit, whose reports, beginning
in 1812, contain the decisions of judge Sto-
ry.   The reports of the third circuit  con-
tain the decisions of judge Washington.
Some  individual cases,  which  excited
great interest, have also  been published
separately, of which the most remarkable
are Burr's  trial  for high treason (1807),
and  the Dartmouth college case, which,
in 1819, settled the question of legislative
interference with chartered rights.   To
these should be added some works of a
more general  nature, which relate to the
laws  of the U. States, such  as  Elliott's
Debates of the Conventions on the Adop-
tion  of the  Constitution (4  vols.,  8vo.,
1827—30),  the three  first volumes  con-
taining the proceedings of the Massachu-
setts, New  York, Virginia,  Pennsylvania
and  North  Carolina  conventions ;  the
fourth, the journal of the federal  conven-
tion, with the subsequent acts of congress
and decisions  of the courts upon consti-
tutional points;—Sergeant's Constitutional
Law (1822); Rawle's View of the Consti-
tution  (2d  ed., Philad.,  1829);  Dupon-
ceau's Jurisdiction of the Courts of the
United  States  (Philad.,  1824);  Kent's
Commentaries on American Law (4 vols.,
8vo., 1826—1830); and Story's Commen-
taries on the Constitution (3 vols.,  8vo.,
Boston, 1832).  These  works, especially
Wheaton's and Peters's Reports, in which
are the decisions of chief justice Marshall,
the Report of the Dartmouth collegecase,
and  Kent's and  Story's Commentaries,
comprise a body of sound, learned and able
law,  and give a complete view of the prin-
ciples and practice of the federal courts,
and of the constitutional law of the coun-
try.—2. In the second place, the  separate
states have published their statutes ; and
the decisions of the supreme courts of near-
ly all of them have also been from time to
time reported, making a large mass of ma-
terials, of very unequal value, depending
on the degree of talent and learning assem-
bled  at the bar and on the bench of each
state.  Considered in this point  of view,
the  state of New  York has produced
Johnson's Cases and Reports (from  1799
to 1822), continued  by Cowen; Blake's
Chancery  Practice  (1818) ;  Dunlop's
Practice of the Supreme Court (1821 and
1822); Duer and Paine's Practice:—Mas-
sachusetts,  Tyng's and  Pickering's  Re-
ports (from  1804);  Adams's Essay on
Feudal  and Canon   Law (1784); Liver- 
460                 UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
more on  Principal and Agent (1811);
Fessenden's Law of Patents (1822); Phil-
lips on Insurance (1824); Story's Law of
Bailments (1832); Dane's Abridg. of Amer.
Law  (6  vols.,  1823—1829);  American
Jurist ( since 1829);  and  Jackson  On
Real  Actions (1828):—Pennsylvania, the
Reports of Dallas, Yeates, Binney, and
Sergeant and Rawle (1799—1822); Hall's
Law Journal (6 vols.).  Virginia has an
excellent edition of her  Statutes by Hen-
ning, and Reports by Henning and Mun-
ford, Wythe, Washington, Call, and oth-
ers.  In  New Jersey, Griffith's valuable
Law Register appeared  in 1822 (2 vols.).
Connecticut  has  Day's Reports (since
1802); Swift's System of the Law (1795—
6), and work On  Evidence (1810): and
South Carolina, Reports by Bay, Desaus-
sure, Nott and McCord, beginning 1783.
In Rhode  Island,  Angell's treatises on
Tide Waters and Water Courses should
not be passed over.   In the  Western
States, the  peculiar tenure of the lands,
which, more than any thing else, tends to
modify the character of a people, and the
administration of the  law among them,
has brought forth,  particularly in Ken-
tucky, a bar of great acuteness and power;
and in Louisiana, the side partidas of the
fourteenth century  so far prevail as  law,
that it has been necessary to reprint part of
them, and the French  law is still oftener
called in.  (See Louisiana Code.)—3.  The
last kind of law  books published  in the
U. States,  which needs to be noticed, is
English law books reprinted here, gen-
erally with notes,  to make  them better
suited  to  the particular wants  of the
country.   The number of these, both of
reports and treatises, is very great; and it
may, in fact, be said, that the whole body
of the  English law,  as it appears from
Westminster hall, is immediately repub-
lished here.  Of those works to which the
notes have added the most value, may be
mentioned  Tucker's Blackstone  (1803);
Condy's Marshall on Insurance; Dunlop's
Phillips on Evidence ;  Story's Abbot on
Shipping  (1828);  Metcalfs editions of
various  works.  From  what  has been
said, it is evident that the number of law
books published  in the U. States is  very
great.  The number of merely American
books  already  exceeds seven  hundred
volumes, of which, however, by far  the
greater part consists of statutes and re-
ports.  The number  of reprints is yet
larger, and the amount of both  is  con-
stantly increasing.  (See the article Law,
Legislation, Codes, and also  the article
Common Law.)
   6.  Medicine.  The practice of the med-
 ical art in the  early period of the colo-
 nies, was much in the hands of the cler-
 gy.  Physicians, indeed, came out among
 the  first settlers, and  were  among the
 most valuable of them, both  in Virginia
 and Plymouth.   The first medical  work
 published in America was a Brief Guide
 in the Small-Pox and Measles, by the
 reverend  Thomas  Thacher  of  Boston
 1677); and the first introduction of inocu-
 ation for the small-pox, in 1721, was un-
 der the influence of the reverend Cotton
 Mather.   It was,  however, long  before
 medical  books were freely published in
 the U. States, because it  was  necessarily
 long before medical schools and hospitals
 could furnish the needful means of obser-
 vation and instruction ; and, in the mean
 time, the entire dependence of the coun-
 try for medical education  and medical
 books  was on England  and Scotland.
 Doctor Cadwallader, of Philadelphia, doc-
 tor Tennent, of Virginia, and doctor Li-
 ning, of South Carolina, published differ-
 ent treatises on medical subjects, between
 1740 and 1750; and from that period med-
 ical works  have not ceased to appear in
considerable numbers. The troubles of the
revolution,  indeed, for a time interrupted
them ;  but the success of the medical
schools, established on the return of peace,
 brought them forth again in  still  great-
er numbers. The most prominent writer
 in  the period  immediately  succeeding
 the revolution, was doctor Benjamin Rush
 (q. v.), of Philadelphia, well known both
 in Europe and America, both by his Medi-
 cal Inquiries, his Observations on the Dis-
 eases of the Mind, his Lectures, and other
 works, all of which bear marks of an origi-
 nal and adventurous mind. Caspar Wistar
 (q. v.) published a System of Anatomy, and
 doctor Darcy, who  died  in 1818,  at the
 age of thirty-five years, Elements of Sur-
 gery, which  are much  valued;  while,
 among the living authors in Philadelphia,
 doctors Chapman and  Dewees should be
 mentioned with distinction. Doctor War-
 ren (died in 1815), who founded the med-
 ical school at Cambridge, and with it the
 medical education of New England, and
 doctor J. C. Warren, his son, and doctor
 Jackson, all  of Boston,  doctor Edward
 Millar and doctor Hosack, of New York
 (whose writings have been published un-
 der  the  title of Medical Essays, New
 York, 1824—1830, 3 vols.), with others,
 both in these places and elsewhere, have
 been advantageously  known  at   home
 and abroad,  and have placed the med-
 ical character of the  country as  high aa 
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
461
any part of its general intellectual char-
acter.
   Theatre.   The  early  settlers  of any
countiy are little likely to resort to theat-
rical amusements ;  still less the early set-
tlers of a country a great part of which
was colonized by persons who came to it
for the sake of enjoying, in stern freedom,
the exercise  of their religious opinions.
And, in fact, the wants of the  American
colonists every where, and their scrupu-
lous  severity at the north,  long kept out
all dramatic entertainments. It was, how-
ever, in Boston, the centre  of Puritanism,
that  they first appeared.  In  1750, two
young Englishmen, assisted by volunteers
from the town, acted privately Otway's
Orphan, at the coffee-house in State (then
King's) street.  But some disturbances
took place about the door, from  the anxie-
ty of the crowd to get admission.  The
whole affair became matter of  discussion
and inquiiy, and all such exhibitions were
immediately prohibited by a law, which
was  renewed by successive legislatures,
till public  opinion was  changed, and a
theatre  regularly  established.  At about
the same period, a strolling company, call-
ed the American company of comedians,
under the management of David Doug-
lass,  a Scotchman, came  out from Eng-
land,  and occasionally gave representa-
tions, both  on the continent and in the
West Indies.  In 1758, they acted first in
New York in a sail loft; and, in 1762, per-
formed  at  Providence the first play that
was  publicly represented  in New Eng-
land. During the revolution,  while the
British troops were in possession  of Bos-
ton and New York, the officers, especial-
ly at the latter place, performed  plays in
amateur companies,  and  in one or two
instances  wrote  farces  ridiculing  the
Americans, one of which  was  printed.
But  there  was no regular  theatre any
where until after the war of the revolu-
tion.  The  first was established  in  New
York, the next in Boston, in 1793, and the
third  in  Philadelphia.  They have since
been established in all the principal cities,
and  are now fast  increasing.  The first
play  written in the  U. States was proba-
bly the Prince of Parthia,  by Thomas
Godfrey (q- v.), son of the inventor of the
quadrant called by the name  of  Hadley.
This young man  died in  1765,  and his
Poems, including the tragedy above men-
tioned, were published the year after his
death.   It was never acted, and, though
it  shows some talent, discovers  so little
skill  in the construction and style, that it
cannot be looked upon as any tiling better
                  39*
than the forlorn hope of the coming dra-
ma.  The next play was probably a comic
opera, in ridicule of an opinion prevalent,
in the middle of the last century, among
the common people, that the Buccaneers
had hidden treasure along the coast.  It is
called Disappointment, or  the Force  of
Credulity, and was written by John Lee-
cock, of Philadelphia, and printed in 1767
and 1796, but was never acted, though by
no means without spirit and humor.   At
Boston,  during the revolution and previ-
ously, several farces and plays were writ-
ten and  printed by the patriots, and prob-
ably some of them were acted.  The best
of them was the Adulateur, a Tragedy, as
it is now acted in Upper Servia (1773), a
composition  by no means  without poet-
ical merit, and expressing very strongly
the feeling that prevailed in New  England
after the massacre of March 5,  and be-
fore the final outbreak  of hostilities at
Lexington and Bunker hill. It was writ-
ten by Mrs. M. Warren.  Of less value
were the Group (1775, also by Mrs. War-
ren), in ridicule of the tories; the Block-
heads, or the Affrighted Officers (1776),
in ridicule of the British troops, and the
Motley  Assembly, also in ridicule of the
tories.   Such expressions  of public feel-
ing,  of  course,  disappeared  with  the
causes that produced them ; and when a
regular  theatre was established,  a differ-
ent class of dramas came to supply their
place.  The first regular author appeared
in New  York with the first theatre :  this
was William Dunlap, who, beginning, in
1788, with a comedy called the Father of
an Only Child, wrote and translated suc-
cessively between forty and fifty pieces,
among which was the Archers (1796), a
tragedy  oh  the  story of  major Andre
(1798), and a good many pieces for public
occasions  and celebrations, which had
much success.  He was the manager of
the theatre, and may be considered as the
only person who has done much in Amer-
ica to support the public  drama by the
means that  sustain it in Europe, though
for some years he has abandoned it, and
is now a historical painter of some repu-
tation.   Mr.  Dunlap has lately published
a History of the American Theatre (New
York, 1832).   It is not worth while to go
into a minute account of authors and pieces
which have  no permanent value.  Mrs.
Warren, who  wrote  the Adulateur and
the Group, above mentioned, and a Histo-
iy of the Revolution, published (1790)
two tragedies, the Sack of Rome, and the
Ladies of Castile; Thomas P. Lathy pub-
lished (1800) Reparation, or the School for 
462
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
Libertines, a comedy ; David Everett pub-
lished (1800) Daranzel;  C. J. Ingersoll,
now an eminent lawyer, published (1801)
Edwy and Elgiva,  and (1831) Julian,  a
tragedy ; W. Jones (1801), Independence ;
W. C. White (1810),  two  pieces,  the
Clergyman's Daughter, and the Poor Lodg-
er.   James  N. Baker (between 1807 and
1817) wrote often for  the stage; and his
Marmion  and  Superstition  are much
praised for poetical talent.  Some others
have occasionally furnished pieces to the
acting theatre, which have received a share
of transient applause. In general, however,
the American theatre has been supplied
with plays from the English theatre.
  8. Romantic Fiction.   Compared with
the other  departments  of elegant litera-
ture,  romantic fiction is of recent origin.
It is the only form of the belles-lettres
which is absolutely due to modern inven-
tion, and has reached or approached its
perfection only in our time.  At the peri-
od  when  our forefathers landed in  this
country, the domestic form of romance—
that which rests on private manners and
character  for success—was unknown in
the world; nor, excepting Don Quixote,
had a single work of romantic fiction
been produced which  is still read, except
from  curiosity.  It is not, therefore, re-
markable, that works of prose fiction
should have  been the last that appeared
among us; for there was certainly nothing
in the severe theology of the Eastern
States, or in the anxiety and wants that
were  every  where  encountered by  the
early settlers, to  give  birth to those light
and fanciful  forms  of literature, which
had not yet taken their final character even
amidst the refinements of the English and
French courts.   Up to the period of the
American revolution, therefore, no symp-
tom of it appeared on this side of the At-
lantic. The  first work of prose fiction
which appeared  in the U. States seems
to have been  the Foresters, which was
originally  published in the Columbian
Magazine at'Philadelphia, in 1787—88,
but was printed  separately  in 1792, and
again in 1796. It was written by doctor
Belknap, of Boston, author of a History of
New  Hampshire, and was  an imitation,
and, in some respects, a continuation, of
Arbuthnot's John Bull, giving, with much
humorous solemnity,  an  account of the
first settlement of the  country, the war
of the revolution, and, in part, of the
French revolution.  The next work of
fiction published  in the U.  States seems
to have been the Algerine Captive (1797),
written by the late Roy all Tyler, then  a
 lawyer in Walpole, and since chief jus-
 tice of Vermont: the first volume contains
 sketches of manners  in the interior of
 New England, which have much fresh-
 ness, spirit and truth ; but the second,  in
 which the hero becomes a captive in Al-
 giers, is dull and  common-place.  This
 was the first genuine novel  published  in
 the U. States.   The first author, however,
 who can be considered a regular writer
 of novels in America, was Charles Brock-
 den Brown, (q. v.)   Between  1798 and
 1801,  he  published  six  novels—Wie-
 land, Ormond,  Arthur Mervyn,  Edgar
 Huntley, Clara Howard, and Jane Talbot
 He was a writer of high gifts.  His man-
 ner sometimes resembles that of Godwin,
 who was then in great reputation; and his
 sketches of the sleep-walker,  in Edgar
 Huntley, are among the most vivid in the
 language.  His writings have often been
 published separately in England  and the
 U. States, and, in 1827, an edition of his
 novels was printed at Boston (7 vols.).  In
 some respects, he is still the principal
 novelist whom the country has produced;
 but the more dramatic form of romance
 writing, since  become  common under
 the influence of sir W. Scott's example,
has changed the public taste; and Brown's
novels are  less interesting and less read
than they otherwise would be.   In 1810,
Washington Irving published his Knick-
erbocker's History of New York (2 vols.),
an imitation, in many respects, of Swift's
Tale of a Tub, and containing, under a
 similar  allegory,  though  with  a  more
 strict adherence to fact, a history of the
 Dutch government of the province of
 New York.  It is a work of much genu-
 ine humor, and contains descriptions of
 natural scenery of great beauty and pow-
 er, so that, though much of it is  local, it
 has been often reprinted both in England
 and this country, and has been  translated
 into French and German. It is hardly ne-
 cessary to enumerate the other works of
 this accomplished writer.  Jonathan Old-
 style's Letters, first published in the New
 York Morning Chronicle  (1802); Salma-
 gundi, or the Whim Whams of Launce-
 lot Langstaff and others (1807); and, at
 a later period, the Sketch Book, Brace-
 bridge Hall, Tales of a Traveller,  &c,
 have  all been  translated  into German.
 Under this  head should also be mention-
 ed the Old Bachelor (1812), and the Brit-
 ish Spy, of Mr. Wirt (late attorney-gene-
 ral  of the  U.  States), of which the tenth
 edition, published in 1832, contains a bio-
 graphical sketch of the author.  A few
 other persons, in ihe  period just passed 
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
463
 over, also wrote novels which had a lim-
 ited success.   Mrs. Foster  wrote  the
 Boarding School, and the Coquette ; Mr.
 Deunie wrote Female Quixotism ; and
 Mrs. Rowson, Rebecca, Sarah, and some
 other stories.  In general, however, this
 was not a popular form of writing, and
 very few attempted it. This state of things
 continued  until  sir W. Scott gave an
 impulse  to  the  whole  empire  of  ro-
 mantic fiction, which has been felt through
 all  the  borders of Christendom, and no
 where with more force than in the U.
 States.   The person who has shown the
 most power and disposition to imitate this
 form of romance  is Mr. Cooper.   He be-
 gan, hi 1820,  with Precaution, a novel,
 the scene of which was laid in England;
 and its style is  in the manner  of Miss
 Burney; but the direction was wrong,
 and his success  was small: it was only
 when he touched his native earth, that he
 gathered strength. In 1821, he published
 his Spy, the  scene of  which  is  laid
 amidst  the  American  revolution; and
 from that time to  the present, he has pub-
 lished no less than eight  similar tales, all
 founded in American manners, and with
 a degree of success to which  no Ameri-
 can author has before attained in this de-
partment.  In his last  productions (the
Bravo and the Heidenmauer)  he has left
America for the  old continent.  His ro-
mances have been read in the U. States
almost as extensively as sir W. Scott's,
and, besides being  regularly reprinted
in England, are  no less  regularly trans-
 lated and published in  French and Ger-
 man.   Miss Sedgwick, the  author of  a
 New  England  Tale  (1822),  Redwood
 (1824), Hope Leslie (1827), and  Clarence
 (1830), all on American subjects, should be
 distinguished among the  popular writers
 of the time : her works have been reprint-
 ed with success in England. Miss Francis
 (more known as Mrs. Child), the author of
 several  successful works in other depart-
 ments, should  be mentioned  here on ac-
 count of" her Hobomok (1824), and  her
 Rebels (1825).   Paulding's novels (Dutch-
 man's  Fireside, Westward Ho, &c.) have
 found many readers on both sides of the
 Atlantic; and  Flint's  Francis  Berrian
 shows much freshness and vigor. Since
 1820, the whole course of things in rela-
 tion to romantic fiction has been changed.
 Before that time, an American novel or
 romance was  extremely  rare: it is  now
the most common of all the forms of our
 literature, and every year produces seve-
 ral, which  will not easily be forgotten.
 This change is mainly due to the circum-
stance, that American subjects have -fur-
nished their materials.—For the preceding
account of literature  in the U. States, we
are indebted to  manuscripts of professor
Ticknor.
  9.  Arts and Sciences.  The progress of
the Americans  has been greater in the
useful arts than in the sciences, though
their advances in  the latter are respecta-
ble, considering the  shortness of  their
career.  Inventions and discoveries in the
former have been promoted by means of
the patent office,  which secures, to per-
sons who  apply for it, the exclusive right
to the fruits of their ingenuity.   This
office  is  attached  to  the  department
of  state.    Models  and  drawings  of
the machines of which the right is ob-
tained, are deposited with the director,
with a description  of the invention, the
name  and  residence  of  the  patentee,
and  date  of the  patent.    The whole
number of patents issued, from  the  es-
tablishment  of  the patent office in 1790
to the first of January, 1832, is 6911. The
Americans have, indeed, shown a particu-
lar aptitude for making discoveries and
improvements in the mechanic arts.  A
great  number of remarkable inventions,
of which  the cotton-gin, the steam-boat,
the nail and card machines, and the ma-
chine for  spinning hemp, are only the
most prominent among a hundred others,
with essential improvements upon many
processes  of manufacture,  and   upon
many machines previously  in  use, have
been made  in  the U. States.  In  ship-
building, the Americans are decidedly su-
perior  to  any other people, combining
beauty of  form, speed in sailing, and ca-
pacity  of carriage, in their vessels.  (See
Ship.)   In regard to the fine arts, though
there is no  such thing as an American
school, yet the  U. States have  produced
several eminent  painters; and some works
of sculpture of merit have been executed
in the country.   The  names of West,
Copley, Stewart (see the articles), Trum-
bull, Vanderlyn  (who, in 1808, gained the
French prize-medal for his Marius on the
Ruins  of  Carthage), Jarvis, Wood, All-
ston, Leslie, Peale, Sully, Morse, Newton,
Neagle, Doughty, Fisher, King, Inman,
Cole, and others, are, some of them, well
known in Europe.  Academies for the
cultivation of the fine arts have been es-
tablished at Philadelphia and  New York;
and a picture-gallery has been connected
with tiie Athenseum  in Boston, in which
the annual exhibition of paintings is very
respectable.  Plaster casts of the  princi-
pal antique statues have been obtained for 
464
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
these institutions, which have  been libe-
rally patronised.  A  statue of Washing-
ton has  been executed  by Canova for
the state  of North Carolina; another, by
Chantrey, for a number of citizens of Bos-
ton ; and  Greenough, a native artist, fa-
vorably known by his Chanting Cherubs,
and some busts of distinguished Ameri-
cans, has  been employed by  congress to
execute a colossal statue of the same great
man for the capitol at Washington.  Au-
gur, a  self-taught  artist,  has  executed  a
group, Jephthah's Daughter, and some sin-
gle statues.   It was  a long time before
any attention was paid to the  natural sci-
ences in  the colonies; for, although the
early inhabitants of the U. States  found
themselves  literally in a new world, sur-
rounded  with objects, in the vegetable,
animal and  mineral kingdoms, which
had never been accurately described, yet
the imperfect state of education, the want
of collections and apparatuses, could only
be slowly overcome.  In 1725, a profes-
sorship of mathematics and experimental
philosophy was founded in Harvard col-
lege, by Mr. Hollis, a friend of the institu-
tion, in England;  but New England, at
least, could not furnish a man capable of
discharging the duties of the office.  Mr.
Greenwood went  out to  England, and,
after studying a short time under Desagu-
liers, returned to America, and was ap-
pointed professor.  There was also a pro-
fessorship of natural philosophy and math-
ematics  at  William  and Mary's at an
early period, but there was none at Yale
college until 1770.   Logan, Godfrey (in-
ventor of the quadrant), Rittenhouse (in-
ventor of the orrery),  Franklin,  Rum-
ford, &c.  (see the  articles),  were self-
taught men. During the last twenty years,
scientific  studies have been pursued in a
more systematic and thorough  manner,
and valuable treatises upon  almost  all
subjects of natural  science and natural
history, so far as relates to the U. States,
have  been  produced.   Mineralogy has
been studied with much zeal; and Cleave-
land's Treatise on Mineralogy and Geolo-
gy (2d edition,  2 vols, 8vo.,  1822), and
Maclure's Geology of the U. States (1817),
deserve to  be  mentioned.  Among the
botanical works, Elliot's Botany of South
Carolina and Georgia; Bigelow's Ameri-
can Medical Botany  (3 vols., 8vo., Boston,
1817—20),  and  Florula  Bostoniensis;
Barton's Flora of North America (3 vols.,
4to., 106 colored engravings, Philadel-
phia, 1821—23), and Medical Botany of
the U. States (2 vols., 4to., 50 colored
plates, 1825); Nuttall's Genera of North
American Plants, a good sequel to Pursh'fl
Flora, &c, are valuable. Say's American
Entomology (with colored  plates, 3 vols.,
8vo.,  1824—25); Godman's  American
Natural History (3 vols., 8vo., 1826—28);
Wilson's American  Ornithology (9 vols.,
folio,  Philadelphia,  1808—1814); Bona-
parte's American Ornithology (3  vols.,
4to., Philadelphia, 1825); Nuttall's Ameri-
can Ornithology (2d vol.,  Boston, 1832),
are works of great merit.  The splendid
work of Audubon is executing in London
(with colored engravings);  that of Mi-
chaux, a  foreigner (the North American
Sylva, or a Description of North Ameri-
can Forest Trees, with 150  colored en-
gravings), though published  in Philadel-
phia (3 vols.,  8vo., 1817), was executed in
Paris.   In addition to these  works, we
must  mention Conrad's  Fossil  Shells
(with colored plates); Shepard's Fossil
Remains; Say's Conchology (with color-
ed  plates), &c.   The principal mathe-
matical work which  has been produced
in the U. States is Bowditch's translation
of the  Micanique  Celeste  of Laplace,
with a commentary (2d vol., 4to., Boston,
1832).   Silliman's  Journal  of Science
and Arts  (since 1818) has  reached the
22d volume.
  10.  Poetry.  The  first  book publish-
ed in the IL States (8vo., 1640), was  an
original version of the Psalms, in metre,
" for the  use, edification and comfort  of
the saints," made by  Eliot,  Welde, and
Mather, three clergymen  appointed  for
this purpose.  This  version  was after-
wards  improved by Dunster, president of
Harvard college, and Mr. Lyon, with ad-
ditions, of which the twentieth  edition
was published in 1722: it was often, also,
reprinted  in  Scotland  and England, and
used by many of the dissenting congre-
gations.  Mrs. Anne Bradstreet published
a volume of poems in 1642, which con-
tains some good descriptions.  P. Folger,
of  Nantucket, grandfather  of Franklin,
wrote  a Looking-Glass  for  the Times
(1676).  These works, with Michael Wig-
glesworth's Day of Doom, a Poetical De-
scription of  the  Last Judgment,  which
went through many  editions, and was
republished in London, and  a few elegies,
stanzas, &c, without  taste  or spirit,  ap-
pear to constitute the colonial Parnassus
of the seventeenth century.  Nor does
the first half of the  eighteenth century
present a more  attractive  prospect.   A
volume of poems by John  Adams (Bos-
ton, 1745); another by Thomas Godfrey
(Philadelphia, 1765), including the Prince
of Parthia, a tragedy, and  the Court of 
UNITED STATES (LITERATURE).
465
Fancy;  W.   Livingston's  Philosophic
Solitude  (1747), hardly  deserve  to be
mentioned.  The excitement of the revo-
lution produced several satirical poems of
considerable merit.   Trumbull's McFin-
gal, written in 1775, to ridicule the Brit-
ish and the tories, passed through more
than thirty editions, and was often repub-
lished in England.  Philip Freneau, au-
thor of a number  of poems, began to
write just before the revolution, but con-
tinued till a comparatively recent  period.
He is distinguished  for ease, humor and
sprightliness.   Timothy Dwight was the
author of the Conquest of Canaan, an
epic poem, in  eleven books (1785);  Green-
field  Hill, a descriptive  and didactic
poem ; and the  Triumph of Infidelity, a
satirical poem. Joel Barlow (q. v.) pub-
lished his Vision of Columbus in 1787,
and cast anew under the title of the Co-
lumbiad,  in  1808;  the  Conspiracy of
Kings in 1793, and his  Hasty Pudding
in 1799.  More  recently, the  poems of
Allston, Pierpont, Paulding, Sands, Hill-
house, Percival, Halleck, Wilcox, Brain-
ard, Bryant, Dana,  Sprague, Willis, and
others, have enjoyed different degrees of
popularity in  their own country.   Inde-
pendently of other circumstances, which
operated more powerfully, indeed, at an
earlier period, but which still continue to
operate with  great  force,  the  superior
popularity of some of the forms of prose
fiction at  the  present day may partly ac-
count for the poverty of the  Americans
in the poetical department.
   11. History and Biography.  It  is a pe-
culiarity in the history of the  U.  States,
that, from the beginning of the first Eu-
ropean settlements of their territory, we
have  accounts of the events which have
occurred  in them, of the  chief actors in
those events,  and, even farther back, that
the  written  charters  which  described
their objects,  and defined their privileges,
are yet in our hands.  We  know the
family names, the  condition in  life, the
local origin, even the features of the first
settlers ; and, from the period of the firet
emigrations downward, we have contem-
poraneous narratives  and documents,
with  few interruptions.  It is true, that
the first 150 years of colonial history, or
rather the public history of that  period,
£ resents  little variety  of incidents, and
 as none of the  grandeur and brilliancy
which gives a charm to the story of great
empires.  It  is also true, that the  Ameri-
cans have produced  no historical works
which can lay  claim to  high  literary
merit,  or which attract  notice  merely
from the excellence of their execution.
But, though most of  the works which
we shall enumerate in this department
are local in their nature, many of them
are of general  interest  to those who
would trace the developement of seminal
principles into life, watch the cradle of a
recent people, and witness the growth of
families and villages into  populous com-
munities  and powerful states.  Among
the earlier works on colonial history are
Morton's New England Memorial (Cam-
bridge, 1669), of which the fifth edition
(Boston, 1826) contains notes by the ed-
itor, J. Davis ; Winthrop's  Journal (first
complete edition, with notes, by J. Sav-
age, Boston, 1825); Hubbard's History ot
New England (Boston,  1815);  Mather's
Magnalia Christi Americana (folio, Lon-
don, 1702;) Beverly's History of Virginia,
from 1587 to 1700 (London,  1705); Stith's
History of Virginia (Williamsburg, 1747);
W. Smith's  History of New York (Lon-
don, 1757); Hutchinson's History of Mas-
sachusetts (2 vols., 1764; 3d  vol., London,
1828);  Franklin's Historical Review of
the  Constitution and Government  of
Pennsylvania (London,  1759); Proud's
History of Pennsylvania (1745); Smith's
History of New Jersey, to 1721 (1765).
Many of these works  were written at a
much earlier period than the date of their
publication,  and, though   several  were
published in England,  were  from the
pens of colonists. Ofa more recent date
are Jefferson's Notes on Virginia, Burk's
Histoiy of Virginia  (3 vols., 8vo., 1803);
Ramsay's Histoiy  of  the Revolution in
South  Carolina (2 vols., 1785), and His-
tory of  South  Carolina (2 vols.,  1809);
Moultrie's  Memoirs   of the  Revolution
in  North  and   South  Carolina  and
Georgia (2 vols., 1802); Drayton's View
of  South Carolina (1802),  and  Memoirs
of the  Revolution in  South Carolina (2
vols., 1821);  Lee's Memoirs of the War
in the  South (2  vols., 8vo., 1812); Wil-
liamson's  Histoiy of North  Carolina
(1812);  Minot's Histoiy of Massachu-
setts (2 vols., 8vo., 1789); Bradford's His-
tory of Massachusetts, from  1764 (3 vols.);
Belknap's Histoiy of New  Hampshire (3
vols., 1792); Williams's History of Ver-
mont (2  vols., 1809);  Sullivan's History
of  Maine (1795);  Williamson's History
of  Maine  (2  vols.,   1832);  Yates and
Moulton's History of New  York (1825);
Trumbull's  History  of Connecticut (2
vols., 1818); Flint's Histoiy and Geogra-
phy of the Western States (2d edition, 2
vols., 1832);  Stoddard's   Sketches  of
Louisiana (1812); McCall's  History of 
466
UNITED STATES—UNIVERSALISTS.
Georgia (2 vols., 1816).  Of works of a
more general nature may be mentioned
Ramsay's History of the U. States (3 vols.,
1816), and his Universal History (12 vols.,
8vo., 1819); Holmes's Annals of Ameri-
ca, from  1492 to  1826  (2d edition, 1829,
2 vols.,  8vo.); Marshall's  History  of the
Colonies (2d edition, 1824);  Pitkin's Po-
litical and Civil History of the U. States,
from  1763 to  1797 (2 vols.,  8vo., 1828);
Douglass's Summary, Historical  and Po-
litical, of the British Settlements in North
America  (2  vols.,  1749);   Trumbull's
General History of the U.  States to 1765 ;
Thomas's History of Printing in Ameri-
ca (2 vols., 8vo., 1810); Millar's Retro-
spect of the Eighteenth Century (2 vols.,
8vo., New York,  1803); Wheaton's His-
tory of the Normans (Philadelphia, 1831);
Lyman's Histoiy of the  Diplomacy  of
the U. States  (2 vols., Boston, 1828).   In
biography, we may mention  Marshall's
Life  of Washington (2d edition, 2 vols.,
1832); Ramsay's  and Bancroft's Lives of
the same; Tudor's  Life of  Otis; Wirt's
Life of Henry; Lee's Lives of the Lees;
Quincy's  Life of  Quincy; Wheaton's
Life  of  Pinkney;  Kirkland's  Life   of
Ames; Franklin's and Jefferson's Auto-
biographies ; Johnson's Life  and Corre-
spondence of Greene;  Austin's Life  of
Gerry; Sparks's Life of Morris ;  Sander-
son's Lives of the Signers of the Declara-
tion of Independence (by different hands,
12 vols., Philadelphia, 1823—27); Bel-
knap's American Biography;  Sparks's Life
of Ledyard; Irving's Life  of Columbus;
Biddle's Memoir of Sebastian Cabot, &c.
—We have given this long list of works,
not, certainly, on  account of their literary
value, but in general as the most authen-
tic sources of information in regard to the
U. States.
  12. Miscellaneous.    Some   political
works of merit  have issued from  the
American press.   Passing by those of ear-
lier date, we shall mention here  only the
Federalist;  Adams's  Defence  of  the
American Constitutions (London, 1787);
Everett's Europe (1822), and America
1827), and Walsh's Letters on the Genius
and  Spirit  of the French Government.
The  results of the  expeditions sent out
by government, at different  times, to ex-
plore the interior of the  continent, are
given in Lewis and Clarke's Expedition
to the Sources of the  Missouri  (2 vols.,
Philadelphia, 1814); Pike's Expedition to
the Sources  of the  Mississippi (8vo.,  at-
las, 4to., 1810); Long's Expedition to the
Rocky Mountains (2 vols., 8vo., and  at-
las, 4to  1823);   Keating's Narrative  of
Long's Expedition to the Source of St.
Peter's River, &c. (2 vols., 8vo., 1824).
Noah, Sillimau, Griscom, Slidell, Dwighl,
Anderson, Bigelow, and others, have pub-
lished their travels in different countries
of  Europe;  Silliman,   Dwight, Flint,
Brackenridge, Schoolcraft,  Schultz,  &c,
their  travels  in the U. States. Cooper's
Notions of the Americans (1828)  also be-
longs to this class of works.  Dr.  Cooper
Cardozo, Raymond, Everett and  Phillips
have published works on political econ-
omy.   In geography, Morse's Universal
Geography, which has  passed  through
many editions, and Worcester's  Univer-
sal  Gazetteer (2  vols.,  8vo., 2d  edition,
1823), deserve mention.  In lexicography,
Webster's Dictionary (2 vols., 4to., New
York, 1828) is complete in  respect to its
vocabulary.   Murray's   English Gram-
mar (1795)  is the first considerable at-
tempt of the  kind in the English lan-
guage :  it  has gone through numerous
editions,  and  has been translated into
German.   John Quincy Adams, since
president of the U. States,  is the author
of two volumes of  Lectures on Rhet-
oric and Oratory (8vo., 1810).  The most
complete of the English encyclopaedias,
Rees's Cyclopaedia, and Brewster's Edin-
burgh Encyclopaedia, have been republish-
ed in the U. States, with large additions.
  United States of Central  Ameri-
ca.  (See  Central America.)
  Unity of a work is the correspondence
of its parts in one harmonious whole.  It
is  indispensable in every  work  of art.
(For  the   unities in   the  drama,  see
Drama.)
  Universalists ; those Christians  who
believe in the final salvation of all men,
in' opposition  to the doctrine of eternal
punishment.   There  is, however, a great
difference of opinion, in regard to the fu-
ture state, among those  who are called
Universalists: some believe in a remedial
punishment of limited  duration, which
will end in a universal restoration to good-
ness and happiness; others believe that
all  men will be happy after the dissolu-
tion of the body, but  in  different degrees,
until  the  resurrection ;   and yet others
hold that  the future state of all will  be
alike perfect and happy  immediately after
death.  (See Sects.)—Universalists is also
an  appellation given to  those who teach,
in opposition  to the doctrine of  absolute
predestination, that  Christ  died  for all,
and not for an elect number, and that all
men, therefore, may  partake of salvation
through belief in Jesus Christ. They are
also called hypothetical Universalists, be- 
UNIVERSALISTS—UNIVERSITIES.
467
 cause they represent faith in Christ as a
 necessary condition of salvation.
   Universals ; the name given by the
 schoolmen  to  general notions, especially
 those of genera and species.  It was a
 long-agitated  question, whether  general
 notions  correspond to any real existences
 out of ourselves, or  are  derived merely
 from our conceptions; whether such ex-
 istences are of a corporeal nature or not;
 and, in the latter case, whether they are
 separate from individual existences, or only
 within them.   On  these points, a dispute
 was  long maintained between the nomi-
 nalists and realists.  (See Nominalist.)
   Universe,  System of.  (See System
 of the Universe.)
   Universities ; establishments for in-
 struction, in which all the most important
 branches of science are taught, and which
 have, at the same time, the right to confer
 honorary distinctions  on scientific merit.
 They differ from academies (q. v.), which
 are societies of scholars for some common
 scientific purpose,  without the connex-
 ion  of teacher and learner, and without
 any distribution of dignities.  The epithet
 academical,  however,  is  often  applied
 to both kinds of institutions.   The Latin
 name universitas originated in the begin-
 ning of the thirteenth century, and signi-
 fied, originally, the body of students;  at
 a later period, the  body of teachers  and
 students assembled in one place.  At a
 still later period, the expression universitas
 literarum was used to indicate that all the
 most important branches of science were
 to be taught  in  these  establishments.
 With the ancients, the superior  institu-
 tions for instruction were called scholar, or
 studio.   This  latter appellation remained
 longest in Italy; and we find, in old au-
 thors, the expressions studium Patavinum,
 Bononiense (university of  Padua and Bo-
 logna).  The time of the origin of the  first
 universities in Europe cannot be precisely
 ascertained. Previous to the age of Char-
 lemagne, Europe had  sunk into the great-
 est barbarism, in consequence of the migra-
 tions of the  northern  and eastern tribes,
 and  the  incessant and devastating wars
 which attended them.  Charlemagne de-
 .erves the praise of having zealously striv-
 en to promote the  cultivation of science
 throughout his vast dominions, with the aid
 of the Englishman  Alcuin. (q. v.)  By his
 command, schools were established in ev-
 ery convent and cathedral, intended chief-
 ly for the education- of clergymen;  but
young men of high families, not destined
for religious orders, also received instruc-
tion in them.  These convent and cathe-
 dral schools (q. v.) were, for a long time,
 the highest institutions for education in
 the countries where they were establish-
 ed.  From them proceeded men like Ad-
 am of Bremen, Lambert of Aschaffenburg,
 &c.  By degrees,  the  light of science,
 which had been so long obscured, began
 to  shine more  brightly;  teachers  arose
 in  various  places ;  an ardent thirst for
 knowledge collected numerous scholars
 around them, and  a new kind of schools
 arose, the  heads of which called them-
 selves redores.  In Paris,  several such
 teachers appeared  in the twelfth century,
 who gave  instruction chiefly in rhetoric,
 philosophy and theology.  They were not
 all of the  clerical order: even the cele-
 brated Abelard (q. v.),  when  he opened
 his school, was not yet a clergyman.  The
 advantages and the pleasures connected
 with a city like Paris, as well as tiie great
 reputation  which these teachers acquired,
 drew a vast number of young men to that
 city; and thus the first European univer-
 sity grew up there.  It  was not founded
 by any monarch, nor endowed with any
 privileges.   Teachers and  scholars  were
 entirely independent, and  could  change
 their residence at  pleasure.  They regu-
 lated  their  conduct  by a constitution of
 their own  making, which  seems to have
 been tacitly acquiesced  in by the govern-
 ment.  Towards the end of the twelftli
 century,  king  Philip Augustus granted
 them immunity from the jurisdiction of
 the royal courts.  Teachers and students
 formed themselves  into corporations. Ori-
 ginally, each school had its own rector;
 but now, in 1206, a  common rector  was
 chosen : thus the whole mass of students
 and teachers came  to constitute one body,
 called, on that account, universitas.  The
 continually increasing number of teachers
 and students, however, made several or-
 dinances of the government necessary for
 the maintenance of good order.  A public
 insult offered, in 1229, to the students of
 Paris, and for which they could not ob-
 tain the  required  satisfaction from  the
 court, made them  so  indignant, that a
 great  part  of them removed, with their
 teachers, from  Paris.   Their departure
 seems to have been severely felt, and  the
 court  strove to bring them back:  by the
 mediation of pope Gregory IX, a recon-
 ciliation was effected; and the privileges
 of the university, which had been, so  far,
 only acquiesced in, were  increased and
 confirmed.   About the  time when  the
schools of Paris were established, perhaps
even somewhat earlier,  the  first teachers
of medicine appeared at Salerno, in Naples, 
466
UNIVERSITIES.
and Montpellier  The school of  Salerno
[schola Salernitana), at a later period, ac-
quired celebrity, even in foreign countries,
by the dietetic rules published under its
name.  At Bologna, the first instruction
in Roman law was given.  Irnerius (Wer-
ner) taught it here in the twelfth  century
with great applause.  To all these places
many young men resorted. The relations
between the students and teachers, and
between the schools and the government,
were  similar to those in Paris.  The con-
stitutions which they had made for them-
selves were  confirmed, and their  privi-
leges  even increased in the twelfth centu-
ry.  At the same time when  the teachers
and students constituted themselves into
one body, the division of students into na-
tions  originated. These were associations
of those who were natives of the same
nation.   They  had their  separate heads
{procuratores),  funds   and  regulations.
This  division into nations is an essential
feature  in  the original constitutions of
the oldest  universities.   The  time of
its  origin cannot  be accurately settled.
The university of Paris, however, is the
one in which the division  into  nations is
earliest mentioned in diplomas and in his-
torical works.  In 1206, the division into
four  nations had  become  established.
These were  the French (in which,  also,
the students from Italy and  Spain were
included),  the  Picard, the Norman and
the English.  The  last  comprehended
also the Germans, and all students from
the north  of Europe.   At  a later  pe-
riod,  this nation was called the German.
This  number, probably at first merely ac-
cidental, was subsequently adopted also
in the German universities. In the Italian
universities, a similar division into nations
took place. Equally uncertain with the or-
igin of this division is also the origin of the
distribution of academic honors,  and the
institution of distinct faculties.  Probably
they also originated in Paris, in the sec-
ond half of the twelfth  century.   The
first  public  teachers (Abelard in Paris,
Irnerius in  Bologna, and others)   had
received no  invitation nor permission to
teach from any one.   But, subsequently,
the state, as well as the members of the
university, were  careful that only well-
qualified persons should lecture.  Exam-
inations were therefore established.  He
who  was found qualified to teach, receiv-
ed a formal permission to lecture publicly,
accompanied with certain  symbols in the
spirit of the age.  The first academical
degree was that of baccalaureus (see Bach-
dor); the second that of  licentiati.  (See
Licentiate.)  If the licentiate afterwards
received the cap of magister (for which a
certain  sum was paid), he became a col-
league of his former teachers, and partici-
pated in all their privileges.  Such exam-
inations and solemn distributions of aca-
demic honors (promotiones) were custom-
ary in Paris as early as tiie beginning of
the thirteenth  century.   The  title  of
magister (master)  at Paris corresponded
to that of doctor at Bologna.  These pro-
motiones, with the previous examinations,
gave rise to the faculties.  The facultas
artium  (the faculty of the seven liberal
arts, or  what is now called the philosoph-
ical faculty) existed long before.  As these
sciences had been  taught in Paris from a
very early period,  the faculty of arts had
the precedence of the others, which, how-
ever,  has been subsequently denied to it.
The other faculties were, as they still are,
those of theology, law and medicine. The
year 1259 is considered as the time  of the
establishment of faculties.   In this year,
the mendicant orders and secular clergy
united, and  formed a  sort of corporation
of teachers of theology.   In  1260,  the
teachers of medicine imitated them, as did
those of the canon law; and the four nations,
which remained in the possession  of all
their privileges, formed the faculty of arts.
The faculties elected deans from among
their number, who, with the procuratores
of the nations, represented the university.
Among  the public  institutions  which
were  established in the universities in the
thirteenth and the following century, were
the colleges (collegia), buildings  in which
students, especially poor ones, might live
together, under superintendence, without
paying  for their lodging.  In some cases,
they  also received their board  gratis, or
had still further  allowances.  The first
and most distinguished of these colleges
were at Paris; but here, as in other places,
they degenerated by degrees, and did not
remain  the  asylum of poor students.  In
England, the colleges (q. v.) have acquir-
ed a greater extent and importance:—in
fact, there, the whole university consist*
ofa number of separate colleges, in which
the business of instruction is mainly car-
ried on.  In German universities,  some-
thing similar was introduced, namely, tho
bursa (charitable establishments, in which
students could live for a very low rent).
The name bursoz was also given to certain
boarding-houses,  established  by profea-
sors.  Those  who lived  in such  burset
were called bursarii; hence the German
word Bursche.   The first teachers of the
ancient universities were not paid by goT- 
UNIVERSITIES.
469
 eminent: they were  supported entirely
 by fees received from  the  students.   A
 teacher of high reputation could then ac-
 quire wealth, as the number of students
 was generally very great.  At a later pe-
 riod,  scholars sometimes received  pres-
 ents from the  magistrates of a  town,  to
 induce them to  remain in it:  at a still
 later period, a fixed salary was  given  to
 them.  In the beginning of the sixteenth
 century, in most universities, the number
 and salaries of the professors were increas-
 ed ; but they were now enjoined to deliver
 public lectures gratis.  In the Protestant
 German universities, which advanced far
 beyond the Catholic, these public lectures
 were, after a time, found insufficient, and
 more lectures were deUvered privatim;
 that is, these were lectures for which fees
 were  received  from students, so that a
 stronger spirit of competition was excited
 among the teachers.  These lectures de-
 livered privatim are, at  present,  far more
 numerous and  important than the public
 ones in German universities.   Before the
 invention of the art of printing, in the
 fifteenth  century, the professor  dictated
 and the students wrote after him.  Much
 time was lost, and a course  of lectures in
 a particular branch always  lasted a long
 term.   Manuals became frequent  after
 printing was invented.   What has  been
 said respecting  the origin of the ancient
 universities of  France and Italy, is true
 also of those of England—Oxford, found-
 ed about 1200, and Cambridge, about the
 same time.  The disturbance which took
 place in  the university of Paris, as men-
 tioned above, in 1229, was  advantageous
 to the English  universities.  Several dis-
 tinguished teachers of Paris accepted the
 invitation of Henry III of  England, and
 went  to  Oxford.  The  first  universities
 founded  in  Germanv  were  those of
 Prague,  1348,  and  Vienna,  1365,  both
 after the model of that of Paris: in both
 the division into four nations was adopted.
 This circumstance caused the decline of
 the former, and the foundation of a new
 one.  The emperor Charles IV had di-
 vided the teachers and students, when the
 university of Prague was founded, into
 the Bohemian, Polish, Bavarian and Sax-
 on nations.  The Germans, therefore (as
 the Polish  nation  consisted chiefly of
 German  Silesians), had the  advantage
 over the Bohemians; and, as these  were
unwilling to  suffer  their  oppressions,
John Hues and Jerome of Prague induced
the emperor  Weiiccslaus to make three
nations of the Bohemian and one of the
two German.  Several thousand  students
  VOL. XII.        40
and teachers withdrew immediately, and
gave  rise to  the  university  of Leipsic,
in  1409, where they were divided into
four nations, the Misnian, Saxon, Bavari-
an and Polish.  None of the other Ger-
man universities, founded in the fifteenth
century, adopted the division into nations.
Universities were  now expressly  estab-
lished, and  not  left to grow up of them-
selves, as before.  For almost three cen-
turies, the popes continued to erect these
institutions,  and exercised the right  of
  Srotecting and of superintending them.
  lonarchs who wished to establish a uni-
versity, requested the  papal confirmation
(which never was denied), and submitted
to the authority which the  Roman see
arrogated over them.   Wittenberg was
the first German university which receiv-
ed its confirmation (in 1502), not from the
pope, but from the German emperor; but
even this institution eventually requested
the papal confirmation.   Marburg was
established in 1525, without papal or im-
perial  confirmation:  the latter,  however,
was subsequently given. Even Gottingen,
founded  in 1734, obtained imperial privi-
leges, after the model  of those of Halle.
The unhappy thirty years' war did much
injury to the  German universities; but,
since that period, they have advanced be-
yond those of any  other country ; and it
may be said that the principal part of the
liberty left to the Germans has been aca-
demical liberty ; hence, also,  their abuse
of it; hence, too, the fondness  with which
a German recalls his life at the university ;
and hence the students' jealousy of their
privileges.   Though  the  organization  of
the German Protestant universities is, in
general, much superior to that of any oth-
ers, we do not think it  desirable to place
students  in  precisely  the same relations
in other countries, particularly those  in
which men's energies are not cramped  by
arbitrary political institutions.  Germany
has  more  universities  than any other
country.  After the bursa had  been estab-
lished, they degenerated in a great degree.
Some  bursa were  not charitable institu-
tions, and the students had to pay a fee to
the person whose duty it was  to  superin-
tend their conduct.  These superintend-
ents often allowed  their wards to indulge
in all  kinds of vices, in order to obtain
many students.  The reformation  broke
out, and its  regenerating  power was felt
in the scientific institutions. The students
saw  the  corruption  of the bursa, and
elected their own superintendents, to each
of whom was committed the charge of
the students coming from a particular dis- 
470
UNIVERSITIES.
trict or part of Germany: thus the Lands-
mannschaften (countrymanships) originat-
ed.  These, also, soon degenerated.  All
the students divided themselves into Scho-
rists (preceptor es) and Pennale (pen-cases.)
(See Pennalism.)  The latter were abused
by the former, and, when they succeeded
to their  places, abused  those  who  came
after them.  (See Schottgen's  History of
Pennalism, 1747.) This lasted almost 100
years. In the beginning of the eighteenth
century originated the orders.  The chiefs
of the orders were called seniors.  They
made their own constitutions,  called com-
ments.  The orders generally comprised
but few members, and, in their turn, de-
generated, owing partly to the spirit of the
time, and  partly to the circumstance  that
the students had a particular academical
jurisdiction.   New   Landsmannschaften
were created to oppose them, which were
chiefly  founded  on  very  misconceived
notions of honor.  The abuses to which
these institutions led continued until 1813,
when the feeling that Germany ought to be
united, inspired all classes with a common
sentiment of patriotism; and,  after  those
individuals who  had fought and  bled for
their common countiy returned to the uni-
versities,  they felt the petty  character of
the Landsmannschaften, and the Bursch-
enschqflen were established—unions of all
the students of a university, without re-
gard to  the particular  German territory
from which they came.  Better morals
and notions of honor became prevalent;
but, as the liberal principles, which ani-
mated all Germany, were manifested in a
particular degree by  the young men at
the universities, the German governments
became   suspicious,   and abolished  the
Burschenschaflen.*—In order  to give an
idea of the character of the English uni-
versities,  we have extracted -the following
observations from an account of Oxford
university, in the English Quarterly Jour-
nal of Education, No. Ill,for July, 1831.
Oxford is  an establishment for the  pur-
poses of education which corresponds to a

   * The general organization of  a  German uni-
versity is  as follows :—A number of professores
ordinarii are appointed for the various branches.
They divide themselves into four faculties, each
having a  dean annually chosen by  themselves
from among their number.  All these professors
generally form the senate, at the head of which
is the rector, who is chosen annually.  They have
jurisdiction over the students, in regard to small
ofFences and matters of police, and  make the
general provisions respecting instruction,  with
the  consent of  the government.  Professors
in most universities are appointed by the govern-
ment.  Besides these professors,  there are an in-
definite number of professores extraordinarii, for
federal body united for political purposes.
As, in this latter case, the several states
have  separate jurisdictions, separate du-
ties, and, to  a certain extent, separate in-
terests,  so the  several colleges and halls
which compose the academical body, have
each its own private regulations for the
education of its members, but  all  con-
tribute to the university education.  This
may be brought under the heads of pub-
lic  examinations and college preparation.
In its early constitution, and in the grad-
ual additions which for many ages were
made to  it, the system now  followed  in
the German universities was kept in view,
and professorships  or readerships in the
different arts and sciences were establish-
ed ; but these university  officers are no
longer the  main sources of  instruction.
The demand for instruction  created by
the degree  examination,  is  met  almost
exclusively  by  lectures delivered in the
several  colleges  and  halls,  or,  rather,
by  private  tutors  in the  colleges  and
halls;  so exclusively, indeed,  that, al-
though  some   knowledge of Greek  is
essential  for  a  degree,  and  a consid-
erable  proficiency for the higher  class
degrees,  the Greek professor has no lec-
tures.  What is actually  required  for a
degree of bachelor of arts,  is,  that the
student should display some acquaintance
with the facts and doctrines of the Chris-
tian religion, and  especially with the pe-
culiar tenets of the church of England, as
set  forth in its articles ; 6ome proficiency
in the Greek and Latin languages, in one
or more of the ancient philosophical  trea-
tises, or, in lieu of this, in a  portion of
ancient history ;  some  knowledge, also,
either of  the elements of logic or of the
elements of geometry.  The statute, how-
ever,  contemprates the  probability of a
much higher standard of qualification in
a portion  of the students;  and for these it
provides honors additional to that  of a
mere degree.  Their names are  printed,
arranged  in four classes, according to a
fixed standard  of merit  for  each  class.

the same branches, or for particular parts of them.
They receive small salaries, and are the persons
to whom the  government look to  fill vacancies.
They are generally persons who have distinguish-
ed themselves, and whose talents the government
wish to secure. In Berlin, there area great many
of these extraordinary professors.  The last cltM*
of lecturers are the docentes, or licentiates, who,
after undergoing an examination, have obtained
permission  to teach (licentia docendi).  They re-
ceive no salary. Any person can request to be ex-
amined by the faculty in this way, and thus capaci-
tate himself to teach.  From them the professores
extraordinarii are ordinarily taken. Every person
in these three classes can lecture upon whatever 
UNIVERSITIES.
471
 The  candidate is  permitted  to  name
 the  books in  which  he wishes to be ex-
 amined ;  and  the examiners are, besides,
 at liberty  to examine in any books which
 they may select.    The following  may

 subject  he  may choose, the professors being only
 obliged to deliver lectures  also  on the branches
 for which they are particularly appointed.   Thus
 we constantly find theologians lecture on politics,
 philosophers on  theological subjects ana statis-
 tics ; theologians on  philology, &c.  Very often
 three or four courses  arc  delivered on  the  same
 subject.  The German student, in the Protestant
 universities, is left at full  liberty to choose the
 lectures which he will  attend.  No official exam-
 ination takes place during his term of study. The
 only regulation is that, in  the case of most sci-
 ences,  he is required to  attend certain lectures,
 and study full three years, if he wishes to obtain
 an appointment, practise a  profession, &c, if he
 is not specially exempted  from so doing.  If he
 wishes to practise medicine, he must study in
 Prussia four years.  The German student usually
 divides his term of study among two or more uni-
 versities ; but whilst he is thus left almost at full
 liberty while at the  universities, he  must go
 through a  severe  examination,  particularly in
 Prussia,  if  he wishes  to become  a clergyman,
 statesman, practise as physician, lawyer, or teach-
 er  in a superior school.  These examinations are
 both  oral  and in  writing,  and  the successive
 steps of promotion are attended with new exam-
 inations.  It may be interesting to the  reader to
 see the following list of lectures delivered at the
 university of Berlin, one of the first in Germany.

 Catalogue of Lectures which were delivered in
  the  Univ.rsity of Berlin during the  Winter
   Term of 1829—30,  beginning  with  Oct. 29,
  and continuing, about six  Months.
 [We have given the names of the professors in order
  to show how many lectures are delivered by the
  same professor.]

                 Theology.

  Thec/ogical encyclopaedia and methodology
 (that is, general survey of theological science, and
 the proper  method of studying  it),  by  Prof.
 Hengstenberg, once  a week.  Historico-critical
 introduction to the Old Testament and the Apoc-
 rypha,  by  Lie. Uhlemann,  four  times a week.
 The exercises of an exegetical  society on the
 passages of  the prophets respecting the Messiah,
 are directed by the same professor, once a week,
 gratis.  Genesis explained in Latin, four times a
 week,  gratis.   Principal parts  of Genesis ex-
 plained t>y Prof. Bellermann, twice a week.   The
 Psalms explained, four times a week, by Dr. Bena-
 ry.   The Book of Job, Prof. Hengstenberg, four
 times a week. Biblical antiquities, by Lie. von Ger-
 lach, four times a week. Introduction to the  New
 Testament, byLic. Rheinwald, four times a week.
 The Gospel of John, by  Prof.  Neander,  five
 times a week.  The First Epistle of Paul to the
Corinthians,  by Prof. Schleiermacher, four times a
week.   The Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians,
Philippians and Colossians,  by Lie. von Gerlach,
four times a  week.  The two Epistles to the Co-
rinthians,bv Lic.Lommatyzsch, in Latin, five times
a week.  The Epistle  of James, in Latin, the
same, onoe a week, gratis.  The exercises in dis-
putation of the two exegetic societies are continu-
ed by the same, gratis.  Epistles of John, by Lie.
 serve as  a specimen of the ordinary lists
 admitted  by  examiners:—Virgil,  Cicero
 De Officiis, the five last  books of Herod-
 otus, Porson's  four plays of Euripides,
 and some work on logic.  For the highest

 Rheinwald,  twice a week,  gratis. The life of
 Christ,  by Prof.  Schleiermacher, five  times  a
 week.  Ecclesiastical  history, from the time of
 Gregory VII,  by Prof.  Neander, five times a
 week.  Introduction to scientific theology, both in
 a moral and  doctrinal  point  of view, by  Prof.
 Marheinecke, five times a week.   Homiletics (all
 that  relates to the preparation and delivery  of
 religious discourses), by Prof. Strauss, four  times
 a week.  Liturgies (the knowledge of liturgies),
 by the same, gratis.   Exercises in  preaching, di-
 rected by the same, twice a week, gratis.

                    Law.
   General survey of legal  science (Juristische
 Encyclopmdie), by Prof. Biener and by Dr. Pot-
 ter, in Latin.  Natural law, by Prof. Schmalz.
 Natural  law, or philosophy of law, in  connexion
 with the general  history of law,  by Prof. Gans,
 five times a week.   Institutes of the Roman law,
 by  Prof. Klenze, six times a week, and  Pro£
 Gans, five  times a week.  Pandects, by  Prof
 Savigny.  Law of inheritance, by Dr. Moosdorfer-
 Rossberger and by Dr. Radorff.   External  his-
 tory  of  Roman law,  by  Dr.  Moosdorfer-Ross-
 berger, twice a week, gratis.  History of the Ro-
 man  civil process, by Dr. Patter, two  hours  a
 week, in Latin.   Ulpian's  fragments explained
 by Dr. Radorff,  twice a week, gratis.   Canon
 law,  by Prof.  Schmalz,  five  times  a  week;
 by Dr.  Laspeyres,  five  times a  week 5  Dr.
 Moosdorfer-Rossberger, four times a week; Dr.
 Potter at twelve o'clock, and Dr. Steltzer at
 three o'clock.  History of the German empire and
 law, by Prof. Homeyer.   History and antiquities
 of German  law, with a short survey of the histo-
 ry of the empire, by Prof. Phillips.  German pri-
 vate and feudal law, by Prof, von Lancizolle and
 by Prof. Phillips. Feudal law, by Dr. Moosdorfer-
 Rossberger,  four  times  a  week.   Forest and
 game law, by Dr. Laspeyres.  Criminal  law, by
 Prof. Biener, with the criminal process, five times
 a week; Prof. Jarcke, the same, six  times a
 week.  History of criminal law, by Prof.  Klenze,
 twice a  week, gratis.  On  remarkable criminal
 cases, by Prof. Jarcke and Dr. Laspeyres.  Ger-
 man  territorial and  federative law.  by  Prof.
 Schmalz, six limes a week, gratis.   Ancient con-
 stitution of the empire, and constitution of the con-
 federacy, by Prof. Lancizolle.   On Ihe constitu-
 tion of Great  Britain, by Prof. Phillips,  once a
 week.  Common and Prussian civil process, by
 Prof. Schmalz, four times a week ;  Prof.  Jarcke,
 five  times a week ; Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger,
 four times,  and Dr. RadorfT, four times a week.
 Practical exercises  directed by  Prof. Schmalz, in
 connexion with his lectures on the  criminal  pro-
 cess, on Saturdays.  Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger
 offers to take charge of examinations and reviews
of past studies.

                 Medicine,
  Medical  encyclopajdia  and  methodology, by
Prof. Casper, once  a week,  gratis.  History of
medicine, by Prof. Hecker, twice a week, gratis.
 History of accouchement,  by Dr.  von Siebiold,
once a week.  Lives and doings of great  physi-
cians, by Dr. Damerow, once a week, gratis. Ex- 
472                                UNIVERSITIES.
 honors in classes, the  catalogue  usually
 comprises two or more treatises of Aris-
 totle, with  the addition, occasionally, of
 some of Cicero,  or some parts  of Plato,
 Herodotus and Thucydides, and often the

 planations of the aphorisms  of Hippocrates, con-
 tinued  by  Prof,  cartels, once  a week, gratis.
 Anatomy, six times a week, by Prof. Rudolphi.
 Complete anatomy, by Prof. Schlemm, four times
 a week.   Osteology,  by  Prof.  Knape,  four
 times a week.  Syndesmology, the same,  twice
 a week, gratis.   On  aponeuroses, by  Prof.
 Schlemm, twice a week, gratis.  Splanchnology,
 by Prof. Knape, four times a week.  Anatomy
 of the organs of the senses and those of the foetus,
 by Prof. Rudolphi,  twice a  week,  gratis.  Prac-
 tical  exercises  in  anatomy, directed by Profs.
 Knape and  Rudolphi.  Anthropology,  by  Prof.
 Kranichfeld, twice   a  week.   Physiology, by
 Prof.  Schultz,  four times  a week.   Complete
 physiology,  by  Prof.  Eck,  six times  a week.
 The first part  of the theoretico-medical institu-
 tions, containing the  elements of physiology, by
 the same, four times a week.   Comparative phys-
 iology, by Prof. Horkel, six times a week.  A
 survey of the history of life, the formation and
 propagation of organic bodies, by Dr.Brandt, once
 a week, gratis.  Pathology, by  Prof. Hufeland,
junior, four times a week.  General pathology, by
Prof. Hesker, four times a week.   Particular pa-
 thology, the  same, six times a week.   The same
 according to his own system, by Prof.  Reich, six
 times a  week.  Pathological anatomy, by  Prof.
 Rudolphi, four  times a week.  On regular and
 monstrous formations in natural  bodies,  by Dr.
 Ratzeburg, twice a  week.   Semeiotics (the doc-
 trine  of symptoms), by  Prof. Hufeland, junior,
 twice a week,  gratis.  Pharmacology, by  Prof.
 Link, six times a week.  The same, in connexion
 with natural history  and materia medica,  explain-
 ed by  frequent  demonstrations, with Dr. Ratze-
 burg and Dr. Brandt: the former teaches  the min-
 eraiogical and zoological part, three times a week;
 the latter the botanical part, three  times  a week.
 Doctrine of  physics, by Prof. Osann, six times a
week.   The same explained by exhibiting offici-
nal plants and  minerals, by Prof. Schultz, five
times a week.  Practical lectures on  medicines,
by Dr. Sundelin, four times a week.  On officinal
 and poisonous plants, by  Prof. Schultz, twice a
week, gratis. On the mineral waters of Germany,
by Prof. Osann, twice a week, gratis.  The art
of preparing recipes, treated generally and par-
 ticularly, by Prof. Casper, twice a week; prac-
tical  exercises continued.  General therapeutics,
by Dr. Oppert, three times a week.  Dietetics
and macrobiotics (q. v.), by Prof. Hufeland, sen-
ior, twice a week.   Special pathology and thera-
peutics (q. v.), by  Prof. Bartels,  five  times  a
week.   The same, by Prof. Wagner, six times a
 week.   Therapeutics of acute and chronic  dis-
 eases in particular, by Prof. Horn, four times a
 week.    Nosological  therapeutics particularly
 treated, by  Prof. Wolfart, four  times a week.
 Second part  of particular therapeutics, by  Prof.
 Hufeland, junior, six times a week.  On the dis-
eases appearing during wars, in camps  as well
 as in cities,  by Prof. Wolfart, twice  a week.
 The  doctrine of mental disorders,  with remarks,
 theoretical and  practical, on their cure, by Dr.
 Damerow, four  times a week.  Doctrine of the
 diagnosis and cure of syphilitic diseases, by Prof.
Horn, twice a week, gratis.   The  same, by Dr.
 whole or  part of Xenophon's Hellenics,
 and Polybius;  a selection of Greek plays,
 and sometimes Pindar;  a portion of Latin
 histoiy,  most  commonly two  decades of
 Livy; two or more Latin poets, which are

 Oppert,  twice a week,  gratis.   Pathology and
 therapeutics of diseases having a material origin,
 by Dr. Sundelin, twice a week, gratis.   Doctrine
 of the diseases of children, by Prof. Casper,  twice
 a week, gratis.  The same, by Prof. Reich, gra-
 tis.   Doctrine  of the diseases  of  children and
 women, by  Dr. Friedllinder, twice a week.  Doc-
 trine of the diseases of the eye, by Prof. Jttngken,
 five times a week, gratis.  Instruction  in opera-
 tions on the  eye, the same, privatissime*  Anat-
 omy, physiology; pathology  and therapeutics of
 the human  eye, in connexion with the operations
 on it, hy Prof. Kranichfeld, three times a week.
 General  and special surgery, by Prof. Jttngken,
 six times a week.  General surgery, by  Prof.
 Kluge, twice a week.  Akiurgy, or the doctrine
 of all surgical operations, by Prof, von Grafe, four
 times a week.  The same, by Prof. Rurt, six times
 a week.   Operations on the dead subject are sep-
 arate from these.  On fractures and dislocations,
 by Prof.  Kluge, once a  week.  Complete  view
 of the  means of curing diseases of the teeth, by
 Dr. Hesse,  twice a week.   All  that relates to
 birth (Geburtskunde), by  Prof. Busch, five times
 a week.   Elements of midwifery, by Prof. Kluge,
 twice a week, gratis.  The same * lectures on the-
 oretical and  practical obstetrics; and at two other
 hours exercises take place.  Prof. Busch proposes
to undertake a course of obstetrical operations,
with exercises on the  model.  Prof. Busch will
have, on  Saturdays, an  obstetrical examination.
Theoretical and practical obstetrics, by Dr. Fried-
lander, three times a week. The same, by Dr.von
Siebold, four times a week. He offers  also to direct
 the exercises on the model.  Clinical medical lec-
 tures in the Charite hospital, daily, by Prof.  Bar-
 tels. Clinical  exercises in the royal polyclinical
 institute, directed by Prof. Hufeland, senior, with
 Profs. Osann and Busse.  Clinical directions for
 his hearers, by   Prof. Wolfart.   Directions for
 medical and forensic-medical practice, given by
 Prof. Wagner, six times a week.  Clinical lectures
 on surgery, and diseases  of the eye, in  the royal
 clinico-surgical institute of the university, directed
 by Prof. Gi*afe? four times a week.   Practical ex-
 ercises at the sick-bed in  surgical clinics, in the
 Charite  hospital, directed  by Prof. Rurt, four
 times a week.   Polyclinics, by the  same, every
 day.  Practical  exercises at  the sick-bed of pa-
 tients with disorders  of the eye, in the Charite
 hospital, directed  by Prof. JOngken, five times a
 week.  On  venereal diseases, Prof.  Kluge will
 give, twice  a week, clinical instruction in tho
 Charite hospital.  Obstetrical clinics in the royal
 lying-in hospital, and  the  polyclinics connected
 with it, directed  four  times a week, by  Prof.
 Busch.  Obstetrical clinics,  by Dr.  Friedlander,
 three times a week.   Forensic anthropology, by
 Prof. Knape, three times a week.  Forensic med-
 icine for_physicians and jurists, with  practical ex-
 ercises in the drawing up  of opinions,  &c, by

  * Lectures in the German universities are either
publice (gratis), privatim (the general lectures, paid
 for by the student, from one louir- d'or to  five and
 six:  these are meant if nothing is said in  the cata-
 logue), or  privatissime  (which  are only for a  few,
 who may  choose to  attend : at these, the price is
 higher, and the manner of instruction more familiar). 
UNIVERSITIES.
473
almost always Virgil, Horace, Lucretius
or Juvenal.   Besides the examination in
these books, the student is obliged to per-
form  exercises  in  English,  Latin   and
Greek, in prose  and in verse, at the dis-
         Mathematical Sciences.

  Differential calculus, by Prof. Dirksen,  three
times a  week.   Analytical  statics, the same,
three times a week.  Application of the integral
calculus to geometry, by the same, once a week,
gratis.   Calculation  of  probabilities,  by Dr.
IXrichlct.  Analysis of  infinites, by the  same.
Introduction  to algebra and  analysis,  once  a
week,  gratis,  by Prof.  Ohm.   Analytical  plane
and spherical trigonometry, also analytical geom-
etry, four times a week,  by the same.  Differen-
tial and integral calculus, by the same, four  times
a week.   Algebra, six times  a week, by  Prof.
Idelcr.  On conic sections,  three times a week,
by   the  same.   Planimetry, twice  a week, by
Prof.  GrOson.   Theoretical  astronomy,  three
times a  week, by  Dr.  Encke.  Cosmography,
twice a week, by Prof. Oltmanns.

            Natural  Sciences.

  General physics, three  times a week, by Prof.
Erman.   Magnetism  and electricity, the same,
three times a week.  The first  part of mechanical
physics, four times a week, by Prof. Fischer.  Ex-
iierimental physics,  four times a week, by Prof.
 lermbM&dt.  The same, by Prof. Turte, twice a
week.  Elements of physics and chemistry, with
experiments, by the same.  General theoretical
and  practical   chemistry, with  experiments, six
limes a week, by Prof. Hermbstadt.   Theoretical
                    40*
cretion of the  examiners.  The  mathe-
matical  examinations  have  been, for the
last three or four years, conducted princi-
pally by means of printed questions, an-
swered in  writing.  A candidate for the
  Public law and politics, by Prof, von Raumcr,
four times a week.  On the  modern public law
and  constitutions of government in both  hemi-
spheres,  by Prof.  Gans, once a  week, gratis.
Cameral- Wissenschaft  (science of administra-
tion), four times a week, by Prof. Schmalz.   His-
tory of the Prussian state since the  beginning of
the seventeenth century, with particular reference
to the  progress  of public  law,  by Prof, ven
Henning, once a week, gratis.  General statistics
of Europe, four limes a week, by Prof. Hoffmann.
Statistics  of the German confederation, twice a
week, by Dr. Stein.  Statistics of Prussia, twice
a week, gratis, by Prof. Hoffmann.  Public  and
administrative law of Prussia, in connexion with
Prussian statistics,  four  times a week, by Prof.
von Henning.  Science  of finances, or doctrine
of the  administration of  public revenue,  four
times a week, by Prof.  Hoffmann.  Agricultural
preparatory  sciences, twice  a week,  by Prof.
StOrig.  Science of agriculture, with particular
reference  to the wants of the cameralist, three
times  a week,  by  the  same.  On  cattle, three
limes a week, by the same.   General survey  of
forest sciences, tour times a week, by Prof. Pfeil.
Knowledge  and care of forests in a politico-
economical respect, three times a week, by the
same.    Valuation  and  management of forests,
three times a week, by the same.  The same lec-
turer is ready to conduct an examination in all forest
sciences, six times a week.  Cameral chemistry,
or application of chemistry to agriculture, the for-
 Prof. Casper, three times a week.  The same, by
 Dr. Barez, four times a week.  Medical  police,
 by Prof.  Wagner, twice  a week,  gratis.  Dr.
 Sundelin offers to take  charge of reviews of all
 parts of medical  study.  Veterinary art, by Dr.
 Keckleben. three  times a week.  Doctrine of pes-
 tilential disorders  among all domestic animals, in
 connexion  with forensic veterinary medicine, by
 the same, three times a week.

         Philosophical  Sciences.

   Philosophical method, and the general survey
 of sciences, by Dr. Michelet, in connexion with
 an introduction lo the last systems of philosophy
 since Kant, four times a week, gratis.  Founda-
 tion of philosophy, or the theory of all knowledge,
 by Dr. Schopenhauer, three times a week.  Logic,
 five times a week, by Prof. Ritter.  Logic, and a
 general survey of philosophy, by Dr. Beneke, four
 times a week.  Logic and  metaphysics, by Prof.
 Henning,  five limes a  week.   Ethics, by Prof.
 Ritter, four times a week.  Psychology, and doc-
 trine of  menial diseases,  by Dr. Beneke,  five
 times a week.  Psychology, six times  a week, by
 Dr.  von  Keyserlingk.   On  the  knowledge  of
 God, by Prof. Ritter, once a week, gratis.   .Es-
 thetics, or general doctrine of arts, by Prof. Tol-
 ken, four times a  week. Fundamental  ideas of
cesthetics, by Dr. Keyserlingk, four times a week.
 History of philosophy, by Prof.  Hegel, five times
a week.  Critical  history of distinguished  meta-
physical systems, by  Dr. Beneke, once a week.
Philosophy of history, by Prof.  Stuhr, five times
a week.
and practical pharmacy, or doctrine of the knowl-
edge and preparation of chemical medicines, five
times a week, by the same.  ZoOchemy, once a
week,  by  Prof. Mitscherlich, gratis.   Experi-
mental chemistry, four  times a week, by the same.
Theoretical chemistry,  with particular reference lo
technology, five times a week, by Prof. Schubarth.
Introduction to chemistry, by the same, once a
week, gratis.  Examinations in chemistry, by the
same, three times a week.  On  chemical opera-
tions, once a week, by  Prof. Hermbstadt.  Phar-
maceutic chemistry,  three times a week, by Prof.
Rose.  On some organic  officinal preparations,
once a week, gratis, by the same.  Exercises in
chemical analysis, by  the  same, daily.   General
zoology,six times a  week, by Prof. Lichtenstein.
Natural history of the  ruminant animals, by the
same, twice  a week, gratis.  Natural history of
the mammalia, by Dr.  Wieemann, twice a week,
gratis.   General  zoology,  five times a week, by
the same.  General  entomology, twice  a week,
by Prof. Klug, gratis.  On thelaws of descriptive
botany,  once a week,  gratis, by Prof. Hayne.
Physiology of vegetables, especially of trees  and
shrubs,  three times  a  week,  by the same.  On
cryptogamic plants, gratis, by  Prof, von Schlech-
lendal.  On  nutritive, officinal and poisonous
plants, according to the  natural families, lour times
a week, by the  same.  Mineralogy, six times a
week, by Prof.  Weiss.   Descriptive crystallogra-
phy, by the same, four times a week. The mine-
ralogical part of the  knowledge of foils for : ffi-
cers of the forests, twice a week, by the same.

Political  and Administrative Sciences. 
471
UNIVERSITIES.
first class may be stated generally to have
acquired a knowledge of, 1.  the elements
of analytical geometry and trigonometry;
2. the differential and integral  calculus
and  its applications;  3.  mechanics,  in-

est sciences, and the mechanic arts, with experi-
ments,  three times a week, by Prof. Hermbstadt.

         History and Geography.

  History of antiquity,  four times a  week, by
Dr. E.  A. Schmidt.   History of the middle ages,
four  times a week, by  Prof. Wilken.  Modern
history, four times a week, by Prof, von Raumer.
History of the eighteenth century, twice a week,
gratis, by Dr. E. A. Schmidt.  History of Prussia,
Iroin the beginning of the seventeenth century to
the year 1S13, six times a week, by Prof.  Stuhr.
History of Ihe war of liberation, during 1813—15,
twice a week,  by the same.  Historico-critical
exercises are held once a week, by Prof. Wilken.
General geography, five times a week, by Prof.
Ritter.    The same,  by  Prof. Zeune, twice a
week.   Hydrography  and  physiography  of the
West Indies  and the  neighboring coasts, once a
week, by Prof. Oltmanns, gratis.   Determination
of geographical longitude and latitude from  as-
tronomical observations,  twice a  week,  by  the
same.

             History  of Art.
  History, principles  and monuments of  Greek
architecture, three times a week, by Prof. Tolken.
History, principles  and  monuments of architec-
ture in  the middle ages, from the times of Justinian
to the  sixteenth century, by  the same, twice a
we.'k.  History of architecture  among the Greeks,
twice a week, gratis, by Prof. Hirt.   Principles
of the fine arts, by the  same.  On the art of paint-
ing among the ancients, gratis, once a week, by
Prof. Tolken.

        Philological Sciences, f-cc.
  General survey of the philological sciences and
the method of studying them,  four times a week,
by Dr.  Rotscher.  General history  of the  litera-
ture of antiquity, the middle ages, and of modern
times, five times a week, by Prof. Hotho.   Greek
antiquities, with  particular reference to  politics
and  the administration of justice, five times a
week, by Prof. BOckh.  Agamemnon and theChoe-
phori of -Eschylus, three times a week, by Prof.
Lachmann.  The Seven against Thebes  ofjEs-
chylus, four times a wee!:, by Dr. Lange.  The
Philoctetes and  Antigone of .Sophocles, in con-
nexion  with an  introduction,  on the nature  and
history of the Greek tragedy, four times a  week,
by Dr.  Heyse.  The Clouds  of Aristophanes,
twice a week, by  Dr.  Rotscher, gratis.  The
Nicomachic ethics of Aristotle explained in con-
nexion  with an introduction to the philosophy of
Aristotle in general, twice a week, by  Dr. Miche-
Ict.  Thucydides, by Prof. Bekker, twice a week.
Practical exercises in Latin and Greek, directed
by the  same. Latin style taught by Prof. Zumpt,
four times a week.   On  Catullus, and the lyrical
poetry  of  tho Romans in general, with explana-
tions of select poems of Catullus, twice a  week,
by Dr. Heyse.  Cicero's fifth book against Vcr-
res,  explained twice  a  week, gratis, by  Prof.
Zumpt. Histories of Tacitus, four times a week,
by BJckh.  Ancient geography of Palestine, once
a week, gratis, by Prof.  Ritter.  Hebrew gram-
cluding the  principles  of its application
to the solar system, embracing  the sub-
stance of the three firet  sections of New-
ton's Principia, which are also read in the
original forms;  4. the principles  of hy-

mar, by Dr. Uhlemaun, with a grammatical ex-
planation of the book of Joshua, twice a  week,
gratis.  Exegetical exercises in the  Old Testa-
ment, directed by Dr. Benary, and difficult parts
of the Hebrew grammar explained, three times a
week, gratis.  Chaldee grammar, with an  expla-
nation of select parts of  the Chaldee Bible  and
Targums, by the same, three times a week, gratis.
Elements of Syrian grammar, twice a week, by
Prof. Hengstenberg.   Arabian grammar, with
explanation  of the  Arabian  chrestomathy  of
Kosegarten, three times a week, by Prof. Wilken.
Select Arabian historians and poets explained,
by Dr. Benary, four times a week.  Grammar of
Sanscrit, three  times a  week, gratis, by Prof.
Bopp.  Select  passages of the Mahd-Bliarata
explained, by the same, twice a week, gratis.  Per-
sian  grammar, by Wilken,  once a week, gratis.
Ancient German and Northern mythology, twice a
week, gratis, by Prof, von derHagen.  On  the an-
cient northern Edda-songs of the Nibelungs, the
same, four times a week.  History of the literature
of the middle ages and modern  times, four times a
week, by the same. Elements of the old  and
middle High German grammar,  five times a week,
by Prof. Lachmann.  Dante's Purgatory explain-
ed, twice a week,  by Prof. F.  W. V. Schmidt,
gratis.  History of modem poetry, four times a
week, by the same.  On the latest period of irony
and  mysticism in  poetry  and aesthetics,  or on-,
Frederic  von Schlegel's  Novalis, L. Tiek's and
Solger's writings, once a  week, by Prof. Hotho.
Dante's Divina Comedia is explained  in the Ital-
ian language, by Mr. Fabbrucci, gratis.  Italian
authors, such as his hearers may select, explained,
by the same, four times  a week.  Elements of
Italian  grammar,  privatissime,  by the  same.
Shakspeare, by Dr. von  Seymour.   Private in-
struction in the  English language, by the  same.
Some French tragedies explained, and the history
of the French tragedy given in French, by Mr.
Franceson.  Instruction, privatissime, in French,
Spanish and Italian, by  the  same —The director
Klein  superintends  the   academical choir for
church music,  in which students can take part,
gratis. Instruction in fencing  and  vaulting, by
Mr.  Felmy  and Mr. Eiselen.  The  latter  also
gives instruction in gymnastics in general.   In-
struction in riding in the royal and several private
riding schools.


      Public Learned Institutions.
  The royal library is daily open for  students.
The observatory, the botanic garden,  the ana-
tomical, zoOtomical  and zoological museum, the
collection of minerals, of surgical instruments and
bandages, of casts and works of art, etc., are used
in the lectures, and can be visited by the  students.
Prof. Hengstenberg directs the  exegetic exercises
of the theological  seminary; the exercises in ec-
clesiastical history and the history of dogmas arc;
directed  by Profs.  Marheinccke and  Neander.
In the philological seminary,  Prof.  Bockh  will
hear the students explain Demosthenes, and direct
the other  exercises of  the  same.   Prof.  Lach-
mann will hear the studeuts explain the ode* of
Horace. 
UNIVERSITIES.
©5
 drostatics,  optics and plane  astronomy.
 The  examinations  take  place  twice a
 year.  Prizes are given for the encourage-
 ment of composition  in prose and verse,
 in  Latin and  English.   There are also
 public scholarships, which operate as re-
 wards and  encouragements  of general
 proficiency  or  particular acquirements.
 These include classical literature, mathe-
 matics, Hebrew and law.  The universi-
 ty also affords facilities for the  acquire-
 ment of various branches which do  not
 enter into the qualifications for a degree.
> Thus the several  professors of geology,
 chemistiy,  and  many other branches of
 •science, are always provided with classes,
 often with numerous ones.—We now pro-
 ceed  to the college preparation for  the
 public examinations.  It is this that really
 constitutes the  Oxford education.   The
   rocess of  instruction  in the colleges is
   y means of recitations.   Eveiy head of
 a  house appoints  a certain  number of
 tutors forthis purpose.  Questions arc put
 by the tutor, and remarks made by him on
 the book which is tho subject of study.
 He also gives directions respecting  the
 proper mode of studying.  The students
 usually attend two, three  or four tutors,
 who thus give  instruction  in  different
 branches.   The college tutor, moreover,
 has interviews, from time to time, with his
 pupils, separately, for the sake of ascer-
 taining the  individual's  state  of prepara-
 tion for the public examination, assisting
 him in his difficulties, &c.  Besides these
 college tutors, however, there arc private
 tutors, who superintend  the  studies of
 individuals, and  prepare them for attend-
 ance on the exercises of the college tu-
 tors. These private tutors are particularly
 useful to that large class of students who
 come to college insufficiently prepared.
 The course  of college instruction closes,
 at the end of each term, with a formal
 examination of each member separately,
 by the head and tutors, who assemble for
 this purpose.  Thia summing up of the
 business of the term is called, in the tech-
 nical language of the place, collections, or
 terminals.  Each student presents himself
 in turn, with the books in  which he has
 received instruction  during the term, and,
 in many colleges, with the  essays  and
 other exercises which  he has written, his
 analyses of scientific works, abridgments
 of histories, und the like.  In some  col-
 leges, the students are required to present,
 for their examination,  sonic book, also, in
 which they have not received  instruction
 during the  term.   Besides  the  other
 studies pursued  in the colleges, the  stu-
dents write weekly short essays on a given
subject, occasionally interchanged with a
copy of Latin verses, for those skilled in
versification.   The liberality of donors
has enabled the colleges to provide indi-
rectly for the promotion of study  by
means of exhibitions, scholarships  and
fellowships.  Every college and hall  ex-
amines, if it thinks fit, its own candidates
for admission, and  pronounces, each  ac-
cording to a standard of its own, on their
fitness or unfitness  for the  university.
The university has  public examinations-
called responsions, for membere who have
been matriculated not less than six,  nor
more than nine  terms.  These  are con-
ducted principally with a view to ascer-
tain  the  elementary  knowledge of  the
student, rather than his progress  in those
branches  of knowledge which he is sup-
posed to  be  pursuing.  In regard to  the
expenses, i.e. the necessary expenses, of a
student at Oxford, the Journal from which
we have extracted the preceding remarks
states, that the ordinary college account
for the year, including university and col-
lege  fees  of all kinds, postage, boarding,
lodging,  washing, coals and servants, is
oftener short of £80 or £90 than above
£100.—For further information respecting
the English universities, see Oxford, Cam-
bridge, King's College, London University
(in article London), and the  article Col-
lege.—The word university was used in
France, during the period of the empire,
to designate  the  collective body of  the
higher institutions of education, consisting
of twenty-six academies in the principal
cities, all under the control of a common
head.—In the U. States, the word univer-
sity is sometimes  applied  to  the colleges
(q. v.); but there  are no institutions in the
country properly  deserving the  name.—
The  following is a list of the universi-
ties in the different countries of  Europe;
but  the reader should be aware of  the
immense difference between the establish-
ments bearing this  name; for instance,
those of Berlin  and  Gottingen, on  the
one  hand, and  a  Spanish  university, on
the other, in which, a short time since, it
was  prohibited to lecture  on philosophy.
In general, it  may  be said, that, with  the
exception of Paris, the Catholic universi-
ties out  of Germany are very far behind
the Protestant universities.  (See Cousin's
Letters to the French Minister of Instruc-
tion and Worship; count Montahvet on the
state of public  instruction in Germany;
also  Russell's Tour in Germany,  in 1820,
21 and  22, and Dwight's Travels in  th*
North of Germany, in 1825 and 1826.) 
476
UNIVERSITIES.
     Austria has eight universities.
                            Fonnded.
    Vienna,...........1365
    Prague,...........1348
    Padua,...........1228
    Pavia,............1361
    Pest,.............1465
    Lemberg,..........1784
    Innspruck,.........1815
    Gratz,............1826

             Prussia, six.
    Berlin,...........1810
    Bonn,............1818
    Breslau,...........1702
    Greifswalde,........1456
    Halle,............1694
    Konigsberg,........1544
Besides Catholic theological and philo-
sophical faculties at Miinster and Brauns-
berg.
            Bavaria, three.
    Wiirtzburg,.........1403
    Erlangen,..........1743
    Munich,...........1810

             Saxony, one.
    Leipsic,...........1409

             Hanover, one.
    Gottingen,.........1734

           Wurtemberg, one.
    Tubingen,.........1477

              Baden, two.
    Heidelberg,.........1386
    Freiburg,..........1457

         Electoral Hessia, one.
    Marburg,..........1527

         Hesse-Darmstadt, one.
    Giessen,...........1607

           Mecklenburg, one.
    Rostock,..........1419

          Saxon Duchies, one.
    Jena,............1557

          France, twenty-six.*
    Paris,........about 1200
    Strasburg,.........1538
    Toulouse,..........1238
    Aix,.............1409
    Amiens
    Angiers
    Besancon,  .........1564

  * These institutions, however, with few excep-
tions, are only schools, containing but one or two
faculties.
   Bordeaux..........1447
   Bourges
   Caen,............1433
   Cahors
   Clermont
   Dijon,............1722
   Douai
   Grenoble
   Limoges
   Lyons,...........1300
   Metz
   Montpellier,........1289
   Nancy
   Nismes
   Orleans
   Pau
   Poitiers,...........1431
   Rennes,...........1801
   Rouen,............1801

         Great Britain, nine.
   Cambridge,.........1229
   Oxford,...........1263
   Edinburgh,.........1582
   St. Andrew's,........1412
   Glasgow,..........1454
   Aberdeen  $ KinS's college, 1506
   Aberdeen, < Marischal>    i593
   Dublin,...........1320
   King's college,.......1829
   London university, .... 1825

The  Kingdom of the Netherlands, three.
   Leyden,...........1575
   Groningen,.........1614
   Utrecht,...........1636
           Belgium, three.
   Louvain,..........1826
   Liege,............1816
   Ghent,...........1816

            Russia, eight.
   Petersburg,.........1821
   Moscow,..........1803
   Charkov*^..........1804
   Casan,............1803
   Dorpat,...........1632
   Wilna,...........1578
   Helsingfors,.........1828
          (transferred from Abo).

             Poland, one.
   Warsaw,..........1816

      Sweden and Norway, three.
   Upsal,............1476
   Lund,............1666
   Christiania,.........1811

            Denmark, two.
    Copenhagen,........1479
    Kiel,   ............1665 
UNIVERSITIES—UPPER HOUSE.
477
             Spain, eleven.
     Valladolid,.........1346
     Huesca,...........1354
     Salamanca,.........1404
     Valencia,..........1404
     Saragossa,.........1474
     Alcala de Henares.....1490
     Seville,...........1504
     Grenada,..........1531
     St. Jago di  Compostella, . 1531
     Oviedo,...........1580
     Cervera,...........1717

             Portugal, one.
     Coimbra,..........1279

              Cracow, one.
     Cracow,...........1400

            Switzerland, five.
     Basle,............1460
     Lausanne
     Geneva
     Berne
     Zurich
The four latter are called academies, but
are considered as universities.

         Italy.—Naples, three
     Naples,...........1224
     Palermo,..........1394
     Catania,...........1445

            Sardinia, four.
     Turin,............1405
     Genoa,............1812
     Cagliari,...........1720
     Sassari,...........1765

       States of the Church, four.
     Rome (Sapienza),.....1295
     Bologna,  ..........1168
     Perugia,...........1307
     Urbino,  . .  . reestablished  1826

            Tuscany, three.
     Sienna,...........1330
     Pisa,.............1&33
     Florence,..........1438

             Parma, one.
     Parma,............1432

             Modena, one.
     Modena

              Lucca, one.
     Lucca

          Ionian Republic, one.
    Corfu,............1824
  UNterwalden, or Unoerwalden; one
of the smaller Swiss cantons, in the cen-
 tre of Switzerland, bounded north by Lu-
 cerne and Waldstadter lake, east by moun-
 tains which separate it from Uri, south by
 Berne, and west by Lucerne; square miles,
 265, with 20,000 Catholic inhabitants; chief
 towns, Stantz and Sarnen.  The govern-
 ment is democratic.  The pasturage of
 cattle is the chief support of the inhabit-
 ants, and  the exports consist of cattle,
 hides, cheese, butter and  tallow.  The
 surface is mountainous;  and  two of the
 summits,  Tittles  or Titlis (10,296 feet
 high) and Surenes, arc  covered with per-
 petual snow.  The canton measures about
 eight leagues each way, and  is divided
 into two valleys, Upper and Lower, by a
 forest called  Kernwald, which crosses  it
 from north to south.  Sarnen  is the prin-
 cipal place of the Upper Vale, and Stantz
 of the Lower and  of the whole canton.
 The two valleys send alternately a deputy
 to the Swiss diet.  Unterwalden is one of
 the cantons, which, in 1308, concluded the
 league which gave origin  to  the Swiss
 confederacy.   It furnishes 382 men to the
 army of the confederacy. Its quota of mon-
 ey is 1907 Swiss francs.  (See Switzerland.)
   Upas Tree (antiaris toxicaria); a Ja-
 vanese  tree,  celebrated  for its  poison-
 ous qualities,  which, however, have been
 very  much exaggerated.  It  belongs to
 the urticea, the same natural family with
 the nettle,  mulberry and  bread-fruit.  It
 attains large dimensions, and is often more
 than  a hundred feet in  height, with  a
 trunk six feet in diameter at the base.
 The  bark  is smooth and  whitish;  the
 wood white;  the  leaves caducous, alter-
 nate, petiolate, oval, coriaceous, and often
 crisped.  The juice flows abundantly on
 incision, is very viscous, bitter, yellowish
 if from the trunk, but white if taken from
 the younger branches.  The emanations
 from this tree are dangerous to certain in-
 dividuals, while, as in the poison sumach,
 othere are not in the  least affected by
 them.  From the juice is  prepared the
 frightful  Upas  poison.   That  obtained
 from this tree, however, acts in a different
 manner, and not so quickly as the Upas-
tieuti.  This last is the product of a spe-
cies of strychnos, from the same country,
a vine which ascends to the summits of
 the highest trees.   The  root  is woody,
about the size of a man's arm, and ex-
tends many feet  horizontally:  it  is cov-
 ered with a thin bark of a reddish-brown
color and bitter taste: this yields, by ebul-
lition, the gum-resin from which the poi-
son is prepared.
  Upper Canaoa.  (See  Canada.)
  Upper House  and  Lower  House ; 
478
UPPER HOUSE—URAL MOUNTAINS.
•sometimes used  for the  house  of lords
(q. v.) and of commons (q. v.), or, in other
countries, for the house  of peers and the
house of deputies, or the  firet and second
chamber, as in Baden.  Its application to
the English parliament is more common
than to other legislative bodies.
   Upsal (in Swedish, Upsala); a town
of Sweden, in  Upland, capital of a dis-
trict of the same name;  thirty-five miles
north of Stockholm; lon. 17° 39> E.; lat
59° 52'  N.; population, 4800.  It is situ-
ated on the  small river  Fyris,  or Sala,
which divides it into two  parts, and opens
a  communication with  lake Malar.  It
contains a large cathedral and two other
churches:  the cathedral is the largest in
the kingdom, and contains the  tombs of
some Swedish  kings,, and  many  other
monuments, among which is that of Lin-
naeus.   The  archbishop  of Upsal  is the
only one in Sweden.  The private houses
are mostly built of wood, the public build-
ings of stone or brick.  The university of
Upsal was founded  in 1477.  Gustavus
Adolphus and Christina did  much for it.
It can boast of Linnaeus, Wallerius, and a
number of other distinguished professors.
It has twenty-one professors, a library of
56,000  volumes  and  1000 manuscripts,
among  which  is  the  Codex Argenteus.
(See Argenteus.)   Here is also the manu-
script deposited by Gustavus III, with di-
rections that it should not be opened until
fifty years after his death, a botanical gar-
den, an astronomical observatory, an ana-
tomical theatre, and cabinets of natural
history  and mineralogy,  with a cabinet
containing 11,000 coins.   The number of
students in  1829 was 1525; in   1815,
.1200; 269  of theology, 150  of law, and
123 of medicine.  This  town was long
the residence of the Swedish monarch,
who bore the title of king of Upsal till
the tenth century ; and the kings of Swe-
den are still crowned here.  Upsal is used
by the  Swedish geographers as  the first
meridian, from which they compute their
longitude.  King Frederic founded here,
in 1728, the societas literaria et  scientia-
rum.
   Ural Mountains (from ural, girdle); a
chain of mountains running along the
frontier of Asia and  Europe, nearly 1500
miles, from the Frozen ocean to the Cas-
pian sea, containing the richest veins of
metals in Russia.  The northern part is
called the Verchoturic, or Jugoric moun-
tains.   Verchoturi  is  the name of the
height at the  source  of the Tura (58° N.
lat.), where is situated the place of the
•same  name,  with 3000  inhabitants, and
many iron works, the emporium of the
Siberian trade.  South of the great ridge
of the Ural, the mountains of Guberlinki
extend  far into the steppes of the  Kir-
guises.   The highest summit of the Ural,
the rock of Padwinski, is 6397 feet'above
the surface of the Caspian  sea.  Several
rivers on the  eastern  and  western  de-
clivities of the Ural promote the internal
commerce of the government of Perm,
which contains 120,000 square miles and
1,143,902 inhabitants.   The crown  has
here  nine mines and establishments for
the manufacture of iron, fifty-one copper
mines, a gold washing, and a mint There
are, besides, eighty-one iron and eighteen
copper  mines  belonging to  private indi-
viduals.   The annual product amounts to
200,000 poods* of copper, 5,500,000 poods
of wrought iron, and 8,500,000 poods of
cast iron.  The salt works of the crown
yield annually 1,300,000 poods of salt; the
private salt works, 6,136,000 poods. Above
120,000 men are employed  in  the mines.
Tin is not found at all in the Ural; but the
mountains afford some  lead and silver.
The platina obtained is considerable.  The
whole mineral product of the  Ural, in-
cluding the gold of the  gold washings,
may be estimated at from forty-five to fifty
millions  of roubles.   Perm has also con-
siderable manufactures.  Of late the veins
of gold  have been worked  much more
extensively  than before Alexander von
Humboldt's visit to the Ural, in 1829, add-
ed to the knowledge of its stores.***  The
  * One  pood is equal  to 36 pounds 1 ounce
11 drachms ; but among merchants, it is reckoned
equal to 36 pounds.
  t The following account is part of a letter from
M. Humboldt to M. Arago (q. v.):—" We spent
a month in visiting the gold mines of Borisovsk,
the malachite mines of Goumeselevski, and of
Tagilsk, and the washings of gold and platinum.
We were astonished at the pepitas (water-worn
masses) of gold, from  two to three pounds, and
even from eighteen to twenty pounds, found a
few inches below the turf, where they had lain
unknown for ages. The position ana probable
origin of these alluvia, mixed generally with frag-
ments  of greenstone, chlorite slate, and serpen-
tine, was one of the principal objects of this jour-
ney.  The gold annually procured from the wash-
ings amounts to 6000 kit.  The discoveries beyond
fifty-nine and sixty degrees of latitude become
very important.  We possess the teeth of fossil
elephants enveloped in these alluvia of auriferous
sand.  Their formation,  consequent on local ir-
ruptions and on levellings, is, perhaps, even pos-
terior to the destruction of the large animals. The
amber and the lignites, which we discovered on
the eastern side of the Ural, are decidedly more
ancient.   With  the auriferous  sand are found
grains of cinnabar, native  copper, reylanites,
garnets, little white zircons, as brilliant as* dia-
monds, anatase, alvite, &.c.  It is very remarka-
ble, that in the middle and northern parts of the 
URAL MOUNTAINS—URANIUM.
479
gold sands  of the  Ural were known as
early as 1774.  They extend over a  tract
containing 36,000 square wersts*, and are
found  both  in the  mountains and on the
banks of rivers.  Fourteen thousand per-
sons, including 4380 crown  peasants, are
occupied  in the washings.   The proprie-
tors of private gold washings are obliged
to pay ten per cent, to the government.
Up to 1817, the gold obtained in  the Ural
did not amount  to more than  eighteen
 floods  annually.  Now it is  above two
 mndred poods.  In  1824,  three million
gold roubles were coined from two hun-
dred poods of gold, of which more  than
a  fourth part  belonged to  the  emperor.
The gold mines on the eastern declivity
of this chain  are said to be much more
productive than those on the western.  In
April,  1825, several pieces  of pure  gold
were found in the  mines of Slatonsk, in
the government of Orenburg, the largest
of which weighed above sixteen pounds,
the middling-sized ones from five to nine
pounds.   According to the  investigations
made there, the gold is supposed to have
been produced by the agency of water,
and not by that  of fire.   The ancient
name of the Ural mountains was Monies
Hyperborai, or Monies Riphai.
   Ural  River  (formerly  called  Jaik,
and  anciently Rhymnus) falls,   after a
course of 2000 werets, or 1330 miles,
through several mouths, into the Caspian
sea, at Gurjew; lon. 52° 14' E.; lat. 47°
15^ N.   It rises twenty-four miles north
of Verchouralsk, in lon. 58° 44' E., lat.
54° N.   It is  shallow in some parts,  but
abounds in fish, particularly the sturgeon,
of the  spawn of which caviare (q. v.) is
made.   On the right bank live  the  Ural
Cossacks;  on the  left the  Kirguises.
Among the former appeared, in  1772, the
adventurer Pugatscheff. (q. v.) In conse-
quence of their participation in his enter-
prise, they lost their privileges.  Catharine
restored them, but altered the name of
Jaik Cossacks, which they had previously
borne,  to that of  Ural Cossacks.   The
name of the river was also  changed into
Ural. These Cossacks furnish 20,000 men
lo the Russian army in case  of war.

Ural, the platinum is found only on the western
European side.  The rich gold  washings of the
Demidov family, at Nijnel-tagilsk, are on the Asi-
atic side, on the two acclivities of Bartiraya, where
the alluvium of Vilkni alone has already produced
more lhan 2800 pounds of gold.  The platinum
is found about a league to the east of the separa-
tion of  waters (which must not be confounded
••ith the axis of the high summits), on the Euro-
pean side, near the course of the  Oulka, at Sukoi
Vicnin, and at Martian."
  Urania; the muse of astronomy.   She
is generally represented with a crown of
stars, in a garment spotted with stars, and
holding in her left hand a celestial globe,
or a lyre.  Some  give  her also  a tele-
scope and a circle.  (See Muses.)—Urania
is likewise  the name of  the heavenly
Venus,  or of pure,  intellectual  love, in
contradistinction to that which is merely
sensual.  The ancient Greek poets  also
call one of the Oceanides, or sea-nymphs,
Urania.
  Uranium  ;  the  name of one  of the
metals,  from oipavos  (the heavens).   We
shall firet describe its ores, \*Jiich are two
in number;  viz.pitchblende anduranite.—
1. Pitchblende  occurs massive,  with a
columnar or  impalpable   composition;
fracture conchoidal  or  uneven;  lustre
imperfect  metallic ;  color grayish-black,
inclining  sometimes to iron-black,  also
to greenish  and brownish-black ;  streak
black, a little shining;  opaque;  brittle;
hardness below feldspar; specific gravity
6.46.   According  to Klaproth,  it con-
sists of
  Protoxide of uranium.......86.50
  Protoxide of iron,.........2.50
  Silex,................5.00
  Sulphuret of lead,.........6.00
Alone, before the blow-pipe, it is infusi-
ble, but, with borax, melts into  a gray
scoria.  If reduced to powder, it is slowly
soluble in nitric acid.  It is found chiefly
in veins, accompanied by various ores of
silver and lead.  Its chief localities are
Johanngeorgenstadt  and  Schneeberg, in
Saxony, and Joachimsthal, in Bohemia.
In  Cornwall, it has been found  in the
tin mines  of Tincroft, near Redruth.—2.
Uranite.   This beautiful species is found
in small,  but very  perfect  crystals, of
the form of the right square prism, which
is usually so low as to  appear tabular.
The terminal and lateral  edges are often
replaced.  Cleavage  takes place  parallel
to the sides of the primary form, and with
great ease parallel to the terminal planes;
lustre pearly or adamantine; color eme-
rald-green, leek-green or  siskin-green;
streak corresponding to the color;  trans-
parent to translucent on the edges; sectile;
hardness a little above that of gypsum ;
specific gravity  3.115.   It also  occurs*
massive, having a granular composition.
It consists of
  Oxide of uranium, ........ 60.00
  Phosphoric acid,.........16.00
  Oxide of copper,.........9.00
  Silex,...............0.50
  Water,............... 14.50 
480
URANIUM—URI.
  Alone, it beaomes yellow before the blow-
'  pipe, and loses its transparency.  Upon
  charcoal, it intumesces a little, and melts
  into a black  globule.  It  occurs in veins
  of copper, silver, tin and iron.  Beautiful
  varieties have  been found in the Gunnis
  lake mine, in Cornwall.  It also  occurs
  in the Saxon and Bohemian mining dis-
  tricts.   It is likewise met with at Boden-
  mais, in Bavaria,  and  at  Limoges, in
  France.—History  of the  Metal and its
  Compounds.  The easiest method of pro-
  curing the  metal from the ore is  the fol-
  lowing :—The   pitchblende  is  reduced
  to a fine powder, and digested in nitric
  acid till  every  thing soluble is taken up.
  The solution is then rendered as neutral
  as possible by evaporation, and a current of
  sulphureted hydrogen gas passed through
  it as long as any precipitate continues to
  fall.  The liquid is filtered and heated, to
  drive off all traces of sulphureted hydro-
  gen.  It is now precipitated  by  caustic
  ammonia; and the precipitate, after being
  well washed, is digested, while still moist,
  in a pretty strong solution  of carbonate
  of ammonia.  A fine lemon-yellow liquid
  is obtained, which, being set aside for a
  few days, deposits an abundance  of fine
  yellow  crystals,  in  right   rectangular
  prisms.   These crystals, being exposed
  to a red heat, give out  water, carbonate
  of ammonia, and oxygen gas, and leave a
  black oxide of uranium, which is easily
  reduced to the metallic state by passing a
  current of dry hydrogen  gas over  it,
  placed in a glass tube, and  heated by a
  ■spirit lamp.   The metal presents a liver-
  brown color, and remains in the state of
  a powder.  No heat that we can  raise is
  sufficient  to  melt it into  a  mass:   of
  course its malleability and  ductility are
  unknown.   It  has considerable   lustre,
  and is soft enough to yield to the file.
  Its specific gravity is 8.10.  It undergoes
  no  change  in the ordinary temperature
  of the atmosphere; but when heated to
  redness,  it takes fire, swells, and  is con-
  verted into green oxide.  It is insoluble
  in sulphuric and muriatic acids, whether
  concentrated  or diluted; but nitric acid
  dissolves it with facility.  Uranium com-
  bines with two  different proportions  of
  oxygen, and forms two oxides.  The pro-
  toxide is green,  and the peroxide,  or acid
  of uranium, is  yellow.   The former of
  these is  obtained  by exposing metallic
  uranium to a red heat.  Its color, while
  in grains, is black ; but when in powder,
  it is dark green,  it is soluble in sulphu-
  ric and muriatic  acids.  The solutions
  are green. When dissolved in nitric acid,
  it is converted  into  the peroxide. Pro-
 toxide of uranium is tasteless, and, when
 anhydrous, it is not altered by exposure
 to the air.  Peroxide of uranium, or uran-
 ic  acid, is  obtained  by  dissolving the
 protoxide in ntiric acid, and precipitating
 by caustic ammonia.  A beautiful yellow
 powder is obtained, which is a combina-
 tion of peroxide of uranium and ammo-
 nia.  Such is its tendency to combine
 with other bodies, that it cannot be ob-
 tained in a separate state.   If we attempt
 to drive off the ammonia and water, with
 which it is united, it loses oxygen at the
 same time, and is converted into protox-
 ide.  The same change takes place when
 we heat pernitrate of uranium. Nothing
 is known  respecting  the combinations
 which this metal  is capable of forming
 with chlorine, bromine and  iodine,  or
 with azote, carbon, boron, silicon and
 phosphorus.   A  sulphuret of uranium
 has  been formed,  which  has  a black
 color, and, when rubbed, a metallic lustre.
 Its capacity for forming alloys with the
 other metals remains, in consequence  of
 the scarcity of the metal, uninvestigated.
 The oxides of uranium are used in paint-
 ing upon porcelain, yielding a fine orange
 color in the enamelling fire, and a black
one in that in which the porcelain itself
is baked.
  Uranus.  (See Herschel.)
  Uran u s . Accordin g to the cosmo-theog-
ony of the Greeks, Gaea (Earth) proceed-
ed from chaos (the infinite  void of space).
The Earth produced Uranus (in remote
antiquity, the personification of the sphere
of light, the heavenly vault), and by him
became the mother of the Titans (q. v.),
the youngest of whom was called Kronos
 (Time).  All  the further productions of
 nature proceeded from  the embraces of
 the Titans and Titanides.  This was ex-
 pressed, in the plastic language of the an-
 cient poets, thus: Time (Kronos) put an
 end to the productive power of Uranus,
and  emasculated  him with his sickle.—
 Uranus is also the  name  given by the
 continental astronomers to the  planet
 which we commonly call Herschel.
  Urbanists.  (See Franciscans.)
  Urea.  (See Urine.)
  Uri ; a  Swiss canton, bounded north
by Schweitz, east by Glarus and Grisons,
south by Tessin, and west by  Berne and
Unterwalden; square  miles, 508; popu-
lation, 14,000.   The inhabitants are Ger-
mans by  descent and  language; of the
Catholic religion; the government demo-
cratic.  The  canton  is  divided into two
districts, Uri and Ureeren:  the chief town
is Altorf.  The country is extremely rug-
ged, composed of barren and bleak moun- 
URI—URINE.
481
tains  and deep valleys.   Here are the
elevated  summits of St.  Gothard (q. v.),
which are covered with perpetual snow.
The canton  is traversed  from north to
south by the Reuss, and contains a num-
ber of lakes and mountain streams.  Of
the valleys, the two largest are those of
the Reuss and of Urseren, each of which
admits of a  small extent of tillage; but
pasturage is the principal source of sub-
sistence ; and cattle, cheese, wool, leather
and timber the articles of  export.   Not
far from  Altorf is the village of Burgelen,
the  birth-place of William Tell.   Uri
concluded, in 1308, a league, for ten yeare,
with Schweitz and Unterwalden, which,
in 1315, was  changed  into the  perpetual
league.  The whole  canton consists of
mountains and valleys, and is surrounded
by mountains always covered with snow.
On the south is mount St. Gothard, 9944
feet high, i Little grain is raised ; orchard
fruits succeed  well.  The chief occupa-
tion of the people  is raising cattle  (Uri
has 10,000  head of cattle) and making
cheese.  The road  over  the St. Gothard
yields them much profit;  formerly above
15,000 people  passed  over it  annually,
from Switzerland to Italy.  The road over
the Simplon  is now generally  preferred.
Uri furnishes 602 men to the army of the
confederacy.   Its quota of money is 3012
Swiss francs.
   Uric Ac in.  (See Urine.)
   Urim and  Thummim (light and perfec-
tion) ; a kind of ornament belonging to the
habit of  the Jewish high-priest, by means
of which he gave oracular answers to the
people.  What they were, and  the mode
in  which the divine will was communi-
cated to the high-priest by means of them,
is disputed among the critics.
   Urine is an cxcremcntitious fluid, de-
signed for ejecting from the system  sub-
stances  which, by  their  accumulation
within the body, would  prove fatal to
health and   life.  It is secreted by the
kidneys, whose sole office  it appeare to
be to separate from the blood the super-
fluous matters  that are not required for
nutrition, or  which have already formed
part of the body, and  been removed by
absorption.   The substances, which, in
particular, pass off by this way, are nitro-
gen and  various saline and earthy com-
pounds.  In  its natural state, it is trans-
parent,  of a yellow  color, a peculiar
smell, and saline taste.  Its quantity, and,
in some  measure, its quality, depend on
the seasons  and the   peculiar  constitu-
tion of the  individual, and are likewise
modified by disease.  It  is observed, that
   vol. xii.          41
perspiration carries off more or less of the
fluid which would else have passed off
by  urine;  so  that the profusion of the
former is attended with the diminution
of the latter.  The specific gravity of the
most concentrated urine is 1.030.  It gives
a red tint to litmus paper—a circumstance
which indicates the presence ofa free acid,
or of a supersalt.  Though  at first quite
transparent, an  insoluble matter is de-
posited on standing; so that  urine voided
at night  is found to have a light cloud
floating in  it by the  following morning.
This substance consists in part of mucus,
and partly of superurate of ammonia.
which  is much  more  soluble in warm
than in cold water.   Urine is prone to
spontaneous decomposition.   When kept
for two or three  days, it acquires a strong
smell; and as the  putrefaction proceeds,
the disagreeable  odor  increases, until, at
length, it becomes exceedingly offensive.
As soon as these changes commence, the
urine ceases to have an acid  reaction, and
the earthy  phosphates are deposited.  In
a short time, a free alkali makes its ap-
pearance, and a large quantity of carbon-
ate  of ammonia is gradually generated.
Similar changes  may be produced in re-
cent urine, by  continued  boiling.   In
both cases, the phenomena are owing to
the decomposition of urea.  This princi-
ple is procured by evaporating fresh urine
to the consistence ofa sirup, and then grad-
ually adding to it pure concentrated nitric
acid, till the whole becomes a dark-colored
crystallized mass,  which is  to be repeat-
edly washed with ice-cold water, and then
dried by  pressure between folds of bibu-
lous paper. To the nitrate of urea thus
procured, a pretty strong solution of car-
bonate of potash or soda is added, until
the acid  is neutralized; and the solution
is afterwards concentrated by evaporation,
and set aside, in  order that the nitre may
separate  in crystals.  The residual liquor,
on evaporation and resolution in alcohol,
deposits transparent and colorless crystals
of urea.  It leaves a sensation of coldness
on the tongue, like nitre, and its smell is
faint and peculiar, but not urinous ; spe-
cific gravity 1.35: it fuses at 2A6° Fahr.,
and, at a  rather higher temperature, is
resolved  into  carbonate of ammonia and
cyanic acid:  water dissolves, at 60°,  more
than its own weight of urea, and boiling
water  takes  up an  unlimited  quantitv.
The numerous researches made concern-
ing urine have given the following as its
component j arts : 1. water; 2.  urea; 3.
phosphoric acid;  4, 5, 6, 7. phosphates
of lime,  magnesia, soda and  ammonia; 
482
URINE.
 8,  9, 10, 11.  lithic, rosacic,  benzoic and
 carbonic acid;  12.  carbonate  of lime;
 13, 14. muriates  of soda  and  ammo-
 nia ; 15. gelatin; 16. albumen ;  17. resin;
 18. sulphur.    According  to  Berzelius,
 healthy urine is composed of water 933,
 urea 30.10,  sulphate  of  potash  3.71,
 sulphate of soda 3.16, phosphate of soda
 2.94, muriate of soda 4.45, phosphate of
 ammonia 1.65, muriate of ammonia 1.50,
 free acetic acid,  with lactate of ammonia,
 animal  matter   soluble  in  alcohol,  and
 urea, 17.14, earthy phosphates with a trace
 of fluate of lime 1.0, uric acid  1, mucus
 0.32, silex 0.3, in 1000.0.  The uric  acid
 is  a constant ingredient in urine: when
 pure, it has the following properties: it
 is sometimes  in the state of a white im-
 palpable powder, sometimes in small four-
 sided prisms, having considerable  lustre.
 It  is very tasteless, very white, light, and
 insoluble both in water and  alcohol.  In
 concentrated  sulphuric  acid, it speedily
 assumes the form ofa jelly, and with the
 aid of a little heat, a complete solution is
 obtained.  In nitric acid,  even  though
 dilute,  it  dissolves with effervescence ;
 and when the solution  is evaporated to
 dryness,  it assumes a  fine pink color,
 which  becomes much deeper when water
 is added, so as to have a near resemblance
 to  carmine.   In this state,  it stains wood,
 the skin, -fee, of a  beautiful red color.
 The watery solution of  this matter loses
 its red  color in a few hours, and it cannot
 afterwards be restored.   Uric  acid com-
 bines with the different bases, and forms
 a genus of salts  called urates.   The only
 ones of importance are  the  urates of
 ammonia, potash  and soda.   Urate of
 ammonia  is  soluble, to a  considerable
 extent, in boiling, but more sparingly in
* cold water.   The urates  of soda  and
 potash, if neutral, are of very feeble solu-
 bility;  but an excess of either alkali takes
 up a large quantity of the acid.   When
 uric acid is heated in a retort, carbonate
 and hydrocyanate  of ammonia  are gene-
 rated, and a volatile acid sublimes, called
 p*ro-uric  acid, which is believed to be
 identical with  cyanic acid.—Such  is a
 general view of the composition of hu-
 man urine in its healthy state.   But this
 fluid is subject to a great variety of mor-
 bid conditions,  which  arise  from  the
 deficiency or excess of certain principles
 which  it ought to contain, or  from  the
 presence of  others wholly foreign to its
 .composition.   Of those substances which,
 though naturally wanting, are sometimes
 contained in the urine, the most remark-
 able is sugar, which is secreted  by the
 kidneys, in diabetes.  Diabetic  urine  has
a sweet taste, and yields a sirup by evap-
oration, is almost always of a pale straw-
color, and, in general, has a greater spe-
cific gravity than  ordinary  urine.  The
sugar,  when properly purified, appears
identical,  both in properties and compo-
sition, with vegetable sugar, approaching
nearer to the sugar of grapes than that of
the sugar-cane.  The acidifying process
which is constantly going forward in the
kidneys, as evinced  by the formation of
sulphuric, phosphoric and  uric  acids,
sometimes proceeds to a morbid extent,
in consequence of which, two acids, the
oxalic and nitric, are generated; neither
of which exists in healthy urine.  The
former, by  uniting with  lime, gives rise
to one of the  worst  kinds of urinary
concretions; and  the latter appears  to
lead to the formation of purpurate of am-
monia, by reacting on uric acid.   In se-
vere cases of jaundice,  the Uile  passes
from  the  blood into  the kidneys, and
communicates a yellow color to the urine.
Though albumen  is  contained in very
minute quantity  in healthy urine, in some
diseases it is present in large proportion.
It is characteristic of certain  kinds  of
dropsy.  In certain states of the system,
urea is generated  in an  unusually small
proportion.   This  occurs especially  in
diabetes mellitus, and in acute and chron-
ic inflammations of the liver.  An abun-
dant secretion of uric acid is by no means
uncommon.  In some instances, this acid
makes its  appearance in a free state ; but,
happily, it generally occurs in  combina-
tion with  an alkali, especially with soda
or ammonia.  The  undue  secretion  of
these salts, if temporary, occasions scarce-
ly any inconvenience, and  arises from
such slight causes, that it frequently takes
place without being noticed.  This affec-
tion  is generally produced by errors  in
diet, whether as to quantity or quality,
and by all causes which interrupt the
digestive process in  any of its  stages, or
render it imperfect.  Doctor Prout speci-
fies unfermented, heavy bread,  and hard-
boiled puddings or dumplings, as, in par-
ticular,  disposing  to  the formation  of
urates.  These sediments have common-
ly a yellowish tint, which  is communi-
cated by the coloring matter of the urine;
or, when  they are  deposited in fevers,
forming the lateritous sediment, they are
red, in consequence  of the coloring mat-
ter of the urine being then more abun-
dant   As long  as uric  acid remains  in
combination with  a  base, it never yields
a crystalline deposit; but when this acid
is in excess and in a free state, its very
sparing solubility causes  it to separate in 
URINE—URSULINES.
483
minute crystals, even within the bladder,
giving rise to two of the most distressing
complaints to which mankind are subject
—to gravel when the crystals are detached
from one another, and, when agglutinated
by animal matter into concrete masses, to
the stone.  These diseases may arise either
from uric acid being directly secreted by
the kidneys,  or from  the  formation of
some other acid,  by which  the urate of
ammonia is decomposed.   The tendency
of urine  to contain free acid occurs most
frequently  in dyspeptic  persons  of  a
gouty habit, and  is familiarly known by
the name of the uric or lithic acid diathe-
sis.  In these individuals, the disposition
to undue acidity of the  urine is super-
added to that state of the system which
leads  to an unusual supply of the urates.
A deficiency  of this  acid in urine, how-
ever,  is no  less injurious  than its excess.
As phosphate of lime, in its neutral state,
is insoluble in water, this salt cannot be
dissolved in urine except by being in the
form  of a   superphosphate.  Hence  it
happens that healthy urine yields a pre-
cipitate,  when it is  neutralized  by an
alkali; and if, by the indiscriminate em-
ployment of alkaline medicines, or from
any other cause, the urine, while yet in
the bladder,   is  rendered   neutral,  the
earthy phosphates are necessarily depos-
ited, and an opportunity afforded for the
formation of a stone.
  Urn ;  a species of vase of a roundish
form, but largest in the middle, destined,
among the ancients, to receive and en-
close  the ashes of the dead; which des-
tination its name, in fact, sufficiently indi-
cates, the  Latin word urna, or urnula,
being most probably a derivative of the
verb urere (to burn).   The Romans often
made use of Grecian vases  for this pur-
pose,  as is evident  from those found in
the tombs in the vicinity of Naples, which
contain both bones and ashes. (See Vase.)
Urns  are commonly met with in almost
all  collections of antiquities ; and Mont-
faucon, in particular, has drawn and en-
graved  a great number  of them.  The
substances  employed in the construction
of these  vessels are numerous.   Amongst
them  are gold, bronze, glass, terra-cotta,
marble and porphyry.  They were made
of all shapes and sizes: some had smooth
surfaces; others  were engraved in basso
rilievo.  Many have been discovered bear-
ing inscriptions; othere  with the name
only of the party to whose  remains they
were  devoted.  Several  have no other
character than the two lettere D. M., Diis
Manibus (To the Shadowy Deities).  Oth-
ers, again, present nothing more than the
name of the artist by whom they were
wrought, written either on the handle or
at the bottom.  Little vessels have occa-
sionally been found in ancient tombs, de-
nominated lachrymal urns.  (See'Lachry-
matory.)
  Ursa Major and Ursa Minor;  the
Great and  Little  Bear.   (See  Constella-
tions.)
  Ursula,  St. ; a virgin martyr; accord-
ing to the legend, a daughter of a prince in
Britain, put to death at Cologne, some say
in 384, othere in 453, together with 11,000
virgins who accompanied her.   Accord-
ing to another reading, the number of her
companions was only eleven.  The num-
ber may have been increased to 11,000 by
a mistake in taking the name of one of her
attendants  (called, according to the le-
gend, and according to  a missal, which
belonged to the Sorbonne,  Undecimilla)
for a number.  The Roman  martyrology
mentions the saint and  her virgin com-
panions, without stating  their number.
St. Ursula was the patroness of the Sor-
bonne.  (See Ursulines, and Cologne.)
  Ursulines, or Nuns of St. Ursula
(q. v.); a sisterhood founded by St. An-
gela, at Brescia,  in 1537, at first without
being bound to the rules of the monastic
life, but devoting themselves merely to
the practice of Christian  charity  and the
education of children.  Paul III confirm-
ed them in 1544,  under the name of so-
ciety  of St. Ursula.   In 1572, Gregory
XIII made the society a religious  order,
subject to  the rule of St. Augustine, at
the solicitation of St. Charles Borromeo.
They add to three religious vows a fourth,
to occupy themselves gratuitously in the
education of children of their own  sex.
The order  is under the superintendence
of the bishops.  In the  eighteenth cen-
tury,  it had 350  convents.   Many gov-
ernments  which  abolished  convents in
general, protected the Ursulines on ac-
count of their useful  labors, particularly
in the  practice of Christian charity to-
wards the sick.  The Didionnaire de Thi-
ologie, published  in  1817, says that 300
convents of these sisters existed at  that
time  in France.  Their dress is  black,
with  a leather belt,  and  a  rope  for the
purpose of self scourging.  Their con-
gregations, however, did not univereally
accept the monastic rule; and in France
and Italy, there were  societies, the mem-
bers  of which only  took  the  vow  of
chastity, and gave instruction like their
sisters.  Their dress was that commonly
worn about 200  years  ago by widows. 
484
URSULINES—USHER.
There are some of these  sisterhoods in
the U. States.
  Urus.  (See Ox.)
  Usage,  in law.   (See Common Law,
and Prescription.)
  Usance, in  bills of exchange.   (See
Bills of Exchange, vol. ii, page 104.)
  Usbecks ; a Turkish tribe, now ruling
in Tartary, and, for  three centuries, the
terror of part of Central Asia.  They occu-
py the modern Bucharia (or Usbeckkis-
tan) and Turcomania.   Us is the Turkish
word for self, and beck signifies lord; hence
Usbeck  signifies  master of one's  self.
Shaibeck,  or Shaibani Khan, became, in
1498,  the  founder of the  power  of the
Usbecks on the Oxus (Jihon or  Amu).
He deprived the descendants of Timour
of the last shadow of their power".  After
a long series of ware with the Persians,
Bucharians, Turcomans andChorasmians,
after bloody civil contentions and changes
of dynasties,  Mahmed Rahim Khan at
last obtained absolute power, in 1802 (see
Turkestan), over Kliiwa and the neigh-
boring countries.  He organized the pres-
ent empire, established a  divan,  coined
gold and silver, <fec.   With all  the other
qualities of a despot, he unites  cunning
and uncommon understanding.  The Us-
becks are  more honest than the other
tribes  under the khan.  Justice is one of
their chief traits.  They hate lying and
avarice and every thing groveling.  War
and pillage they consider the only hon-
orable employments.   They still continue
their struggles with the Persians and Tur-
comans, invade  the  territories  of their
neighbors, and cany away slaves.   There
are said to be  at  present about 3000
Russian and 30,000 Persian slaves among
them.   The Usbecks now generally live
in towns, possess the highest offices, and
own many small castles, which they lease
to the Turcomans and Sartes.  They are
divided into four chief tribes. The number
of their warriors may amount to 30,000.
The khan  has, in the whole, 3,000,000 of
subjects.  Khiwa, the residence of Mah-
med Rahim, is inferior in size to New-
urgenz, an ancient city, which flourished
during the times of the Arabians, but is
now depopulated.   The  arts, sciences,
music and poetry were cultivated there.
Until  the  fourteenth  century, it was the
point  of meeting of  all the caravans  on
the Jihon.  Perhaps  the influence of the
Russians may introduce some civilization
among these rude tribes.
  Usedom ; a Prussian island in the Bal-
tic, separated from the coast of Pomera-
nia partly  by the river Peene, and partly
by the Frische Haff, about thirty  miles
in length, of a very irregular form, and in
no part above three miles from  the sea.
It is  intersected  by several  ranges of
downs  and sand  hills, and  has  large
woods, but not much land  fit for agricul-
ture.   The inhabitants are chiefly em-
ployed in navigation aud fishing.  Popu-
lation, from 11,000 to 12,000; square miles,
150 ;  chief towns, Swinemunde (q. v.) and
Usedom; lon. 13° 11' to 13° 58' E.;  lat.
54° 15 to 54° 45' N.
  Usher, James ; archbishop of Armagh,
in Ireland, born at  Dublin, in 1580.   Af-
ter the death of his father, who was one
of the six clerks in  chancery, he gave up
the paternal estate  to his younger broth-
er, and devoted himself to the  church;
entered Trinity college, and studied the
writings of the fathers and the school-
men,  whence  he  compiled a  systematic
body  of extracts;  and, in  1601,  took
holy orders, and was appointed afternoon
preacher at Christ-church, Dublin.  Soon
after,  he visited  England, to purchase
books for Trinity college library, and be-
came acquainted with many learned men.
His talents,  and the favor of his sovereign,
James I, successively  procured him  the
professorship of divinity at Trinity col-
lege;  in 1607, the office of chancellor of
St. Patrick's; the bishopric of  Meath, in
1620; the  post of privy  counsellor,  in
1623; and,  the following year, the pri-
macy of Ireland.   In this station he dis-
played the same zeal against the Catho-
lics for which he had been distinguished
in the early part of  his  career, and  .vrote
several  controversial works on the theo-
logical points of interest at  the time.   His
notions  of  church  government  verging
towards  Presbyterianism,  his  enemies
took  advantage of this to  destroy his
credit with James I; but his undeviating
support of  the royal  supremacy  saved
him from suffering by their machinations,
and he enjoyed, to the last, the esteem of
king James.  He endeavored to prevent
Charles I from sacrificing  lord Strafford,
whom Usher attended  in prison and at
his execution. He  adhered to the  king's
interest during the civil  war, and wit-
nessed the execution of his master.   The
scene had such an  effect on him, that he
fainted ; and he commemorated the event
by an anniversary celebration  of funeral
rites.   After that event, he  experienced
civility  and flattering promises  from
Cromwell; but the latter were not fulfilled.
He died in 1656, and the protector order-
ed that he should be interred in Westmin-
ster  abbey.  Archbishop  Usher carried 
USHER—USURY.
485
 on an extensive correspondence with the
 learned in various parts of Europe, and
 collected, at considerable expense,  valu-
 able books and manuscripts.  Among the
 latter were  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch
 and  a Syriac version of the  Old Testa-
 ment.  Such was the general esteem ex-
 cited by  his character  and literary repu-
 tation, that, on his quitting Ireland, in con-
 sequence of the rebellion, he was offered
, a professorship at Leyden; and cardinal
 Richelieu invited him to settle in France,
 promising him his patronage, with per-
 fect  freedom as  to religion.   But  he
 thought  proper  to  decline  both  these
 proposals.  His principal works are the
 Annals of the Old and  New Testament
 (folio), a  treatise of the  highest  authority
 in chronology and sacred history; Britan-
 nicarum  Ecclesiarum Antiquitates (folio);
 and  a  Body of Divinity (folio), compiled
 surreptitiously  from  his  sermons  and
 notes.—See  Aikin's Lives of Selden and
 Usher (1812).
    Usher (huissier);  an officer who has
 the  care of the  door   of a court,  hall,
 chamber, or  the  like.—The gentleman
 usher of the black  rod is the chief gentle-
 man usher  to  the  king  of  England.
 During the  sessions of parliament, he
 attends the house of peers.  His badge is
 a black rod, with a lion, in gold, at the
 top.  This rod has  the authority  of  a
 mace ; and to the custody of this officer
 all peers  subjected to  question  for any
 crime are first committed.
   Usquebaugh  is  a strong  compound
 liquor, chiefly taken by way of dram, and
 made in its highest perfection at Droghe-
 da, in  Ireland.  Brandy, raisins, cinna-
 mon, cloves, cardamoms, saffron,  orange
 rind, brown sugar candy, are the ingre-
 dients of  it.
   Usufruct (usus frudus); in  the  civil
 law,  the temporary use  or enjoyment of
 any  lands or tenements, or the right of
 receiving the  fruits and profits of an in-
 heritance, or other thing, without a power
 of alienating the  thing  or changing the
 property  thereof.  The relations between
 the proprietor and the usufructuary are set-
 tled by the agreement made between them.
   Usurper ; in politics, one who unlaw-
 fully puts himself at the head of a gov-
 ernment.  (See Legitimacy, and De Facto;
lalso Sovereignty.)
   Usury, in a very general sense, means
 a compensation or reward for money lent.
 In this sense, it is equivalent to interest.
 But in the common business of life, it rarely
 has this signification, but is chiefly  used
 in an odious sense, to express an exorbitant
                   41*
or illegal compensation for money lent, in
contradistinction to the common compen-
sation allowed by law, which is called in-
terest.   Thus a man is commonly called a
usurer, who lets money for more than le-
gal interest, and who is therefore deemed
a hard, oppressive and avaricious creditor.
It is singular to what a great  extent the
prejudice  against the receipt  of interest
upon money lent has prevailed in all ages.
That a man should receive a compensa-
tion for a thing which he lends to another
for a use which is  beneficial to the latter,
and inconvenient  to himself,  seems to
stand upon  the first principles of justice.
If A lets  his  horse to B#for a  jour-
ney for B's pleasure  or profit, no one
doubts the  propriety of A's asking and
receiving a compensation  for the hire of
the horse.   Why,  then, should not A be
equally entitled to  a compensation, if he
lends money to B for the pleasure or
profit of the latter ?  If the compensation
asked be  a reasonable recompense only,
for the inconvenience to which A  is put,
or for the hazard  which he runs  of not
receiving back the thing lent, there is no
difference in the principle,  whether the
loan be of the horse or of the money.  If
it be exorbitant or illegal, the impropriety
and injustice equally apply to each case.
And yet it  has been rare, either in the
policy of nations or the opinions of mor-
alists, that the transactions have been view-
ed  in an  equally  favorable light.  One
ground of the common prejudice proba-
bly has been, that money, being the com-
mon medium of trade and commerce, is
more generally  in demand,  and  more
universally  useful to all  pereons,  than
any other  commodity; and therefore the
whole community are eager to borrow
upon as cheap terms as possible, and the
lenders  are  as naturally desirous to lend
upon as high terms as possible; thus be-
getting a mutual jealousy, and a strong
tendency to hard  bargains.   In  times
when money is scarce, the necessity, as
well as the  difficulty, of borrowing, is
greatly increased, and an  inflamed  spirit
of discontent is generated against those
who possess the means of relief, and will
not afford it, but upon  the  terms  of an
exorbitant compensation.  They thus be-
come odious, first as individuals, and next,
when they become numerous,  as a class.
In this Way, money-lenders are deemed to
have a peculiar interest hostile to that of
the public at large; and even if the laws
do not prohibit the charge of high interest,
they are stigmatized as  extortioners and
usurers.  Besides,  the poor, the extrava- 
486
USURY.
gant and the dissolute generally live be-
yond their means, and therefore have the
strongest desire, as well as the strongest
necessity, for borrowing.  In  proportion
as their wants rise, they are more ready
to contract for high interest; and as they
are unable to pay when the proper time
for payment arrives, they are  compelled
to submit  to further exactions; and the
creditors, as they perceive an increasing
hazard of losing the principal, are dis-
posed to indemnify themselves  against
the risk by additional premiums.  From
these combined  operations, always going
on, in such cases, with accelerated force,
there is almotit a certainty of ultimate ruin
to  such borrowers.   The creditors are
thus compelled to more vigilance, and to
more effort to obtain or secure payment,
until,  at last, the borrowers seem to be
the victims of misfortunes  which they are
unable to resist, and the creditors to be the
instruments  of  harsh and vindictive op-
pression.  Thus public  sympathy  be-
comes enlisted on the side of the sufferers,
without adverting  to the rights or the in-
dulgences of the creditors, simply because
the latter  can  bear  the loss without as
much suffering.  But  a more extensive
ground  of prejudice has  been derived
from religious sources.  Those who are
enemies to  the  allowance of  interest in
general, often  make no  distinction be-
tween that  and  usury, and hold each to
be equally reprehensible.   Christians, in
an especial  manner,  have drawn argu-
ments from the prohibition of usury by
tho law of Moses,  among  the Jews ; and
the school divines, partly on this account,
and partly  on the authority of Aristotle,
who has fancifully  said  that money  is
naturally barren, and  to  make  it breed
money is preposterous, have not hesitated
to pronounce it  contrary to the divine law,
both natural and  revealed.  The canon
law, too, has proscribed the taking of any,
even  the least,  interest for the loan of
money,  as  a mortal sin.   It is not  sur-
prising, under  such circumstances,  that
mon, in the dark ages, should have looked
with horror upon the taking of interest, and
that the military and feudal lords of those
days, who were always needy, and always
borrowing, full  of the pride of birth and
rank, and full of disdain for the humbler
avocations of life, and  especially of those
connected  with  the  accumulation  of
money, should have looked with contempt
upon the usurer,  aud  have  augmented
the popular delusion.   But' that, in  en-
lightened times, the religious  scruples to
which we have alluded should still have
prevailed, is one more  illustration of the
difficulty of correcting  error when it has
once  fastened itself on the community.
Nothing can be  clearer,  than that the
Mosaic  precept was merely  a political,
and not a moral precept.   It did not pro-
hibit the Jews from all taking of usury
It only  prohibited them from  taking  it
from their own brethren, the Jews.   But
the Mosaic  law, in express words, per-
mitted  them to take  it  of a stranger.
The Jews have, accordingly, been  great
money-lenders upon interest in all ages;
and  this has,   probably, in  Christian
countries,  still  more  augmented the
prejudice against  this  venerable,  but
unfortunate  people.  Indeed, so strongly
is this prejudice fixed, that a man of a
sordid and avaricious  character is, even
now, proverbially called a Jew.  There is,
however, not the  slightest  foundation,
either in natural or revealed religion, for
any prohibition against the taking of in-
terest upon money, any more than against
the taking of a  profit  for  the use of any
other thing  loaned.  But the policy  of
most nations has not suffered the right or
rate of  interest to  rest upon the  mere
moral law, or the doctrines of religion.
In almost all nations,  in  modern  times,
the legislature have regulated the subject,
and prohibited, under severe  penalties,
all contracts and bargains, by which any
excess of interest,  beyond the  rate pre-
scribed by the law, is secured.  In many
countries, they have  declared all  such
contracts  utterly void,  so that even the
principal loan cannot be recovered; thus
making the supposed want of conscience,
on  one  side, a  full justification of the
grossest want of conscience on the other.
In some countries, they have allowed the
interest, if  paid,  to be recovered  back.
In  other countries, they have  refused
this, and adopted an intermediate course,
allowing a recovery of the principal, some-
times with  a small interest,  and some-
times with  no interest.   Among  states-
men and political economists, it has been
for' a long  time a vexed question, how
far the regulation of interest upon money
is founded in sound policy, or public con-
venience.  That it should be regulated
by the  legislature to  the extent  of de-
claring, by a general rule, what interest
shall  be* allowed when the parties have
been  silent, and  what shall be  allowed
where  there  has  been  a wilful  delay
of payment beyond the stipulated period,
would seem to be  a proposition suscepti-
ble of little  question or debate.  It  is far
better to have  some certain rule, in such 
USURY.
487
cases, to furnish a universal guide, than
to leave the amount to be ascertained by
a judicial decision  in every case of differ-
ence between the  parties.   And  where
the parties have been silent, if such a rule
exists, it may fairly be presumed to be
acquiesced in or adopted by them.  The
question, then, is  not, whether the law
ought, in cases unprovided for by the par-
ties, to adopt some uniform  measure of
interest,  but  whether the 'parties should
be prohibited from stipulating for any rate
of interest which  they may  choose.  In
former ages,  it was quite a common prac-
tice for legislatures to regulate the rate of
buying and selling many  commodities, so
as to restrain the ratio of profits within
certain  limits.  Such regulations  would
now be generally deemed unphilosophical
and impolitic, as well as oppressive.   All
that  the law would now attempt  to  ac-
complish, would be to prevent imposition,
fraud and  circumvention  in such con-
tracts.   Why should not the same princi-
ples  apply to  bargains  about money?
Why should a man,dealing fairly and open-
ly, be prevented by the laws from making
as high a profit upon the sale or loan of
money as upon the sale or loan of mer-
chandise ?   The  general grounds upon
which legislation upon the subject of the
interest  of money has been justified, as
contradistinguished from  other  profitable
contracts, are, the prevention  of excessive
interest; the prevention  of  prodigality;
the protection of  the poor and  needy
against extortion ; the suppression of rash
enterprise, and the security of  the weak
and  credulous against imposition.  Now,
it will be found, upon a careful  examina-
tion, that some of these grounds are quite
unsatisfactory and  delusive; and  some
of them are equally applicable to all other
contracts and bargains as well as to loans
of money.  So far as the  object of laws is
to prevent oppression and imposition, and
undue   advantage  of  the  strong  over
the weak  and credulous, the  principle
should apply to all contracts, not by reg-
ulating the terms of every contract a priori,
and  settling what,  under  all  the circum-
stances,  should be just  and reasonable,
but by providing, by general principles of
law, that unconscionable and oppressive
contracts, where undue advantage is taken
of the weakness, or credulity, or necessity,
of the other party, shall  be either wholly
set aside, or reduced to moderation, upon
a full trial  of each particular cause, and
an examination of all  the  facts, so as to
make the decision just in itself,  ex aquo et
bono. There is nothing in the  nature of
contracts  for loans of money which,  in
this respect, makes it either  necessary  or
proper to distinguish them from others.
Nor is  it  easy to see  how prodigality
would be encouraged by the facility of
borrowing any more than of buying.  In-
terest will always bear a steady proportion
to the means of repayment, and the punc-
tuality of the performance of the  contract.
If persons are  prodigal and extravagant,
they will  not be less inclined to borrow
because the laws have protected  them
against paying  an undue interest; and  if
they do borrow under such circumstances,
they must either give an extravagant in-
terest, in  order  to indemnify the lender
against the additional risk from its illegal-
ity, or else they will borrow upon the
usual terms; and in neither case  does
the prohibition  answer its purpose.  The
interest  of  money must  ordinarily be
regulated in practice by the value of the
use to the borrower as well as the lender,
by the general demand for it, and by the
hazard of repayment.  If the demand be
small, and  the security  be good, the
interest will be low.  If the demand be
great, the interest will be high, although
the security be good.  And if the demand
be great, and the security doubtful, it  is
obvious that the price  will be  propor-
tionally  enhanced,  since it  includes the
risk of loss  as  well as the  value of the
use.   Now,  it  is  certain that these
three  ingredients admit of  very various
combinations, and that there are perpet-
ual changes going on  in relation to each.
Nothing  is  more  uncertain or  variable
than the demand for money, and the fa-
cility  of obtaining it.  It  depends  upon
a thousand circumstances, political,  com-
mercial, and even  local.  No man can
foresee  them ;   and no  legislation can
suitably provide for them.   The very ele-
ments upon which to found a rule admit of
no  arrangement and  no certainty.  Is  it
not, therefore, unwise, as well as unjust,
to establish a general rule to govern all
cases, when the rule  itself  cannot  work
the same way any two days  in succession
throughout the  year ?  On the, other hand,
there are positive mischiefs attendant upon t
all absolute regulations of this subject  In
the first place, no laws can practically re-
duce the rate of intetest below the lowest
ordinary market rate at the time when
the money is wanted.   It will be borrow-
ed, at all events, if there  is a necessity;
and in proportion as the demand grows
more urgent, there will be a correspond-
ent disposition  to evade and break down
the restriction.   Thus a tendency is ere- 
488
USURY—UTERUS.
ated to a  habitual disobedience to the
laws—a tendency which, in every view,
moral as well as political, is deeply to be
deprecated.  In the next place, it operates
greatly to the discouragement of trade and
commerce.  Nothing  more favors the in-
terests of commerce than a general liberty
to buy and sell without  restraint or ob-
struction.   If the party can always obtain
money, while  he possesses  good credit,
without any restraint as to the interest he
shall give for it, from the rise or fall of
markets, he will  naturally be  induced
to extend  his  business, and may extend
it  with comparative security and advan-
tage.  But, if he is obliged to calculate all
possible chances of relieving his necessi-
ties beforehand, with the knowledge that,
if money  rises in the market, he must
borrow upon disadvantageous terms, he
will not embark at all in enterprises which
go bfyond  his own present means ; or he
will  take the  risk, and, if the exigency
arises, he must pay proportionally higher,
because the law gives no validity to the
contract.  He  must  pay the lender for
trusting to his honor and honesty, and not
to the authority of the  laws.  In short, the
moment it is admitted (what can hardly
be disputed) that commerce cannot well
subsist, to a great degree,  in any country,
without mutual and extensive credits, it is
obvious that every measure that facilitates
and  gives  security to such credits must
be beneficial.  Another evil attendant up-
on restrictive laws is, that, in any scarcity
or extraordinary  emergency, they una-
voidably enhance  the market  price  of
money. They make the pressure heavier,
and compel the parties to heavier sacri-
fices.  Many men will not, in such times,
lend their money at all upon common in-
terest ; and yet they have great scruples
about letting it upon any contract for usury,
lest they should lose  both principal  and
interest.  Others, if they do lend without
regard to the laws, demand a higher  and
perhaps extravagant compensation for the
hazard which they run.  And conscien-
tious  borrowers, rather  than  incur  the
imputation  of being violators of the laws,
make other sacrifices  of their  property,
which sometimes are ruinous, and gener-
ally are deeply injurious to their estates. If,
under such circumstances, they were  free
to make their  own bargains, they could
borrow at lower rates, and could give legal
security. In short, the prohibitory system,
in many cases, aggravates the very evils
which it  is intended  to mitigate   It
makes the prodigal more  extravagant, the
rash  more undistinguishing,  the  poor
more servile  and dependent,  the  rich
more irresolute or avaricious, the weak
a more easy prey to the crafty, the  busy
and enterprising  more timid  or  more
speculative, and  thus  introduces  into
social life many perturbations which can-
not  be  calculated,  and  many immoral
practices which silently impair, or openly
sap, the foundations of virtue.
  Ut, Re, Mi.  (See page 493.)
  Utawas, or Outawas ; a river which
forms the boundary between Upper and
Lower Canada, and flows  south-east into
the St.  Lawrence, just above Montreal.
It is sometimes called Montreal river. Its
course is considerably interrupted by falls
and rapids ; yet  the fur traders contrive
to pass these without damage  in  their
loaded canoes.  Its navigation will doubt-
less be greatly improved by canals.
  Uterine  (from uterus, womb) is used
to denote the relation of children who
have  the  same  mother,  but  different
fathers.
  Uterus (the womb); the organ in which
the embryo is received from the ovary, to
which it becomes adherent, so as to receive
the materials of its growth, and in which
it is retained for a longer or shorter time in
various species until its expulsion in the
process of parturition.  A proper uterus be-
longsonly tothemammalia; oviparous gen-
eration under variousmodificatiousisfound
in the other classes; and the female organ is
therefore reduced to a mere canal (oviduct)
for the transmission of the ova. In the hu-
man female, the uterus is a spongy recep-
tacle, resembling a compressed pear, situ-
ated in the cavity of the pelvis, above the
vagina, and between the urinary bladder
and rectum.  Its  form resembles that of
an  oblong pear  flattened, with the de-
pressed  sides placed towards the ossa pu-
bis  and sacrum ;  but,  in the impregnated
state, it becomes more oval, according to
the degree  of its distention.   For the
convenience of description, and for  some
practical purposes,  the uterus  is distin-
guished into three parts—the upper part,
called the fundus; the lower, the cervix;
the space between them, the body.  The
uterus is about  three inches in length,
about two  in  breadth at the fundus, and
one at the cervix.  Its thickness is differ-
ent at the fundus  and cervix, being at the
former usually rather  less than half  an
inch, and., at the  latter somewhat more;
and this thickness is preserved through-
out pregnancy, chiefly by the enlargement
of the veins and  lymphatics, there being
a smaller change  in the size of the  arte-
ries.  But there  is  so  great a variety in
size and dimensions of the uterus in dif-
ferent women, independent of the states 
UTERUS—UTICA.
489
of virginity, marriage or pregnancy, as  to
prevent any very  accurate  mensuration.
The internal surface of the uterus is cor-
rugated in a beautiful  manner, but the
rugae, or wrinkles, which are longitudinal,
lessen as they advance into the uterus, the
fundus of which is smooth.  In the inter-
vals between the rugae are small orifices,
like  those in the vagina, which discharge
a mucus, serving, besides other purposes,
that of closing the  os uteri very curiously
and  perfectly during  pregnancy.    The
substance  of the uterus,  which is  very
firm,  is  composed  of  arteries,  veins,
lymphatics, nerves, and muscular  fibres,
ruriously  interwoven and connected to-
gether by cellular membrane.   The use
of the womb is for menstruation, concep-
tion, nutrition of the foetus, and parturi-
tion.   It is liable to many diseases, the
principal of which are retroversion and
falling down, hydatids, dropsy of the ute-
rus, moles, polypes, ulceration, cancer, &c.
(See Labor.)
  Utica ; in antiquity,  a  celebrated city'
established very early by the Phoenicians,
on the northern  coast of Africa.  It was
independent of  Carthage,  yet in alliance
with that city.  It was celebrated for the
suicide of the younger Cato (q. v.), who
is called, on that account,  Uticensis.  Af-
ter the destruction of Carthage, it became
the capital of the province.  According
to Strabo, it. was situated on the same gulf
with Carthage.   Augustus granted the
title of Roman citizens to  its inhabitants.
On its site are found old walls, a very large
aqueduct, cisterns, and  vestiges of other
edifices, which announce a large and mag-
nificent city.  The name  of the modern
town is Booshatter. This, by the accumu-
lation  of mud brought down by the river
Bagada, is now about seven miles  from
the sea.
   Utica.   The city  of  Utica,  in New
York, stands on the south  side of the river
Mohawk, in lat. 43° & N., and lon.  74° 13'
W.  It is  situated in the  north-eastern
part of the charming valley which is made
by the river Mohawk, the Ouskany and
the Sadaghqueda  or Saquoit (savj-qua)
creeks.  These  creeks furnish canal ba-
sins  and water for many useful  branches
of manufactures and machinery.    The
Erie canal passes  through the city, run-
ning parallel to the river, at the distance
of sixty-five rods, and is crossed by  twelve
bridges.   The  canal  level  is  425 feet
above  the  tide  water  at  Albany.   The
central  street of the city  is distant  from
Albany, by the post-road, 196 miles; by
the canal,  110  miles: from  Buffalo, on
lake  Erie, by the post-road, 202 miles; by
the canal, 253 miles: from Oswego, the
southern port of lake Ontario, with which
it communicates by the Erie and Oswego
canals, 84 miles.   The city is nearly the
geographical centre of the state.  In 1794,
the place contained nineteen families: in
1830, the return  from the census was
8500.  Its present population  is estimated
at 10,000. The city charter was granted by
the legislature of the state February, 1832.
The charter is remarkable for being the
first ever granted in the state in which the
licensing of shops  for  retailing ardent
spirit is expressly prohibited.   The insti-
tutions  chartered by  the  legislature are
fifteen, namely, two banks, with an aggre-
gate capital of $850,000 actually paid
in; a branch of the  United States bank,
with no definite  amount of capital as-
signed ; two insurance companies (cap-
ital $750,000), aqueduct  company (capi-
tal $25,000), horticultural society (capital
$10,000), Oneida medical society, Utica
academy, city library (with 3000 volumes),
Utica lyceum,  public school, orphan asy-
lum, Oneida institute of science  and in-
dustry, ancient Briton's society,  mechan-
ic's association.  There  are  also thirty-
three charitable and  benevolent societies
or associations not chartered, besides four
temperance  societies; religious  congre-
gations, organized under the statute, four-
teen, having thirteen churches and houses
of worship.  There are thirty-six private
schools, nine weekly newspapers, twenty-
seven physicians and surgeons, thirty-three
lawyers, and twenty-three clergymen, a
post-office, 116 regular stage-coaches; and
28 packet-boats depart every week. Value
of real estate, taken from the  assessors'
books, $1,619,050; personal,  $1,053,525;
total, $2,672,575: value of the  most impor-
tant articles of manufacture, exclusive of
cotton and woollen goods, yearly,$585,000;
sales of merchandise from New York and
other places abroad,  $1,100,000; sales of
cotton  and  woollen -goods manufactured
in . the  immediate  vicinity,   $500,000 ;
amount of salt glass and lumber not esti-
mated.   The canal commerce, belonging
to the city, as appeare from the collector's
books  for  1831,  yielded the  following
sums:  tolls received at Utica,  $41,014:44;
tolls paid  on clearances received  at
and passing  Utica,  $897,352:31;  total,
£938,366:75.  The  manufacturing  dis-
trict, or the beautiful valley of the Sa-
daghqueda  above  mentioned, includes a
territory often miles square, having Utica
in the  north-east  corner, and  the  river
Mohawk for its northerly line.  Here, on
the stream  from which the valley takes
its name, are eleven cotton factories, with 
490
UTICA—UTILITARIANS.
a capital stock of $686,000.   In  eight of
these are manufactured cotton cloths of
different qualities, and  in three, cotton
yarn.  They have in operation 29,608
spindles, 745 power-looms, and  produce
annually 5,110,700 yards of cloth, valued
at upwards of $500,000.  They employ
directly more than 1100 pereons, and give
support to as many more, not immediate-
ly engaged  in the establishments.  The
quantity of cotton annually  wrought  is
1,515,290 pounds, costing about $160,000.
In addition to  the common  cloths, are
made 534,560 yards of 6-4  bed-ticking,
woven in families in the neighborhood
of the factories.   In the yarn factories,
100,000 pounds of yarn are annually spun,
which is not made into cloth.  Connected
with these factories are twelve saw-mills,
eight grain-mills, one furnace, one  trip-
hammer, two  clothiers' shops, two  oil-
mills, two paper-mills, two machine shops,
one  calico-printing  shop,  one  woollen
factory, one bleaching establishment,  and
two  plaster-mills, the investments  and
products of which have not been  esti-
mated.   In the  woollen factoiy on the
Oriskany, the amount of capital  invested
is $160,000; number of pereons  directly
employed,  147;  number in families, ex-
clusive of the above, maintained by wages
from the factory, 360; aggregate  amount
of wages, $18,500 ; quantity of wool used,
125,000  pounds;  average  amount  of
goods  annually  made, $135,000.  This
small  territory  has  a  population  of
more than  28,000,  inhabiting  six  or
seven  villages,  supporting one  college,
four chartered academies, six  select semi-
naries of education, and upwards of one
hundred common schools, with a propor-
tionate number of churches, religious con-
gregations and charitable societies.  The
climate is considered remarkably salubri-
ous.   From a meteorological journal kept
at the academy in  Utica, it appears  that,
for five yeare past, the mean annual tem-
perature, indicated by the thermometer,
has been 47° Fahr.;  the average number
of clear days  in the year, 205; cloudy,
160; prevailing wind, west The average
quantity of water annually falling measur-
ed, by the rain-gauge, forty  inches  and
ninety-five hundredths.
  Utilitarians ; a name  given  particu-
larly to the school of Jeremy Bentham
(q. v.), the advocates of " the greatest hap-
piness principle," who test the value of
all institutions and pursuits by the princi-
ple of utility, that is, the promotion of the
greatest happiness of the greatest  number.
The estimation to be formed of this  doc-
trine must obviously  depend  upon  the
idea which is attached to happiness.   If
by this be understood physical enjoyment
chiefly, the principle is certainly low and
narrow ;  for, although the physical com-
forts of a peopie are intimately connected
with their moral and intellectual well-be-
ing, and their progress in religion and vir-
tue, in the sciences and the arts, will depend
greatly on the fact of the mass of the peo-
ple having a full supply of nutritive food,
or being pinched  for the necessaries  of
life; yet  we must reflect that, if man's
true welfare consists  in the highest im-
provement of his nature, the greatest good
is often found, not in physical gratification,
nor in any form of what is usually called
pleasure, but in the hard trials of adversi-
ty.  This subject requires a much fuller
consideration than we can give to  it here.
We would only  remark that, at  a time
when  the  word  "utility"  has  become
so general a favorite, it should not be for-
gotten  that utility has reference only to
means, and necessarily supposes an object
of a higher character to which they are
to be applied.  However far we may car-
ry the idea of utility, we must stop some-
where, and admit that there is something
beyond, of which utility  cannot be predi-
cated.  The idea of utility has even en-
croached upon the province of morality,
as if our age could not love and do good
for its  own sake.  We  are told that  we
should be virtuous.  In what way is virtue
useful ? our age replies.  The answer is,
Because  it makes men happy.  But every
one knows that virtue does not make us
happy  in the lower sense of  the word, in
which it is almost synonymous with "com-
fortable."  It is, then, mental and moral
happiness,  serenity of mind, for which
virtue is useful.  But  a  thorough utilita-
rian might ask, For what is this state of
mind—namely, the happiness of  a  good
conscience—useful; and, if told, Because
it gives the assurance of the favor of God,
might go on to inquire, For what is it use-
ful to please God ?  The reader sees how
pitiful  is the application of utility to the
highest objects of existence.  Utility, then,
cannot be considered as the ultimate prin-
ciple of morality.   It is  equally defective
when  considered as the main-spring of
the highest intellectual activity.  Had not
men of an elevated caste delighted in  the
pursuit of truth  for  its own  sake,  and
pressed on through  labor and difficulty,
unconcerned as to the  practical applica-
tion of their discoveries, the  world would
never have witnessed those  noble exam-
ples of intellectual effort which raise our 
UTILITARIANS—UTRECHT.                    491
 ideas of human nature; and many of the
 inventions which have  proved of  the
 highest utility would never  have been
 made.  The disposition to  pursue truth
 for its own sake may, indeed, be abused,
 1. by being directed to worthless objects;
 as, for instance, a man may spend as much
 time in investigating the question, wheth-
 er buttons were used  by the  Greeks and
 Romans,  or what was the  material of
 the riding-whip which Louis XIV held
 when he ordered the parliament to regis-
 ter his edicts, as Bessel did in ascertaining
 the thickness of the ring of Saturn.  But
 those truths which attract a  noble mind
 are such as serve to unfold the nature of
 God and of his works; which reveal  the
 constitution of man, as exhibited in histo-
 ry, and analyzed by philosophy; which
 determine the laws that maintain the  life
 and activity of organized beings, and pre-
 serve the  order of the material universe.
 2. The love of abstract truth  may be too
 exclusive, as we  believe  to be often the
 case among men  of science in Germany,
 who sometimes entertain a contempt  for
 the practical  application of knowledge.
 We would remark, however, by the way,
 that the rashness with which the philoso-
 phers of Germany* sometimes speculate, is
 not to be attributed to their views respect-
 ing scientific truth, but to  the  rapid gen-
 eralization to which retired  students  are
 prone.  The  conclusion to  which  the
 above  observations naturally lead is, that
 truth, goodness, honor, liberty, are to be
 loved and followed for their own sake, or,
 what amounts to  the same thing, for  the
 sake of pleasing God. The noblest course
 is the most truly useful.
  Utopia ;  a name made by sir Thomas
 More, from olronos (no place), and applied
 by him to an imaginary island, which he
 represents  as  discovered  by  a supposed
 companion  of Amerigo Vespucci, who
 describes  its condition  to More, at Ant-
 werp, in 1514.  The author describes, iu this
 work, many imaginary perfections in laws,
 politics, fee, in  contradistinction to  the
 defects of those which then existed. The
 views are  often far in advance of his tune;
 and the vices and absurdities of Europe are
 keenly satirized.  The Utopia was written
 in 1516, in Latin.  An accurate edition
 was first  printed  by Erasmus's  printer,
 Frobcn, at Basle,  in 1518, after an incor-
 rect one had been  published in Paris.
 The  following   specimen  of  Utopian
etymologies  may  amuse  some read-
ers :—
  Achorians,  a-x^pv, of no country.
  Ademians,  aSt^os, of no people.
                              {The invisi-
                              ble city is
                              on the river
                              Waterless.

 The  Austrian general  Schrebelin,  to-
 wards the end of the  seventeenth cen-
 tury,  drew  up a  moral-satirical  map,
 under the title, Tabula Utopia oder Schla-
 raffenland.
   Utraquists.   (See Calixtines.)      j
   Utrecht; a province in the kingdom
 of the  Netherlands,  with  a  population
 amounting, in 15*27, to 122,395.   Its cap-
 ital is the city of the same name.
   Utrecht (in Latin, Ultrajectum, Tra-
jedum Inferius, Trajectum Ultricensium,
 and Antonia Civitas); a city of the Neth-
 erlands,  capital of the  above  province;
 18 miles south-south-east of Amsterdam;
 lon. 5°  7' E.; lat. 52° 6' N.; population,
 36,000; houses, 80u0.  It has  36  bridges
 over canals.   It is situated on a branch of
 the Rhine, called  Old Rhine, on a slight
 elevation, having a dry soil, and an atmos-
 phere dry and healthy.  Its form  is near-
 ly square ; it is surrounded by  an  earthen
 mound  and moat, and,  exclusive of its
 suburbs, is about three miles in  circuit.
 The approaches  to   it are exceedingly
 beautiful, particularly that from Amster-
 dam,  which consists of  a brond avenue,
 bordered with rows of trees.   Tiie streets
 are of tolerable width, and intersected  by
 canals, the level of which is about twenty
 feet below that of the  pavement.  The
 aspect of the city is antique : the houses
 are mostly of brick,  built in  the  Gothic
 style.    It contains  an ancient, splendid
 cathedral, also seven  Dutch  Reformed
 churches, one French  Reformed, one
 English, one  Lutheran, one  Arminian,
 one Mennonist, and  three Catholic;  a
 town-house, a university, hospitals, and
 other  charitable establishments.  The ca-
 thedral, now partly in ruins, is a remark-
 able edifice: the tower, still entire, is said
 to have  a height of 464 feet; and from  its
 top, in a clear day, may be seen  no less
 than fifty-one towns, great and small. The
 mall,  situated  outside of the  walls, is a
 beautiful public walk.  The trade is con-
 siderable, having the advantage of an in-
 land navigation: the manufactures are on
 a  small  scale.  The  university,  though
 less famous than that of Leyden, is  of
 considerable  note.   It  was  founded  in
 1630,  and has five faculties, nineteen pro-
 fessors, a library, botanic garden, anatom-
 ical theatre, cabinet of natural history, and
 an observatory.  Utrecht is famous as the
 place  where, in 1579, was concluded the
 union of the Seven Provinces; and also 
492
UTRECHT, PEACE OF.
the well-known treaty between the French
and allies, in 1713.
  The Peace of Utrecht is important in the
history of the European balance of power,
because it placed England at the head of
the European  states, and put a check  to
the ambition  of France. The death of
Charles II, king of "Spain, the last of the
house of Hapsburg in that countiy, Nov.
1, 1700,  occasioned the Spanish war of
succession, which  called all Europe  to
arms, and lasted till 1710.   The ques-
tion  was, whether the  crowns  of Spain,
the Netherlands, Naples and Sicily, Milan,
and the vast Spanish possessions in Amer-
ica, should be united with Austria, already
so powerful, or with France, which  was
less  formidable.  The emperor Leopold
I claimed the  whole of these dominions
for his second son, Charles (subsequently
the emperor  Charles VI).   Louis XIV
claimed the crown for his second nephew,
Philip of Anjou (subsequently king Philip
V), on the ground of  the  testament of
Charles II.  England,  the  German  em-
pire, and the states-general, took part in
the war on the side of the former, while
Bavaria and Cologne sided with France.
William III, king of England and stadt-
holder of Holland, had been the founder
of thedeague against France; and Anne,
his successor, adopted his political views.
After several  bloody  campaigns, Louis
XIV was inclined to yield; but the death
of the emperor Joseph I (successor of Le-
opold I),  in 1711, changed the  face of
affairs ;  and, at the same time, the tories
rose  in favor with the queen. They were
for peace, and displaced the whigs and
the war party, at the head of which was
Marlborough.   As Charles of Austria,
brother of Joseph I, had come into  pos-
session  of Austria, Hungaiy,  Bohemia,
and the dignity of German  emperor, the
addition of the Spanish crown would have
given him a degree of power fatal to the
balance of Europe.  The English court,
therefore, showed a willingness to enter
into  negotiations  for peace, which had
already* been several times commenced in
vain.  The  disgrace  of  Marlborough,
caused, as is said, by French intrigue, or,
as others say, by the pride of the queen,
offended by the duchess of  Marlborough,
was  favorable  to the negotiations.  Count
Tallard, who lived as a prisoner of war
in England, made the  first  proposals  to
Bolingbroke, who had risen to power after
the  fall of the whigs; and, in October,
1711, the preliminaries were made public.
England declaring that she was willing to
conclude  a separate peace,  the emperor
was obliged to consent to a congress; ana
Utrecht was chosen as the place of meet-
ing.  The most distinguished of the  am-
bassadors  assembled there were the mar-
shal d'Uxelles and the abbe Polignac on
the part of France, the bishop of Bristol
for England, and count Sinzendorf for the
Roman emperor.  France offered to ac-
knowledge the dynasty then occupying
the British throne; to demolish the fortifi-
cations of Dunkirk; to cede the islands
of St.  Christopher,  Newfoundland, &c.;
to give up Hudson's bay, with the reser-
vation  of the cod fishery; to cede to the
states-general Ypres, Knocke,  &c.; and
to conclude a treaty of commerce with
them;—in return for which she required
Douay, Bouchain, &c.   She also agreed
to renounce all  claims upon the  Italian
countries  belonging to the Spanish mon-
archy ; in  return for  which the house of
Hapsburg was to give up all claims to the
Spanish throne;  on the  Rhine, the fron-
tiers were to remain the same as they had
been before the war; the electors of Ba-
varia and  Cologne were to be restored to
all the rights  which  they  had enjoyed
before  the war; in return  for  which
she was  to  acknowledge Prussia  as a
kingdom;  the crowns  of  France  and
Spain were never to be united in one per-
son, &c.   The emperor demanded that
France should restore every thing  which
she had received by the peaces of Miin-
ster, Nimeguen and Ryswick, as well as all
the conquered places in Spain, Italy and
the Netherlands, and that the whole of the
Spanish possessions should devolve upon
the house of Hapsburg.  England demand-
ed the acknowledgment of the Protestant
succession;  the removal of the Pretender
from  France; the cession of the  islands
of St.  Christopher, &c.; the conclusion
of a treaty of commerce, and  a  proper
indemnification for the allies. The French
diplomatists soon  found opportunity to
interrupt  the  negotiations,  in  order to
bring about  a separate peace with Eng-
land, in which case they hoped to obtain
more moderate  conditions from the oth-
ers.  The queen of England, in fact, con-
cluded an armistice, by which the opera-
tions of her allies were impeded ; and the
emperor was  at last obliged to give up
Spain, and to enter into a disadvantageous
treaty of evacuation. Aug. 19, France and
England agreed  on the chief points.  Tho
states-general, Portugal, Prussia, Savoy
(which received Sicily), &c, joined in the
negotiations; and  thus France effected,
April  11, 1713,  nine separate  treaties at
Utrecht.   England obtained from France 
UTRECHT, PEACE OF—UT, RE, MI.
493
every thing mentioned above, from Spain
Gibraltar and Minorca, with the trade in
negroes to the Spanish West Indies, and
laid  the foundation of her naval power,
which has since become so gigantic.  In
this respect, also, the treaty of commerce
and navigation, signed on the same day,
is  remarkable, the principles  of which
Napoleon  wished  to cany into effect
against England one hundred years  later.
The seventeenth article provided that it
should be lawful  for  all the subjects
of Great Britain to sail to ports at war
with  France,  and  for those of  France
to sail to ports at war with Great Britain,
and  not  only to  go from  the  hostile
ports to  a neutral  one, but also  from a
neutral port to a hostile one.  This privi-
lege of passage was to  comprehend all
persons on board  of the vessels  not sol-
diere ; and, by article eighteen, this liber-
ty was extended to all goods on board of
the vessel, even  if they should  belong to
the enemy, contraband of war  excepted.
The commercial liberty of neutrals was
acknowledged, and  the  principle  that
"free ships make  free goods."—See Le
Traiti d'Utrecht riclami par  la  France,
&c. (Leipsic, 1814).—England felt, on the
occasion of this treaty, what influence she
might have on  the  continental powers;
as her secession  forced her allies to make
similar treaties.  By this secession, she
obtained advantageous conditions; for the
formidable  Dunkirk was  incapacitated
from doing  her  harm;  she obtained
Hudson's bay, and  great consequence in
the West Indies, the possession of Gibral-
tar, and, through this, the command of the
Mediterranean.  Peace was not concluded
at Utrecht with the emperor and the  em-
pire : the  negotiations were not brought
to the desired  close until 1714,  at Rastadt
and Baden. Spain and Austria were not
reconciled to  each other until the treaty
of Vienna, April 30, 1725.  (See Louis
XIV, Eugene, and Marlborough.)
  Ut, Re,  Mi, &e.   Ut, in music, is the
first of the syllables by which, to this day,
the tones of the diatonic scale  are desig-
nated  in   France  and   Italy.  Guido
d'Arezzo, a Benedictine monk, and, at a
later period, abbot  at Avellana, a native
of Arezzo, was distinguished, in the  elev-
enth century,  by his method of  instruc-
tion in singing, and the important improve-
ments which  he introduced  into music.
Until his time, the want ofa proper desig-
nation of the tones of the octave made it
necessary to practise, with much labor, the
canto fermo, so called, the only method of
  VOL. XII.        42
singing  then in use; and the  difficulty
was increased  as the proportion of the
semitones  to  the  various  tetrachords
could not well be determined; and hence
a false intonation was almost always the
consequence.  In dividing  the compass
of the tones then in use, he employed,
instead of the Greek tetrachords (a series
of" from  four to four tones), the hexachords
(a series of six  tones), of which the first
began with C, the second  with  F, the
third with G, which hexachords contained
the whole compass (called, by the Greeks,
a diagram)  of the diatonic tones then in
use.  Each of his hexachords contained
six  diatonic tones, which he  named  from
the initial syllables of the hemistichs of a
hymn to St. John the Baptist, probably in
order to exercise his pupils in the dis-
tinct pronunciation of the vowels.  The
syllables which he used were  the  itali-
cized ones  of the following fines:—

      Ut queant laxis iJesonare fibris
      Mira gestorum .Famuli tuorum,
      Solve polluti jLabii reatum,
            Sancle Johannes.

Thus originated the mode of designating
the six  diatonic tones, C, D, E, F, G, A,
by the syllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la.  After
Guido's time, the syllable si (the initial
lettere of Sancte Johannes, in the last line
of the above strophe) was added  for the
sound B of our scale, in order to fill the
scale up to the octave; and, as the increas-
ing extent of the compass of the tones re-
quired,  the number  of hexachords,  or
rather heptachords, was augmented.  But
as, according to the fundamental  rule  of
Guido's solmization, the syllables mi, fa,
must  always fall upon  the  semitones, a6
this is established by the first hexachord
in respect to the semitone E (mi), F (fa),
the subsequent  hexachords are  to  be
so arranged that mi, fa, shall always be
given to a  semitone;  and this change of
the commencement of a new hexachord
is called mutation.  To the mutation it is
owing that  every syllable not only deter-
mines one  tone, but  that the tones are
sometimes  designated by one, sometimes
by another  syllable, according to the situ-
ation of the semitones (mi, fa), as mi must
always be preceded byre. We must fur-
ther observe that the seventh syllable, si,
in general, only designates the seventh tone,
so that it is taken for B as well as B flat,
but is not reckoned in the hexachord.  If
we  therefore put several such hexachords
one under the other, according to the rule
of mutation, thus,— 
494                              UT, RE, ML

          C  D  E  F  G  A  H*  or,  Bb c  d   e   f   g   a  &c.


          ut, re,  mi,  fa, sol, la,-        .......


                     ut, re, mi,  -        fa, sol, la,  -   -   -


                        ut, re, mi,           fa, sol, la,   -   -


             * The English B.                  ut, re, mi,  fa, sol, la, &c,—

the tone C  receives  the appellation  ut,   tones of the hexachord (named, in English
sol, fa, the tone D the syllables re, la, sol,   and German, from  these  lettere  of the
&c.;  hence  the Italians designate the  six   alphabet) in the following way:—

       German appellation,.......     C           d           e
       Italian       "      .......sol, fa, ut,    la, sol, re,      la,  mi,

       German     "      .......     f           g            a
       Italian       "      .......  fa,  ut,     sol, re, ut,     la, mi, re.
The German H (the English B), the low-
er semitone of C, the Italians call B mi,
and the German B (the H lowered by b)
they call B fa.   The tones elevated by #
they designate by  the additional word
diesis; for example, C# is called sol, fa,
ut, diesis; D#  is called la, sol, re, diesis,
&c.  The tones lowered by b they desig-
nate by bemolle ; for example, D b is called
la, sol,  re,  bemolle ; E b is called la, mi, be-
molle, &lc.  In singing, the Italians, more-
over, use, instead of the syllable ut,  the
syllable do; hence not ut, re, mi, &c, but
do,  re,  mi, &c.  The French,  likewise,
still use Guido's names of  tones, but  not
in the  same way with the  Italians;  be-
cause, with the former, each syllable sig-
nifies the tone of the natural scale only;
hence  ut signifies only C, re only D, &c.
With them, also, H is not called B mi, but
only si; and our B b not B fa, but si bi-
molle, as they also call the flat tones bi-
molle, and the sharp ones diese; for ex-
ample, Db, Eb, Ab, &c, re bemolle, mi
bimolle, la bimolle; and C#, D#, F#, &c,
ut diise, re diise, fa diese, &c.  Guido is
said, moreover,  to have introduced the
notes, or points upon five lines, one above
the other, in order to designate by  them
the heights which had previously been
indicated by Latin letters.  He  also  en-
riched music by the invention of the C
and F  clefs, and  increased the diagram-
ma of the  Greeks, consisting of fifteen
chords, to twenty-one  (two octaves and a
sixth—
FABCDEFGab|cde f
a b
a b
S)
which system,  since that time, after the
Greek gramma, has also been called scala,
or  mam  harmonique  (harmonic  hand).
The latter name arose  from the circum-
stance that Guido had, in order to assist
the student, drawn a left hand, on the fin-
gers of which were marked, by letters, the
tones of the harpsichord, according to the
rules of the changes which it was neces-
sary to adopt before the addition of the
seventh tone (si, or H), in order to rise or
fall beyond the six tones used according
to the ancient way in the solfeggio, (q. v.)
He further  determined the  extent, the
proportion and the intervals, as well of the
octaves among each other as of the fifths
and fourths.  He is likewise said to have
invented  the polyplectrum,  or  spinet.
These inventions and  discoveries, which
have had  the greatest influence upon the
developement of  harmony,  have  been,
however,  in  part denied to him, and are
said  by some to have  been made at an
earlier period, by othere at a  later.  The
establishment of the musical scale, how-
ever, is undeniably his, and has  been of
the greatest importance as affording  the
means of learning that well within a few
weeks which formerly  could be acquired
only by the zealous application of years. 
UT,  RE, MI—V.
495
Of his life we only know that he had to
suffer much from enemies, envious of his
fame, and therefore was obliged  to leave
his convent for some  time, and to retire
to his native city.  He was much favor-
ed  by popes Benedict VIII  and John
XIX or XX; and the  decree of this lat-
ter pope silenced, at last, the enemies of
this great and learned  inventor.  On his
return from Rome, he settled in the con-
vent of the abbot of Pomposa,  in  the
duchy of Ferrara, at  the request of the
abbot himself.   He wrote  here several
musical treatises, particularly his compen-
dium entitled Micrologus.  Gerbert abbot
of St. Blasius, in the Schwartzwald, has
collected, in his  Scriptores ecclesiastici de
Musica  sacra, every thing that he  could
obtain of Guido's  works, which, howev-
er, at present, are valuable only as antiqui-
ties.  The time of his death cannot be
given with certainty.
   UTzscHNEinER, Joseph von,  born in
1763, at Rieden, in Bavaria, in 1773 com-
menced his studies  at Munich, and, in
1783, became doctor of philosophy at the
univereity of Ingolstadt. He was made
administrator  of the  government salt-
works in  the principality of Berchtolds-
gaben, and afterwards connected with the
department  of the finances.  He  after-
wards founded, at Benedictbeurn, in con-
nexion with Fraunhofer (q. v.), the optical
institute, which has since become so cel-
ebrated. He was afterwards again intrust-
ed  with  the administration of the salt-
works.  In 1811, he was put at the head
of the board for administering the sinking
fund.   After the peace of Paris, in 1814,
he requested his discharge, and established
a cloth manufactory.   He was a member
of the diet of Bavaria.  In 1827, he was
V ;  the twenty-second letter of the Eng-
lish alphabet, a labial, formed by the junc-
tion of the upper teeth with the lower lip,
and a gentle expiration.  V differs from
/"principally in the circumstance that the
breath  is emitted  more  gently in  pro-
nouncing it.  (See F, and B.)  It is, like
/, a semi-vowel.  The  English v  corre-
sponds in sound nearly  to the German w,
and therefore belongs to tiie  class  which
appointed to take  charge of a polytech-
nical school, to be established in Munich.
  Uwaroff, Sergius de, since 1824, im-
perial  Russian  privy-counsellor,  since
1818, president of the Russian academy of
sciences at Petersburg, has published vari-
ous treatises on archaeological and histori-
cal subjects.  Among these are Essai sur
les  Mysteres  d'Eleusis  (on the  ante-Ho-
meric period); Nonnus of Panopolis (Pe-
tersburg, 18l7);  Examen Critique  de  la
Fable d'Hercule (against Dupuis's Origine
de tous les Cultes).  In 1822, he was made
director of the department of manufac-
tures  and internal commerce.   By his
Projet d'une Acadimie Asiatique (1810), he
gave the first impulse to the  study of the
Asiatic  languages  in  Petersburg;  upon
which a department for Oriental languages
was founded in the academy, and also an
Asiatic museum, and two professorships
for  the same study in the university.  Al-
exander also founded, in 1823, in connex-
ion  with the department for foreign af-
fairs, an institution in  which pupils are
instructed in Arabian, Persian and Turk-
ish.  Mr. Adehing has the  direction of
the  latter.  Means have since been pro-
vided for instruction in Oriental tongues,
in other cities of  the  empire, as Casan,
Omsk, Tiflis, Astrachan, &c.
  Uz, John Peter, a German  poet of note,
was born in 1720, in Anspach.   He stud-
ied  law, received various legal  appoint-
ments, and died in  Anspach,  in  1796.
Ch.  F.  Weisse  published his   poetical
works at Vienna, 1804, in two  volumes.
Uz  is distinguished, as a lyric poet, for his
mirthful  strains,  and for his hymns, of
which several are yet sung in the German
Protestant churches.  His epistolary style
is easy.
the Germans call Blaselaute.   The Ger-
mans have the character v, but it general-
ly has the same sound with /, as in Voter
(pronounced fater).  Sometimes it  cor-
responds to  the German w, as in Pulver.
The Romans had two different charactere
for the small letters u and v, but the cap-
ital V was common to both: hence many
other nations, who received their alphabet
from the Romans, continue to confound
V. 
496
V—VALAIS.
these letters.  V, as a numeral, denotes 5 :
when a dash was added at the top, thus,
V, it signified 500.  V. R. with the Ro-
mans stood for uti rogas.  (See Suffrage.)
V. D. D. stood for voto dedicatur; V. G.,
verbi gratia; V. L., videlicet.   On French
coins, it signified the mint of Troyes.  In
music,  V is used for the abbreviation of
the word violin; and, when written double,
implies both first and second violin.  In
ancient music, it had several other mean-
ings.   V. S. are the initials  for the Latin
verte subito, or the Italian voltisubito (turn
over quickly).
  Va (Italian); go on ; as,  Va  crescendo
(Go on increasing).
  Vaccination ; inoculation  with  the
cow-pox.   This is a poison, derived from
certain specific sores on the teats and ud-
ders of cows, and capable of being com-
municated  by accidental contact, where
the cuticle has been  removed, or by
means  of inoculation, to the  human sub-
ject. That subjects who  have taken the
vaccine disease accidentally, were thereby
secured from the small-pox, was popular-
ly known in  several of the  dairy  coun-
ties of  England.  But it was reserved for
Jenner to show, that the cow-pox could
be propagated  by  inoculation,  and that
the inoculated disease possessed the same
prophylactic power as the original  disor-
der.  Several years before Jenner wrote
on the  subject, some eminent physicians
had heard of the fact, and mentioned it cas-
ually in their writings; but doctor Jenner
was the firet who wrote  a treatise, with
the express view of bringing the remedy
into general application. This was in 1798;
and  the treatise was entitled an Inquiry
into the Causes and  Effects of the Variolae
Vaccinae, a Disease  discovered in some  of
the Western Counties of England, partic-
ularly  Gloucestershire, and known by the
Name  of the Cow-pox.  The value of the
discovery was at first a subject of warm
controversy;  but its great  importance  is
now generally acknowledged.  The cow-
pox is not a merely local affection, but
produces a  general, though extremely
mild,  disturbance  of the  constitution,
which  is ordinarily  so trivial as not to ex-
cite any alarm in the very youngest sub-
jects.   It seems probable, at present, that
it is not an infallible security against the
small-pox, although the number of fail-
ures is very small,  when due allowance
has been made for mistakes  and misrep-
resentations.  A small, inflamed spot, dis-
tinguishable about  the third day, shows
that the inoculation has succeeded. This
increases in size, becomes hard, and rises
above the level of  the  skin.   A  small
quantity of fluid can be discerned in the
centre on the sixth day, and  the  pustule
increases until the tenth day.  This fluid
will communicate the disease by inocula-
tion.  On the eighth day, when the pus-
tule  is  fully formed,  the  constitutional
effects  begin  to  appear,  and  manifest
themselves  by slight pain in the part,
headache, shivering, loss of appetite, &c.
These  subside spontaneously  in one or
two days.  During  the  general indispo-
sition, the  pustule  becomes surrounded
with a broad, circular, inflamed  margin,
called the  areola.   Afterwards the fluid
dries up,  and a dark-brown scab forms,
which remains for about a fortnight, and,
on  disappearing,  leaves  a  depression.
The  spot   continues   distinguishable
through life, either  by the  circumstance
of the  depression, or of its color being
somewhat lighter than that of the neigh-
boring parts.
  Vac una ; among the ancient Romans,
the goddess of leisure and repose.  It is
said  that  she was  worshipped even by
the Sabines.  The  peasants sacrificed to
her when the season  of field labor was
finished.
  Vacuum, in physics; a space devoid of
all matter.  Whether  there be any such
thing in nature as an absolute vacuum, or
whether the universe be completely full,
is a question that has given rise to disputes
among  philosophers in all  ages.   The
ancients distinguished a vacuum coacerva-
tum and a vacuum interspersum, or dis-
seminatum.  By the former they under-
stood a place destitute of matter, such as
would exist if God were to annihilate all
the air and other  bodies within the walls
of a chamber.  By the latter they desig-
nated the space supposed to be naturally
interspersed in and among bodies, in the
pores of the same body, and in the inter-
stices between different bodies.
  Vademecum ; a word compounded of
three Latin  words, signifying  Go with
me.  The title was first given to an as-
cetic work—Vademecum piorum Christia-
norum (Cologne, 1790).  It is now some-
times given to manuals, and to works of
entertainment.  It  is  also used to denote
a favorite  author, whom a person "con-
stantly carries with him.
   Vaillant, Le.   (See Levaillant.)
   Valais  (in German, Wallis), one  of
the twenty-two cantons of the  Helvetic
confederacy, borders on  the  Pays  de
Vaud, Berne, Uri, and Tessin, and the
Sardinian  territories.   (See Switzerland.)
It was formerly more populous  than it is. 
VALAIS—VALENCIA.
497
at present.  It consists of sixteen small
valleys  and a large  one, which extends
from east to west, and is traversed by the
Rhone, and bordered on the north and on
the south by the loftiest summits of Swit-
zerland.  (See Alps.)  Over the Bernard
(q. v.) and Simplon (q. v.) lead two roads
to Italy.  In  the  northern chain, which
separates Valais from Berne, are the most
celebrated of the  Bernese Alps, the Fin-
steraarhorn, Jungfrau, Shreckhorn,  &c.
The climate and productions are  very
various: the  mountains are almost per-
petually covered with snow and ice, while
the valleys enjoy  a warm climate and a
fruitful soil, produce corn, wine and fruits,
and furnish good pasturage. The breeding
of cattle is the chief occupation of the in-
habitants, who are also supported in  part
by the travel, particularly over the Sim-
plon.   There are here  mineral springs ;
and iron, copper, lead, marble and  coal
are found in the mountains.   The inhab-
itants are Catholics :  those of Upper Va-
lais speak  German, and those of Lower
Valais, French.   They are accused of in-
dolence and want of  cleanliness:  the
goitre is common among  them.  In the
middle  ages, the  country belonged to the
kingdom of Burgundy, and,  in 1032,  was
annexed to the German empire.  Upper
Valais afterwards rendered itself inde-
pendent, conquered (1475) Lower Valais,
which had been ceded to  Savoy, and en-
tered into a league with  Berne, and, in
1529,  with the Swiss confederacy.   In
1810,  it was annexed to France, under the
title of the department  of the Simplon,
and, in 1815, was constituted the twenty-
first canton of the confederacy.
  Valckenaer,  Louis Caspar, a  cele-
brated Dutch philologist and critic, born at
Leuwarden, in Friesland, studied  ancient
literature, philosophy and   theology at
Franeker, where, in 1741,  he was ap-
pointed professor of the Greek language,
and  afterwards held the same  post at
Leyden, till his death, in  1785.  He was
distinguished for  his profound and exten-
sive learning ; and his  commentaries on
several Greek authors are highly esteem-
ed, particularly those on Theocritus, the
PhoenissfB( 1755), and the Hippolytus (1768)
of Euripides, and on Callimachus (1799).
His Opera  Philologica were published at
Leipsic in 1808 (2 vols.).  His Diatribe in
Euripidis perditorum Dramatum Reliquias
was republished at Leipsic in 1824.
  Valckenaer, Jan  or John, son of the
preceding, after completing  his studies at
Leyden, was appointed professor of law
at Franeker.  His literary reputation,  and,
               4*2 *
particularly, his zealous attachment to the
anti-Orange party, procured him, in 1787,
the chair of jurisprudence at Leyden ; but
the return of the stadtholder obliged him
to quit Holland the  same year.  Valcke-
naer then went to France, and, in 1793,
was  one of the deputies, to obtain from
the convention the  aid of French arms
for the Dutch  patriots.  In 1795, he re-
turned to Holland, and  was appointed
professor of public law, and, in 1796, was
sent  ambassador  to  Spain, and,  at a later
period, was employed on several impor-
tant missions  to  other countries. When
Louis Bonaparte, in 1810, made the last
effort to prevent the union of Holland
with France, Valckenaer was sent to Na-
poleon on the subject; after which he re-
tired to private life, devoting himself, till
his death, in 1821, to study.  Among his
works are  his treatise De  Peculio quasi
castrensi veteribus Jurisconsultis incognito,
and  some legal  opinions  on  political
affairs.
  Val D'Arno ; the valley of the Arno,
which runs by Florence.  (See Arno.)
  Val di Demona.   (See Demona.)
  Valdivia ; a city and strong fortress of
Chile, on the river of its  name, three
leagues from the sea.  It was founded  in
the year 1551, by the conqueror  Pedro de
Valdivia, who gave  it his name, and ob-
tained immense sums of gold from its vi-
cinity.  In 1590, it was taken and plun-
dered by the Araucanians (q. v.), the native
inhabitants of the country.  It was again
rebuilt and fortified by the  Spaniards.
The harbor is situated in a beautiful bay
formed by the  river, and is the safest, the
strongest  from its  natural  position, and
the most capacious, of any of the ports
in the South  sea.  The town contains a
college, built by the  Jesuits, several con-
vents, a parochial church, and  a public
hospital.  It is one  hundred and eighty-
three miles south of Conception.
   Valencia; a city of Spain, capital of the
province of the same name, on the Guadila-
viar, two miles from the sea; one hundred
and  seventy miles south-east of Madrid ;
lon.  23' W.;  lat. 39° 29' N.; population,
about 80,000 in the city, and 20,000 in the
villages and environs.   It is situated in a
fertile tract of country, and has a mild
and pleasant climate.  It contains a ca-
thedral, seventy-four churches, forty con-
vents, sixteen hospitals, two public libra-
ries, an academy of painting, a  college, a
custom-house, and a univereity.   The
Alameda is a  delightful walk,  bordered
with orange, pomegranate and palm trees,
and  the  air is perfumed with  the mul- 
498                   VALENCIA—VALENTINIANS.
berry, lemon and orange trees of the en-
virons.  The streets are narrow, winding,
and crossed by a  multiplicity of lanes.
Many of the buildings are without chim-
neys.   The university  was founded  in
1470,  and  has 58 professors  and 1500
students; but the course of study is anti-
quated.   The inhabitants  excel in the
arts more than in literature.  The princi-
pal manufacture  is  that of  silk.   The
maritime trade is carried on by lighters,
which load and unload vessels at the vil-
lage of Grao, near the mouth of the river.
It is an ancient town, supposed to bethe
Valentia Edetanorum of  the  Romans,
and was the  capital of the kingdom of
Valencia, which  continued from 713  to
1238.   It is now  an archbishop's see.—
The province of  Valencia (255,000 in-
habitants)  lies between the Mediterra-
nean sea, Murcia,  Cuenca, Arragon and
Catalonia.  It is the Eden of Spain, and
enjoys the finest climate in Europe.  The
face of the country is  diversified with
hills, valleys and small plains, well water-
ed by numerous  streams.  The Alicant
wine, olives, and  other  fruits, corn, flax
and heinp, with  bees,  silkworms,  and
rich mineral  productions, are among its
riches.  Manufactures are  also flourish-
ing, and, in the city of Valencia, upwards
of 22,000 workmen are engaged in the
manufacture of silk stuffs and stockings.
   Valenciennes ; a city of France, situ-
ated on the Scheldt, which  runs  through
the town in several  places, and here be-
comes navigable ;  lon. 3° 36' E.; lat. 50°
21' N.; population, 16,918. The form of
the town is circular; the streets narrow
and crooked; the houses  generally old
and ill built, many of them of  wood ; the
chief manufactures,  lace of great fine-
ness,  cambric, gauze and linen stuffs.
The public square is handsome.   It  is
supposed to have derived its name from
the emperor Valentinian I, who, pleased
with the temperature of the climate, and
charming situation of the  place, laid the
foundation of a town, about the year 367,
endowing  it with many privileges.    It
was taken by the allies, in 1793, after a
severe  siege,  but  was  given up to the
French in 1794.
   Valentine, St., is called by some ec-
clesiastical writers bishop,  but, according
to others, was only a presbyter.  He suf-
fered martyrdom in the reign  of the em-
peror Claudius II, having been beheaded
at Rome, and was early canonized.  He
was so  eminently distinguished for his
love and charity, that the custom of choos-
ing Valentines, or special loving friends,
on his day (Feb. 14), is supposed by some
to have originated from  thence:  othere
deduce it  from  the  birds choosing their
mates on this day ; but it  is more likely
to be a corruption  of a  practice during
the Roman Lupercalia, when the  names
of young  women were put into a box,
and drawn out by the young men.
  Valentini,  George William,  baron
von, lieutenant-general in  the  Prussian
service, a military writer of  reputation,
was born in 1775, and educated in Ber-
lin.   He  served  as  a lieutenant  in  the
campaign   on  the   Rhine  against  the
French, and, after  the   peace,  wrote a
treatise  on Partisan  Warfare,  which  has
gone through four editions.  In 1805, he
served against the Swedes  as a captain.
In 1809, he served in the Austrian army
as  aid-de-camp  of  the present king of
the  Netherlands,  and  published, after
the peace,  his History of the Campaign
of  1809.   In  1810, he  served  in  the
Russian  army  against the  Turks.  In
1811, he  returned to the Prussian  ser-
vice, and was of much use in the cam-
paigns of 1813,1814 and 1815.   After the
peace, he  was  made commandant of the
fortress  of Glogau,  in Silesia, where he
wrote his Treatise on War, in Reference
to Great  Operations  (Berlin, 1821—24,
3 vols.).
  Valentinian ;  the name of three Ro-
man emperors.   Valentinian I, son of
Gratian, a distinguished general, was bom
in  Pannonia, and ascended the  throne
A. D. 364.  He  divided  the government
of the empire with his brother Valens, to
whom he  intrusted the eastern provinces.
Brave, but ignorant, rude, and addicted to
the grossest debaucheries, Valentinian  was
unable to arrest the  decline of the  em-
pire.  He died  in 375.   (See  Rome, His-
tory of.)—Valentinian II, son of the pre-
ceding, administered the government after
the  death of his elder   brother Gratian
(383), under the  regency of his mother,
Justina, and was killed by one of his  offi-
cers, Arbogastes,  a Gaul, in 392.— Valen-
tinian HI, son of Constantius and Placidia,
a daughter of Theodosius the Great, was
proclaimed emperor (425), in  the sixth
year of his age, on the death of his uncle
Honorius. (See Western Empire.)  During
his reign, Spain was overrun by the Sue-
vi  and the Visigoths (see Goths),  Africa
by the  Vandals,  Britain by the Anglo-
Saxons, Gaul by the Franks, and Italy by
the Huns under  Attila.   Feeble and vo-
luptuous,  he perished by a conspiracy in
455.  (See Vandals.)
   Valentinians.  (See  Gnostics.) 
VALENTINOIS—VALLA.
499
   Valentinois, Duchess of.   (See Di-
 ana of Poitiers.)
   Valeria.  (See Coriolanus.)
   Valerian  (Valeriana).  These plants
 are mostly herbaceous, with simple, oppo-
 site, pinnatifid leaves, and small flowers,
 usually disposed in a corymb or panicle.
 They are distinguished from most dico-
 tyledonous plants by having  three sta-
 mens, a number almost exclusively be-
 longing to the other great division of
 vegetables.  The species  are  numerous
 in the northern and temperate  parts of
 the eastern continent.  We have one  in
 our Western  States,  and a second in Can-
 ada.  The  root of the officinal valerian
 has an  acrid and somewhat bitter taste,
 and a strong, disagreeable odor.  It has
 been employed in medicine, principally in
 epilepsy and  hysterical  affections, but
 sometimes  as a vermifuge, and in inter-
 mittent fevers.  Cats are excessively fond
 of this plant,  so much  so  that  it is diffi-
 cult to preserve it in a garden  ; and rat-
 catchers employ  the roots to  draw the
 rats together, as they do oil  of anise.
 Other species have the same properties in
 a greater or less degree.
  Valerian,  Publius  Licinius, Roman
 emperor from A. D. 253 to 260, was born
in 190.  He was  descended of a noble
family, and had distinguished himself,  in
several campaigns, for  his mihtary skill,
and in general bore the character of great
magnanimity  and virtue.   The emperor
 Decius having  determined to  revive the
 censorship, for  the purpose of checking
 the decline of the empire, Valerian was
 unanimously named  for this post by the
 senate.   But  the corruption of Roman
 manners was  too great to be cured by the
 appointment of a censor.   Being declared
 emperor by the legions at the age of sixty-
 three  years, he  associated his son Gallie-
 nus  with  himself  in  the government.
 But the position of the  Roman empire
 was such, that the whole  period of their
 united reign  was little else than a scene
 of  internal confusion and foreign war.
 In  the  year '225, a new Persian empire
 had been founded in  Asia by Artaxerxes;
 and his  successor, Sapor, endeavored  to
 recover  the Persian provinces which had
 been conquered by the Romans.  Valeri-
 an  marched against  him at the head of
 his army, but  was  defeated and made
 prisoner near Edessa (260).  If the ac-
 counts of historians are not exaggerated,
 Sapor treated  him in  a most  unworthy
 manner.  The unhappy old man was daily
 exposed to the  insults of the people, and
 Sapor mounted on horseback by placing
his foot on the neck of his captive. When
Valerian died of grief, his skin was stuff-
ed, and preserved  by Sapor as a trophy of
victory.  The truth of this story is, how-
ever,  doubted by Gibbon (ch. x.).
  Valerius ; the name of many Romans.
The most distinguished of this name is the
chief instigator  of the conspiracy against
the last king, Tarquinius Superbus,  and
was famed for his love of liberty, of his
country and  of justice,  which procured
him the surname of Publicola, or Poplicola
(friend of the people).  He  and Brutus
wore the first consuls of the  new repub-
lic.   He  retained the   office  after  the
deathof Brutus, for some time exercised
it alone with the greatest impartiality, and
made several ordinances of great benefit
to the people, and highly conducive to
civil freedom.   He  was consul three
times successively in  a period of tranquil-
lity, and also distinguished himself  as a
general by  his  courage and  conduct.
Amongst others, he subdued and triumph-
ed over the Sabines.  Soon after, he  died
so poor that  his remains were interred at
the public expense.  A monument  was
erected to his  memory in  the forum.
The   Roman  women  wore mourning
for  him a year,  as  they had done for
Brutus.
  Valerius  Maximus ; a Roman histori-
an, who lived in the reign of the emperor
Tiberius.  He served in Asia under Sex-
tus Pompeius, and, returning to Rome,
appears to have taken  no part in public
affaire, but devoted his leisure to the com-
position of his  Dicta d Facta  Memora-
bilia, a collection of anecdotes and obser-
vations.  On the  revival of  literature, it
was one of the earliest books whieh issued
from the press after the invention of print-
ing.   Among the  best  modern editions
are those  of Torrenius  (Leyden, 1726,
4toA of Kapp (Leipsic, 1782, 8vo.),  and
of Helfrecht (Hoff, 1799, 8vo.).
  Valerius Flaccus, Caius.  (See Flac-
cus, Caius Valerius.)
  Valetta.  (See Malta.)
  Valette,  La, count de.  An account
of him is given under Lavalette ; and we
have to add here,  only, that he died Feb.
15,1830, and that  his relations have since
published  his Memoirs, which have been
translated  into English.
  Valhalla.   (See  Northern Mythol-
°gy-)
  Valide ; Sultana Valide.  (See  Ha-
rem.)
  Valktrias.  (See Northern Mythol-
ogy-)
  Valla,  Laurence, a celebrated philolo- 
500
VALLA—VALLIERE.
gist,  was born at Rome in 1406 or 1415.
At Pavia he was made professor of rheto-
ric ; but, the plague having dispersed the
members of the university, he lectured at
Milan, Genoa and Florence.  At length
he became known to Alphonso, king of
Arragon, whom he  followed in his wars
and travels from 1435 till 1442, when that
prince made himself master of the king-
dom of Naples.   In 1443, on the return
of pope Eugenius to Rome, he settled in
that city.  A work on the pretended  do-
nation of Constantine to the  holy see, re-
flecting on the characters of some of the
popes, having excited the  displeasure of
Eugenius, Valla returned to  Naples, and
opened a school of eloquence, to which ma-
ny scholars resorted. He narrowly escaped
suffering in consequence of the freedom
with which he attacked notions sanction-
ed by antiquity; and it was to the influ-
ence of Alphonso that he owed his pres-
ervation from the vengeance of the inqui-
sition.  At length he was invited to Rome
by Nicholas  V,  and there  commenced
giving lectures on rhetoric in 1450.  He
engaged in a literary dispute with George
Trapezuntius, on  the comparative merits
of Cicero and Quintilian, and carried on a
controversy with Poggio, which was con-
ducted  with much illiberality and viru-
lence by both  parties.  He died  in 1457
or 1465.  Among the revivers  of litera-
ture, Valla has always held a high rank,
which he  merited by unwearied applica-
tion and an enlarged course of study, in-
cluding history, criticism, dialectics, moral
philosophy and divinity.   Of his nume-
rous writings  his treatise  De Elegantia
Latini Sermonis  still maintains its repu-
tation.  His original works were publish-
ed together at Basle in 1543.
  Valladolid, or Mechoacan ; a city of
Mexico, and capital ofa state of the same
name (see Mechoacan); one hundred and
eight miles west of Mexico;  lon. 102° IP
W.; lat. 20° 51 N.; population, 18,000. It is
situated on a river near the west side of a
lake, which abounds with fish.  It is  the
see of a bishop, and contains a cathedral,
a college, an  hospital, and several con-
vents.  The elevation of the town above
the sea is 6396 feet.
  Valladolid, State of. (See Mechoa-
can.)
  Valladolid ; a city of Spain, in Leon,
capital of a province of the same name,
on  the  Pisuerga, at the junction of the
Esgueva, which flows through the town;
84 miles  north-west of Madrid ; lon. 4°
47' W.; lat. 41° 42' N.  It is situated in
the midst of an extensive plain, and con-
tains a cathedral, sixteen parish churches',
forty-six convents, three hospitals, and a
university, with 1250 students ; popula-
tion, 30,000.  The manufactures consist
of silks, coarse woollens, and earthen
ware.  It  is a bishop's  see, and was for-
merly more important than  at present.
Tiie streets are dirty, many of the houses
in decay,  and half-finished  edifices  are
the chief indications of its ancient splen-
dor. Philip II was a native of Valladolid,
and made it the occasional residence of
his court.
  Valle, Pietro della,  a celebrated trav-
eller of the  seventeenth  century, born
at Rome, in 1586, of a  noble family, has
left us accounts  of his  travels, which,
though not free from credulity, and a love
of the marvellous, are highly interesting.
Valle received a good education, and had
already become distinguished  for his ac-
quisitions, when an  unhappy passion, and
some other difficulties, induced him to
quit Rome and go  to  Naples.  Here he
came to the resolution of making a pil-
grimage to Palestine, and, going to Venice,
embarked there for the  East in 1614.  He
visited Turkey, Egypt,  Arabia, Persia and
India, passing upwards of eleven years
in these countries, and studying the lan-
guages and manners of the  inhabitants.
At Bagdad he  married  a beautiful Geor-
gian, Sitti Maani, of whom, however, he
was soon deprived by death.  This ca-
lamity hastened his  return; and, in 1626,
he  arrived in Rome,  with a  numerous
retinue of Eastern  followers, and  soon
after married a servant of his first wife,
also a Georgian.   Here he lived, devoted
to the arts and to scientific pursuits, and
wrote an account  of  his travels.   This
work,  consisting   of  fifty-four  letters,
shows the various  acquirements of the
author to advantage.  He died at Rome,
in 1652.
  Valliere, Louisa Frances de la Baume
le Blanc, duchess de la, mistress of Louis
XIV, descended from the ancient noble
family De  la Baume, was lady of honor
to the wife of the duke of Orleans.   For
two yeare, she cherished a secret passion
for Louis, who finally noticed her.  In
the height of her power, which she used
only to do good, her conduct never belied
her gentle disposition.  The king raised
the estate of Vaujour  and the barony of
St Christophe to a  duchy and a peerage
in favor of her and her children.  Super-
seded in the affections of Louis by Mad.
de  Montespan, Mile, de Valliere  retired
into the Carmelite convent in the suburb
St. Jacques,  where  she assumed  the 
VALLIERE—VALPY.
501
name of sister Louisa de la Misericorde,
and died in 1710.  She is considered the
author of Rifiexions sur la Misiricorde de
Dieu.  Mad. de Genlis has written a his-
torical romance founded on the events of
her life, and Lebrun  executed a  penitent
Magdalen, of which  the face is from her
portrait.
  Vallisneria  ;  a   very  extraordinary
plant, a submersed aquatic of the natural
order hydrocharidea.   It is found in Italy
and France, and grows in large quantities
in the still waters of most of tiie principal
rivers from the Delaware to the Mississip-
pi, near their banks. It presents partly sub-
merged fields of  narrow, linear  three-
nerved,  grass-like, olive-green leaves, ofa
thin and semitransparent substance, as  is
usual in all herbage growing underwater.
From the bosom of some of these arise sta-
miniferous flowers, contained in an ovate,
two-parted spathe.   The enclosed spadix
is covered with very  minute flowers, each
consisting of a  three-parted calyx with
two stamens.  These, when mature (from
the depth at which they are  submerged,
and the shortness of  the peduncle of the
spathe), have no means of attaining the
surface  of  the  water but  by breaking
their  connexion with the  parent.  As
soon as it arises  to the surface, the calyx
instantly springs open, and the anthers
burst; by which impulse, and the acci-
dents of the element on which  they are
launched, they, in fact,migrate accidentally
to the vicinity of the fertile flower, furnish-
ed with a long spiral peduncle, by which it
is enabled to attain the surface of the water
even at a variable depth. The spathe of the
latter is bifid and one-flowered, the calyx
three-parted and superior, the corolla of
three petals, the  stigma ligulate and bifid,
the capsule valveless, one-celled, and the
seeds numerous, attached to its sides.
  Valmy.   (See Kellermann.)
  Valois, House of.  (See France.)
  Valombrosa ; an  abbey on the  Apen-
nines, belonging to the diocese of Fiesole,
in the Florentine  territory, where John
Gualbert, the saint, founded an order  of
monks in 1038, subject to the rule  of St.
Benedict, and  called  the order of Valom-
brosa, from  the  place of its  origin, or the
gray monks, in reference to the former hab-
it of the members. The original purpose
of the institution was solitude and  undis-
turbed devotion ; but  the life of the hermit
was soon exchanged for  a monastic con-
stitution, and only a few hermitages were
retained in the neighborhood of the mon-
asteries.  The original monastery, which
Gualbert, from its situation in a thick for-
est of firs on the verge  of the mountain,
called Valombrosa, became rich by do-
nations ;  and, in 1637, the society erect-
ed  magnificent edifices.  This  order,
however, which has  always been simply
of a devotional  character, and was the
first  which admitted lay brethren, has
never become widely  extended, nor at-
tained any great importance.   Upon its
union with the Silvestrines, 1662, a black
dress was adopted.   Valombrosa remain-
ed undisturbed during all the storms of
the revolution, and  was a resort of the
priests during  the French dominion  in
Italy.  It is also of interest in the history
of art.   A  monk of Valombrosa, father
Henry  Hugford, practised  the art of
painting on stone, known by the name of
scagliola (q. v.),  during his residence  at
the beautiful hermitage i. Paradisino, near
Valombrosa.  The art  was subsequently
much improved in Florence.   This mon-
astery still exists, and is often visited by
devotees and travellers, who wish to en-
joy the lovely prospect  which it affords.
  Valparaiso ; the port of Santiago (q. v.),
the capital of Chile, on a bay of the Pa-
cific ocean, 55  miles south of Santiago,
and  225 north of Conception; lon. 71°
45' W.; lat. 33° 2> S.; population, 10,000.
Its situation is inconvenient for purposes
of building, as it stands at the  foot of a
mountain, and so near to its cliffs that ma-
ny houses are erected in the breaches and
on the acclivities. It  contains a parish
church and two convents, and is inhabited
chiefly by whites, mestizoes and mulattoes,
who are engaged in the trade  carried on
with Peru and Europe.  It has an excellent
harbor, every where  free from rocks and
shoals,  except  to the  north-east, where
there is a sunken rock within a cable's
length of the shore.
  Valpy, Abraham  John, son of doctor
Valpy, is master of a reading  school, and
proprietor of an extensive printing estab-
lishment in London.  He is an excellent
classical scholar, and a rival of the three
Manutiuses, and other learned printers of
former times.  He has published correct
editions of various Latin authors, and  a
much enlarged reprint of Brotier's Taci-
tus.  The works, however, on which his
reputation chiefly rests  are a new and im-
proved  edition of Stephens's Thesaurus
in conjunction with Mr. Barker of Trinity
college,  Cambridge;  and  a splendid re-
publication of the Delphin classics, with
variorum notes and other additions.  He
was also the publisher of the  Classical
Journal and the Pamphleteer.   Mr. Val- ,
py, at a great expense, founded the first ' 
502
VALPY—VALUE.
i
presses  for  printing  Greek  and  Latin
works in London.
  Valteline; lordship of Austrian Ita-
ly, at the foot of the Alps, now forming
the greater part of the province of Son-
drio.  It is  bounded  north  by  the Gri-
sons, and was subject  to these till 1797.
Square  miles, 1270; population, 81,000.
This country, called by the Germans Velt-
lin, or  Veltlein,  and by  the  inhabitants
Valle Tellina, is a valley, enclosed between
two chains of lofty mountains, about fifty
miles in length, and from eight to twenty
in breadth.   It is fruitful, and, throughout
its whole extent, watered by  the Adda.
The whole country is divided into three
districts, called Sopra, Mezzo and Sotto,
or Upper, Middle and Lower.  Tirano is
the capital of the first,  Sondrio of the
second,  and Morbegno of the last.
  Value.  The exchangeable  value  of
commodities depends, at any given peri-
od, partly on the comparative facility of
their  production, and partly on the rela-
tion of the supply and demand.  If any
two or more commodities respectively re-
quired the same  outlay of capital and la-
bor to bring them to market, and  if the
supply of each were adjusted exactly ac-
cording to the effectual demand; that is,
were they all in sufficient abundance, and
no more, to  supply  the  wants of those
able and willing to  pay the outlay upon
them, and  the ordinary rate  of profit at
the time; they would each bring the same
price, or be exchanged for the same quan-
tity of any other commodity.   But if any
single commodity  should happen  to re-
quire less or more capital and labor for
its production, while the quantity required
to produce the others continued stationa-
ry,  its  value, as compared with  them,
would,  in the first case,  fall,  and in the
second,  rise;  and, supposing the cost of
its production not to vary, its value might
be increased by a falling off in the supply,
or by an increase of demand, and con-
versely.  But it  is of importance to bear
in mind, that all variations of price aris-
ing from any disproportion in  the supply
and demand of such commodities as may
be freely produced in indefinite quanti-
ties, are temporary only;  while those that
are occasioned by changes in the cost of
their  production are permanent, at least
as much so  as the cause  in which they
originate. A general mourning occasions
a transient rise in the price of black cloth;
but, supposing that the fashion of wearing
black were  to continue,  its price would
not permanently vary; for those who pre-
viously  manufactured blue  and brown
cloths, &c, would henceforth manufac-
ture only black cloth; and, the supply be-
ing in this way increased to the same ex-
tent as the demand, the price would settle
at its old level.  When the  price of a
freely produced  commodity rises or falls,
such  variation  may evidently be  occa-
sioned either  by something  affecting  the
commodity, or by something affecting the
value of money.  But when, instead of
being confined to one, the  generality of
commodities rise or fall, the fair presump-
tion is, that the change is not in them, but
in the money with which they are com-
pared.  Exclusive, however, of the com-
modities now alluded to, there is a con-
siderable class, whose producers or holders
enjoy either an absolute or a partial mo-
nopoly of the supply. When such is the
case, prices depend entirely or principally
on the proportion between the supply and
demand, and are not liable to be influ-
enced, or only in a secondary degree, by
changes in the cost of production.  An-
tique  statues  and gems; the  pictures of
the great masters; wines of a peculiar fla-
vor, produced in small quantities, in par-
ticular situations; and a few other articles,
exist under what may be called absolute
monopolies: their supply cannot be in-
creased, and their price must, therefore,
depend entirely  on  the  competition of
those who may wish to buy them, without
being, in the slightest degree, influenced by
the cost of their production.   Monopolies
are sometimes established by law; as when
the power to supply the market with a par-
ticular article is made over to one individ-
ual, or society of individuals, without any
limitation of the price at which it may be
sold; which, of course, enables those pos-
sessed of the monopoly to exact the high-
est price for it that the competition of the
buyers will afford, though such price may
exceed the cost of production in any con-
ceivable degree.  The rights conveyed by
patents sometimes establish a valuable mo-
nopoly ; for they enable the inventors of
improved  methods of production to main-
tain, during the continuance of the patent,
the price  of the article at a level which
may be much higher than is required to
afford them the  ordinary rate of profit.
This advantage, however, by stimulating
invention, and exciting to new discoveries,
of which it is the natural and appropriate
reward, instead of being injurious, is bene-
ficial to the public.  (See Patents.)  There
are also partial  monopolies,  depending
upon situation,  connexion, fashion,  &c.
These,  and other inappreciable  circum-
stances, sometimes  occasion a difference 
VALUE.
503
of thirty per cent or more, in the price of
the same article, in shops not very distant
from each other.  The  effects  on  prices
produced by the opening of new markets,
or new sources of supply, and  the effect
of war in obstructing the ordinary chan-
nels of commercial intercourse,  and occa-
sioning extreme fluctuations in the supply
and price of commodities, are well known.
When  a tax  is laid on a commodity, its
price necessarily rises in a corresponding
proportion; for otherwise the  producers
would  not  obtain  the  ordinary rate of
profit,  and  would, of course,  withdraw
from the business.  Speculation has also
a great influence on prices.   It very rarely
happens that either the actual  supply of
any  species of produce in extensive de-
mand, or the intensity of that demand,
can  be exactly measured.   Every trans-
action in which an individual buys prod-
uce  in order to sell it again, is, in fact, a
speculation.   The buyer anticipates that
the  demand for  the  article he has pur-
chased will be such, at some future peri-
od,  either  more  or less distant, that he
will be able to dispose of it with a profit;
and  the success  of the speculation de-
pends,  it is evident, on the skill with
which he has estimated the circumstances
that  must determine the future price of
the commodity.  It follows, therefore, that
in all highly commercial countries, where
merchants are possessed of large capitals,
and where they are left to  be guided in
the use of them  by their own  discretion
and  foresight, the prices of commodities
will frequently be very much influenced,
not  merely by the  actual occurrence of
changes in the accustomed relation of the
Bupply and demand, but. by the anticipa-
tion of such changes.   It is the business
of the merchant to  acquaint himself with
every  circumstance affecting the partic-
ular description of commodities in which
he deals.  He endeavors to obtain,  by
means  of  an extensive  correspondence,
the  earliest and most authentic informa-
tion with respect to eveiy thing that may
affect their supply or demand, or the cost
of their  production;  and if he learned
that  the supply of an article has  failed,
or that, owing to changes of fashion, or
to the opening of new channels of com-
merce,  the  demand for it  has been in-
creased, he would most likely be disposed
to become  a  buyer,  in anticipation  of
profiting by the rise of price, which, un-
der the circumstances of the case, could
hardly fail of taking place; or, if he were
a holder of the article, he would refuse to
part  with it, unless for a higher price than
he would previously have accepted.   If
the intelligence received by the merchant
had been of a contrary description;  if,
for example, he had learned that the arti-
cle was now produced with greater facili-
ty,  or  that there was a falling off in the
demand  for  it, caused by a change  of
fashion, or by the shutting up of some of
the markets  to which it had previously
been admitted,  he would have acted dif- j
ferently: in this case, he would have an-
ticipated a fall of prices, and would either
have declined purchasing  the article, ex-
cept at a reduced rate,  or have endeav-
ored to get rid  of it, supposing him to be
a holder, by offering it at  a lower price.
In  consequence of these operations, the
prices of commodities, in different places
and periods,  are brought comparatively
near to equality. All abrupt transitions
from scarcity  to abundance,  and from
abundance to scarcity,  are avoided;  an
excess in one case is made to balance a
deficiency in another, and the  supply is
distributed with  a degree  of steadiness
and regularity  that  could hardly have
been deemed attainable.   The risk  to
which  merchants are exposed, when they
either sell off any commodity at a reduced
price, in anticipation  of a fall, or  buy at
an  advanced  price, in anticipation of a
future  rise, is a consequence principally
of the  extreme difficulty of ascertaining
with accuracy the grounds on which  a;;
abundant or a deficient supply,  or an  in-
creasing  or decreasing  demand, may be
expected. Rules can here be of no ser-
vice ; every thing depends upon the tal-
ent, tact  and knowledge of the  party.
Priority, but, above all, accuracy of intel-
ligence,  is, in  such  cases, of the utmost
consequence.   Without well  authenti-
cated data to go upon, every step taken
may only lead  to error.  The instances,
indeed, in which speculations, apparently
contrived with the  greatest judgment,
have ended in bankruptcy and ruin, from
a deficiency in this essential requisite, are
so very numerous that every one must be
acquainted with them.  When a few lead-.
ing merchants purchase in anticipation of
an  advance,  or sell  in  anticipation of a
fall, the speculation is often pushed be-
yond all  reasonable limits,  by the opera-
tions of those who are influenced by imita-
tion only, and who have never, perhaps,
reflected for  a* moment on the grounds
on  which a variation of price is  antici-
pated.   In speculation,  as in  most other
things, one individual derives confidence
from another.  One  purchases or sells,
not because he has any really accurate in- 
504
VALUE—VAMPIRE.
formation as  to  the state of the demand
and supply, but because  some one else
has done so  before  him.  The original
impulse  is thus rapidly extended; and
even those who are satisfied that a specu-
lation,  in anticipation of a rise of prices,
is unsafe, and that there will be a recoil,
not unfrequently adventure, in  the ex-
pectation that they shall be able to with-
draw before  the  recoil has begun.  It
may, we believe, speaking generally,  be
laid  down as a  sound practical rule, to
avoid having any thing to do with a spec-
ulation in which many have already en-
gaged.   The competition of the specula-
tors  seldom fails  speedily to render  an
adventure that might have been originally
safe, extremely  hazardous.   If  a com-
modity happen to  be at an unusually re-
duced  price in any particular market, it
will rise the moment that different buyers
appear in the field;  and supposing,  on
the other hand, that it is bringing an un-
usually  high  price, it will fall, perhaps,
far below the cost of production, as  soon
as supplies begin to be poured in  by dif-
ferent merchants.  Whatever, therefore,
may be the success of those who origin-
ate a speculation, those who enter into it
at an advanced  period are almost sure to
lose.  To have  been  preceded by others
ought not, in such matters, to inspire con-
fidence :  on the contrary, it ought, unless
there be something special in the case, to
induce every considerate person to de-
cline interfering with it   The  mainte-
nance of the  freedom of intercourse be-
tween different countries,  and the more
general diffusion  of sound instruction,
seem to be the  only means byr which
those miscalculations, that are often pro-
ductive of great national  as well  as pri-
vate loss,  can be either obviated or miti-
gated.   It is superfluous, perhaps, to ob-
serve that the precious metals are liable
to all the variations of value already al-
luded to.  Not only, therefore, are prices,
as was already remarked,  affected by va-
riations in the cost and supply of  com-
modities, but also by changes in the cost
and  supply of gold  and  silver, whether
arising from the exhaustion of old, or the
discovery of new mines, improvements in
the art of mining, changes of fashion, &c.
Hence it is, that tables of the  prices of
commodities, extending for a considerable
period, communicate far less  solid  in-
formation than is generally supposed, and,
unless the necessary allowances be made,
may lead to the most unfounded conclu-
sions.  The real value of  any commodity
depends on the quantity of labor required
for its production ; but supposing that we
were to set about inferring this real value,
or the ultimate sacrifice required to obtain
the commodity, from its price, it might
happen (had the quantity  of labor re-
quired for its production declined, but in
a less degree than the quantity required
to produce gold and silver), that its value
would appear to rise when  it had really
diminished.   When,  however, the rate
of wages, as well as the price of com-
modities, is given upon authentic data, a
table of prices is valuable, inasmuch as it
shows the extent of the command over
the necessaries and conveniences of life,
enjoyed by the bulk of the community,
during, the period through which  it ex-
tends.   Those desirous  of detailed infor-
mation  as to the prices of commodities
in Great  Britain,  in  distant times, may
consult  the elaborate  tables in the third
volume of sir F. M. Eden's work On  the
Poor;  and  the fourth  volume of Mac-
pherson's  Annals of Commerce.  Arbuth-
not's  Tables  of Ancient Coins,  Weights,
Measures, Prices, fyc, are  well  known;
but the statements are not much to be de-
pended  upon.  The Traiti de Mitrologie
of M. Paucton (4to., Paris, 1780) is the best
work on this curious and difficult subject.
  Vampire.  The vampire bat (vesper-
tilio  spectrum) is  reddish-brown,  and
about the size of a magpie.  It inhabits
South America.  It has been accused  of
destroying men and animals by sucking
their blood.   "But  the  truth," says Cu-
vier, in his Regne Animal," appears to  be,
that it inflicts only small wounds, which
may probably become inflammatory and
gangrenous from the influence of the cli-
mate."   It is not altogether improbable
that these animals gave origin to the fable
of the harpies (q. v.);  at least, some an-
cient authors make mention of these bats.
Adelung believes the word vampire to be
of Servian origin.  The belief in blood-
sucking spectres, also called vampires, is
very old.  The modern Greeks, according
to Touraefort's Relation d'un Voyage du
Levant (1st vol., p. 52), call such monsters
broucolacas; but even the ancient Greeks
had their tunovaai; and the  lamia and le-
mures of the Romans originated from  the
same superstition.  In  1732, great  com-
motions were caused in Hungaiy, and
particularly  in Servia, by the general be-
lief in human vampires, so that investiga-
tions were instituted by the government.
The common people  believed that the
bodies of persons who died under sentence
of excommunication  for sorcery or other
crimes, did not decay, but devoured their 
VAMPIRE—VANADIUM.
505
own flesh, and, during the night, left their
graves, and sucked the  blood of persons
with whom they had been connected, so
as to kill them.
  Van ; a Dutch preposition. (See Von.)
  Van der Velde, Adrian, William,  and
Charles.  (See  Velde.)
  Van Diemen's Land.   (See  Diemen's
Land.)
  Van Dyck.   (See page 509.)
  Van Eyck.   (See Eyck.)
  Van  Speyk, John  Charles  Joseph,
bom  in  1802  or  1803,  in  Amsterdam,
lost his parents early, was educated in an
orphan asylum, and learned a mechanic's
trade, which he soon quitted to enter the
navy.  He distinguished  himself  in the
battle  at Palembang,  and was  made a
lieutenant.   Feb. 5, 1831, he was in com-
mand, of a gun-boat at the siege of Ant-
werp.  Being driven by the wind up to
the  city,  he was attacked  by the Bel-
gians, notwithstanding  an armistice then
existed.  Upon their coming on deck and
insulting the Dutch flair, in spite  of his
repeated warning that he should blow
them up, he went below, and was shortly
after found, by  one of the crew, in the at-
titude of prayer.   He told the man  that
the crew  must take care of themselves,
and, after a brief space, fired a pistol  into
the  powder magazine, containing about
1500 pounds of powder, aud blew up the
vessel.  Four  of the crew, consisting of
thirty-one,  were saved  : all the rest, with
the Belgians, about forty on board, perish-
ed.  The king of the Netherlands  order-
ed that there should be always a vessel in
the Dutch navy bearing the name of  Van
Speyk.
   Van Swieten.  (See Swieten, Van.)
   Vanadium ; the name  of a newly-dis-
covered  rnetal.  It was  firet found  in a
lead mine at Zimapan, in Mexico, in  the
year 1801,  by Del  Rio,  who announced it
as  a new metal, under the name of ery-
thronium;  but  the same mineral having
soon afterwards been examined by Collet
Descotils, he  asserted  that erythronium
was merely impure chromium.  Del Rio
himself adopted the opinion of the French
chemist,  and considered the mineral as a
subchromate of lead.  In the year 1830,
Sefstroin discovered this  substance  in a
Swedish iron,  remarkable for its ductility,
obtained  from  the iron mine of Jaberg,
not far from Jbnkoping, in Sweden.   He
named it  Vanadium,  from  Vanadis, a
Scandinavian  deity.  The finery  cinder
of the cast iron of Jaberg contains more
vanadium than the iron itself, and it exists
in it in the condition of vanadic acid. To
   VOL. XII.        43
obtain  the metal, the following process its
adopted:—The finery cinder is powdered,
and  mixed with nitre, and carbonate of
soda, in the proportions of one  part of
cinder,  one  of nitre, and two parts of
carbonate: this mixture is strongly cal-
cined for an hour.   The soluble portion
of the  powdered  mass is dissolved by
boiling water: the  solution is filtered, and
the excess of alkali saturated with nitric
acid, and afterwards precipitated  with
muriate of barytes,  or  acetate  of  lead.
The precipitate is vanadate of barytes or
lead, containing also some phosphate of
barytes or lead, silex, zircon and alumine.
While  it is still moist, it is to be decom-
posed by concentrated sulphuric acid : the
solution immediately becomes of a deep-
red color; and, after having digested the
mixture for half an hour, alcohol is add-
ed to it, and it is again  digested. Ether
is then formed, and the vanadic acid is re-
duced  to the state of salifiable  oxide, the
solution of which  is blue ; and, when  it
begins to assume a sirupy consistence,  it
is mixed, in a  platina  crucible, with  a
little fluoric acid,  to get rid of the silex;
the  evaporation is continued over the
naked  fire, and  the  sulphuric acid  is at
last expelled at a red heat.  The residue
is impure  vanadic  acid.  It is fused with
nitre, added in small portions at a time.
The vanadic acid combines with the pot-
ash, and expels the nitric acid; and  nitre
is added, until it is found, that, on cooling
a small jtortion of the  mass,  it ceases
to  be   red.  The  mass  is  afterwards
dissolved in water, and, after filtration, the
residue is slightly washed. A piece of
sal-ammoniac,  larger than  can  be  dis-
solved by it, is to be  put  into the filtered
liquid.  As this salt dissolves,  a  white
pulverulent precipitate  is formed, which
is vanadate of ammonia, insoluble in a
saturated solution of  sal-ammoniac. The
vanadate of ammonia ought to be washed,
first with a solution of sal-ammoniac, and
afterwards, to remove the sal-ammoniac,
with alcohol of 0.86.  It  is to be again
dissolved  in boiling water, (mixed with a
little ammonia,  filtered, and left to crys-
tallize.  It is  from thit? salt that vanadic
acid and  oxide are afterwards  obtained,
by heating  it gently in  open vessels to
procure the  former, and  in close vessels
to prepare the latter.  In order to obtain
the  metal, pieces of vanadic acid, which
have been previously fused, are  to be
mixed with pieces of potassium,  of equal
Imlk, in a porcelain  crucible ; the cover
is to b w-'ll fastened on, and the cruci-
ble  is  fi  be heated  with a spirit l.u_.j>» 
506
VANADIUM.
The reduction occurs almost instantane-
ously, with a kind of detonation.  The
crucible, when  cold, is to be put into wa-
ter, to dissolve the potash, and the reduced
vanadium is to  be collected on a filter: it
is  obtained  in the state of a black pow-
der, which shines in the sun, and takes a
grayish metallic lustre under the burnish-
er ; but this is not the true aspect of the
metal. Vanadium is white ; and, when its
surface  is  polished,  it  resembles silver
considerably, or molybdenum,  which, of
all metals, it is most like. It is not duc-
tile, and is easily reduced to a powder of
an iron-gray color.  It is a good conduct-
or of electricity.   The powder of vanadi-
um takes fire at a heat below redness,
bums without energy, and leaves  a black
unfused oxide.  Vanadium dissolves read-
ily  in nitric acid, and in aqua regia: the
solution has a fine blue  color.   The sul-
phuric, muriatic and fluoric  acids do not
attack it at all, even when they are con-
centrated and boiling.   It is not oxidized
by the  alkaline hydrates, and  it may  be
heated with them to redness without un-
dergoing any alteration, if the air be ex-
cluded.   The compounds of  vanadium
and  oxygen are  three in  number:—
1.  Suboxide of vanadium.  It is obtained
by reducing vanadic, by hydrogen gas, at
a red heat, or by fusing vanadic acid in a
cavity in charcoal,   it  has  not hitherto
been combined  with other bodies,  or with
acids or  bases.   When  heated in the air,
it takes fire, and burns, leaving an unfused
black residue.   It is composed  of 89.538
parts of metal, and 10.862 of oxygen.—2.
Oxide of vanadium.   It  is obtained in a
state of purity by mixing 9.5 parts of sub-
oxide with 11.5 parts of  vanadic acid, and
heating  the mixture to whiteness in  an
atmosphere of carbonic acid  gas.  It is
not fusible at the temperature  at which
glass softens. It is insoluble in water; but
if it remains long in it, the water gradually
becomes green  in  consequence  of  in-
creased  oxidation.  It  dissolves  slowly,
but completely, in the acids: the solution
is blue, and the oxide acts as a  base; but
it combines with bases, and forms salts,
which may  be called  vanadites.   It is
composed of 81.056 vanadium, and 18.944
oxygen.—3. Vanadic acid is  obtained by
exposing vanadate of ammonia to a heat
near redness, in an open platina crucible,
and stirring it  occasionally.  The vana-
date decomposes, becomes  at first black,
and afterwards,  in proportion as it  ab-
sorbs atmospheric oxygen, of a red-brown
color, which, by cooling, becomes gradu-
ally pale,  and  finishes  by  turning to  a
rust color.  It  is tasteless and inodorous:
it reddens the color of moistened litmus
paper.  As soon as it is red hot, it fuses.
In this state, it sustains a white heat with-
out losing oxygen, if kept  from contact
with  combustible bodies.   When fused,
it crystallizes on cooling, and then exhib-
its a phenomenon which merits observa-
tion.  It solidifies at a heat which  is in-
visible in day-light; but the moment that
solidification  commences, a luminous cir-
cle extends from  the periphery  to  the
centre, where,  owing to latent heat, be-
coming free, the mass remains red hot as
long as the crystallization continues. The
acid contracts much on solidifying, and is
readily detached from the  crucible : it is
then ofa yellowish-red color, and formed
entirely of a rnas3 of interlaced crystals.
It is not a conductor of  electricity.  It is
slightly soluble  in  water, to which it im-
parts  a  bright yellow color.   One thou-
sand  parts of boiling water scarcely dis-
solve  one part of acid.  The acid is de-
posited, on evaporation, in the form of red
concentric rings.   It is  easily reduced to
the state of an oxide, especially under the
influence of an  acid.   Fused on charcoal
by  the  blow-pipe, it  leaves a coherent
mass,  of the color of plumbago, which is
the suboxide : with the phosphate of am-
monia and soda, it gives a fine  green col-
or  to  glass, which appears brown while
it is hot: with borax, it also gives a green
glass.    In this  reaction,  vanadium re-
sembles chromium:  but the green col-
or,  produced  by the former, may  be
changed to yellow by the oxidating flame,
which does not happen with chromium.
With carbonate of soda, it  is not reduced
to the metallic state.   It is composed  of
74.044 vanadium  and 25.955 oxygen.
The affinity of vanadium  for sulphur is
but weak at moderately  high tempera-
tures  ;  nevertheless,  there are  several
modes of obtaining sulphurets of vana-
dium.  Hitherto,  only two  have  been
formed.  The sulphuret consists of 68.02
vanadium and 31.97 sulphur.  The super-
sulphuret is  composed of 58.647 vanadi-
um and 41.353 sulphur.   When vanadi-
um is heated to redness in  an atmosphere
of  vaporized phosphorus, they  do  not
combine ; but when phosphate  of vanadi-
um is heated to whiteness in  a charcoal
crucible, it is reduced, and  gives a porous,
gray, unfused mass, which may be com-
pressed, and  has then the  color and lus-
tre of  plumbago.—Alloys of  vanadium.
In experiments upon vanadium, the sur-
face of platina  crucibles is often alloyed
with  vanadium, which  does  not alter
either the color  or the metallic lustre of
the platina;  but when it is  afterwards 
VANADIUM—VANDALS.
507
 heated to redness, the alloyed parts are
 covered  with  a layer of fused  vanadic
 acid,  which preserves them from further
 oxidation.—Salts of vanadium. The salts
 which contain  oxide of  vanadium as a
 base,  are, with few exceptions, of a su-
 perb  azure-blue  color, when  in  solu-
 tion.  In the solid state, and when com-
 bined with  water, they are either of a
 deep  or light-blue color, and sometimes
 greenish.  Without water, they  are gen-
 erally brown, and  sometimes also green.
 Both the  brown and green  salts give blue
 solutions.  Their  taste is astringent, and
 rather sweetish, like those  of iron.   The
 greater number of them  are soluble in
 water. The caustic alkalies occasion a
 precipitate, which is at first of a grayish-
 white color, and  which afterwards be-
 comes of a liver-brown : an excess  of al-
 kali dissolves the precipitate, producing a
 solution  of  a  brown  color.  Ammonia,
 added in  excess, gives  a brown precipi-
 tate,  and  the  liquid becomes colorless.
 The  carbonates occasion  grayish-white
 precipitates: sulphureted hydrogen does
 not render them turbid ; but the hydro-
 sulphurets occasion a  black precipitate,
 and, when added  in excess, they redis-
 solve it, occasioning a fine purple color:
 ferro-cyanite of potash occasions a lemon-
 yellow precipitate, which becomes green
 in the air.  Infusion of galls gives a pre-
 cipitate of so  deep a  blue color that it
 appears black.
   Vanbrugh, sir  John, a dramatist and
 architect, descended from a Flemish fam-
 ily, was born in England, about 1672, and
 entered into the army.  But early in life
 he became  a  writer for the stage.  In
 1697,  his comedy, the  Relapse, was rep-
 resented ; and, in the following year, he
 produced the Provoked Wife, and jEsop,
 afterwards altered  by  Garrick.   When
 Betterton  and Congreve obtained a patent
 for erecting a theatre in the  Haymarket,
 which was opened  in  1707,  they  were
joined by Vanbrugh, who wrote for this
house  his comedy the  Confederacy, the
most witty as well as the most licentious
of* his  productions, which long kept pos-
session of the  stage.   The  Provoked
Husband,  or the  Journey  to London,
which he  left imperfect at his death,  was
completed by Colley Cibber. As an arch-
itect, Vanbrugh was selected to build the
monument to the  duke of Marlborough,
Blenheim-house; and  that structure, as
well as castle Howard,  affords proof of
skill and genius.  He obtained, in 1704,
the office  of Clarencieiix king-at-arms;
and, in 1714, he received the honor of
knighthood.  He   was also  appointed
 comptroller of the board of works and
 surveyor of  Greenwich hospital.   His
 death occuned March 26, 1726.
   Vancouver,  George;  a modem cir-
 cumnavigator and captain in the British
 navy.  He served as a midshipman under
 captain  Cook; and a voyage of discov-
 ery, to ascertain the existence of any nav-
 igable communication between the North
 Pacific and North Atlantic oceans being
 determined on, he was appointed to com-
 mand it.  Of this voyage captain  Van-
 couver  compiled an  account, under the
 title of Voyage of Discovery to the North
 Pacific Ocean, and round the World, in
 the Year 1790—5 (3 vols., 4to.), which was
 nearly ready for the press when  the au-
 thor died, in 1798.
   Vandalia,  a  post-town of  Fayette
 county,  Illinois,  is the seat  of govern-
 ment for the  county  and  the state.  It
 is pleasantly  situated on  a  high  bank
 of the Kaskaskia, in the centre of a rich
 and  thriving country.  Although it has
 been  founded but a  very few years, re-
 spectable buildings for the accommodation
 of the government and courts have arisen.
 A weekly gazette is issued, and the town
 will  soon  become a  place of extensive
 business. Lat. 38° 50* N.; lon. 89° 2' W.
   Vandals ; according  to some, a Scla-
 vonic tribe, there being a remnant of an
 ancient race in Hungary, in the county of
 Eisenburg, still bearing this  name, and
 consisting of 40,000  souls, who speak a
 very ancient Sclavonic dialect.  Accord-
 ing to others, the Vandals are considered
 to be a Germanic tribe,  one of those
 whose migration caused the fall of the
 Roman empire.   Their original  country
 was  probably in  the  north of Germany,
 between the Elbe and Vistula: the early
 Roman writers mention them very indis-
 tinctly*.   After  the third century of the
 Christian era, they carried on wars, in
 connexion with the Burgundians, against
 the Romans  on the  Rhine.  Under the
 emperor Aurelian (272), they settled in the
 western parts oi" Dacia, or Transylvania,
 and  in  part of  the  present  Hungaiy.
 When they were driven from these re-
 gions  by the  Goths, Constantine  the
 Great permitted them to settle in Panno-
 nia, on condition that they would assist
 the Romans in their wars.  It was a great
 mistake of the emperors, when the Roman
 troops had  degenerated, to admit foreign-
 ers into  their  legions, and even to grant
them the highest honors.   The weakness
 of the Romans thus became more known
to the barbarians ; and,  in  consequence,
the latter were more disposed to undertake
 frequent  incursions  into the Roman em- 
508
VANDALS—VANDAMME.
pire.  That  there  were  men  of talent
among the Vandals, is  evident from the
instance of Stilicho. (q. v.)   In the year
406, the Vandals quitted Pannonia,  and
proceeded, together with the Alans and
Suevi, to  Gaul, where  they committed
great devastations: thence they invaded
Spain, passing over the  Pyrenees, divided
with the Suevi  the possession of Galicia
and Old Castile, and established there an
empire, to which the Alans, who had pre-
viously settled in Lusitania, but could not
withstand  the attacks  of the  Visigoths,
submitted  (420).  Jealousy  often  gave
rise to wars between the Vandals and the
Suevi:  the  former,  however, retained
their power until they were compelled by
the Romans  to leave  Galicia, and take
refuge in Baetica, the coast of the present
kingdom  of Grenada.   The  Romans
made war against them  even  here, but
were defeated  (423);  and  the Vandals
were now emboldened to undertake new
enterprises,  for which they  soon found
opportunities.  Their king, at  that time,
was Genseric (Geiserich), a brave, enter-
prising prince, one of the greatest men of
his age, who, however, as  he was the
cause of devastating wars, and had quit-
ted the Catholic church to join the Arian
 Earty, has not been justly represented by
 istorians.   Northern Africa was, at that
time, subject to the Romans.  The gov-
ernor of  this  province,  Boniface, who
thought himself wronged by the emperor
Valentinian  III, invited  the Vandals to
Africa, promising to divide the province
with them.   Genseric embarked with all
his people (427), in the ports of Andalu-
sia,  and went  over to Africa.  In the
mean time, Boniface, having  become rec-
onciled to the emperor, would not per-
form his promise, and at last attempted
to drive away the Vandals  by force of
arms.  But he was conquered.  Genseric
gradually  possessed himself of all  that
part of Africa which belonged to the
Western empire, and  there  founded  a
powerful empire, to which he soon added
the islands of Sicily,  Sardinia,  Coreica,
Majorca  and Minorca.   His  corsairs
wen masters of the whole of the Mediter-
ranean, and  spread  terror on  the coasts
of Italy.   The  empress Eudoxia, widow
of Valentinian  III, who had been com-
pelled by Maximus, the murderer of her
husband  and  usurper  of  the  imperial
throne,  to marry him, was  supposed  to
have invited the Vandals into Italy from
the desire of revenge ; but  the  conduct
of Genseric disproves this supposition; for
he  took the empress and her  daughters
prisoners.   Genseric  made  his invasion
in 455, actuated by love of plunder, and
at the head ofa powerful fleet. In Rome,
no  preparation had been made for de-
fence : all fled, and the emperor Maximus
was killed  in  the firet  confusion.  The
Vandals plundered Rome during fourteen
days, and took possession of all the treas-
ures and works of art which had  been
left by the Goths, (q. v.)  A number of
monuments and  statues were shipped by
them for  Africa, together with  several
thousand of the most distinguished pris-
oners.  On  the  passage, a  ship  laden
with  the  finest  works of art was lost.
Pope Leo met king Genseric at the head
of a solemn procession, but  could only
prevail on him  to spare the city from
slaughter and conflagration.  The savage
fury with  which  the Vandals despoiled
the most beautiful works of art, and  de-
stroyed the greater part, has given origin
to the name of Vandalism. Disputes among
the descendants of Genseric, in regard to
the  succession,  caused  the fall  of  tho
Vandal  empire.   Gelimer, a  bold and
ambitious general, dethroned the rightful
king, Hilderic, a good prince, and had
him murdered.  Hilderic  had been  on
friendly terms with the emperor Justinian.
The latter declared war against Gelimer,
under pretence of revenging Hilderic's
death, but, in fact, for the purpose of sub-
duing Africa.  Justinian's great general,
Belisarius,  arrived in Africa with only
15,000 men (534), but was victorious over
Gelimer in two battles, and forced him to
surrender.   Gelimer  was carried to Con-
stantinople in triumph;  and with him the
kingdom of the  Vandals in Africa was
destroyed, after having lasted 106 yeare.
  Vandamme, Dominique, count of Une-
bourg, bom at Cassel, in 1771, was the son
of an apothecary.   Having entered  the
service at the beginning of the revolution,
he owed a most rapid advancement to an
almost unexampled courage.  He was at
once placed at the head of a light troop,
which received the name of the chasseurs
of  Mont-Cassel,  and, in 1792, was with
the army of the north, in the quality of
general of brigade.  In the three succeed-
ing campaigns, he distinguished  himself
greatly.  In 1799, he was appointed gen-
eral of division, and received the com-
mand of the left wing of the army of the
Danube.  He aftepwards passed into Hol-
land, under the ordere of general Bruno,
and contributed much to the happy results
of  that short  campaign.  He peculiarly
distinguished  himself at the passage of
the  Rhine, and  in  various  memorable 
VANDAMME—VANDYCK.
509
days of the campaign of 1800; received
several marks of distinction from the first
consul, and was named grand officer of the
legion of honor.  He obtained the decora-
tion  of the grand cross of Wurtemberg,
and commanded the Wurtemberg troops
in the campaign of 1809, against Austria,
distinguishing himself on many occasions.
Misunderstandings with  Jerome Bona-
parte prevented his having any command
in the expedition against Russia, in 1812,
and  he was disgraced, and received an
order to retire  to Cassel.   In  Februaiy,
1813, however, he was  called to the com-
mand of a corps of troops.  On the 29th
of August, he passed the  great chain of
the mountains of Bohemia, and marched
upon Culm, where he found 10,000 Rus-
sians, commanded by general Ostermann,
lost his artillery, and 6000 of  his troops,
and  was  himself  taken prisoner.  (See
Culm.)  He was marched to Moscow and
Wiatka, within twenty  leagues of Siberia,
and was treated with ungenerous severity.
In 1814, he finally placed  his  foot  again
on the French territory.  In Paris, he re-
ceived-personal insults from various quar-
ters,  and,  from the minister of war, an
order to  quit  Paris within twenty-four
hours,  and to retire to Cassel.  On the
firet news  of Napoleon's landing, general
Vandamme offered  his services to the
king. They were not accepted, and, after
Louis had left Paris, he presented him-
self before the emperor, who made him a
peer of France,  and commandant of the
second division.   He  afterwards  com-
manded the  third  corps  d'armie under
general Grouchy, and obtained signal suc-
cess  at the attack  of  Wavres, after  the
battle of  Fleurus.  His troops were  in
the actual  pursuit of the enemy, when he
learnt the  defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo.
In danger of being crashed by superior
numbers,  he made good  his  retreat  in
perfect order, with his corps almost un-
touched.   General Vandamme occupied
Mont-rougr, Meudon, Vanvres  and Issy,
and a party of the generals made him the
offer of the command of the army, which
he declined.  He afterwards  retired  be-
hind the*  Loire.  There lie mounted the
white cockade, and  exhorted his troops to
submission.   The ordonnnnce of the 17th
of January, 1816, having obliged him to
quit  France, he n'ircd to Ghent, but af-
terwards resided on his estate at Cassel.
He died in 1830.
  Vanderwerf. (See Wtrf.)
  Vandyck, Anthony, the most celebrated
of all portrait painters, was bom at Ant-
werp, in 1598 or 1599.   His father was a
                   43*
painter  on glass, and  his  mother  was
skilled in embroidering landscapes  and
figures.   Henry van Palen  was his  firet
instructer.  This artist had studied long in
Italy, and united good drawing with lively
coloring, so that Vandyck acquired from
the beginning a good manner, and soon
excelled his fellow pupils.  Rubens now
received him into his school, and intrusted
to his execution several large pictures
from  his own sketches.  A battle of the
Amazons, and the cartoons for the tapes-
try containing the history of Decius Mus,
obtained  him the full confidence and es-
teem of his master; and he soon became
his assistant rather than his scholar.  His
own inclination, and the jealousy of Ru-
bens, determined him to devote himself
exclusively to portrait  painting.   It has
been  said that Rubens, from mere jeal-
ousy, wished  to remove his rival scholar,
and advised him to go  to Italy; but it is
well known that he gave this advice to his
most  promising  pupils  in  general.   He
first painted three more pictures, an Ecce
Homo, a Christ  on the Mount of Olives,
and the wife of Rubens, for his instructer;
for which Rubens gave  him a fine white
horse, and sent him to Italy with letters
of recommendation.  A few miles from
Brussels, in the village of Savelthem, the
young artist became enamored of a peas-
ant's daughter, so that he remained there
a long time, and executed two altar-pieces
for the village church.   In  one of them
the object of his love was represented as
a Madonna, and  in the  other, he himself
appeared  as  St. Martin on  the horse of
Rubens.  His residence there becoming
known,  Rubens  used every inducement,
by means of  the Cav. Nanni, an  accom-
plished Italian,  to rekindle  the flame of
ambition in the bosom of the young man.
He succeeded.   Vandyck  tore himself
away, and, accompanied by Nanni, has-
tened to Italy.  He first directed his course
to Venice,  made Titian and Paul Vero-
nese his models, and acquired their splen-
dor and richness of coloring.  His  money
was  spent, and  he removed to  Genoa,
where he painted several portraits, and
gained a large sum.  He now undertook
a journey to Rome, where he was patron-
ised by the cardinal Guido Bentivoglio,
whose portrait  he painted with the most
complete success.  This, and the portraits
of sir J. Shirley and  his lady, residing
there, excited so much admiration, that
the  envy of  the other artists compelled
him to return to Genoa, where he  exe-
cuted many portraits as well as historical
pictures, and  always adopted the brilliant 
510
VANDYCK—VANE.
style of Titian.  He visited Florence, Tu-
rin and Sicily, where he resided for some
time.  But the plague finally drove him
out of Sicily; and he finished  the cele-
brated altar-piece for Palermo in Genoa.
After  his  reputation was thus  spread
throughout Italy, he returned to his own
country.   Here he painted many histori-
cal pictures and altar-pieces.  Of the lat-
ter, the most renowned are the St Augus-
tine  at Antwerp, and the Crucifixion at
Courtray.  Rubens is said to have offered
bim his eldest daughter hi marriage ; but
Vandyck refused her, because his earlier
love for  her  mother (Helena, the second
wife of Rubens) was not yet wholly ex-
tinguished.  He soon after accepted the
invitation of the prince of Orange, Fred-
eric  of Nassau,  to visit his court  at the
Hague. He painted portraits of this prince,
his wife and children, with so much suc-
cess, that all the principal personages of
the  court were  eager to obtain his ser-
vices.  He then visited London and Paris,
but soon  returned to Antwerp.  A Cruci-
fixion and a Birth of Christ, which  he
painted for Dendermonde, are among his
finest works.   Charles I,  having seen one
of his portraits, immediately ordered hiin
to be invited to return to England.   This
invitation the painter would have declined
but  for the urgency of his friend  sir K.
Digby. On his arrival, he was introduced
by him to  the king,  who  put  upon his
neck a gold chain, with his own miniature,
richly set with diamonds, and  bestowed
upon  him the  honor of knighthood, a
considerable annuity,  and a summer and
whiter residence. Vandyck rewarded this
generosity by unceasing diligence: he en-
riched England  with his masterpieces,
and  executed, besides a multitude of por-
traits, several mythological and historical
paintings.  His love of splendor was dis-
played in the magnificence of his house.
His  table was frequented by the princes
and ladies of the first rank, and  his enter-
tainments excelled all othere in splendor
and luxury.   He  had also a harem of
beautiful women, who supplied  him with
figures for his historical paintings.  In this
way he consumed his property, his strength
and his health.  His lucrative occupation,
however, might have repaired the loss of
the firet, if he had not engaged in the pur-
suit of the philosopher's stone.  The duke
of Buckingham endeavored to restore him
again to activity, by uniting him in mar-
riage with the beautiful  Maria Ruthven,
daughter  of  the  Scotch  lord Gowry.
Vandyck visited his  native city with her,
and went thence to Paris, where he hoped
to be employed to paint the gallery of the
Louvre;  but, as the work had  been al-
ready committed to Poussin, he soon re-
turned to England.  Though infirm and
exhausted, he proposed to the king  to
paint the walls of the banqueting house
with the  history and procession of the or-
der of the gaiter, promising to make the
cartoons.   Before the work was  com-
pleted, he was surprised by death, in the
forty-second year of his age (1641).  He
was buried in St. Paul's  church.   Cow-
ley  composed his epitaph.  The principal
galleries  contain some of his  pictures.
Though  Vandyck  shone  in historical
composition, his strength lay in portrait;
and no painter ever exceeded him  in the
knowledge of the chiaro  oscuro.   His
choice of nature, when he painted por-
traits, was always the most agreeable:  he
gave an  inexpressible grace to his heads,
and his expression was inimitable.   The
extremities of his figures are designed in
great  perfection.  His draperies are in a
grand style, broad and simple in the folds,
easy in the disposition, and  the coloring
lovely.   In some particulars,  Vandyck
has been  acknowledged to be superior to
Rubens :  his touch is more delicate ; his
ideas are  more graceful; and  his expres-
sion is more true.  During the firet  six or
seven years after his arrival in  London,
his  performances are accounted most ex-
cellent ; but some of his latter works are
painted  in such a manner as shows the
uncommon rapidity of his pencil, though
touched with wonderful spirit: othere are
comparatively weak,  and  partake  too
much of  the lead color; yet his penciling
is always masterly, and even inimitable.
Vandyck sometimes amused himself with
engravin*.*-, and  etched  several   plates,
consisting mostly of portraits, in a spirited
style.
  Vane, sir Henry, the younger, a con-
spicuous character in the time of Charles I
and the  commonwealth, was the son of
sir  Henry Vane  of Hadlow in Kent, and
Raby castle in Durham, secretary of state,
and treasurer of the household to Charles
I, until dismissed for taking part against
the earl of Strafford.  The subject  of this
article was born about 1612, and was edu-
cated at  Westminster school, whence he
was removed to Magdalen  college, Ox-
ford.   He then proceeded  t*  Geneva,
from which he returned, much indisposed
towards  the  English liturgy and church
government  Abo u t this time (1635), sev-
eral pereons, who were uneasy at home
on  account of  their religious  opinions,
migrated to New England; among whom 
VANE—VANGUARD.
511
was Vane.  Notwithstanding his youth,
he was elected governor of Massachusetts;
but, becoming involved  in religious dis-
putes, he soon after retuiaed to England,
and, with  his father's concurrence, mar-
ried a lady of good fortune, and was ap-
pointed a joint treasurer of the navy.  He
was chosen to represent  Hull  in  the next
parliament, yet still kept  on  such terms
with the royal  party as  to obtain knight-
hood.  The spirit of the times, however,
soon led  him to  take  part  against the
court.  He was instrumental in procuring
the condemnation of lord Strafford, and
he also carried up to the lords the articles
of impeachment against archbishop Laud.
lie likewise  acted  as one of the parlia-
mentary commissioners at the treaty of
Uxbridge, in 1645; and  at the  negotia-
tions  in the  isle  of Wight, in 1648, was
an  opposer of the  terms  of  peace.  He
had, however, no  immediate  concern in
the king's trial or death, but  was one of
the council of state appointed to supreme
power after that event.  In 1651, he was
appointed a commissioner to be sent into
Scotland,  in order to introduce the Eng-
lish government there.  He continued a
strenuous  adversary to Cromwell" during
the whole progress of that leader to sove-
reignty ; on which account the latter found
means to imprison him in Carisbrook cas-
tle.  He even sought to intimidate him  by
questioning his title to  the Raby estate,
notwithstanding  which,  Vane continued
inflexible during the whole of the protec-
torate.   After the restoration of the long
parliament, he was nominated one of the
committee of safety, when he  strenuously
exerted  himself to establish a republican
government,  until  the restoration put  an
end to all further contest.  On this event
he had considered himself in no danger;
hut he was, notwithstanding, arrested and
committed to the Tower, as a person whom
it was dangerous to allow to  be at large.
The convention parliament petitioned in
favor of him  and Lambert, and the king
promised  that his life should be spared.
Charles II violated his word, and sir Hen-
ry was brought to trial  for high treason.
Although  accused  only  for transactions
that occurred after the king's death,  he
was found guilty, notwithstanding a de-
fence of great vigor and ability, in which
he  pleaded that,  if complying with the
existing government was a crime, all the
nation  had  been equally criminal.  He
further observed, that he had, in every
change, adhered  to the commons as the
root of all  lawful authority.  His trial
took place in  June, 1662; and on the 14th
of the same month, he was beheaded on
Tower hill, when he behaved with great
composure and resolution.   He began  to
address the people at the scaffold in jus-
tification of his conduct, but was  inter-
rupted by drums and trumpets.  Sir Hen-
ry Vane mingled  much fanatical specu-
lation with an extraordinaiy degree of
acuteness and general good sense.  His
enemies scarcely charged him with mer-
cenary views, and his friends regarded
him as a mistaken lover of his country.
Mackintosh declared him to be one of the
most profound minds, not inferior perhaps
to Bacon.  Sagacious and acute as a states-
man, and possessed of almost all the knowl-
edge of his age, he fell a victim to a mis-
erable sophism, and to royal perfidy. The
beautiful sonnet addressed  to him by his
fellow sufferer Milton,  is familiar to all.
His theological writings display an aston-
ishing power, but are in  a high degree
mystical, and often unintelligible. Among
them are  the Retired Man's Meditations
(1655);  the  Face  of the Times (1662);
and his Meditations on Life, Government,
Friendship,  Enemies, Death (1662).  It
must not be forgotten that his history has
been written by his enemies.
  Vane, or Weathercock ; a plate placed
on a spindle at the top of a spire,  show-
ing,  by the way in which it turns, the di-
rection of the wind.  In ships, a piece of
bunting serves the same purpose.—Dog-
vane ; a small, light vane, formed of thin
slips of cork, stuck round with feathers,
and  strung upon a piece of twine.   It is
usually fastened to the top  of a half-pike,
and  placed  on the weather  side  of the
quarter deck, in order to show the helms-
man the direction of the wind, particu-
larly in a dark night, or when the wind is
weak.
  Vanguard ; that part of the army which
precedes the main body on the march, as
a security against  surprise.   The strength
of the  vanguard  is in  proportion  to the
strength of the main body; and in a large
army, it  may be  composed of different
sorts of troops.  The distance of the van-
guard from the main body depends  partly
on the vicinity of the enemy, and partly
on the nature of the  country.  This rule
is always to be observed:—The vanguard
must remove all little obstructions to the
march of the main  body, and keep  in
check  the forces of the enemy till the
main body is in  readiness  to meet  them.
Hence it is the chief duty of the vanguard
to discover the enemy in season, and de-
tect them under every concealment.  As
great activity, both bodily and  mental, is 
512
VANGUARD—VANSITTART.
requisite for service in the vanguard, it is
customary to choose for this purpose the
most active troops in the army, and  to
give them  an experienced leader.  This
captain  must  know how to  conduct skir-
mishes,  and to direct all  his movements
conformably to the object of the advanc-
ing army.  The vanguard are often  em-
ployed in improving the roads, where they
are impassable, in procuring provisions, in
spreading reports, &c.; and  it  is always
their duty to collect authentic information.
  Vaxini,  Lucilio, or,  as he afterwards
styled himself, Julius  Casar, a  learned
Italian of the school of  Pomponatius, was
born at Tauresano, in the kingdom of Na-
ples, in  1585, and  early devoted himself
with ardor to lettere, studying philosophy,
theology, law and astrology  at Rome and
Padua.   He took  ordere, and began  to
preach, but soon abandoned his  clerical
duties for study.  He may be considered
in some sort as a polyhistor; at least he
made pretensions to that character. Hav-
ing travelled in Germany,  Bohemia and
the Netherlands, he resided some time at
Geneva  and Lyons, where he occupied
himself with  instruction,  but was finally
obliged to flee to England, and in that coun-
try was thrown into prison.  Wherever he
had appeared, he had become obnoxious to
suspicions,  on account of his peculiar re-
ligious views.  Returning to Lyons, after
his release  from prison, he published his
AmphitheatrumJEternaProvidentia(\6\5),
which  appears  to have  been  directed
against  Cardan (q. v.) and  others of his
way of thinking, but which drew upon
Vanini himself the suspicion of atheisti-
cal notions, and compelled  him  to  quit
Lyons.   Retiring to  Paris,  he  here pub-
lished his De admirandis Natura, Regina,
Deaque Mortalium Arcanis  (1616), in six-
ty dialogues, which is more of a physical
than a theological treatise. Although pub-
lished with the  permission of the theo-
logical faculty of Sorbonne, it subjected
Vanini  anew to the charge of atheism.
In 1617, he went to Toulouse, where  he
was accused of atheism and sorcery, and
condemned to the flames. He was drawn
to the place of execution, and, after his
tongue  had been torn out, was strangled
and burnt,  at the age of thirty-four years.
His death  has given Vanini more celeb-
rity than his writings would  have  pro-
cured him.  His punishment was entirely
undeserved, as there* is no ground for the
accusation  brought against him; but  he
appeare  to have created enemies by his
imprudent  conduct, his  vanity,  and his
satirical spirit  Voltaire  and Bayle  have
defended him; and a German work, Va-
nini's Life and Fate,  Spirit,  Character
and Opinions (Leipsic, 1800), contains an
account of what has been written for and
against him.
  Vanloo ; the name of a distinguished
family  of artists,  which originated in
Ecluse, in Flanders.  Two members of
this  family have contributed most to its
fame.  They were the sons of Louis Van-
loo, known as a fresco painter.—The eld-
est of the two, John Baptist, bora at Aix,
in 1684, a portrait and historical  painter,
lived in France, Italy and England.   He
died in 1745.  His historical paintings are
chiefly in Paris, Toulon, Turin, Rome and
London.—The  second,  Charles Andrew,
was  born at Nizza, in 1705, painted land-
scapes and historical subjects, became, in
1735, a member of the academy of arts
in Paris, and  died in 1765.   His  pictures
have mostly remained in France.—John
Baptist  had four  sons,  who all  became
skilful artists, though  the two youngest,
Claudius and Francis, died  young; the
eldest, Charles  Andrew Philip,  became
painter to the court of Berlin, and Louis
Michael to the king of Spain.
  Vannucchi ;  the proper name of An-
drea del Sarto.  (See Sarto.)
  Vansittart, Nicholas, lord  Bexley,
born in 1766, is the youngest son of Henry
Vansittart, governor of Bengal, and was
educated at Christ-church, Oxford.   He
afterwards studied the law, and was called
to the  bar in  1792.  In 1796,  he was
elected  member of parliament for  Hast-
ings,  in Sussex, and in  the  next parlia-
ment sat for Old Sarum.  Mr. Vansittart
spoke occasionally in the house, and made
himself known to the public  by several
pamphlets, which  he published at that pe-
riod:—Reflections on the Propriety of an
immediate Peace (1793); Letters to Mr.
Pitt  on the Conduct of the Bank Direc-
tors  (1795); and an Inquiry into the  State
of the Finances of Great Britain (1796).
In February, 1801, he was sent on a spe-
cial  mission to Copenhagen, and  in  April
he  was made secretary to the treasury.
In 1805, he resigned that place, and was
appointed chiefsecretary of Ireland, which
place also he gave up  in the same year.
In 1806, under lord Grenville's adminis-
tration, he was again appointed secretary
to the  treasury, and  was elected  mem-
ber of parliament for  Helstone, in Corn-
wall, and quitted  place when the Gren-
ville administration went out  In 18.11,
he published Two Speeches on the Re-
port of the Bullion Committee.  On the
assassination of Mr. Percival, Mr.  Van- 
VANSITTART—VARIABLE QUANTITIES.            513
sittart was made choice of by lord Liver-
pool to be his chancellor of the exchequer,
in which office he continued till 1823,
when he was succeeded by Mr. Robinson
(see Goderich), and created chancellor of
the duchy of Lancaster, with a peerage.
He retained this post under Canning and
Goderich, but, in 1828, gave way to  the
Wellington ministry.
  Vanucci. (See Perugino.)
  Vapor.  (See Evaporation.)
  Vapor Bath.    The vapor or steam
bath may be regarded as a  modification
of the hot bath ;  but its effects are much
less violent The most usual  mode of
employing  it is to expose the naked body
in a room,  into which the steam of hot
water may  be admitted.  This room is
generally heated  to a temperature con-
siderably above that of the  atmosphere,
and the  body is  suffered  to remain  for
some time in this heated air,  the common
effect of which is, to increase its tempe-
rature, and to accelerate the circulation of
the blood.   After  some time, the steam
is admitted, when  the former symptoms
are removed, and a profuse  perspiration
is produced.   This is usually  promoted
by friction, and removal to a wann bed.
The general effect  of this process is to
relax the boby, remove obstructions of
the skin, alleviate  pain and spasmodic
contractions, and promote  sleep.  In the
vapor bath, the stimulant  power of heat
is modified and tempered by  the moisture
diffused through the air; and, as the elas-
tic vapor, like air, is a  less  powerful con-
ductor of heat than a watery fluid, the
effect of vapor in raising the temperature
of the body is much less than that of the
hot bath.  Its  heating  effect is  also fur-
ther diminished by the copious  perspira-
tion that  ensues ; so that, on  all accounts,
the vapor bath is safer, and, in most cases,
more effectual, than the hot water bath.
(See Bath.)
  Vapors.  (See Hysterics.)
  Var.  (See  Departments.)
  Varangians, or Var.vgians (i. e. hunt-
ers, or  corsairs);  a Scandinavian race,
who seem to have received this name in
Russia, where they established several
principalities.   Some of them afterwards
entered the service of  the  Byzantine em-
perors, and performed  the  duty of impe-
rial guards at Constantinople. Here they
were recruited, according  to the Byzan-
tine writers, by bands of their  country-
men from  Thule;  i.  e. by  Saxons and
Danes, who fled from  England  to escape
the Norman yoke.  They continued  to
speak the Saxon  or Danish  language till
the overthrow  of the empire.  The pe-
culiar weapon of these Varangian guards,
to whom the keys of the palace and the
capital were entrusted, was the two-edged
battle-axe.
  Varchi,  Benedetto, an  eminent man
of letters, born at Florence, in 1502, was
educated at  the univereity  of Padua,
where he made a great progress in the
belles-lettres,  but was designed  for the
law, which  he studied during  the life of
his father, and  was even admitted a no-
tary.  When  the  decease  of his parents
left him at liberty to pursue his own in-
clinations, he forsook the  law,  and de-
voted himself entirely to  literature.  He
accordingly studied the Greek language
and philosophy, until driven from Florence
by his attachment to the Strozzi: he then
returned to Padua, where he read public
lectures on morals and literature.  The
grand duke of Tuscany, Cosmo I, invited
him back to  Florence, although  he had
opposed the Medici, and  assigned to him
the office of writing a histoiy of the late
revolution.    Whilst  thus  employed,  he
was attacked, at night, by some persons
who feared that his strictures might be
unfavorable to them, and stabbed in seve-
ral  places.  He, however, recovered, and
had either the prudence or the lenity not
to name the  parties, although he knew
them.  He  was carried  off by  an  apo-
plexy, in 1565, at the age of sixty-three.
Varchi was a man of indefatigable industry,
and there is scarcely a branch of litera-
ture which  he did  not cultivate.   His
Storia Fiorentina, comprising only the pe-
riod of eleven years, is very voluminous,
and written in a diffuse, languid manner.
It is also charged with adulation to the
house of Medici.   Varchi likewise wrote
poems and  a  comedy, and, as a gramma-
rian, obtained reputation by his  dialogue
entitled  L'Ercolano, on the Tuscan lan-
guage.  His Lezioni lette nella Academia
Fiorentina  display a multifarious eru-
dition.
   Varennes ; a petty town in the north-
east of France, one hundred and fifty
miles north-east of  Paris, and  eighteen
north-west of Verdun. It has about 1300
inhabitants, with manufactures of leather
and paper; but is  chiefly  remarkable as
the place where Louis XVI was stopped
in his imprudent flight from Paris, in June,
1791.  (See Louis  XVI.)
   Variable  Quantities, in geometry
and analytics, denote such as are either
continually increasing or diminishing, in
opposition  to those which are  constant-
remaining always  the same.   Thus the 
514
VARIABLE  QUANTITIES—VARNA.
abscisses and ordinates  of an  ellipsis, or
other curve  line, arc variable  quantities,
because they vary or change their mag-
nitudes together.   Some quantities may
be variable  by themselves alone,  while
those connected with them are constant;
as the abscisses of a parallelogram, whose
ordinates may be considered as all  equal,
and therefore constant.   The diameter of
a circle, and the  parameter of a conic
section, are constant, while their abscisses
are variable.  Variable quantities are usu-
ally denoted by the last  lettere of the  al-
phabet, 2, y, x, while the constant ones
are denoted  by  the firet lettere, a, b, c.
  Variation, in  music, is the different
manner of singing or playing the same
air, tune or  song,  either by subdividing
the notes into several othere of less value,
or by adding graces, in  such  a manner,
however, that the tune itself may still  be
discovered,  through  all  its   embellish-
ments.   These repetitions or variations
were formerly  called  doubles.   Mozart's
variations for the piano, and those  of
Rode for the violin, are particularly ex-
cellent.   Generally speaking, variations
are more suited to instrumental than vo-
cal music.   The latter sort are chiefly in-
tended for practice, or to show the splen-
did talents of the singer; e. g. those sung
by madaine  Catalani. (q.  v.)   There are
also  variations  in  poetry, called glosses,
used in Spanish and Portuguese  poetry.
(See Gloss.)
   Variation of  Curvature, in geome-
try, is  used  for that inequality or change
which happens in the  curvature of all
curves except the circle; and this varia-
tion, or inequality, constitutes  the quality
of the curvature of any line.
   Variation of  the  Magnetic Nee-
dle.  (See Magnetism.)
   Variations,  Calculus  of ;    that
branch of the differential calculus  (see
Calculus) in which the  mathematician
ascends from the theory of the maximum
and  minimum to the more important and
difficult investigation of  that curve, or
those,  among all possible curves, to which
belong certain given qualities in the high-
est or lowest degree.  If, for instance, the
question is, to find the  brachystochrones
(i.e. those among all curves of equal length,
which a body,  moved by given powers,
passes through in  "the shortest time),  the
analytical answer to this and similar ques-
tions leads to the calculus of variations,
which, therefore, appears as an extended
theoiy of the  maximum  and minimum,
and, instead  of confining itself to differ-
entiation, rather  requires us  to  deduce
from  a derived equation already found
the primitive one possessing the required
quality.  The method of variations, which
owes its origin to John  Bernoulli's  pro-
posing the above-mentioned problem of
the brachystoch rones,  in  1693, crowns
the admirable fabric of modern geometry.
—See Dicksen's Analytische Darstellung
der  Variationsrechnung (Berlin,   1826,
4to.).
  Variations of  the Moon ;  inequali-
ties in the revolution of the moon, known
only since the time of Tycho  Brahe.
  Variety, in  natural histoiy,  a subdi-
vision of a species, as a species is a sub-
division of a genus.  What one natural-
ist considers a variety, another sometimes
considers a distinct species.  Most of the
various kinds of dogs are varieties which
can be  reduced to a few species.   A va-
riety cannot be preserved without much
care:  left to  nature, it returns,  in a suc-
cession of generations, to the species.
  Variorum, cum Notis.  Certain edi-
tions  of ancient and modem Latin and
Greek authors, published mostly in Hol-
land, in the seventeenth and eighteen cen-
turies, and  containing the notes of many
commentators, are termed  editiones cum
notis variorum.   These editions do not
stand in very high  estimation  with schol-
ars, but are, nevertheless, sought  for by
collectors.  The number is given differ-
ently  by bibliographers, accordingly  as
they enumerate more or fewer new edi-
tions of this kind published out of Holland.
  Various Readings  (lediones varian-
tes, lediones varia) are differences in the
text of a work, which sometimes origi-
nate from the ignorance or negligence of
the  early  transcribers  of manuscripts,
sometimes  from the  changes which an
author makes himself in the later editions
of his works.   To  restore  the  true text
of ancient  works is the business of ver-
bal criticism, and is often very important;
e. g.  in classic authors, the Bible, &c.
Some  editions contain all  the  various
readings in notes.
   Varna ; a town of European Turkey,
in  Bulgaria; one hundred  and twelve
miles north-- ast of Adrianople, and one
hundred and forty-four north of Con-
stantinople ; lon. 27° 59-* E.; lat.  43°  7'
N.;  population, 16,000.   It  has an old
castle,  twelve   mosques,   two   Greek
churches,  the most commodious port in
Bulgaria, and a large  trade with  Con-
stantinople.  It is situated on  a gulf or
bay of the Black sea, to which it gives
name, at the mouth of the  river Varna.
In 1444, Ladislaus, king of Hungary, was
defeated and slain by Amurath I, sultan
of the Turks, near this town.  In  1783; 
VARNA—VARNISH.
515
 Varna resisted the attacks of the Russians ;
 but, Oct. 11,1828, it was taken possession
 of by the  Russian forces.  (See Russia.)
   Varnish.  Lac varnishes, or lacquers,
 consist of different resins in  a  state of
 solution, of which the most common are
 mastich, sandarach,  lac, benzoin, copal,
 amber,  and asphaltum.   The menstrua
 are  either expressed or essential oils or
 alcohol.  For a varnish of the firet  kind,
 the  common painters'  varnish is to be
 united,  by gently boiling it, with  some
 more  mastich or colophony, and then di-
 luted with a little more  oil of" turpentine.
 The  latter addition  promotes both the
 glossy appearance and drying of the var-
 nish.  Of this sort also  is the amber var-
 nish.  To make this varnish, half a pound
 of amber  is kep't over  a gentle fire, ift a
 covered iron pot, in the lid of which  there
 is a small  hole, till it is observed to be-
 come soft, and to be melted  together into
 one mass.  As soon as this is perceived,
 the vessel is taken from  the fire, and suf-
 fered  to cool a  little, when a pound of
 good painters' varnish is added to it, and
 the whole suffered to boil up again over
 the  fire, keeping it continually  stirring.
 After  this, it  is again removed from the
 fire, and, when  it is become somewhat
 cool, a pound of oil of turpentine is  to be
 gradually  mixed with  it.   Should the
 varnish, when it is cool, happen to be yet
 too thick, it may be attenuated with more
 oil of turpentine.  This varnish has al-
 ways  a  dark-brown  color,  because the
 amber is previously half-burned in the
 operation ;  but,  if it be  required  of  a
 bright color, amber powder  must be dis-
 solved in transparent painters' varnish, in
 Papin's machine, by a gentle fire.  As an
 instance of the second  sort  of lac var-
 nishes with ethereal oils  alone, may be
 adduced the  varnish made  with oil of
 turpentine.  For  making this,  mastich
 alone  is dissolved in oil  of turpentine by
 a very gentle, digesting heat, in close glass
 vessels.  This is the varnish used for the
 modern transparencies, employed as win-
 dow-blinds,  fire-screens, and for other
 purposes.  These are commonly prints,
 colored  on both  sides,  and afterwards
 coated with this  varnish on  those parts
 that   are intended to   be  transparent.
 Sometimes fine thin calico, or Irish linen,
 is used for this purpose ; but it requires
to  be primed with a solution  of isinglass
bofore the color is laid on.   Copal may
be dissolved in genuine Chio  turpentine,
by adding it in powder to the turpentine,
previously  melted, and  stirring till the
whole  is fused.   Oil  of turpentine  may
 then be added to dilute it sufficiently.  A
 varnish of the consistence of thin tur-
 pentine is obtained by the digestion of
 one part of elastic gum, or caoutchouc,
 cut into small pieces, in thirty-two parts
 of naphtha.  Previously to its being used,
 however, it  must  be  passed through  a
 linen cloth, in order that the undissolved
 parts may be left behind.  The third sort
 of varnishes consists  of" the spirit var-
 nishes.  The most  solid resins  by them-
 selves  produce brittle varnishes";  there-
 fore  something  of a  softer  substance
 must always be mixed with them, where-
 by this brittleness is  diminished.  For
 this purpose,  elemi, turpentine,  or bal-
 sam of copaiva, are employed in  proper
 proportions.   For the  solution  of these
 bodies, the strongest alcohol ought to be
 used.   In conformity  to  these  rules,  a
 fine-colored  varnish may be obtained by
 dissolving  eight  ounces of gum  sanda-
 rach  and two ounces of Venice turpen-
 tine in thirty-two ounces  of alcohol by a
 gentle  heat  Five  ounces of  shell-lac,
 and one of turpentine, dissolved in thirty-
 two ounces of alcohol, by a very gentle
 heat, give a harder varnish, but of a red-
 dish cast.  To  these the solution of co-
 pal is  undoubtedly preferable in  many
 respects.  This is effected by triturating
 an ounce of powdered gum copal, which
 has been well dried by a gentle heat, with
 a drachm of camphor,  and, while these
 are mixing together, adding, by degrees,
 four ounces of the strongest alcohol, with-
 out any digestion.   Between this and the
 gold varnish there is only this difference,
 that some substances that communicate  a
 yellow tinge are to be added to the  latter.
 Take two ounces of shell-lac, of annotto,
 and turmeric,  of each one ounce, and
 thirty grains of fine  dragon's blood, and
 make an extract with twenty ounces of
 alcohol, in a gentle heat  Oil  varnishes
 are commonly  mixed  immediately with
 the colors; but lac or lacquer varnishes
 are laid on by themselves  upon a bur-
 nished  colored ground.   When they are
 intended to be laid upon naked  wood, a
 ground should be first given them of
 strong  size, either alone or with  some
 earthy  color, mixed up with it by Naviga-
 tion.  The gold lacquer is simply rubbed
 over brass, tin  or  silver, to  give them  a
 gold color.  Before a resin is dissolved in a
 fixed oil, it is necessary to render the oil
drying.  For this purpose, the oil is boiled
with metallic oxides, in which operation,
the mucilage of  the oil combines with
the metal, while the oil itself unites with
the oxygen of the oxide.  To accelerate 
516
VARNISH—VASARI.
the drying of this varnish, it is necessary
to add oil of turpentine.  The essential
varnishes consist of a solution of resin in
oil of turpentine.  The varnish being ap-
plied, the essential oil flies off, and leaves
the resin.  This is used only for paint-
ings.   When resins are dissolved in  alco-
hol, the varnish dries very speedily, and
is subject to crack ; but this fault  is cor-
rected by adding a small  quantity of tur-
pentine to the  mixture, which renders it
brighter, and less brittle when dry.  The
colored resins or gums, such as gamboge,
dragon's blood, &c, are used to color
varnishes.  To give  lustre to  the varnish
after it is laid on, it is rubbed with  pound-
ed pumice-stone and water, which being
dried with a cloth, the work is afterwards
rubbed with an oiled rag and tripoli. The
surface is, last  of all, cleaned with soft
linen cloths, cleared of all greasiness with
powder of starch, and rubbed bright with
the palm  of the  hand.  The following
receipt for a good spirit varnish is given
by Tingry :—Take strong alcohol, thirty-
two parts; pure mastich, four; sandarach,
three;  clear Venice turpentine,  three ;
coarsely ground glass, four.  Reduce the
mastich and the sandarach to fine powder;
introduce them, with the  glass and spirit,
into a matrass, which is  to be placed in
hot water for one  or two  hours, taking
care to stir up the materials from time to
time with a glass spatula; then pour in
the turpentine, and  keep the vessel for
half an hour longer  in the water.   Next
day decant  off the  liquor, and filter  it
through cotton.  It will be perfectly lim-
pid.   This  varnish  is  usually applied
to objects of the toilet,  as work-boxes,
card-cases, &c.—Essence varnish, by the
same; Take mastich in  powder,  twelve
parts; pure turpentine, one and a  half;
camphor in bits, one half; crystal glass,
ground, five ; rectified oil of turpentine,
thirty-six.   Put the mastich, camphor,
glass and oil into a matrass, and dissolve
as above prescribed.   This varnish is ap-
plied to paintings.—Fat  varnish.  Take
copal, sixteen parts;  linseed or poppy oil,
made drying with  litharge, eight; oil of
turpentine, sixteen.   Melt the copal in a
matrass, by exposing it  to  a moderate
heat; pour then upon it  the  boiling hot
oil; stir the mixture, and, when the tem-
perature has fallen  to about 200° Fahr.,
add the oil of turpentine  heated.  Strain
the  whole immediately  through  linen
cloth, and keep the  varnish  in a wide-
mouthed bottle.  It becomes very  clear
in a little while, and is  almost colorless
when well made.  Copal varnish is ap-
plied  on coaches, also generally  on pol-
ished iron, brass, copper and wood.— Var-
nish, among medallists, is the term used
to signify those hues which antique med-
als  have acquired by lying in the  earth.
The beauty which nature alone is able to
impart to medals, and which art has never
yet attained the power of counterfeiting,
enhances their value.  The  colore ac-
quired  by certain metals,  from  having
lain a long while  in the  ground, are vari-
ous, and some of them exquisitely beauti-
ful.  The blue nearly rivals that of the
turquoise : others have an inimitable ver-
milion color;  othere, again, a polished,
shining  brown.  But that most  usually
found is a delicate green, which hangs to
the finest strokes without effacing them.
No metal except  brass is susceptible  of
this. The green rust which  gathers on sil-
ver always spoils it, and must be removed
with vinegar or lemon juice.  Falsifiere of
medals have a varnish which they use on
their counterfeits, to give them the appear-
ance of being antique ; but there are means
•if  discovering these deceptions.   (See
Numismatics.)
  Varro, Marcus Terentius, one of the
most  learned men and prolific writers of
ancient Rome, born B. C. 116, served, in
his  youth, in the army, and, at a later pe-
riod, obtained the dignity of tribune, with
other public offices.   Varro was the inti-
mate friend of Cicero, and  was banished
by Antony, but  returned to Rome under
Augustus, and died there, at the age of
eighty-nine years, with the reputation of
being the  most learned  Roman, or at
least the most  learned critic, of his  time.
The number of his writings, chiefly on
language, history and philosophy, is stated
to have amounted to about  500, of which
only two have come down  to  us—a trea-
tise upon agriculture (De Re Rustica), in
three books, which is  contained in the
collection  Scriptores  Rei  Rustica,  and
fragments  of a treatise on the Latin lan-
guage (De Lingua Latino), which  treats
principally of etymology  and  analogy.
Good editions of the latter have appeared
at Dort, in 1619 (2 vols.), and (by Sprengel)
at Berlin, in 1826.  The former has been
translated into  English  by Owen (1800).
  Varus, Quintilius.   (See Arminius.)
  Vasa, Gustavus.  (See Gustavus I.)
  Vasari, Giorgio, the  first  writer who
gave  a  complete history of  all modern
artists, and also himself a practical artist,
was born at Arezzo, in the grand duchy
of Tuscany, in  1512, and studied under
Luca Signorelli, Michael Angelo Buona-
rotti,  and Andrea del Sarto.   The cardi- 
VASARI—VASE.
517
 nal  Ippolito de'  Medici, pope  Clement
 VII, and the dukes Alessandro and Cos-
 mo, successively engaged him in their
 Bervice, after which he determined not to
 enter again into the service of any prince.
 He was, however, employed  by the  suc-
 ceeding dukes, by the popes, and other
 eminent pereons, as  an architect  and
 painter, in both of which charactere, par-
 ticularly in the former, he obtained great
 reputation, although as  a painter he was
 only a skilful imitator of Michael Angelo.
 His  principal paintings are a Lord's Sup-
 per, in the cathedral of Arezzo, and  sev-
 eral works   in the Palazzo  Vecchio,  in
 Florence, and  in  the  Vatican  in  Rome.
 He  has himself  given  us an account of
 his  different works  in Florence, Arezzo,
 Pisa, Venice, Bologna, Rome, &c.  His
 Vite de' piii eccellenti Piltori, Scultori ed
 Architetti (first printed in 1550, and often
 republished) is of more interest to us.  It
 is highly  esteemed, both on account of
 the  facts  which  it contains, and  for the
 scattered remarks in regard to the prog-
 ress of the  arts.   It, however,  has fallen
 into many errors respecting the  earlier
 masters—a circumstance owing to the im-
 perfection of existing  accounts ;  and it
 is also  guilty  of  partiality  towards the
 Tuscan artists.  We have also some  oth-
 er productions from the pen of Vasari,
 who died in 1574.
  Vasco da  Gama.  (See Gama.)
  Vase (vas, Latin).   The Grecian artists
 gave to every vase, or other  utensil, the
 shape best adapted to its use, and most
 agreeable  to the eye.  Sometimes they
 took the parallelopipedon ;  in  other in-
 stances, a shape either circular or slightly
 curved, to prevent the eye from being in-
 tercepted  by angles or corners.   These
 shapes  admitted,  at the same time, of
 greater variety, notwithstanding which, its
 primitive character was always perceived.
 It was  only in times  subsequent  to the
 decline of the arts that these simple con-
 tours were departed from, and the pyram-
 idal  or angular figure substituted.  Very
 rich and precious substances were  em-
 ployed by  those  who could  afford such
 profusion.   Vases were frequently  set up
 as prizes  in  the public games.   A great
 number of these  vessels have been  pre-
 served to  the present  day,  and offer to
 artists models of (he most beautiful  forms.
 Qf all the works in this department of
 Grecian art which have come  down to
our times, there are none so richly  merit-
 ing attention  as the ancient vases in  ter-
 ra-cotta, so long and univereally, but  im-
 properly, designated as  Etruscan, from
  vol. xii.       44
the circumstance  of  their original de-
scribere  (Montfaucon, Dempster,  Gori,
Passeri, Caylus and D'Ancarville) having
regarded them as monuments of Etrus-
can art.  But the  fact is, that the greater
number  of these  vases are not found in
Etruria.  It is to the sepulchres of Nola,
of Capua, of Santa Agatha, &c,  os well
as to different cities of Graecia Magna,
that we are indebted for  the largest and
finest collections.  The Athenian tombs
have also furnished many; and Mr. Ham-
ilton is correct in designating them,  as he
has done in one of his prefaces, emphat-
ically Grecian.  The tombs or sepulchres
in which these exquisite vases were  com-
monly found, were  situated  near the
walls of towns,  ordinarily built of  brick
or rough stone, and of just sufficient size
to admit the body, with some five or six
vases standing round  it, or hung on the
walls by nails of bronze. The number, size
and beauty of these vases varied, doubt-
less, according to the rank  of the  party
inhumed.  The paintings of these  ancient
Greek vases are extremely interesting, on
account of the subjects represented, and
of the beauty of the workmanship.  The
subjects  most frequently to be found are
sacrifices, processions and representations
which bear relation to the mysteries of
Bacchus or Ceres.  There are, occasion-
ally, but not so often, exhibitions of family
feasts or of  public games.  Sometimes,
also, the mythics of the heroic ages are
introduced. They did not serve as recep-
tacles of the ashes, but the most probable
opinion is,  that  they were  sacred  vases
which had  been  given to those who  were
initiated  into the  mysteries of Bacchus
and Ceres,  and were employed at the fes-
tivals of these  divinities.  Most  of the
subjects  represented  have reference to
these  mysteries.  Some of these  vessels
may have been distributed on  other sol-
emn occasions.   While the  possessors
were  alive, it is probable that they  were
placed in the halls or vestibules of their
houses,  and, after  their  owners' death,
they accompanied them to the tomb.  In
Lower Italy, the art of imitating them is
carried to  great perfection,  as many an
unfortunate purchaser has found.  Large.
collections  of these vases are  contained
in Naples  (briefly but instructively de-
scribed  by  Andrew di  Gorio—R. Museo
Borbonico,Galleria dei Vasi,Naples, 1825),
in London  and Paris, in  Vienna, Peters-
burg, &c.—See the Introduction a I'Etude
des Vases  Antiques, by Dubois-Maison-
neuve (Paris, 1817, folio), and the small
treatise Dei Vasi Grechi, delle lor Forma e 
518
VASE—VATICAN LIBRARY.
 Dipintura, e dei Nomi e Uso loro in Gen-
 erate (Palermo, 1823,  4to.).  The cele-
 brated W. Tischbein published, in 1791,
 at Naples,  a splendid  work, containing
 drawings of such vases.  See also Lan-
 zi's  De'  Vasi antichi dipinti volgarmente
 chiamati Etruschi (Florence, 1806). (For
 the Portland or Barberini vase, see the ar-
 ticle Portland Vase.)
   Vassal (homo  fidelis, vassus,  feoffee);
 a person who has bound himself to fidel-
 ity and service towards  another, especial-
 ly in  war, for  which  he  receives the
 promise  of protection and the enjoyment
 of au estate, a rent, office,  privilege  (out
 of which, in the later period of the  feu-
 dal system, a real dominium utile origi-
 nated).   The origin  of the word is not
 certain.  It is not probable that it is de-
 rived from the Gaelic gwas: it is more
 probable that it comes from the Arabico-
 Spanish  of the tenth century, the expres-
 sion guazil (servant) having been in com-
 mon use in the  Moorish  dominions in
 Spain, which then possessed a higher civ-
 ilization  than the rest of Europe.  The
 vassal  of the king had again his vassals,
 and  the  more  powerful of  these again
 theirs ; hence, in Italy, the degrees of cap-
 itanei,  valvasi, valvasini. A  vassal who
 was  bound to serve his  lord against eve-
 ry one else in war, was  called vassus li-
gius.  (See  Feudal. System, and  Vil-
lenage.)
  Vater, John Severin, a philologist and
theologian, was born  at Altenburg,  in
 Saxony, in 1771, and studied at the gym-
 nasium of his native city.    In 1789, he
 went to  the univereity of  Jena.  Gries-
bach and Paulus  were his chief teachers
in theology.  From  1792  to  1794,  he
studied in Halle.   In 1795, he  received
permission to lecture, in consequence of
his works on  Aristotle's Rhetoric  and
 Philosophy.  In  1795, he lectured at Je-
na, and was soon  appointed professor ex-
traordinarius.  His chief study was gen-
eral  grammar and Hebrew grammar, in
the latter of which  he has  done much
for the better understanding of the nouns,
by the   preparation  of complete para-
digms.    In 1799,  he was invited to Halle,
as ordinary professor of Oriental literature
and  theology,  and soon after published
 his Inquiries into the  Mosaic Writings
 and into  Ecclesiastical History.   In 1807,
 he undertook the continuation of the Mith-
 ridates, after the death of Adelung (q. v.),
 and collected, for  several years, materials
 for general philology.  In 1809, he went
 to Konigsberg as professor  and librarian.
 His  philological studies embraced even
 the  African  and  American  languages.
 For his improvements in Russian gram-
 mar, particularly in regard to the struc-
 ture of the verbs, he received the order
 of Wladimir. No one has written so many
 grammars  as he.   In  1820, he  resum-
 ed  his former  professorship  in  Halle.
 Since  that time, he has  written on eccle-
 siastical history, the exegesis of the New
 Testament, and the present state of theol-
 ogy.  Towards the end  of his life,  he was
 also the editor of the Journal for Preach-
 ers, and of the Archives of Ecclesiastical
 History, as well as the founder and editor
 of the Annals of Domestic Devotion.   In
 the midst of these labore, he died  of con-
 sumption, in 1826.  i
  Vathek Billah.  (See  Caliph, vol. ii,
 page 410.)
  Vatican ;  the most extensive palace of
 modern Rome,  built upon  the   Vatican
 hill,  from which it has received its name.
 Immense treasures are stored up  in it. It
 is  not a regular building, but contains
 twenty-two court-yards, and, as is gener-
 ally  said,  11,000 rooms.  Several popes
 have labored on this edifice, which  was
 not completed until the time of Sixtus V,
 who died in 1590.  Here  are the cele-
brated collections  of pictures, and  the
museums, in which all the periods of the
arts  have deposited many of their most
perfect productions.  Here are the stanze
(q. v.) of Raphael; here are the  Sistine
 (q. v.) and  Pauline  chapels, the museo
 Chiaramonti, and the  museo Pio-Clemen-
 tino, the appartamento Borgia, the stanza
 dei Papin  (collection of papyrus rolls);
 here is the rich Vatican  library (described
 below); here are pictures of almost all the
 first  masters of that glorious period of
 which Raphael  is  the  chief  ornament;
 and  near it  is the gigantic  St.  Peter's.
 The Vatican is connected with the Bel-
 vedere (q. v.) and the  castle  of  St.  An-
 gelo.   In  the  Vatican,  the  conclaves
 (q. v.) are held for the elections of popes.
 As the popes formerly resided here,  the
 word Vatican was, and still is, not unfre-
 quently used for the papal government,
 as the cabinet of St. James or Berlin is
 used for the English or  Prussian  govern-
 ment
  Vatican  Library.  In the  finest place
 that  could be found for a library, this  pre-
 cious collection is deposited, which bears
 witness to the scientific  spirit, or fondness
 for  magnificence,  of many  successive
 popes.  Lofty and spacious rooms, adorn-
 ed with fresco paintings, antique vases,
 and  two  beautiful statues, contain   the
 simple cases in which the manuscripts 
VATICAN  LIBRARY—VAUBLANC-Y1ENN0T.
519
 are preserved.   The history of this col-
 lection, which  has justly been  called a
 panoplia,  reaches back to  the times of
 Constantine the Great, if we can believe
 the somewhat  legendary account of As-
 semanni, in the catalogue of this library
 (Bibl.  Apost.   Vat.  Codd.  Mss.  Cata-
 logus, etc.; Rome, 1756).  Nicholas V in-
 creased the collection so much  that he
 may be  almost  considered  its  second
 founder.   Sixtus V highly embellished
 the exterior of the edifice,  and prepar-
 ed  the  great  saloon  in  which  a large
 pait of the library  is  now  preserved.
 Leo X.  devoted himself to Greek ;  Pius
 IV, to  Oriental  manuscripts;  Pius V
 united the archives, which are still inac-
 cessible, with the library ; and Paul V and
 Urban VIII enlarged  the  accommoda-
 tions,  the present of the library of  Hei-
 delberg (q. v.) having made greater space
 necessary.  Clement VII added the man-
 uscripts of the library of Urbino ; Alexan-
 der VIII, 1900,  left  by the queen Chris-
 tina of Sweden ; Benedict XIII, those of
 Ottoboni;  not to mention other acquisi-
 tions and embellishments.  The most re-
 cent is the library  of count  Cicognara.
 Yet this  invaluable treasure  of  manu-
 scripts and old  printed works (the  ab-
 sence of modem works is to  be regret-
 ted) is rendered  less useful by a want of
 order,  and even of catalogues, which do
 not exist, or are denied to the student  The
 above-mentioned catalogue of Assemanni
 embraces but a very  small  part  of the
 collection,  and  is a rarity in  the library
 itself,  as most of the  copies  of it were
 burnt in 1786.   For the other parts of the
 library, there are only written catalogues ;
 and these are badly drawn up; and the use
 of them is considered a favor.  Moreover,
 the  ancient and not very liberal rules of
 Clement XIII  and Innocent  XIII  are
 still  enforced, and are doubly  oppressive
 on  account  of  the  many  holydays.
 Many  complaints of modern  travellers,
 among whom  are some of   the  most
 distinguished  men of the age,  show that
 the present superintendent, Maio, enforces
 the laws in all their  rigor, though he  has
 shown, if it were  necessary, what treas-
 ures are contained in  the library, by his
 Scriptor. Veter. nova Collectio e  Codd. Va-
 ticanis edita (Rome, 1825, 4to.).
   Vattel, or Wattel, Finer de, an  em-
 inent publicist,  son  of a clergyman of
 Neufchatel,  was born  in  1714.   After
 completing his studies, he went to Berlin,
and subsequently  to Dresden,  where he
 was  appointed  privy counsellor to   the
elector.   He died at Neufchatel, in 1767,
 in the fifty-third year of his age.  He
 owed his early literary reputation to hid
 Defence  of the  Philosophy of Leibnitz
 against De Crousaz (1741), and Pieces di-
 verses de  Morale  et d'Amusement (Paris,
 1746).  His great work was published at
 Neufchatel, under the title of Droits des
 Gens,ouPrincipesdelaLoinaturelle(l758).
 It was translated into  most modem lan-
 guages ; into English, under the title of the
 Law of Nations, or Principles of the Law
 of Nature, applied to the Conduct and Af-
 faire of Nations and Sovereigns (1760,4to.,
 and 1793, 8vo.).   In  general,  Vattel takes
 the celebrated Wolf for  his  guide, but
 differed from  him in some points, in re-
 lation to   which he published, in  1762,
 Questions sur  le  Droit naturel.
   Vauban, Sebastian le Prestre, seigneur
 de, marshal of France, and  the  greatest
 engineer which that countiy has produced,
 descended of an ancient  and noble fam-
 ly of Nivemois, was  born  1633, and early
 entered the army, where  his uncommon
 talents and genius for fortification soon be-
 came known, and were signally displayed
 in various successive  sieges.  He rose
 to the highest  military  rank by his merit
 and services, and was  made governor of
 the citadel of Lisle, in 1668, and  com-
 missioner-general of fortifications  in 1678.
 He took  Luxemburg  in  1684, and was
 present, in 1688, at the siege and  capture
 of Philipsburg, Manheimand Frankendal,
 under the dauphin.  He was made mar-
 shal of France in 1703, and died at Paris.
 1707, aged seventy-four.  As an engineer,
 he  carried the art of fortifying, attacking
 and defending towns to a  degree of per-
 fection  unknown  before  his time.  He
 fortified above three hundred ancient cita-
 dels,  erected thirty-three new ones, had
 the principal management and direction
 of fifty-three sieges,  and  was present at
 a hundred and forty-three engagements.
 His  works consist  of a  treatise  entitled
 La Dixme  Royale  (1704, 4to.  and 12mo.),
 and  a vast collection of manuscripts, in
 twelve volumes, which he calls Mes Oisi-
 vetis,  containing his ideas,  reflections and
 projects for the advantage of Franee. The
 following works have also  been published
 either under his  name or from his ideas:
 Mttniire de fortifier par M. de Vauban,
 mise en Ordre par le Chevalier de Cambrai
 (1689 and 1692); L'Ingenieur Francois (by
 1 lerbert);  De I'Attaque et de la Defense des
Places, suivant le Systeme de M.  Vauban
 (1736);  Sur la  Fortification, par M. de
 Vauban (1746).
  Vaublanc-Vie.vnot,  Vincent  Marie,
count de, bom in  1756, entered the army 
520
VAUBLANC-VIENNOT-VAUDONCOURT.
on leaving the military school, and,  in
1791, was appointed deputy to the legis-
lative assembly, where he became a dis-
tinguished advocate of the royal cause;
censured, vehemently, the despotism of
the municipalities, and  spoke in favor of
the clergy who had refused to take the
oaths.  He was  appointed president of
the assembly, and opposed the motion to
sequester the property of emigrants, with-
out exempting women  or  children.  His
speech on this subject was received with
cries of abuse, and even  with menaces.
The  powers  assumed  by the  popular
clubs were arraigned by him, and he ob-
tained a decree of accusation against Ma-
rat.  He was not elected a member of the
convention, and, though proscribed, he had
the good fortune  to escape the guillotine.
At the time of the  movement of the sec-
tions of Paris against the  convention, he
was president of the section Poissoniere,
and,  on the 17th of October,  was con-
demned  to death for  contumacy.  Two
days before his  condemnation, he was
chosen deputy for the department of the
Seine and the Marne  to  the council of
five hunched.   The sentence of condem-
nation against him was annulled; and on
the second of September, 1796,he mounted
the tribune to take  the oath of hatred to
royalty.  On the 18th Fructidor, he was
proscribed, and condemned to be sent out
of France; but  he escaped  into Italy,
whence he was recalled after the  18th of
Brumaire.   In 1800,  the conservative
senate proclaimed him  a member of the
legislative body.  In 1805, he was raised
to the dignity  of count,  and commandant
of the legion  of honor,  and  appointed
prefect of the  Moselle.  On the restora-
tion, he was named minister of the inte-
rior, and  displayed  extraordinary activity
and  talent  During his administration,
the institute received its  new organiza-
tion.  M. de Vaublanc  was succeeded in
the home department by M. Laine, and,
on this occasion,  was named minister of
state and member  of the  privy  council.
He was  afterwards chosen member of
the chamber of deputies, in which, as
in the  ministry, ho deserted  his  former
liberal principles.
  Vaucanson, Jacques, a French mecha-
nician, born at Lyons, died at Paris  in
1732, has acquired  celebrity by  his  in-
genious automata.   These are a  brazen
duck, which performs all the motions of a
living duck, swallows the  food put before
it, and passes it in a regular manner; a
Provencal piper, and a flute-player. The
last mentioned is a figure  as large as life,
seated upon a pedestal, which  contains
bellows,  by means  of which  wind  is
driven to different parts of the machine in
such  a manner  as  to move the lips and
fingers of the statue.  Vaucanson exhib-
ited this automaton  at Paris in 1738, and
explained the mechanism of  it  in  a
pamphlet—Le Micanisme du Fluteur Au-
tommte,par Vaucanson (Paris, 1738). Vau-
canson was afterwards appointed by car-
dinal  Fleury inspector of the silk manu-
factures,  and introduced some improve-
ments in  the throwing mills.
  Vaucluse (vallis clausa); a small vil-
lage, six leagues  east of Avignon (q. v.), in
France.  This small place gives its name
to  a  department   (See  Departments.)
Near  Vaucluse, the  river Sorgue rises be-
tween rocks, falls as it comes out of the
rocks, and, after having formed  several
beautiful cascades,  runs about ten miles
through a romantic countiy, and enters
the Rhone near Avignon.   Here Petrarch
lived ; and through him Vaucluse and the
source of the Sorgue  have become fa-
mous.
  Vaud, Pays de. (See Pays de  Vaud.)
  Vaudeville ;  a species of light French
songs, consisting  of  several  couplets
(strophes) of a gay  and sometimes satir-
ical character.  A vaudeville should have
an easy and pleasing tune, and the chief
idea of the whole should be  repeated
with proper variations at the end of each
strophe.  The little dramatic pieces inter-
spersed with witty songs adapted to well-
known popular  tunes, &c, and which
are performed at the thialre du  Vaude-
ville, opened in 1791, are called comidies-
vaudeville, and conclude with a vaudeville,
of  which  each  performer  sings  one
strophe, having  reference to the part per-
formed by him. Opinions are divided
respecting the origin of the word.  The
Dictionary of the academy derives it from
Van de Vire, a valley in Normandy.   In
the little  town  of  Vau-de-Vire,  Olivier
Basselin, a Norman  poet of the fourteenth
century, is said to have satirized the fol-
lies of the day   in  spirited songs. This
Vau de Vire, published as early as 1576,
and republished  in  1821, by Louis Dubois
(Vaux de toutes  les  Villes),  is believed to
have  given  rise  to  the name vaudeville.
It has also  been derived from  Vau-de-
ville,  a  song  which runs through  the
whole town, from mouth to mouth.
  Vaudois.  (See Waldenses.)
  Vaudoncourt, William de, born at Vi-
enna, of French parents,  in 1772, was
educated in Berlin,  and, on the breaking
out of the revolution, entered the French 
VAUDONCOURT—VAUQUELINITE.
521
 army as lieutenant of volunteers, in 1791.
 After serving with distinction during sev-
 eral campaigns, he was appointed, by gen-
 eral Bonaparte, major of artillery (1797),
 in  the  army  of the  Cisalpine republic.
 In  1803 and 1804, he superintended the
 erection of arsenals and public manufac-
 tories of arms for the republic ; in 1805,
 assumed the supervision  of the artillery
 school at Pavia, and, at  the same  time,
 served under Massena as commander of
 the Italian artillery, and director-general
 of the  French park.  In 1807,  he was
 sent to Ali  Pacha  to organize his forces,
 and to conduct the operations against the
 Russians  in Corfu, Sta.  Maura, and the
 gulf of Le panto.   In 1809, he was made
 general, and served under Eugene in the
 campaign of  1812, when  he was  made
 prisoner.   During the   hundred  days,
 Vaudoncourt  commanded  the national
 guards of Metz, and,  after the restoration,
 being obliged to leave France,  retired to
 Munich.  In 1821, eager to contribute to
 the independence of Italy, in the service
 of which he had spent eighteen years, he
 went to  Piedmont, and  was appointed
 commander-in-chief of the constitutional
 forces; but, on the failure of the enterprise
 (see Piedmontese Revolution), he retired to
 Spain, and occupied himself with literary
 pursuits.  The French invasion of 1823
 obliged  him to quit  that  countiy ;  and,
 withdrawing to  England, he was finally
 permitted to return  to France in  1825.
 Among his works  are Hisloire  des  Cam-
pagnes  d'Annibal  en Italie (3 vols., 4to.,
Milan,  1812);  Mimoires  pour   servir  a
 I'Histoirc  de la Campagne de Russie en
 1812; Histoire des  Campagnes  d'Italie en
 1813 e.  1814; Histoire  de la Guerre des
 Francois  en Allemagne en 1813; Lettere
 on the internal political Condition of Spain
 from 1821 to 1823 (London, 1824); Histoire
 des Campagnes de  1814 et 1815 en France
 (5 vols., Paris, 1826); and Histoire Poli-
 tique et Militaire  du  Prince Engine (3
 vols.).—
  Vault.   (See Architecture.)
  Vaulting;  one of the finest gymnastic
 exercises, which  much  strengthens the
 arms, abdominal muscles, dorsal muscles
 and lower extremities, and imparts more
grace than  any other  gymnastic  exer-
cise.
  Vauquelin, Nicholas  Louis, an emi-
nent French chemist,  member of the in-
stitute and of numerous learned societies,
was  born in  Normandy,  in 1763.   In
 1780, he went to  Paris to continue the
study of chemistry and pharmacy, which
he had  begun at Rouen, and, three years
after, was engaged by  Fourcroy as his
assistant in  his  chemical preparations.
Vauquelin soon  became the friend and
rival of his  master, with whom  he  con-
tinued to be connected for eight yeare.
In 1793, he became a member of tiie acad-
emy of sciences, which, with other learn-
ed societies, was soon after abolished. At
this time, he went to Melun, where he was
attached to the military hospital, but was
recalled to  Paris the next year, and aj>-
pointed inspector of the mines.   His lec-
tures on the art of assaying, delivered by
order of the government at the mining
academy  in  Cleves, procured  him  the
place of adjunct professor of chemistry at
the polytechnic school.  When  the insti-
tute  was  founded, he  was  admitted  a
member; and he was also among the firet
to receive the cross  of the legion of  hon-
or.   Being appointed professor of chem-
istry to the college of France on the death
of Darcet,  he resigned  his place of in-
spector  of the  mines, and assumed the
superintendence  of the  newly-erected
school  of pharmacy.  On the death of
Brogniart, he was appointed, at the nom-
ination of the institute and of the inspectors
of studies, to the professorship of chemis-
try at the Jardin des Plantes.  In 1811, he
succeeded Fourcroy as professor of chem-
istry  to  the  faculty  of  medicine, all the
other candidates having voluntarily with-
drawn their pretensions  in his favor.  In
1822, with Jussieu, Dubois, Lallement and
others guilty of holding liberal opinions,
he was dismissed from his place.  His only
separate publication is the Manuel de I'Es-
sayeur (1812); but he is the author of many
valuable papers in the Annates de Chimie,
the  Journal des Mines,  the Annates du
Musium, &c.  He died in 1829.
  Vauquelinite.   This mineral occurs
in extremely minute crystals, which ap-
pear to  have the form of the regular six-
sided prism ; fracture  uneven ; surfaces
of the crystals a little curved ; lustre ada-
mantine, often faint; color blackish-green,
olive-green;  streak siskin-green, often
inclining  to  brown ;  faintly  translucent
to opaque; rather brittle;  hardness  infe-
rior to calcareous spar; specific gravity
5.5.  Besides occurring in crystals,  it is
found botryoidal, reniform and massive :
composition  generally impalpable ;  sur-
face  drusy or rough; fracture imperfect
and  flat conchoidal.  Alone  before the
blow-pipe, it intumesces a little, and then
froths and melts into a grayish globule,
giving, at  the same time, some globules 
522
VAUQUELINITE—VEGA.
of lead.  According to Berzelius, it con-
sists of
  Oxide of lead,...........60.87
  Oxide of copper,.........10.80
  Chromic acid,...........28.33

It occurs at Berezof, in Siberia, along with
chromate of lead ; and is also said to ex-
ist in Brazil.
  Vaux, Nicholas, firet lord Vaux, was
the son of sir William Vaux, and receiv-
ed the honor of knighthood  for  his gal-
lantry at the battle of Stoke, in 1487.  He
ranked high in the favor of Henry VIII,
who carried him with him into  France,
where he was present at  the  celebrated
meeting  between  that  king  and  the
French monarch in  the  " field of cloth
of gold," and  was afterwards ennobled.
His death took place  in 1530.—His son,
Thomas lord  Vaux,  who inherited  the
talents and valor of his father, and suc-
ceeded him in  the esteem of his prince,
was born  in 1510.  He attended Henry
on his second French expedition, and was
made governor of Jersey, with the collar
of the order of the Bath.  Like many of
the young nobility of the age, he joined the
cultivation of poetry to the study of mar-
tial exercises; and several of his poetic ef-
fusions are yet to be found in the Paradyse
of daintie Devyces, of which his Aged Lov-
er's Renunciation of Love, and the Assault
of Cupid, have been much admired.  His
death took place soon  after the accession
of Mary to the throne.
   Vauxhall  Gardens.  This elegant
place of summer resort is situated near
the Thames,  in the parish  of Lambeth,
about a mile and a half from Westmin-
ster bridge, and is denominated from the
manor of Vauxhall.   There  is no certain
account of the time when these premises
were first opened for the entertainment
of the public; but the Spring gardens at
Vauxhall are mentioned in the Spectator
as a place of great resort.  It was former-
ly little more than a tea-garden, enlivened
with  instrumental  music, but so much
frequented, that the  proprietor  was  en-
couraged to augment the attraction by the
introduction of vocal  music.  These gar-
dens are beautiful and extensive, and con-
tain a variety of walks: when open for
 public amusement, they are illuminated
 with variegated lamps, and  embellished
 with transparent devices. The  different
 boxes and apartments are adorned with
 paintings,  many of which are executed
 by Hogarth and Hay man.  The latter has
 chosen his subjects  from   Shakspeare.
 In bad weather, the musical performance
is in the rotunda, seventy feet in diame-
ter.   The  roof is so  contrived,  that
sounds never vibrate under it; and thus
music ia heard to great advantage.
  Vector, or Radius Vector, in astron-
omy,  is a  line supposed  to  be   drawn
from any planet moving round a  centre,
or the focus of an  ellipse, to that  centre,
or focus.   It is  so called, because  it is
that line by which  the planet seems to be
carried round its centre, and with which
it  describes areas  proportional  to  the
times.
  Vedas.   (See Indian Literature, vol. vi,
page 563.)
  Vedette ; a  sentinel on horseback.
The word is derived from the Italian ve-
detta (from vedere,  to  see), and signifies,
originally, a watch-tower.  It is also  used,
sometimes, for sentinels on foot, forming
the extreme  point in  the line  of  out-
posts.  They are often placed in  pairs, in
such a way that the field of vision of one
intersects that of the other.
  Veering.  (See Ship.)
  Vega (Spanish  for valley); the name
of numerous places in countries where
the Spanish language is spoken.
  Vega. Don Lope Felix  de Vega  Car-
pio, generally called  Lope  de  Vega, is
described under Ijope de Vega.  (See also
Garcilaso.)
  Vega, George, baron de,  an Austrian
officer of  artillery, born at  Sagoritz, in
Carniola, in 1754.   He studied at the col-
lege of Laybach, where he made a  rapid
progress in mathematics. Being appointed
an  engineer in  Carniola, and afterwards
in Hungary, he became known as a man
of talent in his  profession, and  was pat-
ronised by the emperor Joseph II. He
served in  several  campaigns against the
French, and,  having  distinguished him-
self on many occasions,  especially in
1796, was  made a  major, and afterwards
a lieutenant-colonel, knight  of the  order
of Maria   Theresa, and a baron of the
empire.  His  death took  place in  Sep-
tember, 1802.   He was a member of the
academies of Gottingen,  Erfurt, Berlin,
and several others, and was considered as
a distinguished mathematician.   He pub-
lished a Course of Mathematics for the
Use of the Artillery of the Imperial Ar-
my (Vienna, 1786—1800,4 vols., 4to.; 3d
edit, 1802, folio) ;  a Logarithmo-trigono-
metrical Manual  (Leipsic, 1793,4to.) ; a
Complete Collection of grand Logarithmo-
trigonometrical  Tables (1794, folio); an
 Introduction  to   Chronology   (Vienna
 1?°L 8vo.):  and  a Natural System of
 Measures, Weights and Coins (1803, 4to.). 
VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY.
523
  Vegetable Chemistry.  The princi-
ples of which vegetables  are composed,
if we pursue their analysis as far as our
means have hitherto allowed, are chiefly
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.  Nitrogen
is a constituent principle of several, but it
is only present in small quantity.  Potash,
soda, lime, magnesia, silex, alumine, sul-
phur, phosphorus, iron, manganese and
muriatic acid occur occasionally in plants,
though in small  and very variable pro-
portions.  Every distinct compound which
exists already formed in plants, and which
is capable of separation without suffering
decomposition, is called a proximate, or
immediate principle, of vegetables.  Thus
sugar,  starch  and  gum  are proximate
principles.  Opium, though obtained from
a plant, is not a proximate principle, but
consists of several proximate principles,
mixed more or  less intimately together.
The proximate  principles of vegetables
are sometimes distributed  over the whole
plant, while in others they  are confined
to a  particular part.   The methods by
which they are procured are very varia-
ble.   Thus gum exudes  spontaneously,
and  the saccharine juice  of the  maple-
tree  is  obtained by incisions  made in the
bark.  In some  cases, a particular  prin-
ciple is mixed with  such a variety  oft
others, that a distinct process is required
for  its  separation.   Of such processes
consists the proximate analysis of vegeta-
bles.   Sometimes a  substance is sepa-
rated by  mechanical means, as  in the
preparation of starch.  On other occa-
sions, advantage is taken of the volatility
ofa  compound, or of its solubility in some
particular menstruum.  Whatever meth-
od is employed,  it should be of such a
nature as to occasion no  change in the
composition of the body to be prepared.
The reduction of the proximate  princi-
ples  into their simplest  parts constitutes
their ultimate analysis.   By  this  means
the quantity of oxygen, carbon and hy-
drogen present in any compound is ascer-
tained.  The  method by  which  this  is
accomplished is, to convert the whole of
the carbon  into  carbonic acid, and the
hydrogen into water, by means of some
compound which contains oxygen in so
loose a state of combination as to give it
up to those elements at a red heat.  The
substance employed is the  peroxide  of
copper, which, if alone, may be heated to
whiteness without parting with oxygen;
whereas it yields oxygen readily to any
combustible matter with which it is  ig-
nited.  It is easy, therefore, by weighing
it before and after analysis,  to discover
the precise quantity of oxygen which has
entered into union with the carbon and
hydrogen of the substance submitted  to
examination.  The  constitution of vege-
table  substances is not yet sufficiently
known to admit of their being classified
in a purely scientific  order. The chief
data hitherto furnished towards forming
a  systematic arrangement, are derived
from  a remarkable agreement between
the composition and  general  properties
of several vegetable compounds.   From
the ultimate analysis  of a considerable
variety of proximate principles the three
following conclusions  are  drawn:  1. a
vegetable substance is always acid when
it contains more than a sufficient quantity
of oxygen for converting  all its  hydro-
gen into water; 2.  it is always  resinous,
oily  or alcoholic, &c, when it contains
less than a sufficient quantity of oxygen
for combining with the hydrogen; and
3. it is neither acid nor resinous, but in a
state analogous to sugar, gum,  starch, or
the woody fibre, when the oxygen and
hydrogen which  it contains  are  in the
exact  proportion  for  forming  water.
These laws, indeed, are not rigidly exact,
noi do they include the vegetable prod-  .
ucts containing nitrogen.   M.  Thenard
has divided the proximate principles into
five classes.  The firet includes the vege-
table acids; the second, vegetable alkalies;
the third, those substances which contain
an excess of hydrogen ; the fourth, those
the oxygen  and hydrogen of which are
in proportion for forming water ; and the
fifth,  those  bodies which,  so  far as  is
known, do  not belong to either  of the
other divisions.—1. The vegetable acids are
decomposed by a red heat.  They are, in
general, less liable to spontaneous decom-
position than other vegetable substances.
They are nearly all decomposed by con-
centrated hot nitric acid, by which they are
converted into carbonic acid and water.
They are at least twenty-five in number,
the most important of  which are the fol-
lowing:  acetic acid,  or  vinegar  (q.v.),
oxalic (q. v.), tartaric (q. v.), citric (q. v.),
malic, benzoic (q. v.), gallic (q. v.) boletic,
moroxylic  (q.  v.),   meconic and  pectic
acids.—2. Under the title of vegetable al-
kalies are comprehended those proximate
principles which are possessed of alkaline
properties.  They all  consist  of carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen  and nitrogen.   They
are decomposed with  facility  by  nitric
acid and by heat;  and ammonia is always
one of the  products  of the destructive
distillation.  They  never exist  in  an in-
sulated state in the  plants which contain 
524
VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY.
them, but are, apparently, in every case,
combined with an acid, with which they
form a salt more or less soluble in water.
These alkalies are, for the most part,
very insoluble  in water, and  of sparing
solubility  in  cold alcohol; but they  are
all readily dissolved  by that  fluid at a
boiling temperature, being deposited from
the solution, commonly in the form of
crystals,  on cooling.   Most of the salts
are far more soluble in water than  the
alkalies themselves, and several of them
are remarkable for their solubility.   As
the vegetable alkalies agree in several of
their  leading  chemical properties,  the
mode of preparing one of them admits
of being applied, with slight variation, to
all.  The general  method  is as follows:
The substance containing the alkaline
principle is digested, or, more commonly,
macerated, in a large quantity of water,
which dissolves the salt, the base of which
is the vegetable alkali.  On adding some
more powerful salifiable base, such as pot-
assa or ammonia, or boiling the solution for
a few moments with lime or pure magne-
sia, the vegetable alkali is separated from
its acid ;  and being, in that state, insoluble
in water, may be collected on a filter, and
washed.   To purify it from certain  ole-
aginous, resinous substances and coloring
matters, it is mixed with a little animal
charcoal and dissolved in boiling alcohol.
This  solution is  filtered while hot, and
evaporated to dryness, which affords  the
alkali in a state of perfect purity.  Up-
wards of twenty  of these bodies have
already been investigated.  The follow-
ing are the names of those  which  are
the most important: morphia, cinchonia,
quinia, strychnia, brucia, veratria and san-
guinaria.  (q. v.)—3. Oils are character-
ized by a peculiar unctuous feel, by in-
flammability, and by insolubility in water.
They are divided into fixed and  volatile
oils, the  former of which  are compara-
tively fixed in the fire, and therefore im-
part a permanent stain to paper; while
the latter, owing to their  volatility, pro-
duce a stain which disappears by gentle
heat   (See Oils, and Essential  OUs.)—
4. Resins are  the  inspissated juices of
plants, and commonly occur either pure
or in combination  with an essential  oil.
They are solid at common temperatures,
brittle, inodorous and insipid.  They are
non-conductors of electricity,  aud, when
rubbed, become negatively electric. They
are generally ofa yellow color and semi-
transparent   They are melted  by  the
application of heat, and, by a still higher
temperature, are decomposed.  In close
vessels, they yield empyreumatic oil, and
a large quantity of carbureted hydrogen.
In the open air, they burn with  a yellow
flame  and much smoke, being  resolved
into carbonic acid  and water.  Resins
are dissolved  by alcohol, ether and the
essential oils;  and the alcoholic and ethe-
real solutions are precipitated by water,
a fluid in which they are quite insoluble.
Their best solvent  is pure  potash and
soda;  and they are soluble in the alkaline
carbonates by the aid of heat.  The prod-
uct is, in  each case, a soapy compound,
which is decomposed by an acid.   The
most important are described under their
respective names,  in this work.  Alcohol
(q. v.) is  the intoxicating ingredient of all
spirituous and vinous liquors.  It does
not exist ready formed in plants, but is a
product of the vinous fermentation.  (See
Fermentation.)  Ether (q. v.)  is a general
term applied  to  several compounds pro-
duced from the  action of acids  on alco-
hol.—4.  Those substances in which the
oxygen  and  hydrogen  are  in the  exact
proportion for forming water, are sugar,
starch, gum and lignin, all of which have
been  described,  except the last.  Lignin
forms  the fibrous structure of vegetable
substances, and  is   the  most abundant
principle in plants.   The different kinds
of wood contain about 96 per  cent, of
iignin.  It is  prepared by  digesting the
sawingsof any kind of wood successively
in alcohol, water and dilute muriatic acid,
until all  the substances soluble  in  these
menstrua are  removed.  It  has neither
taste nor odor, undergoes no change by
keeping, and is insoluble in alcohol, water
and the  dilute acids.  When the woody
fibre is heated in close vessels, it yields a
large quantity of impure acetic  acid and
charcoal.  It  consists of  carbon 51.43,
oxygen  42.73, and  hydrogen   5.82.—5.
Substances not belonging to either of the
preceding sections.   The most important
of these are coloring matter, tannin, vege-
table albumen, gluten,  yeast, asparagin,
caffein, cathartin, piperin, bitter principle,
and extractive matter.
  The Chemical Phenomena of  Germina-
tion and Vegdation.   Germination  is the
process by which a  new plant  originates
from seed.  A  seed consists essentially
of two parts—the g*enn of the future plant,
endowed with a principle of vitality, and
the  cotyledons,  or  seed-lobes,  both  of
which are enveloped in a common cov-
ering of cuticle.   In the germ, two parts
—the  radicle and the plumule—may be
distinguished, the former of which is des-
tined to descend into the earth  and con- 
VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY.
525
Btitute the root, the  latter to rise into the
air and form the stem of the plant.   The
office of the seed-lobes is to afford nour-
ishment to  the young  plant,  until its
organization is so far advanced, that  it
may draw materials  for its growth from
extraneous  sources.   For  this  reason,
seeds are  composed of highly  nutritious
ingredients.    The chief  constituent of
most  of them  is starch,  in  addition to
which they  frequently  contain gluten,
gum, vegetable albumen  or  curd,  and
Bugar.  The conditions  necessary to  ger-
mination are three-fold, viz. moisture, a
certain temperature,  and the presence of
oxygen  gas.   The necessity of moisture
to this process has been proved by ex-
tensive observation.  A certain degree of
warmth is not less essential.   Germina-
tion cannot  take place at 32° Fahr.; and
a  strong heat, such  as that  of boiling
water, prevents it altogether, by depriving
the germ of the vital principle.   The most
favorable  temperature  ranges  from 60°
to 80°, the  precise  degree varying with
the nature of the plant—a circumstance
that  accounts for the difference in the
season of the year at which  different
seeds begin to germinate.  The presence
of air is indispensable for the germination
of seeds;  but the  influence  of light,
which is so favorable to all the subsequent
stages of vegetation,  is injurious to the
process  of germination.  The  operation
of malting barley, in which the grain is
made to germinate by exposure to warmth,
nir and humidity, affords the best means
of studying the phenomena of germina-
tion.  In preparing malt, the grain  passes
through four stages,  called steeping, couch-
ing, flooring and kiln-drying.  In the first,
it is steeped in water for about two days,
when it absorbs moisture, softens, and
swells considerably.   It is then removed
to the couch  frame, where it  is laid in
heaps, thirty inches in depth, from twen-
ty-six to thirty hours.   In  this situation,
the grain becomes warm, and  acquires a
disposition to germinate ; but as the tem-
perature, in such large  heaps, would rise
very  unequally, and germination conse-
quently be  rapid in  some portions and
slow  in  others, the process of flooring is
employed.   This consists  in  laying the
grain in strata a few  inches  thick, on
large, airy, but shaded floors, where it re-
mains for about twelve  or fourteen days,
until  germination  has  advanced to the
extent desired by the maltster.  During
this interval, the grain is frequently turned,
in order  that the   temperature of the
whole mass may be  uniform.   As soon
as saccharine matter is freely developed,
germination  must  be  arrested;  since,
otherwise, being taken up as  nutriment
for the young plant,  it would speedily
disappear.   Accordingly,  the  grain is
removed to the kiln, where it is exposed
to a temperature gradually rising from
100° to 160°, or rather higher;  the object
being first to dry the  grain completely,
and then to provide against any recurrence
of germination, by destroying the vitality
of the  plant.  The   difference between
malted and unmalted barley  is  readily
perceived by the taste;  but  it will  be
more correctly appreciated by  inspecting
the result of a comparative analysis  of
the two.
	In 100 of	In 1C0 of
	Barley.	Malt.
	. . . . 1 . .	. . . 1
	. . . . 4 . . ,	, . . 15
Sugar, . . .	. . . . 5 . .	. . . 15
	. . . . 3 . . .	. . 1
	, . . . 32 . . .	. . 56
	. . . . 55 . . .	. . 12
It hence appeare, that,  during germina-
tion, the hordein is converted into starch,
gum and sugar; so that, from  an  insol-
uble material, which  could  not, in that
state, be applied to the uses of the young
plant, two soluble and  highly nutritious
principles result, which,  by being dissolv-
ed in water, are readily absorbed by the
radicle.  In the growth of plants, a strik-
ing analogy  to that of animals is noticea-
ble.  The root serves the purpose of a
stomach, by imbibing  nutritious juices
from the soil, and thus supplying the plant
with materials for  its growth.  The sap,
or circulating fluid, composed of water,
holding in solution saline, extractive, muci-
laginous, saccharine, and other substances,
rises  upwards through  the wood in a
distinct system of tubes, called the com-
mon vessels, which correspond in  their
office to the lacteals and pulmonary arte-
ries of animals, and are distributed in
minute ramifications over  the surface of
the leaves.   In its  passage  through  this
organ, which may be termed the lungs of
plants,  the  sap is  fully exposed to the
agency of  light and air, experiences a
change, by which it is more fully adapted
to the wants of the vegetable  economy,
and then descends through the inner layer
of tiie bark  in another  system of tubes,
called the proper vessels, yielding, in its
course, all the juices and principles pecu-
liar to the plant.  Plants absorb carbonic
acid from the air,  under certain circum-
stances, and  emit  oxygen   in  return.
When a healthy plant, the roots of which 
526
VEGETABLE  CHEMISTRY.
are supplied with proper nourishment, is
exposed to the direct  solar beams in a
given quantity of atmospheric air, the car-
bonic acid, after a certain interval, is  re-
moved, and  an equal volume of oxygen
is substituted for it.  If a fresh portion of
carbonic acid is supplied, the same result
will  ensue.   But this  change only takes
place in the sunshine: in the dark, an op-
posite effect takes place ; oxygen  disap-
pears, and carbonic acid is evolved.  In
the dark, therefore, vegetables deteriorate
rather than  purify the air, producing the
same effect as the  respiration of animals.
Plants  appear to derive a large propor-
tion  of their carbon from the  carbonic
acid of the atmosphere.   Light is neces-
sary to  the color  of plants.  The green
color of the leaves is not developed, ex-
cept when they are  in a  situation to ab-
sorb carbonic acid, and give out oxygen.
With respect to  the food of plants, the
chief source from which  plants  derive
the materials for their growth, is the soil.
However various the composition of the
soil,  it consists, essentially, of two parts,
so far  as  its solid constituents  are con-
cerned.    One  is  a  certain  quantity  of
earthy matters,  such as siliceous earth,
clay, lime, and sometimes magnesia; and
the other is formed from the  remains of
animal and vegetable substances, which,
wheji mixed with the former,  constitute
common mould.  A  mixture of this kind,
moistened by. rain, affords  the proper
nourishment  of plants.  The water, per-
colating through the mould, dissolves  the
soluble salts with which it comes in con-
tact, together with the gaseous, extrac-
tive, and other matters, which are formed
during the decomposition of the animal
and  vegetable remains.   In this state it is
readily  absorbed by the  roots, and con-
veyed  as  sap to the leaves, where it  un-
dergoes a process of assimilation. But,
though this is the natural process by which
plants  obtain the greater part of their
nourishment, and without which they do
not  arrive at perfect maturity, they may
live, grow, and even increase in weight,
when wholly deprived of nutrition from
this  source.   Thus it is well  known, that
many plants grow when merely suspend-
eJ in  the air.   Without water, plants
speedily wither and die.   It gives the soft
parts that degree of succulence necessary
foi the performance of their functions ;  it
affords two elements, oxygen and hydro-
gen, which, either  as water,  or under
some other form, are contained in all vege-
table products; and lastly, the roots ab-
sorb from the  soil those substances only
which  are' dissolved  or  suspended  in
water.   So carefully, indeed,  has nature
provided against the  chance of deficient
moisture, that  the leaves are  endowed
with a property both of absorbing aqueous
vapor directly from the atmosphere, and
of lowering their temperature during the
night by radiation, so as to cause a depo-
sition of dew upon their surface, in con-
sequence of which, during the  driest
seasons,  and in  the warmest  climates,
they frequently continue  to convey this
fluid to the plant, when it can  no  longer
be obtained in sufficient quantity from the
soil.  But, necessary as  is this fluid to
vegetable life, it cannot yield to plants a
principle which it does not possess. The
carbonaceous matter which accumulates
in plants, under the circumstances above
alluded  to,  may with certainty be attrib-
uted to  the atmosphere, since we know
that carbonic acid exists there, and  that
growing vegetables have the property of
taking  carbon  from  that gas.   When
plants are incinerated, their  ashes are
found to contain saline and  earthy mat-
ters, the  elements of which, if not the
compounds themselves, are supposed to
be derived from the  soil.  Such, at least,
is the view deducible from  accurate re-
searches and from chemical principles.
Some later experiments, however,  would
seem to  lead to  a different  conclusion.
Several   kinds  of grain, such as barley,
wheat, rye and oats, in pure flowers  of
sulphur, were supplied with  nothing but
air, light, and distilled water; on inciner-
ating the plants thus treated, they yielded
a greater quantity of saline and  earthy
matters  than were originally present in
the seeds. These results may be account-
ed for in two ways.  It may be supposed,
in the first place, that the  foreign matters
were introduced accidentally from extra-
neous sources,  as by fine particles  of dust
floating in the  atmosphere ; or, secondly,
it may be conceived, that they were  de-
rived from  the sulphur,  air and  water,
with which the plants were supplied.  If
the  latter opinion be adopted, we must
infer either that the vital principle, which
certainly controls chemical affinity in a
surprising manner, and directs this power
in  the   production  of new compounds
from elementary bodies, may likewise
convert one element into  another; or that
some  of  the  substances supposed by
chemists to be  simple, such  as  oxygen
and hydrogen, are  compounds,  not of
two, but of a variety, of different  princi-
ples.  But as these conjectures are at va-
riance  with the facts and principles of 
VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY—VEGETATION.           527
 chemistry, it would appear  that  some
 error must have  been committed  in  the
 experiments.  (For  an  account of  the
 spontaneous changes to which vegetables
 are  liable, see the article on Fermenta-
 tion ; see also the article Plants.)
   Vegetables.  (See Plants.)
   Vegetation.  The wide extension of
 vegetable life furnishes  one of the most
 striking examples of the productive power
 of nature. Every climate has its pecu-
 liar vegetation. The coldest countries are
 not entirely destitute of it, and it has been
 thought by naturalists that even perpetual
 snow is the abode of some species of vege-
 tables.  Saussure discovered in it  a  red-
 dish dust, and the navigators in the arctic
 regions  frequently observed in  it  a  red
 coloring matter, supposed to belong to the
 order alga.  The absence of light does
 not  altogether prevent  vegetable exist-
 ence.  Caverns and mines produce cer-
 tain plants, principally those of the cryp-
 togamous class.  Vast fields  of marine
 plants spring  from  the  depths  of the
 ocean, especially towards and within  the
 tropics.  The vine-leaved fucus vegetates
 at the depth  of two hundred feet. The
 surface of the Atlantic, in some parts, is
 covered  with  masses  of floating fuci,
 which are supposed by botanists to grow
 at the bottom  of the  sea, and to be torn
 off" when ripe  by  the motion of  the
 waters.  Extreme heat is not destructive
 of vegetation, provided it be accompanied
 by humidity.  Plants grow not only on
 the borders, but even in the waters, of hot
 springs.   The greatest obstacle to vege-
 tation is the absence of moisture.  Those
 sandy tracts where rain seldom or never
 falls, and where the  soil is  constantly
 shifted  about  by the  winds,  exhibit a
 complete sterility.  The chemical  nature
 of the soil influences the size and vigor
 of plants, rather than  sets limits to their
 cultivation : common salt,  however, dis-
 solved and scattered over the earth, al-
 most entirely prevents their growth. The
 scale of atmospherical heat is what ordi-
 narily determines the character and prog-
 ress of vegetation.  In the torrid zone,
 therefore, it  is only necessary to ascend
 mountains to a certain height, to find  the
 trees, fruits and flowers of the temperate
 zone, and, still higher, those of the frigid
 zone.   (See  Mountains, and  Tempera-
ture.)  The vegetation which covers  the
sidos of  mountains,  thus forms distinct
zones or bands, each  having its peculiar
vegetable tribes.   On  the volcano  of
Teneriffe, for example, five of these zones
 have been distinguished : 1. the region of
vines ; 2.  of laurels ; 3. of pines;  4.  of
the alpine broom; and, 5. of grasses.   In
the equinoctial regions, where the seasons
differ little in respect  of beat, the geo-
graphical  distribution of plants  is  regu-
lated almost entirely by the mean tempe-
rature of the whole year; but, in  the
temperate zone, this distribution depends
more upon the mean temperature of the
summer season.  Some  plants  only re-
quire a certain degree of heat for a short
period, while for othere a more moderate
heat is sufficient, if of longer  duration.
Thus the  birch does not put forth leaves
under a temperature  of  53° or 54° ; but
the pine requires  a  long rather than a
warm summer.  In  Lapland, therefore,
where the summer, though short, is warm,
the birch rises nearer the  line of perpetu-
al congelation than the pine; but in the
Alps and  other high chains in low lati-
tudes, where the  summer is  longer, but
colder, the pine is seen after the birch has
disappeared.
  The frigid zone contains but few spe-
cies of plants ; yet of these the vegetation
in summer is extremely rapid.  The ver-
dure of countries within  the polar circle
is confined  chiefly to southern  aspects,
and the trees are  of  diminutive  growth.
Besides  mosses and  lichens, there exist
ferns, creeping plants, and some shrubs
yielding berries.  In the high latitudes of
the  northern temperate zone are the pine
and the fir, which show  their adaptation
to a cold  climate, by retaining their ver-
dure through the rigors of winter.  Ad-
vancing southward, we meet successively
the  oak, the  elm, the beech, the lime, and
other forest  trees.   Several  fruit-trees,
amongst which are the  apple, the pear,
the  cherry, and the plum, grow better hi
the  northern  half of this zone ;  while to
its more southern parts especially belong
the  more delicate fruits, such as the olive,
the  lemon, the orange and the fig, and,
amongst trees, the cedar,  the cypress and
the  cork.  The space comprised between
the  thirtieth and the fiftieth parallels of lati-
tude may  be considered as the country of
the  vine and the mulberry.  Wheat ex-
tends as far north as the  sixtieth degree ;
oats and barley a few degrees  farther.  In
the  southern part of this zone, maize and
rice are more commonly cultivated.  The
vegetation of the torrid zone is charac-
terized by a wealth, variety and magnifi-
cence no where to be found in the other
regions of the globe.  Under the beams
of a tropical sun,  the most juicy  fruits
and the most powerful aromatics arrive
at perfection: the ground there yields the 
528
VEGETATION—VEH.
sugar-cane, the coffee-tree, the palm, the
bread-tree, the pisang, the  baobab,  the
date, the  cocoa, the  vanilla, the cinna-
mon, the nutmeg,  the  pepper, the cam-
phor-tree, &c. The  cow-tree of South
America yields vegetable milk. There are
also various sorts of dye-wood, and seve-
ral species of corn, peculiar to  hot  cli-
mates ; while the elevated  tracts  of these
regions produce the plants of the tempe-
rate countries. The vegetable forms near
the equator are in general more majestic,
and their coloring more brilliant, than in
higher latitudes.   The  largest tree3  are
adorned with  flowers, larger, more beau-
tiful, and more odoriferous, than those of
herbaceous plants in our zone.
  The distribution of plants cannot be
explained solely by the influence of cli-
mate, or by the distribution  of tempera-
ture ;  for it frequently happens, that simi-
lar climates  are found in different parts
of the globe, without identity of  produc-
tion.  The  climate of the  high moun-
tains of the torrid zone is analogous to
that  of  the  temperate zone; yet Hum-
boldt  did not discover one indigenous
rose-tree in all South America;  and this
shrub is entirely wanting in the southern
hemisphere.  The genus erica (heath) is
peculiar to the old  world, not one of  the
137 species known being found in  the
new.   On  the other  hand, the cactus
(Indian fig) is confined to the  new world.
According to Humboldt, the species of
plants at present known amount to 44,000.
Of these,  6000 are cryptogamous. The
remaining 38,000  phanerogamous plants
are thus distributed:  In Europe, 7000;
temperate regions of Asia, 1500;  tropical
and insular regions of Asia, 4500; Africa,
3000;  temperate   regions  of America,
4000; tropical regions of America, 13,000 ;
Pacific islands, 5000.  A remarkable  cir-
cumstance in the distribution of plants is
the extreme rarity of the social plants
(that is, those which, like the heath, live
together, and cover large  tracts  of land)
between the tropics, where they are found
only on the sea shore  and  upon  elevated
plains.   Among   the  vegetable forms,
there are some which become more com-
mon from the equator towards the poles,
as the ferns, the heaths, and the rhodo-
dendrons ;  others, on the  contrary,  in-
crease from the poles towards the equa-
tor, as the rubiacea,  the euphorbia, and
the leguminous plants ; while others, such
as the  crucifera,  the umbellifera, &c,
are most abundant  in the temperate zone,
and  diminish in  number  towards  the
poles  and the equator.   Such constant
relations prevail in  respect of vegeta-
ble forms, that when, upon any point of
the globe, we know  tiie number of spe-
cies belonging to one of the great fami-
lies, both the  whole number of  phane-
rogamous plants, and the number of spe-
cies composing the other vegetable fami-
lies, may be estimated with considerable
accuracy.  It has been a question much
discussed among philosophers, in what
way the various vegetable  tribes were
originally diffused over the surface of the
earth ; and three different hypotheses have
been  proposed.  Linnams  supposed  a
single  primitive  centre  of  vegetation.
whence all species  of* plants have been
gradually dispersed over the  globe by,
winds, rivers, currents, animals, &c.  A
second hypothesis is, that each species of
plants originated in a primitive centre, of
which there were several in different parts
of the globe, each being the scat of a par-
ticular  number of  species.  The third
hypothesis  is, that,  wherever  a suitable
climate existed, there the vegetable tribes
sprang up, and that plants  of the same
species were, from the first, spread over
different regions.
  Vegetius Renatus, Flavius, the most
celebrated of the Roman  writers  on the
military art, flourished towards the  end
of the fourth century, in the  reign of the
emperor Valentinian II.  He is supposed
to have been  an inhabitant of Constanti-
nople, but nothing  certain is known of
his history.   The work of Vegetius De
Re  Militari  is to be  found in various.
editions  of  the Vetcres de  Re Militari
Scriptores; and it hits been often  printed
separately.   Among the best editions are
those  of Schwebel (Nuremberg, 1767,
4to.; and Strasburg, 1806, 8vo.).—Pub-
lius Vegetius, who,  notwithstanding the
difference of preenomen, has  been con-
founded with the military tactician, was a
writer  on farriery.   His  work, entitled
Artis   Veterinaria  sive  Mulo-medicina,
lib. iv., was first printed at Basle in 1528 ;
but the best edition is that of J. M. Ges-
ner (Manheim, 1781, 8vo.).   This treatise
is likewise included in the Scriptores Rei
Rustica.
  Veh.vie.   (See Fern.)
  Ye 11, on the river  Cremera, one  of the
twelve Etrurian cities, which  were un-
der the  government of their own luczi-
mones,  early became  involved  in  hos-
tilities with the inhabitants of the neigh-
boring Rome, which was of a more re-
cent origin.  A post  near Cremera, which
the Fabii were employed to defend, was
intended to  check the attacks of the in- 
VEII—VELDE.
529
habitants of Veii.  A war was the conse-
quence, in  which the Fabii were  defeat-
ed ; but the Romans were afterwards victo-
rious, at the moment when they intended to
retreat. The siege of Veii ensued (349—
358 A. U. C,  or 396  B. C), and  lasted
ten years,  until Camillus, who had been
appointed  dictator, penetrated through a
mine into the city ; and slaughter and out-
rage were  the punishment of the long re-
sistance of the people. (Livy v, 19—23.)
Camillus carried even the statue of Juno,
the protectress of Veii, to Rome, where a
temple was  erected to her on the Aven-
tine hill.   Veii was so  completely laid
waste, that, four hundred  years later,
herds  grazed on its ruins (Propertius, iv.
10, w. 29, 30); and in modern times, the
very site of the ancient city has  been a
subject of much dispute.  Livy's account
of the distance of Veii from Rome (v, 4)
seems to agree best with the situation or
Monte Lupoli, along the  Cassian road, in
the wood of Baccano, the charming situ-
ation of which reminds  the  spectator of
Athens.   Caesar  established a  Roman
colony at Veii; but the Goths and  Lom-
bards destroyed it.
  Vein.  (See Blood-Vessel, and Heart.)
  Velasquez, or Don Diego Velasquez
de Silva,  an eminent  Spanish historical
and portrait painter, was born at Seville
in 1599.  He studied under Herrera and
Pacheco, and  his first efforts were em-
ployed on  familiar and domestic subjects,
until  the sight of some  of the pictures
of the Italian masters  inspired him with
loftier ideas. He was in particular charm-
ed with the coloring of Caravaggio, whom
he began to make his model; and his suc-
cess in that  style equalled his most san-
guine  expectation.  Having spent five
years  with Pacheco, he repaired to Ma-
drid,  and obtained the patronage of the
duke  d'Olivarez, who introduced  him to
Philip IV,  by whom  he was appointed
his principal painter (1623). While  in
that situation,  Rubens arrived at Madrid,
and recommended him  to spend  some
time in Italy; which advice he followed,
and acquired  such an  improvement  in
taste,  correctness, composition and color-
ing, as placed him at the head of his pro-
fession. On his return to Spain (1631), he
was received with the most flattering dis-
tinction ; and he was, some time after (1648),
employed by the king to make the tour of
Italy, and procure a collection of pictures
and statues.  After his return to Spain
(1651), Velasquez painted the royal family
in a picture, called, by way of distinction,
The Family, with which the king was so
  vol. xn.        45
much pleased, that he  raised him to the
dignity  of a noble (1658).  His compo-
sitions are remarkable for their strong ex-
pression, freedom of pencil, and admira-
ble tone of coloring.   Among his  best
works are the Aguador, or Water-carrier,
now in the palace of Madrid ; the Broth-
ers of Joseph ; Job ; Moses taken  from
the Nile; Lot  and his Daughtere; the
Expulsion  of the Moors by Philip  III;
with many portraits and pictures  from
common fife.  He died in 1660.
  Velasquez de Velasco, Louis Joseph,
marquis  of Valdeflores, a Spanish histor-
ical writer, was  born at Malaga in 1722,
and, after  completing  his  studies,  was
employed by Ferdinand VI to collect
materials in  Spain  illustrative  of the
ancient  histoiy of the countiy.  He left
many materials in manuscript, and pub-
lished  Origines de la  Poesia Espanola
(Malaga, 1754), with some  other works
of value.  He died in 1772.
  Veld ; a Dutch word, signifying the
same as the German Feld (English field),
and appearing in a number of geographi-
cal names.
  Velde, William van der,  called the
Old, one of a distinguished  family of
painters, was born at Leyden in 1610. He
was  originally bred to the sea, but after-
wards  studied   painting,  and  retained
enough of his former profession to make
it the source of his future fame.  He be-
came early distinguished for his excel-
lence in  marine subjects, which induced
him  to  go to England with  his   son,
both of whom entered into the service of
Charles II.  He is said to have repaid
this servfce more gratefully than patrioti-
cally, by conducting the  English fleet to
burn  Schelling.   He was so much at-
tached to his art, that, in  order to  be a
near spectator of sea  engagements, he
hired a light vessel, in which he approach-
ed both  friends and enemies, in order to
sketch all the  incidents of the action upon
the spot; and in this manner he is said to
have been a spectator of the engagement
between  the duke of York  and Opdam,
and  of  the memorable three days' en-
gagement between Monk and De Ruyter.
He chiefly painted in black and white, on
a ground so prepared  on canvass, as to
give  it  the appearance of paper.   He
died at London in 1693.  (See Walpole's
Anecdotes.)
  Velde, William van der, called  the
Younger, was born at Amsterdam, in 1633,
and was the son of the preceding.  After
being carefully instructed by  his father,
he was placed under Simon de Vlieger, a 
530
VELDE—VENDEE.
celebrated painter of sea  pieces,  who,
however, was far surpassed  by his pupil.
His subjects were similar to those of his
father, whom he surpassed ; and, in fact,
no age, since the revival of art, has pro-
duced his equal in his own peculiar line,
of which Walpole calls him the  Raphael.
He was, equally with his father, a copyist
of reality, and, by order of the duke of
York, attended the engagement at Sole-
bay in a small vessel; as also the junction
of the English and French fleets at the
Nore.  The  principal  performances of
this  admirable artist  are  chiefly  to be
found in the royal collections and cabi-
nets of England.   He died April 6, 1707,
in his seventy-fourth year.  (See  Wal-
pole's Anecdotes.)
  Velde, Adrian van der, a celebrated
Dutch landscape painter of the  seven-
teenth century, was born at Amsterdam,
in 1639, and died in 1672.   He  is one of
the best painters of landscapes.  He is al-
so known for having painted the figures
and animals  in the landscapes of other
artists, e. g. of his teacher Moucheron, Van
der Hayden,  &c.  He also  painted some
large historical pieces.
  Velde, Francis Charles van der, author
of many historical novels, was born in
Breslau, in 1779.  He  studied  law, and
held a judicial office in his native city, at
the  time of his death, in 1824.  He has
been called the German Walter Scott; but
the historical element predominates much
more in his  novels than in Scott's.  His
complete works, with his biography, were
published at  Dresden in 1824, in 25 vols.
   Veldeck,  Henry.  (See Minnesingers.)
   Veleda, Velleda ; a German prophet-
ess in the country of the  Bructeri, in the
first century, much feared by the Romans,
as  she  exercised a great  influence over
her countrymen.  Her histoiy is enveloped
in darkness.
   Veliki (Russian for great) is prefixed to
many geographical names, to distinguish
certain places from othere of  the same
name, which have the epithet malo (littie).
   Velino.   (See Terni.)
   Velites,  in Roman antiquity; young,
 light foot-soldiers, who fought in front of
 the lines, and retreated, if necessary, be-
 tween the members of the  firet line (has-
 tati).  Napoleon introduced troops of this
 name into the regiments of infantry; and
 in the hussar regiments of  Hungary there
 are also men called velites.  The  French
 sometimes call a skirmish a vditation.
   Velleius, Paterculus.   (See Patercu-
 lus.)
   Vellum ; a writing material, resembling
fine parchment.  It is made of calf-skin,
extended and drawn to a proper thin-
ness when green.   Parchment  is  made  '
of sheep-skins in like manner. (See Parch-
ment.)
  Velocipede (in German, Draisine, be-
cause invented by a Mr. Drais, in Man-
heim, in 1817) is a vehicle consisting of a
piece of wood about five  feet long and
half a  foot wide, resting on two wheels,
one behind the other.  On this an indi-
vidual  sits, as on horseback,  so that his
feet  touch the ground.  He propels the
machine by  pressing  his  feet  slightly
against the ground, and keeps his balance
in the same way.  The  latter is the prin-
cipal difficulty of beginners.  In front of
the saddle is a  rest for the arms.  The
front wheel may be turned at pleasure, so
as to enable the  rider to give any direc-
tion to the machine.  Knight, in England,
improved it, and received  a patent for it
On level ground  a rider may perform five
miles in an hour with ease.
  Velocity.  (See Mechanics.)
  Velveret ; a species of cotton velvet
(See Velvet.)
  Velvet ; a rich kind of stuff, all silk,
covered on the outside with a close, short,
fine, soft shag, the other side being a very
strong, close tissue. The nap or shag, called
also the velveting, of this stuff, is formed of
part of the threads of the warp, which the
workman puts on  a long,  narrow-chan-
nelled ruler  or  needle, which he after-
wards cuts by drawing a sharp steel tool
along  the channel of the  needle  to the
ends of the warp.   Florence, Genoa, and
some other cities of Italy, are most noted
for the manufacture of velvet.  There are
cotton velvets manufactured in imitation
of the silk ones  in England.  (See Silk.)
  Vena Cava.  (See Heart.)
   Venaissin, Comtat de (county  of  Ve-
naissin);  a country of France, hounded
north by the Drome, east by Lower Alps,
south  by Moutiis-of-the-Rhone, and west
 by the Rhone,  which separates it from
 Gard; about twelve leagues in length, and
 seven in breadth.   It takes its name from
 Venasque, the Vendansca or Vendasca of
 the ancients.  The popes laid claim to the
 sovereignty of this country, from the time
 of count  Raymond de St Gilles.  This
 country now belongs to France, and forms
 part of the department  of Vaucluse.
   Venality  of  Offices,  in  France.
 (See Pauldte.)
   Venceslaus.  (See Wenceslaus.)
   Vendee, a department in  the western
 part of France, formed from the ancient
 Poitou (see Department), and deriving its 
VENDEE.
531
name from the river Vendee, is bounded by
the departments of the Lower Loire, of the
Two Sevres and of the Lower Charente,
and by the Atlantic ocean.  In the begin-
ning of the revolution of 1789, the inhab-
itants of this part  of the countiy, who
were attached to the royalist cause, main-
tained a war against the republican gov-
ernment, which, had there been more
concert among the  Vendean leadere, or
had foreign powers  employed the oppor-
tunity  judiciously,  would  have endan-
gered .the existence of the new republic.
The scene of the  war, familiarly called
Le Bocage (the thicket), lay in three con-
tiguous departments along the Loire, and
was  well calculated  for maintaining a
partisan warfare.  It contains  numerous
small woods and thickets, and is much
intersected by ditches and  small  canals.
The Vendeans were a simple  and igno-
rant race, attached to old usages, devotedly
fond of the nobility of the province, and
easily led by the clergy.  The immediate
occasion of the war was the resistance of
the people to the  operation of the con-
scription laws, in 1793.  Cathelineau, a
wagoner, at the head of 100 of his com-
rades,  having overpowered a small body
of republican troops, and taken possession
of their arms, was encouraged  to further
enterprises; and similar risings took place
at different points,  but without any gen-
eral cooperation.  A wig-maker, Gastou,
led the insurgents in  the department of
Vendee, and, having fallen soon after, was
succeeded by Charette.  Stofllet, a game-
keeper, led another band.  The insur-
gents were at first armed only with scythes,
clubs and pikes; but they soon obtained
arms, by surprising detachments of the
republican forces.   Their knowledge of
the countiy, and their excited enthusiasm,
gave them advantages over their enemies,
who were chiefly raw troops, and not al-
ways zealous in the cause of the republic.
As soon as an  enterprise  was accom-
plished, the Vendean peasants immediate-
ly dispersed to their homes, and  assem-
bled again at a minute's  warning.  The
young De la Rochejaquelein (q. v.J gained
several advantages  at the head of one of
the bands.  The number of the insurgents
was gradually increased by the accession
of emigrants  and  royalists from other
parts  of the country, and they had be-
come  possessed  of regular  arms. The
convention, therefore, found  it necessary
to send troops of the  line against them.
June 24, the Vendeans took Saumur, and
now received encouragement, but no ef-
fectual aid from abroad.  Between the
19th and 23d of September (1793), several
actions took place, of which that at Choi-
let was the most sanguinary, all  to the
disadvantage  of the  republican forces.
But disunion began to  prevail among the
Vendeans.  Charette, at the head  of his
followers, separated from the other insur-
gents, who  were now hard pressed  by the
republican  forces, and, deceived by ex-
pectations of aid in  Brittany,  took the
imprudent  step of crossing to  the right
bank  of the Loire.  They were equally
disappointed in their hopes of assistance
from England, which  had induced them
to approach towards the  coast near Av-
ranches, and were  finally compelled to
attempt a retreat over the Loire, after seve-
ral  bloody  engagements.  They reached
the river towards the  end of December,
but were unable to effect a passage; and
the battle  of  Savenay (Dec. 24), after
which the  Vendean army was entirely
dispersed, concluded the campaign. The
war had all along been  conducted with
great  cruelty, and the fate of the surviving
Vendeans and their families was dreadful.
They were  dragged  in crowds to Nantes,
where the monster Carrier, to whom the
severe ordere of the convention appeared
too mild, and the ordinary modes of exe-
cution  too  slow,  caused them  to  be
drowned in masses (noyades).   The con-
vention now looked upon the war as end-
ed ; but, in the spring of 1794, La Roche-
jaquelein (who soon,  however,  fell) and
Stofllet assembled new bodies of insur-
gents in Vendee, and Charette was at the
head of his forces on  the coast.  At the
same  time,  the Chouans (q. v.) appeared
on the right bank of the Loire, in the de-
partments  of  Morbihan  and Cdtes  du
Nord. They pretended the same zeal for
religion, royalty and the nobility, but did
not always  make common cause with the
Vendeans, with whom they must  not be
confounded. The events of this campaign
were  not so decisive as those of the pre-
ceding ; but the obstinacy of the  insur-
gents convinced the convention that Ven-
dee could  not be conquered  by  arms.
After the fall of Robespierre, the  insur-
gents were  therefore invited, at the sug-
gestion  of  Carnot (Dec. 1794), to  return
to their homes, with promises of pardon
and oblivion of the past.  In February,
1795, the deputies of the convention, and
some of the  Vendean  leaders, among
whom were Charette and Sapineau, agreed
to the following conditions:—that  a gen-
eral amnesty should be granted, the Ven-
deans should acknowledge the authority
of the republic, and should enjoy the un- 
532
VENDEE—VENEZUELA.
molested exercise of their religion, free-
dom from military service, and indemni-
fication  for their losses; and Stofflet and
the Chouans also acceded to these terms.
But the peace was of short duration. The
landing  of some thousands of  French
emigrants at  Quiberon (q. v.), June  27,
1795, encouraged the Vendeans to resume
their arms. Charette declared, in a mani-
festo issued on the occasion, that the  re-
publicans had broken the treaty, and men-
tioned the death of the son of Louis XVI,
which occurred at about this time, as  the
ground of this accusation.  But the expe-
dition to Quiheron, from which so much
was expected, was rendered entirely inef-
fective (July 21) by the activity of general
Hoche (q. v.), who continued the war in
Vendee, with great mildness towards  the
inhabitants.   He spared no efforts, how-
ever, to  get possession of the persons of
the leaders.  Stofllet was taken Feb. 24,
1796, and shot at Angers.  Charette, who
was able to  collect but few followers,
wandered about some time, but was finally
taken in March (23), and shot three days
afterwards at Nantes.  With the death of
this leader, the three years' war of  the
Vendee  terminated.  The other  leadere
soon submitted unconditionally to the re-
public.   Peace and order were gradually
restored, and the government treated this
part of the country with mildness, but not
without mistrust.  In the winter of 1799—
1800, some symptoms of risings appeared;
but the troubles were quieted by  prudent
and vigorous  measures.  In  1814 and
1815, some risings took place in favor of
the Bourbons ; but nothing decisive  oc-
curred.   See the memoirs of general Au-
bertin, and those  of general Turreau, jn
the collection entitled Memoires des Mari-
chaux de France, and the Guerres des Ven-
diens et  des Chouans (Paris, 1824—27, 6
vols.).  The memoirs of madame de la
Rochejaquelein contain vivid pictures of
the events in Vendee.
   Vendemiaire.  (See  Calendar, vol. ii,
p. 403.)
   Vend6me, the Family of, is descend-
ed from the natural children of Henry IV
and the beautiful Gabrielle d'Estree, who
bore him two sons, Csesar and Alexander
Venddme.  One of their descendants was
Louis, duke of Vendome, the celebrated
general  of Louis  XIV.  He was born in
1654, early entered the military  service,
and received, in 1702, the command of
the  French  army,  in the war of  the
Spanish  succession.  After having dis-
tinguished himself in Italy, Tyrol  and
Belgium, the duke of Burgundy was
placed over him; and  the disagreement
of the two commanders caused the de-
feat of the French at Oudenarde (July 11,
1708). Through the influence of mad-
ame de Mainteuon (q. v.), the most expe-
rienced generals were displaced if they
chanced  to displease her, and  Venddme
was now recalled; but  when the  affairs
of Philip V, in Spain,  began to wear a
threatening aspect, the Spaniards request-
ed Louis XIV to  send them Vendome.
His arriv al changed the state  of things.
December 9, 1710, he defeated the Aus-
trian general Stahremberg at Villaviciosa;
and, having reestablished Philip's throne,
he died in 1712, and was buried in the
Escurial.  His brother  Philip was grand
prior of the order of the knights of Malta,
in France.  He was born in 1655, served
in the Spanish  war of succession, and
died in 1724.
  Venerabile, with the Catholics; the
consecrated host, which, during the reli-
gious  service,  is placed in  a little box
called pyx; at certain other times is put on
the altar for adoration, or is carried about
in procession, or  publicly  borne  by a
priest to  a dying  person,  in  Catholic
countries.
  Venereal Disease.  (See Syphilis.)
  Veneroni, John; a native of Verdun,
whose proper name was Vigneron.  Hav-
ing engaged in the profession of an Ital-
ian master at Paris, he adopted the name
by which he is usually designated, that he
might pass for a native  of Florence.  He
published an Italian Grammar and an
Italian and French Dictionary, and some
translations of Italian authors; also the
Dictionnaire Manuel, en quatre Langues,
Francois, Italien, Allemand et Russe (Mos-
cow, 1771, 8vo.).   The Grammar  of Ve-
neroni is now held in little estimation: his
Italian Dictionary has been superseded by
that of Alberti.  From the  dates of his
publications, it  appears that he lived in
the latter part of the seventeenth and the
beginning of the eighteenth centuries.
   Venetian School.   (See Italian Art,
and Painting.)
   Venezuela; a republic of South Amer-
ica, bounded north and east by the Carib-
bean  sea and the Atlantic, south by Brazil,
and west by New Grenada, or Colombia.
Its histoiy, previous to  its  late separation
from  Colombia, has been  given in the
article Colombia (see, also,  Paez), with a
more particular account of its geography.
The most remarkable  natural feature of
this country is the great river Orinoco.
The  lakes are Maracaybo and Valencia.
The northern part is mountainous.  The 
VENEZUELA—VENICE.
533
chain of the Andes traverses the whole
country, in the direction of its shores.  In
the southern parts, on the Orinoco and its
branches,  are immense plains.   The cli-
mate in the plains, or llanos (see Llanos,
and Llaneros), is hot, and, in some parts,
unhealthy.  The  productions are sugar,
coffee,  indigo, cotton and tobacco.   The
plains on the Orinoco furnish extensive
pastures, which feed numerous herds of
cattle.
  Veni, Sancte Spiritus  (Come, Holy
Spirit); the name given  to a mass,  cele-
brated  by Catholics, to invoke the assist-
ance of the Holy Ghost.  It  was  cele-
brated  in  France at the opening of the
sessions of the  two chambers, but was
abolished  in 1830, soon after the revolu-
tion of that year.
  Venice  (in Italian, Venezia).  When
the Visigoths (q. v.), the Huns (under At-
tila, 452) and the Lombards  (568) poured
into the Roman empire, and particularly
into Upper Italy, which, even in the times
of  ancient  Rome, was  called  Venetia,
many  of  the poorer inhabitants  took
refuge on the islands in the lagoons of the
Adriatic sea, particularly in the island  of
Rialto, which had  already  been some-
what built upon by the Paduans for com-
mercial purposes.   These emigrants es-
tablished here a  small democratic repub-
lic,  under magistrates called tribunes.  In
697 A.  D.,  the islands elected their first
dux, or doge (q. v.), in the person of Pao-
lucci Anafesto.   The doge had the exec-
utive, the people the legislative, the tri-
bunes,  or nobility,  the judiciary power.
The seat of government  was afterwards
in  Malamacco,  and, in  737,  in  Rialto,
where, in a short period, a populous city
arose out of the sea.  This v/as the  mod-
ern Venice, which soon became powerful
by  commerce and navigation, and  ruled
over the Adriatic sea.  Commercial priv-
ileges in Rome and Constantinople pro-
moted  its prosperity, and  the city was not
long satisfied with the possession of the
lagoon islands and the neighboring coasts,
but made conquests in Istria and Dalma-
tia.  As early as the ware with the  Sara-
cens, in the ninth century, the Venetians
had become skilled in maritime warfare,
by their struggles with pirates ; and  for
this reason the  cities of Dalmatia put
themselves under their protection, about
the year 997.   Venice gained exceedingly
by the  crusades,  and became not only the
richest, but also  the  most powerful city
of Lombardy, in which the treasures of
all the  East were collected.  But the aris-
tocracy already strove to oppress the peo-
                 45*
pie, and the doge endeavored to increase
his power; hence repeated insurrections
of the people.   At length, after the assas-
sination of the  thirty-eighth doge, Vitali
Michieli, in 1172, the constitution was so
changed that the arbitrary power of the
doge was limited,  and the supreme au-
thority was given to a numerous assembly
of nobili, and  strict  laws were made to
keep them within bounds.  Under this lim-
ited aristocracy, the laws and government
were improved.  Mannere became milder,
and the arts began to  flourish.   The com-
mercial power  of  the*republic received
its greatest extension under the doge Enri-
co Dandolo.  This distinguished states-
man and general,  in the  crusade under-
taken by the Venetians, French and oth-
ere, took Constantinople  hi 1202, at the
head of a Venetian  fleet,  and  acquired
for the republic the possession of Candia
(q. v.) and several Ionian islands, and oth-
ere in the Archipelago.   But after  the
restoration of the Byzantine empire (q. v.),
in 1261, the East India trade passed from
Constantinople  to  Alexandria; and  the
Genoese, who  had greatly assisted in the
destruction of the Latin empire, possessed
themselves of the commerce  in the By-
zantine  empire, which had been in  the
hands  of the  Venetians.  In 1297,  the
doge  Gradenigo introduced  hereditary
aristocracy, since the  ancient great college
of nobles, who shared  the government
with the doge, and  were elected annually,
declared themselves a permanent body of
hereditary aristocrats (consisting of the no-
ble families, whose  names were entered in
the "golden book").   At the  same time,
the establishment  of the fearful council
of the Ten must be considered as one of
the causes which  finally brought on the
ruin of  Venice.  In  the mean time, the
republic extended her possessions more
and more widely on the continent, partic-
ularly after her rival, the republic of  Ge-
noa, had been  obliged to  yield, in 1381,
after a struggle  of  130 years for suprem-
acy in Lombardy.  Vicenza, Verona, Bas-
sano, Feltre, Belluno and Padua,  with
their territories, came under the power of
Venice  in 1402, Friuli in  1421, Brescia,
Bergamo  and  Crema in  1428, and the
islands of Zante and Cefalonia, in 1483.
At last,  the wife of James, the  last  king
of Cyprus, Catharine Cornaro, a Venetian
lady, ceded that beautiful counuy to her
native  republic  in 1486.   The senate of
Venice, at that time,  reminds  the student
of the  ancient Roman  senate.  Other
states made it their model: they even so-
licited for Venetian counsellors and lead- 
534
VENICE.
ers.  Towards  the  end of the fifteenth
century, Venice was rich, powerful,  hon-
ored, comprising the most civilized  peo-
ple on earth, and devoted to the arts and
sciences.  But her  political wisdom de-
generated into a petty prudence and cun-
ning.  A grand inquisitor was necessary
for the preservation of the republic.  Cir-
cumstances also happened, which no pru-
dence could avert  The Portuguese discov-
ered the way by sea to the East Indies in
1498, and Venice entirely lost the commerce
of the Indies by the way of Alexandria:
the Turks had  become masters of  Con-
stantinople, and overpowered all which
stood in their way; they conquered, by
degrees, all the possessions of Venice in
the Archipelago and in the Morea, and even
Albania  and Negropont.   But the re-
public saved herself, by skilful negotia-
tions, from the danger with which the
league of Cambray (q.  v.) threatened her
in 1508.  This war, however, had much
impaired her power.  The Turks tore Cy-
prus from  Venice in 1571, and,  after  a
struggle of twenty-four years, Candia al-
so, in 1699;  but  some fortresses on this
island held out till 1715.  The possession
of the Morea,  which  had been  recon-
quered iu 1699, was required to be given
up by the peace of  Passarowitz, in 1718;
yet the republic succeeded  in preserv ing
Corfu and Dalmatia.  From this time,
Venice no longer took  part in the great
political  events, and was  satisfied  with
preserving her antiquated constitution and
her territory,  which yet contained three
millions of inhabitants.  Thus she suc-
ceeded, by treaties with the Barbary  pow-
ers, in 1763, in securing the  inviolability
of her flag, and established her rights of
sovereignty against Rome in 1767 and
1769.  But in the French revolutionary
war, she became, in 1797,  a victim to the
French  power.  She excited a general
insurrection on the terra firma, at the mo-
ment when Bonaparte entered Stiria, and
the French were attacked in the rear; but
Austria concluded  the preliminaries of
peace at Leoben,  and the republic was
annihilated.  It was now  of no avail to
change the aristocratic  constitution into  a
democratic.  Venice was  destined to be
sacrificed.  The peace of Carnpo-Formio
(q. v.) gave the whole territory east of the
Adige,  with Dalmatia and  Cattaro, to
Austria; that west of the Adige to the
Cisalpine republic (at  a later period, the
kingdom of Italy), to which,  in 1805, the
Austrian part of Venice and Dalmatia
was added, yet without the islands in the
Levant  Since 1814, Venice, with its ter-
ritory, has formed a part of the  Lombar-
do-Venetian kingdom, belonging to Aus-
tria.  (See Lombardy, and Lombardo- Ve-
netian Kingdom.)  Istria, however, with
some islands in the gulf of Quarnaro, was
added  to  the littorale (q. v.) of the gov-
ernment of Trieste,  and Dalmatia, with
the islands belonging to it, to the govern-
ment of Dalmatia.  Into the most interest-
ing part of the history of Venice—that of
her domestic politics—our limits will  not
allow us to  enter.—The chief works re-
lating to the history of this republic, which
is  famous also in the annals of the fine
arts,  are Tentori's  Saggio svlla  Storia di
Venezia (Venice, 1785—90, 12 vols.);  La
Beaume's Hist, abrigie de  la Rip. de Ve-
nise  (Paris, 1810, 2 vols.);  Tentori's Rac-
colta cronolog. ragionata di Documenti in-
editi, che formano la Storia  diplomatica
della Caduta delta Rep. di Venezia (Au-
gusta, 1799, 2 vols., 4to.); Dam's Hist, de
la  Ripubl. de Venise (7 vols., Paris, 1819;
4th ed., 1827).  In this work, the statutes
of the  Venetian  political  inquisition are
printed for the firet time.  For an account
of the  constitution of Venice,  see, also,
Lacroix's  Review of  the  Constitutions,
&c.  For a review of the Venetian his-
torians,  see  Ranke's Zur  Kritik neuerer
Geschichtschreiber  (Leipsic and Berlin,
1824);  see, also, his  Fursten and Volker
von Siid-Europa (Hamb., 1827), and  his
Ueber die  Verschwiirung gegen Venedig in
1618 (Berlin, 1831).
   Venice  (Italian, Venezia);  capital  of
the government  of Venice, in the  Lom-
bardo-Venetian kingdom, once the  queen
of the Adriatic,  and yet one of the most
remarkable cities of Europe.  A city of
this extent, built  entirely on small islands,
and  having canals instead of streets, boats
instead  of cars,  and black gondolas  in-
stead of coaches, is unique in its kind.  It
is  situated in  lon. 12° 21' E., lat. 45° 26
N., and is built, according to  some, on
ninety,  according to others, on seventy-
two  islands, separated from the continent
by the lagoons (a  wide  and shallow arm
of the sea), and connected with each other
by 450 bridges, among which is the mag-
nificent Rialto, consisting of a single arch,
187  feet long and  43 wide.  The houses,
among which are numerous palaces, many
of them decay ing, and magnificent church-
es, adorned with precious monuments of
Mosaic work, and splendid pictures of the
Venetian  school (e.  g.  the church of St
Maria della Salute and  St. Giovianni  Pa-
olo), are mostly built upon piers, and al-
most all of them stand with their front
towards the canals, which form wide and 
VENICE—VENOMOUS ANIMALS.
535
long passages, whilst the real streets are
hardly passable for three persons on foot
abreast.   There   are forty-one  public
places, indeed, but only the place of St.
Mark,  surrounded by arcades, and orna-
mented with two  high columns, deserves
the name.  Here  stands the church of St.
Mark, an ancient edifice in the Byzantine
style,  ornamented within with Oriental
magnificence.   Here, says the  legend,
rests the body of St. Mark the Evangelist,
which, according to tradition, was brought
from Alexandria, in Egypt, under the doge
Giustiniano.  In front of the same are the
antique horses, once the ornament of Con-
stantinople, lately  of Paris, and now again
of Venice.  The  former  palace  of the
doge, at  present the seat  of the Austrian
government, is in the Gothic style.  It
contains the political prisons, or lead roofs
(piombi), and  the bridge of  Sighs (the
reader will remember Byron's verees, be-
ginning, " I stood,  in Venice, on the bridge
of Sighs"); but the lion's mouth, with the
inscription  Denunzie  Segrete  (secret de-
nunciations), has  disappeared.  Also the
library, which has been described by its
superintendent, the abbate Morelli,  is in
this palace.  (See  Libraries.)   The place
of St. Mark is the only walk of the Ve-
netians, the place of meeting of foreign-
ers  and adventurers.  The  arsenal, one
of the  greatest curiosities of the city, is
on an  island,  surrounded by high walls
and  towers.   It  contains every  thing
necessary for  fitting  out a fleet—good
docks,  well provided  magazines,  manu-
factories  of cordage  and sails, cannon
founderies  and forges.  The stranger is
yet shown here  the richly  gilt  galley,
called Bucentaur,  in which the doge, from
the year 1311, was accustomed to go out
into the sea annually on Ascension day,
to throw a ring into the water, and thus
to marry, as  it were, the Adriatic, as  a
sign of the power of Venice over that
sea.  Besides the  patriarchal church, and
twenty-nine  other  Catholic  churches,
there  are here churches of the  United
Greeks (q. v.), Armenians  and Protestants.
In the ancient church De' Frati, a monu-
ment was erected, in 1827, in honor of
the famous Canova. (q. v.) Contributions
were furnished, for  this  purpose,  from
many parts of Europe,  and  even  from
America.  The Jews have  seven syna-
gogues.  Among  the public institutions
are the Conservatorio di Pieta, in which
several hundred girls receive  instruction
in music, and  in  which, also, the  cele-
brated  artificial flowers of wax are made;
the conservatory of music, with funds for
the education of twenty-four pupils, which
formerly produced excellent performers;
the imperial and royal library, the acade-
my of fine arts, the school of navigation,
the Armenian college, which prints, at an
Armenian convent in this place, the Ar-
menian  newspaper, which is  much  read
in the  Levant, &c.   The number of
houses is stated-to be 15,000, and that of
the inhabitants 150,000.  The  principal
manufactures  are  of cloth,  linen,  silk,
gold and silver cloths,  masks, artificial
flowers,  gold wire, and other works in
gold,  soap,  wax, theriac, and  chemical
preparations; also copper and brass ware,
leather,  catgut and wire strings.  Consid-
erable ship-building is carried on.  In the
manufacture of glass, Venice was former-
ly the teacher of Europe, but at present
is surpassed by other countries: the  tele-
scopes, spectacles and beads made here,
however, are justly esteemed.  On the
whole,  though the manufactures have
much declined, and the  commerce  still
more, Venice yet  remains one  of the
most important commercial places of the
Adriatic sea.  In 1817, 1050 vessels, un-
der the  Austrian flag, left this port,  and
2653 entered it, besides 315 foreign ves-
sels.   The value of the merchandise  im-
ported was 34,000,000 lire.   The  port is
spacious, but the entrance is difficult, on
account of the  shallowness of the chan-
nels and the constantly fluctuating sand.
To Venice belong the islands of Giudecca,
St. Giorgio, St. Helena,  St. Erasmo, II
Lido di  Malamocco, Michele and Mura-
no.  These are mostly inhabited  by art-
ists, manufacturers  and mechanics,  and
might be called the suburbs of the  city.
Here, also, excellent vegetables are raised.
Formerly, Venice  had neither fortifica-
tions nor garrison, and was strong merely
by its situation: at present,  there are for-
tifications on the side towards the main-
land,  and a strong garrison defends the
citj**.  Social life is at present almost ex-
tinct, and Venice appears like the corpse
of the former city.  It is enlivened  only
by the gayety of the carnival.  The the-
atres  are beautiful, but the arts  do not
flourish. J. Ch. Maier has written the
most  complete  work  on  Venice.—See
Moschini's Guida per la Citta di Venezia,
&c. (Venice, 1815,  2 vols., with engrav-
ings);   Martens's Journey  to  Venice (2
vols.,  Ulm, 1824, with maps and engrav-
ings); also  Venice and its  Environs, by
Jack (Weimar, 1823).  The first and the
two last works are in German.
   Venice, Gulf of.  (See Adriatic Sea.)
   Venomous  Animals.  The venomous 
536
VENOMOUS ANIMALS—VENTILATION.
serpents form about one fifth or one sixth
of the whole class of snakes, and are dis-
tinguished  especially  by  the  two long
poison-fangs, which take the place of the
first or exterior of the three rows of teeth,
found in the upper jaw of the  innocuous
species.  At the root of these fangs is sit-
uated a small sack, containing the venom,
and opening  into  the  fangs, through
which it is ejected by the pressure caused
by the action of biting.  The  extraction
of the fangs, or the removal of the sack,
destroys their  power of inflicting an  en-
venomed wound.  (See Seipents, Rattle-
snake, and  Cobra da Capello.)  The symp-
toms resulting from the bite of all venom-
ous snakes are nearly the same.  Pain in
the bitten  part, extending towards  the
heart,  stupor, cold  sweats,  pallor and
lividity of countenance, and gangrene  of
the bitten  part are indications of such
venomous  bites.  The best manner  of
treatment  is to put a  ligature  upon  the
limb that  has been bitten, between  the
wound and the trunk of the  body, and
apply a wine-glass, from  which the air
has been  exhausted, by burning a littie
spirit  within it, as a cupping-glass, over
the wound; or to cause the wound to be
sucked by a person whose lips and tongue
are not chapped,  until professional  aid
can be procured.  Animal poisons of this
description are innocuous when take^n into
the stomach,  although  their action is so
powerful, and often fatal, when they  are
introduced into the system by a wound,
or any other method of inoculation.   If
the lips or the tongue of the person who
sucks the  poisoned wound be chapped,
the system  is inoculated in the same man-
ner as if it were inserted by a lancet or a
bite under the skin.  (For the symptoms
and treatment ofa wound inflicted by the
bite of rabid animals, see Hydrophobia.)
The stings  of bees, wasps, and  other  in-
sects,   are  sometimes,  though seldom,
fatal;  but  the  pain which they exc"tie is
almost insupportable in some habits. The
sting of a  bee  or wasp  consists of a hol-
low tube, at the root of which is  a bag
full ofa sharp, penetrating juice, which is
injected, in the act of stinging, into  the
puncture made by the insect.   This tube
is, in  fact,  but a  sheath, containing two
little spears, by which  the puncture is
made.  The part affected should be bath-
ed with the tepid spirit of Mindererus.
  Ventilation.  We are all thoroughly
aware of the necessity of breathing; and
the agreeable freshness and reviving  influ-
ence of the pure  morning air must con-
vince us that the breathing a pure atmos-
phere is conducive to health;  yet we as
carefully exclude the air from our houses
as if its approach were noxious.  Intend-
ing to shut out the  inclemencies of the
weather  only, in our care to guard our-
selves from the external air, we hinder
that renewal of the atmosphere which is
necessary to prevent its becoming stag-
nant, and  unfit to support animal  life.
Few pereons are aware how very neces-
sary a thorough ventilation is to the pres-
ervation  of health.   We  preserve  life
without food for a considerable time; but
keep us  without air for a very few min-
utes, and  we cease to exist   It  is not
enough that we have air;  we must have
fresh air;  for the principle by which life
is supported is taken from  the air during
the act of breathing.  One fourth only of
the atmosphere  is capable of supporting
life: the  remainder serves  to  dilute the
pure vital air, and render it more fit to be
respired.  A full-grown man  takes  into
his lungs nearly a pint of air each time he
breathes; and, when at rest,  he makes
about twenty inspirations in a minute. In
the lungs,  by  an appropriate  apparatus,
the air  is  exposed to  the  action of the
blood, which changes its purer part, the
vital air  (oxygen gas), into fixed air (car-
bonic acid gas), which is not only unfit to
support  animal life, but is absolutely de-
structive  of it.  An  admirable  provision
of the great Author of nature is here visi-
ble, to prevent this  exhausted  and now
poisonous air  from being breathed  a sec-
ond time :  while in the lungs, the air re-
ceives so much heat as makes  it specifi-
cally lighter than the pure atmosphere:  it
consequently rises above our heads during
the short pause between throwing out the
breath and drawing it in again, aud thus
secures  to us a pure  draught. By the
care we take to shut out the external air
from our houses, we prevent the escape
of the deteriorated  air, and condemn our-
selves to  breathe, again and  again, the
same contaminated,  unrefreshing atmos-
phere.  Who, that has  ever felt the re-
freshing  effects  of the morning air, can
wonder  at  the lassitude and disease that
follow  the  continued  breathing of the
pestiferous atmosphere  of crowded or ill-
ventilated apartments!   It  is only neces-
sary to observe the countenances of those
who inhabit close rooms and houses, the
squallid hue of their skins, their sunken
eyes, and their languid  movements, to be
sensible of the bad effects of shutting out
the external air.  Besides the contamina-
tion of the air from being breathed, there
are other matters which tend to depreciate 
VENTILATION.
537
 its purity: these are the effluvia constant-
 ly passing off from the surface of animal
 bodies, and the combustion of candles,
 and other burning substances.  On going
 into a bed-room in a morning, soon after
 the occupant has left  his bed, though he
 be in perfect health, and habitually clean-
 ly in his  person,  the sense of  smelling
 never  fails to be offended with the odor
 of animal effluvia with which the atmos-
 phere is charged.  There is another case,
 perhaps still more striking, when a person,
 fresh from the morning air, enters a coach
 in which several pereons have been close-
 stowed during a long night.  He who has
 once  made the  experiment, will never
 voluntarily repeat it.  The simple expedi-
 ent of keeping down both windows but a
 single  half inch would prevent  many of
 the colds, and even fevers, which this in-
 jurious mode of travelling often produces.
 If,  under such  circumstances, the air is
 vitiated, how  much more injuriously
 must its quality be depreciated when sev-
 eral persons are confined to one room,
 where there is an utter neglect of cleanli-
 ness ;  in which  cooking, washing, and all
 other domestic affaire, are necessarily per-
 formed ; where  the windows are immo-
 vable, and  the door is never opened but
 while some one  is passing through it!  It
 may be taken as a wholesome general
 rule, that whatever produces a disagreea-
 ble impression on the sense of smelling is
 unfavorable to health.   That sense was
 doubtless intended to guard us against the
 dangers to  which we are liable from
 vitiation of the atmosphere.  If we have,
 by the same means, a high sense of grati-
 fication from other objects, it ought to ex-
 cite our admiration of the beneficence of
 the Deity in thus making our senses serve
 the double purpose of affording us pleas-
 ure and security; for the latter end might
 just as effectually have been answered by
 our being only susceptible of painful im-
 pressions.  To keep the atmosphere  of
 our houses free from contamination, it is
 not sufficient that we secure a  frequent
 renewal of the air: all matters which can
 injure its purity  must be carefully remov-
 ed.  Flowers  in water, and living plants
 in pots, greatly injure the purity of the
 air during the night, by giving out large
 quantities of an air (carbonic acid) similar
 to that which is  separated from the lungs
 by breathing, which, as before stated, is
higldy  noxious.  On  this account, they
should   never  be  kept in  bed-rooms.
There are instances of persons, who have
incautiously gone to sleep in a close room
in which there has been a large,  growing
plant, having  been found dead in  the
morning, as effectually  suffocated  as if
there had been a charcoal  stove in the
room.  A constant renewal of the  air is
absolutely necessary to its  purity; for, in
all situations, it is suffering either  by its
vital part being absorbed, or by impure
vapors being  disengaged  and dispersed
through it.  Ventilation, therefore, resolves
itself into the securing a constant supply
of fresh air. In the construction of houses,
this great object has been too generally
overlooked, when, by a little contrivance
in the arrangement of windows and doors,
a  current of air  might, at any time, be
made to pervade every room of a house
of any  dimensions.   Rooms  cannot be
well ventilated that have no outlet for the
air:  for  this reason,  there should be a
chimney to every apartment.  The win-
dows should be capable  of beitfg opened;
and they should, if possible, be situated on
the side of the room opposite to, and far-
thest from, the fire-place, that the air may
traverse  the  whole space of  the apart-
ment in  its  way to the  chimney.  Fire-
places in bed-rooms should not be stopped
up with chimney-boards.  The windows
should be thrown open for some  hours
every day, to carry off the  animal effluvia
which are necessarily  separating from the
bed-clothes, and which should be assisted
in their  escape by the bed being shaken
up, and  the clothes  spread  abroad,  in
which state they should remain as long as
possible.   This is the reverse of the usual
practice of making the bed, as it is called,
in the morning, and tucking it up close,
as if with the determination of preventing
any purification from taking place.  Atten-
tion to this direction, with regard to  airing
the bed-clothes and bed, after being slept
in, is of  the greatest importance to per-
sons of weak health. Instances have been
known in which restlessness, and an ina-
bility to  find  refreshment  from  sleep,
would come on in such individuals, when
the  linen of  their beds  had been  un-
changed  for eight or ten  days.  In one
case, of a gentleman  of a very irritable
habit, who suffered from  excessive perspi-
ration during  the night,  and  who had
taken much medicine without relief, he
observed that, for two or three nights after
he had fresh sheets put  upon his bed, he
had  no sweating; and that,  after that
time, he never awoke but that he was lit-
erally swimming,  and that  the sweats
seemed  to increase with  the  length of
time  he slept in the same sheets. Various
means are had recourse to  at times, with
the intention of correcting disagreeable 
538
VENTILATION—VENUS.
smells, and of purifying  the air of sick-
rooms.  Diffusing the  vapor of vinegar
through the air, by plunging a hot poker
into a vessel containing  it, burning aro-
matic vegetables, smoking tobacco, and
exploding  gunpowder, are the means
usually employed.  All these are useless.
The explosion of gunpowder may, indeed,
do something, by  displacing the air with-
in the reach of its influence; but, then,
unfortunately, an  air is produced, by its
combustion,  that  is as  offensive, and
equally unfit  to support life as  any air it
can be used  to remove.  These expedi-
ents only serve to disguise the really offen-
sive condition of the atmosphere.  The
best means of purifying the air of a cham-
ber which is  actually occupied by a sick
person, is  by  changing  it in such a man-
ner that the patient shall not be directly
exposed  t%  the  draughts or currents.
Chemistry, however, has furnished  the
means of purifying the air of chambers in
which pereons  have been confined with
contagious diseases, or  in which bad air
is generated  in other ways, so as to de-
stroy the noxious or offensive power  of
the effluvia generated in  such  situations,
and thus of preventing  its injurious influ-
ence. (See Chlorine.) No fumigation will
be of any avail in purifying stagnant air, or
air that has been breathed till it has been
deprived of its vital  part: such air must
be driven out, when its place  should  be
immediately supplied by the fresh, pure at-
mosphere.  The readiest means of chang-
ing the air of  an apartment is by lighting a
fire in it, and then throwing open the door
and windows: this will set the  air in mo-
tion, by  establishing a current up  the
chimney.  The air which has been altered
by being breathed is essential to vegetable
life; and plants, aided by  the rays of the
sun, have  the power to absorb  it, while
they themselves at the same time give out
pure vital air. This process, going on  by
day, the reverse of that described before
as taking place during  the night, is con-
tinually in operation, so that the purifica-
tion of the atmosphere can only be pre-
vented by its being preserved in a stagnant
state.
  Ventose.   (See  Calendar,  vol.  ii,
p. 403.)
  Ventriloquism.   Modern   inquiries
have proved that the ventriloquist (a veiy
ancient expression, which originated from
the erroneous supposition that the sounds
uttered by the persons so called are form-
ed in the belly)  does not  need any pecu-
liarity in the  construction of the organs
of voice, but that practice only is necessa-
ry to carry this act of illusion to a high
degree  of perfection.   They have also
shown that the sounds are formed by the
same organs as the emissions  of sound
commonly—the  larynx, the  palate, the
tongue, the lips, &c.; that the sound  is
not  produced during  inspiration,  but
proceeds, as  usual,  during expiration,
with a  less opened mouth.   The art  of
the ventriloquist consists merely in this:
after drawing a long breath, he breathes it
out  slowly and  gradually,  dexterously
dividing the  air, and  diminishing the
sound of the voice by the muscles of the
larynx and the palate: besides this,  he
moves his lips as little as possible, and, by
various contrivances, diverts the attention
of his auditors.  Alexander (born in Paris,
1797) has lately distinguished himself by
his skill in this art.  The ancients also
had  ventriloquists.  The Greeks called
them engastrimanteis,  and  considered
their art the work of demons.
  Venue ; the neighborhood from whence
juries are to be summoned for trial  of
causes.  In local actions, as of trespass
and  ejectment, the venue is  to be  from
the neighborhood of the place where the
lands in question lie ; and, in all real ac-
tions, the venue must be laid in the coun-
ty where the property is  for which the
action is brought.
  Venus ; the Roman name of the god-
dess  of love, called by the Greeks  Aphro-
dite.   The poets mention an elder Venus,
the daughter of Uranus, and a younger,
the daughter of Jupiter and Dione ; but
the events in the history of the two are
often confounded.   From these  events,
and the places where Venus was particu-
larly worshipped, she received her various
epithets.  The elder Venus  is called Ve-
nus  Urania  (heavenly Venus), to indicate
that  she is  the  goddess of love refined
from sensuality, and is thus distinguished
from the younger Venus, or  earthly love
(Venus  pandemos, vulgaris).   Undoubt-
edly  the notion of  the Asiatic goddess
of nature, representing  the  female, gen-
erative  principle,  came from Syria and
Phoenicia, and was developed and modi-
fied  by the Greeks.  According to the
Greek fable, Venus  originated from the
foam of the sea;  hence she was called
Aphrodite, Anadyomene  (q. v.),  and rep-
resented sometimes with a sea-green veil.
Great power over the sea was also ascrib-
ed to her; and mariners implored her
protection.  The  myrtle  was  sacred to
her,  because she hid herself behind such
a tree, when she stepped, naked, out  of
the sea, on the shore of the island of Cyth- 
VENUS—VERA CRUZ.
539
era.  On  this island (at present Cerigo),
she was particularly worshipped, and was
therefore  called Cythera.  From  similar
causes, she was also called Cypris, Gnidia,
Paphia, Idalia, &c.  She  is represented
by the Greeks as the highest ideal  of fe-
male beauty and love, sometimes entirely
naked, sometimes but slightly covered.
Swans,  doves,  also sparrows, draw  her
chariot. Her son Cupid generally accom-
panies her:  sometimes the Graces follow
her.  She had no children by Vulcan, her
husband, but had many by other gods, as
Mars, Bacchus, Mercury, &c.  The most
known of her  children are Amor (Cupid
or Eros) and Anteros, Hymen, Hermaph-
rodite and iEneas.  (See these articles.)
She also bestowed her favors on mortals,
and loved, particularly, the beautiful Ado-
nis,   (a. v.)   When  the goddess  of dis-
cord (Eris)  rolled  an apple, with the in-
scription "To  the most  beautiful," into
the assembly of the gods, Paris decided
that it  belonged  to her.   Among  the
Greeks, Praxiteles made particularly beau-
tiful statues of her.  Of these, one was
uncovered below (the  Coan Venus), and
one entirely naked (the Cnidian Venus),
rising out  of the bath.  Of the latter, the
Capitoline Venus is, according to Meyer,
a copy.  Praxiteles is believed to be  the
first sculptor who ventured  to make  a
statue of Venus entirely naked.  Millin-
gen (Inedited Monuments of Grecian Art)
says that all the statues of female divini-
ties anciently had  drapery, and that  the
innovation of Praxiteles was considered
extremely indecorous, but excused on ac-
count of the beauty of the performance.
Subsequent artists, wishing to reconcile  a
mode of representation  so favorable to the
purposes of art with the rules of decorum,
adopted the form  of drapery seen in the
Venus of Capua (in the Museo Borbonico
at Naples), and of  Melos (in the Louvre),
namely, a  mantle covering the  lower part
of the body, and  falling to the ground.
The statues  of Venus, which, in imitation
of that of Cnidus, are found in a state of
nudity, are almost always to be referred
to a low period.   The Venus de' Medici
was found in the Villa Hadriana, at Tivoli,
and carried to Florence in 1695.  It is
only four feet eleven  inches and four
lines in stature, but is exquisite in all its
forms and proportions.  It is probably
much injured by the restored parts,  the
hands, &c.  The most celebrated statues
of Venus are the following: Venus Aphro-
dite, or Anadyomene, and the naked Ve-
nus, with  the  right hand  held over  the
breast, and the left over the  pudenda (the
Venus de' Medici, in the ducal gallery of
Florence), or standing on  a  chariot of   •
shells, drawn by Tritons and Nereids, and
wiping her  hair.   Many modern artists
have  painted Venus: Titian excelled all
others in  the voluptuous glow  and the
beauty of his figures.  Venus Urania was
represented in Sparta with a bow and ar-
rows, or armed with a spear and a helmet. J
In modern times, the Venus of Melos has |
been found, and has attracted much atten-
tion.  (See, also, Proserpina. Respecting
the planet Venus, see Planets.)
  Venus's Fly-Trap.  (See Dionaa.)
  Vera  Cruz ; a  state  of the  Mexican
confederacy, formed, with the states of
Tabasco  and Chiapa, out of  the former
intendancy of Vera Cruz;  bounded east
by the gulf of Mexico,  north by the state
of Tamaulipas, and west by Puebla and
Mexico.   It is  of great  importance, in
consequence of its  containing the harbors
which form the principal means of com-
munication  between the territory of the
republic and the rest of the world.   The
eastern part, along the coast, consists of
hot and unhealthy plains, while the west-
ern part forms the declivity  of the Cordil-
leras of Anahuac; and such is the steep-
ness of the mountains in this part of the
country,  that a traveller  may pass, in the
couree ofa day, from suffocating heats to
frosts, traversing, as it were, successive lay-
ers of climates.  (See Mexico.)  Although
the soil is fertile, the state is  thinly peo-
pled, in consequence of the  unhealthiness
of the climate, and the preference  given
by the Spanish and native Mexicans to
the table-land as a place of residence. It
contains the volcano of Orizaba, having
an elevation of 17,208 feet, and the coffer
of Perote, 13,289 feet high, and familiar to
navigators as the first land seen when ap-
proaching the  coast of  Mexico.   The
mountain of Tuxtla, also within its limits,
is  subject to volcanic eruptions.  The
principal towns are Vera  Cruz  (q. v.);
Xalapa, known in commerce as the place
supplying the greater part of the drag
which has received its name (see Jalap), |
and celebrated for the genial atmosphere
and  beautiful country  in  which it is
placed, with a population of 13,000 souls;
Tampico, an important seaport at the
mouth of a  river of the same name, with
20,000 inhabitants; and Papantla, with
8000  inhabitants.   The   state  has  a
population of 233,700  souls.. Its  chief
productions  are  tobacco, coffee,  cot-
ton, &c.
  Vera Cruz ;  a seaport of Mexico, in
the state of the  same name, on the gulf 
540
VERA  CRUZ—VERB.
of Mexico, 200  miles east by south  of
Mexico; lon. 96° 9'  W.; lat 19° 12' N.;
population, 30,000. Opposite to the town,
on a small island, stands the castle  of  St.
Juan d'Ulloa, fortified by 300 pieces  of
cannon.   About 100 merchant vessels
may anchor here, in from  four to ten
fathoms; but the northern winds often
drive vessels on  shore.  The port  is not
commodious, being merely a bad anchor-
age  among shallows. Vera Cruz  is the
great seaport of Mexico, and the  place
through which  almost all the trade be-
tween that country and  Europe  and the
U. States of North America is carried on.
The town  is situated on an arid  plain,
without running water, and on which the
north winds, which  blow with dreadful
impetuosity from October to April, have
formed  hills  of  moving  sand,  from
twenty-six to thirty-eight feet high, which
change  their form  and situation  every
year. The city is handsomely and  regu-
larly built, the streets broad and straight;
but its climate is hot  and unhealthy, and
extremely  subject to the  yellow  fever.
This dreadful  distemper generally com-
mences its ravages when the mean tem-
perature rises to 75°.  In December, Jan-
uary and  February,  when the heat re-
mains below this limit, it generally disap-
pears.   The  buildings  are  constructed
from materials drawn from the bottom  of
the ocean, the  habitations of the madre-
pores ; for no rock is to be found in the
environs, though  freestone has now begun
to be brought from Campeachy.   The as-
cent from the city into the interior, which
is a plain elevated nearly 8000 feet above
the level of the ocean, is through difficult
and  narrow roads.
  Veratrine ;  a white, inodorous sub-
stance, very sharp to the taste, without
any  bitterness, found in the  seed of the
veratrum sabatilla, the V. album, or  white
hellebore, and in the bulbs of the colchi-
cum autumnale, or meadow saffron.   It
fuses at 122°, becoming a white mass, like
wax. At a higher degree of temperature,
it decomposes, and  affords all the prod-
ucts of vegeto-animal substances.   It is
soluble in ether and alcohol, wholly insol-
uble in cold water: boiling water scarce-
ly dissolves the one thousandth part; yet
this small quantity communicates to it a
very sensible  sharpness of taste.   In a
degree, it possesses  alkaline properties,
changes litmus  paper,  reddened by  an
acid, blue, and saturates the  acids, with
which it forms uncrystallizable salts. Con-
centrated nitric acid  decomposes it with-
out  giving it a red color.  According to
MM. Pelletier and Dumas, it consists of
  Carbon,..............66.75
  Nitrogen,..............  5.04
  Hydrogen,.............  8.54
  Oxygen,..............19.60

It exercises the same action upon  the an-
imal economy as the hellebore, but with
much greater energy.
  Verb  (from the Latin verbum);  that
important part of speech in  which a sub-
ject is conceived  of under  certain  rela-
tions  of time.   It therefore belongs to
the, so called, attributive parts of speech, or
those which determine the predicate of
the subject indicated by the noun.  The
idea of personality; the various states of
time, action and passion; the ideas of sin-
gular and plural, and numerous shades of
signification connected with it, render the
verb one of the most  interesting subjects
of investigation to the philologist.   What
can be finer and more delicate than the
structure of the Greek verb ? what more
curious to a man whose native language
belongs to the European stock, than the
verb of  the North  American  Indian?
(See Indian Languages, in  appendix to
vol. vi.)  Again—what wonderful modi-
fications do we meet with in the Hebrew
verb! How striking is the Sanscrit verb!
The verb of the different nations shows us,
more than any other part of speech, the
different division of ideas, if we may call
it so, which takes place in different lan-
 fuages;  for instance, in most languages
 nown to us, the idea that something is
affected by the action of something else,
either has not a peculiar form of expres-
sion (this is generally the casein English),
or is expressed  by the accusative of the
object, that is, by a change in the name of
the object, e. g. Filius amat patrem.  But
there are languages in which this  idea is
expressed by a  change  in  the  subject,
which  acts;  and this is as logical a way
as the other. An object may be  con-
ceived merely in reference to time, or in a
peculiar state of action or passion.  The
former mode of conceiving them is the
basis of the  verb  to be (verbum substan-
tivum), which is therefore used to unite
the subject and predicate (e. g. I am un-
well), and becomes an auxiliary verb.  In
the case of those verbs which indicate a
peculiar state of the subject, together with
the idea of time, the state may have refer-
ence to the subject  alone (" I  sit," " I lie"),
or, at the same time, express a relation of
action or passion between the subject and
an object  The first kind of verbs are
called intransitive or neuter (because they 
VERB—VERDITER.
541
neither act nor suffer).  To them belongs
the verb to be.  The other class is called
transitive.  The transitive verbs are either
active  or passive.   The former indicate
action (e. g." I read a book"), and include
the reciprocal verbs (e. g. " I bathe  my-
self"),  in which the  subject makes itself
the object.  Tiie passive verb indicates
that the subject is the recipient of the ac-
tion, as, " I am beaten," which, however,
appears clearer in  those languages  that
have peculiar forms for this state, as amor
(" I am loved").  The passive form  has
also a reflective meaning; that is, it indi-
cates a relation of the subject to itself,
which, in the Greek grammar, is called
tin* middle voice.  The deponent verb and
neuter passive verb  are  particular forms
of  particular languages.   Besides   the
three voices (genera), there are the modes
(i. e. the ways in  which  the predicate is
brought into relation to the subject, wheth-
er it is  given as necessary, real or possible).
To these forms belong the imperative and
conjunctive,  or  subjunctive.   But  lan-
guages do  not always  represent these
modes  in  peculiar  forms.  One of the
peculiar modifications of the mode is the
••Wee}:  optative.   Formerly, the infinitive
was also called a mode ; but the infinitive
does not necessarily belong to the predi-
cate, and may also  take the  place of a
substantive.  In the same way the partici-
ple is not a mode, but  only au adjective
formed from the verb.—Further, we must
notice  the various forms of time (tenses),
i. e. those forms of the verb by which its
state is indicated  in reference  to peculiar
times.   These  are, in general, the pres-
ent, past and future ;  hence  the simple
tenses  are  the  present,  perfect or  pre-
terit, and the future; but these are  still
more  modified in  most languages,  and
are expressed either by peculiar  forms
or  by  paraphrases  with auxiliary verbs.
These  tenses are called absolute  if they
state  any  thing  without  reference to
something else, and relative if they do it
with reference to another time or action
(e. g. " I had done it when he  came"); to
which, therefore,  belong the imperfect,
pluperfect and future.—We must next no-
tice the three persons, of whom some-
thing is stated by the verb.   There are
three in the singular and three in the plu-
ral  (i. e. the  subject, another one present,
or addressed, and  another one absent, and
not addressed). The plural expresses the
same  relations as existing in the case of
two or more individuals.  The pereons
are /, thou, he, we, you, they, which are in-
dicated by pronouns,  or forms in  the
  vol. xu.       46
verb, or  by both.  Where  there  is no
person, the verb becomes impersonal (e. g.
" it thunders").   Some languages go fur-
ther, and designate also the genus of the
person acting or  being in a certain state,
aud express in the verb whether this per-
son is male or female ; so that, where the
Latins have but one form for amat, they
would have two forms.  To  set forth all
the various forms of a verb used for the
designation  of  the  manifold relations
which it is fitted to expresses called con-
jugating it.   The  conjugation is regular
or  irregular ; the  first when it conforms
to certain rules existing in  the  language,
the latter if the verb deviates from these.
Most of the irregular verbs, however, can
be brought again  under certain rules, and
so far become again regular.  As respects
their origin, verbs are primitive  or de-
rivative.  To the latter class belong those
by  which the state is designated as modi-
fied by  circumstances (e. g. diditare, from
dico, in  Latin ;  spdtteln, from spotten, in
German).  Often, however,  the verb  is
derived  from  some  adjective or sub-
stantive.
  Verbenalia.   (See Vervain.)
  Verde, Cape.   (See Cape Verde.)
  Verde  (Cape)  Islands.  (See  Cape
Verde Islands.)
  Verdict.   (See Jury, vol. vii, p. 287.)
  Verdigris ; an impure acetate of cop-
per, being a mixture of the acetates and
the carbonates of copper, and the hydrated
oxide of copper.   The best varieties ap-
proximate to the following composition :—
                      French.     English.
  Acetic acid,.....29.3 ... .  29.62
  Peroxide of copper, . 43.5  ....  44.25
  Water,........25.2  ....  25.51
  Impurity,  ......  2.0  ... .  0.62
  Verditer is a blue pigment, obtained
by adding  chalk or whiting to the  solu-
tion of copper in aquafortis.   It is pre-
pared as follows:—A quantity of whiting
is put  into a tub, and upon this the solu-
tion of copper is poured.  The mixture
is to be  stirred every day for some hours
together, till the liquor  loses  its  color.
The liquor is then to be poured off, and
more solution of copper is to be added.
This is to be repeated till the  whiting has
acquired the proper color.   Then it is to
be  spread on  large pieces of chalk, and
dried in the sun.   It consists of

  Carbonic acid,...........30.00
  Water,...............  3.33
  Lime,................  7.00
  Oxygen,..............  9.33
  Copper,...............50.00 
542                       VERDUN—VERMEYEN.
  Verdun  (anciently   Verodunum) ;  a
town of France, and principal place of a
district in the department of the Meuse ;
lon. 5° 22' E.; lat. 49° 9" N.;  population,
10,000.  Before the revolution, it was the
capital of a province called  Verdunois.
It is large, populous, and consists of three
parts, the  upper, lower and new towns,
and contains nine churches  and three
hospitals.   Exclusive of its fortifications,
this place is further defended by a fine
citadel.   By the treaty of Verdun (843),
the sons of Louis le Debonnaire, son and
successor of Charlemagne, divided the
Frankish empire between them, and thus
completed  the separation of the  German
and Italian crowns from the French.
  Vere,  Edward ; earl of Oxford; one of
the literary courtiers  of queen Elizabeth.
He was descended from one of the most
ancient families of the English  nobility,
his father  being the sixteenth peer who
had held the title, which became extinct
in the reign of queen  Anne.   He was
born about 1540, and received an educa-
tion  suitable to his  rank.  He  held the
office of lord high  chamberlain, and sat
as such at the trial of the queen of Scots,
and subsequently at those of the  earls of
Arundel, Essex and Southampton.  Spe-
cimens of his talents as a poet  are pre-
served in the Paradyse of daintie Devyces.
His  personal  character seems  to have
been  by  no means favorable.  He had a
quarrel with sir Philip Sidney, which did
him no credit;  and he is said  to  have ill-
treated his wife, who was the daughter of
lord Burleigh.  His death took place in
1604.
  Vergennes, Charles Gravier, count de,
minister  of state  in the reign  of Louis
XVI, was born at  Dijon, in  1717. His
father was one of the presidents of the
parliament in that  city.   Vergennes en-
tered, at  an early age, on the diplomatic
career, under the patronage of Chavigny,
the French ambassador to the  court of
Lisbon,  and,  in  1750,  was appointed
minister  to the elector of Treves. His
services in Germany were rewarded with
the post of minister plenipotentiary (1753),
and soon after (1755) with that of ambas-
sador to Constantinople.  Here he suc-
ceeded in inducing the grand seignior to
preserve his neutrality, until the  peace of
1763 put an end to the intrigues against
which he had hitherto successfully strug-
gled.  In  1768, he  was recalled  from
Constantinople, but,  in 1771, was sent to
Stockholm, where  he found the nation
distracted by the factions of the Hats and
Caps, and contributed much to the result
of the  revolution, which took  place  at
that period in Sweden. (See Gustavus HI,
and Sweden.)  Louis XVI, on his acces-
sion  to the  throne, put Vergennes at the
head of the department of foreign affairs ;
and in  this capacity he concluded a treaty
with the commissioners of the U. States,
Jan.  26, 1778,  who had been long suing
in vain for  the public acknowledgment
of the independence  of the  republic.
Vergennes  was not a man of superior
talents, but had much coolness,  industry*,
experience  and judgment.   The chief
resource of his policy was delay ; hence
his evasions and  ambiguous  measures.
The conclusion of the treaty with the U.
States  led to a rupture with England, and
France lost, in the war with that  power,
all her Indian possessions.  In 1783, Ver-
gennes concluded an advantageous peace
with Great Britain ; but the great expense
of the  war involved the French finances,
and  increased the public debt to such a
degree as  to render the difficulty  beyond
relief.   Vergennes did  not  possess  the
favor of the queen, as he  opposed,  al-
though guardedly, the projects  of her
brother Joseph  II.   Choiseul was his
rival.  The  dilatory and temporizing pol-
icy of  Vergennes, on all  points, contrib-
uted not a little to diminish the  influence
of the  French  cabinet in foreign coun-
tries, while it deprived him of the  respect
of the nation.  He  did not live to witness
the actual  outbreak of  the revolution,
but died in  1787, before  the meeting  of
the first assembly of the notables, the con-
vocation of  which he had advised. Louis
XVI believed that he would have pre-
vented the revolution, had he lived.
   Vergniaud.  (See Girondists.)
   Verjuice ; a sharp  vinegar, made  of
the juice  of the crab  apple.  The sour
juice of unripe grapes, used for culinary
purposes,  is also  called verjuice.   For-
merly, a cooling sirup was made of it  for
fever patients;  but it has gone out of use
for this purpose.
   Vermes.   (See  Worms.)
   Vermeyen, John van, also called John
with the beard, a famous historical painter,
son of Cornelius Vermeyen, was born  in
1500,  at Bevervvik,  near Harlem.    He
was a  favorite of Charles V, and accom-
panied him often on  his journeys, and
even on his expedition to Tunis, in 1535.
Rich tapestry, now in Vienna, was made
after his designs of the achievements of
Charles.  Though he was tall,  his beard
was so long that he could tread upon it,
when standing.  He died at Brussels, in
1559.   His  ten  cartoons,  representing 
VERMEYEN—VERMONT.
543
Charles's expedition to Tunis, in water
colors, twenty feet  long and twelve feet
high, are celebrated. They are in Vienna.
  Vermicelli (Italian, little worms); an
Italian mixture, prepared of flour, cheese,
yolks of eggs, sugar and saffron, and re-
duced into little long pieces, or threads,
like worms,  by forcing it, with a piston,
through a number of little holes in  the
end of a pipe made for that purpose.   It
is much used in Italy and other countries,
in soups, broths, &c.
  Vermilion ;  in  painting, a bright and
beautiful red color, composed of quick-
silver and sulphur, in great esteem among
the ancients, under the name of minium.
That preparation, however, which bears
amongst us the name of minium, is of lead,
known also as red lead.
  Vermont, one of the United States of
America,  is bounded north  by Lower
Canada, east by Connecticut river, which
separates it from New Hampshire, south
by  Massachusetts,  west  by New York;
lon. 71° 33'  to 73° 26' W.; lat. 42° 44' to
45° N.;  length, 157 miles; breadth, 90
on the north line and 40 on the south ;
population in  1820, 235,764;  in  1830,
280,657.   The face of the countiy is gen-
erally uneven, and a  great part of it is
mountainous.  The Green mountains (in
French, verd mont), from which the state
derives  its name,  extend   through   the
whole length from north to south, and are
from ten to fifteen  miles wide, and inter-
sected by valleys.   They  lie  principally
on the east side  of Bennington, Addison
and Rutland  counties.   In  Chittenden
county, they  appear to  divide.   The
western range presents much the loftiest
summits, but has inequalities which afford
passages for Onion and Lamoille rivers.
The highest summits of the Green moun-
tains are Killington peak, Camel's rump,
and Mansfield.   Ascutney is  a noted
mountain  on the east side of the state,
south of Windsor.  A large  portion of
the soil  is fertile, and fitted for the various
purposes of agriculture.  It is generally
deep, of a dark color, rich, moist, warm,
loamy, and seldom parched with drought.
The low lands, on  the banks of the rivers,
are generally most esteemed;  but a great
part of the  land on the  large swells is
excellent  both  for grazing and  tillage.
Wheat  is extensively cultivated, particu-
larly  on the west side of tiie mountains.
Barley, rye,  oats, peas, flax and potatoes
flourish in all parts of the  state.   Indian
corn also  produces  considerable crops,
and apples grow very well.  Maple sugar
is made in quantities nearly equal to the
home consumption.  This state is, how-
ever, peculiarly adapted to grazing,  and
great numbers of cattle, horses and sheep
are sold for the markets of Boston, New
York and Montreal.  The principal arti-
cles of export are pot and pearl ashes,
beef, pork, butter,  cheese, flax,  and  live •
cattle.   The  trade is  principally  with
Boston,  Hartford, New York and Mon-
treal.  Iron ore, of good quality, is found
in many places.  There are quarries of
marble  in Middlebury, Bennington, Ar-
lington,  Shaftsbury, Pittsford and Swan-
ton.  Porcelain earth is found at Monkton.
There are also  some lead and copperas
mines.  Among the most considerable
manufacturing  towns  are Middlebury,
Benningtou, Montpelier, Brattleborough,
Burlington and Windsor.  The climate
of Vermont  is healthy,  but subject to
great  extremes of heat and cold.  The
winters  are long and very cold; and, in
many parts of the state, some snow falls
almost every day for three months.  The
west bank of Connecticut river forms the
east line of the  state.  The other princi-
pal rivers are  Lamoille,  Onion, Otter
creek and  Missisque.  There are no very
large towns in Vermont.  Montpelier  is
the seat of government.  The other most
considerable towns are Burlington, Mid-
dlebury, Bennington,  Windsor, Wood-
stock  and Rutland.  There are  two col-
leges  in Vermont, at Burlington and at
Middlebury.  Academies are established
in many of the principal towns, and com-
mon schools receive great attention. The
principal denominations of Christians are
Congregatioualists, Baptis:s and Method-
ists.  There are a  few of many other
sects.  The firet discoveries in this  part
of the U. States  are  supposed to  have
been  made  by  Samuel Champlain,  a
French nobleman ; and  he gave his own
name to the  lake which  divides  New
York and Vermont.  In 1724,  the  pro-
vincial  government  of  Massachusetts
built fort Dtunmer, on Connecticut river,
in the county of Windham.  In  1731, the
French built  a  fort at Crown Point, and
commenced a settlement nearly opposite
to it.  For several  years after these set-
tlements, the  Indians claimed the greater
part of Vermont;  and they were too hos-
tile to allow much progress to the whites.
After Canada had fallen into the hands
of the British, in 1760, Vermont began to
be  settled rapidly.   Its  territory  was
claimed both by  New Hampshire and
New York.   A warm controversy result-
ed from these conflicting claims, whicli
was decided  by the king  in council  in 
544
VERMONT—VERNET.
1764, in  favor of New York.  The gov-
ernor of New  Hampshire  had  made
several extensive  grants of land in Ver-
mont, and many pereons had settled upon
them, made improvements, and paid for
them.  When the jurisdiction  of New
York was established, the government of
that state declared these grants to be void,
smd  demanded exorbitant  prices of the
occupants for the lands for which they
had once paid.  This produced a serious
quarrel, which lasted  for twenty-six yeare,
till after the close of the revolutionary war.
Some of  the occupants repurchased their
lands, but most of them  refused.   The
party resisting these demands of New
York was headed by Ethan Allen and
Seth  Warner; and  so  serious had  the
quarrel become when the warwith Great
Britain diverted  their attention, that the
governor  of  New York  had  issued a
proclamation,  declaring that, unless the
offenders surrendered themselves within
seventy days, they  should  be  deemed
guilty of felony, and liable  to capital pun-
ishment   At the same time, a reward of
fifty  pounds  was offered for the appre-
hension of Allen, Warner, and  six other
leaders..  Duringthe war of the revolution,
the " Green mountain boys" were distin-
guished for their hardihood and bravery;
but they were littie disposed to any alliance
with  New York,  and waited, even after
the war, to see what  kind  of a  union of
the states was to  be  formed before they
(ijcided that  it was  for their interest to
become a member of the union.   They
declared the state independent in January,
1777.  The first  constitution was  estab-
lished in  July of the same year.  After
the termination  of the war, New York
claimed jurisdiction  over  Vermont, and
the Vermontcrs resisted. The differences
were adjusted in 1790, Vermont paying to
New York $30,000, in full of all demands.
In 1791, Vermont was admitted into the
federal union.  Its constitution was revised
and established in its present form in July,
1793.  (See  Constitutions of the United
States.)   The following items of statistics
are from Walton's Vermont State Register
for 1831:—Academies and high schools
in Vermont,  35; district  schools,  2400;
clergymen,  350;  attorneys, 172;  phy-
sicians and  surgeons,  289; mechanics
and  manufacturers, 1039;  merchants and
traders, 364; houses, 36,170; oxen, 48,315;
cows and other cattle of three veare old,
121,400;  horses and mules, 61,232; sheep,
725,965; militia, 25,500.
  Vermont University.   (See Burling-
ton.)
  Vernet ; a  family  of artis's  distin-
guished even in the third generation.—
Claude Joseph  Vernet,  who  excelled all
his contemporaries in sea  pieces,  was
born at Avignon, in 1714, and was the son
of Antonip Vernet, also a painter.  When
eighteen yeare old, he went  to Rome, by
sea; and the circumstance of his voyage
decided his talent.  He was accustomed
to draw whatever he saw. The sea occu-
pied his mind  so  much,  that on one oc-
casion, in a violent storm, he had himself
bound to the mast of the vessel  in which
he was, to gaze on the sublimity of the
enraged element, whilst the  captain and
sailors trembled for their lives.  Thence-
forth, he occupied himself solely  with
sea pieces, or pictures of ports and strands.
For  twenty years,  he lived happily  in
Italy, in a close friendship with  Pergolesi
(q. v.), who  composed part of his Stabat
Mater (q. v.), iu his painting room.  At
length the splendid offers of the French
government induced him to  return  to
France, in 1752, where  he was to paint
the most important ports.   Thus  origi-
nated that excellent collection which is yet
in the Louvre.  Between 1752 and 1789,
when he died, he is said to have painted
no less  than 200  pictures.  Calms and
storms, sea and shore, are represented with
exquisite ease and truth.   In 1752, he was
made a member of the French acade-
my, and, in 1766,  counsellor;  but these
distinctions and a lodging it:  the Louvre
were the only favors bestowed upon him
by the king.  His contemporaries esteemed
him  equally for his cultivated mind and
amiable mannere  as for his genius.—An-
toine  Charles Horace  Vernet, son of the
preceding, was born in 1758, at Bordeaux,
went as a pensioner of the king  to Rome,
was  made a member of the academy in
1787, and received the same honor again
in 1814.  He excelled in battle and parade
pieces of large  dimensions,  in which he
has commemorated the battles  ofRivoli,
Marengo,  Austerlitz,  Wagram,  the de-
parture of  the marshals,  &c.   More
pleasing to many are his smaller scenes,
mostly  referring  to battles  and  camps.
His  studies •**)f nature and  his hunting
pieces, especially the lithographical ones,
are much sought for by connoisseurs, and
have a vivacity and boldness of concep-
tion  in  which  his only  rival is his son
Horace  Vernet.  The twenty-eight plates,
in folio, illustrating  the campaign of
Bonaparte  in   Italy,  are considered  as
some of his most successful  efforts.  He
is a knight of the  legion of honor and of
St. Michael.—Horace  Vermet, son of the 
VERNET—VERONA.                         545
preceding, and heir of his father's and
grandfather's talent, was bora in 1789, in
the Louvre.  The feeling of the great and
patriotic, which animated so many hearts
in the time of his youth, is expressed in
all  his  works.   He  began  with   battle
pieces (Jemappes,  Montmirail, Hanau),
which acquired  him  reputation.   His
pictures  are praised for giving promi-
nence to  the chief aim of the victorious
army, and for indicating the event of the
battle by the movements of the  lines.
He  labored with  equal success  in  his
father's  branch.   In fact, he seems  to
have excelled   in  many  departments.
His  domestic scenes, rural feasts,  hunt-
ings, caverns of  robbers** &c, excel all
those  of his contemporaries,  notwith-
standing the amount of talent which, of
late  yeare, has been turned in this direc-
tion. His pictures  are the more impres-
sive on account  of their  freedom from
affectation.   France yet speaks with de-
light of his Soldat Laboureur, Soldat  de
 Waterloo, &c, so often  repeated in litho-
graphic  sketches.   His  Le Chien  du
Rigiment is another,  we  might almost
say, national production  in France.  He
also made the  lithographic sketches for
the  magnificent  edition of the Henriade,
by Dupont, in 1824.  But there would be
no  end were we  to enumerate all the
distinguished  works of  this excellent
artist.
  Vernier  (also  called  Nonius, after the
inventor,  whom  some believe  to have
been the Frenchman Peter Vernier, chap-
lain  at Ornans, in Franche Cointe,  about
1630, othere the Portuguese Nunez  or
Nonius, died 1577).  It is an ingenious
instrument,  intended to give, in cases of
divisions, the value of  fractions  which
fall between two  of the smallest divisions.
Imagine,  e. g. a rule, on which there are
eleven inches divided into twelve  equal
parts: each of these parts is, of course,
*rr -J4 inches, i. e. **-*= 11 lines.*  If", now,
the  above-mentioned rule were  so  made
that it might be moved along another one
divided  into  inches,  it  is  easily seen
that if the first line of division on the one
rule coincides with that on the other, the
second line of the  vernier stands jV of
an inch from the  second line on the other
rule, the third -j*^, and so on ; and thus we
  ** Thirteen inches  mi<rht as well have been di-
vided, on the vernier, into twelve parts.  In gen-
eral, the rule is, the number of parts on tiie ver-
nier must be equal to the denominator of the frac-
tion which expresses the required subdivision, and
the number of the slandar 1 divisions of measure
which it contains must  b." one l.-.r^rr rr less.  In
both cases the object is obtained.
                 46*
are enabled, by merely moving the ver-
nier, to give fractional parts of inches,
without being  obliged actually to make
the difficult subdivision on the rule.  In
a similar way, this contrivance is attached
to circles,  quadrants, &c,  e. g.  by  di-
viding nine minutes  on the vernier into
ten equal parts, according to which each
part is = -j9^', so that the parts upon the
vernier and the arc stand respectively -jV,
tV- T3ff', &c, from each other.—! *r par-
ticular information on  this  subject, see
Biot's Traiti d'Astronomic (2d. ed., Paris,
1810).
   Vernon, Edward;  a  distinguished
English admiral, descended  from a Staf-
fordshire family, but born in Westmin-
ster, in 1684.  He adopted the naval pro-
fession, in opposition to the wishes of  his
father, who held the post of secretary of
state to William III.  He first went to
sea with admiral Hopson, and, in 1704,
served under sir George Rooke  at the
battle of Malaga.  He was also employed
on many other  occasions,  and  gradually
arrived  at  the rank of vice-admiral.  In
1739, when the treatment of the English
traders by the Spaniards in America had
excited  great  indignation in  England,
admiral Vernon, who was a  member  of
the house  of commons, spoke warmly
against the indifference of the ministry to
the complaints  of  the merchants, and
pointed  out the means  of redressing or
avenging  the  injuries which they had
suffered.  In consequence of these repre-
sentations, he was sent with a squadron to
the West Indies, where he took the town
of Porto Bello,  in  1739, and destroyed
the fortifications.  In 1741, he was sent
out again to attack Carthagena; but  the
expedition proved unsuccessful.   In both
of these  expeditions, the British  forces
were joined by  American troops; and, in
the latter case, there was a great mortality
among the troops, who were unaccustom-
ed to the tropical climate of New Grena-
da.  Admiral  Vernon had the honor of
•riving his  name to  the  seat of  general
Washington, at that time in possession of
his brother, who had served under  tiie
admiral.   During the rebellion, in 1745,
he was employed in defending the co» 't-.
of Kent and Sussex; but, on account of
his opposition  to the ministry, he was
subsequently superseded, and even struck
off the  list  of  admirals.   His death took
place Oct. 29, 1757.
  Vernon, Mocnt.   (^ee Mount  Vernon,
and Washington.)
  Vkrona ; a delegation of  Austrian It-
aly, in the  government of Venice, water- 
546
VERONA.
ed  by the  Adige, and,  though  partly
mountainous,  having  an agreeable cli-
mate and a fertile soil.  The productions
are corn, wine, oil, flax and silk:  in the
mountains  is beautiful marble.  Popula-
tion, 285,000 ; square miles, 1330.
  Verona; an ancient city, formerly be-
longing to  Venice, now to the Austrian
Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom, capital of
the above delegation, formerly capital of
a district called the  Veronese,  on the
Adige, eighteen miles north-north-east of
Mantua, and sixty miles west of Venice;
lon. 11° 1' E.; lat. 45° 26'N.; population,
55,000.   It is a bishop's  see.  It has a
pleasant and picturesque situation, partly
on a declivity and partly on the border of
a large plain.  The Adige flows through
it in a rapid, full stream, dividing  it into
two unequal parts, and is crossed by four
stone bridges.   The  form of the  city is
irregular, its circuit about six miles.  It
retains its old fortification of a moat and
earthen mound, and  has two castles  on
high ground,  with a third  on the plain.
The interior of the  city does  not corre-
spond with the beauty of its position, most
of  the streets  being  narrow and dirty:
several, however, are  spacious and well
paved.  The houses  are  in an antique
style, but of good appearance, from the
quantity  of marble  employed in  their
construction.  It contains a Gothic cathe-
dral,  ninety-three  churches,  forty-one
convents, eighteen hospitals, a town-house,
a museum, a gymnasium,  a  lyceum, a
public library,  an academy of painting,
also the  academia philarmonica  and the
philoli, both remarkable  for  a number
of  ancient  monuments.  Some of the
churches are noted  for  their paintings,
others for their architecture.  The town-
house has on the outside niches, contain-
ing busts of the distinguished natives of
Verona, Pliny the elder, Catullus, Marcus
./Emilius, Cornelius Nepos, and Vitruvius.
Other  distinguished  natives are  Maffei,
Fracastorius, and Paolo Veronese.  There
are many antiquities in Verona, particu-
larly in the famous collection of Maffei.
The most  interesting  monument of Ve-
rona, and one of the most remarkable  re-
mains  of Roman architecture now exist-
ing, is the amphitheatre, said to have been
built by Domitian.   The arena, in the
centre, and  of  oval form, is 220 feet  by
130.  The seats rise in forty-six succes-
sive ranges from the  arena, capable of
containing  about 22,000 spectators: the
outward circumference of the amphithe-
atre is 1290 feet.  The seats, as well as
the different passages, the stair-cases and
galleries, remain  entire, the whole con-
sisting of vast  blocks of marble, of two
stories.   Bartol. Giuliari, in his Topogra-
fia ddl' Anfiteatro di Verona  (Verona,
1822), considers the amphitheatre as ori-
ginally  an Etruscan work.  (See  count
Simone  Stratico's Lettera, and Giuliari's
answer.)  The accademia  di agricoltura.
commercio ed arti (founded in 1769), pub-
lishes Memorie, of which the tenth vol-
ume appeared in 1824.  Verona was, for
a time, in the middle ages, free, but, for
170 yeare, was under the rule of the Scal-
igers, who were expelled, in 1387, by Ga-
leozzo Visconti, at a later period duke of
Milan.  After the Viscontis, the  Carraras
were  masters of Verona; and,  in  1405,
the Venetians  conquered  it.  They re-
tained it until 1796.  (See Cisalpine Re-
public.)   Shakspeare's Romeo and Juliet
is  founded  upon one of the bloody con-
tests  of these  families.  A sarcophagus
is yet shown, called the tomb of Juliet.
Cai'li, in his Storia di Verona, and Maffei,
in his  Verona illustrata, have described
the antiquities of the city.    See  alsu
count Bevilacqua Lazise's Statistica della
Citta  di Verona  (Venice, 1823).    The
chief manufacture of Verona is silk ; but
wool  and leather are also made here.  In
1822,  a congress was held  here by the
principal powers of Europe.  The  em-
perors of Austria and  Russia, the kings
of Prussia,  Sardinia  and Naples,  were
personally present  No British minister
appeared, because  Canning  would not
acknowledge the right  of armed inter-
ference  in  the  affairs  of Spain.  He
sent Wellington,  however, and  the Eng-
lish ambassador  at  Vienna,  to  Verona.
Chateaubriand and Montmorency appear-
ed for France; Pozzo di Borgo and others
for Russia;  Hardenberg for  Prussia.
Prince Metternich presided. Gentz (q. v.)
drew  up the protocol. So much is known
of the deliberations, that the powers per-
mitted France  to reestablish the ancient
monarchy in Spain (q. v.) by  force of
arms, and promised assistance if it should
be necessary.  But, as England did not
take  part in the  conferences,  and  con-
stantly  advised peace, and the French
minister Villele (q. v.) opposed the strong-
est arguments  to  the fanatics who were
clamorous for  war, and  the statesmen.
who had gone from Paris to Verona, sup-
ported  his views, and as Mina had beat-
en  the  army of the faith in  Catalonia
France  attempted at first, in 1822, to in-
duce  the cortes, by negotiation,  to make
a change in their constitution,  so  as to
render  it more conformable to  the mo- 
VERONA—VERSAILLES.
547
narchical principle.  Respecting the diffi-
culties between Russia and the Porte, it was
concluded that lord Strangford, who had
been invited for that purpose to Verona,
should present an ultimatum to the sultan,
in which the strictest  fulfilment  of the
treaty of Bucharest (q. v), of 1811, should
be demanded, and  the Greek insurgents
should  not  receive any assistance.  On
account of this arrangement,  the  Greek
deputies, who had already arrived in An-
cona, were not permitted to proceed any
further.  Some resolutions were also en-
tered into respecting the Austrian army
in Piedmont and Naples ;  measures were
taken for the suppression of secret socie-
ties,  &c.  The monarchs left Verona in
October.  (See the articles Laybach, and
Intervention.)
  Veronica, St.  The following is from
the Didionnaire de Theologie  (Toulouse,
1817), a strictly Catholic work:—" Viro-
nique is formed of vera  icon (true image,
that  is, of Christ).   It is Christ's face im-
printed on a kerchief, preserved in St. Pe-
ter's, at  Rome.   Some  believe  that  it
is the same  kerchief which was put on
Christ's face in the tomb, according to
John xx, 7:  othere have persuaded them-
selves, but without proof,  that it  is the
kerchief with which   a  holy woman
wiped the Savior's face, when he went
to mount Calvary, bearing the cross. This
opinion may have originated from the
circumstance  that  some  painters  often
represent the vironique, or true  image,
supported by the hands of an  angel,  and
others by the hands of a woman.  The
firet  time that this image is mentioned is
in a  ritual, drawn up in 1143, by Benedict,
a canon of  St Peter's.   (See P. Mabil-
lon, Museum Italicum, vol. ii, p. 222.) The
worship paid to this image is paid in real-
ity to the Savior."  So far the Dictionary.
It does not mention that the legend, eve-
ry where propagated,  calls the holy  wo-
man, mentioned above, St. Veronica; just
as if a saint should be worshipped  under
the name of St. Ubes, the common cor-
ruption of Setubal.
  Verres, Caius Licinius; a Roman who
governed the  province  of Sicily as pre-
tor.  The oppression and rapine of which
he was guilty, while in office, so offended
the Sicilians, that they  brought an accu-
sation against him before the Roman sen-
ate.  Cicero  undertook the cause of the
Sicilians,  and  pronounced those   cele-
brated orations which are still extant. The
five  memorials which bear the name of
secunda actio in Verrem, were drawn up
by Cicero after Verres had abandoned his
defence as  desperate.   Verres was  de-
fended by Hortensius; but, as he despair-
ed of the success of his defence, he  left
Rome, without waiting for Iris sentence,
and lived in great affluence in one of the
provinces.   He was at last killed  by the
soldiere of Antony, the  triumvir,  about
twenty-six years after his voluntary exile
from the capital.
  Yerri,  count  Alexander,  an  Italian
writer, born  at  Milan, in  1741, died in
IS 16, entered at firet upon the practice of
the law ; but perceiving the defects of the
civil and criminal legislation of his coun-
try,  he applied  himself with  great dili-
gence  to the study of  Grotius, Pufen-
dorf, Montesquieu, and  other  publicists.
In connexion with Carli, F'risi, and Bec-
caria, he published a periodical work en-
titled //  Cafi, which had great success.
In 1766, he went to Paris  with Beccaria,
travelled in England, and, returning to
Italy, settled himself at Rome, where he
wrote  two tragedies,  Panthea, and  the
Conspiracy  of Milan.  His other works
are an  Essay upon the general Histoiy of
Italy, from the Foundation of Rome to
the present Time ; Commentaries   and
Criticisms  upon  the  principal Grecian
Orators ; Roman Nights, which has been
translated into German, French and Eng-
lish, and frequently reprinted, and  a Life
of Erostratus.—His brothers Peter (born
1728, died 1797)  and Charles (born 1743.
died 1826) also published several valuable
works  ; the former on political economy
and legislation, the latter on agricultural
subjects.
  Versailles, one of the most beautiful
cities of France,  about ten miles from
Paris, lies in an extensive, and, in part,
barren plain.  Until  the  middle of  the
seventeenth century, it was an inconsid-
erable  village,  with  a hunting  castle.
Louis  XIV determined to erect, on  this
solitary spot, a royal residence  worthy of
his age and his  grandeur.  Seven  years
(1673—1680) were employed  in  com-
pleting the palace, park  and gardens,
around which a city, with regular  streets
and  handsome  buildings,  and a popula-
tion of* 100,000 souls, soon grew up.  The
palace, erected after the plans and under
the inspection of Mansard, is more than
800 feet in  length, consisting of a firet
story and  the attic, decorated with Ionic
pilasters, with fifteen projecting buildings,
supported  by isolated  columns of  the
same order.  It contains eight magnifi-
cent saloons, adorned with statuary, paint-
ings and  architectural  embellishments,
and the great gallery, 232 feet long, thirty
broad,  and thirty-seven high, and lighted
by seventeen great windows.  The galle- 
548
VERSAILLES—VERSE.
ry is indebted to Lebrun for its  architec-
ture and paintings, and  is  not surpassed
by any in Europe for magnificence, taste
or arrangement  The  chapel is one of
the most superb monuments of  the mag-
nificence of Louis XIV : its external dec-
oration  consists of Corinthian  pilasters,
ornamented with numerous statues; the
interior,  of the  same  order,  presents
twelve fluted pillars, richly ornamented,
and sustaining the dome.  The  banquet-
ing room, the  opera-house, &c, are also
splendidly finished.   The gardens of this
sumptuous palace are  equal  in splendor
to the fabric to  which they belong.  In-
numerable statues, temples  and  pavilions
greet  the  view in every direction, while
shrubberies, parterres,  sheets of water,
and  jets  d'eau,  diversify  the  scenery.
Within the circuit of the park lie the two
palaces called the Great and Little Trianon.
Versailles  was  the residence of  Louis
XIV, XV  and XVI, and of all the chief
officers of state, until the 6th  of October,
1789, when Louis was compelled, by the
Paris mob, to take up his residence in the
Tuileries.   The  national  assembly also
opened  its sessions here, and was trans-
ferred, at  the same time,  to Paris.   In
consequence of this removal of the court
and  government, Versailles declined  as
rapidly  as  it had risen.  Napoleon  did
something towards  restoring  it, and also
caused the palace to be repaired.   The
treaty of Versailles was signed here, Sept.
3, 1783, between Great Britain, France
and  Spain,  on the  same  day that the
treaty between Great Britain and the U.
States of America was  signed  at  Paris.
The French court, during the  three reigns
above mentioned, was styled  the court of
Versailles.  The  city of Versailles has,
at present, a population of  28,000, and  is
a bishop's  see.  It contains  a town-house,
a public library of 30,000 volumes, three
churches, and several other public build-
ings and institutions.
  Verse (from the Latin vertere, to turn ;
hence versus, a furrow, line, series, verse).
The  connexion  of several  metres  or
rhythms forms a  rhythmical  series—a
verse which contains as  many metrical
membere or bars as there are uniform
arsises in the verse.  Verse may also be
defined as that form which sounds assume
by means of a  regular  motion and meas-
ure, or a series, a whole of rhythms met-
rically divided.  The word  is also used
for a series of verses, connected accord-
ing to some rule; but strophe  is  the better
expression for this.   (See Strophe.)  Ver-
sification is  the art of applying the rules
according to which verses  are formed.
Rhythm  is not imaginable without time ;
and as there is even and uneven time (see
Time), there are three different kinds of
                                2    4
mctra:—1. the spondaic, equal to - or -

time ; 2.  the molossic, equal to the heavy

_ time; 3. the trochaic, equal to the easy ^

org  time.   Verses in  uneven time are
more conformable to the spirit of the an-
cient languages; those in even time to that
of the modern.   Formerly  verses  were
measured according to feet, in the Roman
fashion (the Greeks measured verses mor<:
correctly according to the time or bars),
which led to various mistakes.  Because a
foot  is but the  form ofa single part of the
metrical period, the proportionate value of
it is  the very thing which  must be deter-
mined by the rhythm or metre, and there-
fore  is to be measured by this, but is not its
measure.  The grammarians, with whom
the foot was only an aggregate of syllables,
sought, in order to determine the measure,
for a fundamental foot, prevailing in the
whole verse.  As they knew  only the
difference between long and short sylla-
bles,  but  not  the  different degrees  of
length and  shortness   (which  different
proportions produce variety of movement),
a number of arbitrary and confused no-
tions originated, which  were elevated to
rules; and thus  the rhythm  became only
the more obscure.   If we measure  verse,
however,  as the ear requires, musically
and according  to time, we shall find regu-
larly returning metrical periods, and thus
determine the  melody of the verse, or the
metrical  music of  it;  and  the  prosodic
value of  syllables is elevated to rhythmi-
cal and metrical. Verses have been meas-
ured according to feet or double  feet (di-
podies).   The tripodic, above  indicated

as zr, was unknown ; the  dactylic, cretic,
choriambic, ionic, pseonic  and antispastic
verses were measured according to feet,
so that each was a metre: the anapaestic,
trochaic  and iambic verses,  however,  in
which a  dipody  made a  metre, were
measured  by  dipodies.   If a  metre is
contained  in  a  verse  once, twice, three
times, &c, the verse is  called monometer,
dimeter,  trimeter,  tetrameter, pentameter,
hexameter, &c.  As many bars  are filled
out by the imagination,  and  not in reality,
the  division of catalectic, or incomplete,
and acatalectic, or complete, verees has
arisen.   If the verse is concluded in the
middle of the period, it is called brachy- 
VERSE—VERTEBRA.
549
cataledic, or half-complete;  if it  is one
syllable too long, it is called  hypercatalec-
tic. According to the theory of tune, these
divisions appear unnecessary and errone-
ous, as every one, who can divide a verse
musically, will easily find.  In the same
way the division  of the, so called, poly-
schematic or many-formed verees—verees
capable of several  forms or changes—ap-
peare superfluous ; also that of the uncon-
nected verees, which, as is said, cannot be
united, and the invention of which is  ascrib-
ed to Archilochus. These can be measured
rhythmically perfectly well.  A consistent
theory of time reduces all the  sorts of
verses to one fundamental form, of which
there are. a variety of modifications.  Mr.
Apel, a German, has done much to  pro-
mote a better understanding of the char-
acter of verses.—Blank verse is a species
of verse disencumbered of rhyme, and
allowing the lines  to run into each other
with nearly as much freedom as the Latin
hexameter.   As it is naturally read with
less cadence than rhyme, the pauses in it
and the effect of them are not always so
sensible to the ear as in rhyme.  It  is con-
structed, however, upon the same  princi-
ples with respect to the place of the pause.
  Versification.  (See Verse.)
  Verst, or Werst ; a Russian measure,
equal to about two thirds of an  English
mile.   (See Measures.)
  Vertebra ;  the name  of the little
bones which compose the  spine.  They
are short, thick, angular, twenty-four in
number, placed one   above the  other.
Each vertebra has commonly seven pro-
cesses.  The first of these is the spinous
process, which is placed at the back part
of the vertebra, and gives the name of
spine  to the whole  of this bony canal.
Two othere are called transverse processes,
from  their situation  with respect  to the
spine, and are placed on each side  of the
spinous process.  The four othere, which
are called oblique processes, are  much
smaller than the other  three. There are
two of these on the upper,  and two on
the lower  part of each vertebra, rising
from near the basis of the transverse pro-
cesses.  They are sometimes called artic-
ular processes, because the two  superior
processes of one  vertebra are articulated
with the two inferior processes of the ver-
tebra above it; and they are called  oblique
processes, from their  situation  with re-
spect  to the processes with which they
are articulated.  These oblique processes
are articulated to each  other by a species
of ginglymus, and each process is covered
at its  articulation with cartilage.  There
is in every vertebra a hole. large enough to
admit a finger.  These holes correspond
with each other, and  form a long bony
conduit, for the lodgment of the  spinal
marrow.   Besides  this great hole, there
are four notches on each side of every ver-
tebra, between the  oblique  processes and
the body of the  vertebra.   Two of these
notches are at  the  upper, and two at the
lower part of the bone.   Each of the in-
ferior notches,  meeting with one of the
superior notches of the vertebra below it,
forms a   foramen;  whilst the superior
notches do  the same  with the inferior
notches of the vertebra above it.  These
four foramina  form passages for blood-
vessels, and for the  nerves  that pass out
of the spine.  The vertebrae are united
together by  means of a substance, com-
pressible like cork, which  forms a kind
of partition  between them.   The change
which takes place in these intervertebral
cartilages (as they  are usually called), in
advanced life, occasions the decrease in
stature, and  the stooping forwards, which
are usually to be observed in old people.
The cartilages  then become shrivelled,
and consequently lose, in a great measure,
their elasticity.   But, besides this gradual
effect of old age, these cartilages are sub-
ject to a temporaiy diminution, from the
weight of the body in an erect posture; so
that people who have been  long standing,
or who have carried a considerable weight,
are found to be  shorter than  when they
have been long in bed.   Hence we are
taller in the morning than at night  The
difference in such  cases depends  on the
age and size of the subject: in tall, young
people, it  is nearly an inch  ; but in older
or shorter persons, less considerable.  Be-
sides these  cartilages,  there are  many
strong ligaments, which unite the  bones
of  the spine to each other.  Besides the
uses of the vertebrae  in  defending the
spinal  marrow,  and in articulating the
several  vertebra1,  they  serve to form a
greater surface  for the '.odgment of mus-
cles, and  enable the latter to  act more
powerfully  on  the  trunk, byr affording
them a lever of considerable length.  In
a part of the body that is composed of so
great a number of bones, and constructed
for such a variety of motion, as the spine
is, luxation  is  more  to be expected than
fracture ; and this is very wisely guarded
against, in  every direction, by the  many
processes that are to be found in each ver-
tebra, and by the  cartilages, ligaments,
and other  means  of  connexion  which
we have  described as uniting them  to-
gether. 
550
VERTEBRAL  ANIMALS—VERVAIN.
   Vertebral Animals.  (See Animals.)
   Vertex is used, in astronomy, for the
 point of heaven perpendicularly  over our
 heads, properly called the zenith.— Vertical
 circle, in astronomy ; a great circle of the
 sphere, passing through the ^enith and na-
 dir, and cutting the horizon at right angles:
 it is otherwise called azimuth.— Vertical
 prime is that vertical circle or  azimuth
 which passes through the poles of the me-
 ridian, or which is perpendicular to the me-
 ridian, and passes through the equinoctial
 points.— Vertical plane, in perspective, is
 a plane  perpendicular to the geometrical
 plane, passing through the eye, and cut-
 ting the perspective plane at right angles.
 — Vertical plane, in conies,  is  a  plane
 passing  through the  vertex of the  cone,
 and parallel to any conic section.
   Vertot d'Aubceuf, Rene Aubert  de, a
 French  historian,  whose works   have
 been translated into  English, was born at
 the  castle of Bennetot, in Normandy, ofa
 good family, in 1655.  His application to
 study was early  and persevering; but,
 much against his father's will, he  entered
 among the Capuchins, and took the  name
 of brother  Zachary.  The  austerities of
 his order not agreeing with his health, he
 was induced to change it  for that of the
 Premonstratenses, and became  succes-
 sively secretary  to  the  general  of the
 order, rector, and, at length, prior of the
 monastery.  After some other changes of
 situation, he became  a secular ecclesias-
 tic, and, in 1701, came to  Paris  in  that
 character.   His talents soon procured him
 patronage.  In 1705, he  was made  asso-
 ciate of the academy of belles-lettres, and,
 after a while, secretary of languages to the
 duke  of Orleans.   In 1715, the grand
 master of Malta appointed him his histo-
 riographer.  His last yeare were passed
 in much bodily infirmity, from which he
 was relieved by death, in 1735.  He was
 bordering  on  his forty-fifth year when he
 wrote his first history, and had passed his
 seventieth  when he finished his last, that
 of Malta.   His style  is  lively, pleasing
 and  elegant;  his reflections always just,
 and  often profound.   He, however, want-
 ed the  industry and  research which are
 among the leading requisites of the histo-
 rian ; and he yielded too much to imagina-
 tion, and depended too much upon mem-
 ory, to be either accurate or trustworthy.
 His  principal works  are,  Histoire des Ri-
 volutions de Portugal (1689); Histoire des
 Revolutions de Suede (1696,2 vols., 12mo.);
 Histoire des Rivolutions Romaines (3 vols.,
 12mo.); Histoire de Malthe (1727, 4 vols.,
14to.);  Traiti de la Mouvance de Bretagne;
 Histoire Critique de  V Etablissement  des
 Bretons dans  les Gaules (2 vols., 12ino.).
 He wrote also some dissertations  in  the
 Memoirs of the Academy of Belles-lettres,
 and had much intercourse with the lite-
 rati  of his day.   His  correspondence
 with lord  Stanhope on the senate  of an-
 cient Rome  has been published by  the
 historian of Rome, Hooke.
   Vertumnus ;  a deity  among the Ro-
 mans, who borrowed him from the Etru-
 rians :  he presided over the spring and
 orchards.   He endeavored to gain the af-
 fections of the goddess  Pomona ; and, to
 effect this,  he assumed the  shape and
 dress of a fisherman, of a soldier, a peas-
 ant,  a reaper, &c, but all to no purpose,
 till,  under the form of an old woman, he
 prevailed  upon his mistress, and married
 her.  He  is  generally  represented as a
 young man crowned with flowers, cov-
 ered up to the waist, and holding in  his
 right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in
 his left.
   Verulam, Loro.  (See Bacon.)
   Vervain  (verbena).  These plants have
 usually  quadrangular herbaceous  stems.
 Their leaves are opposite: the flowers are
 generally small, disposed in spikes, which
 are sometimes arranged in panicles.  The
calyx is tubular,  and five-toothed; the
 corolla  funnel-shaped,  dividing  into five
irregular lobes; the stamens four in num-
ber, two of which are shorter than tho
othere:  the  capsule contains four seeds,
which become naked at maturity.  The
 common European vervain (V. officinalis)
is  an ordinary looking weed, naturalized
 in  waste places in some parts  of the II.
 States.  It was employed by the ancients
in  religious ceremonies, and particularly
by the Druids.  The celebrity  which this
plant obtained without  its possessing one
apparent quality, or  presenting, by  its
manner of growth or  form, any mysteri-
ous  character, to arrest the attention  or
excite imagination, is indeed very extra-
ordinary and  unaccountable.  Most na-
tions venerated,  esteemed and used  it.
 The ancients had their verbenalia, at which
period the temples and frequented places
were strewed and sanctified with vervain :
the beasts for sacrifice and the altars were
rerbenated, the  one   filleted,  the   other
 strewed, with the sacred herb; no incanta-
tion or lustration was perfect without the
aid of this plant.  It seems to have had
ascribed to it the power of curing  bites
of rabid animals, arresting the  progress
of the venom of serpents, reconciling an-
tipathies,  conciliating  friendships,  &c,
and was in equal veneration among the 
VERVAIN—VESPASIANUS.
551
 priests of Rome and Greece, the Druids
 of Gaul and Britain, and the magi  of In-
 dia.  But it is  now  regarded as of no
 value.  We have  two native  species of
 verbena, of common  occurrence  in the
 Northern States, one bearing blue and the
 other white flowere.   Several  othere are
 found in the south  and west, one of which
 (V. aubletia)  has  pretty  large  flowere,
 somewhat  resembling  those of a  phlox,
 and is often cultivated  as  an ornamental
 plant.   An exotic species  has flowers of
 the same  size,  but  of a  bright scarlet
 color.
   Verviers; a well-built town in the
 province of Liege, kingdom of Belgium,
 lying in the middle of a rich  and fertile
 valley, on the small river Weze, to which it
 is indebted  for ;ts prosperity;  lon. 5° 53/
 E.; lat. 50° 36' N.; seventeen miles south-
 east of"  Liege.  It  has  been enriched by
 the sale of its woollen goods, numerous
 manufactories of  which are erected on
 the Weze.   Its population amounts to
 16,000 souls.
   Vesalius, Andrew, a celebrated  sur-
 geon  and anatomist, born  at Brussels, in
 1514, studied the languages and  philoso-
 phy at Louvain, and at an early age dis-
 played his predominant taste for anatom-
 ical inquiries,  by dissecting the bodies of
 animals.  He  then went  to  Paris,  and
 studied  the medical sciences under James
 Sylvius.  When only eighteen, he com-
 posed  his  treatise De Corporis humani
 Fabrica, and,  returning to Louvain, de-
 livered  lectures on anatomy.  He after-
 wards v isited Italy, and  by his lectures
 and demonstrations at Pisa, Bologna, and
 other Italian cities, acquired great reputa-
 tion.  In 1537, the government of Venice
 appointed him professor of anatomy in
 the university of  Padua,  where  he re-
 mained seven years.  He was subsequent-
 ly physician to Charles V, and to Philip II
 of  Spain.   When in the height of his
 fame, ho engaged in a pilgrimage to Jeru-
 salem.  The motive to this undertaking is
 thus related: Vesalius, believing a young
 Spanish nobleman, whom he had attended,
 to be dead, opened him; but, after making
 an  incision  into the  body, he perceived
 the symptoms of life.  The parents, com-
 ing to the knowledge of this, accused him
 io the inquisition  of impiety.  But  the
 king interposed, and saved him, on condi-
tion that he would undertake a pilgrimage
to the Holy Land.  But different motives
for tills journey have been assigned.  On
his return from Jerusalem, he was ship-
wrecked on the island of Zante, and died
there, from the effects of hunger and
 hardship, in 1564.   The  great work of
 Vesalius, On the Structure of the human
 Body, was first published at Basle (1543,
 fol.); and the second edition, augmented
 and corrected by the author, appeared in
 1555.   Many  subsequent editions have
 been  printed; but the most accurate and
 complete is that publishedat Leyden (1725,
 2 vols., fol.), by Boerhaave and Albinus.
  Vespasianus, Titus Flavius, emperor of
 Rome, was born near Rieti, in the country
 of the Sabines, towards the close of the
 reign of Augustus.  His father was a re-
 ceiver of taxes in Asia,  and, in that gen-
 erally disreputable office, was distinguished
 for moderation and integrity.   Vespasian
 displayed but little ambition in his youth ;
 and it was not till the reign of Claudius
 that he exhibited his military talents.  Be-
 ing then appointed commander of a le-
 gion, he  acquired great reputation in Ger-
 many and in Britain; and, on his return
 to Rome, he was  made consul.  In the
 beginning of Nero's reign, he lived in re-
 tirement, but was at length appointed pro-
 consul of Africa; and on the rebellion of
 the Jews, he was sent with an anny into
 Judea (A. D. 66).  After taking some im-
 portant  fortresses, and  reducing almost
 the whole of Galilee to subjection, he was
 preparing to  attack Jerusalem, when he
 received  the news of the death of Nero
 (A. D. 68).  After the transient reigns of
 Galba, Otho and Vitellius, he was himself
 elevated to imperial power; and such was
 his good  fortune, that he found himself
 seated on the throne, without having re-
 course to those  hostilities which  he had
 anticipated as  necessaiy to  support his
 claims.   Reaching Rome about the mid-
 dle of the year 70, he was received with
 general and sincere rejoicing, the reputa-
 tion  he  had acquired   promising  relief
 from the  miseries of misgovernment, un-
 der which the people had long suffered.
 He did  not disappoint  the expectations
 which his character had excited.  He re-
 formed the discipline of the armv, puri-
 fied the senatorial and equestrian orders,
 by degrading  the  unworthy,  and  filling
 their places with respectable citizens, and
 appointed a commission  to settle the vast
 multitude of suits which had  accumu-
 lated  during the late  troubles, besides
 presiding on tiie bench frequently him-
 self, that justice might  be administered
 with impartiality.  He was an enemy to
 luxury, and devoid of personal  or fami-
 ly pride,  being by no means desirous to
 conceal the obscurity of his origin.   On
the other hand, he is charged with dis-
playing a degree of meanness and ra- 
552
VESPASIANUS—VESUVIUS.
parity, in the accumulation of wealth, in-
consistent with his character and station.
Though this reproach is not destitute of
foundation, it appears, however, to be ex-
aggerated ; and necessity probably obliged
him to have recourse to the means he em-
ployed for the exigences of government,
after the treasury had been exhausted  by
the luxury and profusion of his predeces-
sors.  Vespasian favored arts, letters and
learned men, particularly Quintilian, Pli-
ny and Josephus.  He rebuilt a part of
the city which had been  destroyed during
the civil  wars, restored the capitol, that
had been  burnt  under Vitellius, with in-
creased splendor, and erected the gigantic
amphitheatre, the ruins of  which are still
celebrated under the  name of the colise-
um, (q. v.)  Among the  principal public
events of the reign of Vespasian are the
termination of the dangerous rebellion of
the Gauls  under  Civilis,  and the capture
of Jerusalem by his  son  Titus (q. v.),
whom the emperor had made his lieuten-
ant in Judea.  After reigning ten years, he
died,  in June, A. D. 79,  greatly regretted
by the Romans, who, under his dominion,
enjoyed a degree of national prosperity to
which they had long been  strangers.
  Vesper (Latin); properly, the evening:
at present, it is generally used to signify
the evening  service; hence  vesper bell
and  vesper  sermon.— Vesper image  is  a
name given  to the representation of the
Savior's corpse in the arms of his mother.
  Vespers, Sicilian. (See Sicilian Ves-
pers.)
  Vespucci, Amerigo.   (See  Americus
Vespucius.)
  Vessels, in animal and vegetable phys-
iology; those tubiform  passages which
serve to conduct liquids  to or  from cer-
tain parts, as the arteries, veins, capillary
vessels, and lymphatics.  (See Blood-Ves-
sels, Capillary Vessds, and Lymph.   For
the vessels of plants, see Plants.)
  Vesta (Greek, Hestia);  a daughter of
Saturn and  Rhea,  the  goddess of fire,
and principally of the fire concealed in
the earth; or, according to some, wife of
Uranus and mother of the  gods; in which
sense she has been taken for the earth it-
self, and has been confounded by the ear-
lier writers with Rhea,  Ceres, Cybele,
Proserpine, Hecate and Tellus.  She was
at the same time the patroness of chastity,
and received permission from her brother
Jupiter to remain unmarried. She is said
to have firet taught man  the use of fire for
domestic purposes; for which  reason the
houses, and particularly  the  entries to
them, which usually contained the hearth,
were  sacred to her;  and she is honored
as the founder of settled abodes.  She is
represented as a matron, almost  always
with a torch in her hand; but the sacrifi-
cial flame also distinguishes  her.  Numa
Pompilius built a temple for her in Rome,
and introduced the worship of this god-
dess.   Her festival was celebrated on the
9th of June.   (For the planet Vesta, see
Planets.)
  Vestals, Vestal Virgins, were the
priestesses of Vesta, established by Numa
There were at first  four, afterwards  six
of them.   They were not to be more than
ten, nor  less than six yeare old, at the
time of their consecration : they were to
be of  good family, and without bodily in-
firmities ; to serve in  the temple for thirty
yeare, and  keep alive the perpetual fire
instituted by Numa;  to offer prayers and
sacrifices for the good of the state; and at
their consecration to take the vow of chas-
tity.   If any of them broke this vow, she
was doomed to  be buried alive.  If the
one whose  duty it  was to watch,  let the
fire go out, she was severely chastised.
The vestals had,  however, great privi-
leges.  They were not under parental gov-
ernment. When they appeared in public, a
lictor preceded them.  Their persons were
inviolable.  If they met a criminal doomed
to death, they might set  him  at  liberty.
When they died, their remains were buried
within the town. Their dress was a white
garment bordered with purple, and their
ornament  a band  round  the forehead.
After thirty years' service, they could quit
the temple  and marry.  The oldest of the
vestals was called vestalis maxima.
  Vestris ; a  family, which, for three
generations, has afforded entertainment to
the Parisians.   The firet  distinguished
dancer of this name was a native of Flor-
ence,  born  in 1728, and called the dieu de
la danse.   To him a great  part  of No-
verre's (q. v.) success was due.  Grimm's
Correspondence is full of anecdotes of his
conceit.  Having delighted the public for
forty years, he  retired, and died in 1808,
at the age of eighty.   His son, sometimes
called  Vestrallard, as his mother was a
dancer named  Allard, appeared  for the
first time,  in 1772, in the opera of Paris,
before he was thirteen yeare old, and de-
lighted the public until Duport rose.  His
son also  was distinguished  as a  dancer,
and for his conceit.
  Vesuvian.  (See Idocrase.)
  Vesuvius ;  a volcano in Naples, a mile
and a quarter distant from the capital.  It
rises,  in the form of a pyramid, out of the
plain, and was separated by wide valleys 
VESUVIUS—VETO.
553
 from the mountains of Somma and Otto-
 jano, until the eruption of 1794, when the
 summit of the mountain sunk, and the val-
 leys were entirely filled up.  The height
 is 3680 feet.  After the memorable  erup-
 tion in September and November, 1822,
 Humboldt found  the height of  the ex-
 treme point of the Palo to be 607 toises.
 Its summit forms a little plain, in the midst
 of which the crater  is seen perpetually
 ••inoking.  Its sides are mostly barren, but
 on some gaits vines  and  fruits are seen
 between  fields  of burning  lava.  The
 base of the mountain, notwithstanding the
 eruptions of lava, often a quarter of a
 mile  in breadth,  is  inhabited and  culti-
 vated.  Here and there grow the grapes
 from which the costly Lachryma Christi
 (q. v.) is  made.   Amongst the principal
 eruptions of the volcano  are that of 79,
 in which Herculaneum and Pompeii were
 buried ;  those of 203,  472, 512, 685, 993,
 1036, 1306, 1631,1730, by which the sum-
 mit of the mountain was visibly height-
 ened,  and received  its sugar-loaf form;
 those of 1766,1779,1794, by which Torre
 del Greco, a considerable town,  was al-
 most  entirely destroyed;  and that  of
 1804.  Since the  commencement of the
 nineteenth century,  scarcely a year has
 passed without eruptions of more or less
 importance.  The shower of ashes on the
 24th of October, 1822, darkened the light
 of day in Naples, and spread  as far as
 Cassano, 105 Italian miles from Vesuvius.
 The lava,  twelve feet in  depth,  poured
 down  to the distance of an Italian mile.
 Vesuvius is steep, and therefore difficult
 to ascend.  Its summit may be reached by
 three different roads: one is on the north
 side; one leads from Ottojano, and  another
 from Resina, which is usually taken. The
 crater of the volcano often changes its
 form.  The gulf is not more than ninety
 rods in depth.  In 1801, eight Frenchmen
 descended  into the  crater—an  attempt
 which has been since repeated.  (See J'c-
 suvius during the Years 1821, 1822,  1823,
 with Physical, Mineralogical  and Chcmi-
 ccd Observations, by  Monticelli and Co-
 velli.)  In March, 1828, towards the end
 of 1831, and in the middle of 1832, there
 were other eruptions.  (See Volcanoes.)
   Vetch (viria); leguminous plants,with
 herbaceous stems, often supporting them-
 selves-on surrounding objects, by means of
 the tendrils with which their leaves are
 terminated.   These last are pinnated, and
 provided with stipules at the base.  The
flowers are disposed  in clusters upon an
axillary and more or less elongated pedun-
cle, and are succeeded by pods. In short,
  vol. xn.         47
the general habit of these plants is pre-
cisely similar to that of the pea.  Upwards
of  eighty species  are known,  most of
which inhabit the northern and temperate
parts of the eastern continent.  Some of
these are naturalized in the U. States, and
we have besides two or three native spe-
cies.  The common vetch, or tare, is little
known in this country, but is extensively
cultivated in  Europe, and  considered  a
valuable agricultural plant.  It is not very
delicate as regards the nature of the soil,
but  succeeds best in dry and warm ex-
posures,  and especially in calcareous dis-
tricts.  The crop  is cut at  the time of
flowering, to be given green to cattle; or
these are  turned into the field to  graze.
It is an  excellent fodder for milch cows
and working stock.  A second crop is cut
when the seeds are nearly ripe, which  is
dried for winter's use. The seeds are some -
times permitted to ripen, and are given to
all kinds of poultry, especially to pigeons,
which are often fed on them exclusively.
  Veterans, with the  Romans; soldiers
who had served a  number of campaigns,
or at least had reached their fiftieth year,
so as to be entitled to a discharge. If they,
nevertheless,  continued in  service, they
were treated with particular distinction.
  Veterinary Art.  This, according to
the  present  acceptation  of  the phrase,
comprehends a knowledge of the external
form, as well as the internal structure and
economy, of the domestic quadrupeds, the
appropriate management of them, the na-
ture, causes and  treatment of their  disor-
ders, and the art of shoeing such of them
as may require  it.   The word is derived
from the  Latin veterinarius, which some
of the  ancient writers, particularly  Colu-
mella,  use to denote a farrier, horse-doc-
tor,  or one who  lets horses  to hire, its
radical being the  verb  veho  (to carry);
whence veterinarius  came to signify any
thing connected with or relating to  beasts
of burden.  The first  veterinary school
was instituted in 1762 at Lyons : in 1766,
that at. Alfort was opened. A similar in-
stitution was established at Berlin in 1792,
and in the year following, one in London.
  Veto (Latin, I prohibit); used in Eng-
lish and other modern languages as  a sub-
stantive, to denote the power,  given by *
law  to any individual, to defeat the reso-
lution  of a deliberative body.  In  the
former republic of Poland, every member
of the diet could, by his .Vie Pozwalam (I
don't permit it), defeat the resolution cf
the rest.   This abuse, called the liberum
veto, was,  in the partition of Poland, sup-
ported by Russia as necessary to Polish 
554
VETO—VICENTE.
liberty!   The real motive of Russia was,
to prevent a union of action among the
Poles.  The French constituent assembly,
in 1789,  allowed the king a veto on its
resolutions; but the firet time that he made
use of it, it  ruined  him.  The  king of
England has a  veto  upon the resolutions
of both  houses;  but a  long  period has
elapsed since it  has been used.  The king
of the French has a veto.  The king of
Norway  has the same  power;  but if
three successive storthings repeat a resolu-
tion, it becomes a law without the king's
assent:  thus nobility was abolished in
Norway.  The  same provision was intro-
duced into  the Spanish government by
the constitution of the cortes.  The presi-
dent of the U.  States has a veto ; but he
must return the bill with his reasons; and
if, then, two thirds of each house vote for
it, it becomes a  law.
   Veturia.  (See Coriolanus.)
   Viaticum ; literally provision for a jour-
ney ; in Catholic theology, the eucharist
administered to patients beyond  hope of
recovery.   Protestants, also, often take the
Lord's supper before death, but  do not
give this name  to it.— Viaticum is some-
times used as a  more delicate name to the
aid afforded in  money or provisions to a
traveller.
   Vibration.  (See Acoustics, and Pen-
dulum.)
   Vicar (from vicarius); representative,
vicegerent.  (Respecting the vicars of the
former German empire,  see German Em-
pire.)  The pope calls  himself vicar of
Christ on earth.   An apostolic vicar is a
priest of high standing, who has received
special powers  to decide in certain cases,
without asking  for instructions.   Bishops
have  grand-vicars, who can  discharge
most of the functions of the bishops in their
dioceses.  They cannot, however, grant
confirmation, consecrate churches,  &c.
In  England, the vicar is a particular
kind of parish priest.  The priest of every
parish is called rector, unless the  predial
tithes a.*e appropriated, and  then he  is
styled vicar; and when rectories are ap-
propriated, vicars are to supply the rec-
tor's place.   For the maintenance of the
v'.v-ar, in such cases, there was set apart a
certain portion  of the tithes, commonly
about a  third part of the whole,  which
are now what are called  the vicarial
tithes, the rest being reserved to the use
of the appropriators, and, for this rea-
son, termed the  rectorial tithes.   The
name of curate is given to a clergyman in
the church of England,  who is employed
to perform divine service in the place of
the incumbent parson, or vicar.  He must
be  licensed by the bishop,  or  ordinary.
(See Plurality.)
  Vice,  in smithery and other arts, is a
machine, or  instrument, serving to hold
fast any thing worked upon, whether it is
to be filed, bent, riveted,  &c.— Vice  is
also used  in  the composition of  divers
words, to denote the relation of some per-
son that comes instead, or in the place of
another; as, vice-admiral, rice-chancellor,
rice-chamberlain, vice-president, &,c, are
officere who take the place of admirals, &c.
  VicE-AnsiiRAL.  (See Admiral.)
  Vicente, Gil  (called the Portuguese
Plautus), was born at Barcellos, ofa good
family, about the year 1480.   He devoted
himself at first to the study of law, but
soon abandoned it, for the purpose of cul-
tivating dramatic poetry.  As his rank en-
titled him to admission  to court, he con-
tributed  to its amusement by writing oc-
casional  pieces for all the festivities, and
displayed much skill in his compositions.
His dramatic  pieces were first  exhibited
at the court of Emanuel, and the firet was
printed in the year 1504. They were re-
ceived with great applause; and the repu-
tation of the  poet was raised still higher
in the reign of John III, who sometimes
amused  himself with taking part in the
performance. Vicente educated his daugh-
ter  Paula, although  she was one of the
ladies of honor to the queen Maria, for
the  stage, and she became distinguished,
not only as one of the best performers of
her time, but as  a  poet and a musician.
Vicente himself,  who, in  point  of time,
preceded  all  the great dramatic  poets
of  Spain,  Italy,  France and  England,
stood alone in that age;  and his fame was
not confined to his own country.  Eras-
mus is said to have studied Portuguese
for  the  sake of being able to read his
comedies.  His pieces have  all  the faults
which  are inseparable from firet essays;
but his rude sketches are pervaded by a
truly poetical spirit, vigor and richness of
invention, truth of nature,  ease of style,
and harmony of versification, notwith-
standing the  antiquated structure of the
verse, and the obsolete language.  The Por-
tuguese and Spanish languages are often
intermixed with each other in these pieces,
particularly in his autos.  Vicente died at
Evora, in 1557.  His works, in five-books,
appeared at  Lisbon, edited by his son
Luis, in 1562, fol. (1586,4to., and often re-
printed).  Of h is autos, or religious pieces,
there are sixteen;  and  several of  these
were printed  as early as his seventeenth
year.  The most  celebrated of his tragi- 
VICENTE—VICENZA.
555
 comedies is Dom Duardes.  Among his
 comedies, taken mostly from old tales, the
 Judge of Beyra and the Portuguese Fi-
 dalgo are the best.   His farces, of which
 there are eleven  contained  in the collec-
 tion  above  referred to, are witty, lively
 and natural, and in many respects resem-
 ble  the  Spanish interludes of a later pe-
 riod.
   Vicenza, Armand Augustin Louis  de
 Caulaincourt, duke de, lieutenant-general,
 born at Caulaincourt,  in  1773,  distin-
 guished  himself during the French revo-
 lution, both in  diplomatic  and  military
 capacities, for his integrity, courage, fidel-
 ity and  address, under the most difficult
 circumstances.   He served in the army
 from the fifteenth year of his age, but, on
 the  breaking out of the revolution, lost
 his post  of staff-officer, and was for some
 time confined in prison.  He then served
 (1792) as a grenadier, and afterwards  as
 a mounted chasseur, but, in 1795, was re-
 stored, by the influence of Hoche, to his
 former   rank  of captain.   Caulaincourt
 served with reputation in Italy, and began
 his diplomatic career at Constantinople,
 whither  he accompanied general Dubayet
 In 1801, he was sent on a diplomatic mis-
 sion  to  the emperor Alexander,  who al-
 ways manifested esteem for him, and con-
 fidence   in  him.  In 1804,  Caulaincourt
 was named grand icuyer, and, about this
 time, was stationed on  the Rhine, where
 he was employed in counteracting the in-
 trigues of the English agents, and partic-
 ularly the  English  minister at Munich,
 against the life of the firet consul.  With
 the  capture and execution of the duke
 d'Enghien, it has been fully proved that he
 had nothing to do.  In 1805, he was made
 general of division, and received the grand
 cross of the legion of honor, with the title of
 duke of  Vicenza. He afterwards obtained
 various orders of knighthood from Bavaria,
 Saxony,  Prussia, Russia and Austria, and
 was sent ambassador to St. Petersburg,
 when Napoleon  was carrying on his plans
 against Austria.   After the fall of Prussia
 and the treaty of Tilsit, he was four years
 ambassador at the Russian court, and  re-
 ceived from the  emperor the cross of the
 order of St. Anne, of the first class.   He
 requested his recall on the pretext of ill
 health, but, in  reality, because he met with
 various  mortifications  from the Russian
 nobility,  who were jealous of his  favor
 with Alexander.  After returningto France
in 1811,  he  accompanied Napoleon  on
his unfortunate  expedition  to Russia  in
 1812, which he  had firmly opposed, and
returned  with him in a sleigh, after nearly
 perishing with  cold.   During  fourteen
 days, Caulaincourt did not leave the em-
 peror's side.  In the campaign  of 1813,
 Caulaincourt was appointed to negotiate
 with  the  Russian and Prussian plenipo-
 tentiaries, after  the desperate battles of
 Liitzen and Bautzen; and an  armistice
 was the consequence.   That  armistice
 was soon broken, and only served to pre-
 pare the way for the victory over  Napo-
 leon at Leipsic.  After hostilities had been
 removed from Germany to France, Cau-
 laincourt, who had  been named minister
 for foreign affairs, was sent to negotiate
 with the allies at Chatillon (q. v.); but, on
 some  success of Napoleon, he  received
 orders to raise his  claims so high, that
 the allies broke off the conferences, and
 marched to Paris.  When Napoleon ab-
 dicated at Fontainebleau, the duke  of Vi-
 cenza was the chief negotiator on his part,
 and signed the treaty of the 11th  of April,
 between the ex-emperor and  the  allies.
 He continued to  follow his  master until
 his departure from Fontainebleau, on the
 20th of April, and  afterwards retired to
 his estate.  During  the hundred days, he
 held the portfolio of foreign affaire, and,
 April  4, 1815, issued the celebrated circu-
 lar to the foreign cabinets, declaring the
 pacific intentions of Napoleon.   After the
 second  abdication of the emperor, the
 duke of Vicenza took  an active part as
 member of tho regency; but the return of
 the king terminated his public career. He
 passed the rest of his life alternately at
 Paris  and on his estate,  occupied with
 the education of his children, and died hi
 1828.
   Vicenza, the principal town of a prov-
 ince or delegation of the same  name in
 the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, lies in
 a beautiful and fertile plain on the Bachi-
 glione, which is  here navigable,  receives
 the little stream Recone, and divides the
 town  into two parts, connected by four
 bridges; lon. 11° &7 E.; lat. 45° 32/ N.';
 thirty-five miles north-west of  Venice ;
 population,  29,000.   It  contains an old
 castle,  twenty-two churches, and thirty-
 three oratories, seven colleges, and  twen-
 ty-seven hospitals and  charitable institu-
 tions.   It is  suiTounded by a double wall,
 about five miles in circuit, with six gates.
 The streets  are for the most part narrow
 and crooked; but there are many  hand-
 some buildings here; and, indeed, Vicenza
 is, in respect to its architecture, the most
 remarkable  city  of Upper Italy,  being
adorned with the works of the celebrated
 Palladio (q. v.), who was born here.  Be-
sides tiie basilica, we may mention, 1. The 
556
VICENZA—VICO.
town-house (palazzo della ragione), situ-
ated upon the market-place, a handsome
square adorned with columns. This build-
ing is entirely of marble, and is unique
of its kind.  The whole lower story con-
sists of  arcades,  and the  upper  story,
which is likewise surrounded by a gallery
of arcades, is  adorned with statues, bass-
reliefs and cornices.  2. The Olympic the-
atre is a beautiful building, in the erection
of which Palladio not only imitated, but
surpassed the ancients, although it is built
only of wood.  The  seats rise one above
another in a semicircle, and are adorned
with statues of the Roman emperors.   3.
The triumphal arches.  One of these  is
at the entrance of the Campus Martius, a
beautiful promenade; and the other,  at
the gate Del Monte, forms the entrance to
a stairway of 195 marble steps, leading to
the celebrated  Servite  monastery, called
Madonna di Monte Berico, situated  upon
a hill, which commands a most delightful
view.  4. The  palace Valmarana.  The
architects Scamozzi, Otho Calderari, and
othere, were also natives of Vicenza, and
■contributed  to adorn the  city with their
works.  In most of the churches and pal-
aces there are fine paintings, by Palma,
Giordano and others.— See Berti's Guida
per Vicenza (Venice, 1822).—x\ part  of
the inhabitants subsist by silk manufac-
tures, the province producing much of the
raw material; and several other manufac-
tures are carried on here.  Before the
gate of the castle lies the beautiful garden
Valmarana.   Vicenza has almost always,
especially in modern times, shared the
fate of its neighbor Verona, (q. v.)  In
November, 1796, a sanguinary battle was
fought near Vicenza, between the French,
under general Bonaparte, and the Austri-
ans, under Alvinzi.
  Vice-President  of   the   United
States.    It is provided by the consti-
tution of the U. States  that there shall be
a vice-president, chosen every four yeare,
in the same manner, and by the same elect-
ore, as the president  (See Electors, Con-
gress of the United. States, and President.)
In case of there being no choice of presi-
dent, the vice-president acts as president,
as in the case of the death, or other con-
stitutional disability, of the president.  If
no candidate for the vice-presidency has
a majority of the electoral votes, it is pro-
vided by the constitution that the senate
shall  choose the vice-president from the
two highest numbers on the list of candi-
d.nt .-.  Two thirds of the whole number
of senators are required to form a quorum
for this  purpose, and  a majority of the
whole number is necessaiy to a choice.
The vice-president is, ex ojjicio, president
of the senate.
  Vicksburg, one of the principal towns
of  Mississippi,  and capital  of Warren
county, is situated just below the com-
mencement of the Walnut hills.  It  has
not existed more than  ten  years, but is
now a large village.  It is likely to become
the rival of Natchez in the cotton trade.
Great quantities of cotton  are  deliver-
ed  here to the steam-boats  which  ply
regularly  between  this place and New
Orleans.  It has a most singular position,
on  the  shelving declivities of high hills,
with  the  houses scattered iu groups on
the terraces.
  Vico,  Giovanni  Battista,  one  of  the
most original thinkers, was born, in 1668
or 1670, at Naples, and was the  son of a
bookseller.  When  a  boy, he fractured
his skull, and did not recover until after
three years of suffering.  This misfortune
seems to  have given  him a melancholy
and contemplative  cast.  He  made great
progress in elementary studies, but  be-
came disgusted with the study of philos-
ophy, until, at a meeting of the accademia
degl' infuriati, he saw the scholars sitting
by the most distinguished men of the city,
which at once kindled  his ambition.   He
studied  law, and labored with such assi-
duity as to injure  his  health.   Being
without means of support, he accepted the
place of instructer to the nephew of Roc-
co,  bishop of Ischia.  He lived nine years
in a  charming retirement, and read and
thought profoundly.  Having returned to
Naples, he  married, and was obliged to
accept a professorship of rhetoric, which
brought him about $100 a year.  When
Charles of Bourbon ascended the throne,
a better fate seemed to await him, as he
was appointed historiographer to the king;
but it was too  late.  Intense  studies, by
day and  night,  together  with  domestic
cares, had exhausted his  mind: he sunk
into idiocy, and died in 1744.   Vico was
rich in noble and  excellent, but also in
bold and questionable ideas.   Mythology
is his leader through the darkness of the
past.   His chief work  is  his  Principf di
una Scienza Nuova d'intorno alia communt
Natura delle Nazioni (Naples, 1725;  7tli
ed., Naples, 1817).  His  ideas respecting
Homer and Roman histoiy agree remark-
ably  with many of those of Wolf  ami
Niebuhr.   His  autobiography has been
recently published in  the   Opuscoli  di
 Gian Battista  Vico raccolti  e pubblicati 
VICO—VICTOR.
557
da f!arlo  Antonio  Rosa  (Naples, 1818).
His Scienza Nuova has  been translated
into German (1822) and French (1827).
  Vicq-d'Azyr,  Felix ;   an  eminent
French physician and anatomist, born at
Valogne, in 1748.  He went to Paris in
1765,  and, after having  devoted several
years  to the  study of medicine, and the
sciences connected with it, especially anat-
omy and physiology, he commenced giv-
ing lectures on human and comparative
anatomy, in 1773. The memoirs in which
he gave an account of his  discoveries con-
cerning the structure of  foreign animals,
procured him admission into the academy
of sciences in 1774.  As  perpetual secre-
tary of a  medical society at Paris, he
wrote  the  biographical eulogies of many
of the members.   In 1788, he was made
a member of the French academy, and, in
1789,  first physician to  the queen.   He
died June 20,1794. Vicq-d'Azyr, in 1786,
commenced the publication  of a  work
entitled Traiti d'Anatomie et de Physiolo-
gic (with colored plates, folio). This part,
which is all that appeared, relates only to
the brain, with an introductory discourse
on anatomy in general.  He also wrote
part of Systeme anatomique des Quadru-
pides  for the Encyclopidie Methodique; a
treatise entitled  Midecine des  Bdes a
Cornes  (1781, 2 vols.,  8vo.), and many
medical and  anatomical  memoirs.    His
Eloges Historiques were published in 1797
and in 1826;  and his works appeared in
6 vols., 8vo., with  an atlas  in 4to. (Paris,
1805).
  Victor, Sextus Aurelius, a Roman  his-
torian, who lived in the fourth century,
was the son of humble parents, and did
not enjoy the benefit of a learned educa-
tion.  The place of his birth is not known ;
but, however obscure his origin, he  pos-
sessed talents which procured  him  the
highest honors.  In the year 361, the  em-
peror  Julian  appointed  him prefect of
Pannonia; and, a  long time afterwards,
he was prefect of Rome, and, in the  year
369, consul with Valentinian.  He appears
to have lived till towards the end of the
fourth century.  The following works are
extant under his name: Ong*o Gentis Ro-
mana ; De Viris illustribus tlrbis Roma;
De Casaribus Historia  ab Augusto Oda-
vio usque ad  Consulatum decimum Con-
stantii Augusti et Juliani  Casaris tertium;
De Vita  et Moribus Imperatorum Roma-
norum Excerpta, e Casare Augusto  usque
ad IVieodosium Imperatorem. It is thought
that the work De Casaribus Historia can
alone  be ascribed with  certainty to Aure-
lius.   The first edition of Aurelius Victor
                 47*
was printed at Antwerp, 1579, with notes
by  Schottus.  There are several  other
good editions, of which  the latest is the
Bipont of 1789.
  Victor Amadeus II.   (See Sardinia.)
  Victor Emanuel I.   (See Sardinia,
and Piedmontese Revolution.)
  Victor, Perrin, duke  ofBelluno, peer
and marshal of France,  grand cross of
the legion of honor, &c, was  bora at La
Marche, in Lorraine, in 1766, and entered
the service, as  a drummer, in  1781. He
distinguished himself at the siege  of Tou-
lon, in 1793,  during which he  received
two  w*ounds;  and,  after his cure,  he
passed to the  army of the  Pyrenees, in
which he served with great  reputation.
He was then  employed under Napoleon,
in 1796, and was one of the most conspic-
uous of the French generals.   After the
treaty of Carnpo-Formio, general Victor
was appointed to the command of the de-
partment  of  La Vendee, and  restored
tranquillity to  that  unhappy  country,
without the use of military means, but
solely by the gentleness  and wisdom of
his measures.  In  1799,  he returned to
Italy, and  his division  rendered  great
services in numerous battles.  In that of
Marengo, he  commanded the advanced
guard, and sustained the whole efforts of
the Austrian  anny during  eight hours,
without losing ground,  until the  main
body  of the French were  in  the field.
For this gallant conduct,  he received a sa-
bre of honor.  He  afterwards command-
ed the Batavian anny until  the treaty of
Amiens, when he  went  to  Denmark as
ambassador from France. At  the  battle
of Jena, he was wounded.  He  contrib-
uted largely to the victory of Pultusk, and
fought with great bravery and success in
various  battles, during  the  campaign of
1806.  Commanding the firet corps of the
grand army at the battle of Friedland, he
determined the success of that  day, and
was raised to the  dignity of  marshal on
the field of battle.  After the treaty of
Tilsit, he was  appointed to the  govern-
ment of Prussia, and conciliated the good-
will of the people, by the equity and mod-
eration of his conduct, during the fifteen
months that he filled that important office.
In  1808, he held  a command in Spain,
where he  added  greatly to his  military
fame.   He obtained a victory  over  the
duke del Infantado, at Ucles, and made
15,000 prisoners, and destroyed the army
commanded by Cuesta.   At the battle of
Talavera, his corps displayed singular val-
or, but  he was not sustained in that ac-
tion ; and  his skilful and daring march 
558
VICTOR—VIDA.
 across the Sierra Morena compelled the
 Spam*ai*ds to abandon the fortified pass of
 Pena-Perros, which  laid open all Anda-
 lusia to  the French.  Charged with the
 investment  of Cadiz, he  raised works
 which were proof against all  attacks of
 the  English (under Graham) and Span-
 iards during  his command there.   He
 quitted the blockade  of that place to take
 a command in the campaign  of Russia,
 and distinguished  himself particularly at
 the  battle of the Beresina.  In 1813, he
 commanded the second  corps, which, at
 the battle of Dresden, earned the left of
 the allies, and fixed the fortune of the day,
 making  15,000 Austrians prisoners.   He
 defeated  the enemy at Wachau, and sus-
 tained his reputation at Leipsic and at
 Hanau.  After the invasion of France by
 the allies, in 1814, he defended, with  un-
 equal  forces,  the  Vosges, foot by  foot.
 Being compelled to fall back before supe-
 rior numbers, he  frequently  faced  the
 allies and beat them.  At the battle  of
 Brienne,  he took the village of that name,
 guarded  by 15,000 Russians  and Prus-
 sians.  On the 9th of February, he  re-
 treated upon the Seine, to second the ope-
 rations of Napoleon,  and defended  the
 bridges of Nugent until the   16th.   He
 directed the brilliant affairs of Nangis and
 Villeneuve, on the 17th, and commanded
 the advanced guard at the battle of Cra-
 onne, on  the 7th of March, and  was badly
 wounded.  After the restoration of  the
 Bourbons, he received the government of
 the second military division, at Mezieres,
and used his utmost endeavore, on Napo-
 leon's invasion of 1815, to prevent the de-
fection of his troops.   Unable to  accom-
 plish that object, he quitted Chalons at the
very moment when they were  preparing
for his arrest.  After the king's second
return, he  was named president of  the
electoral  college of the  Loir  and Cher,
peer of France, and major-general of the
royal guard.  When  the  marquis of La-
tour-Maubourg was sent to  Constantino-
ple, in 1821, Victor was appointed to suc-
ceed him as minister of war ; but  his
wish to obtain the post of major-general
in  Spain,  in 1823, was not gratified, Guil-
leminot being appointed to that  place.
 But, great complaints being made of the
in inagement of the army, Belluno went
in  person to the army ; and, on the 17th
of March, the king  named him major-
general of the army of the  Pyrenees.
 Guilleminot, however, continued to be at
the head  of the general staff, and Belluno
attended  only to the  subsistence of  the
army, and has been  accused of miscon-
 duct in regard to the contracts of Ouvrard
 and Tourton.  (See Ouvrard.)  After the
 army had  crossed the Bidassoa, Belluno
 returned to Paris, and was soon after suc-
 ceeded in the war department by the bar-
 on Damas.  Since the revolution of 1830,
 he has been implicated in the plots of the
 Carlists.
   Victoria  (with  the  Greeks,  Nike);
 goddess of victory. She was a daughter of
 the Titan Pallas and Styx, and a sister of
 Zelos, Cratos and Bia (Courage, Strength,
 Power).  She  is  generally represented
 with wings, a laurel on her head, and a
 palm branch in her hand.
   Victoria, Alexandrina,  heiress  pre-
 sumptive of the British crown,  was born
 May 24, 1819, and is the daughter  of the
 duke of Kent, by  the princess Victoria
 Maria Louisa, princess-dowager of Lei-
 ningen, and sister of the  present king of
 Belgium.   (See Kent.)
   Vicugna.  (See Llama.)
   Vic us;  Latin for village.  From this
 word are derived the final syllables of
 vie, ivy, wick  in  Teutonic  and French
 geographical names, as Longwy, Sleswick,
 Viesvic (old v illage).
   Vida, Mark Jerome; a celebrated mod-
 em Latin poet, born in 1490, at Cremona,
 of parents who were  poor, but of noble
 descent.  He studied  with  distinction at
 Padua,  Bologna and  Mantua,  and was
 admitted while young into the congrega-
 tion of the canons  regular of St  Mark.
 He afterwards went to Rome, and became
 a canon of St. John Lateran.  His  talent
 for Latin  poetry recommended him to
 Leo X, who gave him the priory of St.
 Silvester, near Tivoli. There he  wrote
 his Christiad, which was finished in the
 pontificate  of Clement VII, who, in rec-
 ompense of his merit, bestowed on him,
 in 1532, the bishopric  of Alba.   Paul III
 had intended  to translate Vida  to the
 see of Cremona; but the  death  of the
 pope prevented his  promotion, and Vida
 died at Alba, Sept. 27, 1566.  His poetical
 productions,  besides  the  Christiad, are
 Scacchia Ludus (the  Game of Chess),
 which has  been  highly praised by War-
 ton ; Poeticorum Libri Hi, translated by
 the abbe Batteux into French, and pub-
 lished with the Poetics of Aristotle, Hor-
 ace and Boileau;  Bombycum Libri ii (On
Silk-Worms), esteemed the most correct
 and elegant of his works; Hymni de Rebus
 Divinis;  Carminum  Ijiber.   His  prose
 works consist of Dialogi de Reipublica
 Dignitate Libri ii; Discorsi contra gliAbi-
 tanti di Pavia (Paris, !562, 8vo.; repub-
 lished  at Venice  in 1764, under the title 
VIDA—VIENNA.
559
 of Cremonensium Orationes  tres adversus
 Papienses in Controversia  Principatus);
 and Synodal Constitutions, Letters, &c.
 Most of these works were published col-
 lectively at Padua (1731,2 vols., 4to.); and
 his poems have  been printed  at Cremo-
 na (1550, 2 vols., 8vo.), at Oxford (1722,
 4 vols.,  8vo.; in 1725 and 1733, 3 vols.,
 8vo.).  The Poetics of Vida were translat-
 ed into  English  by the  rev. Christopher
 Pitt, and the poem on Chess by George Jef-
 freys.   Vida was one of the first among
 the Italians of the sixteenth century who
 attempted, with success, to  revive  Latin
 poetry.  His versification is harmonious;
 and it is not to be denied that he possesses
 poetical talents;  yet  it must be allowed
 that he pushed the  imitation of Virgil  to
 excess;  and  it has also been objected  to
 him, that he intermingled  too much of
 heathen  mythology  with  his  religious
 poems.
   Vim (Latin for I liave seen) is often put
 with the name of a person  under docu-
 ments, &c, which must be  witnessed by
 the person to give them validity.
   Vidonia;  a white wine,  the produce
 of the  island of Teneriffe, much resem-
 bling Madeira, but of a tart flavor, and a
 quality  inferior  to the  last-mentioned
 wine.  It may become very palatable by
 age, but never has the fulness of Madeira.
   Vienna (German, Wien), capital of the
 Austrian monarchy, one of the oldest cities
 of Germany, originated, like  many others,
 from a Roman standing camp, established
 in order to command the  Danube.   It
 was called Vindebona.  In the  fifth cen-
 tury, Christianity penetrated to the shores
 of tiie  Danube, and carried civilization
 with it.  In  791, Austria, and therefore
 Vienna,  came into  the possession of
 Charlemagne, after the conquest of the
 Huns.   Charlemagne erected  a church
 here, with a school,  &c.  He was in
 the habit of securing his  frontiers by
 erecting margraviates; and Austria be-
 came  one of them.   Henry,  margrave
 of Austria, in 1141, laid the foundation of
 the famous St. Stephen's church.  Vien-
 na received  commercial privileges,  and
 R-raduallv became flourishing.   It is situ-
 ated in Ton. 16° 23' E., lat. 48° 12' 36" N.,
 on the southern  bank  of the  Danube.
 The city rose in importance chiefly from
 the time when it  became  the permanent
 residence of  the  German emperors.  It
shows in every part the traces of gradual
increase.  The city proper is small; but
the thir*y-four suburbs, which have been,
since  1703, surrounded by a wall, make
the whole place  large.  The circumfe-
 rence  of the  whole is about fourteen
 miles, including 7462 houses, besides the
 churches: 1217 of these houses belong to
 the city itself.  The origin of the name is
 uncertain. The climate is very changeable,
 and winds frequent:  they often make the
 ground very dry; and,as this contains much
 gravel,  the dust is very annoying.  Dis-
 eases of the chest, especially of the lungs,
 are frequent, and probably originate from
 the prevailing dry and sharp air and the
 irregular lives of the inhabitants, who are
 more devoted to pleasure than  the people
 of any other city in Europe.  The streets
 are generally not wide.  There are eight
 large and ten smaller public places.   Jo-
 seph's place, containing a  statue of the
 emperor Joseph,—a work  of no great
 merit,—is the  finest.  The palaces  are
 numerous, but, with few exceptions, not
 in good taste. Even the most recent struc-
 tures show no improvement in  this re-'
 spect,and there is a remarkable difference,
 in  this particular, between Vienna and
 Berlin.  Much has been done,  of late, for
 the  convenience and embellishment of
 the city.   The  imperial  castle  attracts
 attention more by its extent and antiquity
 than  by beauty or symmetry.  Among
 the fourteen  principal churches, that of
 St Stephen  is the most ancient, largest
 and  most magnificent  Monuments of
 princes, generals and bishops, interesting
 pictures, and  thirty-eight altars, adorn its
 interior.  Its  steeple (452  feet high)  is
 one of the loftiest in Europe; 700 steps
 lead up to its summit.  It offers a beauti-
 ful prospect  of the environs, which are
 fertile  and  picturesque.   (See  Ziska's
 Description of St.  Stephen's Church and
 all  its Curiosities,  in  German.)   The
 church of the Augustines has been, since
 1630, the church of the court: it contains
 a mausoleum, the work of Canova, erected
 in 1805, by Albert,  duke of Saxe-Tesch-
 en, to the memory  of his wife.   The
 vault in the  church of the Capuchins, at
 St. Mary, where the  imperial family are
 buried,  is historically interesting.  Since
 the time of Matthias, the remains of all the
 members of the imperial family have been
placed here ;  and therefore Joseph II, to
 show the foolishness of some  noblemen
 who lived in retirement to avoid  mix-
 ing with people below  them,  said,  " If
 I should choose to live like you, with my
equals only, I should be obliged to live in
 the vaults of St. Mary."  The Protestants
and the membere of the Greek church have
six chapels, and the Jews a synagogue.
There   are   also fourteen  monasteries
and  three nunneries. The increase of 
560                               VIENNA.
 Vienna appears from  the  circumstance,
 that, in 1766, the suburbs contained 3190
 houses;  at present they contain 6200.
 The imperial stable, for 400 horses; the
 Belvedere, formerly the favorite residence
 of Eugene (q. v.)  of Savoy, and which,
 since 1776, has contained the  imperial
 gallery  of paintings; the hospital  of in-
 valids, for 800 men ; the general hospital,
 and the barracks, are edifices of vast di-
 mensions.   Vienna has 310,000 inhabit-
 ants,  besides  the  garrison and foreign
 residents.   In 1815,   the  number was
 239,373.  The annual  mortality is about
 one in  twenty-six. The high and  low
 nobility form a great contrast.  The Ger-
 mans are the predominating race.  Be-
 sides these, there  are Greeks,  Italians,
 Poles, Servians,  Hungarians, Turks, &c.
 The amount of provisions consumed is
 very  great,  comprising, in  one  year,
 above 82,500 oxen, 67,000 calves, 120,000
 lambs, and 71,500 pigs.  The reputation
 of Vienua for cheapness of  living  de-
 creases every year.  There are 10,000
 Protestants, who, though their religion is
 tolerated, are under some civil disadvan-
 tages.   Vienna carries on an  important
 commerce, for which the Danube  offers
 great opportunity.  About  7000  trans-
 port  boats  annually  enter  the harbor.
 The  manufactures are important, and
 give employment to about 60,000 pereons,
 in a great variety of ways.   The imperial
 porcelain manufactory, founded  in 1718,
 employs about 500 pereons.  The coaches
 and piano-fortes of Vienna are famous all
 over the continent.  The  univereity of
 Vienna was founded in 1437.   In  1756,
 it  was  taken  from the Jesuits, and re-
 ceived from Van Swieten, the body physi-
 cian of Maria Theresa, an entirely new or-
 ganization.  The new  university has an
 anatomical theatre, an observatory, library,
 botanical garden, &c.   The Joseph med-
 ico-surgical academy and the veterinary
 school deserve honorable mention.  Vi-
 enna has long been famous for the study
 of medicine,  for which the general hos-
 pital  offers great   advantages.   16,000
patients are  annually  provided for, in
2000 beds; but  the medical schools in
some other places, as in Berlin, in which
a much more scientific spirit exists than
 is to be  found in Austria, are  beginning
 to take the  lead of the medical institution
 of Vienna.   The  academy of Oriental
 languages  has produced several distin-
 guished diplomatists and scholars.  There
 are three gymnasia, and a polytechnic
 institute  here.   In 1821, a Protestant
 institution was established for the educa-
 tion of young Protestants, as the subjects
 of Austria have been prohibited to study
 in foreign universities;  but the institution
 is of a  low order.  No city has so many
 public  and private libraries,  museums,
 cabinets, galleries, collections,  &c.  The
 imperial court library, with a room 240
 feet long, ornameuted with excellent pic-
 tures, and  founded by Maximilian  I, in
 1500,  is  very extensive, and  contains
 among  its  treasures  several  thousand
 manuscripts and incunabula (q. v.), a rich
 collection of engravings, &c.  The whole
 number of volumes,  according to the
 common statement, is 300,000; but the real
 number is much  less.   15,000 guilders
 are  annually  appropriated to  it.   The
 other most important libraries are given
 thus in  Malchus's5Ka.wh'A:(1826): library
 of the  univereity, 109,000 volumes;  of*
 the Theresianu m, 30,000 volumes; of the
 m edico-su rgical academy, 45,000 volu ines;
 Convictorium of Lowenberg, 50,000; pri-
 vate library of the emperor, 60,000 vol-
 umes; private library of archduke Charles,
 60,000 volumes. The imperial mineralogi-
 cal collection, and the zoologico-botanical
 museum, are important.   The  botanical
 garden  is very flourishing, Francis I be-
 ing himself fond of botany.  The impe-
 rial museum of antiquities possesses but
 few works of great value.   The museum
of coins is  one of the most  famous  in
 Europe, and contains  28,000 gold and
silver pieces from the  time of Charle-
magne,  besides many of earlier date.
The academy of fine arts was founded in
 1704.  In the imperial gallery are chiefly
old German  and  Italian  pictures; also
 many Titians, Vandycks,  Rubenses, &c.
 The most important pictures  have  been
 engraved.  The collection in  the court
 library contains about 300,000 wood cuts
 and  engravings, in 800 volumes.  Many
noblemen have galleries of pictures.  Mu-
sic and the theatre receive great attention.
Mozart, Haydn, Beethoven, lived in Vien-
na.  The conservatory, in which fifteen
professors instruct 100 pupils  in music,
is  probably equal  at present to that  of
Paris.   Among the five theatres, several
have actors of great talent. The Italian
opera is famous.  The popular theatre in
the Leopoldstadt  is peculiar.    Dancing,
both on and off the stage, is very much
cultivated ;  and, in  general, the inhabit-
ants of Vienna  are  devoted to  pleasure;
those of the table  being put by no means
in the back ground.  An establishment for
the relief of the poor gives, to about 5000
poor, four  to  twelve  kreutzers  daily.
There is a lying-in-hospital; and mothers
 can send their babes from  this to  the
 foundling hospital.  The deaf and dumb, 
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF.
561
the blind, poor, sick children and orphans
are provided for.   Many baths and min-
eral springs are to be found in the envi-
rons.   There is a fine swimming school,
several military schools, and  a garrison,
generally 12,000 strong.  The most agree-
able and most  frequented place of recre-
ation is the well-known Prater, near the
Leopoldstadt.  It is a wood, with beauti-
ful viewrs of the neighboring  mountains,
many  restaurateurs,  and  spectacles of
various sorts, &c.  Persons of all classes
are seen here—the emperor and the mean-
est of his subjects.  The train of carriages
is often immense, and unequalled by any
thing similar  in  any other  place.  Not
far  from the Prater  is Augarten,  which
was opened to the  public by Joseph II.
Schonbrunn, an imperial pleasure palace,
near  Vienna,  is  beautifully  situated.
Laxenburg is the favorite resort  of the
emperor.  The environs  contain several
pleasant villages; for instance, Baden,  a
watering place.—See Pezzl's Description
of Vienna ;  Vienna, its History and Curi-
osities, with engravings, an annual peri-
odical  begun  in  1827, by Hormayr and
several other scholars;  Vienna as  it is
(Leipsic, 1827).
  Congress of Vienna; a meeting of the
European  powers,  from  November 1,
1814, to June  10, 1815, to settle the state
of affairs after the overthrow of Napoleon.
The emperors of Austria and Russia, the
kings  of Prussia,  Denmark, Bavaria,
Wurtemberg,  many grand dukes, sove-
reign dukes, &c, were personally present,
as well as many of the firet European
politicians  and  ministers.   The  papal
government was  represented  by cardinal
Consalvi; the Austrian by prince Metter-
nich and baron Wessenberg ; the Russian
by prince Rasumowski, counts Stackel-
berg and Nesselrode ; the government of
Great  Britain, by lord Castlereagh, the
duke of Wellington, lords Cathcart, Clan-
carty, Stewart ; the Prussian government
by prince Hardenberg and baron Hum-
boldt ;   France  by  prince   Talleyrand,
duke Dalberg and  others ;  Bavaria by
prince   Wrede  and  count  Rechberg ;
Hanover by count Miinster ; and ambas-
sadors  were present from Spain,  Portu-
gal, tho Netherlands, Denmark, Sardinia,
Naples, &c.  Centz drew up the protocol.
The five powers  which  had  concluded
the peace of Paris, Austria, Prussia, Eng-
land, Russia and France, under the presi-
dency  of prince  Metternich,  deliberated
on the  state of Europe; in some particu-
lar  cases,  Spain,  Portugal  and Sweden
were admitted to their consultations.  A
committee  for  the affairs  of Germany
was formed by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria,
Hanover and Wurtemberg, to the delibera-
tions of which also the plenipotentiaries of
the other German sovereigns and free cities
were subsequently admitted.  The settle-
ment  of the great variety of interests
would  have been still more difficult than
it  was, had not one purpose united all,
which  was to deprive France of its power
of making conquests for the future.  Dis-
sensions were several times on the point
of breaking out;  but Napoleon's return
from Elba  reunited the discordant pow-
ers, and suddenly induced Austria, Great
Britain, Prussia, Russia, France, Spain,
Portugal and Sweden to sign the act of
the congress, consisting of 121 articles,
on June 9,  1815.  (See Scholl.)  In these
articles, the principle of legitimacy (q. v.)
was, in general, adopted as the basis for
the restoration of the European political
system.  Austria  received  the following
territories,  part of which had been taken
from her:—the  newly-created Lombardo-
Venetian kingdom (q. v.), with the Valte-
line, besides three secundo-genitura ; Tus-
cany, Modena, Parma, the new kingdom
of Illyria, Venetian Dalmatia, with Ragu-
sa and the Golfo di Cattaro; further, by
treaties with Bavaria, Tyrol and Vorarl-
berg, Salzburg, as far as the  Salza, with
other territories which  she had lost  in
1809;  from Russia, the part of East Gal-
licia ceded, in 1809, to this power.  (Re-
specting the restorations made  to  the
other states, see the articles on them re-
spectively.*]   We would  only remark
here, that Warsaw was given to  Russia
under  the name of the kingdom of Po-
land ;  Cracow (q. v.) became  a free city ;
Prussia, whose possessions could not be
put on the same  footing as before 1806,
was indemnified by a part  of Poland,
the new grand duchy of Posen, half of the
kingdom of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania,
Cleves and Berg, and the  greater part of
the left bank of the Rhine as far as the
Saar, in order  to form a strong barrier
against France.   Denmark,  which had
ceded  Norway to Sweden, received Saxe-
Lauenburg, and, as the possessor of this
country and of Holstein, became a mem-
ber of the German diet.  Bavaria received,
as  a compensation  for her  cessions  to
Austria, Wurzburg,  Aschaffenburg, the
Rhenish circles,&c. Hanover received the
rank of a kingdom, and several new prov-
inces.   Holland and Belgium were form-
ed into the kingdom of the Netherlands,
with a fortified frontier on the side  of
France.  The  Netherlandish  province 
502
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF—VIENNA, PEACE  OF.
 Luxemburg was made a grand  duchy,
 and  became a member  of the German
 confederacy.    Great  Britain  retained
 Malta, Heligoland, several conquered col-
 onies (see Great Britain), and protective
 sovereignty over the restored republic of
 the Ionian Islands.  In Switzerland, three
 more cantons  were  formed, and  it  was
 declared perpetually neutral.  The restor-
 ed kingdom of Sardinia  received Genoa
 as a duchy, with the grant of a free port ;
 and  the succession  to the throne was se-
 cured to the line of  Carignan.  Tuscany,
 the duchy  of Modena, the States of the
 Church, and the kingdom of the Two Si-
 (ilies, were  also  restored.    Lucca was
 given to the Spanish Infanta Maria Loui-
 sa, but was afterwards otherwise disposed
 of.   (See Parma, and Lucca.)   It was
 intended that  Spain should restore Oli-
 venza  to Portugal,  which,  however, did
 not take place, as Portuguese troops had
 occupied Monte  Video.  June 8, 1815,
 the act of the Germanic confederacy was
 signed.  It is  contained in the act of the
congress.  (See Germanic Confederation.)
 March  13,  1815, the congress declared
 Napoleon an outlaw;  March 25,  1815,
 Austria, Russia,  Great Britain and Prus-
 sia united anew against Napoleon.  (See
Napoleon, and  Russian-German  War.)
 Sardinia, Portugal, Hanover, Bavaria, Sax-
ony,  Wurtemberg, the Netherlands, Den-
mark, Hessia, Baden, &c, joined this alli-
ance, but not  Spain nor Sweden.  This
 last war of  1815 decided  particularly the
 Saxon   question.  England, and  even
Austria, had agreed that, Prussia should
have the whole kingdom of Saxony ;  but
 the objections  of France, of the duke of
 Saxe-Coburg,  the king of" Saxony, and,
 perhaps, most of all, the force of public
 opinion, induced Metternich to propose
 the division of Saxony, in January, 1815.
 Metternich, Talleyrand and Wellington
 negotiated with the king of Saxony, who
 had been invited to  Presburg.  May 18,
 1815, he signed the  proposed division at
 Vienna.  The  abolition of the slave-trade
 was also a question before  the congress
(see Slavery), and the free navigation of
 ihe Elbe, Weser and Rhine,  which, how-
 over, has been since the subject of long
 negotiations.   (See Rhine.)   The original
 of the  act was deposited in the archives
 of the emperor. The founders of this new
 political system of Europe declared that it
 should be a free one. But as to a political
 equilibrium, it  was clear that it could not
 exist whilst Russia, an absolute monarchy,
 received so dangerous an increase of pow-
 er by the addition of Poland, and  Great
Britain  was left without a rival on the
seas; and as to the freedom of the politi-
cal system, it maybe  observed that, in
fact, a political aristocracy of the  chief
powers, originating in the treaty of Chau-
mont, was confirmed and developed by
the congress of Vienna, and continued to
operate, as far as respected the continen-
tal  parties to  it, until the French revolu-
tion of 1830.  (See the articles Troppau,
Liybach,  Verona, &c, Intervention, and
Holy Alliance.) The holy alliance, though
England did not accede to it, and the king
of France  joined it  only in his personal
character, was the bold and open annun-
ciation of this aristocracy.  At this mo-
ment it has been obliged to give up many
of its pretensions ; but its activity is una-
bated.   Time  only  can determine what
success it will  have in future.  The politi-
cal system, as  established by the congress
of Vienna, has suffered three most impor-
tant changes, by the separation of Belgi-
um from Holland, the annihilation of the
kingdom of Poland, de facto, and the de-
cree of the German  diet of  1832, by
which Prussia and Austria have estab-
lished a complete dominion over the other
states, which,  by adopting it, have  given
up, in fact, the chief attribute  of  sove-
reignty.    The pope  protested  against
those  /"arts of  the act of the congress of
Vienna  by which he remains  deprived
of Avignon  and Venaissin.   Tli?  Ger-
man church was also not restored to her
possessions ; and the knights of f' . John
sought for their reestablish ment in vain.
   Vienna,  Peace of, or Peace of Schon-
brunn, concluded Oct.  14,  1809.   The
war between Austria and France, in 1809,
had been ended by the battle of Wagram
(q. v.), and the armistice of Znaim.  (q. v.)
Aug.  17, the negotiations began between
Chainpagny and Metternich.  The landing
of the English on the island of Walche-
ren induced the Austrians to go on slow-
ly.  Sept. 27,  prince Lichtenstein  went,
with full  powers, to Schonbrunn, where
Napoleon resided, and, Oct 14, the peace
was signed.   Austria  lost,  1.  Salzburg
(ceded, with other territories, to Bavaria);
2. Gorz, Austrian Friuli, Trieste, Carnio-
la, part of Carinthia, Croatia, on the right
bank of the Save, and Dalmatia, of which
Napoleon formed the government gen-
eral of Illyria; 3. the lordship of Rti-
zuns, in the Grisons ; 4. some  Bohemian
enclaves in Upper Lusatia, given to Sax-
ony ; 5. the duchy of  Warsaw, Western
Galicia, with  Cracow  and Zamosc, and
her interest in the salt works of Wielicz-
ka; 6. to Russia, the eastern part of East 
VIENNA,  PEACE OF—VIKINGR.
563
 Galicia,  with 400,000 souls.  The peace
 also confirmed the abolition of the Teu-
 tonic order,  pronounced by  Napoleon,
 April 24. Austria lost, by this peace, her
 southern and western  mihtary frontier
 (45,600 square miles, with 3,505,000 in-
 habitants ; see Military Districts), and her
 seaports; yet she was allowed the right
 of export and import trade inFiume. She
 acknowledged Napoleon's  arrangements
 in Spain, Portugal and Italy (where he
 had declared the  papal dominions to be
 united  to France,  by a  decree  dated
 Schonbrunn, May  17, 1809), and joined
 the continental system against  England.
 Austria now consisted of 198,000 square
 miles, with 20,738,000 inhabitants.  This
 peace lasted till  August, 1813.—Respect-
 ing the war  of  1809, see  also Das Heer
 von Innerbstreich, and general Pelet's Mi-
 moires sur la Guerre de 1809 en Allemagne,
 &c. (Paris, 1824, 2 vols.).
   Vienne ;  the  name  of a department
 in France (see  Department); also of  a
 river and of some towns.  Of the latter
 we mention  only  Vienne,  the  principal
 place of a district, in Isere; lon. 4° 54'
 E.;  lat  45°  33' N.; population, 12,300.
 It contains a fine Gothic cathedral, like-
 wise  fourteen churches, a high school,
 and  a museum, and has various  man-
 ufactures.  It  is  situated  ou the  left
 side of the Rhone, over which  was for-
 merly a stone bridge, built in  the year
 1265, now destroyed.  A Roman colony
 was established  here, and called Vienna
 Allobrogum; and there are still to be seen
 various remains of its ancient importance,
 as the ruins  of  a  temple, a theatre, an
 amphitheatre, aqueducts,  &c.   In  the
 fifth century, it was taken by  the Bur-
 gundians, and the  kings  made  it their
 place of  residence.   In  the  ninth centu-
 ry, it  was the capital of the kingdom of
 Provence.    It  was afterwards erected
 into an  archbishopric, and  became  the
 capital ofa province called Viennois.  In
 1311, a council was held here under the
 pontificate of Clement V, by which  the
 order of the  Templars was  abolished.
 (See Clement V.)
  VlERWALDSTADTERSEE, (i. C. tllC Lake
of the Four  Forest Towns;  called also
the Lake of the Four Cantons);  a roman-
tic lake of Switzerland, lying in the can-
tons of Lucerne, Unterwalden, Uri and
Schweitz, and deriving  its name from
this position.   Its length is about twenty-
five miles, and its  breadth very unequal,
as it consists of several  detached  parts,
which form, in a manner, separate  lakes,
and  take their  names  from the  chief
places on their banks ; thus it is called, in
different places, the lake of Lucerne,  the
lake of Alpnach, the lake  of Stanz. and
the lake of Uri.   The waters are clear
and ofa light green. It contains only one
island, called Altstad.  The environs are
among the most beautiful regions of Swit-
zerland.   In the neighborhood  of Lu-
cerne (q. v.), which  seems  to rise with its
spires  out of the waves,  the banks  are
low, and adorned  with pretty country
seats, villages and orchards.   To these
succeed valleys, with hamlets built on the
sides of the mountains,  and solitudes
where the rocks sink plumb down to  the
lake.   From its bosom may be counted
more than  twenty-five mountains, com-
prising some of the highest summits of
the Alps, mount Pilate, Righi, and Furca.
  Vigil.  This word is derived from the
Latin vigilia, which denoted the watches
and guards  among the Roman soldiere
by night, in contradistinction to the excu-
bia, who kept guard by day, either in the
camp,  or at the gates and intrenchments.
The proper vigilia were four, which kept
guard  successively, three hours  each.
The four watches took their name from
this custom.  In the language  of the
church, vigil (in  French,  veille)  was at
firet the evening,  and afterwards  the
whole  day, preceding a  great  festival.
This name originated from the circum-
stance, that the first Christians spent a
part of the night preceding such festivals
in prayer,  to  prepare themselves  for  the
coming celebration.— Vigil is further used
to denote the custom, yet existing among
Catholics, to sing  or pray  in the  church
the evening before All-Souls day—a cus-
tom also sometimes  observed  the day
before the  performance of a mass  for
the dead.—Linnaeus gave  the name of
vigils or watchings to the time of the day
when certain flowers open  and close their
petals.
  Vigne.  (See Vineis.)
  Vikingr, or Sea Kings, among  the
Danes or Normans; leadere of piratical
squadrons, who passed  their lives in rov-
ing the seas in search of spoil and  adven-
tures.  The younger sons of the Scandi-
navian kings and jarls, having no  inherit-
ance  but the  ocean, naturally collected
around their standards the  youth of infe-
rior order, who  were equally destitute
with themselves.  These were the same,
who, in England and Scotland, under the
name of' Danes, and on the continent un-
der that of Normans,  at  firet desolated
the maritime coasts, and afterwards pene-
trated  into the interior  of  countries, and 
364
VIKINGR—VILLARET.
fomied  permanent  settlements in  their
conquests.  (See Normans.)
   Villa  signified, with the Romans, a
countiy seat, with its appendages.   To it
belonged three different kinds of houses:
the villa urbana, where the master lived,
the real countiy seat;  villa rustica, where
the farmer or peasant  lived  ; and the villa
fruduaria, the barns.  Some  of  these
villas, towards the end of the republic, and
under the emperors,  were real palaces.
By degrees,  numbers of  houses  were
built around them ; and thus the villages
originated. The word  villa has  passed,
with various changes, into all the lan-
guages of Western Europe—ville, village,
weiler,  &c.   As  the inhabitants of re-
mote villages were not converted to Chris-
tianity till after those of cities(see Pagans),
and as the cultivators of the  ground in
the middle ages labored under many legal
disabilities, we find in many modern lan-
guages words  derived from villa, which
express vileness or servitude, as villenage
and  villain.   Besides, servitude and vil-
lany naturally go hand in hand (cattivo, in
Italian,  from captivus, a prisoner, means
bad; and the word for free  in Dutch also
signifies beautiful).  The modern Italians
call the season during which  they live in
their villas,  villeggiatura.  Some of the
modem Italian villas are yet splendid, e. g.
the Borghese, Aldobrandini, Estense, and
Ludovisi villas, in the neighborhood of
Rome.  In the times  of the  Carlovingi-
ans, the imperial country residences (see
Charlemagne)  were called villa  regia;
and  as  many  houses grew  up  around
them, the word ville may have therefore
come to signify, with  the French, a town.
   Village (see Villa), or Vill, in Eng-
land, is taken sometimes for a manor, and
sometimes for a parish, or part of it.  In
countries where there are peasants, with
privileges and  obligations  distinct  from
those of the inhabitants of cities and towns,
village has a legal meaning, denoting a
place inhabited by peasants.  In the U.
States, village has received  a peculiar sig-
nification.  In the article Town, we have
said  that towns, or rather townships, are
the last divisions of communities in  many
of the states,  so that village has no legal
meaning; but it is used to indicate that
part  of a township  where most of the
houses  are collected.   A  traveller in a
town asks the way to  the village.
   Villani.  There are three Italian his-
torians  of this name :—Giovanni,  a  na-
tive of Florence, who, having been pres-
ent at  the celebration  of  the  jubilee in
Rome in 1300,  was induced, by reflecting
on the excellent writers who had adorned
the history of that city, to contribute in
the same manner to the honor of his na-
tive place.  He accordingly wrote the his-
tory of the city of Florence, in twelve
books, from its  foundation to  1348, when
he died of the plague.   His narrative ex-
tends not only to the events occurring in
the other provinces of Italy,  but also to
other countries through which he  had
travelled, and with  the history of which
he had become acquainted.  This work
is extremely valuable, although it abounds
in errors: it deserves full credit wherever
the author, whose  veracity and honesty
are every where visible, speaks as an eye-
witness.  It is simple and inartificial, but
not without  interest, on  account of its
naiveti and  vigor.  After his death,  his
brother Matteo continued the  work in a
thirteenth book, to 1363, when he also
died of the plague.   This book treats of
contemporaneous events, and is charac-
terized by the same  love of truth which
is  found in  the work of Giovanni.   In
style and manner, Matteo is inferior to his
brother, but he  has  the charm of simpli-
city  and a certain  grace of  antiquity.—
Filippo, the son  of Matteo, a Florentine
citizen,  lawyer aud judge, was for many
years president of Perugia, but finally re-
tired from public life, for the  purpose of
devoting himself to lettere, and wrote, in
Latin, a work entitled De Origine Civita-
tis Fiorentina et ejusdem Civibus.   The
first part is full of fables, and has never
been printed. Mazzuchelli had the sec-
ond part printed in  1747, in an old Italian
version, which  is superior to the original
in elegance and purity of expression, but
is  inferior  in point of accuracy.   This
work is the  first  specimen  of a native
literary histoiy, since most of the persons
whose lives are described by Villani  are
men  of letters.  His style is lively  and
vigorous, but sometimes too  concise : he
often sketches an admirable portrait with
a few strokes.
   Villaret, Claude, a French historian,
born  at Paris about 1715, was intended
for the legal  profession, but preferred the
study of the belles-lettres, and publish-
ed, in  1743, a  novel  called Histoire du
Cozur Humain, and, in 1745, another, La
Belle Allemande.   The  derangement of
his affairs obliging  him to leave Paris, he
went, in 1748,  to  Rouen, where he  ap-
peared  on the stage, and continued  that
mode of life till 1756.   He then returned
to Paris, and, having obtained a financial
situation, relinquished  his lighter studies,
and applied  himself to the investigation 
VILLARET—VILLE.
565
 of the history of his native country.  On
 the death of the abbe Velly in 1759, he
 was selected to continue the  histoiy of
 France, commenced  by that writer, and
 was, at the same time, made secretary to
 the peerage.  His portion of the work ex-
 tends from 1329 to 1469, or from the reign
 of Philip de Valois to that of Louis XL
 He also  assisted in the  Cours d'Histoire
 Universelle,  undertaken by  Luneau de
 Boisgermain.  His death took place  in
 February, 1766.
    Villars, Louis  Hector, first marquis,
 and afterwards duke of, peer  and marshal
 of France, descended from a respectable,
 but reduced family, was born at Lyons, in
 1653.  At an early age, he served  in the
 Low Countries, and distinguished himself
 at the siege of Maestricht (1673), where,
 as a subaltern officer of cavalry, he made
 a  daring  attack, with a detachment  of
 grenadiers, upon  an  intrenchinent,  for
 which  he was censured by  Louis  XIV,
 under whose eyes it happened, but in such
 a manner as to redound to his honor.  In
 1690, he  was created marichal de camp;
 and, in 1700, Louis XIV sent him as am-
 bassador to the imperial court of Vienna,
 to conduct the negotiations on the subject
 of the Spanish succession.  Villars was,
 however,  recalled in  1701, and, on the
 breaking out of the war for  the Spanish
 succession, was  attached to  the army of
 Italy, where he added to his reputation.
 The chief command of an army in Ger-
 many was next  intrusted to him, and, on
 the 14th  of October,  1702,  he defeated
 prince Louis of Baden, who commanded
 the Austrian forces, and wished to prevent
 his junction with the elector of Bavaria,
 at Friedlingen.  For this achievement he
 received the marshal's baton, although, on
 account of the numerical superiority of
 the enemy, he did not succeed in effecting
 his object.  In 1703, after a bold and sud-
 den march, he captured Kehl (March 12),
 which was highly important to the French,
 on account of its position, and attacked
 the lines of the prince of Baden, at Stol-
 hofen, though without success, but finally
 accomplished (May 12) the long-contem-
 plated junction with the elector of  Bava-
 ria.  An  Attack was then made by the
 united  forces on  the Austrian general
 count Styrum, near Hochstadt  (Septem-
 ber 20), and the allies were victorious.
 Villars was now recalled, at the request of
 the elector of Bavaria, and employed in
 reducing to submission the  reformers of
the Cevennes, known under the name of
the Camisards (q. v.), in the execution of
which charge lie endeavored to restore
  vol. xn.         48
 tranquillity by moderate measures, not less
 than by force of arms.  The French arms
 having suffered many reverses in Germa-
 ny, the chief command was again given to
 marshal Villars, who, by his activity, baf-
 fled the plans of the prince of Baden, to
 whom  he was inferior in numbers, and
 compelled him to retreat across the Rhine.
 In 1707, he forced the lines of Stolhofen
 (May 23), which were occupied by the
 German forces, and extorted large sums
 of money from the inhabitants of Suabia.
 The finances of France were reduced so
 low by the expenses of the war, and other
 causes, that it became impossible to keep
 on foot an army equal to the allied forces;
 and marshal Villars was therefore prevent-
 ed from attempting any  great enterprise.
 In 1709,  after some ineffectual attempts
 towards negotiation, the allies formed the
 design of laying siege to Mons; and the
 celebrated battle of  Malplaquet (q. v.) was
 the result of the operations on this occa-
 sion  (Sept.  11).   Villars himself was
 wounded in  the knee in this  affair.  In
 1712, he defeated the Austrians at Denain,
 forced Eugene to raise the siege of Lan-
 drecy, and  took several  fortresses.   In
 1713, he  penetrated into Germany*, and
 took Landau  (Aug. 20), and Freyburg, in
 the Breisgau  (Nov. 16).   Louis was now
 very  desirous of peace, and Villars and
 Eugene entered upon negotiations at  Ras-
 tadt, which  were conducted  with  the
 greatest secrecy, and terminated, March 6,
 1714, in a peace between Austria and
 France.  (See  Rastadt.)  On  the death
 of Louis, marshal Villars was made mem-
 ber of the regency (1715), and minister of
 state, and  was also admitted  into  the
 French  academy.  A new war between
 France and Austria, on the subject of the
 election to the Polish  throne, broke out
 in 1733, and Villars was sent into Italy at
 the head  of an army, with  the  title of
 marichal-gineral.  Here,  in conjunction
 with the  king of Sardinia,  he reduced
 Milan within three months, and died soon
 after, at Turin, when on the point of set-
 ting out on his return to France, June 17,
 1734, at the age of eighty-two years.   He
 was the last great French general of that
 period.   Of the Memoires published un-
 der his  name, only  tiie firet part is from
 his pen.
  Ville (Latin, villa), a French word,ori-
 ginally meaning a country house, appears
 in many French geographical  names, as
 Hauteville,Neuville,&LC.  Villaine, VUlette,
 Vilotte, &c, are diminutives of ville.   As
there is a great want of names for towns in
the U. States, and as ville readily admits of 
566
VILLE—VILLELE.
composition with other words, it has be-
come common, particularly in the west and
south, to make  a name for a new settle-
ment, by adding ville to some other word,
as Jacksonville, Fayetteville.
  Villegas, Estevan Manuel  de, a cel-
ebrated Anacreontic  poet of Spain, was
born at Naxera, in Old Castile, in 1595.
He studied in Madrid and Salamanca, and
not only translated Anacreon and Horace
into Spanish verse, but continued to pro-
duce original poems in their  spirit.  In
the twenty-third year of his age, he  pub-
lished a collection of his poems, dedicated
to king Philip III, under the title of Ero-
ticas (Naxera, 1617).   He also translated
Boethius in prose and verse (Madrid, 1665),
and died in 1669, having devoted  his last
yeare chiefly to philology.  Villegas ranks
among the best lyric poets of Spain.  His
versification is characterized by a charm-
ing ease ; and one can only learn  to esti-
mate the beauty of the Spanish language
from his poems.   His Eroticas contains
his translations from Anacreon and  Hor-
ace,  with  forty-four cantilenas, elegies,
idyls, sonnets, &c.  Villegas,  according
to his  own account,  labored his poems
with the greatest care, having revised his
cantilenas twenty times, and copied them
fourteen times.
  Villegoiatura (Italian).  (See Villa.)
  Vili.ehardouin,  Geoffroy  de, an an-
cient  French chronicler,  born in 1167,
was marshal of Champagne, an office held
by his father and descendants.   He acted
a considerable part in the fourth crusade
of 1198, which led to the capture of Con-
stantinople by the French  and Venetians,
in 1201.  Of this expedition, he wrote, or
dictated, a narrative, which is  extant, in
the rude idiom of his age and country. It
is interesting from its simplicity and ap-
parent fidelity, and is  much referred to
by Gibbon  in  his  account of the events
which  it describes.  The  best edition is
that of Du  Cange (folio, 1657).
  Villele, Joseph,count de, French min-
ister of finance, and president of the minis-
terial council from 1822 to  1827, was born
at Toulouse, in  1773, and entered the na-
vy young.  After his return from the expe-
dition to St. Domingo, in 1791, he sailed
for the East India station under vice-ad-
miral de  St. Felix, who,  in  1793, was
obliged to quit  his command  and take
refuge in the isle of Bourbon, on account
of his  attachment to royalty.  Here Vil-
lele  exposed bis own life  to protect that
of his late commander, and continued to
reside  in the island, where he  became a
member of the  colonial  assembly,  until
1807.   At  that  time,  he  returned to
France, and lived at Toulouse.  In 1814,
on the appearance of the  royal declara-
tion  from St Ouen (see Louis XVIII, and
Charte),  promising the establishment of
liberal institutions,  Villele published  a
pamphlet entitled Observations sur le Pro-
jet de Constitution, hi which he maintain-
ed that a representative constitution  was
dangerous for  France,  and advised the
French to return to the constitution of
their fathers.  In 1815, he was elected a
member of the chamber of deputies  (see
Chambre Introuvable), in which  he voted
with  the extreme right, or anti-constitu-
tional party.  This party had lost much
of its influence, when the assassination of
the duke of Berry, and the new electoral
law  of 1820,  again  revived them;  and
Villele, who had for several years been a
leading speaker in the chamber, was final-
ly raised to the ministry, with his  friends
Peyronnet (q.  v.) and  Corbiere.   The
portfolio of the financial department was
intrusted to Villele in December, 1821:
the title of count was added in August,
and the dignity of president of the minis-
try in September, of the following year.
The  friends of constitutional principles
were, about this time, exerting themselves
in Spain, Portugal, Piedmont and Naples,
to support their cause by force of arms;
and  the  ultra-monarchical  faction  in
France was little satisfied with what they
called die moderation of  the  ministry.
The  invasion  of Spain, the law  for the
prolongation of the term of elections for
seven years, the  reduction of the rentes,
the  law of indemnification of the emi-
grants, the establishment of the  censor-
ship, and other measures, indicated, how-
ever, no such tendency on the part of the
ministers.  Labourdonnaye, at  the  head
of a  part of the right side, and Chateau-
briand, though with different views, kept
up a vigorous  attack upon the ministers.
The  popular excitement was testified by
cries of A bos les minislres! uttered by tho
national  guard of Paris on the  day of
their general review (April 29, 1827), and
was  increased  by the dissolution of that
body on  the following day.  The miiii-<-
try now determined  to convoke a  new
chamber of deputies, and created seventy-
six new  peers  to secure a  majority in
the upper house.  The elections resulted
in the complete  defeat of the ministers,
who  found  themselves  in  a minority in
the newly-elected chamber; and, Jan. 4,
1828, they  gave in  their  resignation.'.
(See  Charles  X, and  France.)   Viilcle,
Pevronnet and Corbiere  were admitted 
VILLELE—VILLENAGE.
567
Into the chamber of peers; but the revo-
lution of* 1830 rendered all the creations
of peers, during the reign of Charles X,
void, and M. de Villele has  accordingly
lived in retirement since that period.
  Villemain, Abel Francois, member of
the academy, and, since the revolution of
1830, of the  chamber of deputies,  was
born at Paris, in  1791, and studied with
brilliant success.  At the age of eighteen,
before he had ceased to attend to lessons
in rhetoric, he supplied,  with high ap-
plause, the place of two of the most emi-
nent professors of that art.  Appointed,
in 1810, professor  of belles-lettres at the
lyceum of Charlemagne, he discharged his
new duties with the same superiority. The
new univereity having restored  the cus-
tom, which had been abandoned since the
revolution, of using Latin harangues at
the  distribution  of the  prizes, M. Ville-
main was the first in 1811, employed to
deliver  the discourse  on  this  occasion.
He was then a competitor for the prize to
be given to the best eulogy on Montaigne,
and  obtained it.  The public beheld with
wonder a philosopher like Montaigne ap-
preciated by a writer who had not attain-
ed the twenty-second year of his age.  In
1814, M. Villemain was appointed pro-
fessor of modern histoiy in the academy
of Paris.  His introductory discourse, pro-
nounced before a  large and  learned as-
sembly, was loudly applauded.  The ora-
tor  presented, within  very narrow limits,
a faithful  and animated picture of the
general history of Europe in the fifteenth
century.  The same year, he bore off the
prize of eloquence at the academy.  The
eulogium  of Montesquieu, proposed  for
the prize of 1816, gained M. Villemain his
third academic crown. In the same year,
he passed from the chair of modern  his-
tory  to that of eloquence; and his celeb-
rity attended  him here also.  His lectures
were extremely popular: and, with other
distinguished professors (Cousin,  Guizot,
&c), he was  silenced by government, on
account of the freedom of his expressions,
and the liberality of his views.   In 1828,
he was permitted  to renew his  lectures,
five volumes of which have been publish-
ed.   Since the revolution of 1830, he has
been an active member of the chamber of
deputies.   The principal publications of
Villemain  are his Discours et Melanges
littiraires (1823);  Vie de Cromwell (2 vols.,
1819); Nouveaux Milanges histonques et
littiraires  (1827);  and his lectures above
mentioned, under  the title of  Cours de
Littirature Francaise.
  Villenage, Villeins,  or  Serfs.   In
every age and country, until comparative-
ly recent times, personal servitude seems
to have been the lot of a large portion of
mankind..  The free citizens of Greece
and  Rome were absolute masters of the
life and property of large numbers of their
fellow-beings; and  the Germans, in their
primitive settlements, were accustomed to
the notion of slavery, incurred not only by
captivity in war, but by crimes and by debt
(See Slavery.)  When they  invaded  the
Roman empire, they found the same con-
dition  established  in its  provinces; and
thus servitude, under various modifica-
tions, became  common in modern Eu-
rope.  There is much difficulty in ascer-
taining its varieties and stages.   Villeins
were not,  properly  speaking, slaves:  the
mere attachment to the soil, which was
their characteristic  distinction, might, in-
deed, be joined to so many privileges, that
freedom  might be  more  descriptive of
their state than servitude.  Thus we find
the mere slaves (servi) among the Anglo-
Saxons, known  by the names of theow,
esne, and thrall, distinguished in Domes-
day-book from the villeins.   One source
of villenage was indeed slavery, the pro-
prietors of  large landed estates being ac-
customed to grant land to their slaves, on
condition of their performing certain ser-
vices.  At  a  later period, free  peasants
became the villeins of powerful  lords, or
of the church,  for the sake of protection.
The  villein was not only precluded from
Belling the land upon which he dwelt, but
his person was bound, and the lord might
reclaim him  if  he attempted  to  stray.
The  villeins in England  were incapable
of property, and  destitute of redress,  ex-
cept  against the most outrageous injuries.
The  lord could seize whatever  they ac-
quired, and could  convey  them,  sepa-
rately from the land, to a stranger. Their
tenure bound them to what were called
villein services, ignoble in their nature and
indeterminate  hi their degree (see Ten-
ure)—the felling of timber, the carrying of
manure, the repairing of roads, for their
lords, who seem to have  possessed an
equally unbounded  right over their labor
and  its fruits.  This description of per-
sons  might, with more strict  propriety, be
called serfs, some of the villeins of France
and  Germany being bound only to fixed
payments and  duties towards their lord.
The  children  of the villein could not,
without permission of the  lord, change
the employment to which they were bom:
they could  not marry without his consent,
for which  they  were  expected  to pay.
The  children followed the mother's con- 
568
VILLENAGE—VIMEIRA.
dition, except in England, where they
followed the father's.  Manumission was
practised,  as it ever  is,  where  there  is
slavery, and, as society advanced in Eu-
rope,  became frequent  It also became
usual to allow the villeins to hold proper-
ty, though this was rather by indulgence
than as a matter of right.  Some instances
of predial servitude occur in England  as
late as the reign of Elizabeth; but there
were no villeins remaining at the time of
the abolition of villenage, in  1661.  It was
not entirely abolished  in France until the
revolution, though the villeins in the royal
domains were emancipated in the four-
teenth century.  The greater part of the
servile classes in some countries of Ger-
many  had acquired their liberty  before
the end of the thirteenth century; but,  in
other parts,  villenage survived  till the
nineteenth centuiy, and is not yet entirely
extinct. It has  been recently abolished
in Livonia, but still exists in its most ser-
vile form in other parts of Russia.
  Villers, Charles Francois Dominique
de, a French writer, was a native of Bel-
chen, in Lorraine, where  he was bom in
1764.   In  the earlier  part of his life, ho
served in the French army as a lieutenant
of artillery, but, on the breaking out of the
revolution, emigrated,  and joined the roy-
alist force under the   prince of Conde.
On the failure of the  hopes of the party
to which  he  had  attached himself*  he
went to Liibeck, and devoted himself to
literary pursuits.  Villers, who was a man
of considerable talent,  and some reading,
soon acquired a rising reputation in the
republic of letters,  which was much in-
creased by his obtaining  the prize given
by the institute, for an Essay on the In-
fluence of the Reformation, and  was  at
length invited to fill the professor's chair
of philosophy at the university of Got-
tingen.  This situation, when the French
influence  predominated, he  was compel-
led to  resign, but received  a pension in
lieu  of it.   During the occupation  of
Hanover by the troops  of  France,  un-
der Davoust, the excesses committed by
the soldiery induced him  to address a let-
ter to Fanny  Beauhamais, with the hope
of procuring, through her interest, some
mitigation of the evils under which the
unhappy  country  of  his adoption then
labored.  The work was printed;  but the
only effect it produced was to draw on its
author the personal hatred of the French
commander.   He also addressed  to the
institute two reports on the state of ancient
literature,  and on the histoiy of Germany.
The honors which his own country deni-
ed  him were accorded by the Swedish
government, which made him a chevalier
of the order of the polar star.   M. de Vil-
lers died in the spring of 1815.
  Villiers.   (See Buckingham.)
  Villoison, Jean Baptiste  d'Ansse de,
a distinguished Hellenist, bom at Corbeil-
sur-Seine, in 1750, early acquired reputa-
tion for his  talents and attainments.  In
the nineteenth year  of his age, he had
read  all the  ancient  Latin  and many
Greek authors; and, in a short time, he
acquired the  Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew
without any  assistance  from othere.  In
the twenty-third year of his age,  he was
admitted into the academy of inscriptions.
In 1778, the government sent him to Ven-
ice to examine the  manuscripts in  the
library of St. Mark; and, while there, he
enjoyed the society of the learned Morel-
li, to which intercourse we are indebted
for  Villoison's Anecdota Graca  e  regia
Parisiensi et  e Veneta S. Marci Bibliothe-
cis deprompta  (Venice, 1781, 2 vols., 4to.).
In the library of  St. Mark, Villoison dis-
covered an important codex, which con-
tained the Iliad of Homer, with numerous
scholia, and which was esteemed of great
value by Wolf. This he pubUshed under
the title Homeri Ilias ad veteris  Codicis
Veneti Fidem recensita (Venice, 1788, fol.).
After his return from Italy, Villoison vis-
ited Germany, and, in 1785, accompanied
the  French ambassador Choiseul-Gouffier
to Constantinople,  and spent  three years
in travelling  in Greece  and the Grecian
islands.   This excursion, during  which
he became familiar with the  Romaic, or
modern  Greek, led  him  to  undertake
the preparation ofa complete description
of Greece.  For  this purpose, he made
excerpts from the Grecian authors, the
church fathers, and the Byzantine writers;
but the revolutionary agitations which en-
sued interrupted the execution of his plan,
and he died  in 1805, without having ac-
complished it. Besides the works already
mentioned, Villoison  published an excel-
lent edition  of Longus's  Pastoralia de
Daphnide  et  Chloe (2 vols., Paris, 1778),
and  contributed numerous valuable pa-
pers to the Mimoires de  I'Acadimie des In-
scriptions.
  Vimeira ;  a town of Portuguese Estre-
madura, three miles from Torres Vedras
(q.  v.),  and  twenty-eight north-west of
Lisbon.  It is remarkable  for the battle
between the  British  and French (on the
21st of  August,  1808),  in  which the
French, under general Junot, were defeat-
ed by the English forces, under the com-
mand of sir Arthur Wellesley, now duke 
VIMEIRA—VINCENT, ST.
560
 of Wellington.  This battle was followed
 by the famous convention of Cintra (Aug:
 30), by the articles of which the French
 forces were to be transported to their own
 countiy, with their arms and property.
   Vinalia (from the Latin); wine feasts
 among the Romans.  The Etruscans, it is
 said, after a  victory gained over the  Lat-
 ins, had made the  surrender of all their
 wine by the latter a condition of peace.
 The Latins, enraged at this demand, once
 more determined to try the chance of war;
 but they promised their wine to Jupiter, if
 they should be victorious. They conquer-
 ed ; and, to fulfil  their vow,  they offered
 him the first cup from every cask.  This
 custom was continued, and the feast  was
 celebrated annually on  the 23d of April,
 on which day the wine-casks were open-
 ed.  A second wine feast was celebrated
 on the 21st  of August, to pray  for Jupi-
 ter's favor on the approaching vintage.
 Till after this festival, the wine of the  pre-
 vious year could  not be sold, that of the
 coming season being consecrated by these
 festivities, and committed to the protec-
 tion of Jupiter.  At this second festival,
 the flamen Dialis commenced the vintage
 by gathering the first grape.
   Vincennes, the capital of Knox coun-
 ty, Indiana,  is situated on the Wabash,
 150 miles from its mouth.  It was settled
 in 1735, by the French.   It contains the
 county   buildings,  an   academy,   two
 churches, and some other public  build-
 ings, which are erected in good style, and
 has a population of 1800.  Vincennes is
 contiguous to a beautiful prairie, of which
 about 5000  acres are cultivated as  one
 field.   The  houses are  furnished with
 gardens  well  filled  with   fruit-trees.
 Steam-boats  come to this place during
 most of the year.
   Vincennes ; a  town of France, depart-
 ment of the Seine, about three miles east
 of Paris.  It is remarkable for its castle,
 built in a remote age.   It continued a
 palace  during three  centuries,  but  has
 since been used as a state prison.   It is
 still  of considerable strength.   It  was
 here that the unfortunate duke d'Enghien
 was shot on the 21st  of March, 1804.
 Adjoining to  the castle is a fine park  and
 forest.   Population, 2600.
  Vincent, St. ;  an island in the West
 Indies, about forty miles in length and ten
 in breadth.  This island was only inhab-
 ited  by  native Caribs,  till, in the latter
 part of the  seventeenth  century, a ship
 from Guinea, with a cargo of slaves,  was
either wrecked or run  ashore upon the
 island of St Vincent, into the woods  and
                  48*
 mountains of which great numbers of the
 negroes  escaped, whom  the Indians suf-
 fered to remain.  Partly  by the accession
 of runaway slaves  from Barbadoes, and
 partly by the  children they had by tho
 Indian  women, the Africans  were  so
 much strengthened, that, about the be-
 ginning   of  the  eighteenth   century,
 they  constrained the  Indians to retire
 into the north-west part of the island.
 The  Indians  applied   to  the French
 for  assistance,  and   the  consequence
 was a long war between them and the
 negroes.   In   1763,  the  island  being
 ceded to the  English,  the first  meas-
 ure of the  English government was to
 dispose  of  the  lands, without any re-
 gard to the claims of either race.  A war
 took place, which ended in a compromise,
 by which the natives, after surrendering
 part of their lands, were  permitted to en-
joy the remainder  unmolested.  On the
 19th of June, 1779,  St. Vincent  was cap-
 tured by a French force  from  Martinico.
 It was restored to Britain at the peace of
 1783.  St. Vincent contains about 84,000
acres, which are well  watered; but the
country  is  generally  mountainous and
rugged.  The valleys, however, are  fer-
tile in a high degree, the soil  consisting
chiefly ofa fine mould, composed of sand
and  clay, well  adapted  for sugar.  Its
towns  are  Kingston,  the  capital, and
Richmond:  the others  are villages  or
hamlets, at the several bays and landing-
places.  Imports, in 1829, £99,891; ex-
ports, £414,548.  In  1812, St. Vincent was
almost  desolated  by  a  most  dreadful
eruption  of  the   Souffrier   mountain,
which had continued  quiet for nearly  a
century,  but  from   which now  issued
such  a  torrent of lava, and such clouds
of ashes,  as  nearly covered the  island,
and injured the soil in  such  a manner
that it has never recovered.  Population,
whites, 1301 ; free people of color, 2824;
slaves, 23,589; total, 27,714. Lon. 61° 15-
W.; lat 13° 17' N.
  Vincent, Cape St. ;  the  south-west
point of Portugal, noted for the naval vic-
tory gained off it on  the 14th of February,
1797,  by sir  John Jervis,  afterwards earl
of St. Vincent  (See  Vincent, St.)   Lon.
8° 58' 39" W.; lat. 37° 2'  54" N.
  Vincent, John  Jervis,  earl of  St.,
a  distinguished naval commander,  de-
scended of a respectable  family in Staf-
fordshire, was born  in  1734, and, at the
age of fourteen, entered the navy.  In
1760, he  obtained the rank of  post-cap-
tain, and commanded the Foudroyant, in
the action between  admiral Keppel and 
570
VINCENT, ST.—VINCI.
the French fleet, in July, 1778.  In 1782,
he took the Pegase, of seventy-four guns;
for which exploit he received the red rib-
and.    In 1794, he received the command
ofa squadron equipped for the West In-
dies,  and  reduced  Martinico,  Guada-
loupe  and  St Lucia.  On the  14th  of
February, 1797, being in command of the
Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, he de-
feated  twenty-seven Spanish ships of the
line off cape St. Vincent,  the south-west
point of  Portugal, and was raised to the
English peerage, by the  titles  of baron
Jervis  and earl  of St. Vincent,  with a
pension of £3000 a  year.  In 1799, he
was created admiral, and, in 1801, became
first  lord of the admiralty, and, in 1821,
admiral of the fleet  Lord St. Vincent
was a man of  a  strong mind, unbending
in regard to discipline and reform, and of
high gallantly and genius in his profes-
sion.   He died  in 1823,  in his  eighty-
ninth year.  His statue has been erected
in St. Paul's cathedral, by  vote of parlia-
ment.
   Vincent,  William,  a  distinguished
critic  and  divine, *.x)rn in  London,  in
1739, was educated at Cambridge, where
he obtained a fellowship.  In  1762,  he
became an  usher at  Westminster, and,
nine  years after, second master.   He took
the degree of doctor of divinity, and was
appointed chaplain in ordinary  to  the
king.   In 1788, he became head master
at Westminster, where he continued to
preside till  1801, when he was made a
prebend of Westminster;  and, two years
after, he succeeded to the deanery.  Dean
Vincent  is  principally  known  by his
Commentary on Arrian's Voyage of Near-
clitis, and his  Periplus of  the Erythrean
Sea,  republished together,  under  the title
of the  Commerce and Navigation of the
Ancients in the Indian Ocean  (1807, 2
vols., 4to.).   He died in December, 1815.
A volume of his Discourses, with his life,
was published posthumously.
  Vincent de Paul.  (See Paul.)
  Vinci, Leonardo da, the head of the
Florentine  school of painting, was born
in the village of Vinci,  near Florence,
between  1444 and  1452.   He  was  the
natural son of a notary  named Pietro.
Even in  his earliest youth, he  devoted
himself to  a great  variety of studies—
painting,  sculpture, anatomy, architecture,
geometiy, mechanics, poetry and music.
He soon surpassed his master, the painter
and sculptor Andrea del Varrochio; and,
in 1482,  the duke  of Milan, Ludovico
Maria  Sforza, took him into his service.
Leonardo founded an academy of design,
which would have been still more bene-
ficial in its  results but for the fall of the
house  of Sforza.  Amongst the paint-
ings which he executed by order of the
duke, the first was the Head of Medusa;
and the most famous was the Lord's Sup-
per, in the  refectory of the Dominicans of
Sta-Maria delle  Grazie.  It is  to be re-
gretted, that this beautiful fresco painting
has been entirely destroyed by neglect;
but several old copies remain, from which
the beauty of the groups  of the whole
composition and of the separate parts can
be estimated.  There is an excellent en-
graving  of  this painting  by  Raphael
Morghen.  Besides his paintings, Leonar-
do's active  spirit undertook many impor-
tant enterprises.  He conducted the water
of the Adda to Milan, and excavated a navi-
gable canal from Moitesana to the valleys
of Chiavenna and to the Valteline, a dis-
tance of 200 Italian miles.  In 1499, he
returned  to  Florence, where he was em-
ployed to paint one of the walls of the
great  council room.   On this  occasion,
having Michael Angelo for a competitor,
he made  a  cartoon—which is one of his
most celebrated works—commemorating
a victory of the Florentines, under their
chief Niccolo Piccinio: a group of horse-
men in the piece, struggling  around  a
standard, was particularly admired.  This
cartoon also is  known only by a copy.
When Leo  X ascended the papal throne,
in 1513, Leonardo went,  in the suite of
Julian, duke of Medici, to Rome, but left
this city  in 1515, and went to France,
whither he  had been invited by Francis I.
His reason for leaving Rome probably was,
that the  rivalry of Michael Angelo fol-
lowed  him even there, or  that Raphael
was already intrusted with  the execution
of the great  works in the Vatican.   On
account of  his advanced age, he did  little
or nothing  in France,  and, in  1519,  he
died in the arms of the  king, when at-
tempting to  rise from his  bed on  the
occasion  of a visit from him.  Leonardo
da Vinci  is  distinguished as the man who
strove to  reduce the art of painting, which
had been revived by Cimabue (1420), to
principles.   But few paintings are extant
to which he had given the  last touches.
The reason of this was his restless striving
for  perfection, even  in  advanced  age.
Truth was  his aim, and his motto Vogli
sempre quel che tu dcbbi (Will always that
which thou oughtest).  So anxious was he
at the beginning of a work, that he would
tremble like a stripling.  His dissatisfac-
tion with his productions increased with
the progress, so that he generally gave them 
VINCI—VINE.
1571
 up before they were finished.   Among
 his  most  distinguished works,  besides
 those already mentioned, are the Lisa del
 Giocondo,  in Paris;  the lovely  picture
 known by the name of La Vierge aux
 Rochers; a  Leda, in the collection of
 prince Kaunitz, in Vienna;  a picture, in
 the palace Pamfili, in Rome, representing
 the interview of the child Jesus with the
 doctors in the temple;  John the  Baptist,
 formerly  in  the  French museum;  the
 portrait of duke Ludovico Maria Sforza,
 in the Dresden gallery  ; and others.  Al-
 most of equal value with the pictures of
 this immortal artist are his  writings, of
 which, however, part have unfortunately
 been lost, and othere have remained in
 manuscript.  His Trattato della  Pittura
 appeared for the firet time  in  1651 : the
 most complete edition of it was published
 by Manzi, in 1817.  With a deep insight
 into nature,  says Fiorillo, Leonardo  has
 treated, in this book,  of light, shades, re-
 flections, and particularly of back-grounds.
 He  perfectly underetood, and has  ex-
 plained  in  the  best way,  that,  natural
 bodies  being mostly  bounded by curved
 lines, which  have a certain softness, it is
 important  to give this softness to  the
 outlines; that this can  be done only by
 means of the ground on which the object
 is represented ; that the inner line of the
 surrounding  ground, and the outer line
 of the object, are one and the same ; nay,
 that the figure of the latter becomes visi-
 ble only  by  means of that which sur-
 rounds it; that even  the  colors  are  de-
 pendent on the  surrounding objects, and
 mutually weaken and heighten eachother;
 that when subjects of the same color are
 to be represented  one  before the  other,
 different degrees of light must be used to
 separate them from each other, since the
 mass of air between  the eye  and the ob-
ject lessens and softens the color in pro-
 portion to the  distance.   Besides this
 treatise, and  a Fragment d'un Traiti sur
 les Mouvements du Corp humain,  nothing
 has been printed of his writings ;  but the
 Ambrosian library, at  Milan,  possesses
 sixteen volumes  of  his  manuscripts.
 Seven other  volumes are said  to  have
 come into the possession of king Philip of
 Spain;  but not even the nature of their
 contents is  known.   Leonardo  always
 carried a little book with him, in which
he  drew  interesting  forms  and  faces
which he had an  opportunity to observe.
Cavlus published a collection of beautiful
sketches and  studies of Leonardo, under
the title Recueil de THes de  Caradires et
de Charges, &c. (1730),  of which  there is
also a German edition.  We should men-
tion, also, Desseins de Lionardo da Vinci,
graves par Ch.  T.  Gerli, (Milan,  1784),
and Osservazioni sopra i Disegni di Leo-
nardo dall'Abbate Amordti  (Milan, 1784).
Besides  these,  there appeared,  in 1796,
at London, engravings of the numerous
sketches of Leonardo in the possession of
the king of England, entitled Imitations
of Original Designs by Leonardo da Vin-
ci, published  by J. Chamberlaine  (1796,
folio).  See, also, the Life of Leonardo da
 Vinci (in German, Halle, 1819).
  Vindelicia ; tiie  countiy  of the Vin-
delicians, a German tribe, which lived, in
the time  of Augustus,  in  the south  of
Germany.  Hence Augsburg was  called
Augusta Vindelicorum.  After their con-
quest by the  Romans, Tiberius  removed
most of them from their country.
  Vindicta ; revenge, punishment, com-
plaint of injury received; also, with the
Romans, the staff with which slaves were
touched when they were set free. Hence,
in the Pandects, the title De manumissis
vindicta.
  Vine (vilis).  The common grape (V.
vinifera)  at present grows wild in  many
parts of the south of Europe, but its ori-
gin can be pretty clearly traced to Asia.
Its culture has been known and practised
from the most remote period of history,
though it is certain that it had made little
progress  in Italy, at the time of the foun-
dation of Rome.  A  temperate climate is
most favorable to its growth. The extreme
points at which it is successfully  culti-
vated in the  open  air, are  Schiras,  in
Persia, in lat. 25°, and Coblentz,in lat. 52°.
In northern climates, a south exposure is
preferable, unless the summer heats are
too powerful; and  the  reverse in  the
south.  It is not difficult as to the nature
of the soil, but succeeds best if it be light,
and rather dry than humid.  Most of the
vineyards in  France are in  a soil both
clayey and   calcareous;  but  excellent
wines are produced  in granitic and also
in volcanic districts, though this does not
hold good always.   The varieties are in-
numerable, differing  in  form and  size,
color, taste,  consistence, fragrance, the
size of the seeds and bunches, &c.   In
planting  the varieties known  to  produce
the best wine, it is of importance to select
such as arrive at maturity at the same
period, otherwise  much inconvenience
will be  experienced.   The  vine is uni
versally propagated  by cuttings,  either *
foot or more long, with a portion of twc
yeare old  wood, or short, with only on
bud, or  one  bud and half a joint, &«■ 
572
VINE.
New varieties, however, can only be  ob-
tained from  seed;  and a seedling, care-
fully treated, will show blossoms  in  its
fourth  or fifth year.   The diversity  of
wines, however, appears to depend more
on soil, climate, and  exposure,  than  on
the particular variety,  though this has its
influence.   The   Burgundy,  however,
may be considered the most general vine-
yard grape of France, from Champagne to
Marseilles and Bordeaux.  The best wine
in Italy  and  Spain is  also made from
grapes of this description; but in both
countries, many of the larger-berried sorts
are raised, as  being more productive of
liquor.  The sweet wines  are made from
sweet-berried  grapes,  allowed to remain
on the plants  till over ripe.  That wine
is the strongest, and has most flavor, in
which  both the  skins and  stones  are
bruised and fermented.   As  a general
rule, the varieties most esteemed for wine-
making have small berries and bunches,
with an austere taste.  In certain locali-
ties,  the vine lives only twenty or  thirty
years;  but under favorable circumstances,
it may last  several  hundred.  The time
of flowering is a critical moment: heavy
rains, drought, or a sudden fall of tempe-
rature, at this  period,  may produce  the
partial  or even total  destruction of the
vintage.   Hail often  does great injury,
even when  the stones are of small size.
Most varieties bear only once in  the sea-
son,  some oftener, especially in  warm
climates.  Grapes, when fresh and per-
fectly ripe, are  wholesome, refreshing, and
very agreeable to  the taste: they  are
sometimes employed  as the  sole article
of diet.  They contain sugar, mucilage,
and  a little  acid.   It  is remarkable that
better  dessert  grapes  are produced  in
England than in any other part of Europe.
The varieties  on  the  continent are few;
and the best,  as the Muscats and  Fron-
tignacs, have been obtained from England.
The Chasselas or  Muscadine is almost
the only eating grape known in the Paris
fruit market.  England has not only pro-
duced  the finest  varieties, but they ac-
quire a higher flavor there than elsewhere,
owing to the perfection of their  artificial
climates, and  the great attention paid to
soil  and subsoil,  and other  points  of
culture.  In the south of Europe, grapes
are often dried either by the sun or in a
furnace, and are known in commerce by
the name of raisins.  Of  these there are
several  sorts,  the smallest of which are
the  raisins  of Corinth, more generally
known  under the  name of  currants.
Raisins are  sweeter than the fresh fruit,
and are served up at desserts throughout
the year.   A wine  may be  obtained  by
fermenting them—a business which is
carried on extensively in England.  Red
wines  are made exclusively from red or
black grapes, while red or white are used
indifferently for white wines.  All wines
should be kept in cellars, where the tem-
perature is always  the  same: some im-
prove  very much by age.  Wine  takes
the first rank among liquors.  The an-
cients, like the moderns,  attached  great
prices  to certain wines.  At present, the
most  esteemed wine is Tokay, which is
produced in a limited district in Hungary,
and is all reserved for the use of the em-
peror.   Inferior wines, from the same vi-
cinity, are sold in commerce under this
name.   As late frosts are very apt to inj ure
the vine, notwithstanding that it will bear
severe cold in the depth of winter, our
climate would seem, a priori, to be  unfa-
vorable to its culture.  It is, however, cul-
tivated for the table in almost every part
of the U. States, and the making of good
wine  in this  country is no  longer prob-
lematical.  Wine of the very first quality
has been produced in several instances.
We have, however, more to hope  from
some of the varieties of our native grapes,
which  require less  care, and are better
adapted to  our climate.  Some of  these
have been produced of a very excellent
quality, though, hitherto, none equalling
the finer varieties of the  foreign grape.
Our American species of grape are not yet
clearly understood.—The fox grape (V. la-
brusca)  is found as far north as Quebec.
It is distinguished by the large size of the
berries, and by having the under surface of
the leaves  covered with a thick coat of
down.   The  berries are deep blue, have
a thick skin,  and the central part of the
pulp very  tough.   They are not much
esteemed, but it  is said that very good
wine has been made from them.—The
chicken grape (V. astivalis)  has the infe-
rior surface of the leaves much less downy
than the preceding; and the berries  are
smaller and much more agreeably tasted.
They are brought regularly  to the Phila-
delphia market.   We are  not aware that
this species has been found north of  lat
42°.—The  V. cordifolia,  or vulpina, is
readily distinguished by having the leaves
smooth on both sides.  The berries  are
small and  nauseous.   It is  found as far
north as lat 40°.—The bullet grape (V.
rotundifolia) has  the  leaves smaller and
more rounded, and the fruit larger, than
in our other species.  It is  found as  far
north as lat 39°.—The V.  riparia,  re- 
VINE—VINEGAR.
S7T
markable for its  sweet-scented  flowers,
seems to be more abundant in the West-
em States than elsewhere.  An exquisite-
ly flavored grape is said to grow upon the
Arkansas and Red rivers; but late  trav-
ellere in that region have not been able to
discover  any species  differing from the
foregoing ; and we are much in want of
more certain information on the subject.
  Vinegar (acetic acid).  This  acid is
found combined with potash in the juices
of a great many plants ; particularly the
sambucus nigra, galium verum, and rhus
typhinus.   Sweat, urine, and even  fresh
milk, contain it.   It is frequently gene-
rated in  the stomachs  of dyspeptic pa-
tients.  Almost all dry vegetable  sub-
stances,  and  some animal,  subjected in
close vessels to a  red heat, yield it copi-
ously.  It is the result, likewise,  of  a
spontaneous fermentation, to which liquid
vegetable and animal matters are subject.
Strong acids, as the sulphuric and nitric,
develope  the  acetic by their action on
vegetables.  It  was  long supposed that
the fermentation  which forms vinegar is
uniformly  preceded by the  vinous; but
this is now known to be a mistake.   Cab-
bages sour in water, making  sour-crout;
starch, also, in starch-maker's sour water ;
and  dough itself, without any  previous
production of wine.   The  varieties of
acetic acids known in commerce are  five  :
1. wine vinegar ;  2. malt vinegar; 3. ci-
der vinegar;  4. sugar vinegar;  5. wood
vinegar.  We shall describe, first, the mode
of making these commercial  articles, and
then that of extracting the absolute acetic
acid of the  chemist, either from these vin-
egars,  or directly from chemical  com-
pounds, of which  it is a constituent.  The
following is the  French method of making
vinegar:  The wine destined for vinegar
is mixed, in a large tun, with a quantity of
wine  lees ; and, the whole being transfer-
red into cloth sacks, placed within a large
iron-bound vat, the liquid matter is forced
through the sacks by superincumbent pres-
sure.  What  passes through  is  put into
large  casks, set upright, having a  small
aperture in their top.   In these  it is ex-
posed to the heat of the sun  in  summer,
or to that ofa stove in  winter.   Fermen-
tation supervenes in  a few days.  If the
heat should then rise too high, it is lower-
ed by cool air, and the  addition  of fresh
wine.  In  the  skilful  regulation of the
fermentative  temperature consists the art
of making good wine  vinegar.  In sum-
mer, the process is generally completed in
a fortnight: in winter,  double the time is
requisite.   The  vinegar is then run off
into barrels, which contain several  chips
of birch wood.   In about a fortnight, it is
found to be  clarified, and is then fit for
the market. It must be kept in close casks.
In Great Britain, vinegar is usually made
from malt.  By mashing with hot water,
one hundred gallons of wort are extracted,
in less than two hours, from one boll of
malt.  When the liquor has fallen to the
temperature of  75° Fahr., four gallons of
the barm   of beer  are  added.  After
thirty-six hours, it is racked off into casks,
which are  laid  on their sides, and  ex-
posed, with their bung-holes loosely  cov-
ered, to the influence of the sun in sum-
mer ; but in winter, they are  arranged in
a stove-room.  In three months, this vin-
egar is ready for the manufacture of sugar
of lead.  To make vinegar for domestic
use, however, the process is somewhat
different.  The  above  liquor is  racked
off into  casks  placed  upright,  having a
false cover, pierced with  holes, fixed at
about a foot from their bottom.   On this
a considerable  quantity of rape,  or the
refuse from the makers of British wine,
or otherwise a quantity of low-priced rai-
sins, is laid.  The liquor  is turned into
another barrel every twenty-four hours,
in which time it has begun to grow warm.
Sometimes the vinegar is fully fermented,
as above, without the rape, which is  add-
ed towards the end, to  communicate fla-
vor.   Cider  is  the principal source of
vinegar in the Northern States of North
America.   The common family method
is as follows: The vinegar barrel, in sum-
mer, is  placed  in the  garret, or on the
sunny side of a  building, and in  winter
in a room where it does not freeze.  The
refuse  cider, already  sour, or the daily
remnants of the family table, are added
to some good vinegar in the  barrel,  or to
the mother of vinegar, as it is called.  This
mother of vinegar is a white or yellowish
ropy coagulum, of a  mucilaginous ap-
pearance, which is formed in the vinegar,
and acts as a\ ferment upon cider  not yet
thoroughly acidified.  The fermentation
is often aided by putting into it a piece of
dough, or of lean animal muscle, or by
adding molasses, or the sugar which falls
spontaneously from molasses.   In a few
weeks, the vinegar will be formed.  The
vinegar from sugar is made as follows :
Ten pounds of sugar are added to  eight
gallons of water, with yeast and raisins or
grape cuttings:  for the  sake of flavor, and
perhaps  to assist  in  the fermentation,
twelve pints  of bruised gooseberries, or
other fruits, are added; and, by a process
similar to that for cider, a good vinegar is
produced  in the couree of the  summer.
Vinegar obtained by the preceding meth- 
574
VINEGAR.
ods has more or less of a brown color,
and a  peculiar but rather grateful smell.
By distillation in glass vessels, the color-
ing matter, which resides in a mucilage, is
separated; but the fragrant odor is general-
ly replaced by an empyreumatic one.  Its
specific gravity varies from 1.005 to 1.015.
A crude vinegar  has long been  obtained
from  wood, for the use  of  the calico
printers.   It is sometimes known under
the name of pyroligneous acid.  The fol-
lowing arrangement of apparatus is found
to answer very well in its preparation.  A
series of cast-iron cylinders, about four
feet diameter and six feet long, are built
horizontally  in brick-work, so  that the
flame of one  furnace  may play  round
about two cylinders.  Both ends project
a little  from  the brick-work.  One  of
them  has  a  disc of cast-iron  well fitted
and firmly bolted to it, from the centre of
which disc an iron tube, about six inches
in diameter,  proceeds, and enters, at a right
angle,  the  main  tube  of refrigeration.
The  diameter of this tube  may be  from
nine to fourteen inches, according to the
number of cylinders.  The other end of
the cylinder is called the  mouth of the
retort.  This is closed  by a disc of iron,
smeared  round  its edge with clay-lute,
and secured  in its place by wedges.  The
charge of wood  for such  a cylinder  is
about eight  hundred pounds.  The hard
woods, oak,  ash,  birch  and  beech, are
alone used.  The heat is kept up during
the day-time, and the furnace is allowed
to cool during the night.   Next morning
the door is opened, the charcoal removed,
and a new charge of wood is introduced.
The average product of crude  vinegar, or
pyroligneous acid, is thirty-five gallons.
It is much contaminated with  tar, is ofa
deep  brown color,  and  has a  specific
gravity of 1.025.  Its total weight is there-
fore  about three hundred  pounds.  But
the residuary charcoal is found to weigh no
more than one fifth of the wood employ-
ed.  Hence  nearly one half of the pon-
derable matter of the wood is dissipated
in incondensable gases.  The  crude acid
is rectified by  a  second distillation, in a
copper still,  in the body  of which about
twenty gallons of viscid  tarry matter are
left from eveiy hundred.  After this treat-
ment,  it presents the appearance of a
transparent,  brown vinegar, having a con-
siderable empyreumatic smell, and a spe-
cific gravity of 1.013.  Its acid  powers are
superior to those of the  best  household
vinegar, in the proportion of three to two.
By redistillation, saturation with  quick-
lime, evaporation of the liquid acetate to
dryness, and  gentle torrefaction, the em-
pyreumatic matter is so completely dissi-
pated, that, on decomposingthe calcareous
salt by sulphuric  acid, a pure, perfectly
colorless, and grateful vinegar rises in dis-
tillation.   Its strength will be proportional
to the concentration of the  decomposing
acid.   The acetic acid of the chemist
may  be  prepared  as  follows: 1. Two
parts  of fused acetate of potash, with one
of the strongest  oil of vitriol, yield, by
slow distillation from a glass retort  into a
refrigerated receiver, concentrated  acetic
acid.   A  small  portion of sulphurous
acid,  which contaminates it, may be re-
moved by redistillation from a little ace-
tate of lead.  2.  Or four parts of good
sugar of lead, with one part of sulphuric
acid,  treated in the same way, afford a
slightly weaker acetic acid.  Or, without
distillation, if one hundred  parts of well-
dried  acetate  of lime be cautiously added
to sixty parts of strong sulphuric acid,
diluted with five parts of water, and di-
gested for twenty-four hours, and strained,
a good acetic acid, sufficiently strong for
every ordinary purpose, will be obtained.
Acetic acid is composed of
  Carbon,...............46.83
  Hydrogen,.............  6.33
  Oxygen,..............46.82
Acetic acid dissolves resins, gum-resins,
camphor and essential oils.   Its odor is
employed in  medicine to relieve nervoua
headache,  fainting fits, or sickness occa-
sioned by crowded rooms.   In a slightly
dilute state, its application has been found
to check  hemorrhagy from the nostrils.
Its anti-contagious powers  are now little
trusted to.  It  is very  largely used  in
calico printing.    Moderately  rectified
pyroligneous acid is much employed for
the preservation  of animal food.    Sul-
phuric acid  is sometimes  fraudulently
mixed with acetic acid and  common vin-
egar, to increase their acidity.  This adul-
teration may  be detected by the addition
of a little chalk.   With  pure vinegar, the
lime  forms a limpid solution, but with
sulphuric acid, a white, insoluble gypsum.
Muriate  of barytes  is  a still nicer test
British fermented vinegars are allowed
by law to  contain a little sulphuric acid ;
but the quantity  is frequently exceeded.
Copper is discovered in vinegars by super-
saturating  them  with  ammonia, when a
fine blue color is  produced ; and lead, by
sulphate  of soda,  hydrosulphurets, and
sulphureted  hydrogen.  None of these
should produce  any change on genuine
vinegar.   Salts consisting of the severel 
VINEGAR—VIOLIN.
575
bases,  united  in  definite  proportions  to
acetic acid, are called acetates.  They are
characterized  by the pungent smell of
vinegar, which they exhale on the affu-
sion of sulphuric acid, and by their yield-
ing, on distillation in a moderate red heat,
a  very light,  odorous and  combustible
liquid, called pyro-acetic spirit.  They are
all soluble in water; many  of them so
much so as to be uncrystallizable.   About
thirty different acetates have been form-
ed, of which only a very  few have been
applied to the  uses of life.
   Vineis, Petras de, or Pietro delle Vigne,
one of  the most distinguished jurists and
politicians  of the  thirteenth century, a
native  of Capua, the son of poor parents,
studied in Bologna.  Chance made  him
known  to  the  emperor Frederic  II,
who soon raised him to  the highest of-
fices.   He at  last became the  emperor's
chancellor, and as such defended his mas-
ter, orally and  in writing, against the mon-
strous assumptions of the  popes Gregory
IX and Innocent IV.  The libels  of the
former  were refuted by Vineis with learn-
ing and wit; and it was owing in no small
degree  to his efforts, that the excommu-
nication fulminated  against the emperor
remained without effect.   When Inno-
cent IV, in 1245, cited the emperor be-
fore the council of Lyons, Vineis defend-
ed  his   absent  master with great  ability.
Vet, notwithstanding all  these services,
his  enemies  succeeded  in making the
emperor suspect that Vineis had  tried to
poison him; and  he ordered his chancel-
lor to be blinded and thrown into a prison
in Pisa, where the unfortunate man put
an  end to his life, in 1429, by dashing his
head against  a  pillar; on  account  of
which  we find him in Dante's Hell among
the suicides, relating his mournful story.
(Canto xiii, Inferno.)  This is adarkspotin
the history ofthis otherwise great emperor.
The writings of Vineis, yet extant, are a
treatise De  Potestaie imperiali, and  six
books of letters on the deeds of Frederic II,
mostly in the name of the emperor, and
written in bad  Latin, which is to be attrib-
uted to the low state of learning at that
time.  They are considered important, as
sources of the history of Frederic, and
have been several times published.
  Vinificateur (French); a contrivance
recently invented, and used in France and
Spain,  to improve the spirituous fermen-
tation of wine.   During the fermentation,
a portion of  the ethereal parts  of the
wine escapes  from the open vats.  The-
viniflcateur is  intended to  collect these
parts, and  to  convey them back to  the
must.  It is  a cap, put on the vat, and
surrounded by cold water in a vessel, in
order to  condense these vapors. The cap
is provided with a tube to  admit of the
escape of the gaseous parts which do not
condense.
  Vino Tinto.  (See Alicant.)
  Viol, or Viola ; the generic term of a
number of stringed instruments, most of
which have gone entirely out of use. The
most  important viols  were,  1.  Viola di
  famba (literally leg viol), so called because
  eld between the legs during  the per-
formance. It had six strings, tuned thus:—
D, G, c, e, a, d.  The notes were written
on a system of six lines. 2.  Viola d'amore
(viole d'amour), love viol; a kind of triple
viol or violin, having seven strings. Origi-
nally it had  twelve to  fourteen strings;
six  or seven were of catgut, the others
of brass.  By degrees they were reduced
to seven of catgut, tuned thus:—G, e, g.
c, e, g, e, or G, c, e, a, d, g, c.   3.  Viola
di braccio, violetta, viola alta (in French,
taille), arm viol; an instrument answer-
ing to our counter-tenor, treble and fifth
violin.  It is constructed like the violin,
but larger.  The notes for this instrument
are not written in the G key, but in the
alto key.  The G or violin key is used in
this instrument only for the  higher  tones,

which (e. g. in solos) rise above e and f.
It has four strings, of  which the two low-
est are covered with brass, and the tuning
of all  is a fifth lower  than that of the vi-
olin, that is, c, g, d, a ; hence the same
with that of the violoncello, only one  oc-
tave higher.  It corresponds  to alto  and
tenor in vocal music.
  Violet  (viola).   These are  favorite
flowers in all  northern and  temperate
climates, and many  of them are among
the firet to make  their appearance in  the
spring.  The corolla is composed of  five
unequal petals, of which the inferior one
is the largest, and is more or less prolong-
ed into a spur at the base.   The roots are
mostly perennial; the stem almost want-
ing in some species, and distinct in others;
the leaves are alternate, provided  with
stipules at the base, and the flowers  are
disposed on  axillary   peduncles.  More
than a hundred species are known.  The
heart's-ease (V. tricolor) is a familiar plant
in gardens.  We have numerous  native
violets, some with blue, others with white,
and othere again with yellow flowers:  one
has itsflowersoftwo colors, like the heart's-
ease, with which it has been confounded.
  Violi.n (Italian, rwlino ; French,  r;o-
ton) is the i.;-st  pc.lcct, uir.r-t agreeable, 
576
VIOLIN—VIOLONO.
and most common of all stringed instru-
ments played with the bow.  Of its ori-
gin Uttle is known; but it seems that it
grew out of the ancient viola, (q. v.) Some
place its  invention in  the times of the
crasades.   Probably it was firet perfected
in Italy, in which country, and the neigh-
boring Tyrol,  the finest violins  are still
produced.   Those of  Amati, Guarneri
and Stradivari, are from the former coun-
try ; those  of Stainer, Klotz, &c, from
the  latter.   The violin  now  common
consists of three  chief  parts—the neck,
the table,  and the sound-board.   At the
side are  two apertures, and sometimes a
third towards the top.   Its bridge, which
is  below  the aperture,  bears  up the
strings,  which are fastened to  the  two
extremes  of the  instrument—at one of
them by screws which stretch or loosen
them at  pleasure.  The arrangement is
nearly the same,  only on different scales,
in the viol, violoncello and  the double
bass.  The violin has four catgut strings,
of different sizes, of which the largest is
wound round with wire.  They are tuned
thus:—g, d, a. e.  The e is  also called
simply the  quinta, or fifth  (in  French,
chanterdle).  This string should be about
half the thickness of D.   The nearer the
finger is placed towards the bridge, the
quicker become the vibrations,  and the
higher the tone.   Music for the  violin is
always set in the  G key, which, on  that
account,  is called violin key.  The com-
pass of the good  tones  of the violin ex-

tends from g to about a.  It is only in our
days, however, that performers have as-
cended to this height: formerly, the high-

est note was g or  a; and, in the sixteenth
century, they  hardly  rose to c.  All the
tones comprised  in the above compass,
nay, even  the most delicate enharmonic
relations, are  produced  merely  by the
playing  of the finger  on the  strings:
hence the violin, as well for this reason as
for its delightful and penetrating sound, is
one of the most perfect and most  agree-
able instruments. The excellence of a
violin consists in  its  purity and distinct-
ness, strength, and fulness of tone.  The
art of playing on the violin has been car-
ried to a perfection which it is not proba-
ble will be much surpassed, as it already
often degenerates into useless  artifices.
The most esteemed instructions for play-
ing on  the violin are  those  of Lohlein
(with additions  by Reichardt), Leopold,
Mozart, Geminiani, Rode, Kreutzer and
Baillot (adopted by the conservatory, q. v.,
of Paris), Campagnoli, and others.  The
most celebrated  living violin  players are
Paganini (q. v.), Rode (q. v.), Spohr (q. v.),
Lafont, Kreutzer, Viotti (q. v.), Polledro,
Lipinski (q. v.), Maurer,  Franzel,  Mayse-
der, Rovelli, Molique, Rolla, Moser, Mat-
thai, &c.
  Violoncello comes between the viola
di braccio and the double bass, both as to
size and tone.  It  is constructed  entirely
on  the same plan with the violin, (q. v.)
The player holds it between his knees.  It
has four strings of catgut: the two deep-
est-toned are covered with  wire.  The
tuning is  C, G,  d, a ; hence  like that of
the viola di braccio, only an octave deeper.
Its  notes  are written in  the F  or bass
clef; and it generally accompanies the
double bass ;  but  modern composers,  as
Cherubini, Beethoven, Weber and Spon-
tini, often let the violoncello take an inde-
pendent  part   For tones above d and
e, the tenor clef is generally used, or the vi-
olin clef, the latter especially for the high-
est notes in concertos, &c.  But in this case
the notes must always be  written an oc-
tave higher, as the violoncello is a whole
octave  lower than the violin.  The violon-
cello, properly, is  but a modification of
the old viola  di gamba (see  Viola), and
has but lately  been used as a solo instru-
ment.  The inventor of it was Tardieu,
a clergyman of  Tarascon, at the begin-
ning of the eighteenth century.   At firet
it had  five strings, viz. C, G, d, a, d.  In
1725,  the d was. omitted  as  superfluous.
The most distinguished living violoncello
players are Romberg (in Berlin), Kraft (in
Stuttgart),  Merk (in Vienna), Knoop (in
Meiningen), Bohrer (in Paris),  Dotzauer
(Dresden),  who  have also written for this
instrument.  Instructions for playing on
the violoncello  have  been  written by
Baillot, Levasseur, Catel, Baudiot, Alex-
ander,  and others.   Before the double
bass came into  use, the  violoncello was
called  violono, which name was  after-
wards  given to the former instrument
  Violono (Italian; the  English double
bass; in French, contrebasse; violon signi-
fying,  in that language, the violin) is the
largest  of  the bow instruments,  and  is
principally used to sustain the harmony.
Some performers, of late,  have played so-
los on  it (for example, Hindle, of Vienna,
and Dall'  Occa,  an  Italian),  but not
without  some changes,  which  diminish
the strength of  its tones.   In the Italian
orchestra,  it still has generally but three
strings, by which, however, its compass is
too much  limited.  In Germany, it has
generally four, in some places five, strings. 
VIOLONO—VIRGIL.
577
The four  strings are tuned thus:—E, A,
d, g; and all are an octave deeper than
the corresponding ones of the violoncello.
(q. v.)  As there is necessarily much diffi-
culty in managing this instrument, com-
posers ought not to load it with  passages
which can be but imperfectly executed.
   Viotti, Giovanni Battista, the first vio-
linist of his age, was a Piedmontese, bom
near Crescentino, in 1755, studied under
Pugnani,  and,  in  his  twenty-first year,
was made firet  violinist at the royal chapel
in Turin.   He  afterwards  visited  Berlin
and Paris.  On the breaking out  of the
revolution,  he  took  refuge in  England,
and, from the year 1794  till 1798,  had a
share in  the management of the king's
theatre, himself leading in the orchestra.
1 laving received an order from the alien
office to  quit the country, he retired to
Holland,  and thence  to Hamburg.   In
1801, he returned to London, engaged in
the wine trade, and lost the whole of his
property.   After  the  restoration of the
Bourbons, Louis XVIII invited him to
preside over the academic  royale de mu-
sique  at Paris, which situation he  ac-
cepted, but did not retain it long, owing
to his increasing age and  bodily infirmi-
ties.   In 1822,  he settled finally in Lon-
don, and  there remained till his death in
the spring of 1824.   He was the author of
a great variety of music for the violin; but
the only two vocal  compositions are the
polaccas Che Gioja,  and Consola, Amato
Bene, both masterpieces in their way.
  Viper.   (See Serpent.)
   Virgil.   Publius Virgilius  Maro, the
most distinguished epic, didactic and pas-
toral poet of ancient Rome, was bora at
Andes (now Petiola), a little village near
\Iantua, in the  year 70 B. C.  His father
possessed  a small estate there, which  he
cultivated himself.   Virgil  travelled  to
Cremona, Milan and Naples for the pur-
pose of improvement, and studied the
Epicurean  philosophy  under a certain
Syro.   Vanis, to whom the sixth eclogue
is addressed, was probably his fellow pu-
pil.  It has been generally supposed that
the poems  which  bear the inscription
Catalecta Virgilii, were composed by him
at an early age; but modern criticism has
shown that  some of them  are  evidently
not his, and that others are of uncertain
date.   If  we are to  suppose that Virgil
describes  himself under the character of
Tityrus in his first eclogue, he was thirty
years of age when he went to Rome for
the firet time, to obtain the  restoration of
his farm, which  had been taken possession
of by the soldiers of Octavius  and An-
  vol. xii.          49
tony, after the close  of the war against
the republicans.  He was here presented,
by Pollio or some other friend, to Augus-
tus,  and gained the  favor of Maecenas,
through whose intercession he obtained
the restitution of his property.  But on his
attempting to take possession of it, the new
occupants resisted him, and threatened his
life; and it was not until after a second
journey to Rome,  aud repeated efforts,
that  he finally succeeded in his object.
About this time, he wrote several eclogues,
the tenth and last of which is ascribed to
the thirty-third or thirty-fourth year of his
age.   His Georgics (poem on  agricul-
ture), which he undertook at  the sugges-
tion  of Maecenas, are  said, by grammari-
ans,  to have  been  begun in his thirty-
fourth year.  He is said  to  have spent
seven yeare upon this work, which was
principally composed at Naples; but these
accounts of him  are  not  well  authenti-
cated.  It is certain that the iEneid is his
last work.  Virgil was now in high favor
with Augustus, with whom he kept up  a
familiar correspondence.  After complet-
ing the plan of his  great epic, he retired
to Greece, with the design of accomplish-
ing it there at his leisure.  But Augustus
having arrived at Athens, on his return
from the East,  Virgil  determined to  ac-
company him  home.  At  Megara, how-
ever, he fell sick; and, his disease becom-
ing aggravated on the  journey, he died at
Brundusium, or,  according  to some, at
Tarentum, in the  fifty-second year of
his age, B. C. 19.   His body was carried
to Naples, in compliance with his direc-
tions, and there interred in the  Puteolan
way. (See .Yap.es.)  According to well-
authenticated accounts, the poet, on  his
death-bed, ordered the .^Eneid to be burnt,
as an unfinished and defective work ;  but
it was preserved by  his friends, in disobe-
dience to his wishes.  This circumstance
is characteristic of the modesty of Virgil.
He was likewise  of a  mild  and gentle
disposition, without pretensions  in  his
manners, and constant  in his friendship.
As a poet, the first place must be assigned
to him  among the many  distinguished
authors of his age.  If he had not the in-
ventive talent  in its highest degree—for
in his Eclogues he imitated Theocritus, in
his Georgics, Hesiod, and in his ^Eneid,
Homer—yet he deserves our admiration
for his command of language, which he
displays in all  gradations, from the sim-
plest and sweetest strains of the pastoral,
to the most splendid and lofty descriptions
of the epic ; for the beauty of his versifi-
cation, in which, particularly in georgic 
578                      VIRGIL—VIRGIN MARY
poetry, he is unrivalled;  and for the taste
and skill with which he manages all  the
materials of poetry.  These qualities have
always procured him numerous and zeal-
ous admirers; and he has found many im-
itators, both in ancient and modem times.
The  popular traditions of the  middle
ages in Italy, represented him as a  magi-
cian ;  and  his verees were referred to as
of prophetic power, in  the well-known
sortes   Virgiliaha.   Of  the editions  of
Virgil, the most complete  is that of Bur-
mann  (Amsterdam, 1746, 4 vols.  4to.);
the most esteemed for its commentaries
and critical apparatus, that of Heyne (8
vols., 8vo., 1793).  The most celebrated of
the ancient commentators is Servius (A. D.
400"-, whose commentaries have been pub-
lished  separately, and in the principal
editions of the  works of Virgil.  Of his
English translators, the most popular are
Dryden,  Pitt,  Warton and  Sotheby,  to
which is to be added the recent version
of John Ring (in 2 vols., 8vo.).  The Bu-
colics and Georgics  have been published
separately by professor Martyn, of Cam-
bridge, with an English version in prose,
and valuable notes illustrative of  the bot-
any, &c.  Voss has translated the  Geor-
gics into German hexameters, and De-
lille the  ^Eneid  and the Georgics into
French verse.
  Virgil, Polydore, a historical writer of
the sixteenth century, was bom at Urbino,
in Italy.  One of his first productions was
a collection of Latin  poems, which was
followed, in 1499, by his work De Rerum
Inventoribus, which "has been often repub-
lished.  Pope Alexander VI sent him to
England, as collector of  the tribute  called
Peter's pence ;  and he was  the  last per-
son who held that  office in that country
previously to the reformation under Hen-
ry VIII.  That  prince bestowed on him
.he archdeaconry of Wells, and several
other  benefices in the church; and, at the
request of Henry, he composed a general
Histoiy of England, from the earliest ages
to his own time.  This work, which is
written in Latin, considered as  the pro-
duction of a foreigner,  is highly credita-
ble to his talents ; but his reputation has
suffered  in some degree from the charge
of having destroyed memoirs and records
which he made use of in his undertaking.
The  Histoiy  of Polydore has passed
through   several editions.  He quitted
England in the reign of  Edward  VI, and,
going  to  Italy, died at  Urbino  in 1555.
Besides the works  noticed, he  was the
author of a treatise on Prodigies.
   Virgin  Islands; a cluster of islands
in the West Indies, situated to the east
of Porto Rico.  They are upwards of
twenty in  number, but for the most part
desert and barren, and extend sixty miles
in length, and upwards  of thirty-six in
breadth ; but they are every way danger-
ous to navigators, though there is a basin
in the midst of them of eighteen or twen-
ty miles in length, and nine or twelve in
breadth, in which ships may anchor, and
be sheltered  and landlocked  from all
winds,  and called the bay of Sir Francis
Drake, from his  having  passed through
it to St. Domingo.   The English  and
Danes  divide  most of them;  but the
Spaniards claim those near Porto Rico.
Virgin  Gorda,  Tortola, &c, belong to the
English.   The Danes possess the islands
of St. Thomas, St. Croix, &c.
  Virgin  Mary.   The  belief in a god,
appearing in a human form, and born of
a virgin, is common to' several religions
of Asia.  That Christ was born of a vir-
gin appears from  the Old and  New Tes-
tament ; and it was early maintained by
theologians, that,  in order to become the
Savior of the  world, he  must have been
born of a virgin,  as he would otherwise
have had the stain of original sin.  Justin
Martyr treats of this necessity (Dialog, i,
Tryphone i, 100).  In the fourth century
A.D., the doctrine was started, that Mary
not  only had conceived the  Savior in a
state of virginity, but had also retained
this virgin state during and after his birth,
as she had given birth to him utero clauso.
Jovianus and others opposed this opinion.
In the fifth century, this  dispute was re-
newed in the struggle with Eutyches. At
length, the  continued virginity of Mary,
the mother of God, became a doctrine of
the orthodox  church.   Protestants be-
lieve in the virginity of Mary, as respects
the conception of  Christ, because it is
explicitly stated in the Bible; but it is not
thought irreconcilable with the New Tes-
tament, to suppose that, after the birth of
Christ, she had several children by Jo-
seph, who are meant  by the brothers of
Jesus, inentioned in the New Testament
Some critics, however, understand by this
phrase merely relatives of Christ.  The
belief in the virgin Mary, the mother of
God, exercised a most important influence
during the  middle ages.  The traces of
her worship,  of the legends connected
with her,  and of  the deep impression
which  her idea had made on the minds
of men, are visible every where, and par-
ticularly in the productions  of the fine
arts.  The adoration of a virgin comport-
ed well with  the romantic exaltation of 
VIRGIN  MARY—VIRGINIA.
579
 the female sex during the age of chivalry.
 (See the article  Chivalry.)   This adora-
 tion lent a glowing fervor to the religion
 of the middle ages: it afforded an oppor-
 tunity not only to refine the most roman-
 tic feelings of love into those of religion,
 but to make the adored being the imme-
 diate subject of amatory feelings and ex-
 pressions.   Innumerable  poems  afford
 proofs of this; but many modern Catho-
 lics consider expressions of this kind,
 which are still retained in religious com-
 positions, as indecorous.  Without enter-
 ing into a discussion respecting the good
 and the evil, which have resulted from the
 adoration of the Virgin, we would only
 state the fact, that the feelings with which
 it inspired the knights, the artists, the  po-
 ets and the religious of the middle ages,
 led to the highest exhibitions of prowess,
 genius  and devotion; and the  historian
 will find in it one of the  most important
 keys to the right understanding  of  the
 middle ages.
   Virginia.  (See Appius Claudius.)
   Virginia, one of the thirteen  original
 states  of the American Union, is situated
 between 36° 31' and 40° 39' N. lat., and
 6° 35^ W., and 1° 48' E. lon. from  Wash-
 ington city.  It  is bounded on the north
 and north-east by Pennsylvania  and Ma-
 ryland, east by Maryland and the Atlan-
 tic, south by North Carolina and Tennes-
 see, and west by Kentucky and the Ohio
 river, or state of Ohio.   According to Mr.
 Boyes's map, published by state authority,
 its  mean length, from east to west, is 355
 miles; its mean  breadth, from north  to
 south, 185 miles ;  and its horizontal area,
 65,624 square miles.
   Civil Divisions, &c.  The state is di-
 vided into one hundred and ten counties,
 whereof sixty-five are situated on the east,
 and forty-five on the west of the Blue ridge
 mountains.   Adopting  the classification
 under  the new constitution,  these  two
 great  sections may be further subdivided
 into, 1. the district extending  from  the
 sea-coast to  the head of tide-water, com-
 prehending  thirty-six counties and three
 towns  entitled to  representation, to  wit,
 Accomack,  &c.  &c.;  2. the  territory
stretching from the head of tide-water to
the Blue  ridge, containing twenty-nine
counties,  Albemarle,  &c. &c.;   3. the
 valley district, embracing fifteen counties,
between the Blue ridge and Alleghany,
Augusta, &c. &c.; 4. the trans-Alleghany
counties, thirty in number, viz. Brooke,
&c. &c.  The principal towns are Rich-
mond,  the seat  of government, delight-
fully situated at the falls of James river,
 containing 16,000 inhabitants; Norfolk, on
 Elizabeth river, which flows into Hamp-
 ton roads, population in 1830, 9816;  Pe-
 tersburg and Fredericksburg,  at the falls
 of the Appomattox  and Rappahannock
 rivers, the first containing 8300, and the
 last  3400  inhabitants;  Lynchburg,  on
 James river, 120 miles above  the falls,
 population 4157; and Wheeling, on  the
 Ohio, which, though only the  fourth in
 size  and population, containing 5000 in-
 habitants, is, perhaps, the most flourish-
 ing  town in the  state.  Besides  these,
 Winchester,  Shepherdstown,  Martins-
 burg, Staunton, Lexington and Fincastle,
 in the valley, and Charlestown  and Ab-
 ingdon,  in the  trans-Alleghany district,
 deserve to be noticed.  Williamsburg, in
 the eastern section, and the ancient seat
 of government, is  on the decline;  but
 Charlottesville, where the state university
 is situated, has rapidly improved within a
 few  years.  The principal rivers flowing
 into the Chesapeake bay are the Potomac,
 Rappahannock, York and James, all  of
 which  are  large  and navigable.   The
 Shenandoah traces its quiet course  down
 the valley, at the base of the Blue  ridge,
 and unites with the Potomac at Harper's
 Ferry.  The Roanoke rises in the moun-
 tains, and, passing into  North  Carolina,
 empties its waters into Albemarle sound;
 and  the Great Kenawha and  Mononga-
 hela are both  tributaries to  the  Ohio.
 Besides these, there are numerous streams
 which intersect the countiy in every di-
 rection, and which render  it inferior to
 few in the facilities of water communica-
 tion.  The Chesapeake  bay,  one of the
 finest on the continent, extends 190 miles,
 from its entrance, through  the states of
 Virginia and Maryland.  It is from  seven
 to twenty miles broad, and generally nine
 fathoms deep.
  Face of the Country.  The mountains
 of this state commence about 180 miles
 from the sea-coast, and run nearly parallel
 with it, in a south-west direction, disposed
 in ridges one behind another.   The firet
 continuous chain derives, from  its deep
blue color, the name by which it is distin-
 guished.   The North mountains are from
twenty to thirty miles farther west; and
these are succeeded by the  Great Appa-
 lachian or Alleghany range,  which di-
 vides the eastern and western waters, and
which Mr. Jefferson calls the spine of the
 countiy.  The Apjialachian system spreads
 into  its widest base in Virginia, and, com-
prehending its  v arious lateral ridges, oc-
 cupies a superficies of nearly a hundred
miles in breadth.  The whole of this 
580
VIRGINIA.
breadth, however, is not actually covered
by mountains, but  embraces many  pic-
turesque,  salubrious and  fertile valleys.
The highest points  of the Blue  ridge
are the peaks of Otter, which are seen at
a great distance.   One of them  is re-
markable  for its symmetry, being cone-
shaped, and  terminating in a limestone
cube, whose upper surface is barely suffi-
cient to contain a dozen pereons.  It has
been supposed that these beautiful  peaks
are the highest  in the state,  computed
from the base; but the White Top peak of
the Iron mountain,  near the North Caro-
lina line, is now believed to be still more
elevated.  The different  portions of the
state  are  strikingly distinguished  from
each other in their appearance. The tide-
water, or  eastern section, is, in  general,
low, level, sandy and unproductive,  and
parts of it exhibit  almost  as desolate an
aspect as  the pine  barrens of Jersey.
Above the falls of the rivers, the outlines
of the country are bolder and more  pic-
turesque,  and the  soil,  if not generally
productive, is in most cases capable of
improvement. The alluvial lands, or riv-
er and creek  bottoms of this section, are
very fine; and those of the  James river
will  compare with any in the world for
fertility.   The valley  between the  Blue
ridge and Alleghany contains a consid-
erable proportion  of mountainous  and
sterile country; but no  part of the com-
monwealth presents larger tracts of fertile
and well-cultivated land.  West of the Al-
leghany, a large part of the country must
for ever continue in primitive forest.  It is
generally  mountainous and broken, inter-
spersed with fertile valleys, and occasional-
ly presenting rich bodies of limestone land.
   Geology and  Mineralogy.   Tracing a
line  from  the moutii  of Potomac  creek,
by the Bowling Green, and forks of the
Pamunkey, to Richmond, thence through
Petersburg and Hicksford to the Roanoke
near  Weldon, we  embrace, between  it
and  the ocean, only tertiary and alluvial
formations.   These contain oxides  of
iron, shells and marl,  bones of sharks,
whales and other fish, carbonated  wood,
and  the remains of vegetables.  Thence
to the Blue ridge,  the formation may be
regarded as essentially primitive, and pre-
sents most of the rocks ofthis denomina-
tion.   Two belts of transition and second-
ary formation have, however, been found
resting on the primitive rocks in this dis-
tance.  One of these is the sandstone
and  coal  formation of the counties of
Goochland, Powhatan and Chesterfield,
which is  supposed to continue through
the state  in  a direction parallel  to  its
mountains;  the other,  a narrow seam
of limestone, which has been found at
the base of the South-west mouutain, at
various  points  between  the  Potomac
and James  rivers,  and  which yields, in
several places where it  has been opened,
very beautiful marble.   In this primitive
region, various ores and metals have been
discovered;  among them,  iron  ore in
layers  and masses, black-lead, copper ore
and gold. A formation in which this last
metal  is  frequently found, it is now well
ascertained, extends from  near Freder-
icksburg,  on the  Rappahannock,  in  a
south-west direction, through this and the
adjoining states.  The dip of the rocks in
this region is usually about forty-five de-
grees.    West  of  the  Blue  ridge, the
countiy may be considered as divided by
a line sometimes corresponding with the
Alleghany mountains, but in the northern
part of the state passing east of them, and
south of the head-waters of the Roanoke,
stretching along the summits of the Brushy,
Clinch and  Garden mountains.  East of
this line, the primitive rocks appear only
at the tops of high ridges and mountains,
the intervals between, and slopes of the
mountain being generally transition, but
sometimes secondary formations.  Among
the rocks of this region are blue and gray
limestone, slate, sandstone, conglomerate
or pudding-stone, gypsum and buhr-stone.
Iron ore, of the best quality, is extensively
distributed in this portion of the state, and
valuable lead mines are worked in Wythe
county, near Austinville. The dip of the
rocks in this district is generally less than
in the primitive,  but  sometimes rises to
forty-five degrees.  West of the line above
described lies the great secondary forma-
tion of the  state.  The stratification is
more or  less undulating, but  in general
nearly horizontal.  This portion of the
state abounds in  mineral wealth.   Bitu-
minous coal  and  iron ore  are found al-
most every where.   Beds of limestone are
extensively distributed,  and the caverns
which abound in them furnish large quan-
tities of nitre;  and the  salt wells of the
Great  Kenawha and the Holston  are ri-
valled  only by those of Onondaga, in New
York,  in the  strength of their brine.
Whenever greater facility of access shall
be given to this district of country, it may-
be  confidently  predicted that  no part of
the U. States will  present larger rewards
to enterprise and industry.
  Mineral Waters.  The hydro-sulphur-
ous springs of Virginia have been long
celebrated.   In no part of the world, per- 
VIRGINIA.
581
 haps, are they surpassed for efficacy,  in
 most of the cases which result from de-
 rangement of the liver, and want of func-
 tion ofthis organ and the stomach. They
 are known by the appellation of the White,
 Salt and Red Sulphur springs, and are sit-
 uated, the former in the county of Green-
 brier, at the foot of the western slope of
 the Alleghany, and the two last in the
 county of Monroe.  All of them, particu-
 larly the White Sulphur, act, when taken
 in doses of  two or three glasses at a time,
 as an alterative, exercising  on the system
 much of the  salutary influence,  without
 the evil effects, of mercury.  Used in larger
 doses, they become  actively diuretic and
 purgative. The White Sulphur is more re-
 markable for the former, the Salt Sulphur
 for the latter property. The Red Sulphur,
 besides  the properties which it has  in
 common with the other two, is remarka-
 ble for  its  action  on the pulse,  which it
 reduces considerably in a short time.   It
 is this property which makes it so highly
 valuable in pulmonary affections.  None
 of these waters, it is believed, have been
 accurately analyzed.  The  Sweet springs
 are situated on  Pott's creek (a branch of
 James river), about twenty-two miles east
 of the Salt  Sulphur, and seventeen miles
 south-east of the White  Sulphur spring.
 They are of  the  class of waters called
 acidulous, and  are valuable as a tonic in
 cases of debility, and  in all the varieties
 of dyspepsia which  are unaccompanied
 by  inflammation.  Their temperature  is
 about seventy-three degrees.  In the same
 range of mountains  between  which the
 Sweet springs are situated, and from thir-
 ty-five to forty miles  north-north-east, are
 the thermal waters, known by the name
 of the Warm and Hot springs. The bath
 of the former has a temperature of about
 ninety-six degrees, the latter about one
 hundred and twelve degrees.   If the hy-
 dro-sulphurous waters above described are
 valuable in hepatic affections and dyspep-
 sia, the Warm and Hot baths are not less
 so  in rheumatic  and cutaneous  cases.
 Doctor  Bell, in describing these springs,
 observes: "All that has been performed by
 the Bristol,  Buxton  and Bath waters of
 England, may be safely claimed as of easy
 fulfilment by  the use  of the Virginia
 waters  just enumerated.   If to these
 springs, the Sweet,  the Warm  and the
 Hot, be added  the  White Sulphur, the
 Salt Sulphur and  the  Red Sulphur, we
 can safely challenge any district of coun-
 try  of the same extent in  the world as
that in which  these springs are situated,
to produce the same number and varie-
                49*
 ty, whether we have regard to their min
 eral impregnation or temperature; or the
 use of which shall be attended with more
 speedy, entire and permanent relief from
 a host of most distressing maladies."  Be-
 sides the above mineral waters, there are
 others, of more or less value, in different
 parts of Virginia.  The springs at Bath,
 in  Berkeley county, have similar proper-
 ties, with a temperature somewhat higher
 than  the Sweet springs.  In Bottetourt,
 Montgomery and Augusta, are also hydro-
 sulphurous waters, similar in character to
 the Sulphur  springs  of Greenbrier  and
 Monroe, but of less efficacy.
   Scenery and Natural  Curiosities.  The
 scenery of Virginia is in general highly
 picturesque.   Without  possessing  the
 combination of highland and water pros-
 pect, which gives such a  charm to the
 shores of the Hudson, or the soft lake
 scenery of the interior of New York, she,
 perhaps, surpasses even that  picturesque
 state  in the beauty of  her valleys and the
 grandeur of her mountains.  The James
 river valley offers, at  many points in the
 bold outline of its hills, and its broad  and
 fertile lowlands, images which remind the
 traveller of the rich scenery of the Loire
 and the Garonne ; and the  mountains of
 the state are strikingly distinguished, not
 only by an ever-varying succession of hill
 and vale, but by the beauty of their cov-
 ering, their cheerful growth of oak, chest-
 nut and lynn,  contrasting advantageously
 with that of the  mountainous districts of
 the Northern  and Eastern States.  The
 curiosities of Virginia form, to the travel-
 ler, objects of still more interest than its
 sceneiy.  Among them may be enumer-
 ated the passage of the Potomac through
 the Blue ridge, so happily described  by
 Mr. Jefferson, and that of the James river
 through  the  same mountain;  the cliffs
 of New river,  which  present,  for a dis-
 tance of twenty miles, a succession  of
 sublime scenery, rivalled, in our countiy,
 only by that of the Niagara, between the
 falls and Queenstown ; the celebrated nat-
 ural bridge, " the most sublime of nature's
 works;" the Warm and Hot springs,  no-
 ticed under the preceding head ; the Burn-
 ing springs of  Kenawha, and the exten-
 sive and beautiful caverns  in  the  lime-
stone  districts of the state.  Among these
last  is one  of surpassing  interest  and
beauty: it is denominated Weyer's cave,
 from its discoverer, and  is situated in  the
county of Augusta, near the little village
of Port Republic.  The description given
by Goldsmith of the grotto of Antiparos,
seems almost literally to apply to this in- 
j.82
VIRGINIA.
teresting work of nature, which presents,
for a distance of half a mile, a series of
apartments, some of them of great extent
and majestic height, incrusted with crys-
tals, and glittering with the most beautiful
stalactites.  We feel, in traversing them, as
if we were visiting one of those enchanted
palaces, in which the knights of chivalry
were spell-bound, or gazing on one of the
scenes so  vividly portrayed  in  the Ara-
bian tales.   A  cave  on Jackson's river,
near Covington, is said to be much more
extensive and intricate, though perhaps
not so beautiful, as that just mentioned.
There is also a natural bridge in the south-
west  part of the state,  which  bears no
comparison, in  grace  of proportion,  or
grandeur of effect, to the one in  Rock-
bridge.  In Hampshire county there is an
ice mountain, which is very remarkable.
On its north-west side, the surface is cov-
ered by loose rocks, which being removed
to  the depth of about three feet, presents
an abundance of ice at all seasons of the
year.   The  most  noted cataract  in  the
state is that of the Falling spring,  in  the
county of Alleghany.  The stream is of
sufficient volume, a few yards from its
source, to turn a mill-wheel; and about a
mile below it has a perpendicular descent
of 200 feet, down a precipice of calcare-
ous rock.  Before it reaches the bottom,
it  is almost converted into vapor, and the
temperature is much reduced. The stream
unites with Jackson's river, about two
miles below the cataract.  The lake in
Giles county not  having been embraced
in  any written  account  of* the state,  de-
serves to be noticed.  It presents the cu-
rious spectacle of a  beautiful sheet of
water, a mile and a half in circumference,
and a hundred fathoms deep, on the sum-
mit of a lofty  mountain. Some  of the
aged people in the neighborhood remem-
ber when its bottom was a spot of marshy
ground, covered with  oak and pine, and
much frequented by deer and elk, in pur-
suit, as was supposed,  of salt.  In pro-
cess of time, a small pond was formed in
the centre, increasing slowly at firet, until
a stream, which had its source high in the
mountain, suddenly ceased to flow.   Af-
terwards, the lake rose rapidly, and, cov-
ering the highest trees, finally ascended to
the mountain top, where it overflows at a
single point below the general level.  The
water is not saline, as  is generally sup-
posed, but pure and potable.  It abounds
in lizards, but no fish have been  discov-
ered.  The idea which prevails of its al-
ternate riBe and  fall is erroneous.  This
lake is 3700 feet  above  the level of the
ocean.  Lake Drummond, in the Dismal
swamp, is  about  seven miles in  extent,
and  about  twenty-four feet  above tide-
water. Its waters are cool, strongly tinged
with juniper,  and pleasant  and  whole-
some to drink.  If our limits allowed, the
ebbing and flowing springs of Washing-
ton county, and Cow-pasture valley, the
carved or calico rock of Kenawha, and va-
rious other curiosities in the state, would
merit particular description.
  Internal Improvements. The Virginians
are said to be privileged  to have bad
roads.  Supposing such a privilege to ex-
ist, they have certainly availed themselves
of it largely.   In none of the Atlantic
states, in proportion  to their extent and
population, has so little been done to im-
prove the common highways of the coun-
try.  To improvements of a  higher class,
the people  and their public  agents  have
not been indifferent  Two highly valuable
canals have been constructed, and are now
in successful operation.  One of these, the
Dismal swamp canal,  is twenty-two and
a half miles long by sixty feet wide, and
seven feet deep, and connects the naviga-
ble waters  of the Chesapeake bay  with
those of Albemarle  sound.   The other,
the James river canal, extends from Rich-
mond, about  thirty miles up the  James
river  valley.   This  work is  among the
best  executed of our countiy, and will
probably be extended, in a few years, to
Lynchburg, aud perhaps to the foot of the
Alleghany,  whence  a rail-road of 140
miles in length would connect the canal
with steam-boat navigation on the Kena-
wha.  Besides these,  there  are  several
other canals of less extent.  Among them
are the Blue  ridge  canal,  about  seven
miles long and thirty feet wide, overcom-
ing a fall of one hundred feet in the river;
the Roanoke canal, a work  of the  same
extent, around the falls of the Roanoke;
and the Appomattox and Rappahannock
canals, similar works near Petersburg and
Fredericksburg.  Rail-roads, though  of
but  late  introduction  in the U.  States,
have • attracted considerable  attention in
Virginia  One of these has been lately-
executed near Richmond, the results  of"
which are more brilliant, in proportion to
its extent, than those of any similar work
in the Union.  It is about thirteen miles
long, and  connects  the coal mines  of
Chesterfield with tide-water.  The whole
capital invested in it,  including cars  for
transportation, stables  and  horses, was
$150,000.  The trade on it is already fifty
thousand tons per  annum,  and the  re-
ceipts for transportation during the pros- 
VIRGINIA.
583
ent year will,  it is  understood, be about
$70,000.  The stock is, of couree, largely
above par.  A second rail-road, of greater
extent, is now  in active progress between
Petersburg and the Roanoke.  It will be
sixty miles long, and  will connect, when
completed, the Roanoke  navigation with
the town of Petersburg.  The first thirty-
five miles ofthis improvement will be in
operation in   the course of the  present
year (1832), and the whole work  will be
completed  by the  beginning of 1834.
Other  rail-roads  are  proposed, and  will
probably soon be executed.  In 1816, the
legislature  created  a  "fund for internal
improvement," the capital  of which, in
1831, amounted  to  $1,500,000, and the
revenue of the  year  to  about* $90,000.
Out of the annual income, the state con-
tributes, in aid of valuable improvements,
two fifths of the capital stock, leaving the
residue to individual subscription.   The
great line of improvement between James
river and  Kenawha has been managed
exclusively by state authority since 1820;
but the last  general  assembly (1831—2)
incorporated a joint-stock company,  with
a capital of $5,000,000 (the state taking
two fifths), and gave  it ample powers to
establish a more perfect communication,
bycontinued canals and rail-ways, between
the  waters of the  James and the Ohio.
If the  scheme should be successful, its
influence upon the future destinies of the
state will be  incalculable.  But it would
lengthen this  article too far to point out
the many natural advantages of Virginia,
and her  many facilities for  developing
them.   It  seems to  be  always the  wise
economy of nature to leave something to
be effected by the industiy  and enter-
prise of man.   When  these shall  have
developed, to their  full  extent, the re-
sources of this state, it may be confidently
anticipated  that  she will rival the  most
flourishing of her sisters in  wealth and
prosperity.
   Agriculture, Manufactures, &c.   The
agriculture ofthis state is various, but, for
the most part, badly conducted.   The old
 practice t>f clearing and cultivating land
every year until exhausted, then turning
 it out to recover from its own resources,
still continues in many places. In others,
the thrce-shifl sysh»>n prevails; that  is,  1.
 a crop of Indian corn; 2.  wheat, rye  or
 oats;  3. the year of rest, as it is called,  in
 which the spontaneous vegetation  fur-
 nishes  a  scanty  subsistence to stock;
 after which the soil is again subjected  to
 the scourging process of cropping, while
 little attention is paid to the application
of manures, or  the culture of artificial
grasses.  This destructive system, for the
most part, prevails from the sea-board to
the head of tide-water, and on the south
side of James river as far as the  Blue
ridge.  On the  north side of that river,
cultivation  is  better, particularly in the
counties approaching the Potomac.   Ro-
tations of crops are attended to; grass-
seeds, most commonly red clover  (trifoli-
um pratense) are sown on the small grain;
and animal and vegetable manures are
saved with care, and judiciously applied.
Gypsum is  also used, and with powerful
effect.   In the Valley district, agriculture
is also well  conducted;  and irrigated
meadows are abundant  and  productive.
On both sides of the Blue ridge, maize,
or Indian com, wheat, lye, oats and buck-
wheat are the principal grain  crops.  To-
bacco  is extensively cultivated in  Eastern
Virginia, but sparingly in the Valley, and
that chiefly  in its southern portion.   The
grass-seeds  common to both  regions are
red clover  (trifolium pratense),  orchard
grass   (dactyhs   glomerata),   timothy
(phleum pratense) and herd-grass (alope-
curus  pratensis), the  two former on dry,
the latter on  moist soils.  In the eastern
and southern districts, cotton is planted
to  some extent.  On  the shores of tho
Chesapeake,  barley  and  the castor-oil
bean (ricinus communis) are  cultivated;
and, on some of the best lands above tide-
water, hemp is raised to  advantage.  The
trans-Alleghany country, being exceeding-
 ly mountainous and remote from market, is
 chiefly devoted  to the raising of live stock.
 Very  little  more  grain  is raised than  is
 necessary to supply the country itself, and
 the travellers and stock-drovere who pass
 through it.   The climate  and soil being
 favorable,   the   pastures  are excellent
 The greensward (poa viridis) and white
 clover (trifolium repens) spring up sponta-
 neously wherever the timber is removed
 or deadened, and, on rich  ground, are
 very luxuriant.   Of the  profits of agricul-
 ture in  Virginia, it is difficult to speak
 with  precision.  In very many instances,
 it  yields a bare subsistence to the culti-
 vator ; in others, a net income of two  or
 three per cent.  But, where the land is in
 good  heart,  the  convertible  husbandry
 practised, aud wheat and tobacco are the
 chief products, there is  no doubt that,
 with  slave labor, a profit of from six  to
 eight per cent may be annually derived
 from  the capital invested.  For this result,
 however, great activity and  attention are
 necessary on  the part  of  the  owner.
 Lands in the Valley, where there  are com- 
531                              VIRGINIA.

paratively few slaves, sell higher than on  vations have been made, either at public
the eastern side of the Blue ridge;  and  seminaries  or by private  citizens.  The
the general appearance of the country is  diary of an intelligent gentleman at Rich-
more prosperous, although the soil is, for  mond exhibits the following table of mean
the most  part, inferior;  the climate de-  temperature  for the years stated.   His
cidedly so; running streams less frequent;  later observations are incomplete.
and  communication  with markets more  Average Tem-
difficult and expensive.  In 1831, accord-   peraiure in         Morning.  Noon.  Night
ing to official returns, 44,529 hogsheads    1824             . 49ij     65    55
of tobacco were delivered from the sever-    1825'            '. 48 J     645   54i
al warehouses in the state  for export  and    1826' ".           *. 48-.     65    54
manufacture;  and, during the year which    1827' '            50A     65    55
ended in June, 1832, upwards of 544,000        '.......  *
barrels of flour passed the various inspec-  This table exhibits a striking approxima-
tions.  The quantity of flour inspected is,  tion  in  the results  of each  year.  The
however, a very uncertain index  to the  monthly calculations upon which it is
total product  Some of the Virginia flour,  founded, if compared with five years' ob-
and especially the  Richmond brand, has  servations made by  Mr. Jefferson at Wil-
acquired great celebrity in South Ameri-  liamsburg, from 1772 to 1777, will author-
ca and elsewhere.  Most of the  vegetable  ize the conclusion that the climate of low-
productions found in the  Middle  and  er Virginia has undergone a considerable
some of the Southern States are common  change  in the last half century.  Accord-
also to Virginia.  West of the Alleghany,  ing to  Mr. Jefferson, the average daily
the sugar maple  grows in abundance,  range of the thermometer,  in the  five
There are some excellent native grapes,  yeare mentioned, did not exceed from 5°
the culture of which will claim greater at-  to 7°; whereas, from 1824 to 1827 inclu-
tention, since the winters have been found  sive, the average variation was 16°.  Rich-
toosevere for the foreign vine.—Fewcoun-  mond and  Williamsburg  are sixty miles
tries possess greater facilities for manufac-  distant, and except that the latter is nearer
turing; the raw material of almost every  the ocean, and within the influence of its
kind, labor sufficiently cheap and abun-  breeze, the difference in temperature must
dant, inexhaustible supplies  of  fuel,  and  be inconsiderable.  That  the  climate is
water power without limit.  Yet, with all  much more fluctuating than formerly ac-
these advantages,  planting and farming  cords with the experience of most persons
will long be the favorite pursuits.   In the  advanced in years.  The  changes are
northern and  north-western parts of the  more sudden and violent: the heats of
state, and in some of the principal towns,  summer, especially  in latter  yeare, are
valuable manufactories are established of  more intense, and the winter cold more
cotton and woollen cloths, glass, iron, &c.  severe  for  short periods.  The spring is
The Kenawha salt-works produce annu-  exceedingly  inconstant;   but  the latter
ally about 1,000,000  bushels, and those  part of autumn, particularly in the upper
of the Holston about 100,000.             countiy, is a fine and delightful  season.
   Climate.  In a  countiy of such great  The Indian summer, which seldom fails to
extent, and of so uneven  a surface, there  occur late in  the fall, or in early winter, is
is, of couree, great diversity of climate.  It  distinguished by a golden  haze, and most
is believed that few meteorological obser-  agreeable temperature.

                                  Population.
       By the census of 1830, the free white population amounted to  694,300
                "        "       free colored      «        "         47,348
                "        "       slaves           "        «        469,757
                                   Total,..............1,211,405
       In 1800, the free white males numbered......514,280
           «      free colored         "      ......  20,12 *
           "      slaves              «      ......345,796 — 880,200
       Increase in thirty years,.......................331,205
                        or thirty-seven and a half per cent.

 In the same  period, the  free whites in-  and the slaves, 123,961, or 36 per cent.
 creased 180,020, or 35 per cent.; the free  For the ten  years  preceding the  census
 colored persons 27,224, or 135 per cent;  of 1830, the rate of increase of the whole 
VIRGINIA.
58*5
population diminished considerably, and
the relative increase of the several classes
varied from the foregoing results.  On the
whole population, the rate was reduced
from  37 £ to  13_f per cent; on the free
white, from  35 to 15 per cent.; on the
free colored,  from 135 to 28i per cent.;
and on the  slaves from 36  to  10i per
cent.   It is to be observed, however, that,
while the black  population of the whole
state  has been  diminishing, when  com-
pared with the  white, the reverse is trae
in respect to Eastern  Virginia, which  is
peculiarly the slave region; for, while,  in
1790,  there was in that district a majority
of 25,000 whites, the slave and free color-
ed population outnumbered them at every
successive census, until, in 1830, the ex-
cess was upwards of 81,000.  The facts
thus exhibited show that Western Virginia,
which contains comparatively few slaves,
has rapidly increased its white population
in  the last ten yeare, the rate of increase
amounting to 25 per cent.;  while, on the
eastern side of the mountains, the increase
of the whites, in the same period, did not
exceed 7«_  per cent.   The greater multi-
plication  of  blacks in Eastern Virginia,
notwithstanding constant deportation  to
the Southern and South-western States,
may be partly ascribed to the mild treat-
ment  which  they generally receive  from
their  owners.  On the other hand, the
evil effects of slavery, and  the  policy of
adopting some scheme for gradual aboli-
tion, are  topics  which have been freely
and earnestly discussed, and have already
arrayed the Virginians into two powerful
parties.  The slow progress of the white
population, compared with some of the
other  states,  when so many  propitious
causes exist for its advancement, has been
urged as a prominent objection to slavery.
Indeed, the march of its aggregate popu-
lation has fallen far short of the  predic-
tions of former times.  Mr. Jefferson,  in
his Notes, which  were written in  1782,
estimated that the then existing stock, un-
aided  by foreign  emigration,  would  be
multiplied to  2,270,000 by the year 1835,
exceeding, by upwards of a million, the
result of the last  census.  That the in-
crease of numbers has been restrained by
powerful  checks seems reasonable; but
to point out their true character and  ope-
ration, belongs rather to the department
of moral and  political philosophy.
  Education.   The general assembly, in
1810,  established  the literary fund, by
dedicating the  proceeds of all escheats,
fines  and  forfeitures to  the encourage-
ment  of learning.  In 1816, the fund was
increased by the liberal grant of the debt
due from the general government  on ac-
count of advances made by the state to
carry on the war with England. In 1831,
the fund, from these various sources,
amounted to $1,581,870.  Its annual rev-
enue  is about $75,000.  Out  of  the  U.
States' debt, the legislature made a dona-
tion of $230,000 in aid of the  university
of Virginia, established at Charlottesville,
and, moreover, set apart an annuity of
$15,000 out of the revenue  of the  fund
towards the same object.  The sum  of
$45,000 has also been annually appropri-
ated to the several  counties in the ratio of
their white population, for the sole  benefit
and  instruction of poor children  in the
elements  of  learning.   The  primary
school system  has been  modified  and
improved from time to time, and is  now
placed under the management of the sec-
ond auditor, who rendere an annual report
to the legislature,  founded upon the re-
turns of the county commissioners.  In
1830, 14,169 poor  children were sent to
school, for each of whom the average ex-
pense  of  tuition within the  year was
$2:82,  and the average  daily  sum less
than four cents.   Although tiie  public
bounty is confined  to the offspring of in-
digent parents, a plan is in operation  by
which   contributions  may be  received
from individuals in aid of the establish-
ment of schools open to all classes of pu-
pils ; and  strong hope is entertained that
the  experiment will prove  successful.
Notwithstanding the  difficulties  which
oppose  any uniform and perfect scheme
of   elementary   instruction—difficulties
which arise from  the mixed population
of one portion  of the state, and the thinly-
settled and rugged surface of the other—
experience has already demonstrated the
great utility of the existing system; and
thousands,  who might  have  grown to
manhood in utter ignorance, have  at least
been grounded in the rudiments of use-
ful knowledge.  The univereity of Vir-
ginia, situated  near the seat of Mr. Jeffer-
son, and the favorite object of his care
while living, has a  noble building, or rath-
er collection of buildings, suited  to the
accommodation of nine  professors, and
upwards of 200  students.  The  latter,
however,  though   gradually increasing,
have at no time exceeded 140.  The  insti-
tution is furnished  with a valuable  library,
philosophical  apparatus, &c.   William
and Mary college,  the most ancient semi-
nary in the  state, and the alma mater of
many  distinguished  Virginians,  is  still
prosperous.  It has five professors, a li- 
586
VIRGINIA.
brary of 3 or 4000 volumes, a philosophi-
cal and chemical  apparatus, and  funds
amounting  to   upwards   of $130,000.
Hampden Sydney college,  in Prince Ed-
ward county, and  Washington college,
in Rockbridge county, are  both flourish-
ing institutions;  and, besides these, a col-
lege has been lately founded at Boydtown,
in Mecklenburg, under favorable auspices.
Under this  head, it may be mentioned
that the state has a valuable public libra-
ry at  the  seat of government, containing
6500 volumes in the various departments
of science and literature.
  Religion.   Although the  bill of rights,
in 1776, declared that all men were equal-
ly entitled to the free exercise of religion,
according to the dictates of conscience,
yet the first constitution contained no ex-
press provision on the subject.  The legis-
lature, in 1785, passed an act for establish-
ing religious freedom, and subsequently
repealed all  laws  which recognised the
Protestant Episcopal church  as the legal
establishment.  The glebe lands, and oth-
er church property, were  vested in the
overseers of the poor for charitable uses,
reserving  only to the living  incumbents
an estate  for  life, and exempting the
church buildings from confiscation.  The
new constitution of 1830 fully recognises
absolute religious freedom as a part of the
fundamental law. The Episcopal church,
which, after the loss of its revenues, suffer-
ed almost total extinction in Virginia, has
revived, in the last twenty years, by the
voluntary support of its friends, and  is
now  distinguished  by  numerous  and
wealthy members,  and  by a pious and
intelligent clergy.   In 1831, the number
of  ministers in  the state, including two
bishops, was 59, churches, 58, and 2840
communicants.  In the  same  year, the
Presbyterians numbered 94 ministers,  of
whom 14  were licentiates;  105 churches,
and 7950 communicants:  the Method-
ists, 131 ministers, and  39,058 commu-
nicants, of whom 4731 were colored peo-
ple :  the  Baptists, 236 ministers, includ-
ing 20  licentiates, 370 churches, or con-
gregations, and 45,703 communicants, of
whom it is conjectured that one half are
blacks : the  Catholics, 5 ministers, and
10 congregations;  but the number  of lay
members  is  not ascertained.  It will be
perceived that the Baptists and Method-
ists  are the  most  numerous sects in the
etate; and the estimate does not include
a considerable number of separatists from
both communions.  Besides  these,  there
are Friends, Lutherans, Duukers, Unita-
rians, Jews, &c, &c, scattered through
the state,  whose numbers are not accu-
rately known.   The Presbyterians have a
theological seminary in Prince Edward,
and the Episcopalians  one near Alexan-
dria,  both of  which  institutions  have
flourished  by  private  liberality.  The
state, in its political capacity, has always
manifested a strong jealousy of all eccle-
siastical establishments; yet the Virgini-
ans are generous in private contributions
towards objects of religion and benevo-
lence. Sunday schools, and societies  for
promoting temperance, African coloniza-
tion, &c,  have been extensively  patron-
ised in latter years, and the vice of open
infidelity is now much less prevalent than
formerly.
  Finances.  The revenue of the state is
principally derived from taxes on  land,
slaves, horses, carriages, merchants' and
other licenses,  aud judicial proceedings.
In 1817, the land, with its improvements,
was revalued at upwards of $206,000,000,
and the average price per acre, including
town property, was a fraction more than
$6.  In 1831, the public income,  besides
the profits derived from specific funds de-
voted to education and internal improve-
ment, amounted to $452,000, and the gov-
ernment  expenditure  to $434,000:  the
n u mber of taxable slaves, 245,750;  11 orses,
282,864, and pleasure coaches, 2982. The
state taxes, compared with the public re-
sources, are very moderate.  The  county
levies for  supporting  the poor, erecting
jails, and defraying other local  expenses,
are more burdensome.   Permanent capi-
tal of the literary fund, $1,531,870 ; reve-
nue of 1831, $73,103:  capital of the fund
for internal  improvement,  $1,428,961 ;
revenue of 1831, $91,562.
  Provision for Crimes,  Pauperism, &c.
There is but one penitentiary in the state,
and that at the  seat of government.  The
building  is spacious, containing  various
workshops, manufactories, &c.   The in-
stitution is well managed, and the labor
of the convicts productive.  There were
1690 convicts received from 1800 to 1831,
of whom 84 were sentenced  for second
and  third  offences.  In 1831, the  number
of convicts was 167, of whom 122 were
white males,  1 white  female, 39 black
males, and 5  black  females: 44 were
natives of other states and countries  be-
sides Virginia.   Jails are erected in every
county in the state, each having separate
apartments for debtors and  criminals.
They are  under the inspection and super-
vision of  the superior courts.  The poor
are supported by compulsory assessments
in  each county.  In  a majority of  tl»e 
VIRGINIA.                              587
 counties, poor-houses have been erected:
 in the residue, the paupers are maintained
 at private  dwellings.  According to the
 official returns for 1829, the whole num-
 ber  of paupers was 4283, of whom  176
 were pereons of color.   Amount of poor
 rates assessed, $124,214, or an average of
 $29  for each pauper.   There are two
 lunatic asylums, one at Williamsburg, and
 the  other  at  Staunton, both erected and
 maintained at  the public expense:  in
 1831, total number of patients 83, besides
 many in the  county jails, and  in  private
 dwellings,  the  hospitals being full.  The
 legislature has made no provision for the
 support  and education of deaf mutes, al-
 though, in 1825, the chief magistrate in-
 vited public attention to the subject.  By
 the  census of 1830, it appears  that there
 were 654 of that unfortunate class of be-
 ings in  the state,  of  whom  522 were
 whites, and only 132 blacks, being in the
 proportion  of  one out of  every  1330
 whites, and one out of every 3917 slaves
 and free colored pereons.   Out  of 819
 blind persons in the state, the largest pro-
 portion, or 445, belong to  the  colored
 class.
   Militia.   According to the official re-
 turns for 1831, the effective military force
 of the state was as follows:—
   General  staff,...........    102
   Cavalry,  .............   7,075
   Artillery,.............   5,733
   Grenadiers,  infantry  of   the
     line &c,.....*.......88,578
   Making, in the aggregate,. .  .  101,488
 being about one out of every seven of the
 white population.
  Miscellaneous.   Four principal banks
 and  seventeen branches are  located  in
 various  parts of the state.   In 1831, the
 aggregate  capital  stock  amounted  to
 $5,607,100;    notes   in    circulation,
 $4,114,715;  specie, $832,462:49;  bills
 discounted, $8,985,303:  post-offices in the
 Btate, 743; foreigners not naturalized, 756;
 whole number  of  newspapere, 51, of
 which 26 are published east, and 25 west,
 of the Blue ridge ; three are theological,
 and  48  commercial and political.   Pe-
 riodicals exclusively literary have been
 very little patronised.
   Government and Laws.  The new con-
 stitution of 1830 was adopted, after a sharp
 conflict upon various points.  In the con-
 vention, a kind of compromise was effect-
ed between contending parties, by which,
whatever may be considered as the extent
of concession on either side, it  is certain
that  a more just and equal representation
 was established in tiie legislature.  This
 body is  composed  of two branches, the
 senate and house of delegates, the former
 consisting  of 32, and the latter  of 134,
 membere.  Thirteen senators and 51 del-
 egates are apportioned to Western, and 19
 senators  and 83 delegates to Eastern, Vir-
 ginia ; and, after the year 1841, the  legis-
 lature  (two thirds of each house concur-
 ring) may  re-apportion the  senators and
 delegates throughout the commonwealth,
 so  that the former shall not at any time
 exceed 36,  nor the latter 150.  The repre-
 sentation in congress is to be arranged up-
 on  the federal principle of numbers, add-
 ing three fifths of the slaves to the whole
 number of free persons.  Senators must
 have attained the age of thirty, and dele-
 gates twenty-five; and both must be resi-
 dents and freeholders in their respective
 election  districts.   All persons  holding
 lucrative offices, and ministers of the gos-
 pel, are  ineligible to  either house.  The
 general assembly shall meet once a year,
 or oftener, if necessaiy.  All laws  origi-
 nate in the house of delegates.   Various
 restrictions are imposed upon the  legisla-
 ture, intended to secure the freedom of
 religion, of speech, and of the press, the
 privilege of the writ of habeas corpus, &c.;
 but express power is conferred to disfran-
 chise persons  guilty  of duelling.  The
 right of suffrage, under tiie new constitu-
 tion, is extended to lessees,  house-keepers,
 &c, and may be  exercised by  almost
 every citizen. All elections are conducted
 viva voce.   The chief executive power  is
 vested in a governor, chosen by the gen-
 eral assembly for three years, and render-
 ed  ineligible  for three yeare after the ex-
 piration of his term.   He is assisted by a
 council of  three, with whom he must ad-
 vise, but may disregard their advice. The
 senior counsellor is  lieutenant-governor.
 The judicial power is vested in a supreme
 court of appeals, in tiie county justices, and
 in such superior courts as  the legislature
 may from  time to  time establish.  The
judges of the court of appeals and superi-
 or courts are elected by the general as-
 sembly, and hold their offices during good
 behavior, but may be removed by joint
 vote of the legislature, two thirds of the
 membere present in each house concur-
 ring.   The supreme court of appeals,
 consisting of five judges, holds its sessions
 alternately at the seat of government and
 at Lewisburg, in Western Virginia, and is
 the court of dernier  resort in all civil
 causes at common law, and in chancery
removed  from inferior tribunals.   The
circuit superior courts are held twice  a 
588
VIRGINIA.
year in each county of the commonwealth;
and the state is divided into ten  districts
and twenty circuits, to each of which cir-
cuits one judge is assigned.  They have
cognizance of all  causes at common law
and in chancery, and of all  crimes and
misdemeanors. One half of the judges
assemble alternately at the seat of govern-
ment in the months of July and  Decem-
ber, and constitute  the  general  court,
which has  cognizance  of all   criminal
causes brought before it by writ of error,
and entertains all motions against public
debtors  and  defaulters.    The   county
courts possess not only very extensive ju-
risdiction as tribunals of justice, but exer-
cise considerable authority in matters of
police, and other  local concerns.  Their
services are  altogether gratuitous,  and
their powers are dispensed with a kind of
patriarchal simplicity, which rendere them
a popular branch of  the judicial system.
The common law of England,  modified
by successive statutes, is the basis of the
Virginia code.  Conforming to  the spirit
of free institutions, the abolition of entails,
and of the  law of primogeniture,  were
among the earliest alterations in the Eng-
lish system.   The criminal code has been
likewise  ameliorated from  time  to  time,
until now there are but few offences for
which capital punishment is inflicted.
  History.   A brief sketch of the colonial
history of Virginia is all that our limits
will permit   The final departure of cap-
tain Smith from the  colony, in 1609 (see
Smith, John), was  followed  by the disas-
ters which always attended even  the tem-
porary absence of that extraordinary man.
Riot and  insubordination  terminated in
famine and extreme suffering, insomuch
that, on the arrival of Gates, Somers and
Newport,  who were despatched  from
England about six months after Smith's
return to that countiy, only sixty survivors
remained out  of a flourishing colony of
500 souls.   Discouraged by  misfortune,
this  miserable remnant  determined to
abandon the scene of their calamities, and
had actually embarked for England, when
they were  met by  lord  Delawar, who
prevailed on them to return, and recom-
mence their career at Jamestown.   For
ten yeare after this event, the  colony con-
tinued to advance in  prosperity, and con-
siderably extended its limits.  Its stability
and domestic  happiness were greatly in-
creased by the introduction, in 1620 and
the following year,  of  160  females, of
humble  fortune and  spotless character,
who became wives to the planters, at the
moderate price, fixed by the London com-
pany, of  150  pounds of tobacco.  About
the same time, another event occurred,
the ultimate consequences of  which it  is
difficult to foretell: a Dutch vessel enter-
ed  James river, and  sold to the colonists
twenty African slaves, thereby giving rise
to that peculiar condition of society which
distinguishes  the  Southern States.  As
the colony continued to grow in extent
and population, inferior courts were es-
tablished  for the cheap and convenient
administration of justice.  Hence sprung
the ancient county court system which
now exists.   The colony did not  long en-
joy unmixed  prosperity.  Various causes
had conspired to lull all suspicion of In-
dian  treachery and  vengeance; but,  in
1622, the savages made a sudden and se-
cret irruption, in which 347 whites, in-
cluding women and children, were horri-
bly massacred.  The gratitude of a do-
mesticated Indian alone saved the whole
from  extermination.    A vindictive war
followed this act of aggression; public
improvements were  abandoned; the set-
tlements were  reduced in number, and
scarcity once more prevailed to an alarm-
ing degree.  Relief was generously de-
spatched  from England; but, the king's
jealousy being about that time awakened
by the freedom of discussion which pre-
vailed in  corporate  bodies, and  availing
himself further of the frequent reverses of
the colony, he dissolved the Virginia com-
pany, and revested  its privileges in the
crown.   The entire direction  of the colo-
ny was confided to a governor and twelve
counsellors, appointed by special commis-
sion., Charles I adopted his father's poli-
cy, with such hateful additions, that, in a
fit  of popular rage,  the colonists seized
their governor, sir John Harvey,  and sent
him a prisoner to England, attended by
deputies to represent their wrongs.  The
critical  condition of the monarch, rather
than his sense of justice, procured a re-
dress of grievances.   Harvey  was  dis-
placed, and sir William Berkeley sent  as
his successor.  This act of the crown, to-
gether with the call of an assembly, con-
verted the Virginians into loyal  subjects.
Force only compelled them to yield  to
Cromwell's government; and, after the
death of Matthews, the usurper's vicege-
rent,  they proclaimed Charles II as king,
before intelligence of his restoration had
been received from England.   Sir Wil-
liam  Berkeley was reinstated as govern-
or ; but, during  the  despotic  reign  of
Charles, so many causes of discontent ac-
cumulated, that they finally ripened into
an  actual rebellion, headed by Nathaniel 
VIRGINIA- VISCONTI.
589
Bacon, a member of the governor's coun-
cil, and a young gentleman of fine educa-
tion  and talents.  After various outrages
and calamities incident to civil war, includ-
ing the destruction of Jamestown by the
insurgents, the death of Bacon delivered
the colony from the evils which threaten-
ed its existence.  Berkeley resumed the
government,  but  shortly afterwards re-
turned to  England, leaving Herbert Jef-
fries his successor.  A long  period of
prosperous tranquillity succeeded.  The
settlement  of the  countiy extended be-
yond the mountains, and it was not until
175;-!, that the hostile encroachments of
the  French kindled a war, and involv-
ed the colony again  in  its  calamities.
The events of that period, during  which
the courage and conduct of the  youthful
Washington  afforded a presage of his
future renown,—as well  as the causes
which led to the overthrow of the British
power,—belong rather to the general de-
partment  of American histoiy.   Virginia
gave birth to many illustrious men, who
took a decided part against the  mother
countiy, and shared in the common sac-
rifices, toils and  triumphs of the revolu-
tionary* struggle.
   Virginia  University,  at  Charlottes-
ville, had, in 1831, nine instructers, 130
students, and a library of 8000 volumes.
This institution has  ample funds, and is
very well  furnished  with  philosophical
apparatus.   (See Charlottesville.)
  Virgins,  Eleven  Thousand.   (See
Ursula, St.)
  Viriathus, or Viriathes ; a brave Lu-
sitanian, who maintained a long straggle
against the Romans  in  defence of his
country.   The Roman pretor,  Servi*'s
Galba, had driven the Lusitanians, bj n>s
cruelties, to a revolt, when Viriathi*s, who
had  originally been a huntsman, <i»d after-
wards a robber, placed himse^i at the head
of his  countrymen, and defeated the Ro-
mans with such decisive success, that but
few  of those who were engaged in the
battle escaped.  New forces were repeat-
edly sent against him ; but the Romans ex-
 Kerienced several additional defeats, and
 letellus  a*me  was more fortunate.  It
was  finalty thought expedient, therefore,
to acknowledge Viriathus  as  the inde-
pendent sovereign ofLusitania (Portugal),
and  to conclude an  alliance  with him.
But the Romans soon perfidiously broke
the treaty, and Servilius Caepio,  the Ro-
man  commander, had  this  formidable
enemy put out of his way  by an act of
treachery.  Thus fell Viriathus,  by the
hands of assassins, after a fourteen years'
  vol. xn.         50
victorious contest, in the year of Rome
612.
  Visconti ;  an old Milanese family,cel-
ebrated, during the middle ages and in
modern times, by its political consequence
and by its patronage  of science.  Of the
origin  of the family and  the  name, we
have no certain accounts; but some derive
the former from the old Lombard kings,
and the latter from the pretended right
of its members to put the crown upon
the head of the kings of Italy.  Histoiy
makes mention  of the  Visconti  in the
eleventh century; but they disappear from
the time of the destruction of Milan by
Frederic Barbarossa,  when, with some
other noble families, they were obliged to
yield to the superior power of the opposite
party, the Torriani, or family Della Torre.
The firet of the Visconti, who laid the
foundation of their greatness,  was Otho,
archbishop  of Milan (died 1258), who
gained the ascendency over his enemies,
and bequeathed his power to his nephew,
Matteo (died 1322).  The latter was, how-
ever, driven into banishment by the Tor-
riani, but, after living in exile seven years,
had  the address  to  obtain  the  title of
imperial governor,  which he  soon ex-
changed for  that of prince   of  Milan.
Matteo transmitted me supreme power to
his eldest son,  Oaleazzo, who  was over-
powered by  bis enemies,  among whom
were his ovn brothers, and thrown into
prison  by Louis of Bavaria, in 1327. He
died, soon after his release from confine-
ment,  at Brescia.  His  son Azzo, who
succeeded him, and increased  the extent
of his  dominions, was  not less  distin-
guished for his pacific virtues than  for
his military talents, and died in 1329, in
the thirty-seventh year of his age, regret-
ted by  his subjects.  As he  left  no son,
his uncle Lucchino succeeded him. The
latter extended still farther the  dominions
of the  family, and  was the first of the
name who was distinguished as a patron
of science  and art.   He  maintained  a
correspondence with  Petrarch, whom he
knew  how to  appreciate, and was not
ashamed to sacrifice to the muses him-
self*, as is proved by a sonnet of his com-
position, which  has  been preserved by
Crescimbeni.   After his death, in 1349,
his brother Giovanni (died 1354),  arch-
bishop  of Milan,  assumed the reins of
government  He reduced Genoa, and was
a zealous patron of letters.  He appointed
a commission of six learned men to com-
pose a  commentary on  Dante, fostered
the university of Bologna, and received
Petrarch,  on  his  arrival at Milan, with 
590
VISCONTI.
the highest  marks  of distinction.   Gio-
vanni was succeeded  by his nephews,
Matteo II, Bernabb, and Galeazzo II.  Mat-
teo died within  a  year ; and  his two
brothers, though  eminent for their war-
like talents,  rendered  themselves obnox-
ious  by their cruelty  and  other  vices.
Galeazzo, however, deserves praise for
his encouragement of letters.  He  con-
tinued to treat Petrarch with the  same
respect that  his predecessors had shown
him, and employed  him in several nego-
tiations.  The  poet always  mentioned
him  with esteem and gratitude, and is
said to have induced him to found the
univereity of Pavia.  He was succeeded,
in 1378, by  his son Gian Galeazzo, who
imprisoned  his uncle  Bernabo, in the
castle of Trezzo,  and took upon himself
the sole  government  In him the Vis-
conti family reached the summit of its
grandeur aud splendor.  In 1395, he re-
ceived, from the emperor Wenceslaus, the
ducal dignity ; and his  territories  were
more extensive than those of any of his pre-
decessors.   Pisa, Sienna, Perugia, Padua
and Bologna were subject to  his sceptre ;
and he had already shown a disposition
to assume the tide of king of Italy, when
his ambitious projects were  cut short by
his death, of the plague (in 1402).  With
elevated views, he  fostered  science .and
art,   collected  the  most distinguished
scholars at his court, restored the univer-
sity of Piacenza,  connected that of Pavia
with it, and founded a large library.  Dur-
ing his  reign, also, some  great architectu-
ral works were executed; among them,
the celebrated bridge over the Tessino, at
Pavia, and  the magnificent   cathedral at
Milan (1386—97).   Gian Galeazzo left
three sons,  Giammaria, Filippo Maria,
and an illegitimate child, Gabriel, among
whom his dominions were divided.  Their
mutual dissensions  and youthful  indis-
cretions soon undermined  their power.
In most of the  Lombard  cities,  single
powerful citizens raised themselves to the
head of their respective towns, and the
neighboring states took advantage of the
favorable opportunity to extend their lim-
its at the expense of the Visconti.  The
Florentines took  Pisa, and the Venetians
gradually obtained possession of Padua,
Vicenza, Verona, Brescia, and other towns.
 Giammaria was hated for his cruelty, and,
 in 1412, fell a  victim  to  a conspiracy.
 Filippo  Maria now reigned alone, and,
 during the remaining thirty-five years of
 his life, was alternately at the summit of
 happiness and in the depths of misery.
 As often as he had  the fortune to recover
any of the lost cities, so often  had he the
grief to  witness their renewed loss;  and
his last years were embittered by the hos-
tilities of the Venetians, who repeatedly
advanced to the walls of Milan, and de-
vastated  the surrounding territory.   He
died in 1447, leaving no male heire.   His
natural daughter, Bianco, had been mar-
ried to Francesco Sforza, one of the most
distinguished generals of the time.  The
Milanese  were desirous to  regain  their
ancient freedom ; but they were unable to
defend themselves against the attacks of
the rival  princes, who were eager to gain
possession of so rich and beautiful a coun-
try ; and  they found themselves obliged to
put themselves under the government of
Sforza,  who was named duke of Milan
in 1450.   (See  Sforza, and Milan.)
   Visconti, John Baptist  Anthony ; an
Italian antiquary, born at  Vernazza in
Genoa, in 1722, and educated at Rome by
an uncle, who  was a painter, and who de-
signed his nephew for the same profes-
sion.  But the  latter preferred the study
of antiquities,  and, that he  might be at
liberty to follow his inclination, purchased
the office of apostolic notary.   He  be-
came connected  with the   celebrated
Winckelmann, whom  he  succeeded, in
1768, in the  station of prefect or commis-
sary of antiquities at Rome ; and Clement
XIV, on his  elevation  to the pontifi-
cal throne,  the following  year, having
formed  the  design of founding a  new
museum  in  the Vatican, the execution of
the plan  was  intrusted to Visconti, who
superintended the researches for ancient
monuments  carried on at  Rome  under
popes Clement XIV and Pius VI. Among
the relics of former ages brought to light,
was il-e tomb  of the  Scipios, relative to
which Yjsconti published Letters and No-
tices  in  fho Roman Anthology; and he
was  the  author  of some other archaeo-
logical  memoire.  His death took place
Sept. 2, 1784.   Ht was appointed  editor
of the Museum Pio-<i:iementinum,* but the
text accompanying the engravings of that
work was written by his son.
   Visconti, Ennius Quit in as, son of the
preceding, and one of the most celebrated
archaeologists  and antiquaries, was bom
at Rome, in  1751.   While  a chhd, he
knew how to distinguish the heads of \fie
emperors upon medals, at  an age when
he could hardly pronounce their names.
In the tenth  year of his age, he underwent
a public  examination  in Roman and bib-
lical  history,   numismatics,  chronology-,
geography,  geometry ; and, in his twelfth
year, he  was able to solve the most diffi- 
VISCONTI—VISHNU.
591
cult problems of trigonometry and analyti-
cal geometry.  The next year, he publish-
ed a metrical version of the Hecuba of
Euripides, with an account of his method
of studying languages, and soon after un-
dertook a metrical translation  of Pindar.
His father had formed the plan for a de-
scription of  the  Pio-Clementinum  mu-
seum, and executed some  articles of it;
and the first  volume, which appeared in
1782, bears his name ; but the son had
written the chief  part of it, and he  con-
tinued this great work, which appeared
under  the title II Museo Pio-Clementino
descrilto, in the following order: two vol-
umes,  1784 ; third, 1788 ;  fourth, 1790 ;
fifth,  1792;  sixth, 1796;  and seventh,
1807.   An  eighth   volume,  entitled  H
Museo Chiaramonti, is by Philip Aurelius
Visconti and  Guattani.  This labor alone
would be sufficient to immortalize him;
and  he   likewise  published   numerous
archaeological treatises in  different  Ital-
ian journals.   When the  treasures of
ancient  art  were  removed  from the
cities of Italy to Paris, Visconti followed
them to that place,  and  arranged and
wrote a descriptive catalogue  of the an-
tiques in the  museum.  The last edition
of this catalogue, which abounds in in-
genious and learned remarks, appeared in
1815, under the title Notices des Statues,
Bustes  et Bas-reliefs de la  Galerie des
Antiques du  Musie Napolion.   In  1817,
he published  Description des Antiques du
Musie  royal; and his description  of the
rich collection known by the name of the
Musie  Francois  is still  more  complete.
Visconti had  been chosen  a member of
the institute in 1800;  and he continued,
after his arrival in France, to  contribute
learned and  valuable papere to different
journals  and other literary publications.
Nothing; at that time, was in a more con-
fused state than iconography : there were
innumerable portraits of the great men of
antiquity in existence, but archaeologists
were at a loss in determining the respect-
ive individuals.  Visconti undertook the
task of forming a complete  Grecian  and
Roman iconography.   The  former  was
published in three volumes, folio  (Icono-
graphie Grecque), Paris, 1811, and the two
first parts  of the latter,  containing the
celebrated Romans, in 1818,  leaving only
the iconography of  the emperors, which
was rendered an easier task by the num-
ber of medals, and  has been executed by
Mongez.  Visconti's services  were  also
sought in foreign countries.  Lord Wors-
ley engaged him to describe the collection
of works of art which he had procured
in Greece ; and the description was pub-
lished  at London, under  the title  11 Mu-
seo Worsleyano.  Parliament also sent for
him, to consult on  the purchase of the
Elgin marbles; and he prepared an excel-
lent catalogue of those celebrated antiques.
(See Elgin.) Visconti died in 1818.  Few
inquirers into  antiquity  have possessed
such various and extensive knowledge of
all  departments illustrative  of its study.
His  complete works appeared at Milan, in
1824 seq., in Italian and French (Opere
tutte, divise in tre Classi: 1st  division, 8
vols.; 2d, 5 vols.; and 3d, 8 vols.), with nu-
merous engravings.
  Viscount, in England ; a title of nobili-
ty,  indicating  a rank between an  earl
and a  baron.   (See Earl, and Nobility.)
The first viscounts  in  England  were
created in  the  reign  of  Henry VI; and
they have never been numerous.
  Vishnu ;  the second person of the Hin-
doo trimourti, or trinity, consisting of Bra-
ma, the creator, Vishnu, the preserver,
and Siva,  the   destroyer.  (See  Avatar,
and Indian Mythology.) 
 
APPENDIX.
   Tarantula (aranea tarentula); a large
 species of spider, celebrated on account
 of the popular story that its bite can only
 be cured by dancing to music till the suf-
 ferer is exhausted.   Much has been said
 and written on this subject;  but there ap-
 peare to be no sufficient evidence that the
 story has any foundation whatever in fact.
 It is, however, commonly believed in Italy
 and other countries on the Mediterranean
 inhabited  by this insect.   The  name
 seems to have been derived from the city
 of Tarentum, in Italy.  The habits of the
 animal are similar to  those of many other
 spiders.   It  constructs a vertical hole in
 the  ground, several inches in depth, and
 places itself at the entrance  for the pur-
 pose of leaping upon such  insects as may
 chance to approach.  These it drags to the
 bottom of its habitation, and devours at
 its leisure.  The color is brown, with an
 ash-colored margin; and the abdomen has
 a dorsal line of triangular, deeper spots.
   Theology (from ecot, God, and  \oyos,
 word, science) signified, with the Greeks,
 the dogmas and mythuses relating to the
 gods and the origin of the world.  It was
 divided into mythological theology (the
 whole of that which  the poets  relate of
 the origin of the world and the nature of
 the gods); political tiieology, or the doc-
 trines on these points which  the govern-
 ments acknowledged; and physical the-
 ology, or  the  views  of philosophers.
 Those who occupied  themselves with in-
 quiries on  these  subjects, were  called
 theologians.   (Sec Cicero,  De Natura
Deorum, in, 21; Augustinus, De Civitate
Dei, vi, 5; Clement of Alexandria,  in the
work entitled Stromata, book v.)   The
 Christian  mending of theology  must  be
distinguished from this.  Among the early
Christians, theology (i. v. Christian theolo-
gy) signified the  doctrine  of the divine
 nature of Jesus Christ, or the whole doc-
 trine of the Trinity.  (See Athanasius's
 Second  Discourse  against the Arians, in
 his works, vol. i.; Eusebius's Ecclesiastical
 History, i. 1.)  Since the eleventh century,
 theology has  been  used to denote  the
 doctrine of God and his worship in gen-
 eral ; also the whole sum of Christian doc-
 trines.  In this latter sense, Abelard (q. v./
 wrote a system of theology in the twelfth
 century. In more modern times, however,
 Christian theology has been distinguished,
 still more accurately, from the  Christian
 religion.  By the  former is meant  the
 scientific knowledge of the  histoiy and
 doctrines of Christianity, necessary to the
 teacher of religion.  It requires, therefore,
 an  acquaintance  with  the  ancient lan-
 guages, to  enable  the interpreter  of the
 Bible to decide for himself,  by accurate
 comparison  of the original,  on the true
 sense of  the Scriptures, and  all  other
 knowledge connected with a right under-
 standing of the  Bible; therefore a good
 acquaintance  with  the  histoiy of  the
 Christian church (which affords the most
 intelligible  and convincing proofs of the
 power, truth and divinity of Christianity,
 and sheds light upon the gradual foriii;.-
 tion of particular  doctrines); also a phi-
 losophic spirit, and an acquaintance with
 natural theology, to enable the student to
 understand  the relations of revealed  re-
 ligion to the  conclusions of reason siui
 experience on subjects of religious  laitli.
 and to keep in view the  leading idea of
 Christianity  in judging of the  doctrines
 contained in the Holy Scriptures.  Such
a philological, historical  and philosophi-
cal  acquaintance with the doctrines  of
Christianity  is essential  to the religious
teacher, that he may accommodate  bis
 instructions  to  the import of the  Holy
 Scriptures, and may be able to defend his 
594
APPENDIX.  (THEOLOGY.)
convictions against all attacks.  As many
men of cultivated  minds  early became
converts  to  Christianity ;  as  different
opinions, on particular points, soon grew
up in the different religious communities,
and  among  the teachers of the church ;
and as Christianity met with many learned
opponents, who were to be resisted by the
weapons of  learning and argument,—a
Christian theology was necessarily formed
at an early period.  What the fathers of
the  church  and  the schoolmen of  the
middle ages  had done for this science,
was insufficient to  satisfy inquirers, after
new aids had been afforded to  scientific
study by the invention of printing, the re-
vival of learning,  and the new principles
introduced  by tiie reformation.   The
investigations of the reformers had begun
to shed light upon the diversities of their
creeds; but the symbolical books which
were soon drawn up,  checked the Prot-
estant  theologians in the application of
their principles, and, with  the exception
of researches  into  ecclesiastical history,
which were favored by the Calvinists in
  {articular, left free play only to polemics.
  n the love of controversy, in an obstinate
adherence to preconceived notions, and
in the use of the dialectical method of the
schoolmen, the Protestant theologians of
the seventeenth century differed little from
the Catholic.  But  about the end of that
century, theology received a new charac-
ter from  the efforts  of Spener to give
practical  efficacy to the  principles  of
Christianity,  and from  the  deism of  the
English philosophers.   The tendency of
the former was to pietism and the neglect
of scientific cultivation ;  that of the latter
to a chilling scepticism.  Theology was
threatened with danger by* both, but this
danger was  averted by the labors of the
German clergy.  Resting upon the prin-
ciple (which gradually became more and
more acknowledged) of free inquiry, sup-
ported by a love  of historical and philo-
sophical truth,  and directing their efforts
to the points most connected  with  the
improvement  of  men   in  wisdom and
virtue, the German Protestants, since the
middle of the  eighteenth  century, have
done more to give a scientific  character
and practical utility to theology than  had
been done in any previous century of the
Christian  church.   On account  of  the
peculiar  cultivation  of theological  sci-
ence in Germany, we  shall now give  a
view of the  mode in which it is treated
at present in that country, taken  from a
small  pamphlet  published by the theo-
logical  faculty at Halle, for the  use of
students  in  theology—Anweisung  fur
angehende Theologen (Halle, 1827).   The
whole range of theological science  may
be conveniently divided into four parts—
exegetical, systematical,  historical  and
practical theology.—Exegetical Theology
embraces all those branches of knowledge
that are  requisite for the correct under-
standing of the writings of the  Old and
New  Testament,  which  contain the rec-
ords of the Christian religion.   The fol-
lowing are its  principal subdivisions :—
1. The historico-critical introduction  to
the books of the Old and New Testament.
This  treats of  the  history and  form of
these  books, of their age, origin  and con-
tents.  2. Biblical hermeneutics, or theo-
ry  of interpretation.  This applies the
general principles of interpretation, which
are common to all writings, to the biblical
writings in particular,  and derives  also
special rules from  those  circumstances
which are peculiar  to the biblical books.
Closely connected  with hermeneutics is
biblical criticism, including verbal criti-
cism,  which   occupies  itself with the
judgment and  restoration  of the  sacred
text;  and the (so called) higher criticism,
which consists in investigations relative
to the authenticity  of the several books
of Scripture.  3.  Biblical exegesis.  This
is the practical  application of the princi-
ples of hermeneutics and criticism to the
grammatico-historical  interpretation  of
the original text of the Scriptures.
   Systematical  Theology consists  in the
methodical and orderly investigation and
proof of religious truths and propositions,
or  those connected with religion ; all of
which, when collected  from the Scrip-
tures, and  united into one whole, consti-
tute the system of the Christian religion.
All these  truths and propositions  have
reference either to  objects of knowledge
and belief, or to that which is conforma-
ble to duty in our affections and actions.
Hence the following distinctions:—1. Dog-
matic theology,  or system of  Christian
faith; that is, the systematic exhibition or
discussion of that which is taught in the
Christian  Scriptures in regard  to  God,
his attributes,  operations and relations to
us.   A distinction  is made between bib-
lical  theology,  which derives the system
of doctrines exc'usively from the Bible,
and  ecclesiastical  theology, or the sys-
tematical exhibition of the  biblical doc-
trines according to the creed of the Evan-
gelical church.  Both  these are  usually
treated together, and in connexion with
critical investigations ; but they are some-
times  separately  discussed.   Lectures 
APPENDIX.  (THEOLOGY—TORPEDO.)
595
upon this science sometimes include the
history of Christian doctrines, or attack
erroneous views  on the spot.  This last
is called  polemic,  or  denchtic  theology.
The history of doctrines, however, to-
gether with the  general history  of the
Christian faith,  and also polemics, are
sometimes treated  separately from  dog-
matic theology.  So is apologetic theolo-
gy, or the defence of Christianity, which,
however, is more commonly united with
the  lectures  on  dogmatics.  2. Moral
theology, or Christian ethics; that is, the
systematic exhibition of what is taught in
the  Scriptures, especially in  the  New
Testament, respecting  the duties of man-
kind  in  regard  to  their affections  and
actions.
   Historical Theology includes all those
branches of knowledge which relate to
the history of religion, in the  widest sense
of the term, and  of* all  which  stands
in connexion with religion, or has origi-
nated from it. Historical theology includes,
I.  The  history  of Christian doctrines.
In this the student is led to see the grad-
ual formation of  the system  of doctrines
held  by the church.   An acquaintance
with the history of the fathers (patristics)
is also recommended.  2. Symbolical the-
ology, or  the  historico-dogmatical  ex-
planation  and  illustration of creeds and
confessions  in  the Evangelical church,
and a comparative exhibition of the sys-
tems  of other  Christian  denominations.
3. Archaeology, or  antiquities, for  the il-
lustration of the biblical writings, and the
exhibition  of the primitive  constitution
of the Christian church.  4.  Theological
literature, or bibliography.
   Practical  Theology occupies itself with
the whole  circle  of studies directly pre-
paratory to the exercise of the office ofa
Christian teacher.  The general method
of popular and  practical religious instruc-
tion is usually  taught in connexion  with
rules  for a  continued  discourse, as  in
sermons  (homiletics), and rales  for cate-
chetical instruction. 2. Pastoral theolo-
gy invites  attention to  the duties of the
pastor, and to that prudence  which it be-
comes him to maintain in all  the business
of his office.   It  includes the subject of
liturgies  and his duties  as  director  of
the external worship.   3. Ecclesiastical
law includes, generally, all the laws and
privileges having reference  to  religion,
and in regard  to the  sources of which
all Christian denominations  are  agreed.
Specially, it relates to particular ecclesi-
astical communities.   Of the latter, the
canon law  and the German Protestant
ecclesiastical law are the  chief  kinds.
(See also the note to the article Universi-
ties,  which  gives the list of theological
lectures at the university of Berlin.)
  Torpedo ; a genus of fishes, belonging
to the family of the rays, and formerly'
united with them under the  raja of Lin-
naeus.  It is distinguished by the short
and  somewhat fle.-liy tail, and the nearly-
circular disk formed by the  body.   This
is smooth,  and the teeth  are  small  and
acute.  The electrical apparatus, which
has rendered the torpedo so celebrated,
consists of small membranous tubes, dis-
posed  like  honey-comb, and divided, by
horizontal  partitions,  into  small  cells,
which are filled with a mucous substance.
These occupy the  space between  the
head gills and pectoral fins, and are abun-
dantly supplied  with nerves from  the
eighth pair.  This conformation is analo-
gous, in  many respects, to  the galv anic
pile, and, accordingly, the identity of the
benumbing  power of these animals with
electricity may be  considered  establish-
ed.  A Leyden jar may  be charged  by
one of these animals.  This extraordina-
ry structure, which may  lead to the de-
termination  of important points in gene-
ral  physiology, selves a  more  humble
purpose in   the economy of the animal.
By exercising this  power, the toi*peuo is
enabled to  procure  its  prey, and to pro-
tect  itself  against  enemies.   Whoever
attempts to lay hold of it receives a sud-
den, paralyzuig shock in the arms;  and
small fishes, it is  said, are completely
stunned on approaching it.   This faculty
is by no means confined to the species of
torpedo.    The gymnotus,  or electrical
eel (see that article), of the  fresh waters
of South America, possesses it in  a  still
more extraordinary degree; and it  has
lately been discovered in a silurus, or cat-
fish, of the African  rivers, as well as  in
several other fishes of different genera.
The torpedo, however, is best known, as it
has been an object  of astonishment and
tenor with  the commbn people in all ages.
According  to Cuvier, several species in-
habit the European seas,  which  have
been  confounded under the  raja torpedo
of Linnaeus.  They frequent sandy coasts,
and  sometimes, it  is said, even conceal
themselves above low-water mark.   Ac-
cording to  Mitchill, we have one upon
our own  coasts, which is sometimes taken
on St. George's Bank, in the ocean, near
Block island, and to the southward. Few
are taken in the course of the season, and
these only  by the hook and  line, while
fishing for  cod.   These  instances  are, 
596
APPENDIX.  (TORPEDO—UNITARIAN.)
however, well remembered  by the fish-
ermen, who call the animal numb-fish,  < r
cramp-fish.  It is said sometimes to attain
the weight  of a  hundred  pounds. The
liver is cut out  for the sake of the oil;
but no use is made of the body.
  Turnip (brassica rapa); a cruciferous
plant, belonging to the same genus with the
cabbage, extensively cultivated for the sake
of its esculent root  This latter is turbinate,
more  or less depressed, but varies some-
what  in color, size and fonn in the sub-
varieties produced by culture.  It is of a
fleshy consistence, and has a sweet, some-
what pungent, and  agreeable taste. The
radical leaves  are oblong and lyrate ; the
upper ones entire:  the flowers  are usual-
ly yellow.  The smaller varieties, in gen-
eral, are most  agreeable to the taste, and
most  esteemed ;  but the quality depends
very  much on the nature of the  soil,
which should  be sandy and  light. The
ordinary season  of sowing is  from the
end of June to the  beginning of August;
but if  it is  desired  to  procure them
throughout  the  season,  they may  be
sown  from March  till September.  Tur-
nips are  a  wholesome article of food,
much in use.   The large-rooted varieties
have  been  employed in Europe for fod-
der, during the winter season,  from time
immemorial.   They are given to cattle  to
fatten them, and also to sheep,  hogs, &c.
It has been ascertained that the most ad-
vantageous  mode of field culture is  by
drills, which will produce crops of treble
the weight of those grown in the broad-
cast manner.—The ruta baga, or Swedish
turnip, is a variety of B. campestris, often
cultivated. The root is large, of a yellow-
ish  color; but, in  general, it is less es-
teemed than the common turnip.
  Turnspit ; an active, industrious va-
riety of the dog,  once considered  an in-
dispensable attendant on the spit, and still
employed in some parts of Europe. It is
distinguished  by the length of the body,
and shortness of the legs; the tail is curl-
ed on the back, and the usual color gray-
ish, with black spots.
  Turtle Dove (columba turtur).  This
bird is shy and retired, and builds only  in
deep woods.   It makes the forest resound
with its plaintive cooings. It is  celebrated
for  its conjugal attachment, and is found
in all the temperate parts  of the eastern
continent.  We have, in all parts of the
U.  States, the Carolina dove, a species
analogous in many respects.
  Unitarian ; a name used to designate
a class of religionists,  who  hold  to the
personal unity of God, in opposition  to
the doctrine of the Christian Trinity. The
Unitarian faith appears firet to have been
avowed (after  the reformation) by Martin
Cellarius, a native of Stuttgard, who was
just  finishing  his studies  at Wittenberg,
where Luther was professor, when the
latter began to set  himself in opposition
to the authority of the Roman Catholic
church.    Cellarius  adopted  Luther's
views, and was at  firet  distinguished by
his friendship  and  that  of Melanchthon.
His subsequent avowal of Unitarian opin-
ions  subjected him  to  an imprisonment,
whence  being released,  he  retired,  in
1536, to Basle, and died there in 1564.
Among other theologians, who, about the
same time, were led to a like result, were
Lewis Hetzer, put to death by the magis-
trates of Constance, in 1529; John Den-
kius, rector of the school of Nuremberg,
who was associated with Hetzer in trans-
lating  the  Prophets  into German ; John
Campanus, of Wittenberg; Adam  Pas-
tor,  a Westphalian;  and Claudius,  a
Frenchman, who,  about 1530, preached
his doctrines  in  Switzerland and Alsace.
A person of more note than any of these
was  Michael Servetus, bora,  in 1509, at
Villanueva, in Arragon, whence he  is
sometimes  called Michael  Villanovanus.
During his study of the common law, at
Toulouse, the news of  the spreading ref-
ormation engaged him in an examination
of the sacred writings; and, in the sequel,
he renounced the doctrine of the Trinity*.
Not venturing then to publish his belief
in France, he removed, in 1530, to Basle.
In the following year,  he published, at
Strasburg, his De Trimtatis Erroribus, Li-
bri septem, and soon after,  at Haguenau,
his Dialogorum  de  Trinitate, Libri duo.
From  the storm which  these works ex-
cited, he retired firet to Basle, then to Ly-
ons, and lastly to Paris, where, under his
name of Villanovanus, he studied medi-
cine, and became, for a short time, a pub-
lic lecturer in that department  of  the
univereity.   His  great  work, Christia-
nismi Restitutio, was published anony-
mously, in 1553, at Vienna.   The same
year, he was  arrested, at Geneva, on his
way into  Italy,  and condemned  to  be
burned for heresy—a sentence which was
carried into effect the following day.—In
Italy, a similar movement of opinion had,
meanwhile, been taking place.  In 1546,
the inquisition obtained knowledge of a
society of pereons of rank and learning
at Vicenza, who  were accustomed  to
meet for the  consideration of religious
questions, and, among other doctrines of
the  church,  had  discarded  that of the 
APPENDIX.  (UNITARIAN.)
597
Trinity.  Three of the number were ap-
prehended, one of whom died in prison,
and  the  other two were put to death at
Venice.  The rest, comprising several of
the  names afterwards the  most distin-
guished in this  cause, effected their es-
cape.  Among them appears to have been
Laelius Sozzini, or the elder Socinus,  a
native of Sienna, in Tuscany.  After the
dispersion of his friends at Vicenza, he
withdrew to Zurich, from which place
he travelled through various countries of
Europe, and, among others, at two differ-
ent times, into Poland, where he is said to
have converted to his opinions the confes-
sor of the queen.  He wrote largely upon
the Trinity, as afterwards appeared from
manuscripts left in the possession of his
nephew, but published nothing, and died
a natural death at Zurich, at the age of
thirty-seven.   The inconveniences which
Unitarians had  hitherto  encountered in
avowing their  faith, naturally   leading
them to look for some common  retreat,
their attention was directed to Poland, in
consequence  of  the free  institutions of
that  kingdom, and the lax sentiments of
toleration which were  attributed to its
reigning monarch, Sigismund II. A large
portion of the reformed clergy  of Poland
ranked  themselves in their number, as
early as 1565, in which year  they were
separated from  the  communion  of the
Calvinists and Lutherans.   The period
of their  prosperity now  began.  They
were included within  the pacta conventa,
or grant  of freedom of worship.   Their
discordant opinions on minor points be-
came harmonized, partly  under  the in-
fluence of Faustus Socinus, nephew of
Laelius, who  established  himself among
them in 1579,  and, though at first receiv-
ed coldly, soon acquired the ascendency
due  to an earnest and disinterested char-
acter and singular powers of mind. From
their settlement at Racow,  where they
had  a college, which, at one time, num-
bered more than a thousand students, and
from other places, they sent out numerous
learned  publications, spreading  their
views of the Christian  system  far and
wide.   In every  part of the kingdom
they  had churches ; and among their ad-
herents were  numbers of  the principal
nobilitv.  The n-"*"»t accessible monument
which remains of the abilities and erudition
of their writers is in the collection called
Bibliotheca Fratrum Polonorum, made in 8
vols., folio, by Andrew Wissowatius and
others, and containing works of  the two
Socini,  Schlicting, Wolzogen, Crellius,
Przipcovius and Wissowatius; to which,
in some copies, is found added a volume
of writings of Brenius.  Measures which
followed, of  combined  hostility against
them on the part  of Catholics and  other
Protestants, were  favored by the  unsettled
state of  Poland  during the  seventeenth
century.  The  disorderly  conduct  of
some  students of  the college at Ra-
cow, who had broken down a cross at
one of the gates of the town, was seized
on  for  the  occasion  of  severe meas-
ures of coercion ;  and, though the offend-
ers were punished, and every satisfaction
forthe ouirage offered by their parents and
the governors of the college,  this did  not
prevent the passage ofa decree, by the diet
of Warsaw, for the church and college to
be closed, the press to be stopped, and the
professors sent into exile.   This decree
was  followed, through the  twenty suc-
ceeding years, by  othere, with provisions
more severe, till, in 1658,  the Unitarians
were  forbidden,   under pain of death,
publicly  to solemnize  their  worship, or
profess their sentiments, and required to
attach  themselves, within  three  yeare,
to the  Catholic, Lutheran,  or Calvinistic
communion, or quit  the kingdom ; and,
in 1660, the time  allowed in  this alterna-
tive for disposing of their property, and
making other arrangements for  expatria-
tion, was further  abridged by a decree
making immediate outlawry the penalty of
delay.   In the dispersion which followed,
some went to England, some to different
states  of Germany,  some  to  Holland
(where the Bibliotheca, above mentions d,
was  published, and where,  before ' >ng,
they became merged in the body '   Re-
monstrants), and some to Transy' aiia.—
They continued to be known a« a distinct
community  only  in  this latter  country,
where,  under the auspices   of George
Blandrata, a Piedmontese physician, aud
a friend of Faustus  Socinus, their doc-
trine had appeared not long  after the  pe-
riod  of its  rise in Poland, and had beeu
favored, in  like manner, by  a system of
toleration,  pursued  by  two successive
monarchs.   But,  whether  from  other
causes, or owing  to the toleration being
limited to a particular form of the Unita-
rian doctrine (involving the obligation of
invoking Christ),  the  number of profes-
sors never became large.  The Unitarian
still remains one of the four communions
recognised by the Austrian  government
of Transylvania.  According to  the Con-
versations-Lexicon, it consists of 50,000
persons,  divided  among 164 churches,
governed by a superintendent  and two
consistories.  At Clauseuburg, their priii- 
598
APPENDIX.   (UNITARIAN.)
cipal  seat,  and at Thoarda, they have
schools.  The most considerable publica-
tion which  has proceeded from them, is
the Explicationes  Locorum  Vet. et Nov.
Test, ex quibus Trinitatis Dogma stabiliri
sold, by  George  Enjedinus, their third
superintendent.  The most recent formal
exposition of their views  is believed to
be found in the Summa Universa Theo-
logia secundum Unitarios (Clausenburg,
1784), attributed to professor Marcos.—In
Holland, Erasmus John, rector of the col-
lege of Antwerp,  published, in  1585, an
anonymous work, favoring  this system,
entitled Antithesis Dodrina ChristietAnti-
christi de Uiw Vero Deo.  He was forth-
with banished. Thirteen years after, Os-
torode and Voidove, for similar publica-
tions, were ordered, by the states-general,
to leave the United Provinces within ten
days, and  their writings to be  burned.
Brandt, as quoted by Mosheim, says that,
when  the  multitude had assembled to
witness the execution of the  latter part of
the sentence, the books were no where to
be found. . The magistrates  were curious
to examine them, and had divided them
among themselves and  their friends.  In
1627, Adolphus Venator, minister of Al-
maer, was banished for composing a work
which savored of Socinianism, quod por-
tenta Sarmaticasaperet.  It being still found,
however, that there were many Unitarians
in Holland, magnam in his terris Sociniano-
rum messam esse (L'Amy), the sy n ods of the
Seven Provinces  sent a delegation to the
states-general, urging the necessity of fur-
ther measures; whereupon that body, after
consulting  the  divines of Leyden, issued
an edict,  bearing date  September  19,
1653,  forbidding the  profession  of the
Socinian heresy, and  the holding of its
assemblies, under pain  of banishment for
the first offence, and punishment at  dis-
cretion for the second.  But—whether it
was owing to impressions made by the
Apology of Schlicting,  published in the
next year, to the opposition of public sen-
timent, to  the numbers of the Unitarians
themselves, or to  the apparent inconsist-
ency of the edict  with the principles of
toleration  already asserted by the states-
general in  several treaties, as well as in
their articles of union—it does not appear
to have been carried into rigid execution.
To mention no other single names than
those of Episcopius, Grotius, Le Clerc,
and Wetstein, there has probably been
always a  large  number of  Unitarians
among the Remonstrants of Holland. But
the Remonstrants have not published their
opinions freely, being,  at all times, a de-
pressed sect.  Their ministers  at one pe-
riod  were deprived, and at another ban-
ished ; and,  till the Dutch  revolution in
1795, no Remonstrant could hold a public
office, or be a professor in the universities,
or a  teacher in the public schools.   A re-
laxation of attachment to hitherto current
opinions  may be  inferred from the fact,
that, in 1817, on the recovery of Dutch
independence, an assembly of professors
and  divines was  convened, which per-
mitted candidates for the ministry to pro-
fess  and  teach  the articles  of the  synod
of Dort, as far as  they are  in  accordance
loith tiie Bible.  More recent publications
of that country  show that Unitarian opin-
ions have there disseminated themselves to
no inconsiderable  extent.—Unitarianism
in England dates almost  as far back as
the  earliest  translation  of  the  Bible.
Strype, in  his  Memoirs of Archbishop
Cranmer, says,  " There were other here-
sies now (1548) vented abroad, as the de-
nial  of the Trinity and the Deity of the
Holy Ghost;" and, two years after, the
same  writer reports,  " Arianism  now
showed itself so openly, and was in such
danger of spreading  further, that it vyas
thought necessaiy  to suppress it by using
more rugged methods than seemed agree-
able to the merciful principles of the pro-
fession of the gospel."   In 1551, a  Ger-
man, named George van Paris, was burned
at London, for this heresy, and, four yeare
after, another person, at Uxbridge.   Joan
Bocher,  sometimes  called the maid  of
Kent, was a more distinguished  victim.
She was a lady of family and  education,
and  of heroic courage.  Alluding to an
opinion  entertained  by her concerning
the corporeal substance of the Savior, " It
is a goodly matter," said she to her judges,
" to  consider your ignorance.   Not long
ago, you burned Ann Askew for a piece
of bread, and yet  came yourselves to be-
lieve and profess  the same doctrine for
which you burned her.  And now, for-
sooth, you will needs burn me for a piece
of flesh ; and, in the end, you will  come
to believe this  also,  when  ye have  read
the  Scriptures, and understand them."
(Southey's  Book  of the  Church.)   Ed-
 ward VI could hardly be  prevailed upon
to consent to her  execution, and  signed
the  wanant, saying to Cranmer that he
must be responsible for the sin.   Under
James I, a large number of persons, some
of them of rank and consideration, were
executed for the same offence.  In Crom-
well's time, they seem  generally to have
had milder treatment.   Biddle, their lead-
er, was at last, however, thrown by the 
                         APPENDIX.

 dictator into  prison, where he  died  in
 1662.   The posthumous work of Milton,
 firet published in 1825, shows him to have
 adopted their  sentiments.  An act of the
 long parliament, in 1648, making the pro-
 fession  of Unitarianism a felony, was  so
 fiir mitigated,  after the revolution, bv stat-
 utes of the eighth and ninth of William III,
 as to make the offence punishable, in the
 first instance,  by  certain civil disabilities,
 and, in  the second, by three years' impris-
 onment, and  virtual outlawry.   These
 statutes were  not repealed till 1813.   In
 the latter part of the seventeenth, and the
 beginning of the eighteenth century, how-
 ever, besides  other names  of the  first
 distinction, their  claim  to which is dis-
 puted, we find, among  avowed English
 Unitarians, those of Firmin, Endyn, Whis-
 lon, Samuel Clarke, and Lardner; and, to
 go higher, of Locke  and Newton.  To-
 wards the close of the last century, sever-
 al  clergymen of the established church
 (Lindsey, Jebb, Wakefield, Disney, and
 othere)  resigned their benefices, in conse-
 quence  of having adopted Unitarian views,
 while, at  the  same time, among  numer-
 ous converts from the dissenting sects, ap-
 peared  the  names of doctors Priestley,
 Price,  Aikin,  Rees, and othere of scien-
 tific and literary note.   The  English
 body of the three denominations,  as it is
 called, is composed of the Presbyterians,
 Independents  and Baptists. Of that por-
 tion of the latter class called General Bap-
 tists, a majority are acknowledged Unita-
 rians.   Such was, towards  the close of
 his life,  Robert Robinson, the author of
 the Village Sermons, and doctor Toulmin,
 the learned  editor of Neal's Histoiy of
 the  Puritans  ;  and   the  Presbyterian
 churches, throughout England, are .un-
 derstood to be, with scarcely an exception,
 occupied  by  congregations of this sort.
 Their number was reckoned, ten  jears
 ago, at more than two hundred. (Unit,  in
 Ang. Fid. Hist. Stat. Prasent. Brev. Ex-
 pos.)  In  the  Presbyterian churches  in
 the north  of Ireland, a vehement contro-
 versy has been carried on within the two
 or tliree last years, the event of which  is
 understood to  have been to  detach about
 forty churches  from the body  of that
 communion, and unite them, as professed
 Unitarians, into a society of their  own,
consisting of several presbyteries.   There
are also  congregations  of  this charac-
ter in   Dublin, and   in   other southern
cities of  the  kingdom.   In  Scotland,
there are  Unitarian  chapels  in Edin-
burgh,  Glasgow,  and   other  principal
places.   Among  the leading periodical
(UNITARIAN.)                    599

 publications  devoted to this cause  in
 Great Britain, are the Monthly Reposito-
 ry, printed in London ;  tiie Christian Re-
 former and  Reflector, at Liverpool; and
 the Christian Pioneer, in Glasgow. There
 is a Scottish Unitarian Association  lately
 formed ; and the British and Foreign Uni-
 tarian Association, meeting  annually  at
 London, serves for a bond  of union  for
 professors  of the belief throughout the
 tliree  kingdoms.  The principal supply
 of ministers is from  Manchester college,
 at York ; others come  from  the Scotch
 universities, and from that of Dublin.—As
 early  as l690, some English ministers
 complained to a synod, convened at Am-
 sterdam, of the growing heterodoxy of
 the  Genevan church.  The first public
 measure of importance in the connexion,
 was a decree of the Company of Pastors,
 in 1725, dispensing candidates for ordina-
 tion  from  subscription to the  Helvetic
 confession,  and   substituting for this a
 profession  of holding " the true doctrine
 of the holy prophets and apostles, as com-
 prised in the books of the Old and New
 Testaments,and summarily set forth in the
 catechism."  Vernet,  theological profes-
 sor in the academy,  published, not long
 after, his disbelief in the consubstantiality
 of the Son.   In 1757, the  article Geneva,
 in the French Encyclopaedia, announced,
 that " many of the ministers disbelieved
 the divinity  of Jesus Christ, of which
 Calvin, their leader, was the  zealous de-
 fender."  In 1788, the catechism of Cal-
 vin was superseded by another, ofa char-
 acter to indicate the justness of this  state-
 ment.  In 1807, a liturgy, expurgated up-
 on Unitarian  principles, was  substituted
 for that anciently in use ; and, two  years
 earlier, a professedly amended version of
 the Scriptures, which had been in prepa-
 ration upwards of a  century, was pub-
 lished under the authority of the Venera-
 ble Company of Pastors.  At the present
 time, the twenty-seven pastors of the es-
 tablished church of the canton are un-
 derstood, with two or three exceptions, to
 hold  to Unitarian opinions.   A  contro-
 versy on the subject  broke out  in  1816,
 which, though  much  discouraged by the
 magistrates, continues to the present time.
 M. Cheneviere, rector  of the academy,
 the most distinguished writer of the  dom-
 inant party, published, in 1831, an Essai
 du Systime Thiologique de la Triniti, and
 an .Essai* du Pichi original, in which are
 argued, at length, Unitarian views  upon
 these points.—In America, Unitarian opin-
 ions appear  (president Adams's  letter to
 doctor Morse) to have been  extensively 
600                     APPENDIX.  (UNITARIAN.)
adopted in Massachusetts as early as the
middle of the last century.  In 1756, Em-
lyn's Humble Inquiry into the  Scripture
Account of Jesus Christ, was published in
Boston, chiefly, it is said, by the agency
of doctor  Mayhew, of the West church,
aud came  into wide circulation.  One of
the three Episcopal churches of that city
adopted, in 1785, a  liturgy  excluding the
recognition  of the  Trinitarian doctrine.
In 1805, attention was extensively drawn
to the subject by several publications, oc-
casioned by the appointment of a distin-
guished Unitarian to the divinity chair of
the university  of Cambridge.  In  1816,
the controversy was revived by a repub-
lication, in this  country, ofa chapter from
Mr. Belsham's  Life of Lindsey, with the
title American  Unitarianism.  Up to this
time,  the  doctrine had been hardly dis-
cussed  out  of  New England,  though a
small society,  dating from the visit  of
doctor Priestley, in 1794, existed in Phila-
delphia.   In 1819, a congregation was
gathered  in Baltimore;  and othere now
exist in New York, Philadelphia, Wash-
ington,  Charleston, Pittsburg, Cincinna-
ti, and other principal cities of the Union.
The number of churches  organized ac-
cording to  the Congregational form  is
reckoned  at from 170 to 200. Their min-
isters  are  chiefly  furnished  from the
divinity  college  of the  university  of
Cambridge, in Massachusetts.   Among
the  periodical   publications which an-
nounce their views are the  Christian Ex-
aminer, the Scriptural Interpreter, and the
Unitarian  Advocate, printed in Boston ; the
Unitarian  Monitor, at Dover, N. H.; the
Christian  Monitor,  at Brooklyn, Conn.;
and the Unitarian  Essayist, at Meadville,
Penn.   The annual reports of the Ameri-
can Unitarian Association, the government
of which  is established  in  Boston, circu-
late information respecting the progress
of the doctrine.  Besides the  Congrega-
tional Unitarians, the denomination called
Christians,  which is numerous, particu-
larly in the  Western States, reckoning, in
1827, from  700 to  1000  churches (letter
of General Christian   Conference,   in
Christian  Examiner, vol.  iv),  maintains
Unitarian  opinions; and they are under-
stood also to prevail in  the large sect of
the Reformed Baptists, in the same region
of the country.—In France, many of the
Protestant clergy reject the Trinitarian
scheme of Christian doctrine.  The tone
of their  principal publication, the Re-
vue Protestante, is hostile to it: and the
principal  sources of supply for the minis-
try of the French churches, are the
schools of Geneva and Montau ban  «here
the Unitarian system has ascendency.  A
society was formed last year,  at  Paris,
called the Unitarian Association of France.
—In British Asia, a native society of Uni-
tarian Christians has existed, for several
years, at Madras, under  the care of Wil-
liam Roberts, a native; but a much more
remarkable  developement of opinion  of
this kind occuned in the case of the dis-
tinguished  Bramin, Rammohun Roy, of
Calcutta, who, in his publications in Eng-
lish, called  the Precepts  of Jesus, and
First, Second  and Final  Appeal  to the
Christian Public, has directed the thoughts
of numbers  of his  countiymen  to the
subjects  therein  proposed,  and,   since
1827, has been associated with conspicu-
ous individuals of the native and  Euro-
pean population, in the support of  Chris-
tian  worship according to the Unitarian
faith.—Unitarians profess  to derive their
views from Scripture, and to make it  the ul-
timate arbiter in all religious questions.thus
distinguishing themselves from the Ra-
tionalists (otherwise called the Anti-super-
naturalists) of Germany. They undertake
to show that, interpreted according to the
settled laws of language, the uniform tes-
timony of the sacred writings is, that the
Holy Spirit has no personal existence dis-
tinct from the Father, and that the  Son is
a derived and dependent being, whether,
as some believe, created in some remote
period of time, or, as othere, beginning to
live when he appeared on  earth.    Three
of the passages of the New Testament,
which have been relied on to prove the
contrary (1  John  v,  7; 1 Tim. iii, 16;
and Acts xx, 28), they  hold, with  other
critics, to be spurious.   Othere (as John i,
1, &c.; Romans ix, 5) they maintain to
have received an erroneous interpretation.
They insist that ecclesiastical histoiy ena-
bles them to trace to obsolete systems of
heathen philosophy  the introduction* of
the received doctrine into the church, in
which, once received, it has been sustained
on  grounds independent of its merits;
and they go so far as to aver that it is sat-
isfactorily refuted by the biblical passages,
when rightly understood, which  are cus-
tomarily  adduced in its  support.  Ac-
cording as  their  distinguishing  doctrine
has been professed in different times and
places, it has  been found in  connexion
with  various  othere, which have been
prominent subjects of controversy in the
church, as those which respect the man-
ner of baptism, philosophical liberty and
necessity, the methods of  Christ's media-
tion, &c.   The  Unitarians (sometime* 
APPENDIX.  (UNITARIAN.)
601
called  Socinians) of Poland held to the
obligation  of invoking Christ—a view
which no Unitarians of the present  day,
out of Transylvania, are believed to en-
tertain.  In America,  Unitarian opinions
are much divided upon the point of Christ's
pree'xistence; while, on the other hand,
the rejection of the tenet of his vicarious
suffering (or suffering as men's substitute),
along with  that of his supreme Deity, ap-
pears to be universally characteristic of the
sect  (See Bock, Historia Antitrinitari-
  vol. xii.         51
orum; Lubieniecius, Historia Reforma-
tionis Polonica ; Lampe, Historia Eccle-
sia Hungarica;  Benko,  Transylvania;
Maimbourg, History of Arianism; L'Amy,
History of Socinianism; Rees, Racovian
Catechism.)
  Unitarians is also sometimes  used, in
politics, to designate a party in favor ofa
central government,  in  contradistinction
to one in favor of a  federal government
Thus we hear of the Unitarians in Buenos
Ayres. 
 
CONTENTS.
   teuben (baron von)......
 Steubenville...............
 Stevens (George Alexander)
 ------- (Edward).........
 Steward (a civil officer).....
 ------- (a naval officer)....  5
 Stewart (sir James Denham)  "
 -------(Dugald)..........  "
 -------(John)............  "
 -------,  Robert, marquis of
           Londonderry  (see
           Londonderry)....  6
 ------- (Gilbert)..........  "
 Sthenic Diseases (see Brown,
  John)...................  "
 Stheno...................  "
 Stichomancy..............  "
 Strck, Gold,...............  "
 Stigma...................  "
 Stiles (Ezra)...............  7
 Stilicho...................  "
 Still (see Distillation).......  "
 Stilling (see Jung).........  "
 Stillingfleet (Edward)......  "
 Still Life..................  8
 Stimulants................  "
 Stink-Pot.................  "
 Stippling (see Engraving)...  "
 Stiria.....................  "
 Stirling, Lord  (see Alexan-
  der, William)............  9
 Stith (William)............  "
 Stoa (see Stoics)...........  "
 Stoat (see Ermine).........  "
 Stobseus (John)............  "
 Stock Exchange...........  "
 Stock-Fish  (see Cod, vol. iii,
  p. 288).................. 10
 Stock-Jobbing............. "
 Stockbridge............... 11
 Stockholm................ "
 Stockings................. "
 Stocks (an instrument to pun-
        ish criminals)...... 12
 _____, Public   (see  Public
        Stocks)........... "
 Stockton (Richard)......... "
.Stoddard (Solomon)........ "
 Stoichiometry............. "
 Stoics.................... l3
 Stola..................... 14
Stolberg.................. 14
Stole (Groom of the)......
Stomach.................
Stomach-Pump............ 15
Stomach-Staggers........
Stone, or Calculus........
Stones, Precious (see  Gems)
------, Showers of (see Me-
         teoric Stones).....
Stonehenge  (see  Salisbury
  Plain)..................
Stonington................
Stool of Repentance (see Cut-
  ty Stool) ................  17
Stop.........______......
Stop-Laws (see Executions)
Storax ...................
Stork.....................
Storr (Gottlob Christian)....
Storthing..................
Stosch (baron von).........  18
Stoves...................
  Cellar Stoves and Air Flues  19
Stow (John)..............
Stowe (parish in England)..  20
Stowell (lord)............
Strabo...................
Strada (Famianus)........
Strafford (earl of)..........21
Stralsund.................  22
Stramonium..............
Strand...................
Strangles................
Strappado...............
Strasburg.................23
Strategy.................
Stratford upon Avon......
Strath...................
Stratus (see  Clouds).......
Straw...................
Strawberry...............
Streaks...................  25
Streets,  Pavement  of  (see
  Pavement)..............
Strelitz...................
Stretto....................
Strike (a measure).........
-----(in navigation).......
Stroganoff.................
Stroke of the Sun..........
Stromboli (see Lipari Islands) 25
Strong (Caleb)............ "
-----Beer (see Brewing).. 26
Strontites................. "
  Native Salts of Strontites. '*
Strophades................ 27
Strophe................... "
Strozzi (Philip)............28
Struensee and Brandt...... "
Strutt (Joseph)............29
Strychnia................. "
Strype(John).............30
Stuart (family).............  "
-----, John, earl of Bute (see
         Bute)............. "
-----, Arabella (see Arabella
         Stuart)........... "
-----(James Edward Fran-
         cis)  ..............  '■
———, Charles Edward (see
         Edward, Charles).. 31
-----(Henry Benedict  Ma-
         ria Clement)...... '•
----- (doctor Gilbert)..... "
-----(James)............ "
Stucco.................... 32
Studding-Sails............. "
Studies (see Drawing)...... "
Stuff...................... "
Stuhlweissenburg.......... '•'
Stum..................... "
Sturdy, Staggers, Gid, Turn-
  sick, Goggles, Worm un-
  der the Horn,Watery Head,
  and Pendro.............. "
Sturgeon ................. "
Sturiason (Snorro).......... 33
Stuttering,  Stammering,  or
  Hesitation of Speech.....34
Stuttgard................. "
Stye..................... "
Style..................... "
----(in the arts)..........35
----, Old and New (see Cal-
        endar, and Epoch).. 3G
Styles of Architecture  (see
  Architecture, vol. i, p. 339) "
Stylites................... «
Stymphalides.............  '<
Stymphalus (see  Stymphal-
  ides).................... '■
Styptic................... " 
604
CONTENTS.
Styria (see Stiria)..........  36
Styx .....................  "
Suabia,  or Swabia.........37
Suabian Alps (see Alps, Sua-
          bian)...........  "
-------Poets   (see  Minne-
          singers).........  "
Suada, or Suadela.........37
Suard  (Jean  Baptiste  An-
  thony) ..................  "
Subhastatio...............  "
Subject.....'..............38
Subjective, and  Subjectivity
  (see Object).............' "
Sublimate,  Corrosive   (see
  Mercury, vol. viii, p. 421).  "
Sublimation...............  "
Sublime Porte (see Turkey).  "
Subornation  of Perjury  (see
  Perjury)................  "
Subsidies.................  "
Substance.................  "
Substantive (see Noun).....39
Substitution...............  "
Subtangent of a Curve......  '*
Subtense  .................  "
Succession Powder (see Pou-
  dre de Succession).......  "
Succinic Acid.............  "
Succory (see Endive).......  "
Suchet (Louis Gabriel).....  "
Sucking Fish (see Echeneis)  "
Suckling (sir John).........  "
Sucre (Antonio Jose de) ....  40
Sudermannland (see Sweden)  41
Sueaborg, or Sweaborg.....  "
Suetonius.................  "
Sueur Le  (see  Lesueur) ....  "
Suevi.....................  "
Suez.....................  42
Suffetes (see Carthage, vol.
  ii, p. 544)...............
Suffocation................
Suffragans (see Bishops, vol.
  Ji, p. 115)................
Suffragium................
Sufism....................
Sugar....................43
Sugar-Cane...............45
Sugar of Lead (see Lead)...  46*
Suhl, or Suhla.............
Suhm (Peter Frederic von)..
Suicide (see Homicide).....
Suidas....................
Suit at Law (sec Action)....
Suliots....................
Sulla (Lucius Cornelius)....
Sullivan (John)............48
-------(James)...........  "
------- Island............  49
Sully (duke de)............  "
Sulphate..................  50
Sulphur...................  "
Sulphuric Acid (see Sulphur) 54
Sultan....................  "
Sumach..................  "
Sumarokoff  (Alexander Pe-
   trowitsch)...............55
Sumatra..................  "
Summer..................56
Sumter (Thomas).......... 57
 Sun......................  "
   Parallax of the Sun.......58
   Spots on the Sun........ "
 Sun-Dial (see Dial)........59
Sunda Islands............
Sunday ..................
       Letter  (see Domini-
          cal Letter)......
       Schools..........
Sunderbunds
Sunderland...............
Sun-Dew.................
Sun-Fish.................
Sun-Flower..............
Sunna (goddess of the sun).
      (see Sunnites)......
Sunnites.................
Suovetaurilia.............
Superior (lake)...........
-------Planets (see Planets)
Supernaturalism..........
Superstition..............
Supplement of an Arc.....
Supporters...............
Supremacy...............
Supreme Court of the United
  States (see Courts of the U.
  States, paragraph 3).....
Surat....................
Surd....................
Surgery.................
Surinam.................
Suirey (see Howard, Henry)
Surrogate................
Sursoud.................
Surturbrand..............
Surveying...............
Sus. per Coll..............
Susquehanna .............
Sussex (duke of)..........
Sussmeyer (Francis Xavier)
Suttee...................
Suwaroff-Rimnitzkoy (count

Swabia (see Suabia)......
Swallow.................
Swammerdam (John)......
Swan.......-............
----River..............
Sweaborg (see Sueaborg)..
Sweat (see Perspiration)...
Sweating  Sickness........
Sweden and Norway......
  Swedish Language  and
    Literature............
Swedenborg (Emanuel)....
Swedish  Turnip, or  Ruta
  Baga (see Tumip)......
Sweet  Bay (see  Laurel)...
-----Flag..............
     -  Gum..............
-----Leaf..............
-----Potato............
-----William...........
Sweyn, or Sweno (see Den-
  mark, and Ethelred II)...
Swieten (Gerard van).....
Swift (Jonathan)..........
----(Zephaniah)........
Swimming...............
Swinden (John Henry vein).
Swine (see SwinemOnde)...
Swinemunde..............
Switzerland..............
  Travels in Switzerland...
Swivel...................
Sword...................
Sword-Fish...............
Sybaris..................
591 Sycamore................
"  Sycophant................
   Sydenham  (Thomas)......
   Sydney (town in Australia).
   ------ (town on Cape Bre-
60            ton)...........
           (see  Sidney)
61
63
64
67
85
104
105
Syene, or Assuan, or Essouan
Syenite (see Sienite).......
Sygambrians,or Sicambrians
Sylia (see Sulla)..........
Syllabic Alphabet  (see Syl-
  lable)..................
Syllable..................
Syllabub.................
Syllogism................
Sylvester II..............
Sylvius, ./Eneas (see Piccolo-
  mini)  ..................
Symbol..................
  Christian Symbols.......
Symbolical    Books   (see
  Creeds)................
Symbolics................
Sympathetic Cures........
           Inks  (see Ink)
86
104
Sympathy,
Symphony................
Symplegades.............
Symposia................
Symposiarch..............
Symptoms................
Synagogue...............
Synchronism..............
Syncope  .................
Syncretism...............
Syndic...................
Synecdoche..............
Synedrium (see Sanhedrin).
Sy nucha, or  Synochus (see
  Fever).................
Synod ...................
Synonymes...............
Syntax  ..................
Synthesis................
Synusians (see Apollinarians)
Syphax  ..................
Syphilis..................
Syphon (see Siphon).......
Syracuse.................
Syrens (see Sirens)........
Syria....................
Syrian Language (see  Se-
         mitic  Languages).
       or Chaldaean  Chris-
         tians ............
Syrinx...................
Syrtes...................
Syrups...................
System (arrangement).....
       in music (see tone)..
        of the Universe....
106

107
108

109
110
111
112
113
114

115
116
Syzygy
Szent......
Szigeth, var
T (letter)................
Ta......................
Taaut (see Hermes Trisme-
  gistus) .................
Tabard..................
Tabby...................
Tabernacle...............
118
119 
CONTENTS.
605
Tablature................ 119
Table  ...................  "
-----Mountain...........  "
-----, Round  (see  Round
         Table) ..........  «
Tables, Twelve (see Twelve
  Tables)................  "
Tableaux Vivants  (see Pic-
  tures, Living)........... 120
Taboo...................  "
Tabor...................  "
Taborites (see Hussites)...  "
Tabular Spar, or Table Spar  "
Tachygraphy, or Tacheogra-
  phy (see Stenography)...  "
Tacitus (Caius Cornelius)..  "
Tacking (see Ship)........ 121
Tackle..................  "
Tacksmen (see Clan)......  "
Taconic, or  Taghkannuc...  "
Tactics Proper............  "
------, Naval (see Naviga-
         tion,  Navy,  and
         Ship)...........  "
Tadmor (see Palmyra).....  "
Tadpole..................  "
Teenarus (see Tenarus)___122
Tafferel..................  "
Taffia, or Tafia...........  "
Taganroc, or Taganroka...  "
Tagliacozzi  (see Rhinoplas-
  tic)....................  "
Tagliamento..............  "
Tagus...................  "
Tahiti (see Society Islands)  "
Tai......................  "
Tail (see Entail)..........  "
Takrour (see Nigritia).....  "
Talapoins................  "
Talavera.................  "
Talbot (John).............  "
Talc.....................  "
Tale..................... 124
Talent (see Drachm)......   "
Tales....................  "
Talesmen (see Jury)....... 125
Taliacotius  (see Rhinoplas-
  ty)....................  "
Taliesin..................  "
Talisman.................  "
Tallahassee..............  "
Tallart (duke de)......... 126
Talleyrand (prince de).....  "
Tallien (John Lambert).... 128
Tallow.................. 129
Tallow-Tree..............  "
Talma (Francois Joseph)..  "
Talmud  ................. 130
Talus.................... 131
Tamahama  (see Tammea-
  mea)...................  "
Tamarind-Tree...........  "
Tambour (embroidery) ....  "
--------(in fortification)...  "
Tambourine..............  "
Tambroni (Joseph)........ 132
--------(Clotilda).......  "
Tamerlane (see Timour)...  "
Tammeamea.............  "
Tan, Tana, Tania......... 133
Tanais (see Don)..........  "
Tancred..................  "
Tangent................. 134
  Tangential Force.......  "
Tangier..................  "
              51*
Tannin...................135
Tanning.................  136
Tansy...................  137
Tantalite (see Columbite)..   "
Tantalum (see Columbium).   "
Tantalus.................   "
Tapestry.................   "
Tapeworm...............  138
Tapioca (see Manioc)......   "
Tapir....................   "
Taprobana...............   "
Tar......................   "
— River (see Pamlico) ...  139
Tarantula (see Appendix)..   "
Tare.....................   "
Tarentum................   "
--------,  Duke  of  (see
             Macdonald)..   "
Targum..................   "
Tarfff....................   "
Tarleton  (general).........   "
Tarn...................,  140
----et Garonne..........   "
Taroc....................   "
Tarpawling...............   "
Tarpeia..................   "
Tarquinius (Lucius).......   "
---------(Servius Tullius)   "
Tarragona...............  141
Tarras (see Cements)......   "
Tarsus...................   "
      ■ of Birds  (see Orni-
         thology).........   "
Tartaglia................   "
Tartar, Cream of (see Cream
  of Tartar)..............   "
Tartaric Acid.............   "
Tartarus.................  142
Tartary, Tartars..........   "
Tartini (Giuseppe)........  143
Tartsche.................   "
Tartuffe..................   "
Tasch...................  144
Tasso (Bernardo).........   "
----- (Torquato).........   "
Tassoni (Alexander).......  149
Taste....................  150
Tate(Nahum)............  151
Tatianists (see Gnostics)...   "
Tatius (Achilles)..........   "
Tattooing................   "
Tauchnitz (Charles Christo-
  pher Traugott)..........  152
Tauenzien (count of)......   "
Taught...................   **•
Tauler (John)............   "
Taunt....................   "
Taunton  (town   in  Jiassa-
          chusetts).......   "
-------(town in England)   "
Tauria (see Taurida)......   '*
Taurida..................   "
Tauris...................  153
Taurus, in  astronomy (see
       Constellation   and
         Ecliptic)........   "
——— (mountains  in  Tur-
         key)............   "
Tautology................   "
Tavernier (Jean Baptiste)..   "
Taxes, Taxation..........   "
Tay.....................  158
Taylor, John (the water poet)   "
------(Jeremy)..........   "
------(doctor John)......  159
Taylor (Thomas)..........  159
——(Jane).............  160
Tchad...................  "
Tchai....................  "
Tchang..................  "
Tcherny.................  "
Tching...................  "
Tchudsko Lake (see Peipus)  '*
1*ea..................  "
Teak-Wo'o'd'.! *.".".!".'.......  162
Teal.....................  "
Tear,and Lachrymal Organs  "
Teasel...................163
Technical................  "
Technology..............  "
Tecumseh................  164
Te Deum Laudamus......  '*
Teeth....................  "
Teflis....................1C7
Tegernsee................  '"
Tegner (Isaiah)...........  '"
Teheran.................  "
Tehuantepec..............  "
Teignmouth (lord)........  "
Tekeli, or Tokoly (count)..  168
Telamon (see Argonauts)..  "
Telegraph................  *''
Telemachus..............  169
Telemann (Gio. Philip)....  "
Teleology................  ''
Telescope................  "
---------Carp (see  Gold-
            Fish)........  171
Tell (William)............  "
Tellier, Francis Michel le
         (see Louvois)...  172
------(Michael le).......  '■
Tellurism (see  Magnetism,
  Animal)................  "
Tellurium................  "
Temeswar................  173
Tempe (Vale of)..........  "
Tempelhoff(G. F. von)___  "
Temperaments...........  174
Temperance Societies.....  "
Temperature.............  179
Tempesta................  182
Templars.................  "
Temple (in  architecture)...  184
-------(sir William)......  187
-------, Lord (see Junius).  188
-------(see Inns of Court).  ':
Temple-Bar..............  "
Temple (Palace of the)....  '•
Tempo...................  "~
------Rubato............  "
Ten  Jurisdictions, League
  of the (see Grisons)......  "
Tenaille (see Outworks)...  "
Tenarus..................  "
Tench...................  189
Tendon (sec Muscle)......  "
Tenedos.................  <;
Teneriffe.................  ••
Teniers (David)...........  '■
Tennessee...............»  190
--------River..........  191
Tennis...................  "
Tenochtitlan(see viii,p.454)  192
Tenor....................  "
Tenter...................  "
Tentyra,  or Tentyris (see
  Denderah)..............  "
Tenures..................  "
Teocallis.................  196 
606
CONTENTS.
Teos.....................196
Teplitz...................  "
Tequendama,  Cataract  of
  (see Cataracts)..........  "
Tercera, or Terceira......  "
Terence, or Terentius......  "
Tereus (see Philomela).... 197
Termagaunt..............  '
Terminalia (see Terminus).  '
Terminism................  '
Terminology..............  '
Terminus.................  '
Termites................. 198
Terms...................  "
Ternate (see Moluccas)....  "
Ternaux (William Louis)..  "
Terni.................... 199
Terpander...............
Terpodion................
Terpsichore..............
Terra.................... 200
-----Cotta..............  "
-----, or Tierra del Fuego.  "
-----Firma..............201
-----Magellanica (see Pat-
        agonia)...........  "
-----Sigillata............  "
Terracina................  "
Terrain..................  "
Terras (see Cements)......  "
Terray (Joseph Marie).....  "
Terre Neuve..............  "
Territory.................  "
Territorial   System    (see
  Church, vol.  iii, p.  183,
  right hand column)...... 202
Terror (Reign of).........  "
Terrorism   (see   Terror,
  Reign of)..............204
Tertiarians (see Orders, Re-
  ligious)  ................  "
Tertiary  Formations   (see
  Geology)...............  "
Tertullian (Quintus Septimi-
  us Florens).............  "
Teschen..................  "
Tessellated Pavement.....  ''
Tessin, or Ticino..........  "
Tessin (count of)..........  "
Test Act  (see Corporation
  andTestActs).......... 205
Testacea (see Conchology).  "
Testament (Old and New)  .  "
---------(see  Will)......  "
Testudo,  in  zoology  (see
          Tortoise).......  "
-------(in the military art)  "
Tetanus................. 206
Tethys...................  "
Tetrachord...............  "
Tertraedron, or Tetrahedron  "
Tetragon.................  "
Tetralogy (see Trilogy)....  "
Tetrandria...............  "
Tetrapla.................  "
Tetuan...................  "
Tetzel (John).............  "
Tourer................... 207
Teutoburg Forest.........  "
Teutones.................  "
Teutonic.................  "
-------Order...........208
Teviot...................  "
Tewksbury...............  '■'
Texas....................  "
iTexel, or Tessel..........
 Th(seeT)...............
 Thaarup (Thomas)........
 Thaddeus, or Jude (see Ju-
   das) ...................
 Thais....................
 Thai.....................
 Thales...................
 Thalia...................
 Thamas Kouli  Khan  (see
   Nadir Shah)............
 Thames..................
 Thamyris, or Thamyras....
 Thane ...................
 Thanet(Isle of)...........
 Theano ..................
 Theatines................
 Theatre..................
 Thebaid,  or Thebais  (see
   Statius)................
 Thebes (city of Egypt)___
        (city of Greece) ...
Theft (see Larceny)
Theism (see Deism).......
Thelluson (Peter).........
Theme...................
Themis..................
Themisto (see  Athamas)...
Themistocles.............
Thenard (Louis Jacques) ..
Theobald (Louis).........
Theocracy................
Theocritus...............
Theodicaea...............
Theodolite...............
Theodora................
Theodore (see  Neuhof) ....
Theodoric . *..............
Theodosius...............
Thcognis.................
Theogony ................
Theology (see Appendix,end
          ofthis volume)..
         (Natural)........
2C9
210
211
213
216

218
219
rheomancy
Theophanc ...............
Theophany ...............
Theophilanthropists.......
Theophrastus.............
          - I'aracelsus (see
             Paracelsus)..
Theorbo.................
Theory..................
Theosophy...............
Theramenes..............
Therapeutae (see Essenes)..
Therapeutics.............
Theresa,  Maria (see  Maria
          Theresa)......
        (St.).............
223
Theriaca
Thermae.................
Thermidor  (see  Calendar,
           vol. ii, p. 403)..
          (9th)
224
Thcrmo-Electro-Magnetism
Thermolampe.............
Thermometer.............
  Comparative  Scales  of
    Thermometers........
Thermopylae.............
Theroigne de Mericourt....
Thersites.................
Theseus..................
Thesis...................
Thesmophorus (see Ceres) . 229
Thespis..................  '
Thessalonica  (see Salonica)  "
Thessaly, Thessalia.......  "
Thetis...................  "
Theurdank............... 230
Theurgy.................  "
Thevenot (Melchizedec) ...  "
--------(John de).......  "
Thibaudeau (count)........  "
Thibaut (king of Navarre).. 231
-------(Anthony  Frederic
          Justus).........  "
Thibet, or Tibet...........  "
Thiersch (Frederic William) 233
Third Estate (see Tiers Etat)  "
Thirst....................  '•
Thirty-nine   Articles   (see
  England, Church of).....  "
Thirty Tyrants (see Attica,
        and  Peloponnesian
        War)............  "
------Years' War........  "
Thisbe................... 235
Thistle...................  "
------(Knights    of,   or
        Knights of St. An-
        drew)............236
Thistlewood (Arthur)......  "
Thomas Aquinas (see Aqui-
  nas) ...................  "
Thomaeans (see Christians
  of St. Thomas)..........  "
Thomas a Kempis.........  "
-------(Antoine Leonard). 237
------, Christians  of  St.
          (see Christians of
          St. Thomas)___  "
------St. (called Didymus)  "
—————(one of the  Vir-
           gin isles).....  "
---------(island)........  "
Thomasius,  or  Thomasen
  (Christian)............. 238
Thomaston...............  "
Thomists (see Aquinas, and
  Scholastics)............  "
Thompson, Benjamin   (see
           Rumford).....  "
  -------(Charles)......  "
Thomson (James).........  "
  -----(doctor Thomas). 239
Thomsonite..............  "
Thor, or Tir..............240
Thora (see Tora).........  "
Thorium.................  "
Thorlacius...............  "
Thorn................... 241
  — Apple (see Stramoni-
        um).............  "
Thornton (Bonnell)........  "
Thorough Bass............  "
Thoroughwort (see Boneset)  ''
Thorwaldsen (Albert)......  "
Thoth (see Egyptian Mythol-
  ogy, in the  article Hiero-
  glyphics ;   also  Hermes
  Trismegistus)........... 243
Thou  (James  Augustus de).  '*
Thousand and one Nights(see
           Arabian Nights) 244
  ------Legs (see Centi-
           ped).........  "
Thovras   (see  Rapin   de
  Thoyras)...............  " 
CONTENTS.
607
Thrace..................244
Thrale (see Piozzi)........   "
Thrasimene, or Trasimenus   "
Thrasybulus..............   "
Three (see Triad).........   "
-----Kings (The)  or The
        1 hree Wise Men of
        the East..........   "
-----Rivers  (see   Trois
        Rivieres)......... 245
Threnody................   "
Thrush...................   "
Thuanus (see Thou, De)...   "
Thucydides...............   "
Thuilleries (see  Tuileries).. 24C
Thuiscon (see Tuiscon) ....   "
Thule....................   "
Thummel  (Maurice Augus-
  tus von)................   "
Thunberg (Charles Peter)..   "
Thunder and Lightning....   "
Thunderbolt..............248
Thundering Legion (see Le-
  gio Fulminatrix).........   "
Thurgau, or Thurgovia....   "
Thuringia................   "
--------(Forest of)......249
Thurlow (Edward)........   "
Thurn and Taxis..........   "
Thursday.................   "
Thusnelda................   "
Thyades .................   "
Thyestes.................   "
Thyme...................250
Thyrsus..................   "
Tiara....................   "
Tiber....................   "
Tiberias (see Genesareth)..   "
Tiberius (Claudius Nero)...   "
Tibet (see Thibet).........252
Tibia....................   "
Tibullus (Albius)..........   "
Tic Douloureux...........   "
Ticino  (see Tessin)........   "
Tick.....................   "
Tickell  (Thomas).........   "
Ticonderoga..............   "
Tides.................... 253
Tiebeam (see vol. i, p. 337) 254
Tieck (Louis).............   "
-----(Christian)..........   "
Tiedge  (Christopher Augus-
  tus)....................255
Tierney (George).........   "
Tiers Etat................   "
Tiflis(see  Teflis)..........256
Tiger....................   "
----- Flower.............   "
Tigranes.................   "
Tigris....................   "
Tilghman  (William).......   "
Tillemont  (Louis  Sebastian
  le Nain de).............257
Tiller (see Helm)..........   "
Tilloch (Alexander)........   "
Tillotson (John)...........   "
Tilly (John Tzerklas).....258
Tilsit....................259
  Peace of Tilsit..........   "
Tilt-Hammer............. 260
Tilting of Steel............   "
Timoeus..................
TimarandSiamet(seeZaim)   "
Timber...................   "
Timbrel (see Tambourine).. 263
Timbuctoo, or Tombuctoo.. 263
Time....................  "
----(in music)...........264
Times....................266
Tfmocracy...............  "
Timoleon.................  "
Timon of Athens..........  "
-----(the Phliasian)......  "
Timoroso.................267
Timotheus................  "
Timothy.................  "
-----—Grass............  "
Timour...................  "
Tin......................268
---Ores.................270
Tincal (see Boracic Acid)..  "
Tincture.................  "
Tindall (Matthew).........  "
------ (William).........271
Tino.....................  "
Tintoretto................  "
Tippicanoe...............272
Tippoo Saib..............  "
Tiptoft (see Worcester, Earl
  of)....................273
Tiraboschi  (Girolamo).....  "
Tirade...................  "
Tirailleurs.................  "
Tiresias..................  "
Tirlemont................274
Tirol (see Tyrol)..........  "
Tironian Notes, Notte  Tiro-
  nianae (see  Abbreviations)  "
Tisan, or Ptisan...........  "
Tischbein (a German family)  "
Tisiphone (see Furies).....  "
Tissot (Simon Andrew)....  "
-----(Clement Joseph).... 275
Titan....................  "
Titania (see Mab).........  "
Titanium.................  "
  Ores of titanium......... 27G
Tithes................... 277
Titian, or Tiziano Vercelli.. 279
Titicaca..................280
Title.....................  •"
Titmouse.................281
Titus....................  "
----Vespasianus.........  "
Tityos (see Tartarus)...... 282
Tiverton..................  "
Tivoli....................  "
Tiziano (see  Titian).......  "
Tlascala.................  "
Toad....................  "
Toad-Flax...............283
Toaldo (Giuseppe)........  "
Tobacco.................  "
Tobago..................285
Tobit....................  "
Tobolsk..................  "
Tocat.................... 286
Toga....................  "
Tog-rul Beg- (see Caliph, vol.
  ii%.4i2y..............  «
Toise (see France, vol. v, p.
  205)...................  "
Tokay...................  "
Tokoly (see Tekeli).......  "
Toland (John)............  "
Toledo...................287
Tolentino.................  "
Toleration................  "
Tollendal (see Lally-Tollen-
  dal)....................  "
ToItec3  (see Mexico)......287
Tomato, or Love-Apple....  '*
Tomb....................288
Tombeekbee..............  '
Tombuctoo (see Timbuctoo)  "
Tomcod (see Cod).........  "
Tomsk...................  "
Tone (in painting).........289
----, Key, Scale, System
        of Tones (in music)  '"
Tong,orToung...........292
Tongataboo..............293
Tongue..................  "
Tonic....................  "
Tonics...................  "
Tonnage (for the mode of
  measuring,  see Ship)....  "
Tonnere (Mount)..........  "
Tonquin..................  "
Tonsure..................  "
Tontines.................294
Tooke (John Home).......  "
Tooth (see Teeth)......... 295
Top.....................  "
Top-Mast................  "
Topaz...................296
Tophet, or Hinnom........  "
Topical.................. 297
Topics...................  "
Topography..............  "
Tora.....................  "
Torbay...................  "
Torch-Dance.............  "
Torch-Race (see Lampade-
  phori)..................298
Toreutics.................  "
Torgau..................  '*
Tornea..................  "
Torpedo (a machine)......  "
-------, a fish (see Appen-
          dix, end  of this
          volume)........  "
Torpid State of Animals (see
  Dormant State).........  ':
Torquemada (see Inquisition)  "
Torre....................  "
      del Greco...........  "
Torres Vedras (Lines of)...  "
Torricelli  (Evangelista).... 299
Torricellian   Vacuum,  and
  Torricellian Tube (see Ba-
  rometer, and Torricelli)..  "
Torrigiano (Pietro)........  "
Torso....................  "
Torstenson (Leonard).....300
Tort.....................  "
Tortoise..................  '•'
Tortola.................. 302
Torture..................  *'
Tory....................303
Totality.................. 304
Totila....................  "
Tott (baron de)...........  "
Toucan..................305
Touch (see Feeling).......  "
Toulon...................  "
Toulouse.................  "
Tour and  Taxis (see Thurn
  and Taxis).............306
Touraine.................  "
Tourmaline...............  "
Tournament, and Jousts.... 307
Tournay,  or Doornick.....308
Tournefort (Joseph Pittonde)  '*
Tourniquet...............309 
608
CONTENTS.
 Tournois, Livre (see Livre) 309
 Tours....................  "
 Toussaint-Louverture......  "
 Tower of London.........310
 Townley  (Charles)........311
 Towns...................
 Towton..................312
 Toxicology...............  "
 Tracheotomy,or Bronchotomy "
 Trackshuyt (see Treckshuyt)  "
 Tractors, Metallic (see Per-
   kins)...................  "
 Trade of the  World (see
   Commerce of the World).  "
 Trade-Winds.............  "
 Tradition.................  "
 Traditores................314
 T raducians...............  "
 Trafalgar,  Battle of  (see
   Navy).................  "
 Tragedy ...  .............  "
 Trajan...................  315
 Trajan's Column (see Col-
   umn )..................  316
 Tramontana..............  '*
 Trance...................  "
 Tranquebar...............  "
 Transcendent and Transcen-
   dental..................   "
 Transept (see Architecture,
   vol. i, p. 343)...........317
 Transferring..............   "
 Transfiguration...........   "
 Transfusion...............   "
 Transit...................  318
 ------Trade............   "
 Transition Formations (see
   Geology)...............   "
 Transmigration of the Soul..   "
 Transoms................319
 Transparency.............   "
 Transportation............  320
 Transubstantiation      (see
   Lord's Supper)..........   "
 Transylvania.............   "
 Trapezoid, or Trapezium..  321
 Trap-Rocks..............   "
 Trappe, La, Trappists.....323
 Trass (see Cements).......   "
 Trastevere (see Tiber).....324
 Travels  and Voyages......   "
 Travesty................. 323
 Treadmill................ 329
Treason..................   "
Treasury................. 332
 Trebia...................   "
Trebisond, or Tarabosan...   "
Trebuchet, or Cucking-Stool
  (see Cucking-Stool).....   "
Trecht, Drecht, Tricht.....   "
Treckschuyt..............   "
Tree  (see  Plant)..........   "
Tree-Nails................   "
Tree of Liberty (see Liberty
  Tree).................".   "
Tremolite  (see Hornblende)   "
Trenches.................   "
Trenck  (baron)...........333
Trent....................   "
-----(Council of).........   "
Trenton..................337
Trepanning...............338
Tressan (count of)........   "
Treves..................339
Ti*eviso,Duke of (see Mori ier)  "
Trewes (see Highlands)....  339
Triad....................   »
-----(Harmonic).........   "
Trial (see Jury, and Process)  "
Triangle.................   "
Triangular Compasses.....340
        - Numbers.......
Triangulating.
Trianon..................
Tribe....................
Tribonian................
Tribrachys  (see Rhythm)..
Tribunal.............---
Tribunat.................
Tribune (a Roman officer)..
       (a pulpit).........
Tricolore
Trident (see Neptune).....
Triennial Act.............
Trieste...................
Trifolium (see  Clover).....
Triglyphs (see Architecture)
Trigonometry.............
Trill, or Shake............
Trilogy..................
Trim....................
Trinidad.................
Trinity...................
------ College,  or Dublin
         University.......
------House............
------Sunday (see Sunday)
------Term (see Terms)..
Trinkamaly, or Trincomalee
Trio.....................
Triolett..................
Tripod...................
Tripoli...................
      , or Tarabolus......
       (see Clay).........
Tripolitza................
Trippel (Alexander).......
Tripping.................
Triptolemus..............
Trismegistus  (see Hermes
  Trismegistus)...........
Trissino (Giovanni Giorgio)
Tristan d'Acunha.........
Tritchinopoly.............
Trithing (see Ridings).....
Triton...................
Triumph.................
Triumphal  Arch..........
      •—— Column (see Col-
            umn)........
Triumvirate..............
Trivium..................
rroad, or Plain of Troy....
Trochee (see Rhythm).....
Trochilus   (see  Humming
  Bird)..................
Troglodytes..............
Trois  Rivieres,  or Three
  Rivers.................
Trollhatta (see Cataract, and
  Canal).................
Trombone, or  Trombono..
Tromp (Martin Harpertzoon)
       (Cornelius)
341
343
344
345
346
347
Trona (see Soda)........
Trope..................
Trophies................
Trophonius..............
Tropical Year (see Year).
Tropics, Tropical Regions.
Troppau................. 353
Trosachs (see Loch Katrine)  "
Trotzendorf     (Valentine
  Friedland)..............  "
Troubadours..............  "
Trough...................356
Trout....................  *
Trover...................357
Troyfsee Troad)......... 358
----(city of).............  "
Truce of God.............  "
Truffaldino (see Masks).... 359
Truffle...................  "
Trullan Council (see  Con-
  stantinople, Councils of)..  "
Trumbull  (John)..........  "
Trumpet.................  '•
-------, Hearing (see Ear
           Trumpet)...... 360
-------(Speaking).......  "
Trumpeter................  "
Trumpet-Flower..........  "
Truss....................  "
Truxton  (Thomas)........  "
Trying................... 361
Tschaik..................  "
Tschirnhausen  (Ehrenfried
  Walter von)............  "
Tsulakees, or Tsalakees... 362
Tuaricks.................364
Tuba....................  "
Tubercles  (see Pulmonary
  Consumption)...........  "
Tuberose.................  "
Tubingen................  "
Tuccoa Creek, Cataract in
  (see  Cataract)..........365
Tucker (Abraham)........  "
Tudor  (see  Great  Britain,
  and  the  articles Henry
  VII, VIII, Elizabeth, &c.)  "
Tuesday.................  "
Tuet (see  Tuiscon)........  "
Tugendbund..............  "
Tuileries.................  "
Tuiscon.................. 366
Tula.....................  "
Tulip....................  "
Tulip-Tree...............367
Tullus Hostilius........... 368
Tully (see Cicero).........  "
Tumuli, or Barrows.......  "
Tunbridge Wells.......... 369
Tune (see Tone, and Melody)  '•
Tungsten.................  "
Tunguses................ 370
Tunic....................371
Tunis....................  "
Tunkers, and  Tunkerstown
  (see Ephrata)........... 372
Tunny...................  '•
Tupac Amaru............  "
Tupelo...................373
Turban.................. 374
Turbot...................  "
Turcomania..............  "
Turcomans (seeTurkestan).  "
Turenne (Henri de  la  Tour
  d'Auvergne)............  "
Turgot   (Anne    Robert
  Jacques) .-..............376
Turin, or Torino..........  "
Turkestan, of Turkistan....  "
Turkey (a bird).......---377
------(Ottoman empire)..  " 
CONTENTS.
609
386
  Turkish  Language  and
    Literature............381
  Turkish Music..........383
Turkmans (see Turkestan).. 384
Turk's Islands............   "
Turmaline (see  Tourmaline)   "
Turmeric.................   "
Turnament  (see  Tourna-
  ment)..................   "
Turner (Sharon)..........   "
Turnerite.................   "
Turning..................   "
Turnip (see Appendix, end
  of this volume)..........   "
Turnpike.................   "
Turnspit  (see  Appendix to
  this volume)............   "
Turpentine...............  '
Turpin   (archbishop   of
  Rheims)...........
 Turquoise, or Calaite......  "
 Turtle (see Tortoise).......  "
 -----Dove (see Appendix)   "
 Tuscaloosa...............   "
 Tuscan  Order  of Architect-
   ure (see Architecture, vol.
   i, p.341)...............   "
 Tuscany..................   "
 Tusculanum..............387
 Tutenag..................388
 Tutu..?..................   "
 Tweed...................   "
 TwelveTables(Lawsofthe)   "
 Twickenham..............
 Twilight..................
 Twin....................
 Tyburn Tickets (see Inform-
          er)..............
 ------Turnpike..........
 Tycho  Brahe.............
 Tychsen (Olaus Gerhard)...
 Tympanum...............
 Tyndale, William  (see Tin-
    dal)....................
 Tyndarides...............
 Type....................
 Types, Printing.......••••
 Typhon (in Greek mytholo-
           gy).............
  ______ (an Egyptian deity) 392
  ______, or Typho (see Hur-
          ricane, and  Whirl-
          wind) ............
  Typhus (see  Fever,  vol. v,
    p. 105)..............—  '
  Typography  (see  Printing).
  Tyr......................;;
  Tyrant...................
  Tyre.....................
  ____, JRn of (see Epoch) .
  Tyrol, or Tirol............
  Tyrrhenia, Tyrsenia.......
  Tyrtceus..................
  Tyrwhitt (Thomas\........
  Tythes (see Times)........
  Tytler (Alexander Fraser)..
  Tzschirner (Henry Theophi-
    lus)....................

                u
U (letter).....••••*• .7
Ubes, St. (see Setubal).
Ubiquity.-.. •••••.....
Ugolino (see Pisa).....
 Uguale..................396
 Uhland (John Louis).......  "
 Uist,  North and South (see
    Hebrides)..............  "
 Ukase....................  "
 Ukraine..................  "
 Ulans....................397
 Ulema............t......
 Ulfilas....................  "
 Ullage....................  "
 Ulloa (don Antonio di).....  "
 Ulm.....................  "
 Ulmin.................... 398
 Ulphilas (see Ulfilas).......  "
 Ulpianus (Domitius).......  "
  Ultimatum................   "
  Ultra.....................   "
  Ultramarine...............
  Ultramontanism...........  399
  Ulysses..................  400
  Umbagog.................   "
  Umber...................
  Umpire (see Arbitrator)....  401
  Uncial...................
  Unction (Extreme).........  "
  Underwalden (see Unterwal-
    den) ...................
  Unicorn..................
  Uniformity, Act of (see Non-
    Conformists)............  "
  Unigenitus Dei Filius, &c..  "
  Union Canal (see Canals).. 403
  Unison.................
  Unitarians (see  Appendix,
    end of this volume)......  "
  Unitas Fratrum (see United
    Brethren)...............
  United Brethren...........  "
  ------Colonies of New Eng-
           land (see New Eng-
           land)............409
     — Greeks............
     ----Provinces (see Neth-
           erlands)..........
        .. Provinces of  South
           America (see Plata,
           United  Provinces
           of the)...........
     ----States v   of   North
           America (History)
     Geography and Statistics.
     Political  Divisions  and
       Population............
     Commerce, Manufactures,
        Agriculture, and  Me-
        chanic Arts...........433
     Constitution,  Administra
        tion, Finances.........438
     Education..............446
     Literature in the U. States 455
    United States  of  Central
     America   (see   Central
     America)............... 466
    Unity....................   "u
    Universalists..............
    Universals................ 46'
    Universe,  System  of (see
      System of the Universe)..
    Universities...............
    Unterwalden, or Underwal-
      den....................4*
395 Upas Tree................
396 Upper Canada (see Canada)
    -----House and  Lower
            House............
Upsal....................  47f
Ural Mountains...........
----River...............479
Urania...................
Uranium..................
Uranus (see  Herschel).....480
       (in mythology)
389
390
391
393
394
Urbanists (see Franciscans).   |*
Urea (see Urine)..........
Uri......................   "
Uric Acid (see Urine)......481
Urim and Thummim.......   "
Urine....................   '"
Urn......................  483
Ursa Major and Ursa Minor  "
Ursula(St.)...............   "
Ursulines.................
Urus(sceOx).............  484
Usage  (see Common Law,
  and Prescription)........
Usance  (see Bills  of Ex-
  change, vol. ii,  p. 104)...
Usbecks..................
Usedom..................
Usher  (James)............
----  (a civil officer)......485
Usquebaugh..............   (i
Usufruct..................
Usurper..................
Usury....................  ,„„
Ut, Re, Mi (see page 493).. 488
Utawas, or Outawas.......   '
 Uterine...................
 Uterus...................
Utica  (in Africa)..........489
 ----(in New York).......  "
 Utilitarians...............490
 Utopia................... 491
 Utraquists (see Calixtines)..  "
 Utrecht (province).........  "
 ------(Sty).............  "
   Peace of Utrecht........492
 Ut, Re, Mi,&c............493
 Utzschneider (Joseph von).. 495
 Uwaroff (Sergius de).......  "
 Uz (John Peter)...........  "
420

427
V
495
496
V (letter)............
Va.................
Vaccination...............  '
Vacuna..................  "
Vacuum..................  "
Vademecum..............  "
Vaillant, Le  (see Levaillant)  "
Valais....................  "
Valckenaer (Louis Caspar). 497
          (Jan or John)...  "
Val d'Arno.
---di Demona (see Demona)  "
Valdivia..................
Valencia..................
Valenciennes.............498
Valentine (St.)............  "
Valentini (baron von)......  "
Valentinian...............  "
Valentinians (see Gnostics)..  "
Valentinois, Duchess of (see
  Diana of Poitiers).......499
Valeria (see Coriolanus)...  "
Valerian (a plant).........  "
       - (Publius Licinius).  "
Valerius.
> Maximus. 
610
CONTENTS.
Valerius Flaccus, Caius (see
  Flaccus, Caius Valerius).. 499
Valetta (see Malta)........   "
Valette, La (count de).....   "
Valhalla (see  Northern My-
  thology)................   "
Valide ; Sultana Valide (see
  Harem)................   "
Valkyrias (see Northern My-
  thology)................   "
Valla (Laurence)..........   "
Valladolid, or   Mechoacan
           (city of Mexico) 500
---------, State of (see Me-
           choacan)......   "
        ■  (city of Spain)..   "
Valle (Pietro della)........   "
Valliere (duchess de la).....   "
Vallisneria................ 501
Valmy (see Kellermann)...   "
Valois,   House  of   (see
  France)................   "
Valombrosa...............   "
Valparaiso...............   "
Vralpy (Abraham John).....   "
Valteline.................502
Value....................   "
Vampire................. 604
Van.....................605
Van der Velde, Adrian, Wil-
      liam, and Charles (see
      Velde)..............   "
----Diemen's   Land  (see
      Diemen's Land).....   "
----Dyck (see page  609)..   "
----Eyck (see Eyck)......   "
----Speyk  (John Charles
      Joseph).............   "
----Swieten  (see  Swieten,
      Van)...............   "
Vanadium................   "
Vanbrugh (sir John).......507
Vancouver (George).......   "
Vandalia.................   "
Vandals..................   "
Vandamme (Dominique)... 508
Vanderwerf (see Werf).... 609
Vandyck (Anthony)........   "
Vane (sir Henry)..........510
----, or Weathercock.....511
Vanguard.................   "
Vanini (Lucilio)...........512
Vanloo...................   "
Vannucchi................   "
Vansittart (Nicholas).......   "
Vanucci (see  Perugino).... 513
Vapor (see Evaporation)...   "
-----Bath...............   "
Vapors (see Hysterics).....   "
Var (see Departments).....   "
Varangians, or Varagians ..   "
Varchi (Benedetto)........   "
Varennes.................   "
Variable Quantities........   "
Variation.................614
--------of Curvature.....
--------of  the  Magnetic
          Needle (see Mag-
          netism) .........
Variations (Calculus of)....
--------of  the Moon ....
Variety...................
Variorum, cum Notis.......
Various Readings..........
Varna....................
Varnish.................. 515
Varro (Marcus Terentius).. 516
Varus, Quintilius (see Armin-
  ius)....................   "
Vasa, Gustavus (see Gusta-
  vus I)..................   "
Vasari (Giorgio)...........   "
Vasco da Gama (see Gama) 517
Vase.....................   "
Vassal...................618
Vater (John Severin).......   "
Vathek  Billah (see Caliph,
  vol. ii, page 410).........   "
Vatican..................   "
  Vatican Library.........   "
Vattel, or Wattel,  (Emer de) 519
Vauban (Sebastian le  Pres-
  tre)....................   "
Vaublanc-Viennot  (Vincent
  Marie).................   "
Vaucanson (Jaques).......520
Vaucluse.................   "
Vaud, Pays de (see Pays de
  Vaud)..................   "
Vaudeville................   "
Vaudois (see Waldenses)..   "
Vaudoncourt (William de)  .   "
Vault (see  Architecture).... 521
Vaulting..................   "
Vauquelin (Nicholas Louis).   "
Vauquelinite..............   "
Vaux (Nicholas)...........522
Vauxhall Gardens.........   "
Vector, or Radius Vector ..   "
Vedjts(see Indian Literature,
  vol. vi, p. 563)..........   "
Vedette..................   "
Veering (see Ship).........   "
Vega....................   "
---- (don Lope  Felix de
      VegaCarpio)......   "
----(baron de)...........   "
Vegetable Chemistry......523
  The Chemical Phenomena
    of  Germination   and
    Vegetation........... 524
Vegetables (see Plants).... 527
Vegetation................   "
Vegetius Renatus  (Flavius). 528
Venme (see Fem).........   "
Veii......................   "
Vein (see Blood-Vessel, and
  Heart)................. 529
Velasquez, or  Don Diego
  Velasquez de Silva......   "
Velasquez de Velasco (Louis
  Joseph)................   "
Veld.....................   "
Velde, William van der (the
        Old).............   "
-----, William van der (the
        Younger)........   "
-----(Adrian van der) .... 530
-----(Francis  Charles van
        der)..............   "
Veldeck,  Henry  (see Min-
  nesingers)..............   "
Veleda, Velleda...........   "
Veliki....................   "
Velino (see Terni).........   "
Velites...................   "
Velleius,   Paterculus   (see
  Paterculus).............   "
Vellum...................   "
Velocipede.......'.......   "
Velocity (see Mechanics)...
Velveret..................
Velvet...................
Vena Cava (see Heart)....
Venaissin (Comtat de).....
Venality   of  Offices  (see
  Paulette)...............
Venceslaus  (see  Wences-
  laus)...................
Vendee...................
Vendemiaire (see Calendar,
530
  vol. ii, p.403).
             F
Venerabile
Vend6me (the Family of).
532
Venereal Disease (see Syph-
  ilis)....................
Veneroni (John)...........
Venetian School (see Italian
  Art, and Painting).......
Venezuela................
Veni, Sancte Spiritus......
Venice (republic)..........
------(city)..........;•-.•
      , Gulf of (see Adriatic
  Sea;
Venomous Animals........
Ventilation...............
Ventose (see Calendar, vol.
  ii, p. 403)...............
Ventriloquism.............
Venue ...................
Venus....................
Venus's Fly-Trap (see Dio-
  noea)...................
Vera Cruz (Mexican state) .
■     —— (town in Mexico)
Veratrine................
Verb.....................
Verbenalia (see Vervain)...
Verde,  Cape  (see  Cape
        Verde)...........
        (Cape) Islands (<ee
533

534

535

536

538


 ti


539


540

541
  Cape Verde Islands)
Verdict  (see Jury, vol. vii,
  p.287).................  "
Verdigris.................  '•
Verditer..................  "
Verdun.................. 542
Vere (Edward)............  "
Vergennes (count de)......  "
Vergniaud (see Girondists)..  "
Verjuice..................  "
Vermes  (see Worms)......  "
Vermeyen (John van)......  "
Vermicelli................ 543
Vermilion.................  "
Vermont.................  "
-------University (see Bur-
  lington) ................
Vernet (family)...........
Vernier..................
Vernon  (Edward).........
       , Mount  (see  Mount
544

545
  Vernon, and Washington]
Verona (a delegation of Aus-
         trian Italy).......
       (city),
 Veronica (St.)...........
 Verres (Caius Licinius)...
 Verri (count Alexander)...
 Versailles................
 Verse...................
 Versification (see Verse)..
|Verst, or Werst..........
| Vertebra...............,
546
547
548
549 
CONTENTS.
611
Vertebral Animals (see Ani-
  mals)..................550
Vertex...................   "
Vertot d'Aubceuf (Rene Au-
  bert de)................   "
Vertumnus...............   "
Verulam, Lord (see Bacon).   "
Vervain..................   "
Verviers.................551
Vesalius (Andrew)........   "
Vespasianus (Titus Flavius)   "
Vesper................... 552
Vespers, Sicilian (see Sicil-
  ian Vespers)............   "
Vespucci,   Amerigo   (see
  Americus Vespucius)....   "
Vessels...................   "
Vesta....................   "
Vestals, Vestal Virgins.....   "
Vestris...................   "
Vesuvian (see Idocrase)...   "
Vesuvius.................   "
Vetch....................553
Veterans.................   "
Veterinary  Art............   "
Veto.....................   "
Veturia (see Coriolanus)... 554
Viaticum.................   "
Vibration (see Acoustics,and
  Pendulum).............   "
Vicar....................   "
Vice.....................   "
Vice-Admiral (see Admiral)   "
Vicente (Gil).............   "
Vicenza (duke de).........555
-------(a  town)..........   "
Vice-President of the United
  States..................556
Vicksburg................   "
Vico (Giovanni Battista)...   "
Vicq-d'Azyr  (Felix).......557
Victor (Sextus Aurelius)...   "
.      Amadeus II (see Sar-
       dinia)............   "
----- Emanuel  I (see Sar-
       dinia'and Piedmon-
        tese Revolution)...   ''
----- (Perrin)............   "
Victoria (goddess of victory) 558
—— (Alexandrina).....   "
Vicugna (see Llama)......   "
Vicus....................   "
Vida (Mark  Jerome)......   "
Vidi.....................559
Vidonia..................  "
Vienna..................  "
  Congress of Vienna.....561
  Vienna, Peace of,<)r Peace
    ofSchOnbrunn........662
Vienne.................. 663
Vierwaldstadtersee........  "
Vigil....................  »
Vigne (see Vineis).........  "
Vikingr, or Sea Kings.....  "
Villa.............?......564
Village, or Vill............  "
Villani...................  "
Villaret (Claude)..........  "
Villars (Louis Hector).....565
Ville.....................  "
Villegas  (Estevan  Manuel
  de)....................566
Villeggiatura (see Villa)...  "
Villehardouin (Geoffroy de).  "
Villele (count de)..........  "
Villemain (Abel Francois).. 667
Villenage, Villeins, or Serfs.  "
Villers  (Charles  Fran9ois
  Domimquede)..........568
Villiers (see Buckingham)..  "
Villoison (Jean Baptiste d'-
  Ansse  de).............  "
Vimeira..................  "
Vinalia.................. 569
Vincennes (town in Indiana)  "
--------(town in France)  "
Vincent (St.)..............  "
------(Cape St.)........  "
------(John Jervis)......  "
------(William).........570
------de Paul (see Paul).  "
Vinci (Leonardo da).......  "
Vindelicia................571
Vindicta.................  "
Vine.....................  "
Vinegar.................. 573
Vineis (Petrus de).........575
Vinificateur...............  "
Vino Tinto (see Alicant)...  "
Viol, or  Viola.............  "
Violet....................  "
Violin....................  "
Violoncello...............576
Violono..................  "
Viotti (Giovanni Battista).. 577
Viper (see Serpent)........  "
Virgil   (Publius   Virgilius
       Maro).............577
—-(Polydore)..........578
Virgin Islands............. "
-----Mary..............  "
Virginia  (see Appius Clau-
         dius)............579
       i state)............  "
         Hvisions, &c......  "
  Face of the Country......  "
  Geology and Mineralogy. 580
  Mineral Waters.........  "
  Scenery and  Natural Cu-
    riosities .............. 581
  Internal Improvements... 582
  Agriculture,Manufactures,
    <fec................... 583
  Climate................584
  Population.............  "
  Education..............586
  Religion...............586
  Finances...............  "
  Provision for Crimes, Pau-
    perism,  &c...........  "
  Militia.................587
  Miscellaneous...........  "
  Government and Laws...  "
  History................588
Virginia University........589
Virgins,  Eleven  Thousand
  (see Ursula, St.)........  "
Viriathus. or Viriathes......  "
Visconti (family of)........  "
^——— (John Baptist  An-
         thony)..........590
-------(Ennius Quirinus)  .  "
Viscount.................591
Vishnu...................  "



Appendix............... 593
  Tarantula..............  "
  Theology..............  "
    Systematical  Theology 594
    Historical Theology... 595
    Practical Theology....  "
  Torpedo...............  "
  Turnip.................596
  Turnspit................  "
  Turtle  Dove............  "
  Unitarian...............  "
  Unitarians..............601 
1  "L.
 
 
,. _:;* - '■■■■             -•' '■ 'c'--.y\


•fi
[jiySJf,'*^',*!'
^fJi'Aai
;*■#$§£'.  -^



&£■'"'■*. ■

■PJST,;!»~: ii W'C#:i- -ftfli **"
ffite*...;., "
r*

a**
	V.S'iWBB}™! 'i'ldU'KfcHsr"?*
	: ■ M
	-■$m&
	■ ■ V.c.>,if_^'jj*Sv_B_5K*f
	»~:^^Sgk
	l;*f..'WHS'V .'-^"faPf
•■*r«:'	•■'- ." .*.«?■'i'-*1*';.:

r'.-' '*V >

<•#*,



■^'■'"'•'ti8'*fei
,._i_,-:.'i.;..:,; .■£ ^f ;^i;jSgv*3^.^''^iyJ^"|5|S^Sl*^^^;5
"'■.»- *. --t.. ■■*•■>.

      .   .••....... ;'"l;_,i|

iff
'iW*^»Sii'-j
;\T»^'V:^S8?^ffijj


b*4-'#:*lSft1

fMi
	fr-riSinBR
|||8SP	E^EjwPf*-''
i * ?r*oafi?i^y	
	ifipife
	BR
f|jEj8